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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland%20Bulldogs
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Cleveland Bulldogs
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The Cleveland Bulldogs were a team that played in Cleveland, Ohio in the National Football League. They were originally called the Indians in 1923, not to be confused with the Cleveland Indians NFL franchise in 1922. However, after team owner Samuel Deutsch purchased the Canton Bulldogs in 1924, he merged the Canton team with his Indians and renamed his franchise the Cleveland Bulldogs. The Canton Bulldogs remained a part of the team until 1925, when they were sold back to Canton. The Cleveland Bulldogs played in the NFL until 1928 when they were relocated to Detroit and became the Detroit Wolverines. The team was later incorporated into the New York Giants in 1929. The Cleveland Bulldogs won the 1924 NFL championship.
History
Origins
Sam Deutsch, a Cleveland jeweler and boxing promoter who also owned a minor-league baseball team, bought an NFL franchise in 1923 and named the team the Indians. They played only seven games in that first season, but they had a shot at the championship, with a 3–0–3 record going into their final game against the Canton Bulldogs, who were also undefeated. The Indians were defeated 46–0 and posted a 3–1–3 league record, finishing fifth in the league, which comprised twenty teams at the time.
Purchase of the Canton Bulldogs
However, in August 1924, Deutsch, bought the defending NFL champions Canton Bulldogs for $2,500. The Bulldogs were experiencing heavy financial troubles at time and were sold to Deutsch without much of a struggle. Duestch combined the Cleveland Indians with the Canton Bulldogs, creating a new team, the Cleveland Bulldogs. Only seven of the Canton players actually joined the new Bulldogs; among them was player-coach Guy Chamberlin. The team played all of its home games at Dunn Field although Deutch returned the team to Canton for the Thanksgiving game that season.
1924 NFL champions and controversy
The Cleveland Bulldogs won the NFL championship that year with a 7–1–1 record. After winning their first six games, the Bulldogs lost to the Frankford Yellow Jackets and entered a virtual tie with the Chicago Bears for first place in the standings. The Bears played more games, but also had more ties, and their one loss had come in the season opener against the Bulldogs. The Bears attempted to have an after-season exhibition game counted toward the standings, however in 1924 this was against the NFL's rules. In July 1924, NFL owners had agreed on a proposal that the 1924 NFL season would begin on September 27 and end on November 30. Ironically, as it turned out, the proposal was made by Dutch Sternaman, co-owner of the Bears. On the official end date, Cleveland had a 7–1–1 record to Bears' 6–1–4. Ties didn't count at all in those days, so the Bulldogs were in first place with an .875 winning percentage to Chicago's .857. However, on December 7, 1924 the Bulldogs went to Chicago for a challenge match. The Bears won the game, 23–0, and claimed that they deserved the NFL championship; they cited as precedent the 1921 championship decision (which the Bears had won over the Buffalo All-Americans) that declared there was no such thing as an exhibition game. However, the issue wasn't settled until the owners' meeting in January, when the owners voted for Cleveland to take the title. The owners also decided at that meeting that the 1925 season would run through December 20.
Decline
In 1925, several Canton businessmen purchased the rights to the old Canton Bulldogs team from Deutsch for $3,000. The Bulldogs, now known as the Canton Bulldogs, played in Canton during the 1925 and 1926 seasons. However Deutsch continued to call his Cleveland franchise the Bulldogs. He also sold his Cleveland Indians half of the club to Herb Brandt in August 1925. That season the Cleveland Bulldogs fell to a dismal 5–8–1 record. The team performed poorly on the field and at the bank. By mid-November the organization was nearly bankrupt.
In 1926 Brandt received authority from the league to suspend operations for a year. The Bulldogs then returned in 1927, bolstered by players from the folded Kansas City Cowboys franchise. Deutsch returned as the principal owner of this new Cleveland Bulldogs club. He, along with fellow investors Max Rosenblum, Brandt, Harold Gould, and Clinton Winfrey, built the new Bulldogs around native Clevelander Benny Friedman, a star quarterback at the University of Michigan. The team finished fourth in the National Football League this season, with an 8–4–1 record.
Ties to the New York Giants
At the end of the season, Elliott Fisher purchased the Bulldogs and moved the team to Detroit, renaming them the Detroit Wolverines. The 1928 Wolverines team consisted of 12 former Bulldogs players. Before the 1929 season, Tim Mara, owner of the New York Giants, purchased the entire Wolverines squad, including Benny Friedman, and absorbed the team into his New York Giants franchise. Eight former Bulldogs players ended up playing for the Giants that season.
Pro Football Hall of Famers
Season-by-season
External links
Ohio History Central: Cleveland Bulldogs
Encyclopedia of Cleveland History: Cleveland Bulldogs
American football teams established in 1923
American football teams disestablished in 1927
Defunct National Football League teams
American football teams in Cleveland
Early professional American football teams in Ohio
Defunct American football teams in Ohio
1923 establishments in Ohio
1927 disestablishments in Ohio
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankford%20Yellow%20Jackets
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Frankford Yellow Jackets
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The Frankford Yellow Jackets were a professional American football team, part of the National Football League from 1924 to 1931, although its origin dates back to as early as 1899 with the Frankford Athletic Association. The Yellow Jackets won the NFL championship in 1926. The team played its home games from 1923 in Frankford Stadium (also called Yellow Jacket Field) in Frankford, a section in the northeastern part of Philadelphia, noted for the subway-elevated transit line that terminates there.
Origin
Frankford Athletic Association
The Frankford Athletic Association was organized in May 1899 in the parlor of the Suburban Club. The cost of purchasing a share in the association was $10. However, there were also contributing memberships, ranging from $1 to $2.50, made available to the general public. The Association was a community-based non-profit organization of local residents and businesses. In keeping with its charter, which stated that "all profits shall be donated to charity", all of the team's excess income was donated to local charitable institutions. The beneficiaries of this generosity included Frankford Hospital, the Frankford Day Nursery, the local Boy Scouts, and the local American Legion Post 211. The officers of the Association never received a salary or compensation for their work on behalf of the team.
The playing field, known as Wistar Field, became the first official home of the Yellow Jackets. Several years later, when the construction of the current high school was proposed, the team moved to Brown's Field. The Association initially fielded a baseball team; however, soccer and football clubs were also formed. The Association's football team played several games in 1899, including victorious contests against the Pioneer Athletic Association, Jefferson Medical College, the Philadelphia Athletic Club, and a team from Atlantic City.
The original Frankford Athletic Association disbanded before the 1909 football season. Several of the original players from the 1899 football team kept the team together, and they became known as Loyola Athletic Club. In keeping with Yellow Jackets tradition, they carried the "Frankford" name again in 1912, to become the Frankford Athletic Association.
Yellow Jackets and the NFL
In the early 1920s, the Frankford Athletic Association's Yellow Jackets gained the reputation of being one of the best independent football teams in the nation. In 1922, Frankford absorbed the Philadelphia City Champion team, the Union Quakers of Philadelphia. That year Frankford captured the unofficial championship of Philadelphia. During the 1922 and 1923 seasons the Yellow Jackets compiled a 6–2–1 record against teams from the National Football League. This led to the Association being granted an NFL franchise in 1924.
1924 season
The Yellow Jackets assembled in September 1924 under coach Punk Berryman to begin preparing for the upcoming season. The team included players Harry Dayhoff, Russ Stein, Joe Spagna, Whitey Thomas, Al Bedner, and Bob Jamison. The team often played 15 to 20 games a season. Frequently, they would schedule two games on the same weekend, typically one at home on Saturday and, because of Pennsylvania's blue laws, an away game on Sunday. In their very first game as a member of the NFL, the Yellow Jackets defeated the Rochester Jeffersons 21–0. Frankford finished the season with an overall record of 17–3–1, with an 11–2–1 record in league play. They finished third in league standings only behind the Cleveland Bulldogs and Chicago Bears; under modern standings tabulation procedures, Frankford would have finished in first place.
1925 season
In 1925 the Frankford Athletic Association enlisted the services of Guy Chamberlin, who served as a player-coach for NFL championship teams such as the 1922 and 1923 Canton Bulldogs and the 1924 Cleveland Bulldogs. After a 9–1 start in league play, Frankford lost several key players, including Chamberlin, to injuries. After a 49–0 defeat to the Pottsville Maroons, Frankford's captain Bull Behman was suspended indefinitely from the team for indifferent play. He was accused of not giving his best during the past few weeks because of some dissension with other players. The move helped improve the team, which posted a 13–7 record in league play.
1925 NFL Championship controversy
The Yellow Jackets had a part in the 1925 NFL Championship controversy. A dispute arose over a game that the nearby Pottsville Maroons had played against the Notre Dame All-Stars in Philadelphia; the Yellow Jackets asserted that their nearby rivals had infringed on their territorial rights by playing the game against a non-league opponent in Philadelphia. The league agreed and suspended the Maroons, allowing the Chicago Cardinals to win the 1925 title. However, the NFL reinstated the Maroons the following year after fears that the team would join Red Grange's upstart American Football League, which posed a threat to the league.
1926 Championship season
The Yellow Jackets began the 1926 season with an exhibition game against the Atlantic City Roses, which Frankford won 45–0. Their NFL campaign started just six days later, in a disappointing 6–6 tie at home against the Akron Pros. The first weekend in October saw the club post two solid victories over the Hartford Blues. They then played a two-game series against the Buffalo Rangers. During the Saturday game, the Yellow Jackets defeated the Rangers 30–0 in Frankford. The Jackets then headed to Buffalo for the Sunday game; however, the Rangers canceled due to "wet grounds". The Yellow Jackets prepared for another two-game set, this time against the New York Giants, resulting in a pair of 6–0 Frankford victories. The Canton Bulldogs were next on the schedule; Frankford won the first game 10–0, while the second game was canceled due to rain.
During the final weekend of October, the Yellow Jackets had a league-leading 6–0–1 record. However, they had an upcoming two-game set with their toughest opponent yet, the Providence Steam Rollers. The Yellow Jackets managed to split the series. The team's November schedule included only single-game weekends and a Thanksgiving Day game. This played to the Yellow Jackets’ advantage. The team posted victories over the Chicago Cardinals, Duluth Eskimos, and Dayton Triangles. This string of victories left Frankford in great shape in the standings as the team headed into its Thanksgiving Day game with the Green Bay Packers. For the next five seasons, the Frankford-Green Bay Thanksgiving Day game would become an annual tradition. Frankford went on to win the game 20–14, due mainly to a touchdown pass from Hust Stockton to Two-Bits Homan. The Yellow Jackets then posted a 7–6 victory over the Detroit Panthers two days later.
After a win over the Chicago Bears, the Yellow Jackets played a second two-game series against the Providence Steam Rollers. Frankford won the first game 24–0, but the second was canceled because of heavy snow. Frankford then had to play their final game of the season against the Pottsville Maroons, who were still upset after their NFL championship title had been stripped from them after complaints from Frankford. The game resulted in a scoreless tie. However, a 14–1–2 final record left the Yellow Jackets alone atop the NFL standings. Since a Championship Game would not exist in the NFL until 1933, the team with the best regular-season record was named the NFL Champion. This gave the Yellow Jackets undisputed claim to the league crown. The Jackets' 14 wins during the 1926 championship season set an NFL record for regular-season victories that stood until 1984 when it was broken by the 15–1–0 San Francisco 49ers.
One day after capturing the title, however, Theodore "Thee" Holden and Guy Chamberlin stepped down as president and coach of the Frankford Athletic Association.
1927–1929 seasons
James Adams took over as president of the Frankford Athletic Association in 1927. He hired Charley Moran as the team's new coach. However, Moran's son Tom briefly served as the team's interim coach that year after Charley took a leave of absence to officiate in the 1927 World Series between the New York Yankees and the Pittsburgh Pirates. The Jackets suffered as a result of these changes and held a 2–5–1 record after eight league games. This led to Ed Weir becoming the team's player-coach. Weir had fellow players Russ Daugherty, Charlie Rogers, and Swede Youngstrom serve as assistant coaches. Under Weir's leadership, the team finished with a 6–9–3 record in 1927. The Jackets rebounded in 1928 with an 11–3–2 league record, behind only the Providence Steam Rollers. In 1929, Bull Behman became coach of the Yellow Jackets. The team finished with a 9–4–5 record for third place in league standings.
Decline
1930 season
The Yellow Jackets began to decline mainly because of financial hardships brought on by the Great Depression in 1930. Shep Royle, president of the Franklin Athletic Association, arranged for coaches Bull Behman and Wally Diehl to attend a coaching clinic in Chicago run by Glenn "Pop" Warner and Dick Hanley, in the hopes that it would improve their coaching techniques and develop a way to better utilize their players. At the same time, however, the Association's management decided to retain only a few veteran players, replacing most of the squad with rookies direct from college. This resulted in a string of ten consecutive losses, the worst losing streak in Yellow Jackets' history. To end the streak, Frankford purchased eleven players from the Minneapolis Red Jackets, and George Gibson took over the team's coaching duties from Behman. The Legion Post also tried to rally to the Yellow Jackets, pledging its support. However, the effects of the economic depression and poor performance on the field combined to reduce the team's fan base. The season finally ended with a 6–13–1 overall record and a 4–13–1 record in league play.
Final season
Before the start of the 1931 season, Frankford Stadium was severely damaged by a fire, forcing the club to find another location for its home games. However, most facilities suitable for professional football were already booked. The Yellow Jackets had to overcome this scheduling problem by playing at two different locations around the city of Philadelphia: Philadelphia Municipal Stadium and Baker Bowl. Philadelphia Municipal Stadium and Baker Bowl were located outside of the Frankford area, making attendance difficult for local fans. The team had hoped to draw broader support from Philadelphia at large.
Herb Joesting took over as head coach in 1931. However, the team was in terrible shape. Some members of the press began referring to the team as the Philadelphia Yellow Jackets, in an attempt to increase fan support, which failed to materialize. By October, NFL President Joe Carr, after witnessing the poor attendance at Frankford's home loss to the Portsmouth Spartans, approved a plan for the Yellow Jackets to finish the season as a traveling team. Carr hoped that this move would allow the team to curb spending and rebound financially.
On October 26, 1931, the Yellow Jackets defeated the Chicago Bears, 13–12, at Wrigley Field. This game marked the last time a Philadelphia-based NFL team would win an away game over the Bears until October 17, 1999, when the Eagles defeated the Bears 20–16 at Soldier Field. The 1928 Yellow Jackets win over the Packers marked the last time in 51 years a Philadelphia NFL team won a road victory over the Packers; the Eagles' 1979 win at Green Bay finally ended that streak.
Legacy
The Frankford Athletic Association not only fielded the Yellow Jackets football team, but also the Yellow Jackets' Band and the Frankford Legion Post 211 Drum & Bugle Corps. The Association also sponsored bus and train trips for fans to travel along to games in such places as Pottsville and New York City, where even the host teams' sportswriters took notice of their enthusiasm. The club occasionally sponsored half-time exhibitions by the Frankford Midgets, as well as a women's football team. The latter is the first evidence of women playing organized football (in 1926).
During their time in the NFL, Frankford's Ignacio Molinet became the league's first Latino player.
Today the Philadelphia Fire Department's Engine 14, stationed in Frankford, have adopted the Yellow Jackets moniker on their fire trucks.
Philadelphia Eagles
After two more games following the victory in Chicago, both shutout losses - indeed, the 1931 Yellow Jackets were shut out in every game besides the aforementioned victory - the Yellow Jackets suspended operations. Unable to find a buyer, the Frankford Athletic Association returned the franchise to the league.
The NFL spent over a year searching for a new team to operate in Philadelphia. On July 9, 1933, the NFL granted an expansion franchise to Bert Bell and Lud Wray and awarded them the assets of the failed Yellow Jackets organization, with Bell and Wray naming their team the Eagles after the symbol of Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal.
This has led to assumptions that the Yellow Jackets changed their name to the Eagles, relocated to Philadelphia and returned to the league after going into recess in 1932: however, that is not the case. Bell and Wray did not buy the Yellow Jackets team, but rather the NFL rights to the Philadelphia area that had formerly belonged to the Frankford Athletic Association.
Due to the period of dormancy, the Eagles do not claim the Yellow Jackets' history as their own, while the NFL considers the Eagles as a 1933 expansion team for record-keeping purposes. Further to this, Bell and Wray assembled an almost entirely new team, with only one player (Art Koeninger) from the 1931 Yellow Jackets on the roster of the 1933 Eagles.
Despite this, in the first few years of the Eagles' existence, they wore powder blue and yellow uniforms similar to those worn by the Yellow Jackets; these are also the colors of Philadelphia's flag. Replicas were later worn as 1934 throwbacks in a game against the Detroit Lions on September 23, 2007, as part of the team's 75th anniversary season.
Hall of Famers
Other notable players
Nate Barragar
Bull Behman
Jug Earp
Two-Bits Homan
Herb Joesting
Mort Kaer
Bill Kelly
Joseph Lightner
Hap Moran
Ray Richards
Herb Stein
Hust Stockton
George Sullivan
Charley "Pie" Way
Ed Weir
Season-by-season record
(Record of NFL play only)
References
External links
Frankford Yellow Jackets – Pro Football Reference
Defunct National Football League teams
Yellow Jackets
American football teams in Philadelphia
Defunct American football teams in Pennsylvania
American football teams established in 1899
American football teams disestablished in 1931
Frankford, Philadelphia
1899 establishments in Pennsylvania
1931 disestablishments in Pennsylvania
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence%20Steamrollers%20%28NFL%29
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Providence Steamrollers (NFL)
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The Providence Steam Rollers (also referred to as the Providence Steam Roller, the Providence Steamroller and the Providence Steamrollers) were a professional American football team based in Providence, Rhode Island in the National Football League from 1925 to 1931. Providence was the first New England team to win an NFL championship. The Steam Roller won the league's championship in 1928, to date, this is the latest NFL championship win by a defunct team. Most of their home games were played in a 10,000-seat stadium that was built for bicycle races called the Cycledrome.
History
Pre-NFL
The Steam Rollers were established in 1916 by members of the Providence Journal; sports-editor Charles Coppen and part-time sports-writer Pearce Johnson. Three men shared in the ownership and management of the team: Coppen, James Dooley, and Peter Laudati. Meanwhile, Johnson stayed on as the team's manager for each year of its existence.
The team soon became a regional power and by the mid-1920s was known as the best independent team in the country. By 1919 the team was drawing in more spectators than Brown University by a margin of 2–1, according to newspaper reports at the time. However, it seemed unlikely since the Steam Rollers crowd was on average 3,000 spectators a game. The players' wages were lower than those of Indiana and Ohio, so it was harder for the Steam Rollers to bring in "ringers". Several college football players did play for the Steam Rollers, but under aliases, so as to not jeopardize their amateur status.
In 1924, Providence's schedule featured several NFL teams. The Steam Rollers posted a 3–2–1 record against those teams, defeating the Rochester Jeffersons (3–0), Minneapolis Marines (49–0) and Dayton Triangles (10–7). Both of their losses came against the Frankford Yellow Jackets (21–10) and (16–3). The team also posted a scoreless tie against the Columbus Tigers. The 1924 Steam Rollers then went on to win the mythical "undisputed championship of the Northeast". The team's success that season was enough to make Steam Rollers management and fans start thinking about playing in the NFL.
NFL years
Providence joined the NFL in time for the 1925 season. By that time only three players from the 1924 team were still in the line-up when the team's first practice of 1925 was held on September 17. In fact, only about a dozen of them wore Steam Rollers colors for the team's debut in the NFL. The Steam Rollers had played mediocre football in their first two NFL seasons, but posted a strong 8–5–1 record in 1927 with Jim Conzelman as the team's head coach. For his per game salary of $292, Conzelman not only coached the team but also played quarterback in the single-wing formation. The star player for Providence was halfback George "Wildcat" Wilson, a 1925 All-American from the University of Washington who had spent the 1926 season as the head of the traveling Los Angeles Wildcats of the AFL.
1928 championship season
Providence opened its 1928 season against Red Grange and the New York Yankees, Wilson's rival from the AFL. The Steam Rollers led the Yankees 20–7 at halftime and held that score throughout the second half. However, the team's next game resulted in a 10–6 loss to the Frankford Yellow Jackets. However, the team soon rebounded with a four-game winning streak over the Dayton Triangles (28–0), Yankees (12–6), Pottsville Maroons (13–6) and Detroit Wolverines (7–0). The Steam Rollers faced the Yellow Jackets again at Frankford Stadium on November 17, which resulted in a scoreless tie. However a week later, at the Cycledrome, Providence finally avenged its only loss of the season with a 6–0 victory over the Yellow Jackets. The team would then post wins over the New York Giants (16–0) and Pottsville (7–0), before ending its season with a 7–7 tie, against the Green Bay Packers. Providence was named the 1928 NFL Champions. Prior to the 1932 season, the NFL team with the best winning percentage was named the NFL Champions. Despite the Yellow Jackets winning 3 more games than the Steam Rollers and posting an 11–3–2 record, Providence was awarded the title due to having a better winning percentage.
A "victory banquet" at the Biltmore Hotel took place a week later. At the banquet, each player was rewarded with a gold watch. It was also at this event that Conzelman was given a trophy and named the team's "Most Valuable Player". Five of the Steam Rollers players gained All-NFL honors when the league issued its official honor roll on December 23. Wildcat Wilson and Clyde Smith were named to the first team, while Curly Oden, Milt Rehnquist, and Gus Sonnenberg were placed on the second team.
NFL firsts
Over the course of the next seven years, the team not only won an NFL championship but also established three league "firsts." In 1925, Providence was the first NFL team to play its home games in a bicycle racing stadium (a velodrome). In 1929, the Steam Rollers established two NFL "firsts." In the six-day period between November 5 and November 10, 1929, Providence played four games. The marathon string began against the Staten Island Stapletons, the Chicago Cardinals and concluded with a two-game series against the Frankford Yellow Jackets. Although the Steam Rollers made history, their 0–3–1 record during that six-day stretch proved to be a scheduling disaster. During the second game of that four-game series, Providence hosted the Cardinals on November 6. The game was played at night at nearby Kinsley Park, where floodlights recently had been installed. The teams had originally been scheduled to play on Sunday, November 3, but heavy rains made the Cycledrome field unplayable. Since neither team wanted to lose a payday, the historic night game was hastily scheduled. Because of this, Providence made history again by being the first team to host an NFL game at night under floodlights. Although the Steam Rollers lost 16–0, the game was declared a success because 6,000 fans attended.
Decline
Despite their 1928 championship, the team experienced troubles in 1929. On January 4, 1929, Sonnenberg defeated Strangler Lewis in two straight falls to capture the world heavyweight championship in professional wrestling. This caused Sonnenberg to stay out of football, as he could make better money defending his title. Meanwhile, Oden quit pro football to take a job with an insurance company in Boston, and Smith decided to return to his native Missouri and coach football. Conzelman also didn't fully recover from a knee injury sustained in 1928. Rehnquist missed the first half of the season due of illness, and Wildcat Wilson became complacent and turned into an ordinary back. The 1929 Steam Rollers team struggled to a 4–6–2 record, resulting in a 7th place league finish. This caused the fans, who attended each game during the championship season, to stay home. The team posted a 6–4–1 record in 1930 and a 4–4–3 record in 1931.
The lack of interest, coupled with the Great Depression in 1930, caused Dooley, Coppen and Laudati to suspend operations after the 1931 season. The three owners then gave up and turned the franchise back over to the NFL in 1933.
Name origin
During halftime against a game between the Steam Rollers and the Providence Pros, Charles Coppen, who was getting a hot dog, heard a remark that the opposing team was "getting steam-rolled". Coppen loved the remark so much he named his team the Steam Rollers.
Other Steam Roller teams
A team known as the Providence Huskies (the Steam Roller had used a husky-like dog as their mascot, so this team may have been a continuation of or successor to the Steam Roller) played during the 1933 season. The Huskies earned a perfect season, the only season in the professional or semi-professional record books to have not allowed their opponents to score a single point over an entire season. In 1936 an unrelated Providence Steam Roller team played in the New England Football League for one season.
The Steam Roller name was revived by Pearce Johnson, one of the original team's founders. The subsequent Steamrollers played on a near-continuous basis since that point as a semi-pro, minor league, and independent team until 1942, when it moved to Springfield and became the Springfield Steamroller for 1943, and suspended operations shortly thereafter. The last three seasons of a "Providence Steamrollers " team were as a member of the Atlantic Coast Football League; in 1962, the Steamroller team was the league's runner-up, losing in the championship to the Paterson Miners in a double-overtime decision. The assets of the ACFL Steam Roller were bought and taken to the Continental Football League as the Rhode Island Indians, where the team played one last season in 1965. After the 1965 season, the team's franchise rights were turned over to famed baseball player Jackie Robinson and became the "Brooklyn Dodgers," which lasted one season.
A Basketball Association of America franchise was also called the Providence Steamrollers. The Steamrollers played for three seasons, beginning in 1946–1947.
The name was revived again in 1988 for an Arena Football League team, the New England Steamrollers.
A rare home movie showing the Providence Steamrollers playing the Framingham Lion Tamers was recently discovered and preserved by Northeast Historic Film, a regional moving image archive in New England.
Pro Football Hall of Famers
Season-by-season
Notes
External links
Hall of Fame article about the team
Professional Football Researchers Association history
A Season in Time: Providence Steam Roller 1928
AIR Historical Providence Cycledrome
Old Footage of a Providence Steam Roller game
American football teams established in 1916
Sports clubs disestablished in 1933
Defunct National Football League teams
American football teams in Rhode Island
Sports in Providence, Rhode Island
1916 establishments in Rhode Island
1933 disestablishments in Rhode Island
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary%20embolism
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Pulmonary embolism
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Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a blockage of an artery in the lungs by a substance that has moved from elsewhere in the body through the bloodstream (embolism). Symptoms of a PE may include shortness of breath, chest pain particularly upon breathing in, and coughing up blood. Symptoms of a blood clot in the leg may also be present, such as a red, warm, swollen, and painful leg. Signs of a PE include low blood oxygen levels, rapid breathing, rapid heart rate, and sometimes a mild fever. Severe cases can lead to passing out, abnormally low blood pressure, obstructive shock, and sudden death.
PE usually results from a blood clot in the leg that travels to the lung. The risk of blood clots is increased by cancer, prolonged bed rest, smoking, stroke, certain genetic conditions, estrogen-based medication, pregnancy, obesity, and after some types of surgery. A small proportion of cases are due to the embolization of air, fat, or amniotic fluid. Diagnosis is based on signs and symptoms in combination with test results. If the risk is low, a blood test known as a D-dimer may rule out the condition. Otherwise, a CT pulmonary angiography, lung ventilation/perfusion scan, or ultrasound of the legs may confirm the diagnosis. Together, deep vein thrombosis and PE are known as venous thromboembolism (VTE).
Efforts to prevent PE include beginning to move as soon as possible after surgery, lower leg exercises during periods of sitting, and the use of blood thinners after some types of surgery. Treatment is with anticoagulants such as heparin, warfarin or one of the direct-acting oral anticoagulants (DOACs). These are recommended for at least three months. Severe cases may require thrombolysis using medication such as tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) given intravenously or through a catheter, and some may require surgery (a pulmonary thrombectomy). If blood thinners are not appropriate, a temporary vena cava filter may be used.
Pulmonary emboli affect about 430,000 people each year in Europe. In the United States, between 300,000 and 600,000 cases occur each year, which contribute to at least 40,000 deaths. Rates are similar in males and females. They become more common as people get older.
Signs and symptoms
Symptoms of pulmonary embolism are typically sudden in onset and may include one or many of the following: dyspnea (shortness of breath), tachypnea (rapid breathing), chest pain of a "pleuritic" nature (worsened by breathing), cough and hemoptysis (coughing up blood). More severe cases can include signs such as cyanosis (blue discoloration, usually of the lips and fingers), collapse, and circulatory instability because of decreased blood flow through the lungs and into the left side of the heart. About 15% of all cases of sudden death are attributable to PE. While PE may present with syncope, less than 1% of syncope cases are due to PE.
On physical examination, the lungs are usually normal. Occasionally, a pleural friction rub may be audible over the affected area of the lung (mostly in PE with infarct). A pleural effusion is sometimes present that is exudative, detectable by decreased percussion note, audible breath sounds, and vocal resonance. Strain on the right ventricle may be detected as a left parasternal heave, a loud pulmonary component of the second heart sound, and/or raised jugular venous pressure. A low-grade fever may be present, particularly if there is associated pulmonary hemorrhage or infarction.
As smaller pulmonary emboli tend to lodge in more peripheral areas without collateral circulation, they are more likely to cause lung infarction and small effusions (both of which are painful), but not hypoxia, dyspnea, or hemodynamic instability such as tachycardia. Larger PEs, which tend to lodge centrally, typically cause dyspnea, hypoxia, low blood pressure, fast heart rate and fainting, but are often painless because there is no lung infarction due to collateral circulation. The classic presentation for PE with pleuritic pain, dyspnea, and tachycardia is likely caused by a large fragmented embolism causing both large and small PEs. Thus, small PEs are often missed because they cause pleuritic pain alone without any other findings and large PEs are often missed because they are painless and mimic other conditions often causing ECG changes and small rises in troponin and brain natriuretic peptide levels.
PEs are sometimes described as massive, submassive, and nonmassive depending on the clinical signs and symptoms. Although the exact definitions of these are unclear, an accepted definition of massive PE is one in which there is hemodynamic instability. This is a cause of obstructive shock, which presents as sustained low blood pressure, slowed heart rate, or pulselessness.
Risk factors
About 90% of emboli are from proximal leg deep vein thrombosis (DVTs) or pelvic vein thromboses. The rare venous thoracic outlet syndrome can also be a cause of DVTs, especially in young men without significant risk factors. DVTs are at risk for dislodging and migrating to the lung circulation. The conditions are generally regarded as a continuum termed venous thromboembolism (VTE).
VTE is much more common in immunocompromised individuals as well as individuals with comorbidities including:
Those that undergo orthopedic surgery at or below the hip without prophylaxis.
This is due to immobility during or after the surgery, as well as venous damage during the surgery.
Pancreatic and colon cancer patients (other forms of cancer also can be factors, but these are the most common)
This is due to the release of procoagulants.
Risk of VTE is at its greatest during diagnosis and treatment, but lowers in remission.
Patients with high-grade tumors
Pregnant individuals
As the body puts itself into what is known as a "hypercoagulable state" the risk of a hemorrhage during childbirth is decreased and is regulated by increased expression of factors VII, VIII, X, Von Willebrand, and fibrinogen.
Those on estrogen medication
The development of thrombosis is classically due to a group of causes named Virchow's triad (alterations in blood flow, factors in the vessel wall, and factors affecting the properties of the blood). Often, more than one risk factor is present.
Alterations in blood flow: immobilization (after surgery, long-haul flight), injury, pregnancy (also procoagulant), obesity (also procoagulant), cancer (also procoagulant)
Factors in the vessel wall: surgery, catheterizations causing direct injury ("endothelial injury")
Factors affecting the properties of the blood (procoagulant state):
Estrogen-containing medication (transgender hormone therapy, menopausal hormone therapy and hormonal contraceptives)
Genetic thrombophilia (factor V Leiden, prothrombin mutation G20210A, protein C deficiency, protein S deficiency, antithrombin deficiency, hyperhomocysteinemia and plasminogen/fibrinolysis disorders)
Acquired thrombophilia (antiphospholipid syndrome, nephrotic syndrome, paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria)
Cancer (due to secretion of pro-coagulants)
Although most pulmonary embolisms are the result of proximal leg deep vein thrombosis (DVTs), there are still many other risk factors that can also result in a pulmonary embolism.
Risk Factors Include:
Varicose veins caused by vascular damage
Pulmonary hypertension
Diabetes
Traumatic hip fractures that immobilize the patient
Joint fixation (primarily in the legs)
Underlying causes
After a first PE, the search for secondary causes is usually brief. Only when a second PE occurs, and especially when this happens while still under anticoagulant therapy, a further search for underlying conditions is undertaken. This will include testing ("thrombophilia screen") for Factor V Leiden mutation, antiphospholipid antibodies, protein C and S and antithrombin levels, and later prothrombin mutation, MTHFR mutation, Factor VIII concentration and rarer inherited coagulation abnormalities.
Diagnosis
To diagnose a pulmonary embolism, a review of clinical criteria to determine the need for testing is recommended. In those who have low risk, age less than 50, heart rate less than 100 beats per minute, oxygen level more than 94% on room air, and no leg swelling, coughing up of blood, surgery or trauma in the last four weeks, previous blood clots, or estrogen use, further testing is not typically needed.
In situations with more high risk individuals, further testing is needed. A CT pulmonary angiogram (CTPA) is the preferred method for diagnosis of a pulmonary embolism due to its easy administration and accuracy. Although a CTPA is preferred, there are also other tests that can be done. For example, a proximal lower limb compression ultrasound (CUS) can be used. This is a test which is primarily used as a confirmatory test, meaning it confirms a previous analysis showing the presence or suspected presence of a pulmonary embolism. According to a cross-sectional study, CUS tests have a sensitivity of 41% and specificity of 96%.
If there are concerns this is followed by testing to determine a likelihood of being able to confirm a diagnosis by imaging, followed by imaging if other tests have shown that there is a likelihood of a PE diagnosis.
The diagnosis of PE is based primarily on validated clinical criteria combined with selective testing because the typical clinical presentation (shortness of breath, chest pain) cannot be definitively differentiated from other causes of chest pain and shortness of breath. The decision to perform medical imaging is based on clinical reasoning, that is, the medical history, symptoms, and findings on physical examination, followed by an assessment of clinical probability.
Probability testing
The most commonly used method to predict clinical probability, the Wells score, is a clinical prediction rule, whose use is complicated by multiple versions being available. In 1995, Philip Steven Wells, initially developed a prediction rule (based on a literature search) to predict the likelihood of PE, based on clinical criteria. The prediction rule was revised in 1998 This prediction rule was further revised when simplified during a validation by Wells et al. in 2000. In the 2000 publication, Wells proposed two different scoring systems using cutoffs of 2 or 4 with the same prediction rule. In 2001, Wells published results using the more conservative cutoff of 2 to create three categories. An additional version, the "modified extended version", using the more recent cutoff of 2 but including findings from Wells's initial studies were proposed. Most recently, a further study reverted to Wells's earlier use of a cutoff of 4 points to create only two categories.
There are additional prediction rules for PE, such as the Geneva rule. More importantly, the use of any rule is associated with reduction in recurrent thromboembolism.
The Wells score:
clinically suspected DVT – 3.0 points
alternative diagnosis is less likely than PE – 3.0 points
tachycardia (heart rate > 100) – 1.5 points
immobilization (≥ 3d)/surgery in previous four weeks – 1.5 points
history of DVT or PE – 1.5 points
hemoptysis – 1.0 points
malignancy (with treatment within six months) or palliative – 1.0 points
Traditional interpretation
Score >6.0 – High (probability 59% based on pooled data)
Score 2.0 to 6.0 – Moderate (probability 29% based on pooled data)
Score <2.0 – Low (probability 15% based on pooled data)
Alternative interpretation
Score > 4 – PE likely. Consider diagnostic imaging.
Score 4 or less – PE unlikely. Consider D-dimer to rule out PE.
Recommendations for a diagnostic algorithm were published by the PIOPED investigators; however, these recommendations do not reflect research using 64 slice MDCT. These investigators recommended:
Low clinical probability. If negative D-dimer, PE is excluded. If positive D-dimer, obtain MDCT and base treatment on results.
Moderate clinical probability. If negative D-dimer, PE is excluded. However, the authors were not concerned that a negative MDCT with negative D-dimer in this setting has a 5% probability of being false. Presumably, the 5% error rate will fall as 64 slice MDCT is more commonly used. If positive D-dimer, obtain MDCT and base treatment on results.
High clinical probability. Proceed to MDCT. If positive, treat, if negative, more tests are needed to exclude PE. A D-dimer of less than 750 ug/L does not rule out PE in those who are at high risk.
Pulmonary embolism rule-out criteria
The pulmonary embolism rule-out criteria (PERC) helps assess people in whom pulmonary embolism is suspected, but unlikely. Unlike the Wells score and Geneva score, which are clinical prediction rules intended to risk stratify people with suspected PE, the PERC rule is designed to rule out the risk of PE in people when the physician has already stratified them into a low-risk category.
People in this low risk category without any of these criteria may undergo no further testing for PE: low oxygen saturations – SaO2 <95%, unilateral leg swelling, coughing up blood, prior DVT or PE, recent surgery or trauma, age >50, hormone use, fast heart rate. The rationale behind this decision is that further testing (specifically CT angiogram of the chest) may cause more harm (from radiation exposure and contrast dye) than the risk of PE. The PERC rule has a sensitivity of 97.4% and specificity of 21.9% with a false negative rate of 1.0% (16/1666).
Blood tests
In people with a low or moderate suspicion of PE, a normal D-dimer level (shown in a blood test) is enough to exclude the possibility of thrombotic PE, with a three-month risk of thromboembolic events being 0.14%. D-dimer is highly sensitive but not specific (specificity around 50%). In other words, a positive D-dimer is not synonymous with PE, but a negative D-dimer is, with a good degree of certainty, an indication of absence of a PE. A low pretest probability is also valuable in ruling out PE. The typical cut off is 500 μg/L, although this varies based on the assay. However, in those over the age of 50, changing the cut-off value to the person's age multiplied by 10 μg/L (accounting for assay which has been used) is recommended as it decreases the number of falsely positive tests without missing any additional cases of PE.
When a PE is being suspected, several blood tests are done in order to exclude important secondary causes of PE. This includes a full blood count, clotting status (PT, aPTT, TT), and some screening tests (erythrocyte sedimentation rate, kidney function, liver enzymes, electrolytes). If one of these is abnormal, further investigations might be warranted to the issue.
Troponin levels are increased in between 16 and 47% with pulmonary embolism.
Imaging
In typical people who are not known to be at high risk of PE, imaging is helpful to confirm or exclude a diagnosis of PE after simpler first-line tests are used. Medical societies recommend tests such as the D-dimer to first provide supporting evidence for the need for imaging, and imaging would be done if other tests confirmed a moderate or high probability of finding evidence to support a diagnosis of PE.
CT pulmonary angiography is the recommended first line diagnostic imaging test in most people.
Ultrasound of the legs can confirm the presence of a PE but cannot rule it out.
CT pulmonary angiography
CT pulmonary angiography (CTPA) is a pulmonary angiogram obtained using computed tomography (CT) with radiocontrast rather than right heart catheterization. Its advantages are that it is accurate, it is non-invasive, it is more often available, and it may identifying other lung disorders in case there is no pulmonary embolism. The accuracy and non-invasive nature of CTPA also make it advantageous for people who are pregnant.
Assessing the accuracy of CT pulmonary angiography is hindered by the rapid changes in the number of rows of detectors available in multidetector CT (MDCT) machines. According to a cohort study, single-slice spiral CT may help diagnose detection among people with suspected pulmonary embolism. In this study, the sensitivity was 69% and specificity was 84%. In this study which had a prevalence of detection was 32%, the positive predictive value of 67.0% and negative predictive value of 85.2%. However, this study's results may be biased due to possible incorporation bias, since the CT scan was the final diagnostic tool in people with pulmonary embolism. The authors noted that a negative single slice CT scan is insufficient to rule out pulmonary embolism on its own. A separate study with a mixture of 4 slice and 16 slice scanners reported a sensitivity of 83% and a specificity of 96%, which means that it is a good test for ruling out a pulmonary embolism if it is not seen on imaging and that it is very good at confirming a pulmonary embolism is present if it is seen. This study noted that additional testing is necessary when the clinical probability is inconsistent with the imaging results. CTPA is non-inferior to VQ scanning, and identifies more emboli (without necessarily improving the outcome) compared to VQ scanning.
Ventilation/perfusion scan
A ventilation/perfusion scan (or V/Q scan or lung scintigraphy) shows that some areas of the lung are being ventilated but not perfused with blood (due to obstruction by a clot). This type of examination is as accurate as multislice CT, but is less used, due to the greater availability of CT technology. It is particularly useful in people who have an allergy to iodinated contrast, impaired kidney function, or are pregnant (due to its lower radiation exposure as compared to CT). The test can be performed with planar two-dimensional imaging, or single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) which enables three-dimensional imaging. Hybrid devices combining SPECT and CT (SPECT/CT) further enable anatomic characterization of any abnormality.
Low probability diagnostic tests/non-diagnostic tests
Tests that are frequently done that are not sensitive for PE, but can be diagnostic.
Chest X-rays are often done on people with shortness of breath to help rule-out other causes, such as congestive heart failure and rib fracture. Chest X-rays in PE are rarely normal, but usually lack signs that suggest the diagnosis of PE (for example, Westermark sign, Hampton's hump).
Ultrasonography of the legs, also known as leg doppler, in search of deep venous thrombosis (DVT). The presence of DVT, as shown on ultrasonography of the legs, is in itself enough to warrant anticoagulation, without requiring the V/Q or spiral CT scans (because of the strong association between DVT and PE). This may be a valid approach in pregnancy, in which the other modalities would increase the risk of birth defects in the unborn child. However, a negative scan does not rule out PE, and low-radiation dose scanning may be required if the mother is deemed at high risk of having a pulmonary embolism. The main use of ultrasonography of the legs is therefore in those with clinical symptoms suggestive of deep vein thrombosis.
Fluoroscopic pulmonary angiography
Historically, the gold standard for diagnosis was pulmonary angiography by fluoroscopy, but this has fallen into disuse with the increased availability of non-invasive techniques that offer similar diagnostic accuracy.
Electrocardiogram
The primary use of the ECG is to rule out other causes of chest pain. An electrocardiogram (ECG) is routinely done on people with chest pain to quickly diagnose myocardial infarctions (heart attacks), an important differential diagnosis in an individual with chest pain. While certain ECG changes may occur with PE, none are specific enough to confirm or sensitive enough to rule out the diagnosis. An ECG may show signs of right heart strain or acute cor pulmonale in cases of large PEs – the classic signs are a large S wave in lead I, a large Q wave in lead III, and an inverted T wave in lead III (S1Q3T3), which occurs in 12–50% of people with the diagnosis, yet also occurs in 12% without the diagnosis.
This is occasionally present (occurring in up to 20% of people), but may also occur in other acute lung conditions, and, therefore, has limited diagnostic value. The most commonly seen signs in the ECG are sinus tachycardia, right axis deviation, and right bundle branch block. Sinus tachycardia, however, is still only found in 8–69% of people with PE.
ECG findings associated with pulmonary emboli may suggest worse prognosis since the six findings identified with RV strain on ECG (heart rate > 100 beats per minute, S1Q3T3, inverted T waves in leads V1-V4, ST elevation in aVR, complete right bundle branch block, and atrial fibrillation) are associated with increased risk of circulatory shock and death.
Cases with inverted T in leads V1-3 are suspected with PE or inferior myocardial infarction. PE cases show inverted T waves in leads II and aVF, but inferior myocardial infarction cases do not show inverted T waves in II and aVF.
Echocardiography
In massive and submassive PE, dysfunction of the right side of the heart may be seen on echocardiography, an indication that the pulmonary artery is severely obstructed and the right ventricle, a low-pressure pump, is unable to match the pressure. Some studies (see below) suggest that this finding may be an indication for thrombolysis. Not every person with a (suspected) pulmonary embolism requires an echocardiogram, but elevations in cardiac troponins or brain natriuretic peptide may indicate heart strain and warrant an echocardiogram, and be important in prognosis.
The specific appearance of the right ventricle on echocardiography is referred to as the McConnell's sign. This is the finding of akinesia of the mid-free wall but a normal motion of the apex. This phenomenon has a 77% sensitivity and a 94% specificity for the diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism in the setting of right ventricular dysfunction.
Prevention
Pulmonary embolism may be preventable in those with risk factors. People admitted to hospital may receive preventative medication, including unfractionated heparin, low molecular weight heparin (LMWH), or fondaparinux, and anti-thrombosis stockings to reduce the risk of a DVT in the leg that could dislodge and migrate to the lungs.
Following the completion of anticoagulation in those with prior PE, long-term aspirin is useful to prevent recurrence.
Treatment
Anticoagulant therapy is the mainstay of treatment. Acutely, supportive treatments, such as oxygen or analgesia, may be required. People are often admitted to hospital in the early stages of treatment, and tend to remain under inpatient care until the INR has reached therapeutic levels (if warfarin is used). Increasingly, however, low-risk cases are managed at home in a fashion already common in the treatment of DVT. Evidence to support one approach versus the other is weak.
Anticoagulation
Anticoagulant therapy is the mainstay of treatment. For many years, vitamin K antagonists (warfarin or less commonly acenocoumarol or phenprocoumon) have been the cornerstone. As vitamin K antagonists do not act immediately, initial treatment is with rapidly acting injectable anticoagulants: unfractionated heparin (UFH), low molecular weight heparin (LMWH), or fondaparinux, while oral vitamin K antagonists are initiated and titrated (usually as part of inpatient hospital care) to the international normalized ratio, a test that determines the dose. In terms of injectable treatments, LMWH may reduce bleeding among people with pulmonary embolism as compared to UFH. According to the same review, LMWH reduced the incidence of recurrent thrombotic complications and reduced thrombus size when compared to heparin. There was no difference in overall mortality between participants treated with LMWH and those treated with unfractionated heparin. Vitamin K antagonists require frequent dose adjustment and monitoring of the international normalized ratio (INR). In PE, INRs between 2.0 and 3.0 are generally considered ideal. If another episode of PE occurs under warfarin treatment, the INR window may be increased to e.g. 2.5–3.5 (unless there are contraindications) or anticoagulation may be changed to a different anticoagulant e.g. LMWH.
In recent years, many anticoagulants have been introduced that offer similar to warfarin but without a need for titration to the INR. Known as the directly acting oral anticoagulants, these treatments are now preferred over vitamin K antagonists by American professional guidelines. Two of these (rivaroxaban and apixaban) do not require initial heparin or fondaparinux treatment, whereas dabigatran and edoxaban do. A Cochrane review found that there is no evidence of a difference between oral DTIs (dabigatran, rivaroxaban, edoxaban, apixaban) and standard anticoagulation in the prevention of recurrent pulmonary embolism.
In people with cancer who develop pulmonary embolism, therapy with a course of LMWH is favored over warfarin or other oral anticoagulants. Similarly, pregnant women are treated with low molecular weight heparin until after delivery to avoid the known teratogenic effects of warfarin, especially in the early stages of pregnancy, but it can be used while breastfeeding.
Anticoagulation therapy is usually continued for 3–6 months, or "lifelong" if there have been previous DVTs or PEs, or none of the usual transient risk factors is present. In those without a known cause that can be reversed 2 years of treatment may be better than 6 months. For those with small PEs (known as subsegmental PEs) the effects of anticoagulation is unknown as it has not been properly studied as of 2020.
Thrombolysis
Massive PE causing hemodynamic instability (shock and/or low blood pressure, defined as a systolic blood pressure <90 mmHg or a pressure drop of 40 mmHg for >15 min if not caused by new-onset arrhythmia, hypovolemia or sepsis) is an indication for thrombolysis, the enzymatic destruction of the clot with medication. In this situation, it is the best available treatment in those without contraindications and is supported by clinical guidelines. It is also recommended in those in cardiac arrest with a known PE. Catheter-directed thrombolysis (CDT) is a new technique found to be relatively safe and effective for massive PEs. This involves accessing the venous system by placing a catheter into a vein in the groin and guiding it through the veins by using fluoroscopic imaging until it is located next to the PE in the lung circulation. Medication that breaks up blood clots is released through the catheter so that its highest concentration is directly next to the pulmonary embolus. CDT is performed by interventional radiologists or vascular surgeons, and in medical centers that offer CDT, it may be offered as a first-line treatment. Catheter-based ultrasound-assisted thrombolysis is being investigated.
The use of thrombolysis in non-massive PEs is still debated. Some have found that the treatment decreases the risk of death and increases the risk of bleeding including intracranial hemorrhage. Others have found no decrease in the risk of death.
Inferior vena cava filter
There are two situations when an inferior vena cava filter is considered advantageous, and those are if anticoagulant therapy is contraindicated (e.g. shortly after a major operation), or a person has a pulmonary embolus in spite of being anticoagulated. In these instances, it may be implanted to prevent new or existing DVTs from entering the pulmonary artery and combining with an existing blockage. In spite of the device's theoretical advantage of preventing pulmonary emboli, there is a lack of evidence supporting its effectiveness.
Inferior vena cava filters should be removed as soon as it becomes safe to start using anticoagulation. Although modern filters are meant to be retrievable, complications may prevent some from being removed. The long-term safety profile of permanently leaving a filter inside the body is not known.
Surgery
Surgical management of acute pulmonary embolism (pulmonary thrombectomy) is uncommon and has largely been abandoned because of poor long-term outcomes. However, recently, it has gone through a resurgence with the revision of the surgical technique and is thought to benefit certain people. Chronic pulmonary embolism leading to pulmonary hypertension (known as chronic thromboembolic hypertension) is treated with a surgical procedure known as a pulmonary thromboendarterectomy.
Epidemiology
There are roughly 10 million cases of pulmonary embolisms per year. In the United States, pulmonary embolisms are the primary cause of at least 10,000 to 12,000 deaths per year and a contributing cause in at least 30,000 to 40,000 deaths per year. True incidence involving pulmonary embolisms is unknown because they often go undiagnosed or unnoticed until autopsy. From 1993 to 2012, there have been an increased number of admissions in hospitals due to pulmonary embolisms, jumping from 23 cases per 100,000 people to 65 cases per 100,000 people. Despite this increase, there has been a decrease in mortality during that same time period due to medical advances that have occurred.
Venous thromboembolism (VTE), a common risk factor, is present at much higher rates in those over the age of 70 (three times higher compared to those aged 45 to 69). This is likely due to there being a generally lower level of activity among the elderly, resulting in higher rates of immobility and obesity. VTE has a large, and continuously rising, case fatality rate. This rate is roughly 10% after 30 days, 15% after three months and up to 20% after one year. Pulmonary embolisms alone (when resulting in hospitalizations) have a case fatality rate of about 5% to 10% so VTE can play a large factor in the severity of the embolisms.
When looking at all cases, the rate of fatal pulmonary emboli has declined from 6% to 2% over the last 25 years in the United States. In Europe, an average of approximately 40,000 deaths per year with pulmonary embolism as the primary cause were reported between 2013 and 2015, a conservative estimate because of potential underdiagnosis.
Prognosis
Less than 5 to 10% of symptomatic PEs are fatal within the first hour of symptoms.
There are several markers used for risk stratification and these are also independent predictors of adverse outcomes. These include hypotension, cardiogenic shock, syncope, evidence of right heart dysfunction, and elevated cardiac enzymes. Some ECG changes including S1Q3T3 also correlate with a worse short-term prognosis. There have been other patient-related factors such as COPD and chronic heart failure thought to also play a role in prognosis.
Prognosis depends on the amount of lung that is affected and on the co-existence of other medical conditions; chronic embolisation to the lung can lead to pulmonary hypertension. After a massive PE, the embolus must be resolved somehow if the patient is to survive. In thrombotic PE, the blood clot may be broken down by fibrinolysis, or it may be organized and recanalized so that a new channel forms through the clot. Blood flow is restored most rapidly in the first day or two after a PE. Improvement slows thereafter and some deficits may be permanent. There is controversy over whether small subsegmental PEs need treatment at all and some evidence exists that patients with subsegmental PEs may do well without treatment.
Once anticoagulation is stopped, the risk of a fatal pulmonary embolism is 0.5% per year.
Mortality from untreated PEs was said to be 26%. This figure comes from a trial published in 1960 by Barrit and Jordan, which compared anticoagulation against placebo for the management of PE. Barritt and Jordan performed their study in the Bristol Royal Infirmary in 1957. This study is the only placebo-controlled trial ever to examine the place of anticoagulants in the treatment of PE, the results of which were so convincing that the trial has never been repeated as to do so would be considered unethical. That said, the reported mortality rate of 26% in the placebo group is probably an overstatement, given that the technology of the day may have detected only severe PEs.
Predicting mortality
The PESI and sPESI scoring tools can estimate mortality of patients. The Geneva prediction rules and Wells criteria are used to calculate a pre-test probability of patients to predict who has a pulmonary embolism. These scores are tools to be used with clinical judgment in deciding diagnostic testing and types of therapy. The PESI algorithm comprises 11 routinely available clinical variables. It puts the subjects into one of five classes (I–V), with 30-day mortality ranging from 1.1% to 24.5%. Those in classes I and II are low-risk and those in classes III–V are high-risk.
References
External links
Wells criteria for pulmonary embolism online calculator
Clinical prediction website – Wells criteria for pulmonary embolism
Medical emergencies
Pulmonary heart disease and diseases of pulmonary circulation
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz%20Pollard
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Fritz Pollard
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Frederick Douglass "Fritz" Pollard (January 27, 1894 – May 11, 1986) was an American football player and coach. He was the first African-American head coach in the National Football League (NFL). Pollard and Bobby Marshall were the first two African-American players in the NFL in 1920. Football pioneer Walter Camp called Pollard "one of the greatest runners these eyes have ever seen."
Early life
Pollard attended Albert G. Lane Manual Training High School in Chicago, also known as "Lane Tech," where he played football, baseball, and ran track. He then went to Brown University, majoring in chemistry. Pollard played halfback on the Brown football team, which went to the 1916 Rose Bowl. He was the first black football player at Brown. He became the first black running back to be named to Walter Camp's All-America team.
Pollard coached Lincoln University's football team in Oxford, Pennsylvania during the 1918 to 1920 seasons and served as athletic director of the school's World War I era Students' Army Training Corps. During 1918–1919, he led the team to a victorious season defeating Howard University's Bisons 13–0 in the annual Thanksgiving classic as well as Hampton University (7–0) on November 9, 1918, and teams of military recruits at Camp Dix (19–0) on November 2, 1918, and Camp Upton (41–0). By the fall of 1920, he had begun to play for Akron, missing key Lincoln losses to Hampton (0–14) and Howard (0–42), much to the consternation of the alumni and administration. Paul Robeson was enlisted by Lincoln's alumni to coach the Thanksgiving 1920 game against Howard.
Pollard criticized Lincoln's administration, saying they had hampered his ability to coach and had refused to provide adequate travel accommodations for the team. "Prior to the Hampton game, the team was compelled to go to Hampton by boat, sleeping on the decks and under portholes," he told a reporter. "No cabins were provided, nor were they given a place to sleep after reaching Hampton. They lost the game through lack of rest." He also blamed the school for not providing the proper equipment. "I, myself, bought and paid $200 out of my pocket for football shoes for the team." He missed the 1920 Howard game, he said, because his Lincoln salary was so low that he was compelled to augment it with pay from Akron.
He played professional football with the Akron Pros, the team he would lead to the APFA championship in 1920. In 1921, he became the co-head coach of the Akron Pros, while still maintaining his roster position as running back. He also played for the Milwaukee Badgers, Hammond Pros, Gilberton Cadamounts, Union Club of Phoenixville and Providence Steam Roller. Some sources indicate that Pollard also served as co-coach of the Milwaukee Badgers with Budge Garrett for part of the 1922 season. He also coached the Gilberton Cadamounts, a non-NFL team. In 1923 and 1924, he served as head coach for the Hammond Pros.
Pollard, along with all nine of the black players in the NFL at the time, were removed from the league at the end of the 1926 season, never to return again. He spent some time organizing all-black barnstorming teams, including the Chicago Black Hawks in 1928 and the Harlem Brown Bombers in the 1930s.
Later life
In the 1930s, Pollard founded his own professional football team, the Brown Bombers. The Depression ended the Brown Bombers’ run in 1938, and Pollard went on to other ventures, including a talent agency, tax consulting, and film and music production. He produced Rockin' the Blues in 1956, which included such performers as Connie Carroll, The Harptones, The Five Miller Sisters, Pearl Woods, Linda Hopkins, Elyce Roberts, The Hurricanes, and The Wanderers. Pollard also published the New York Independent News from 1935 to 1942, purportedly the first black-owned tabloid in New York City.
Pollard's legacy lives on through his grandson Fritz D Pollard III (and children Meredith Pollard Russell and Marcus Pollard) his other grandson Dr Stephen Towns and granddaughter Stephanie Towns.
Honors and legacy
In 1981 Brown University conferred an honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) degree on Pollard, recognizing his achievements as athlete and leader.
In 2005, Fritz Pollard was posthumously inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
In 2015, Pollard was posthumously inducted into the Rose Bowl Hall of Fame.
Pollard appears as a free agent in Madden NFL 09 and Madden NFL 10 and is also a part of the game's Hall of Fame feature.
Pollard's son Fritz Pollard Jr. won the bronze medal for 110 m hurdles at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin.
The Fritz Pollard Alliance, a group promoting minority hiring throughout the NFL, is named for Pollard.
Brown University and the Black Coaches & Administrators co-sponsor the annual Fritz Pollard Award, which is presented to the college or professional coach chosen by the BCA as coach of the year.
Head coaching record
College
See also
List of African-American firsts
Racial issues faced by black quarterbacks
Notes
References
External links
Fritz Pollard and early African American professional football players (Brown University) February 18, 2004
Fritz's Fame, a biography at Brown Alumni Magazine
1894 births
1986 deaths
American football halfbacks
Brown Bears football players
Akron Indians (Ohio League) players
Akron Indians coaches
Akron Indians players
Akron Pros coaches
Akron Pros players
Gilberton Cadamounts players
Hammond Pros coaches
Hammond Pros players
Lincoln Lions football coaches
Milwaukee Badgers players
Providence Steam Roller players
Union Club of Phoenixville players
All-American college football players
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees
Sportspeople from Chicago
Sportspeople from Hammond, Indiana
Coaches of American football from Illinois
Players of American football from Chicago
African-American coaches of American football
African-American players of American football
Editors of New York City newspapers
20th-century African-American sportspeople
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alouette%201
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Alouette 1
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Alouette 1 is a deactivated Canadian satellite that studied the ionosphere. Launched in 1962, it was Canada's first satellite, and the first satellite constructed by a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Canada was the fourth country to operate a satellite, as the British Ariel 1, constructed in the United States by NASA, preceded Alouette 1 by five months. The name "Alouette" came from the French for "skylark" and the French-Canadian folk song of the same name.
A key device on Alouette were the radio antennas consisting of thin strips of beryllium copper bent into a slight U-shape and then rolled up into small disks in a fashion similar to a measuring tape. When triggered, the rotation of the satellite created enough centrifugal force to pull the disk away from the spacecraft body, and the shaping of the metal caused it to unwind into a long spiral. The result was a stiff circular cross-section antenna known as a "STEM", for "storable tubular extendible member".
Development
Alouette 1 was part of a joint Canada-U.S. scientific program. Its purpose was to investigate the properties of the top of the ionosphere, and the dependence of those properties on geographical location, season, and time of day. Alouette 1 was advanced for its time, and NASA initially doubted whether the available technology would be sufficient. Nevertheless, NASA was eager to collaborate with international partners. NASA was convinced to participate by the prospect of obtaining data on the ionosphere, and Canada had the additional objective of developing its own space research programme. The United Kingdom also aided the mission by providing support at two ground stations, in Singapore and at Winkfield.
Experiments
Alouette 1 carried four scientific experiments:
Sweep-Frequency Sounder. This experiment measured the electron density distribution in the ionosphere by measuring the time delay between the emission and return of radio pulses. The sounder was able to emit pulses with frequencies between 1 and 12 megahertz, with a power of 100 W.
Energetic particle detectors. An arrangement of Geiger counters and scintillators for detecting energetic particles.
VLF Receiver. An experiment for measuring both artificial and natural VLF signals. It was sensitive to frequencies between 400 and 10,000 Hz.
Cosmic Radio Noise. Two long radio antennas used for detecting radio noise from the Sun and the Galaxy.
The satellite did not have a tape recorder to store data. It was only possible to obtain data when the satellite was in range of a receiving station.
Duplicate construction
Two satellites were built for redundancy in case of a malfunction; if the first unit failed, the second could be launched with only a couple of months delay. It took 3½ years after Alouettes proposal to have it developed and built. The satellites S27-2 (prototype), S27-3 (which became the launched satellite), and S27-4 (which became the backup) were assembled by Defence Research Telecommunications Establishment (DRTE) Electronics Lab in Ottawa, Ontario. The mechanical frame and the deployable STEM antennas were made by Special Products and Applied Research Aerospace (SPAR Aerospace), a former division of de Havilland Canada (DHC) in North York, Ontario, in a building which many years later (until 2012) housed the Canadian Air and Space Museum. The batteries used for Alouette were developed by the Defence Chemical, Biological, and Radiation Laboratory (DCBRL), another branch of DRB, and were partially responsible for the long lifetime of the satellite. The "Storable Tubular Extendable Member" antennas used were the first of DHC's STEM antennas used in space, and at launch were the longest (150 feet tip to tip).
Satellite launch and mission progress
Alouette 1 was launched via Thor-Agena-B two-stage rocket by NASA from the Pacific Missile Range at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, USA at 06:05 UTC on September 29, 1962, into orbit around Earth. The satellite was placed into an almost circular orbit with an altitude of to with an inclination of 80.5°. The launch made Canada the third nation, after the USSR and the United States, to design and construct its own satellite. Alouette was used to study the ionosphere, using over 700 different radio frequencies to investigate its properties from above.
The satellite was initially spin-stabilised, rotating 1.4 times per minute. After about 500 days, the rotation had slowed to about 0.6 rpm and the spin-stabilisation failed at this point. It was then possible to determine the satellite's orientation only by readings from a magnetometer and from temperature sensors on the upper and lower heat shields. The orientation determinations obtained this way were only accurate to within 10 degrees. It is likely that gravitational gradients had caused the longest antenna to point towards the Earth.
A 2010 technical report by the US Defense Threat Reduction Agency titled "Collateral Damage to Satellites from an EMP Attack" lists Alouette 1 among the satellites damaged by residual radiation from the July 9, 1962, Starfish Prime high-altitude nuclear test conducted by the United States. Another article, titled "Anthropogenic Space Weather", indicates Alouette 1 sustained no significant adverse effects from the Starfish radiation, most likely due to a very conservative power supply design that allowed for a 40% degradation of solar cell performance.
Alouettes mission lasted for 10 years before the satellite was deliberately switched off on September 30, 1972. The satellite remains in orbit; in 1966 it was estimated that Alouette 1 would remain in orbit for 1000 years.
Post mission
After Alouette 1 was launched, the upper stage of the rocket used to launch the satellite became a derelict object that would continue to orbit Earth for many years. , the upper stage remains in orbit.
The satellite itself became a derelict, remaining in Earth orbit .
The Alouette 1 was named an IEEE Milestone in 1993. It is featured on the Amory Adventure Award.
Alouette 1s backup was later launched, with some modification, as Alouette 2 in 1965 to "replace" the older Alouette 1.
See also
Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes
Prince Albert Radar Laboratory (used as the initial ground station)
References
External links
1962-049A also known as 1962-Beta-Alpha-1 entry at NSSDC
CSA Alouette Site
Canada's Digital Collections government website – About Alouette
CBC Digital Archives – Launching the Digital Age: Canadian Satellites
Article on satellite development based on interviews with original research engineers.
Satellites of Canada
Derelict satellites orbiting Earth
Spacecraft launched in 1962
First artificial satellite of a country
Geospace monitoring satellites
|
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207173
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laban%20Ainsworth
|
Laban Ainsworth
|
Laban Ainsworth (July 19, 1757 – March 17, 1858) was an American clergyman and pastor. He holds the record for the longest serving pastorate in American history. He served as pastor in Jaffrey, New Hampshire from 1782 to 1858, a period of 76 years. Ainsworth was also adept at writing hymnals.
Biography
Laban Ainsworth was born in Woodstock, Connecticut on July 19, 1757 to William and Mary Marcy Ainsworth. As a result of suffering a severe attack of scarlet fever in childhood, Ainsworth's right arm became withered and "nearly useless to him for life." As a result of this disability, however, Ainsworth was able to focus on his education. While he hoped to enter Harvard College in 1775, the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War prevented him from doing this and instead caused him to attend Dartmouth College—from which he graduated in 1778. At Stockbridge, Massachusetts, he studied theology under the guidance of Reverend Stephen West. He also preached for two years at Spencertown, New York, where he served as a chaplain for a few months with Major McKinstry's Corps in the American Revolutionary Army. In 1782, he became pastor of Jaffrey, New Hampshire—a position that he held until his death 76 years later at age 100. In 1787, he married Mary Minot (1761-1845) and had two children with her—a daughter named Sarah (1789-1857) and a son named William (1792-1842).
References
1757 births
1858 deaths
American Christian clergy
18th-century Christian clergy
19th-century Christian clergy
American centenarians
Men centenarians
History of Christianity in the United States
People from Jaffrey, New Hampshire
19th-century American clergy
18th-century American clergy
|
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207174
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulation
|
Triangulation
|
In trigonometry and geometry, triangulation is the process of determining the location of a point by forming triangles to the point from known points.
Applications
In surveying
Specifically in surveying, triangulation involves only angle measurements at known points, rather than measuring distances to the point directly as in trilateration; the use of both angles and distance measurements is referred to as triangulateration.
In computer vision
Computer stereo vision and optical 3D measuring systems use this principle to determine the spatial dimensions and the geometry of an item. Basically, the configuration consists of two sensors observing the item. One of the sensors is typically a digital camera device, and the other one can also be a camera or a light projector. The projection centers of the sensors and the considered point on the object's surface define a (spatial) triangle. Within this triangle, the distance between the sensors is the base b and must be known. By determining the angles between the projection rays of the sensors and the basis, the intersection point, and thus the 3D coordinate, is calculated from the triangular relations.
History
Triangulation today is used for many purposes, including surveying, navigation, metrology, astrometry, binocular vision, model rocketry and, in the military, the gun direction, the trajectory and distribution of fire power of weapons.
The use of triangles to estimate distances dates to antiquity. In the 6th century BC, about 250 years prior to the establishment of the Ptolemaic dynasty, the Greek philosopher Thales is recorded as using similar triangles to estimate the height of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. He measured the length of the pyramids' shadows and that of his own at the same moment, and compared the ratios to his height (intercept theorem). Thales also estimated the distances to ships at sea as seen from a clifftop by measuring the horizontal distance traversed by the line-of-sight for a known fall, and scaling up to the height of the whole cliff. Such techniques would have been familiar to the ancient Egyptians. Problem 57 of the Rhind papyrus, a thousand years earlier, defines the seqt or seked as the ratio of the run to the rise of a slope, i.e. the reciprocal of gradients as measured today. The slopes and angles were measured using a sighting rod that the Greeks called a dioptra, the forerunner of the Arabic alidade. A detailed contemporary collection of constructions for the determination of lengths from a distance using this instrument is known, the Dioptra of Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD), which survived in Arabic translation; but the knowledge became lost in Europe until in 1615 Snellius, after the work of Eratosthenes, reworked the technique for an attempt to measure the circumference of the earth. In China, Pei Xiu (224–271) identified "measuring right angles and acute angles" as the fifth of his six principles for accurate map-making, necessary to accurately establish distances, while Liu Hui (c. 263) gives a version of the calculation above, for measuring perpendicular distances to inaccessible places.
See also
Direction finding
GSM localization
Multilateration, where a point is calculated using the time-difference-of-arrival between other known points
Parallax
Resection (orientation)
Stereopsis
Tessellation, covering a polygon with triangles
Trig point
Wireless triangulation
References
Angle
Elementary geometry
Euclidean geometry
Geopositioning
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymnal
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Hymnal
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A hymnal or hymnary is a collection of hymns, usually in the form of a book, called a hymnbook (or hymn book). Hymnals are used in congregational singing. A hymnal may contain only hymn texts (normal for most hymnals for most centuries of Christian history); written melodies are extra, and more recently harmony parts have also been provided.
Hymnals are omnipresent in churches but they are not often discussed; nevertheless, liturgical scholar Massey H. Shepherd once observed: "in all periods of the Church’s history, the theology of the people has been chiefly molded by their hymns."
Elements and Format
Since the twentieth century, singer-songwriter hymns have become common, but in previous centuries, generally poets wrote the words, and musicians wrote the tunes; the texts are known and indexed by their first lines ("incipits") and the hymn tunes are given names, sometimes geographical (the tune "New Britain" for the incipit "Amazing Grace, how sweet the sound"). The hymnal editors curate the texts and the tunes, they may take a well-known tune and associate it with new poetry, or edit the previous text; hymnal committees are typically staffed by both poets and musicians. Some hymnals are produced by church bodies and others by commercial publishers.
In large denominations, the hymnal may be part of a coordinated publication project that involves several books: the pew hymnal proper, an accompaniment version (e.g. using a ring binder so that individual hymns can be removed and sit nicely on a music stand), a leader's guide (e.g. matching hymns to lectionary readings), and a hymnal companion, providing descriptions about the context, origin and character of each hymn, with a focus on the poets and composers.
Service music
In some hymnals, the front section is occupied by service music, such as doxologies, three-fold and seven-fold amens, or entire orders of worship (Gradual, Alleluia, etc.). A section of responsorial psalms may also be included.
Indexes
Hymnals usually contain one or more indexes; some of the specialized indexes may be printed in the companion volumes rather than the hymnal itself. A first line index is almost universal. There may also be indexes for the first line of every stanza, the first lines of choruses, tune names, and a metrical index (tunes by common meter, short meter, etc.). Indexes for composers, poets, arrangers, translators, and song sources may be separate or combined. Lists of copyright acknowledgements are essential. Few other books are so well indexed; at the same time, few other books are so well memorized. Singers often have the song number of their favorite hymns memorized, as well as the words of other hymns. In this sense, a hymnal is the intersection of advanced literate culture with the persistent survival or oral traditions into the present day.
History
Origins in Europe
The earliest hand-written hymnals are from the Middle Ages in the context of European Christianity, although individual hymns such as the Te Deum go back much further. The Reformation in the 16th century, together with the growing popularity of moveable type, quickly made hymnals a standard feature of Christian worship in all major denominations of Western and Central Europe. The first known printed hymnal was issued in 1501 in Prague by Czech Brethren (a small radical religious group of the Bohemian Reformation) but it contains only texts of sacred songs. The Ausbund, an Anabaptist hymnal published in 1564, is still used by the Hutterites, making it the oldest hymnal in continuous use. The first hymnal of the Lutheran Reformation was Achtliederbuch, followed by the Erfurt Enchiridion. An important hymnal of the 17th century was Praxis pietatis melica.
Hymnals in Early America
Market forces rather than denominational control have characterized the history of hymnals in the thirteen colonies and the antebellum United States; even today, denominations must yield to popular tastes and include "beloved hymns" such as Amazing Grace and Come Thou Fount of Every Blessing, in their hymnals, regardless of whether the song texts conform to sectarian teaching.
The first hymnal, and also the first book, printed in British North America, is the Bay Psalm Book, printed in 1640 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, a metrical Psalter that attempted to translate the psalms into English so close to the original Hebrew that it was unsingable. The market demand created by this failure, and the dismal nature of Calvinist "lining out the psalms" in general, was served by hymnals for West gallery singing imported from England.
William Billings of Boston took the first step beyond West Gallery music in publishing The New-England Psalm-Singer (1770), the first book in which tunes were entirely composed by an American. The tune-books of Billings and other Yankee tunesmiths were widely sold by itinerant singing-school teachers. The song texts were predominantly drawn from English metrical psalms, particularly those of Isaac Watts. All of the publications of these tunesmiths (also called "First New England School") were essentially hymnals.
In 1801, the tunebook market was greatly expanded by the invention of shape notes, which made it easier to learn how to read music. John Wyeth, a Unitarian printer in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, who had apprenticed in Boston during the emergence of the First New England School, began to publish tunebooks in 1810 in German and English for various sectarian groups (but not Unitarians). He saw a virgin market in the Methodist and Baptist revival movement. Singing in these camp meetings was chaotic because multiple tunes were sung simultaneously for any given hymn text. Since he lacked musical training, Wyeth employed Elkanah Kelsey Dare to collect tunes and edit them. Wyeth's Repository of Music, Part Second (1813) included 41 folk tunes, the first printed in America. This was also the birth of the "folk hymn": the use of a folk tune, collected and harmonized by a trained musician, printed with a hymn text. "Nettleton," the tune used in North America to sing "Come Thou Font" (words written in 1758), first appeared here.
Southern Shape Note Hymnals (Tunebooks)
Southerners identified with folk hymns of Wyeth's 1813 Part Second and collected more: the titles of Kentucky Harmony (1816) of Ananias Davisson, the Tennessee Harmony (1818) of Alexander Johnson, the Missouri Harmony (1820) of Allen D. Carden. and the Southern Harmony (1835) of William Walker drew attention to the fact that they contained regional folk songs for singing in two, three, or four parts. A new direction was taken by B. F. White with the publication of the Sacred Harp (1844): whereas others had gone on to produce a series of tunebooks, White stopped at one, then spent the rest of his life building an organization, modeled on church conventions, to organize singing events, with the result that the Sacred Harp continues as a living tradition to the present. The other tunebooks eventually yielded to denominational hymnals that became pervasive with the development of railroad networks, with the exception of the Southern Harmony, for which there is an annual singing in Benton, Kentucky to the present day, and Walker's Christian Harmony, published in 1866, with the first convention organized in 1875 (43 all-day singings in 2010); the Kentucky Harmony was republished in altered form as the Shenandoah Harmony in 2010, reviving the world of predominantly minor key melodies and unusual tonalities of Davisson's work.
The Better Music Movement in the Industrialized North
In the North, the "Better Music Boys," cultivated musicians such as Lowell Mason and Thomas Hastings who turned to Europe for musical inspiration, introduced musical education into the school system, and emphasized the use of organs, choirs, and "special music." In the long term this resulted in a decline of congregational singing. On the other hand, they also composed hymns that could be sung by everybody. Mason's The Handel and Haydn Society Collection of Church Music (1822) was published by the Handel and Haydn Society of Boston while Mason was still living in Savannah; nobody else would publish it. This never became a denominational hymnal but was well-received by choirs. Mason's famous hymns, which were also included in Southern tunebooks, appeared later editions or publications: Laban ("My soul, be on thy guard;" 1830), Hebron ("Thus far the Lord hath led me on," 1830), Boylston ("My God, my life, my love," 1832), Shawmut ("Oh that I could repent! 1835") Bethany ("Nearer, My God, to Thee", as sung in the United States) (1856).
Hymns Ancient and Modern appears in England
In England, the growing popularity of hymns inspired the publication of more than 100 hymnals during the period 1810–1850. The sheer number of these collections prevented any one of them from being successful. In 1861, members of the Oxford Movement published Hymns Ancient and Modern under the musical supervision of William Henry Monk, with 273 hymns. For the first time, translations from languages other than Hebrew appeared, the "Ancient" in the title referring to the appearance of Phos Hilaron, translated from Greek by John Keble, and many hymns translated from Latin. This was a game-changer. The Hymns Ancient and Modern experienced immediate and overwhelming success. Total sales in 150 years were over 170 million copies. As such, it set the standard for many later hymnals on both sides of the Atlantic. English-speaking Lutherans in America began singing the metrical translations of German chorales by Catherine Winkworth and Jane Laurie Borthwick, and rediscovered their heritage. Although closely associated with the Church of England, Hymns Ancient and Modern was a private venture by a committee, called the Proprietors, chaired by Sir Henry Baker.
See also
List of Chinese hymn books
List of English-language hymnals by denomination
Hymnody of continental Europe
References
External links
"SDA Hymnal online"
— Extensive database of hymns and hymnology resources; incorporates the Dictionary of North American Hymnology, a comprehensive database of North American hymnals published before 1978.
"SDA Hymnal Songs"
Hymnology
Christian terminology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai%20Kibalchich
|
Nikolai Kibalchich
|
Nikolai Ivanovich Kibalchich (, ,, Mykola Ivanovych Kybalchych; 19 October 1853 – April 3, 1881) was a Russian revolutionary of Ukrainian-Serbian origin who took part in the assassination of Tsar Alexander II as the main explosive expert for Narodnaya Volya (the People's Will), and was also a rocket pioneer. He was a distant cousin of revolutionary Victor Serge.
Early life
Born in Korop, Krolevetsky Uyezd, Chernigov Governorate (present-day Ukraine) in 1853 into a clerical family, Kibalchich was the son of an Orthodox parish priest. He entered a gymnasium in 1864 but was later admitted to a seminary. But he returned to secondary school and finishing it with a silver medal several years later.
In 1871 he entered St Petersburg Institute of Railway Engineers and in 1873 he entered Saint Petersburg Emperor Military Medical Academy to study medicine and worked on experiments into pulsed rocket propulsion.
Biography
In October 1875, Kibalchich was arrested for lending a prohibited book to a peasant. He spent 3 years in prison before being sentenced to 2 months imprisonment.
He went on to join Narodnaya Volya in 1878, becoming their main explosives expert. In March 1881, he was charged with taking part in the assassination of Alexander II.
All through the night from February 28 to March 1, Mykolaj and his assistants - the Fleet Lieutenant Sukhnanov and Mikhail Grachvesky – worked without rest preparing the missile shells. The Peoples Will members had to be quick. Andrei Zhelyabov, who was to direct the missile throwers in an attempt on the life of the Emperor Alexander II, had been arrested on 27 February. If the Tsar survived the explosion, Zhelyabov was to kill him with a dagger. Zhelyabov's arrest on the eve of the assassination attempt came as a complete surprise, although alarming rumors had appeared in February that the police were up to something. The plan was in jeopardy. There was no one to warn the Narodnaya-Volya people. Nikolai Kletochnikov, assistant to the file clerk of the Third (Security) Department, bearer of a Saint Stanislav Order, who had often warned the Narodniks about the gathering dangers, had been arrested at the end of January.
By the morning of March 1 four projectiles were ready. One of them killed Alexander II on March 1, 1881, on the embankment of the Yekaterininsky Canal in Saint Petersburg. Kibalchich was arrested on March 17.
"When his men came to see Kibalchich as his appointed counsel for the defense," said V.N Gerard in his statement to the special committee of the senate, "I was surprised above all by the fact that his mind was occupied with completely different things with no bearing on the present trial. He seems to be immersed in research on some aeronautic missile; he thirsted for a possibility to write down his mathematical calculations involved in the discovery. He wrote them down and submitted them to the authorities."
In a note written in his prison cell, Kibalchich proposed a manned jet air-navigating apparatus. He examined the design of powder rocket engine, controlling the flight by changing engines angle, the pro note is dated March 23. He produced this scientific work truly at death's door.
On March 26, General Komarov, Chief of the Gendarmery Department, informed the Police Department: "Pursuant to the request from Nikolai Kibalchich, the son of the priest, who is accused of high treason, I have the honor to present hereby his design of an aeronautic device."
The brief written in the report said: "To be filed with the March 1 dossier and to give this to
scientists for consideration now would hardly be expedient since this can only give rise to a lot of wanton talk. Kibalchich’s design was put in an envelope, sealed and filed. The inventor was told that his design would be handed over to scientists for examination.
Kibalchich awaited for their answer. The month of March was at an end, with two days left before execution. On March 31 Kibalchich wrote this solicitation address to the Minister of Interior: “By instruction of your Excellency my design of an aeronautic apparatus has been submitted for the consideration of technical committee; could your Excellency direct that I be allowed to meet with any of the committee members on the matter of this design not later than tomorrow morning or at least to receive a written answer from the experts who have examined my design, also no longer than tomorrow.
I also ask your Excellency for permission for me, before I die, to meet with all my comrades
in the trial or at least with Zhelyabov and Perovskaya." All the requests were ignored.
Execution and legacy
At 7:50 am on the sunny spring morning of April 3 two “chariots of shame” with the
condemned prisoners rode out of the house of the detention to Shpalernaya Street. Zhelyabov was
in the first, and by his side was Rysakov, who had tossed the first bomb at the coach of
Alexander II and then betrayed his comrades during the interrogation. Kibalchich, Perovskaya and Mikhailov were in the second. The hands and feet of the condemned were tied to the seats. Each had on his chest a black plaque with the white colored inscription: “A regicide”.
At 9:21 am the executioner removed the foot stool from under the feet of Kibalchich. Mikhailov, Perovskaya, Zhelyabov and Rysakov were executed after him.
Thus, Kybalchych and other Narodnaya Volya plotters including Sophia Perovskaya, Andrei Zhelyabov, Nikolai Rysakov and Timofei Mikhailov were hanged on April 3, 1881.
The fate of the invention, mentioned in Kybalchych's last letter, proved to be as tragic as that of its 27-year-old creator. Kibalchich's
design was buried in the archives of Police Department, but the tsar authorities failed to consign
the name of the inventor and his idea to oblivion. The trial and execution of the Narodniks had wide
repercussions around the world. Much was said and written about Kibalchich's design abroad and all
kinds of conjectures were made about the essence of the invention and its subsequent fate. In 1917, Nikolai Rynin rediscovered the manuscript in the archives and published an account of it 1918 in the historic magazine Byloye (Былое, The Past).
In 1891, similar ideas were developed independently by the German engineer Hermann Ganswindt. After WWII, Stanislaw Ulam proposed a nuclear pulse propulsion scheme which was studied in Project ORION.
The International Astronomical Union honoured the rocketry pioneer by naming a crater on the moon Kibalchich's crater(Kibal'chich). Located at 3.0° N 146.5° W, the Moon's far side.
Final letter
The Dream of a propulsive device by a Scientist that was stolen by death
"I, Nikolai Kibalchich, am writing down this design in prison with several days to go before my
execution. I believed in the practicability of my idea and this belief sustains me in my appalling situation by scientists and specialists who show my idea to be practicable, I will feel happy in the knowledge that I have rendered an immense service to my country and mankind. I will then calmly meet death, knowing that my idea will not die with me but will remain with mankind for which I prepared to sacrifice my life. That is why I pray to those scientists who will examine my design that they treat it with the utmost seriousness and good faith and let me know their answer as soon as possible.
First and foremost I need it necessary to note that, when at large, I did not have time to
elaborate my design in details and prove its feasibility mathematically. Now it is, of course
impossible for me to obtain the materials necessary for that. Consequently, this task that of
substantiating my design with mathematical calculation will have to be done by those experts
into whose hands my design will find its way.
Besides, I am not familiar with the mass of similar design which have, appeared lately; that is
to say I am aware of the idea behind those designs but I am not familiar with the way whereby the inventors hope to carry them out. As far as I know, however my idea has not yet been proposed by anyone else.
In my thought about an aeronautic machine I have concentrated mainly on this question: what force has to be applied in order to set such machine in motion? In my opinion it is slowly burning explosive substances that can provide such a force.
In fact, the combustion of explosive substance results with a comparative rapidity in large
quantity of gases possessing a huge energy at the instance of their formation. But can one use
the energy of gases, formed by explosive ignition, to perform work of any duration? This is
possible only if the huge energy of explosive combustion, rather than last instantaneously,
will be generated during a more or less prolonged period of time."
Legacy
In the April 1918 issue of the Byloye magazine, Nikolai Rynin
published Kibalchich's description of a manned, rocket-propelled ship, from his final letter. The letter had been filed in police archives until Rynin fished it out, after hearing rumors of the design.
References
External links
Croft, Lee B. Nikolai Ivanovich Kibalchich: Terrorist Rocket Pioneer. IIHS. 2006. .
Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy and Spaceflight
Nikolai Rynin Interplanetary Flight and Communication Vol.2 No.4 pp36. Washington, D.C.: NASA and NSF, 1971
Суд над цареубийцами. Дело 1-го марта 1881 года. Под редакцией В.В.Разбегаева. Изд. им. Н.И.Новикова. С-Пб том 1 и 2. 2014.,
1853 births
1881 deaths
People from Korop
People from Krolevetsky Uyezd
Narodniks
Narodnaya Volya
Russian scientists
Russian inventors
Early rocketry
Early spaceflight scientists
Executed Russian people
Executed revolutionaries
People executed by the Russian Empire by hanging
Russian people of Serbian descent
|
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207188
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial%20search
|
Combinatorial search
|
In computer science and artificial intelligence, combinatorial search studies search algorithms for solving instances of problems that are believed to be hard in general, by efficiently exploring the usually large solution space of these instances. Combinatorial search algorithms achieve this efficiency by reducing the effective size of the search space or employing heuristics. Some algorithms are guaranteed to find the optimal solution, while others may only return the best solution found in the part of the state space that was explored.
Classic combinatorial search problems include solving the eight queens puzzle or evaluating moves in games with a large game tree, such as reversi or chess.
A study of computational complexity theory helps to motivate combinatorial search. Combinatorial search algorithms are typically concerned with problems that are NP-hard. Such problems are not believed to be efficiently solvable in general. However, the various approximations of complexity theory suggest that some instances (e.g. "small" instances) of these problems could be efficiently solved. This is indeed the case, and such instances often have important practical ramifications.
Examples
Common algorithms for solving combinatorial search problems include:
A* search algorithm
Alpha-beta pruning
Branch-and-bound
Minimax
Lookahead
Lookahead is an important component of combinatorial search, which specifies, roughly, how deeply the graph representing the problem is explored. The need for a specific limit on lookahead comes from the large problem graphs in many applications, such as computer chess and computer Go. A naive breadth-first search of these graphs would quickly consume all the memory of any modern computer. By setting a specific lookahead limit, the algorithm's time can be carefully controlled; its time increases exponentially as the lookahead limit increases.
More sophisticated search techniques such as alpha-beta pruning are able to eliminate entire subtrees of the search tree from consideration. When these techniques are used, lookahead is not a precisely defined quantity, but instead either the maximum depth searched or some type of average.
See also
Brute-force search
Combinatorial explosion
Combinatorial optimization
Search algorithm
State space search
References
Russell and Norvig. Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach.
Analysis of algorithms
Combinatorial optimization
Computational complexity theory
Game artificial intelligence
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pince-nez
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Pince-nez
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Pince-nez ( or , plural form same as singular; ) is a style of glasses, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, that are supported without earpieces, by pinching the bridge of the nose. The name comes from French pincer, "to pinch", and nez, "nose".
Although pince-nez were used in Europe since the late 14th century, modern ones appeared in the 1840s and reached their peak popularity around 1880 to 1900. Because they did not always stay on the nose when placed, and because of the stigma sometimes attached to the constant wearing of eyeglasses, pince-nez were often connected to the wearer's clothing or ear via a suspension chain, cord, or ribbon so that they could be easily removed and not lost.
Varieties
Rivet spectacles
The earliest form of eyewear for which any archaeological record exists comes from the middle of the 15th century. It is a primitive pince-nez whose frames were made from pieces of either metacarpal bone from the forelimb of a bull or from large pieces of antler. The two pieces were each paddle-shaped and were joined by an iron rivet which provided the tension over the nose and allowed the lenses to be folded together. The purpose of the three holes at the place where the handle connects to the hinge is uncertain, though they may have been used for pinhole vision, a principle which was known from ancient times. Each paddle was split at one end to allow for the insertion of a lens, and the split was closed by a piece of copper wire. The frames were extremely light, but the tension in the rivet would have loosened over time making them unable to stay on the nose. Paintings depicting such frames date from as early as 1392 CE.
Subsequent frames were made from cattle horn or from wood, but were consistently designed with a connecting rivet for tension.
C-bridge
These pince-nez possess a C-shaped bridge composed of a curved, flexible piece of metal which provided tension to clip the lenses on the wearer's nose. They were in wide use from the 1820s to the 1940s and were available in a variety of styles – ranging from the early nose-padless type of the 19th century to the gutta-percha variety of the American Civil War era and then on to the plaquette variety of the 20th century. The bridges were subject to constant wear from repeated flexing when being set and removed from the face, so would frequently break or lose their tension. An advantage of this variety was that one size could fit a variety of nose bridges but its inability to manage astigmatism or maintain a fixed pupillary distance meant that it was fundamentally flawed for a large proportion of wearers.
Astig
The "astig"—so called for its ability to manage astigmatism—or "bar-spring" pince-nez consists of a sliding bar and spring connecting the lenses which can be separated by gently pulling the lenses away from each other, then placed on the bridge of the nose and released. The tension in the spring then clips the device in place. The nose pads were traditionally made of cork, were attached directly to the frames, and were either hinged or stationary. This variety was popular from the 1890s to the 1930s, after which they were seldom seen. They were created and marketed as 'sporting pince-nez', which were purportedly more difficult to jar from the face than the other varieties as well as being more comfortable to wear for longer periods. The principal advantage was that unlike the C-bridge pince-nez, whose lenses rotated slightly as they were placed on the nose, the astig's lenses did not rotate and therefore could correct for astigmatism in ways that were impossible with most other varieties of pince-nez—however, they still did not account for pupillary distance.
Fits-U
In 1893 a Frenchman named Jules Cottet developed and patented a finger-piece eyeglass which functioned by connecting the two lenses by a hard, unflexing bridge and clipping onto the bridge of the nose via springs located in the nose-rests. The wearer could pinch onto a pair of levers located above or in front of the bridge to open the planquettes, and release the levers to allow them to close onto the nose of the wearer. Because the lenses did not rotate, these devices could correct for astigmatism, and because they did not move in relation to each other, they could also account for the user's pupillary distance. Cottet registered his patent in France, England, and the United States but did not pursue production and eventually sold the patent to a London-based eyewear manufacturer who in turn sold it to an American firm. The design remained unused for years until it was acquired by American Optical who successfully marketed it under the brand name "Fits-U". In this guise, it quickly replaced most other nose-pinching varieties of eyewear.
Oxford spectacles
The difference between Oxford spectacles (or "Oxfords" for short) and the pince-nez is not frequently drawn. The style was supposedly developed in the 19th century when a professor at Oxford University accidentally broke off the handle from a pair of lorgnette spectacles and reputedly affixed two small nose-pads to the frame and found that he could use the tension in the folding spring to perch them on his nose, though the authenticity of the story has never been verified. Oxfords are descended from the lorgnette, as early examples of them often had handles in addition to nose-pads. In style Oxfords are much like the C-bridge as the tension is provided by a flexible, sprung piece of metal; however, they also resemble the astig, as the spring connecting the two lenses is distinct from the nose-pieces. Oxfords were popular in Europe and the Americas up until the 1930s.
In popular culture
Pince-nez is central to the murder mystery in the Sherlock Holmes story The Adventure of the Golden Pince-Nez. Another murder mystery, Whose Body? by Dorothy L. Sayers, features a victim found dead in a bathtub wearing nothing but a pair of pince-nez.
Numerous fictional characters have been depicted as wearing pince-nez. These include Hercule Poirot in the television series Agatha Christie's Poirot, who wears a pince-nez that is attached to a cord around his neck; Morpheus in the Matrix film trilogy, who wears reflective-lensed pince-nez sunglasses when he appears in The Matrix; Don Knotts title-character in The Incredible Mr. Limpet, who wears them both as a man and a fish; The Walt Disney cartoon character Scrooge McDuck; Professor Frost in the C. S. Lewis novel That Hideous Strength, who is identified multiple times by his wearing a pair of pince-nez; Koroviev/Fagott, a member of Satan's entourage in Mikhail Bulgakov's The Master and Margarita; Roger Swindon in Under Wildwood, the second novel in Colin Meloy's "Wildwood" trilogy; and Dr.Eggman/Robotnik from Sonic the Hedgehog.
Throughout Arthur Koestler's Darkness at Noon reference is made to the fact that the main character, Rubashov, wears pince-nez and uses them to tap on the pipes in his cell to communicate with fellow prisoners. In Darkness at Noon the pince-nez signifies Rubashov’s belonging to the intelligentsia where a fellow prisoners monocle represents their belonging to the aristocracy.
Gomez Addams (The Addams Family) frequently pulled a pair of pince-nez glasses from his inside left jacket pocket including a reference to the spectacles by Doctor Motley in Season 2, Episode 17, "Fester Goes on a Diet." Popular too on Irish poet William Butler Yeats.
The notorious Spanish poet Francisco de Quevedo was depicted wearing this kind of glasses in his most iconic paintings, like the one by Juan van der Hamen. This image became so peculiar, the style gets called quevedos in Spanish.
See also
Monocle
References
Notes
External links
1840s fashion
19th-century fashion
Corrective lenses
Eyewear
|
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207193
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Bloom
|
David Bloom
|
David Jerome Bloom (May 22, 1963 – April 6, 2003) was an American television journalist (co-anchor of Weekend Today and reporter) until his sudden death in 2003 after a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) became a pulmonary embolism.
Early and personal life
David Bloom was born in Edina, Minnesota, the son of Laura Jean (née Carmichael) and Harold James Bloom. He was an avid ice hockey player and state champion in high school debating in the National Forensic League. Bloom attended Pitzer College in Claremont, California, from 1981 to 1983, where he majored in political science.
In 1985, Bloom was ranked top in the nation for intercollegiate policy debate. He and his partner, Greg Mastel, were ranked the top debate team in the nation before entering the National Debate Tournament of 1985. They lost in quarter finals to Loyola Marymount.
Bloom was survived by his wife, Melanie, and three daughters: Nicole, Christine, and Ava. The Blooms were residents of Pound Ridge, New York at the time of his death. After his death, his widow began working with the Coalition to Prevent DVT and remarried to Daniel McNulty in 2008.
Professional career
He began his television career at WKBT-TV in La Crosse, Wisconsin, covering local government stories. Bloom worked as a general assignment reporter at KWCH-TV in Wichita, Kansas from 1988-89.
In 1989, Bloom joined NBC's WTVJ in Miami. He covered Hurricane Andrew and while reporting the aftermath he chased off would-be looters. In 1991, he won a regional Emmy for investigative journalism for his report on South Florida's role in the shipment of arms to Iraq. He received the Peabody Award and was awarded the Edward R. Murrow Award by the Radio and Television News Directors Association for his hurricane coverage.
In 1993, Bloom joined NBC News as correspondent in Chicago, Illinois, and moved to Los Angeles, California in 1995. Bloom covered the presidential campaigns of 1996 and 2000 for the network and in 1997 became NBC's White House correspondent. Former President Clinton said that Bloom's "integrity and good humor will be missed."
During his tenure with NBC, Bloom reported on major stories including presidential races, the September 11 attacks, the Washington-area sniper shootings, and the war in Bosnia. According to the late Tim Russert, former NBC Washington bureau chief, "You couldn't keep him away from a story. Whenever something was breaking, he wanted to be there." In March 2000, Bloom became co-anchor of Weekend Today along with Soledad O'Brien, a position he served until his death.
Iraq reporting and death
On April 6, 2003, Bloom was traveling with the U.S. Third Infantry Division in Iraq while covering the Iraq War in a vehicle pegged after his name, the "Bloom Mobile." It was a Ford F250 4 wheel drive Flatbed truck with a SeaTel stabilized marine dish retrofitted by Miramar, Florida-based company Maritime Telecommunications Network, with live television and satellite transmission equipment so he could continuously broadcast reports as troops made their way toward Baghdad.
Reporting live, round-the-clock, as the American armored column fought north across the desert toward Baghdad, Bloom commented offhandedly on the cramped conditions, excessive heat and lack of sleep that came with the mission.
He had been on assignment in Iraq for several weeks when a blood clot in his leg (known as deep vein thrombosis or DVT) traveled to an artery in his lungs, causing a fatal pulmonary embolism. "The clot in Bloom's leg was likely brought on by spending long days and nights cramped inside armored vehicles. One night he called Melanie from a satellite phone in the middle of the night, exposing himself to hostile fire just to get a few minutes outside of an armored tank because his legs had been cramping up."
The David Bloom Award
In 2006 The National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters established an award to honor excellence in enterprise reporting. ABC World News Tonight co-anchor Bob Woodruff received the award in its first year.
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20050307021431/http://www.cnn.com/2003/US/04/06/sprj.irq.journalist.death/
NBC News
David Bloom's DVT Story: An Interview with David Bloom's Widow, Melanie Bloom - ClotCare.com
1963 births
2003 deaths
American television reporters and correspondents
People from Edina, Minnesota
Television anchors from Miami
Deaths from pulmonary embolism
NBC News people
Pitzer College alumni
Deaths from thrombosis
People from Pound Ridge, New York
Disease-related deaths in Iraq
|
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207198
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Trek%3A%20Armada%20II
|
Star Trek: Armada II
|
Star Trek: Armada II is a real-time strategy video game published by Activision in 2001, based upon the Star Trek universe. The game was developed by Mad Doc Software. It is the sequel to Star Trek: Armada. Star Trek: Armada II was released by Activision a year after they acquired the full rights to all the franchise holding of the video game's franchise from Viacom. It was the first of the three major Star Trek video game sequel titles that were released by Activision from 2001 until their departure from the franchise in 2003. On December 13, 2021, both Armada and Armada II were re-released on GoG.com, which had also released several other older Star Trek titles earlier that year.
Like its predecessor, Armada II is set in the Star Trek: The Next Generation era of the Star Trek universe. The game showcases events in the Alpha Quadrant between the United Federation of Planets, the Klingon Empire, the Romulan Star Empire, the Cardassian Union, Species 8472, and the Borg.
Plot
Set just six months after the events of Star Trek: Armada, the Borg once again threaten the Alpha Quadrant. They have created a new ship capable of assimilating entire worlds in just a few seconds. After routing the attempted foothold, Captain Picard discovers a new type of nebula: a tachyon nebula. Intrigued, Picard discovers a new type of transwarp gate called a Transwarp Portal, capable of sending fleets of starships from one quadrant to another almost instantly, explaining how the Borg managed to get so deep into the Alpha Quadrant undetected. Starfleet Command then orders Picard to seize control of it and launch a counteroffensive into the heart of Borg space in the Delta Quadrant, into the Borg staging grounds. Though successful, some of the Federation forces, Picard included, are left stranded when the Transwarp Portal collapses due to a destabilization of the inter-spatial transwarp manifolds.
Meanwhile, the Cardassians use the sudden absence of Federation forces to begin their own offensive. The Cardassians proceed to destroy the Federation's reserve fleet. Klingon Chancellor Martok discovers that Gul Kentar, leader of the Cardassian uprising, is in league with the Romulans. Kentar is developing a "Quantum Singularity Ship" that allows the Cardassians to summon Species 8472 ships at will. Martok leads an attempt to thwart Kentar's grab for power and destroy the project. The Klingons stop the Cardassian rebellion and occupy their homeworld, Cardassia Prime. In the final battle, Martok tracks down and kills Gul Kentar, taking out the Quantum Singularity Project along the way.
The Borg Queen, stranded in the Alpha Quadrant by the same twist of fate that trapped Picard on her side of the galaxy, discovers that Species 8472 has found a way into the Alpha Quadrant. She attempts to mass an armada to suppress this threat by assimilating native species planets, ships and technologies, but its growth is stunted by the constant attacks from the Federation. She then realizes that only by working with the Federation they can defeat Species 8472. The Federation and the Borg Collective create an alliance and venture into Species 8472's fluidic space to destroy their staging grounds by destroying the Rift Maker, thus ending the threat to the Alpha Quadrant by closing all the rifts.
Reception
The game received more "mixed" reviews than the original Star Trek: Armada, according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.
References
External links
Star Trek: Armada II official website (backup)
2001 video games
Activision games
Armada II
Video games developed in the United States
Video game sequels
Windows games
Windows-only games
Star Trek video games using TV cast members
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillsdale%20College
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Hillsdale College
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Hillsdale College is a private conservative liberal arts college in Hillsdale, Michigan. Founded in 1844 by abolitionists known as Free Will Baptists, it has a liberal arts curriculum that is based on the Western heritage as a product of both the Greco-Roman culture and the Judeo-Christian tradition. Hillsdale requires every student, regardless of concentration of studies, to complete a core curriculum that includes courses on the Great Books, the U.S. Constitution, biology, chemistry, and physics.
Since the late 20th century, in order to opt out of federal affirmative action policies, Hillsdale has been among a small number of U.S. colleges to decline governmental financial support, instead depending entirely on private funding to supplement students' tuition.
History
Founding
In August 1844, members of the local community of Free Will Baptists resolved to organize their denomination's first collegiate institution. After gathering donations, they established Michigan Central College in Spring Arbor, Michigan, on December 4, 1844. That site is now home to Spring Arbor University. Although religiously affiliated, the college was officially nonsectarian.
Under its first president, Daniel McBride Graham, who held the office from 1844 to 1848, Michigan Central College opened within a two-room store and admitted five students. In March 1845, the government of Michigan incorporated the college, and the college enrolled 25 undergraduates by the end of its first year.
Edmund Burke Fairfield assumed the presidency of Michigan Central College in 1848. On March 20, 1850, the Michigan legislature granted the college a special charter, giving it the right to confer degrees. Black students were admitted immediately after the college's founding, and the college became the second school in the nation to grant four-year liberal arts degrees to women.
Outgrowing its space, in 1853 the school moved to Hillsdale, Michigan, in part to have access to the railroad that served the city. It received considerable financial support from local citizens, who wanted to develop the 20-year-old town. The cornerstone of the new building, Central Hall, was laid on July 4, 1853. After Michigan Central College completed construction and moved, it reopened as Hillsdale College on November 7, 1855.
Fairfield led Hillsdale from 1848 to 1869. During his presidency, he helped found the Republican Party with Ransom Dunn in neighboring Jackson, Michigan. A prominent leader, Fairfield attended the first Republican Party convention in 1858, and was elected lieutenant governor of Michigan. Hillsdale's early anti-slavery reputation and pivotal role in founding the Republican Party led to the invitation of several notable speakers on the campus, including Frederick Douglass (who visited the school on two separate occasions) and Edward Everett, the orator preceding Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg. On August 8, 1860, Hillsdale conferred its first degrees. On March 20, 1863, the Michigan legislature formally legalized Hillsdale's change of name and location.
Hillsdale no longer has any denominational affiliation but, according to its website, "the moral tenets of Christianity as commonly understood in the Christian tradition have been essential to the mission of the College". Founded by abolitionists, it has always been open to black and female students.
19th century
In 1861, many Hillsdale students joined the ranks of the Union Army during the American Civil War; a higher percentage of Hillsdale students enlisted than from any other Michigan college. Hillsdale continued to operate during the war, but had limited enrollment because so many young men went to war. Half of Hillsdale's students who enlisted became officers, as was typical for men with some college education; five became lieutenant colonels, four received the Medal of Honor, and three became generals. Sixty students died in the war.
Hillsdale survived while nearly 80% of the colleges founded before the Civil War were forced to close. After the war, it regained its normal enrollment; many veterans returned and completed their education. Hillsdale continued to host notable speakers, including the physician and educator Sophia Jex-Blake in October 1865. Hillsdale's Delta Tau Delta chapter, its first fraternity, was chartered on October 19, 1867.
In 1869, James Calder succeeded Fairfield as president. Calder served through 1871. During his administration, the commercial school opened, a theological department was established, and the college enrolled around 750 students. He resigned to become president of Pennsylvania State University.
Hillsdale's first president, Daniel McBride Graham, returned for a brief second term in 1871, notably rebuilding the campus after the catastrophic "Great Fire" of March 6, 1874. DeWitt Clinton Durgin, a Union College alumnus, was president from 1874 to 1884. In 1878, the Hillsdale Herald was published, becoming the second oldest college newspaper in Michigan, behind Kalamazoo College's The Index. This paper later merged with another college paper to become The Collegian. During Durgin's presidency, Hillsdale's Kappa Kappa Gamma and Sigma Chi chapters were chartered.
After Ransom Dunn's brief turn as acting president, George F. Mosher served as president of Hillsdale from 1886 to 1901. During this time, the college grew in size and prestige. In 1884, Spencer O. Fisher became the first Hillsdale alumnus elected to Congress. Pi Beta Phi and Alpha Tau Omega were chartered. In 1891, the Chicago Herald reported, "Hillsdale has a college second in standing to no denominational college in the country." Four years later, when the University of Chicago offered to affiliate with Hillsdale, the college rejected the proposal.
20th century
In 1900, Hillsdale ceased grazing livestock and removed the agrarian fence circling the campus. It began an era of institutional growth and professionalization. In 1902, Joseph William Mauck became the college's sixth president, the first Hillsdale graduate to return as president of his alma mater. Beloved by the college community and an early and outspoken advocate for women's suffrage, Mauck served for two decades. One of the women's dormitories is named after Mauck.
Hillsdale adopted its first honor code and held its first homecoming celebration. In 1907, the college amended its Articles of Association, no longer requiring the president and trustees to be Free Will Baptists. This led to a decline in the theological department's prestige but an increase in the number of Christian denominations represented on campus. In 1915, the college's chapter of the Delta Sigma Phi fraternity was chartered. When World War I broke out, a large proportion of (mostly male) students entered military service. By 1918 most of the upperclassmen had enlisted.
Four years after the war, William Gear Spencer succeeded Mauck as president. He served from 1922 to 1932, when he departed to lead Franklin College. Under Spencer's leadership, the college prospered. During this time, Hillsdale acquired its 14-acre Slayton Arboretum, built new dormitories, constructed a new field house for its developing athletic programs, and, in 1924, chartered its chapter of Chi Omega.
During the Great Depression, Willfred Otto Mauck, Joseph Mauck's son and also an alumnus, was selected as the eighth president, serving from 1933 to 1942. Throughout this era, the college struggled financially, was forced to cancel its new construction projects, and cut the pay of its faculty and staff by nearly 20%. Succeeding Mauck, Harvey L. Turner became Hillsdale's ninth president, serving from 1942 to 1952. Despite its financial difficulties, the college built a new library, had an undefeated and untied football team in 1938, and celebrated its centennial in 1944, when more than 1,000 alumni returned to campus for the commencement ceremony.
J. Donald Phillips next assumed the presidency, holding the position from 1952 to 1971. During his administration, Philips solved many of Hillsdale's financial worries and constructed many new campus buildings. In these years, Hillsdale began to resist federal regulations, particularly concerning affirmative action, which followed national civil rights legislation. In 1962, the college's trustees adopted its own "Declaration of Independence". It affirmed Hillsdale's stance against governmental control. The college promoted the traditional education of the liberal arts and classics. In the late 20th century, it decided to forego any federal grants or subsidies, "to reaffirm its historic independence and to resist subsidization of its affairs by the federal government."
George Roche III became the 11th president of Hillsdale College in 1971. During the Roche years, Hillsdale became nationally known, in part because of its withdrawal from federal and state-assisted loan programs and grants. The U.S. Departments of Health, Education, and Welfare required the college to account for students by race as part of its affirmative action student loan program in the 1970s, but the administration publicly refused. Hillsdale's trustees said it would follow its own non-discrimination policy and that it would, "with the help of God, resist, by all legal means, any encroachments on its independence." In 1984, after a decade of litigation, the college withdrew from all federal student loans, replacing government assistance with private contributions.
Roche was highly successful in fundraising until he resigned due to allegations of a personal sexual scandal. During his presidency, the college dramatically increased its endowment, established the Center for Constructive Alternatives, and hosted prominent national speakers, including Ronald Reagan. It also began publishing Imprimis, a monthly speech digest. Russell Kirk taught at Hillsdale one semester a year throughout this time, beginning in 1973.
Roche resigned in late 1999, following his daughter-in-law Lissa Jackson Roche's suicide and her allegations of personal scandal. On October 17, 1999, she said that she had engaged in a 19-year on-and-off sexual affair with him. She fatally shot herself at the Slayton Arboretum on campus with a .38-caliber handgun from her husband's gun cabinet. Married to Roche's son, known as Roche IV, Jackson Roche was employed by Hillsdale as the Managing Editor of Imprimis and Hillsdale College Press. President Roche denied the affair. The college's reputation suffered and donations declined markedly.
21st century
Larry P. Arnn has served as president of the college since 2000. Under his tenure, the college completed various new buildings, including the John A. Halter Shooting Sports Center and Margot V. Biermann Athletic Center. The college also opened the Allan P. Kirby, Jr. Center for Constitutional Studies and Citizenship, an off-campus educational center in Washington, D.C.
In 2013, Arnn was criticized for remarks about ethnic minorities he made while testifying before the Michigan legislature against the Common Core curriculum standards. Expressing concern about government interference with educational institutions, he noted having received a letter from the state Department of Education early in his presidency that said his college "violated the standards for diversity." He added, "because we didn't have enough dark ones, I guess, is what they meant." After being criticized for calling minorities "dark ones," Arnn explained that he was referring to "dark faces". He stated: "The State of Michigan sent a group of people down to my campus, with clipboards ... to look at the colors of people's faces and write down what they saw. We don't keep records of that information. What were they looking for besides dark ones?"
Michigan House Democratic Leader Tim Greimel condemned Arnn's comments, calling them "offensive", "inflammatory and bigoted", and asked for an apology. In response, the college issued a statement apologizing for Arnn's remark, while reiterating his concern about "state-endorsed racism", as Arnn called affirmative action.
Academics
Hillsdale enrolls approximately 350 new students each year, with a current enrollment of around 1,450 students from 47 states, the District of Columbia, and eight foreign countries. The college employs 124 full-time faculty members. Hillsdale was ranked joint 76th-80th in the 2019 U.S. News & World Report listing of best National Liberal Arts Colleges. The Princeton Reviews The Best 384 Colleges 2019 ranked Hillsdale as third for "most conservative students" and ninth for "professors get high marks". Hillsdale was ranked 203rd overall, including 35th in the Midwest and 141st in private colleges, in the 2018 Forbes report of America's Top Colleges.
Undergraduate offerings include a variety of liberal arts majors, pre-professional programs, a teacher education program, and a journalism certificate program.
A graduate program called the "Graduate School of Statesmanship" was inaugurated in 2012. Its focus is political philosophy and American politics; it awards MA and PhD degrees in Politics.
Campus
Hillsdale's campus contains multiple instructional and office buildings, 13 residence halls, seven fraternity and sorority houses, an athletic complex, music hall, arts center, conference center, hotel, and preschool. Hillsdale College also operates Hillsdale Academy, a private K–12 liberal arts school.
Hillsdale College was chosen to receive the personal library of Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises, following the wishes contained in von Mises's will; the collection of works is housed in the Ludwig von Mises room of the college's Mossey Library. Mossey Library also contains collections of the works of Russell Kirk and Richard Weaver, and is home to the college's Richardson Heritage room. Built in 1994, the Heritage room holds many first-edition books and rare volumes, as well as sculptures, paintings, and historical artifacts.
The college's Slayton Arboretum was officially created in 1922 when George A. Slayton and his wife donated to the college. The arboretum was envisioned as an outdoor laboratory and field station for students and a biological garden for the community. Initial planting was with donated plants and the labor of Hillsdale students and volunteers. In 1939, Slayton Arboretum was listed as one of Michigan's Points of Interest, and up to 700 people a day visited the site.
The campus features the Liberty Walk, a walkway lined with bronze depictions of famous statesmen. These include George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Abraham Lincoln, Frederick Douglass, Winston Churchill, Margaret Thatcher, and Ronald Reagan. Reagan's statue was dedicated on October 7, 2011, the centennial year of his birth. Reagan spoke at the college in 1977, stating, "Hillsdale deserves the appreciation of all who labor for freedom." On May 12, 2017, the college dedicated the Douglass statue, positioned directly opposite Lincoln's. Douglass was a guest at the college in 1863 (during the Civil War), where he gave an address titled "Popular Error and Unpopular Truth." Madison's statue was dedicated on September 22, 2020.
Policies
Hillsdale's charter prohibits any discrimination based on race, religion, or sex, and the college has been credited as the first American college to prohibit this type of discrimination in a charter. Notably, Hillsdale's football team refused to play in the 1956 Tangerine Bowl in Florida when the governing committee of the bowl would not allow the team's black players to join the white players on the field; the committee then selected Juniata College instead.
In the early 1980s, a controversy threatened federal student loans to 200 Hillsdale students. Title IX prohibits sex-based discrimination in any school or other education program that receives federal money. The federal government required colleges where students received federal funding to submit "Assurance of Compliance" forms mandated under Title IX, but Hillsdale refused, arguing that the government could not deny federal funds to its students where the college received no federal funds directly and there was no allegation of actual sex discrimination. The Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) sought to terminate federal financial assistance to Hillsdale's students; an Administrative Law Judge (ALJ) denied HEW's request in 1978, and both HEW and Hillsdale appealed to HEW's Civil Rights Reviewing Authority. In October 1979, the Reviewing Authority rejected Hillsdale's arguments and the ALJ's decision, ruling that HEW could require Hillsdale to sign the Assurance of Compliance as a condition of its students receiving federal financial assistance. The college appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit; in 1982, the Sixth Circuit ruled that government aid to individual students could be terminated without a finding that a college actually discriminated, but nevertheless upheld Hillsdale's refusal to sign the compliance forms because only its student loan and grant program is subject to Title IX regulation, not the entire college.
In the related 1984 case Grove City College v. Bell, the Supreme Court required every college or university to fulfill federal requirements—past and future requirements—if its students received federal aid. As a result of the decision, Hillsdale withdrew from all federal assistance beginning with the 1984–85 academic year; Grove City College, the defendant in that case, followed Hillsdale's lead four years later. Beginning in the 2007–08 academic year, Hillsdale stopped accepting Michigan state assistance, instead matching with its own aid any funds that a student would have received from the state. Since 2007, Hillsdale's entire operating budget, including scholarships, has come from private funding and endowments.
Programs
Center for Constructive Alternatives
Hillsdale brings speakers to campus through its Center for Constructive Alternatives program. Lectures are open to the public. Speakers have included Stephen Ambrose, Benazir Bhutto, Harry Browne, Russell Kirk, Harvey Mansfield, Charles Murray, Ralph Nader, P.J. O'Rourke, Phyllis Schlafly, and Juan Williams. Lectures and speeches from the series are published monthly in Imprimis, and distributed monthly for free. First published in 1972, Imprimis has a circulation of over five million subscribers.
Barney Charter School Initiative
The college's Barney Charter School Initiative was established to support the launch of K–12 charter schools based on a classical liberal arts model, with a strong civics component to "equip students to understand and defend the principles of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution."
Hillsdale-Oxford Scholars Program
Through an affiliation with Oxford's Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies and the Oxford Study Abroad Program, Hillsdale College offers a study abroad program at Oxford University where participants participate in classes and extracurricular as associate members of one of 38 different colleges in the university.
Allan P. Kirby Center
Hillsdale operates the Allan P. Kirby, Jr. Center for Constitutional Studies and Citizenship in Washington, D.C. The Kirby Center also provides assistance to Hillsdale students that are participating in Washington internships and co-sponsors the James Madison Fellows Program with The Heritage Foundation and the Federalist Society. It engages with senior-level congressional staff members who the college describes as "dedicated to making first principles the foremost consideration in public policy formation". A monthly lecture series hosted by the center is the AWC Family Foundation Lecture Series, which was started in 2008. The series has included lectures by David Horowitz, Brian Kennedy, John Bolton, and Hillsdale professor Paul A. Rahe. The Kirby Center also hosts an annual Constitution Day celebration and conducts online, interactive town halls on matters related to the Constitution.
The Blake Center for Faith and Freedom
In 2019, S. Prestley Blake donated his estate in Somers, Connecticut to the college. Following a lengthy battle over zoning issues, the college has turned the estate into The Blake Center for Faith and Freedom. The center includes a replica of Thomas Jefferson's Monticello. The college plans on hosting events similar to those held at other campuses in the future. The first event was held on May 20, 2021, with the donation of 200 books for the Jefferson Library.
Academy for Science and Freedom
In December 2021, Hillsdale launched the Academy for Science and Freedom in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The academy's stated goal is to "educate the American people about the free exchange of scientific ideas and the proper relationship between freedom and science in the pursuit of truth." The academy called the United States' response to the COVID-19 pandemic "the worst public health fiasco in history" that "has unveiled serious issues with how science is administered". Scott Atlas, Jay Bhattacharya, and Martin Kulldorff, three scholars who helped found the academy, have ties to the Great Barrington Declaration, a statement advocating for "Focused Protection" of those most at risk of COVID-19.
Campus life
Athletics
The college has a number of sports teams that compete at the NCAA Division II level, including baseball, men's and women's basketball, football, softball, women's swimming, track and field, cross country, men's and women's tennis, and women's volleyball. The college also has club teams and intramural sports that vary from year to year. The Chargers, as the Hillsdale athletics teams are known, compete in the Great Midwest Athletic Conference.
Football coach Frank "Muddy" Waters was the head coach at Hillsdale from 1954 to 1973. The football stadium, Frank Waters Stadium, is named in his honor.
Football
Hillsdale College has sponsored a football team every year since 1891 with the exception of 1943 and 1944 seasons being canceled because of World War 2. Their overall program record is 647-438-48 in 128 seasons of play. They split the 1985 NAIA National Championship with Central Arkansas after the game concluded in a 10–10 tie. They have won 34 championships since 1891, their most recent championship-winning the GMAC Conference in 2018. They have had 55 All-American players in program history and 10 All-American Academic players. Hillsdale College competed in the NAIA from its inception until 1990, where it became an NCAA Division 2 institution. Keith Otterbein is the present Hillsdale Football coach. He is in his 19th season, as he became the head coach in 2002. Thirteen players from Hillsdale have been drafted in the NFL, and eleven have been signed as undrafted free agents. Hillsdale has been a part of four different conferences and was also independent at one point. From 1880 to 1960, they were a part of the MIAA. From 1961 to 1974, they were independent. In 1975, they were no longer independent and joined the GLIAC until 1989. In 1990, they left the GLIAC to join the MIFC for eight years, 1990 to 1998. In 1999, they rejoined the GLIAC conference and remained there until 2017. Now, they stand in the GMAC conference. A few outstanding records from over the years are the program's longest winning streak, 34 in 1954-1957 and Troy Weatherhead holds the record for the highest percentage of passes completed in a season, 76.9%, in the year 2010.
Other Sports
In 2018, Hillsdale College was named one of the best schools in the U.S. for student-athletes by Next College Student Athlete's 2018 NCSA Power Rankings. Hillsdale was the fourth ranked school among all NCAA Division II colleges and universities in the U.S. The NCSA Power Rankings, which recognize the best colleges and universities in the U.S. for student-athletes, ranked Hillsdale within the top 10 among all Division II schools for several sports including football, baseball, softball, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's tennis, men's and women's track and field, women's swimming and women's volleyball. Hillsdale men's track and field also ranked 97th overall (among all divisions).
Hillsdale also has a nationally ranked competitive shotgun team. Competing in both the Association of College Unions International and the Scholastic Clay Target Program circuits, the team are seven-time ACUI Collegiate national champions, winning in 2012, 2014–2018, and 2021. It competes in six shotgun shooting disciplines: trap, skeet, sporting clays, and a variation on each.
Greek life
North American Interfraternity Conference Fraternities
Delta Tau Delta – Kappa Chapter, rechartered in 2007
Sigma Chi – Alpha Kappa Chapter, rechartered in 1980
Alpha Tau Omega – Beta Kappa Chapter, 1888
Delta Sigma Phi – Tau Chapter, 1915
National Panhellenic Conference Sororities
Kappa Kappa Gamma – Kappa Chapter, 1881
Pi Beta Phi – Michigan Alpha Chapter, 1887
Chi Omega – Rho Gamma Chapter, 1924
Alma mater
Hillsdale's alma mater is "White and Blue". The words and melody were composed by Bess Hagaman Tefft, Class of 1937.
Notable people
Notable alumni
Politics and law
E. Ross Adair (1929), member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Indiana
Chester Hardy Aldrich (1888), Governor of Nebraska and justice on the Nebraska Supreme Court
Joseph Cella (1991), United States Ambassador to Fiji
Chris Chocola (1984), member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Indiana's 2nd congressional district and President of the Club for Growth
Cyrus Cline (1876), member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Indiana
David L. Cornwell (1964), member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Indiana
Dan Crane (1958), member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Illinois' 22nd and 19th congressional districts
Phil Crane (1952), member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Illinois' 8th congressional district
Robert William Davis (1952), member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Michigan's 11th congressional district
Solomon Robert Dresser (1865), member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania and founder and president of S.R. Dresser Manufacturing Co., now Dresser Industries
Spencer O. Fisher (c. 1865), member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Michigan's 10th congressional district
Albert J. Hopkins (1870), U.S. Senator from Illinois
Henry M. Kimball (c. 1900), member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Michigan's 3rd congressional district
Verner Main (1907), member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Michigan
Spencer G. Millard (1877), Lieutenant Governor of California
Joseph B. Moore (1879), justice on the Michigan Supreme Court
Thomas Morrison (1997), representative for the 54th District in the Illinois General Assembly
Aric Nesbitt (2001), member of Michigan House of Representatives (2011–2017), 66th district and House Majority Floor Leader; President Pro Tempore of the Michigan State Senate (2019–present)
Walter H. North (1896), justice on the Michigan Supreme Court
Jasper Packard (c. 1853), newspaper editor and U.S. Representative from Indiana
Paul J. Ray, Administrator of the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs
David Viviano (1994), justice on the Michigan Supreme Court
Beth Walker (1987), justice of the West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals
Hans Zeiger (2007), author and representative for the 25th Legislative District of Washington
Military and public service
Clinton B. Fisk (c. 1844), Civil War soldier and statesman, namesake of Fisk University and Prohibition Party candidate for president in 1888; first inductee into the Hillsdale County, Michigan Veteran's Hall of Fame in 2001
Mary Hannah Fulton (1874), medical missionary in China
Washington Gardner (1870), Civil War soldier and statesman
Charles Vernon Gridley (c. 1860), Civil War sailor and Spanish-American War Naval captain
Moses A. Luce (1866), lawyer and Medal of Honor recipient for service in the Civil War
Erik Prince (1992), Navy SEAL and founder of Blackwater
Science and engineering
Bion J. Arnold, pioneer in electrical engineering and mass transportation
Professional sports and athletics
Andre Holmes (2011), wide receiver for the Denver Broncos
Jared Veldheer (2010), offensive lineman for the Green Bay Packers
Tom Heckert (1990), former general manager for the Cleveland Browns
Spanky McFarland (1976), college baseball coach at Northern Illinois and James Madison
Ron Tripp (c. 1975), expert in sambo and judo and current general secretary of USA Judo
Chester Marcol (1972), placekicker for the Green Bay Packers and Houston Oilers
Chuck Liebrock (1967), offensive lineman in the Canadian Football League for the Toronto Argonauts and Winnipeg Blue Bombers
Bruce McLenna (1966), halfback for the Detroit Lions and Kansas City Chiefs
Bud Acton (c. 1964), NBA player with the San Diego Rockets
Howard Mudd (1963), offensive lineman for the San Francisco 49ers and Chicago Bears and offensive line coach for the Philadelphia Eagles
Wayne Schurr (1959), relief pitcher for the Chicago Cubs
Mike Lude (1948), head football coach at Colorado State University and athletic director at Kent State University, University of Washington, and Auburn University
Fred Knorr (1937), radio executive and part-owner of the Detroit Tigers
Lynn Bell (1906), minor-league professional baseball player and college football coach
Academia and scholarship
Manuel Ayau (1973), Guatemalan-born politician, humanitarian, and founder of the "Universidad Francisco Marroquín"
Clara Kern Bayliss (1871, 1874), first woman to graduate from Hillsdale, became writer, educator
Elizebeth Friedman (1910), pioneer in cryptology
Peter Leeson (2001), economist
Robert P. Murphy (1998), economist and author
Gennady Stolyarov II (2008), libertarian and transhumanist writer
Robert Page Sims (1897), college president, civil rights activist
Notable faculty
Present faculty
Michael Anton, former senior national security official in the Trump administration
Larry P. Arnn, educator and political scientist
Bradley J. Birzer, history professor and holder of the Russell Amos Kirk Chair in American Studies
Ronald J. Pestritto, graduate dean and professor of politics
Paul A. Rahe, historian
Gary L. Wolfram, economist and public policy analyst
D. G. Hart, historian
Mollie Hemingway, journalist
David Azerrad, former director and fellow at the Heritage Foundation
Visiting faculty and fellows
Victor Davis Hanson, classicist and war historian
D.G. Hart, religious and social historian
Mark Helprin, novelist and intelligence expert
Carl F.H. Henry, theologian
David McCullough, historian
Madsen Pirie, British researcher, author, and educator
Mark Steyn, journalist
Clarence Thomas, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
Past faculty
Michael Bauman, theologian
John Jay Butler, Free Will Baptist theologian
Allan C. Carlson, historian
Ransom Dunn, dean and professor emeritus
Clark Durant, educator, Senate candidate, co-founder of Cornerstone Schools (Michigan) and Imprimis
Richard Ebeling, Austrian School economist
Burton Folsom, economic historian
Sir Martin Gilbert, official biographer of Winston Churchill and twentieth-century historian
Daniel McBride Graham, abolitionist, inventor
Russell Kirk, conservative writer
Madsen Pirie, British researcher and former visitor in philosophy and logic
Frank "Muddy" Waters, College Football Hall of Fame inductee
Notable Administrators and Promoters
Pat Sajak, Wheel of Fortune host, President of the Hillsdale College Board of Trustees
Rush Limbaugh, political commentator, media personality
Hugh Hewitt, political commentator
Mark Levin, radio personality
Kat Timpf, media personality
References
External links
The Hillsdale Collegian, the campus newspaper
Liberal arts colleges in Michigan
Educational institutions established in 1844
Education in Hillsdale County, Michigan
Buildings and structures in Hillsdale County, Michigan
Conservatism in the United States
1844 establishments in Michigan
Nondenominational Christian universities and colleges in the United States
Private universities and colleges in Michigan
Free Will Baptist schools
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207202
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Trek%20Generations%20%28video%20game%29
|
Star Trek Generations (video game)
|
Star Trek Generations is a first-person shooter with adventure and strategy elements by MicroProse, based on Star Trek Generations, the seventh film in the Star Trek film franchise. It includes voice-acting by actors Patrick Stewart and Malcolm McDowell, as well as footage from the film.
Story
The plot of the game is similar to that of the film: Captain Jean-Luc Picard and the crew of the Enterprise-D responds to a distress call from the Amargosa Observatory and Commander William Riker is sent over to investigate. Once there, he finds Dr. Tolian Soran, a scientist and madman hell bent on returning to the Nexus, a paradise dimension.
Soran escapes and the Enterprise goes on various missions to try to find him. To return to the Nexus, Soran intends on destroying stars in order to cause the Nexus (due to loss of the stars' gravity) to pass near Veridian III. The player needs to guess which planets Soran intends to destroy in order to pursue him.
Apart from being based on the film, the game is also a semi-sequel to Star Trek: The Next Generation – A Final Unity, since the aliens from that game, the Chodak, make an appearance. The overall science fiction universe of these titles is based on Star Trek: The Next Generation, a television show that aired between 1987 and 1994, itself developed from the earlier Star Trek show of the late 1960s.
Gameplay
The game combines several video game genres, and follows the main non-linear philosophy of alternate paths to complete the game, followed in other Star Trek games.
The major portion of the game occurs in Stellar Cartography (also appearing in the film, although only for some minutes) where the player plans their next moves, the main opponents being time and Soran. This part of the game includes the strategic part where the player has to calculate and guess where Soran could be, in order to travel there and stop him before he destroys the system.
When a crew member beams to a planet or space station, the game switches to first-person action/adventure. The main objective of every away mission is finding and fighting with Soran, who beams away seconds before being killed by the player. The mission is then successful; however, not all away missions need to be successful to win the game.
Enemy ships are encountered while in space. The game then switches to pure tactical/simulator where the player controls the Enterprise against the enemy ship(s). The fighting system is simplified over the extremely difficult tactical part of A Final Unity.
Development
Producer Simon Finch explained the game's storytelling philosophy: "We were trying to put the player into the situation that the characters were in the movie Generations, but we wanted to let them do what they wanted to do, and have the situations deviate fairly far from the film." Concerning the gameplay style, he commented, "We definitely wanted to teach players that violence isn't always the right solution, but we never wanted to water down gameplay by taking that option away from them."
Reception
Star Trek Generations received mediocre reviews. Most critics said that while the away missions are interesting, particularly their puzzle elements, the stellar cartography and space combat portions are dull, though Vince Broady defended the space combat in a 2000 review of the game for GameSpot, contending that "this combat system is the best yet in a Star Trek game, and it provides a welcome respite from the drudgery of Stellar Cartography." Critics unanimously agreed that the inability to save in the middle of a mission was ill-considered and frustrating. Other common criticisms were that the controls are needlessly confusing and the graphics are primitive by contemporary standards. Critics did praise the use of sounds that were authentic to the film, such as the theme music and voice acting by Patrick Stewart and Malcolm McDowell.
GamePro took an optimistic look, summarizing that "While some significant flaws crop up, Generations still delivers a fun but mellow puzzle/adventure experience." Most reviewers, however, concluded that the game was not strong enough to appeal to anyone but Trekkies. Bonnie James of The Electric Playground also speculated that "Star Trek: Generations may have a difficult time being taken seriously as a cutting edge game due to the fact that it has appeared so long after the release of the film. In fact, there has been another Star Trek film released in the meantime [Star Trek: First Contact]."
References
External links
1997 video games
First-person shooters
MicroProse games
Star Trek video games using TV cast members
Generations
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games
Windows-only games
|
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] |
207203
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Trek%3A%20Bridge%20Commander
|
Star Trek: Bridge Commander
|
Star Trek: Bridge Commander is a space combat simulation video game for Microsoft Windows, developed by Totally Games and published by Activision in 2002, based in the Star Trek universe.
The plot revolves around a newly promoted captain who is assigned to investigate an explosion of a star in the Maelstrom. Throughout the mystery, the player will encounter characters from the Star Trek universe, including Captain Picard and Commander Data. The captain and his crew take command of the Galaxy-class USS Dauntless (NCC-71879) as well as the USS Sovereign (NCC-73811) to combat a new threat to the United Federation of Planets.
The game allows two different styles of gameplay: storyline mode and quick battle mode. Quick battle mode allows for customized scenarios within a "simulated" environment, allowing the player to pick their allies/enemies, system, etc. With the advent of modding for Bridge Commander, custom missions and campaigns have been made possible through this engine.
Voices for the game were provided by Patrick Stewart and Brent Spiner, reprising their roles from the series.
In September 2021, the game was one of six Star Trek titles re-released on GoG.com in celebration of the franchise's 55th anniversary.
Gameplay
There are several gameplay modes in Bridge Commander, with the main two means of control being the bridge view and the tactical view. While the bridge view has the player control the movements of the ship by interacting with members of the bridge crew, the tactical view changes to an external view allows the player to have direct control over the starship. A variety of shortcut keys work in the same manner in both modes. Additional modes in the game include the map mode and the cinematic mode, which removes the interface from being displayed and also switches to an external view of the ship.
In the bridge view, most game functions are carried out by selecting an individual bridge officer, and selecting from a set of commands or options in order to control that individual's set of responsibilities. In this way, the game simulates being in command of a starship. For example, a player could issue the command to intercept a fleeing starship through the Helm menu, or order Lt. Felix Savali, the tactical officer to destroy an enemy ship. An artificial intelligence would then pilot the ship for the player.
Bridge Commander incorporates a Quick Battle mode which is a combat simulation that allows the player to control any ship encountered during the course of the game. There is also a selection of a system which on rare occasions, incorporates their own unique hazards. The multiplayer mode is no longer operated by GameSpy, but is now hosted by 333networks, allows for a maximum of 8 players over the internet to compete in one of four modes; Deathmatch, Team Deathmatch, UFP vs Non-UFP Deathmatch and Defend the Starbase.
Players also have the option to switch to an external ship view, and carry out many piloting and weapons functions themselves. In this view, they are able to view various tactical indicators.
Storyline
The USS Dauntless is in orbit of planet Vesuvi III. Her captain, Robert Wright, is piloting a shuttle to a research station orbiting the planet when the star goes supernova, destroying the planet, killing the captain, and severely damaging the Dauntless. After several months of repairs and refits, the Dauntless''' first officer becomes her new captain, and after a brief resupply mission to the surviving Vesuvi colonies, an investigation into the star's destruction begins.
The Dauntless crew is later given the USS Sovereign, the USS Enterprise-E's sister ship, for the investigation. They also undergo a shakedown cruise to check for bugs in the ship's systems which results in a simulated battle against the USS Geronimo and two Birds of Prey. Additionally, Lieutenant Commander Data from the Enterprise is temporarily assigned to the Sovereign to assist in the investigation. Initial hostilities with the Romulans briefly lead the crew to suspect them as the culprits, but further evidence reveals a renegade faction of Cardassians are responsible. They are led by Legate Matan, the game's central villain.
Matan is assisted by a new race of aliens called the Kessok whom Matan exploited and lied to in order to gain their cooperation. While searching for the technology that destroyed the Vesuvi star in the Alioth system, the Sovereign is ambushed and forced to leave Data behind on the surface of the system's sixth planet.
The revelation of the Cardassians' responsibility for the destruction of the Vesuvi star leads to a full-scale war between the Federation and Matan's faction. The Federation is at first at a disadvantage, having underestimated Matan's forces; however, they are able to repel an offensive against Starbase 12 and destroy Litvok Nor, a Cardassian space station identical to Deep Space 9, and rescue Data. Additionally, a Federation–Klingon–Romulan alliance is formed to put an end to the war in the game's final missions.
Shortly after Data's rescue and the formation of the alliance, the Sovereign is ordered to destroy the remaining Kessok technology that destroyed the Vesuvi star. During an encounter with a Kessok heavy cruiser, which makes no hostile movements and is unshielded, the player is presented with a choice: destroy the Kessok ship and the remaining device or hail it. If the player fires on the Kessok ship, two smaller vessels will de-cloak and assist the heavy cruiser. The final mission will also be more difficult as the Kessok forces will initially side with the Cardassians. Hailing the vessel will open a dialog with the Kessok and reveal the Cardassians' exploitation of them.
The game's final mission involves destroying the remaining Kessok device in the custody of Matan before he can use it to destroy a newly founded Kessok colony. The final confrontation with Matan occurs near the star of the Omega Draconis system. The game ends with Matan's ship falling into the star and the beginnings of formal diplomatic relations with the Kessok. Captain Picard wishes the player good luck on their journeys, and the Sovereign warps away.
Development
In late 1998, publishers Activision made contact with Totally Games for the start of development of Bridge Commander. Employees working for Totally Games spent six months on research, design and testing to keep the game within the bounds of the Star Trek universe. At E3 2001, the multiplayer mode originally to be included was dropped in favour of single-player. This announcement was reversed several days later.
ReceptionStar Trek: Bridge Commander received "favorable" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. GameSpot named the game a runner-up for its March 2002 "PC Game of the Month" award. The publication later presented the game with its annual "Best Sci-Fi Simulation Game on PC" award.
Ivan Sulic of IGN said that Bridge Commander was "the single most engaging Star Trek experience yet in gaming" and the "undisputed king of all that is starship combat", but appreciated that some players may feel that it isn't as nonlinear as they might like. He added that the missions were well paced, although he complained of the difficulty of a stealth based level.
In 2009, Kotaku ranked Star Trek: Bridge Commander as one of the top three Star Trek games. In 2016, Tom's Guide ranked Star Trek: Bridge Commander as one of the top ten Star Trek games. In 2017, PC Gamer ranked Star Trek: Bridge Commander among the best Star Trek'' games.
References
External links
Official website via Internet Archive
2002 video games
Activision games
Gamebryo games
Multiplayer online games
NetImmerse engine games
Space MOGs
Bridge Commander
Bridge Commander
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games
Windows-only games
Star Trek video games using TV cast members
Video games based on Star Trek: The Next Generation
|
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207206
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Mitchell
|
Mount Mitchell
|
Mount Mitchell, known in Cherokee as Attakulla, is the highest peak of the Appalachian Mountains and the highest peak in mainland eastern North America. It is located near Burnsville in Yancey County, North Carolina; in the Black Mountain subrange of the Appalachians, about northeast of Asheville. It is protected by Mount Mitchell State Park and surrounded by the Pisgah National Forest. Mount Mitchell's elevation is above sea level.
Geography
The peak is the highest mountain in the United States east of the Mississippi River, and the highest in all of eastern North America south of the Arctic Cordillera. The nearest higher peaks are in the Black Hills of South Dakota and the highland foothills of Colorado. The mountain's topographic isolation is calculated from the nearest discernible single higher point: Lone Butte, which is 1,189 miles (1,913 km) away in southeastern Colorado.
History
The Cherokee people, who long occupied this area as part of their homeland, called the mountain Attakulla.
European-American settlers first called the mountain Black Dome for its rounded shape. They later named it after Elisha Mitchell, a professor at the University of North Carolina, who first explored the Black Mountain region in 1835. He determined that the height of the range exceeded by several hundred feet that of Mount Washington in New Hampshire. The latter had been commonly thought at the time to be the highest point in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. Mitchell fell to his death at nearby Mitchell Falls in 1857, where he had returned to verify his earlier measurements.
A road (NC 128) connects the scenic Blue Ridge Parkway to a parking lot where a steep paved trail leads through a conifer forest to the summit. The stone observation tower on the summit was torn down in late 2006. A new observation deck was constructed and opened to visitors in January 2009. Also on the summit is the tomb of Elisha Mitchell.
Description
Mount Mitchell was formed during the Precambrian when marine deposits were metamorphosed into gneiss and schist. These metasedimentary rocks were later uplifted during the Alleghenian orogeny. The soils are well drained, dark brown and stony with fine-earth material ranging in texture from sandy clay loam to loam or sandy loam; Burton and Craggey are the most common series around the summit.
Environment
The mountain's summit is coated in a dense stand of Southern Appalachian spruce-fir forest, which consists primarily of two evergreen species—the red spruce and the Fraser fir. Most of the mature Fraser firs, however, were killed off by the non-native Balsam woolly adelgid in the latter half of the 20th century. The high elevations expose plant life to high levels of pollution, including acid precipitation in the form of rain, snow, and fog. These acids damage the red spruce trees in part by releasing natural metals from the soil, such as aluminum, and by leaching important minerals. To what extent this pollution harms the high-altitude ecosystem is debatable.
While the mountain is still mostly lush and green in the summer, many dead Fraser fir trunks can be seen due to these serious problems. Reducing air pollution is a difficult issue, as the pollutants are often carried by air to this area from long distances. Sources can be local or hundreds of miles or kilometers away, requiring cooperation from as far away as the Midwest.
Wildflowers are abundant all summer long. Young fir and spruce trees do well in the subalpine climate, and their cones feed the birds along with wild blueberry and blackberry shrubs.
The second highest point in eastern North America, Mount Craig at , is roughly a mile to the north of Mount Mitchell.
Climate
The summit area of Mount Mitchell is marked by a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb), with mild summers and long, moderately cold winters, being more similar to southeastern Canada than the southeastern U.S. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from in January to in July. The coldest temperature ever recorded in the state occurred there on January 21, 1985 when it fell to , during a severe cold spell that brought freezing temperatures as far south as Miami. It is also the coldest average reporting station in the state at , well below any other station.
Unlike the lower elevations in the surrounding regions, heavy snows often fall from December to March, with accumulating in the Great Blizzard of 1993 and in the January 2016 blizzard. Due to the high elevation, precipitation is heavy and reliable year-round, averaging for the year, with no month receiving less than of average precipitation. The summit is often windy, with recorded gusts of up to .
Mount Mitchell recorded a new state record of of precipitation in 2018, which is also the highest total rainfall recorded during a calendar year anywhere east of the Cascade Range in the Contiguous United States.
See also
List of mountains in North Carolina
Mountains-to-Sea Trail
Assault on Mount Mitchell, bicycling endurance
References
External links
Mount Mitchell State Park
Mount Mitchell Current Weather Conditions
Mitchell
Mitchell
Blue Ridge Mountains
National Natural Landmarks in North Carolina
Mountains of Yancey County, North Carolina
Landmarks in North Carolina
Mitchell
Appalachian culture in North Carolina
Blue Ridge National Heritage Area
North American 2000 m summits
Western North Carolina
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Londinium
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Londinium
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Londinium, also known as Roman London, was the capital of Roman Britain during most of the period of Roman rule. It was originally a settlement established on the current site of the City of London around AD 47–50. It sat at a key crossing point over the River Thames which turned the city into a road nexus and major port, serving as a major commercial centre in Roman Britain until its abandonment during the 5th century.
Following the foundation of the town in the mid-1st century, early Londinium occupied the relatively small area of , roughly half the area of the modern City of London and equivalent to the size of present-day Hyde Park. In the year 60 or 61, the rebellion of the Iceni under Boudica compelled the Roman forces to abandon the settlement, which was then razed. Following the defeat of Boudica by the Roman governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus a military installation was established and the city was rebuilt. It had probably largely recovered within about a decade. During the later decades of the 1st century, Londinium expanded rapidly, becoming Britannia's largest city, and it was provided with large public buildings such as a forum and amphitheatre. By the turn of the century, Londinium had grown to perhaps 30,000 or 60,000 people, almost certainly replacing Camulodunum (Colchester) as the provincial capital, and by the mid-2nd century Londinium was at its height. Its forum-basilica was one of the largest structures north of the Alps when the Emperor Hadrian visited Londinium in 122. Excavations have discovered evidence of a major fire that destroyed much of the city shortly thereafter, but the city was again rebuilt. By the second half of the 2nd century, Londinium appears to have shrunk in both size and population.
Although Londinium remained important for the rest of the Roman period, no further expansion resulted. Londinium supported a smaller but stable settlement population as archaeologists have found that much of the city after this date was covered in dark earth—the by-product of urban household waste, manure, ceramic tile, and non-farm debris of settlement occupation, which accumulated relatively undisturbed for centuries. Some time between 190 and 225, the Romans built a defensive wall around the landward side of the city. The London Wall survived for another 1,600 years and broadly defined the perimeter of the old City of London.
Name
The etymology of the name Londinium is unknown. Following Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudohistorical History of the Kings of Britain, it was long published as derived from an eponymous founder named Lud, son of Heli. There is no evidence such a figure ever existed. Instead, the Latin name was probably based on a native Brittonic place name reconstructed as *Londinion. Morphologically, this points to a structure of two suffixes: -in-jo-. However, the Roman Londinium was not the immediate source of English "London" (), as i-mutation would have caused the name to have been Lyndon. This suggests an alternative Brittonic form Londonion; alternatively, the local pronunciation in British Latin may have changed the pronunciation of Londinium to Lundeiniu or Lundein, which would also have avoided i-mutation in Old English. The list of the 28 cities of Britain included in the 9th-century History of the Britons precisely notes London in Old Welsh as Cair Lundem or Lundein.
Location
The site guarded the Romans' bridgehead on the north bank of the Thames and a major road nexus shortly after the invasion. It was centred on Cornhill and the River Walbrook, but extended west to Ludgate Hill and east to Tower Hill. Just prior to the Roman conquest, the area had been contested by the Catuvellauni based to the west and the Trinovantes based to the east; it bordered the realm of the Cantiaci on the south bank of the Thames.
The Roman city ultimately covered at least the area of the City of London, whose boundaries are largely defined by its former wall. Londinium's waterfront on the Thames ran from around Ludgate Hill in the west to the present site of the Tower in the east, around . The northern wall reached Bishopsgate and Cripplegate near the Museum of London, a course now marked by the street "London Wall". Cemeteries and suburbs existed outside the city proper. A round temple has been located west of the city, although its dedication remains unclear.
Substantial suburbs existed at St Martin-in-the-Fields in Westminster and around the southern end of the Thames bridge in Southwark, where excavations in 1988 and 2021 have revealed an elaborate building with fine mosaics and frescoed walls dating from 72 AD. Inscriptions suggest a temple of Isis was located there.
Status
Londinium grew up as a vicus and soon became an important port for trade between Britain and the Roman provinces on the continent. Tacitus wrote that, at the time of the uprising of Boudica, "Londinium... though undistinguished by the name of 'colony', was much frequented by a number of merchants and trading vessels."
Depending on the time of its creation, the modesty of Londonium's first forum may have reflected its early elevation to city () status or may have reflected an administrative concession to a low-ranking but major Romano-British settlement. It had almost certainly been granted colony () status prior to the complete replanning of the city's street plan attending the erection of the great second forum around the year 120.
By this time, Britain's provincial administration had also almost certainly been moved to Londinium from Camulodunum (Colchester in Essex). The precise date of this change is unknown and no surviving source explicitly states that Londinium was "the capital of Britain" but there are several strong indications of this status: 2nd-century roofing tiles have been found marked by the "Procurator" or "Publican of the Province of Britain at Londinium", the remains of a governor's palace and tombstones belonging to the governor's staff have been discovered, and the city was well defended and armed, with a new military camp erected at the beginning of the 2nd century in a fort on the north-western edge of the city, despite being far from any frontier. Despite some corruption to the text, the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles indicates that either Restitutus or Adelphius came from Londinium. The city seems to have been the seat of the diocesan vicar and one of the provincial governors following the Diocletian Reforms around the year 300; it had been renamed Augusta—a common epithet of provincial capitals—by 368.
History
Founding
Unlike many cities of Roman Britain, Londinium was not placed on the site of a native settlement or oppidum. Prior to the arrival of the Roman legions, the area was almost certainly lightly rolling open countryside traversed by numerous streams now underground. Ptolemy lists it as one of the cities of the Cantiaci, but Durovernum (Roman Canterbury) was their tribal capital (). It is possible that the town was preceded by a short-lived Roman military camp but the evidence is limited and this topic remains a matter of debate.
Archaeologist Lacey Wallace notes that "Because no LPRIA settlements or significant domestic refuse have been found in London, despite extensive archaeological excavation, arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial." The city's Latin name seems to have derived from an originally Brittonic one and significant pre-Roman finds in the Thames, especially the Battersea Shield (Chelsea Bridge, perhaps 4th-century BC) and the Wandsworth Shield (perhaps 1st-century BC), both assumed to be votive offerings deposited a couple of miles upstream of Londinium, suggest the general area was busy and significant. It has been suggested that the area was where a number of territories met. There was probably a ford in that part of the river; other Roman and Celtic finds suggest this was perhaps where the opposed crossing Julius Caesar describes in 54 BC took place.
Londinium grew up around the point on the River Thames narrow enough for the construction of a Roman bridge but still deep enough to handle the era's seagoing ships. Its placement on the Tideway permitted easier access for ships sailing upstream. The remains of a massive pier base for such a bridge were found in 1981 close by the modern London Bridge.
Some Claudian-era camp ditches have been discovered, but archaeological excavations undertaken since the 1970s by the Department of Urban Archaeology at the Museum of London (now MOLAS) have suggested the early settlement was largely the product of private enterprise. A timber drain by the side of the main Roman road excavated at No 1 Poultry has been dated by dendrochronology to AD 47.
Following its foundation in the mid-1st century, early Roman London occupied a relatively small area, about or roughly the area of present-day Hyde Park. Archaeologists have uncovered numerous goods imported from across the Roman Empire in this period, suggesting that early Roman London was a highly cosmopolitan community of merchants from across the Empire and that local markets existed for such objects.
Roads
Of the fifteen British routes recorded in the 2nd- or 3rd-century Antonine Itinerary, seven ran to or from Londinium. Most of these have been shown to have been initially constructed near the time of the city's foundation around AD 47. The roads are now known by Welsh or Old English names, as their original Roman names have been entirely lost due to the lack of written and inscribed sources. (It was customary elsewhere to name roads after the emperor during whose principate they were completed, but the number and vicinity of routes completed during the time of Claudius would seem to have made this impractical in Britain's case.)
The road from the Kentish ports of Rutupiae (Richborough), Dubris (Dover), and Lemanis (Lympne) via Durovernum (Canterbury) seems to have first crossed the Thames at a natural ford near Westminster before being diverted north to the new bridge at London. The Romans enabled the road to cross the marshy terrain without subsidence by laying down substrates of one to three layers of oak logs. This route, now known as Watling Street, then passed through the town from the bridgehead in a straight line to reconnect with its northern extension towards Viroconium (Wroxeter) and the legionary base at Deva Victrix (Chester). The Great Road ran northeast across Old Ford to Camulodunum (Colchester) and thence northeast along Pye Road to Venta Icenorum (Caistor St Edmund). Ermine Street ran north from the city to Lindum (Lincoln) and Eboracum (York). The Devil's Highway connected Londinium to Calleva (Silchester) and its roads to points west over the bridges near modern Staines. A minor road led southwest to the city's main cemetery and the old routes to the ford at Westminster. Stane Street to Noviomagus (Chichester) did not reach Londinium proper but ran from the bridgehead in the southern suburb at Southwark. These roads varied from wide.
After its reconstruction in the AD 60s, the streets largely adhered to a grid. The main streets were wide, while side streets were usually about wide.
Boudica
In the year 60 or 61, a little more than ten years after Londinium was founded, the king of the Iceni died. He had possibly been installed by the Romans after the Iceni's failed revolt against P. Ostorius Scapula's disarmament of the allied tribes in AD 47 or may have assisted the Romans against his tribesmen during that revolt. His will had divided his wealth and lands between Rome and his two daughters, but Roman law forbade female inheritance and it had become common practice to treat allied kingdoms as life estates that were annexed upon the ruler's death, as had occurred in Bithynia and Galatia. Roman financiers including Seneca called in all the king's outstanding loans at once and the provincial procurator confiscated the property of both the king and his nobles. Tacitus records that, when the king's wife Boudica objected, the Romans flogged her, raped her two daughters, and enslaved their nobles and kinsmen. Boudica then led a failed revolt against Roman rule.
Two hundred ill-equipped men were sent to defend the provincial capital and Roman colony at Camulodunum, probably from the garrison at Londinium. The Iceni and their allies overwhelmed them and razed the city. The 9th Legion under Q. Petillius Cerialis, coming south from the Fosse Way, was ambushed and annihilated. The procurator, meanwhile, escaped with his treasure to Gaul, probably via Londinium. G. Suetonius Paulinus had been leading the 14th and 20th Legions in the Roman conquest of Anglesey; hearing of the rising, he immediately returned along Watling Street with the legions' cavalry. An early historical record of London appears in Tacitus's account of his actions upon arriving and finding the state of the 9th Legion:
At first, [Paulinus] hesitated as to whether to stand and fight there. Eventually, his numerical inferiority—and the price only too clearly paid by the divisional commander's rashness—decided him to sacrifice the single city of Londinium to save the province as a whole. Unmoved by lamentations and appeals, Suetonius gave the signal for departure. The inhabitants were allowed to accompany him. But those who stayed because they were women, or old, or attached to the place, were slaughtered by the enemy.
Excavation has revealed extensive evidence of destruction by fire in the form of a layer of red ash beneath the city at this date. Suetonius then returned to the legions' slower infantry, who met and defeated the British army, slaughtering as many as 70,000 men and camp followers. There is a long-standing folklore belief that this battle took place at King's Cross, simply because as a mediaeval village it was known as Battle Bridge. Suetonius's flight back to his men, the razing of Verulamium (St Albans), and the battle shortly thereafter at "a place with narrow jaws, backed by a forest", speaks against the tradition and no supporting archaeological evidence has been yet discovered.
1st century
After the sack of the city by Boudica and her defeat, a large military fort covering 15,000 m2 was built at Plantation Place on Cornhill, with 3m-high banks and enclosed by 3m deep double ditches. It was built as an emergency solution to protect London's important trade and to help reconstruct the city. It dominated the town and lay over the main road into London controlling traffic from London Bridge and on the river. Several major building projects at this time such as roads, a new quay and a water lifting machine indicate the army had a key role in reconstruction. The fort was in use for less than 10 years.
The city was eventually rebuilt as a planned Roman town, its streets generally adhering to a grid skewed by major roads passing from the bridgehead and by changes in alignment produced by crossings over the local streams. It recovered after about a decade.
The first forum was constructed in the 70s or 80s and has been excavated, showing it had an open courtyard with a basilica and several shops around it, altogether measuring about . The basilica would have functioned as the city's administrative heart, hearing law cases and seating the town's local senate. It formed the north side of the forum, whose south entrance was located along the north side of the intersection of the present Gracechurch, Lombard, and Fenchurch Streets. Forums elsewhere typically had a civic temple constructed within the enclosed market area; British sites usually did not, instead placing a smaller shrine for Roman services somewhere within the basilica. The first forum in Londinium seems to have had a full temple, but placed outside just west of the forum.
During the later decades of the 1st century, Londinium expanded rapidly and quickly became Roman Britain's largest city, although most of its houses continued to be made of wood. By the turn of the century, Londinium was perhaps as large as 60,000 people, and had replaced Camulodunum (Colchester) as the provincial capital. A large building discovered near Cannon Street Station has had its foundation dated to this era and is assumed to have been the governor's palace. It boasted a garden, pools, and several large halls, some of which were decorated with mosaic floors. It stood on the east bank of the now-covered Walbrook, near where it joins the Thames. London Stone may originally have been part of the palace's main entrance. Another site dating to this era is the bathhouse () at Huggin Hill, which remained in use prior to its demolition around the year 200. Brothels were legal but taxed.
Port
The bulk of the Roman port was quickly rebuilt after Boudicca's rebellion when the waterfront was extended with gravel to permit a sturdy wharf to be built perpendicular to the shore. The port was built in four sections, starting upstream of the London Bridge and working down towards the Walbrook at the centre of Londinium. Expansion of the flourishing port continued into the 3rd century. Scraps of armour, leather straps, and military stamps on building timbers suggest that the site was constructed by the city's legionaries. Major imports included fine pottery, jewellery and wine. Only two large warehouses are known, implying that Londinium functioned as a bustling trade centre rather than a supply depot and distribution centre like Ostia near Rome.
2nd century
Emperor Hadrian visited Londinium in 122. The impressive public buildings from around this period may have been initially constructed in preparation for his visit or during the rebuilding that followed the "Hadrianic Fire". The so-called 'Hadrianic Fire' is not mentioned in any historical sources but has been inferred by evidence of large-scale burning identified by archaeologists on a number of excavation sites around the City of London. The best dating evidence for this event(s) comes from burnt stocks of unsold Terra Sigilatta pottery, which can be dated to circa AD 120–125. These were found in destroyed warehouse or shop buildings at Regis House and Bucklersbury. Hadrianic fire horizons tend to be dated to around the AD 120-130s but it is difficult to prove that they are precisely contemporary and there remains some uncertainty as to whether they indicate a single large fire or a series of smaller conflagrations. Fire destroyed substantial areas of the city in the area north of the Thames but does not seem to have damaged many major public buildings. There is very little evidence to suggest similar burning in the adjacent Southwark settlement. The Hadrianic fire (or fires) has normally been assumed to be accidental but it has also been suggested that it could relate to an episode of political turbulence.
During the early 2nd century, Londinium was at its height, having recovered from the fire and again had between 45,000 and 60,000 inhabitants around the year 140, with many more stone houses and public buildings erected. Some areas were tightly packed with townhouses (). The town had piped water and a "fairly-sophisticated" drainage system. The governor's palace was rebuilt and an expanded forum was built around the earlier one over a period of 30 years from around 90 to 120 into an almost perfect square measuring . Its three-storey basilica was probably visible across the city and was the largest in the empire north of the Alps; the marketplace itself rivalled those in Rome and was the largest in the north before Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany) became an imperial capital. The city's temple of Jupiter was renovated, public and private bathhouses were erected, and a fort () was erected around the year 120 that maintained the city garrison northwest of town. The fort was square (with rounded corners) measuring more than and covering more than . Each side had a central gatehouse and stone towers were erected at the corners and at points along each wall. Londinium's amphitheatre, constructed in AD 70, is situated at Guildhall.
When the Romans left in the 4th century, the amphitheatre lay derelict for hundreds of years. In the 11th century, the area was reoccupied, and by the 12th century the first Guildhall was built next to it.
A large port complex on both banks near London Bridge was discovered during the 1980s.
A temple complex with two Romano-British temples was excavated at Empire Square, Long Lane, Southwark in 2002/2003. A large house there may have been a guesthouse.
A marble slab with a dedication to the god Mars was discovered in the temple complex. The inscription mentions Londiniensi ('the Londoners'), the earliest known reference naming the people of London (photograph of the inscription above left).
By the second half of the 2nd century, Londinium had many large, well-equipped stone buildings, some of which were richly adorned with wall paintings and floor mosaics, and had subfloor hypocausts. The Roman house at Billingsgate was built next to the waterfront and had its own bath. In addition to such structures reducing the city's building density, however, Londinium also seems to have shrunk in both size and population in the second half of the 2nd century. The cause is uncertain but plague is considered likely, as the Antonine Plague is recorded decimating other areas of Western Europe between 165 and 190. The end of imperial expansion in Britain after Hadrian's decision to build his wall may have also damaged the city's economy.
Although Londinium remained important for the rest of the Roman period, no further expansion occurred. Londinium remained well populated, as archaeologists have found that much of the city after this date was covered in dark earth which accumulated relatively undisturbed over centuries.
London Wall
Some time between 190 and 225, the Romans built the London Wall, a defensive ragstone wall around the landward side of the city. Along with Hadrian's Wall and the road network, the London Wall was one of the largest construction projects carried out in Roman Britain. The wall was originally about long, high, and thick. Its dry moat () was about deep and wide. In the 19th century, Smith estimated its length from the Tower west to Ludgate at about one mile () and its breadth from the northern wall to the bank of the Thames at around half that.
In addition to small pedestrian postern gates like the one by Tower Hill, it had four main gates: Bishopsgate and Aldgate in the northeast at the roads to Eboracum (York) and to Camulodunum (Colchester) and Newgate and Ludgate in the west along at the road that divided for travel to Viroconium (Wroxeter) and to Calleva (Silchester) and at another road that ran along the Thames to the city's main cemetery and the old ford at Westminster. The wall partially utilised the army's existing fort, strengthening its outer wall with a second course of stone to match the rest of the course. The fort had two gates of its own – Cripplegate to the north and another to the west – but these were not along major roads. Aldersgate was eventually added, perhaps to replace the west gate of the fort. (The names of all these gates are medieval, as they continued to be occasionally refurbished and replaced until their demolition in the 17th and 18th centuries to permit widening the roads.) The wall initially left the riverbank undefended: this was corrected in the 3rd century.
Although the exact reason for the wall's construction is unknown, some historians have connected it with the Pictish invasion of the 180s. Others link it with Clodius Albinus, the British governor who attempted to usurp Septimius Severus in the 190s. The wall survived another 1,600 years and still roughly defines the City of London's perimeter.
3rd century
Septimius Severus defeated Albinus in 197 and shortly afterwards divided the province of Britain into Upper and Lower halves, with the former controlled by a new governor in Eboracum (York). Despite the smaller administrative area, the economic stimulus provided by the Wall and by Septimius Severus's campaigns in Caledonia somewhat revived London's fortunes in the early 3rd century. The northwest fort was abandoned and dismantled but archaeological evidence points to renewed construction activity from this period. The London Mithraeum rediscovered in 1954 dates from around 240, when it was erected on the east bank at the head of navigation on the now-covered River Walbrook about from the Thames. From about 255 onwards, raiding by Saxon pirates led to the construction of a riverside wall as well. It ran roughly along the course of present-day Thames Street, which then roughly formed the shoreline. Large collapsed sections of this wall were excavated at Blackfriars and the Tower in the 1970s.
Carausian Revolt
In 286, the emperor Maximian issued a death sentence against Carausius, admiral of the Roman navy's Britannic fleet (Classis Britannica), on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon piracy and of having embezzled recovered treasure. Carausius responded by consolidating his allies and territory and revolting. After fending off Maximian's first assault in 288, he declared a new Britannic Empire and issued coins to that effect. Constantius Chlorus's sack of his Gallic base at Gesoriacum (Boulogne), however, led his treasurer Allectus to assassinate and replace him. In 296, Chlorus mounted an invasion of Britain that prompted Allectus's Frankish mercenaries to sack Londinium. They were only stopped by the arrival of a flotilla of Roman warships on the Thames, which slaughtered the survivors. The event was commemorated by the golden Arras Medallion, Chlorus on one side and, on the other, a woman kneeling at the city wall welcoming a mounted Roman soldier. Another memorial to the return of Londinium to Roman control was the construction of a new set of forum baths around the year 300. The structures were modest enough that they were previously identified as parts of the forum and market but are now recognised as elaborate and luxurious baths including a with two southern pools and an eastern swimming pool.
4th century
Following the revolt, the Diocletian Reforms saw the British administration restructured. Londinium is universally supposed to have been the capital of one of them, but it remains unclear where the new provinces were, whether there were initially three or four in total, and whether Valentia represented a fifth province or a renaming of an older one. In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales listed "Londonia" as the capital of Flavia, having had Britannia Prima (Wales) and Secunda (Kent) severed from the territory of Upper Britain. Modern scholars more often list Londinium as the capital of Maxima Caesariensis on the assumption that the presence of the diocesan vicar in London would have required its provincial governor to outrank the others.
The governor's palace and old large forum seem to have fallen out of use around 300, but in general the first half of the 4th century appears to have been a prosperous time for Britain, for the villa estates surrounding London appear to have flourished during this period. The London Mithraeum was rededicated, probably to Bacchus. A list of the 16 "archbishops" of London was recorded by Jocelyne of Furness in the 12th century, claiming the city's Christian community was founded in the 2nd century under the legendary King Lucius and his missionary saints Fagan, Deruvian, Elvanus, and Medwin. None of that is considered credible by modern historians but, although the surviving text is problematic, either Bishop Restitutus or Adelphius at the 314 Council of Arles seems to have come from Londinium. The location of Londinium's original cathedral is uncertain. The present structure of St Peter upon Cornhill was designed by Christopher Wren following the Great Fire in 1666 but it stands upon the highest point in the area of old Londinium and medieval legends tied it to the city's earliest Christian community. In 1995, however, a large and ornate 4th-century building on Tower Hill was discovered: built sometime between 350 and 400, it seems to have mimicked St Ambrose's cathedral in the imperial capital at Milan on a still-larger scale. It was about long by about wide. Excavations by David Sankey of MOLAS established it was constructed out of stone taken from other buildings, including a veneer of black marble. It was probably dedicated to St Paul.
From 340 onwards, northern Britain was repeatedly attacked by Picts and Gaels. In 360, a large-scale attack forced the emperor Julian the Apostate to send troops to deal with the problem. Large efforts were made to improve Londinium's defences around the same time. At least 22 semi-circular towers were added to the city walls to provide platforms for ballistae and the present state of the river wall suggested hurried repair work around this time. In 367, the Great Conspiracy saw a coordinated invasion of Picts, Gaels, and Saxons joined with a mutiny of troops along the Wall. Count Theodosius dealt with the problem over the next few years, using Londinium—then known as "Augusta"—as his base. It may have been at this point that one of the existing provinces was renamed Valentia, although the account of Theodosius's actions describes it as a province recovered from the enemy.
In 382, Magnus Maximus organised all of the British-based troops and attempted to establish himself as emperor over the west. The event was obviously important to the Britons, as "Macsen Wledig" would remain a major figure in Welsh folklore and several medieval Welsh dynasties claimed descent from him. He was probably responsible for London's new church in the 370s or 380s. He was initially successful but was defeated by Theodosius I at the 388 Battle of the Save. A new stretch of the river wall near Tower Hill seems to have been built further from the shore at some point over the next decade.
5th century
With few troops left in Britain, many Romano-British towns—including Londinium—declined drastically over the next few decades. Many of London's public buildings had fallen into disrepair by this point, and excavations of the port show signs of rapid disuse. Between 407 and 409, large numbers of barbarians overran Gaul and Hispania, seriously weakening communication between Rome and Britain. Trade broke down. Officials went unpaid and Romano-British troops elected their own leaders. Constantine III declared himself emperor over the West and crossed the Channel, an act considered the Roman withdrawal from Britain since the emperor Honorius subsequently directed the Britons to look to their own defence rather than send another garrison force. Surviving accounts are scanty and mixed with Welsh and Saxon legends concerning Vortigern, Hengest, Horsa, and Ambrosius Aurelianus. Even archaeological evidence of Londinium during this period is minimal.
Despite remaining on the list of Roman provinces, Romano-Britain seems to have dropped their remaining loyalties to Rome. Raiding by the Irish, Picts, and Saxons continued but Gildas records a time of luxury and plenty which is sometimes attributed to reduced taxation. Archaeologists have found evidence that a small number of wealthy families continued to maintain a Roman lifestyle until the middle of the 5th century, inhabiting villas in the southeastern corner of the city and importing luxuries. Medieval accounts state that the invasions that established Anglo-Saxon England (the Adventus Saxonum) did not begin in earnest until some time in the 440s and 450s. Bede recorded that the Britons fled to Londinium in terror after their defeat at the Battle of Crecganford (probably Crayford), but nothing further is said. By the end of the 5th century, the city was largely an uninhabited ruin, its large church on Tower Hill burnt to the ground.
Over the next century, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Frisians arrived and established tribal areas and kingdoms. The area of the Roman city was administered as part of the Kingdom of the East Saxons – Essex, although the Saxon settlement of Lundenwic was not within the Roman walls but to the west in Aldwych. It was not until the Viking invasions of England that King Alfred the Great moved the settlement back within the safety of the Roman walls, which gave it the name Lundenburh. The foundations of the river wall, however, were undermined over time and had completely collapsed by the 11th century. Memory of the earlier settlement survived: it is generally identified as the counted among the 28 cities of Britain included in the History of the Britons traditionally attributed to Nennius.
Demographics
The population of Londinium is estimated to have peaked around 100 AD when it was still the capital of Britannia; at this point estimates for the population vary between about 30,000, or about 60,000 people. But there seems to have been a large decline after about 150 AD, possibly as the regional economic centres developed, and Londinium as the main port for imported goods became less significant. The Antonine Plague which swept the Empire from 165 to 180 may have had a big effect. Pottery workshops outside the city in Brockley Hill and Highgate appear to have ended production around 160, and the population may have fallen by as much as two thirds.
Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including those with backgrounds from Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. A 2017 genetic test of human remains in Roman cemeteries states that the "presence of people born in London with North African ancestry is not an unusual or atypical result for Londinium." A 2016 study of the isotope analysis of 20 bodies from various periods suggested that at least 12 had grown up locally, with four being immigrants, and the last four unclear.
Excavation
Many ruins remain buried beneath London, although understanding them can be difficult. Owing to London's own geology, which consists of a Taplow Terrace deep bed of brickearth, sand, and gravel over clay, Roman gravel roads can only be identified as such if they were repeatedly relayered or if the spans of gravel can be traced across several sites. The minimal remains from wooden structures are easy to miss and stone buildings may leave foundations, but – as with the great forum – they were often dismantled for stone during the Middle Ages and early modern period.
The first extensive archaeological review of the Roman city of London was done in the 17th century after the Great Fire of 1666. Christopher Wren's renovation of St Paul's on Ludgate Hill found no evidence supporting Camden's contention that it had been built over a Roman temple to the goddess Diana. The extensive rebuilding of London in the 19th century and following the German bombing campaign during World War II also allowed for large parts of old London to be recorded and preserved while modern updates were made. The construction of the London Coal Exchange led to the discovery of the Roman house at Billingsgate in 1848. In the 1860s, excavations by General Rivers uncovered a large number of human skulls and almost no other bones in the bed of the Walbrook. The discovery recalls a passage in Geoffrey of Monmouth's pseudohistorical History of the Kings of Britain where Asclepiodotus besieged the last remnants of the usurper Allectus's army at "Londonia". Having battered the town's walls with siegeworks constructed by allied Britons, Asclepiodotus accepted the commander's surrender only to have the Venedotians rush upon them, ritually decapitating them and throwing the heads into the river "Gallemborne". Asclepiodotus's siege was an actual event that occurred in AD 296, but further skull finds beneath the 3rd-century wall place at least some of the slaughter before its construction, leading most modern scholars to attribute them to Boudica's forces. In 1947, the city's northwest fortress of the city garrison was discovered. In 1954, excavations of what was thought to have been an early church instead revealed the London Mithraeum, which was relocated to permit building over its original site. The building erected at the time has since been demolished, and the temple has been returned to its former location under the new Bloomberg building.
Archaeologists began the first intensive excavation of the waterfront sites of Roman London in the 1970s. What was not found during this time has been built over, making it very difficult to study or discover anything new. Another phase of archaeological work followed the deregulation of the London Stock Exchange in 1986, which led to extensive new construction in the city's financial district. From 1991, many excavations were undertaken by the Museum of London's Archaeology Service, although it was spun off into the separately-run MOLA in 2011 following legislation to address the Rose Theatre fiasco.
Displays
Major finds from Roman London, including mosaics, wall fragments, and old buildings were formerly housed in the London and Guildhall Museums. These merged after 1965 into the present Museum of London near the Barbican Centre. Museum of London Docklands, a separate branch dealing with the history of London's ports, opened on the Isle of Dogs in 2003. Other finds from Roman London continue to be held by the British Museum.
Much of the surviving wall is medieval, but Roman-era stretches are visible near Tower Hill Station, in a hotel courtyard at 8–10 Coopers Row, and in St Alphege Gardens off Wood Street. A section of the river wall is visible inside the Tower. Parts of the amphitheatre are on display at the Guildhall Art Gallery. The southwestern tower of the Roman fort northwest of town can still be seen at Noble Street. Occasionally, Roman sites are incorporated into the foundations of new buildings for future study, but these are not generally available to the public.
See also
Anglo-Saxon London
Elizabethan London
Notes
References
Billings, Malcolm (1994), London: a companion to its history and archaeology,
Brigham, Trevor. 1998. “The Port of Roman London.” In Roman London Recent Archeological Work, edited by B. Watson, 23–34. Michigan: Cushing–Malloy Inc. Paper read at a seminar held at The Museum of London, 16 November.
Hall, Jenny, and Ralph Merrifield. Roman London. London: HMSO Publications, 1986.
Haverfield, F. "Roman London." The Journal of Roman Studies 1 (1911): 141–72.
Hingley, Richard, Londinium: A Biography: Roman London from its Origins to the Fifth Century, 2018, Bloomsbury Publishing, , 9781350047310
Inwood, Stephen. A History of London (1998)
John Wacher: The Towns of Roman Britain, London/New York 1997, p. 88–111.
Gordon Home: Roman London: A.D. 43–457 Illustrated with black and white plates of artefacts. diagrams and plans. Published by Eyre and Spottiswoode (London) in 1948 with no ISBN.
Milne, Gustav. The Port of Roman London. London: B.T. Batsford, 1985.
Sheppard, Francis, London: A History, 2000, Oxford University Press, , 9780192853691, google books
Further reading
Middle English orthography (most English words containing, not starting, with the sound are spelt '..on' for obsolete disambiguatory reasons)
Wallace, Lacey M., The Origin of Roman London, 2014, Cambridge Classical Studies, Cambridge University Press, , 9781107047570
External links
Roman London, History of World Cities
Roman London, Encyclopædia Britannica
A map of known and conjectural Roman roads around Londinium, from London: A History
The eastern cemetery of Roman London: excavations 1983–90, Museum of London Archive
40s establishments in the Roman Empire
1st-century establishments in Roman Britain
17th-century archaeological discoveries
Archaeological sites in London
London
History of London by period
History of the City of London
Populated places established in the 1st century
Populated places disestablished in the 5th century
Roman London
Roman auxiliary forts in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig%20Leichhardt
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Ludwig Leichhardt
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Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig Leichhardt (), known as Ludwig Leichhardt, (23 October 1813 – c. 1848) was a German explorer and naturalist, most famous for his exploration of northern and central Australia.
Early life
Leichhardt was born on 23 October 1813 in the hamlet of Sabrodt near the village of Trebatsch, today part of Tauche, in the Prussian Province of Brandenburg (now within the Federal Republic of Germany). He was the fourth son and sixth of the eight children of Christian Hieronymus Matthias Leichhardt, farmer and royal inspector and his wife Charlotte Sophie, née Strählow. Between 1831 and 1836 Leichhardt studied philosophy, language, and natural sciences at the Universities of Göttingen and Berlin but never received a university degree. He moved to England in 1837, continued his study of the natural sciences at various places, including the British Museum, London, and the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, and undertook field work in several European countries, including France, Italy and Switzerland.
Exploration
On 14 February 1842 Leichhardt arrived in Sydney, Australia. His aim was to explore inland Australia and he was hopeful of a government appointment in his fields of interest. In September 1842 Leichhardt went to the Hunter River valley north of Sydney to study the geology, flora and fauna of the region, and to observe farming methods. He then set out on his own on a specimen-collecting journey that took him from Newcastle, New South Wales, to Moreton Bay in Queensland. On the 23rd of September 1842 he arrived at Ash Island where he spent 2–3 days there after being invited by Alexander Walter Scott.
The First Leichhardt Expedition (1844–1846)
After returning to Sydney early in 1844, Leichhardt hoped to take part in a proposed government-sponsored expedition from Moreton Bay to Port Essington (300 km north of Darwin). When plans for this expedition fell through Leichhardt decided to mount the expedition himself, accompanied by volunteers and supported by private funding. His party left Sydney in August 1844 to sail to Moreton Bay, where four more joined the group. The expedition departed on 1 October 1844 from Jimbour Homestead, the farthest outpost of settlement on the Queensland Darling Downs. During this trip, Leichhardt named Seven Emu Creek, after shooting a mob of emus nearby, a name later taken on by a large cattle station still in existence, Seven Emu Station.
After a nearly 4,800 kilometres (3,000 miles) overland journey, and having long been given up for dead, Leichhardt arrived in Port Essington on 17 December 1845. He returned to Sydney by boat, arriving on 25 March 1846 to a hero's welcome. The Journal of an Overland Expedition in Australia, from Moreton Bay to Port Essington, a Distance of Upwards of 3000 miles, During the Years 1844 and 1845 by Leichhardt describes this expedition.
A memorial to John Gilbert, one of Leichhardt's companions on this journey, can be found on the north wall of St James' Church, Sydney. Under the title Dulce et Docorum Est Pro Scientia Mori (a variation on the more commonly seen Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori) the inscription on the monument, which was "erected by the colonists of New South Wales" reads: "in memory of John Gilbert, Ornithologist, who was speared by the blacks on 29 June 1845 during the first overland expedition to Port Essington by Dr Ludwig Leichhardt and his intrepid companions". There is also a memorial to Gilbert at Gilbert's Lookout at Taroom.
The Second Leichhardt Expedition (1846)
Leichhardt's second expedition, undertaken with a government grant and substantial private subscriptions, started in December 1846. It was supposed to take him from the Darling Downs to the west coast of Australia and ultimately to the Swan River and Perth. However, after covering only 800 km the expedition team was forced to return in June 1847 due to heavy rain, malarial fever and famine. Members of the party nearly mutinied after learning that Leichhardt had failed to bring along a medical kit. Faced with failure, Leichhardt seems to have suffered a nervous breakdown, and Aboriginal guide Harry Brown effectively took over as leader of the party, returning them successfully back to the Darling Downs.
Subsequent activities
After recovering from malaria Leichhardt spent six weeks in 1847 examining the course of the Condamine River, southern Queensland, and the country between the route of another expedition led by Sir Thomas Mitchell in 1846 and his own route, covering nearly 1,000 km.
In April 1847 Leichhardt shared the annual prize of the Paris Geographical Society, for the most important geographic discovery with the French explorer Charles-Xavier Rochet d'Héricourt. Soon afterward, on 24 May, the Royal Geographical Society, London, awarded Leichhardt its Patron's Medal as recognition of 'the increased knowledge of the great continent of Australia' gained by his Moreton Bay-Port Essington journey. Leichhardt himself never saw these medals but was aware he had been awarded them. In one of his last known letters he wrote:
I've had the pleasure of hearing that the geographical society in London has awarded me one of its medals, and that the Parisian geographical society has conferred a similar honour upon me. Naturally I'm very pleased to think that such discerning authorities consider me worthy of such honour; but whatever I have done has never been for honour. I have worked for the sake of science, and for nothing else.
In 2012 the National Museum of Australia purchased the medal awarded to Leichhardt by London's Royal Geographical Society in 1847. It came directly from descendants of the Leichhardt family in Mexico.
Disappearance
In 1848 Leichhardt again set out from the Condamine River to reach the Swan River. The expedition consisted of Leichhardt, four Europeans, two Aboriginal guides, seven horses, 20 mules and 50 bullocks. The Europeans were Adolph Classen, Arthur Hentig, Donald Stuart and Thomas Hands, a ticket of leave holder who replaced Kelly at Henry Stuart Russell's Cecil Plains station. The Aboriginal guides were Wommai and Billy Bombat, from Port Stephens.
The party was last seen on 3 April 1848 at Allan Macpherson's station, Cogoon, on the Darling Downs. Leichhardt's disappearance after moving inland, although investigated by many, remains a mystery. The expedition had been expected to take two to three years, but after no sign or word was received from Leichhardt it was assumed that he and the others in the party had died. The latest evidence suggests that they may have perished somewhere in the Great Sandy Desert of the Australian interior.
Four years after Leichhardt's disappearance, the Government of New South Wales sent out a search expedition under Hovenden Hely. The expedition found nothing but a single campsite with a tree marked "L" over "XVA". In 1858 another search expedition was sent out, this time under Augustus Gregory. On 21 April near what is now Blackall, beside the Barcoo River, this expedition found a tree marked "L".
In 1864 Duncan McIntyre discovered two trees marked with "L" on the Flinders River near the Gulf of Carpentaria. After his return to Victoria McIntyre telegraphed the Royal Society on 15 December 1864 that he had found "two trees marked L about 15 years old". He was subsequently appointed leader of a search expedition, but found no further trace of Leichhardt.
In 1869 the Government of Western Australia heard rumours of a place where the remains of horses and men killed by indigenous Australians could be seen. A search expedition was sent out under John Forrest, but nothing was found, and it was decided that the story might refer to the bones of horses left for dead at Poison Rock during Robert Austin's expedition of 1854.
The mystery of Leichhardt's fate remained in the minds of explorers for many years. During David Carnegie's expedition through the Gibson and Great Sandy Deserts in 1896 he encountered some Aborigines who had among their possessions an iron tent peg, the lid of a tin matchbox and part of the ironwork of a saddle. Carnegie speculated that these were from Leichhardt's expedition. Except for a small brass plate that was found in 1900 bearing Leichhardt's name, "no artefacts with corroborated provenance have been able to shed light on Leichhardt's final expedition".
In 1975, a ranger named Zac Mathias exhibited photographs in Darwin of Aboriginal cave paintings that showed white men with an animal.
Leichhardt nameplate
In 2006 Australian historians and scientists authenticated a tiny brass plate (15 cm × 2 cm) marked "LUDWIG LEICHHARDT 1848", discovered around 1900 by an Aboriginal stockman near Sturt Creek, between the Tanami and Great Sandy deserts, just inside Western Australia from the border with the Northern Territory. When found, the plate was attached to a partially burnt shotgun slung in a boab tree which was engraved with the initial "L". The plate is now part of the National Museum of Australia collection.
Before the nameplate was authenticated, historians could only speculate on the route Leichhardt had taken and how far he had journeyed before perishing. The location of the plate indicated that he made it at least two thirds of the way across the continent during his east-west crossing attempt. It also suggested that he was following a northern arc from Moreton Bay in Queensland to the Swan River in Western Australia, following the headwaters of rivers, rather than heading straight through the desert interior.
Aboriginal oral history
In 2003, a librarian found a letter in the NSW State Library that may shed light on Leichhardt's disappearance. Dated 2 April 1874, the letter, received by Sydney clergyman William Branwhite Clarke, was written by W.P. Gordon, a station owner from the Darling Downs who had met Leichhardt in the days before his party vanished. The letter relates how Gordon moved to Wallumbilla and how, after living there for more than 10 years, he had befriended the Wallumbilla tribe who in time came to openly share their stories and folklore with him. One detailed story referred to the death of a white man who was leading a party of mules and bullocks along the Maranoa River many years earlier. According to the Wallumbilla, a large group of Aboriginals had encircled the party and murdered everyone in it. It has been speculated that if the story was true, the expedition's belongings were likely traded widely after the massacre, explaining how items that could only have come from Leichhardt's expedition were found in the Gibson Desert and why the rifle butt with the brass plate was found some 4,000 kilometres west of the Maranoa River.
Theories
The validity of all the claimed 'Leichhardt' relics and the various theories proposed is discussed in a 2013 book entitled Where is Dr Leichhardt?: the greatest mystery in Australian history.
Legacy
Leichhardt's contribution to science, especially his successful expedition to Port Essington in 1845, was officially recognised. In 1847 the Geographical Society, Paris, awarded its annual prize for geographic discovery equally to Leichhardt and a French explorer, Rochet d'Héricourt; also in 1847, the Royal Geographical Society in London awarded Leichhardt its Patron's Medal; and Prussia recognised his achievement by granting him a king's pardon for having failed to return to Prussia when due to serve a period of compulsory military training. The Port Essington expedition was one of the longest land exploration journeys in Australia, and a useful one in the discovery of excellent pastoral country.
Leichhardt's accounts and collections were valued, and his observations are generally considered to be accurate. He is remembered as one of the most authoritative early recorders of Australia's environment and the best trained natural scientist to explore Australia to that time. Leichhardt left a record of his observations in Australia from 1842 to 1848 in diaries, letters, notebooks, sketch-books, maps, and in his published works.
A detailed map of Ludwig Leichhardt's route in Australia from Moreton Bay to Port Essington (1844 & 1845), from his Original Map, adjusted and drawn... by John Arrowsmith was ranked #8 in the ‘Top 150: Documenting Queensland’ exhibition when it toured to venues around Queensland from February 2009 to April 2010. The exhibition was part of Queensland State Archives’ events and exhibition program which contributed to the state’s Q150 celebrations, marking the 150th anniversary of the separation of Queensland from New South Wales.
Harsh criticism of Leichhardt's character was published some time after his disappearance and his reputation suffered badly. The fairness of this criticism continues to be debated. Leichhardt's failed attempt to make the first east–west crossing of the Australian continent may be compared with the Burke and Wills expedition of 1860-61, which succeeded in crossing from south to north, but failed to return. However, Leichhardt's success in making it to Port Essington in 1845 was a major achievement, which ranks him with other successful European explorers of Australia.
Australia has commemorated Ludwig Leichhardt through the use of his name in several places: Leichhardt, a suburb in the Inner West of Sydney, and the surrounding Municipality of Leichhardt; Leichhardt, a suburb of Ipswich; the Leichhardt Highway and the Leichhardt River in Queensland; and the Division of Leichhardt in the Australian Parliament. The name of the eucalyptus tree species Corymbia leichhardtii commemorates Leichhardt.
The insect Petasida ephippigera is commonly known as Leichhardt's grasshopper, and an alternative name for the largetooth sawfish (Pristis pristis) is Leichhardt's sawfish.
On 23 October 1988, a monument was erected beside Leichhardt's blazed tree at Taroom by the local historical society and tourism association to celebrate Leichhardt's 175th birthday and the Bicentenary of Australia.[2] The tree was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register in 1992.
In popular culture
Leichhardt's life inspired a range of "Lemurian" novels, starting with George Firth Scott's book The Last Lemurian (1898). His last expedition was the inspiration for the 1957 novel Voss by Patrick White.
In February 2013 the band Manilla Road released a song called Mysterium, based on Leichhardt's explorations and disappearance.
See also
List of people who disappeared
Literary works
, available online
Letters from Leichhardt to his fellow expedition team member Frederick Isaac are held in the State Library of New South Wales.
References
Bibliography
Roderick, Colin: "Leichhardt, the dauntless explorer", North Ryde (Sydney): Angus & Robertson 1988,
Nicholls, Angus (2011). Discussion of Leichhardt's influence on Patrick White's novel Voss, ABC Radio National Book Show, 25 January
Nicholls, Angus (2012). "The Core of this Dark Continent: Ludwig Leichhardt's Australian Explorations", in Transnational Networks: Germans in the British Empire 1670-1914, ed. John R. Davis, Stefan Manz and Margrit Schulte Beerbühl (Leiden: Brill).
Nicholls, Angus (2013). "The Young Leichhardt's Diaries in the Context of his Australian Cultural Legacy", in Memoirs of the Queensland Museum – Culture 7, no. 2, 541-59
Nicholls, Angus (2015). "Leichhardt and Voss Revisited", in Patrick White Beyond the Grave: New Critical Perspectives, ed. Ian Henderson and Anouk Lang, London: Anthem Press, 35-66
External links
A complete written version of Leichhardt's expedition-
Works by Ludwig Leichhardt at Project Gutenberg Australia
Ludwig Leichhardt online collection – State Library of NSW
Ludwig Leichhardt series, National Museum of Australia Audio on Demand: Papers presented to the Leichhardt symposium, National Museum of Australia, 15 June 2007
Journal of an Overland Expedition in Australia
1813 births
1840s deaths
1840s missing person cases
19th-century Lutherans
Australian Lutherans
Explorers of Australia
German emigrants to Australia
Lost explorers
Missing person cases in Australia
People from Prussia
Pre-Separation Queensland
Year of death unknown
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] |
207214
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Washington%20%28BB-56%29
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USS Washington (BB-56)
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USS Washington (BB-56) was the second and final member of the of fast battleships, the first vessel of the type built for the United States Navy. Built under the Washington Treaty system, North Carolinas design was limited in displacement and armament, though the United States used a clause in the Second London Naval Treaty to increase the main battery from the original armament of nine guns to nine guns. The ship was laid down in 1938 and completed in May 1941, while the United States was still neutral during World War II. Her initial career was spent training along the East Coast of the United States until after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, bringing the United States into the war.
Washington was initially deployed to Britain to reinforce the Home Fleet, which was tasked with protecting convoys carrying supplies to the Soviet Union. She saw no action during this period, as the German fleet remained in port, and Washington was recalled to the US in July 1942 to be refitted and transferred to the Pacific. Immediately sent to the south Pacific to reinforce Allied units fighting the Guadalcanal campaign, the ship became the flagship of Rear Admiral Willis Lee. She saw action at the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal on the night of 14–15 November in company with the battleship and four destroyers. After South Dakota inadvertently drew heavy Japanese fire by sailing too closely to Admiral Nobutake Kondō's squadron, Washington took advantage of the Japanese preoccupation with South Dakota to inflict fatal damage on the Japanese battleship and the destroyer , while avoiding damage herself. Washingtons attack disrupted Kondō's planned bombardment of U.S. Marine positions on Guadalcanal and forced the remaining Japanese ships to withdraw.
From 1943 onward, she was primarily occupied with screening the fast carrier task force, though she also occasionally shelled Japanese positions in support of the various amphibious assaults. During this period, Washington participated in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign in late 1943 and early 1944, the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign in mid-1944, and the Philippines campaign in late 1944 and early 1945. Operations to capture Iwo Jima and Okinawa followed in 1945, and during the later stages of the Battle of Okinawa, Washington was detached to undergo an overhaul, though by the time it was completed, Japan had surrendered, ending the war. Washington then moved to the east coast of the US, where she was refitted to serve as a troop transport as part of Operation Magic Carpet, carrying a group of over 1,600 soldiers home from Britain. She was thereafter decommissioned in 1947 and assigned to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, where she remained until 1960 when she was stricken from the naval register and sold for scrap the next year.
Design
The North Carolina class was the first new battleship design built under the Washington Naval Treaty system; her design was bound by the terms of the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936, which added a restriction on her main battery of guns no larger than . The General Board evaluated a number of designs ranging from traditional battleships akin to the "standard" series or fast battleships, and ultimately a fast battleship armed with twelve 14-inch guns was selected. After the ships were authorized, however, the United States invoked the escalator clause in the treaty that allowed an increase to guns in the event that any member nation refused to sign the treaty, which Japan refused to do.
Washington was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of . Her standard displacement amounted to and increased to at full combat load. The ship was powered by four General Electric steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by eight oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. Rated at , the turbines were intended to give a top speed of . The ship had a cruising range of at a speed of . She carried three Vought OS2U Kingfisher floatplanes for aerial reconnaissance, which were launched by a pair of aircraft catapults on her fantail. Her peace-time crew numbered 1,800 officers and enlisted men, but the crew swelled to 99 officers and 2,035 enlisted during the war.
The ship was armed with a main battery of nine 16 in /45 caliber Mark 6 guns guns in three triple-gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward, with the third aft. The secondary battery consisted of twenty /38 caliber dual purpose guns mounted in twin turrets clustered amidships, five turrets on either side. As designed, the ship was equipped with an anti-aircraft battery of sixteen guns and eighteen .50-caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns, but her anti-aircraft battery was expanded greatly during her career.
The main armored belt was thick, while the main armored deck was up to thick. The main battery gun turrets had thick faces, and they were mounted atop barbettes that were protected with the same thickness of steel. The conning tower had thick sides. The ship's armor layout had been designed with opponents equipped with 14-inch guns in mind, but since the treaty system broke down just before construction began, her design could not be revised to improve the scale of protection to defend against heavier guns. Despite this shortcoming, the North Carolina class proved to be more successful battleships than the better-armored but very cramped .
Modifications
Washington received a number of upgrades over the course of her career, primarily consisting of radar and a new light anti-aircraft battery. The ship received three Mark 3 fire-control radar sets for the main battery, four Mark 4 radars for the secondary guns, a CXAM air-search radar, and an SG surface-search radar. During her early 1944 refit, she received an SK air-search radar in place of the CXAM and a second SG radar; her Mark 3 radars were replaced with more advanced Mark 8 sets, though she retained one of the Mark 3s as a backup. Her Mark 4 radars were later replaced with a combination of Mark 12 and Mark 22 sets. In her final refit in August and September 1945, she had an SK radar forward, an SR air-search set aft, and an SG radar in both positions. A TDY jammer was installed on her forward fire control tower.
Washingtons 1.1 in battery was replaced with forty Bofors guns in ten quadruple mounts in April 1943, and in August, the number of guns had increased to sixty in fifteen quadruple mounts. Her original light battery of eighteen .50-cal machine guns was decreased to twelve and twenty Oerlikon autocannon in single mounts were installed in early 1942. In June, she had her .50-cal battery increased to twenty-eight barrels, but by September, all were replaced in favor of a uniform battery of forty 20 mm cannon. During the April 1943 refit, her anti-aircraft armament was increased to a total of sixty-four 20 mm cannon. A year later, in April 1944, she lost one of the single mounts in favor of an experimental quadruple 20 mm mount. In November 1944, the ship was slated to have the battery reduced to 48 barrels, but this never happened and instead, in early 1945, she had eight single mounts replaced with eight twin mounts, bringing her final 20 mm battery to seventy-five guns.
Service history
The keel for Washington was laid down on 14 June 1938 at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. Her completed hull was launched on 1 June 1940, and after completing fitting-out work, she was commissioned into the fleet on 15 May 1941. She began builder's sea trials on 3 August, but like her sister ship , she suffered from excessive vibration while running at high speed from her original three-bladed screws. Tests with North Carolina produced a workable solution (though the problem was never fully corrected): two four-bladed screws on the outer shafts and two five-bladed propellers on the inboard shafts. Tests continued during her shakedown cruise and subsequent initial training, which were conducted along the East Coast of the United States, as far south as the Gulf of Mexico. She conducted high speed tests in December, during which she failed to reach her designed speed due to the vibration problems.
During this period, the United States was still neutral during World War II. Washington frequently trained with North Carolina and the aircraft carrier , with Washington serving as the flagship of Rear Admiral John W. Wilcox Jr., the commander of Battleship Division (BatDiv) 6, part of the Atlantic Fleet. Her initial working up training continued into 1942, by which time the country had entered the war as a result of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and Germany's subsequent declaration of war. Modifications to the ship's screws continued as late as February 1942, but these also proved unsuccessful.
Atlantic operations
With the country now at war, Washington was assigned as the flagship of Task Force (TF) 39, still under Wilcox's command, which departed for Britain on 26 March. The unit, which included Wasp and the heavy cruisers and , were to reinforce the British Home Fleet based in Scapa Flow. The Home Fleet had been weakened by the need to detach units, particularly Force H, to take part in the invasion of Madagascar, and the American battle group was needed to help counter the German battleship and other heavy surface units based in occupied Norway. The next day, while crossing the Atlantic, Wilcox was swept overboard. Tuscaloosa and a pair of destroyers searched for the admiral, and Wasp sent aircraft aloft to assist the effort, but lookouts on the destroyer spotted him, face down in the water, having already drowned. The search was called off and the task force continued on to its destination. Rear Admiral Robert C. Giffen, aboard Wichita, took command of the unit, which was met at sea by the British cruiser on 3 April. The ships arrived in Scapa Flow two days later, where it came under the command of Admiral John Tovey, the commander of the Home Fleet.
For the rest of the month, Washington and the other American ships were occupied with battle practice and familiarization training with the Home Fleet to prepare the different countries' ships for joint operations. TF 39 was redesignated TF 99 in late April, Washington still serving as the flagship. The ships embarked on their first operation on 28 April to conduct a sweep for German warships ahead of the supply convoy PQ 15 to the Soviet Union. The ships of TF 99 operated with elements of the Home Fleet, including the battleship and the carrier . During the operation, King George V accidentally rammed and sank the destroyer ; Washington was following too closely to avoid the wreckage, and as she passed over the sinking destroyer, Punjabis depth charges exploded. The shock from the blast damaged some of Washingtons radars and fire-control equipment and caused a small leak in one of her fuel tanks. King George V had to return to port for repairs, but Washington and the rest of TF 99 remained at sea until 5 May. The ships stopped at Hvalfjörður, Iceland, where they took on supplies from the supply ship .
The ships remained in Iceland until 15 May, when they got underway to return to Scapa Flow, arriving there on 3 June. The next day, Admiral Harold Rainsford Stark, the Commander of Naval Forces Europe, visited the ship and made her his temporary headquarters. On 7 June, King George VI came aboard to inspect Washington, and after Stark left she resumed escorting convoys in the Arctic; these included convoys QP 12, PQ 16, and PQ 17. The first two occurred at the same time, with QP 12 returning from the Soviet Union while PQ 16 carrying another load of supplies and weapons. Washington, Victorious, and the battleship provided distant support but was not directly engaged by the German U-boats and aircraft that raided PQ 16; QP 12 largely evaded German attention and passed without significant incident.
The PQ 17 operation resulted in disaster when reconnaissance incorrectly reported Tirpitz, the heavy cruisers , , and Lützow, and nine destroyers to be approaching to attack the convoy, when in reality the Germans were still off the coast of Norway, their progress having been hampered by several of the vessels running aground. The reports of German heavy units at sea prompted the convoy commander to order his ships to scatter, which left them vulnerable to U-boats and Luftwaffe attacks that sank twenty-four of the thirty-five transport ships. While in Hvalfjörður on 14 July, Giffen moved his flag back to Wichita and Washington, escorted by four destroyers, got underway to return to the United States. She arrived in Gravesend Bay on 21 July and moved to the Brooklyn Navy Yard two days later for an overhaul.
Pacific operations
Guadalcanal campaign
After completing the refit, Washington got underway on 23 August, bound for the Pacific with an escort of three destroyers. She passed through the Panama Canal on 28 August and arrived in Nukuʻalofa in Tonga on 14 September. There, she became the flagship of Rear Admiral Willis Lee, then the commander of BatDiv 6 and Task Group (TG) 12.2. On 15 September, Washington sailed to meet the ships of TF 17, centered on the carrier ; the ships thereafter operated together and went to Nouméa in New Caledonia to begin operations in support of the campaign in the Solomon Islands. The ships, based out of Nouméa and Espiritu Santo in the New Hebrides, covered convoys bringing supplies and reinforcements to the marines fighting on Guadalcanal into early November.
During one of these convoy operations in mid-October, Washington, a pair of cruisers, and five destroyers provided distant support but were too far away to take part in the Battle of Cape Esperance on the night of 11–12 October. Shortly thereafter, Washington was transferred to TF 64, the surface combatant force assigned to the Guadalcanal area, still under Lee's command. At this time, the unit also included one heavy and two light cruisers and six destroyers. Over the course of 21–24 October, Japanese land-based reconnaissance aircraft made repeated contacts with TF 64 as a Japanese fleet approached the area, but in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands that began on the 25th, the Japanese concentrated their air attacks on the American carriers of TF 17 and 61. On 27 October, the Japanese submarine attempted to torpedo Washington but missed.
By early November, the US fleet had been reduced considerably in offensive power; the carriers Wasp and Hornet had been sunk, leaving just the carrier , Washington, and the new battleship as the only capital ships available to Allied forces fighting in the campaign. Washington joined the other two ships in TF 16, which also included the heavy cruiser , and nine destroyers. The ships sortied on 11 November to return to the fighting off Guadalcanal. The cruiser and two more destroyers joined them the following day. On 13 November, after learning that a major Japanese attack was approaching, Halsey detached South Dakota, Washington, and four of the destroyers as Task Group 16.3, again under Lee's command. Enterprise, her forward elevator damaged from the action at Santa Cruz, was kept to the south as a reserve and to prevent the sole operational American carrier in the Pacific from being lost. The ships of TG 16.3 were to block an anticipated Japanese bombardment group in the waters off Guadalcanal.
Naval Battle of Guadalcanal
As Lee's task group approached Guadalcanal, his Japanese counterpart, Admiral Nobutake Kondō steamed to meet him with his main bombardment force, consisting of the fast battleship , the heavy cruisers and , and a destroyer screen. While en route, TG 16.3 was re-designated as TF 64 on 14 November; the ships passed to the south of Guadalcanal and then rounded the western end of the island to block Kondō's expected route. Japanese aircraft reported sighting Lee's formation, but identification of the ships ranged from a group of cruisers and destroyers to aircraft carriers, causing confusion among the Japanese commanders. That evening, American reconnaissance aircraft spotted Japanese warships off Savo Island, prompting Lee to order his ships to general quarters. The four destroyers were arrayed ahead of the two battleships. The American task force, having been thrown together a day before, had not operated together as a unit, and both of the battleships had very limited experience shooting their main battery, particularly at night.
At around 23:00 on 14 November, the leading Japanese destroyers in a screening force commanded by Shintarō Hashimoto sent ahead of Kondō's main force spotted Lee's ships and turned about to warn Kondō, while Washingtons search radar picked up a Japanese cruiser and a destroyer at about the same time. The ships' fire control radars then began tracking the Japanese vessels and Lee ordered both of his battleships to open fire when ready. Washington fired first with her main battery at 23:17 at a range of while her secondary guns fired star shells to illuminate the targets, followed shortly by South Dakota. One of the Japanese destroyers, , revealed her position by opening fire on the American destroyer screen, allowing Washington to target her, inflicting serious damage that disabled her propulsion machinery and started a major fire.
Shortly thereafter, at about 23:30, an error in the electrical switchboard room knocked out power aboard South Dakota, disabling her radar systems and leaving the ship all but blind to the Japanese vessels approaching the force. By this time, Hashimoto's ships had inflicted serious damage on the American destroyer screen; two of the destroyers were torpedoed (one of which, , survived until the following morning) and a third was destroyed by gunfire. Washington was now left essentially alone to engage the Japanese squadron, though they had yet to actually detect her presence. While Washingtons captain, Glenn B. Davis, kept his ship on the disengaged side of the flaming wrecks of the destroyer screen, South Dakota was forced to turn in front of one of the burning destroyers to avoid a collision, which backlit her to the Japanese ships, drawing their fire and allowing Washington to engage them undisturbed.
At 23:35, Washingtons SG radar detected Kondō's main force and tracked them for the next twenty minutes. At 23:58, South Dakotas power was restored and her radar picked up the Japanese ships less than ahead. Two minutes later, the leading Japanese ship, Atago, illuminated South Dakota with her search lights and the Japanese line promptly opened fire, scoring twenty-seven hits. Washington, still undetected, opened fire, allocating two of her 5-inch guns to engage Atago and two to fire star shells, while the rest joined her main battery in battering Kirishima at a range of . Washington scored probably nine 16-inch hits and as many as forty 5-inch hits, inflicting grievous damage. Kirishima was badly holed below the waterline, her forward two turrets were knocked out, and her rudder was jammed, forcing her to steer in a circle to port with an increasing starboard list.
Washington then shifted fire to Atago and Takao, and though straddled the former, failed to score any significant hits; the barrage nevertheless convinced both cruisers to turn off their search lights and reverse course in an attempt to launch torpedoes. At 00:13, the two cruisers fired a spread of sixteen Long Lance torpedoes at Washington, then about away, though they all missed. At 00:20, Lee turned his sole surviving combatant (he had ordered the surviving destroyers to disengage earlier in the engagement, and South Dakotas captain, having determined that his ship had been damaged sufficiently to prevent her from taking further action, decided to break off as well) to close with Kondō's cruisers. Atago and Takao briefly engaged with their main batteries and the former launched three more torpedoes, all of which missed. Kondō then ordered the light forces of his reconnaissance screen to make a torpedo attack, but Hashimoto's ships were far out of position and were unable to comply. Rear Admiral Raizō Tanaka, who was escorting a supply convoy to Guadalcanal and had thus far not participated in the action, detached two destroyers to aid Kondō. When these ships arrived on the scene, Lee ordered Washington to turn to reverse course at 00:33 to avoid a possible torpedo attack from the destroyers.
Tanaka's two destroyers closed to launch their torpedoes while Washington was disengaging, prompting her to take evasive maneuvers. While withdrawing to the south, Lee kept Washington far west of the damaged American warships so that any Japanese vessels pursuing him would not be drawn onto the damaged vessels. An hour later, Kondō cancelled the bombardment and attempted to contact Kirishima, but after failing to receive a response, sent destroyers to investigate the crippled battleship. She was found burning furiously, still turning slowly to port as progressively worsening flooding disabled her boilers. At 03:25, she capsized and sank; by this time, Ayanami had also been abandoned and sank as a result of the damage inflicted by Washington. By 09:00, Washington had formed back up with South Dakota and the destroyers Benham and to withdraw from the area. In addition to blocking Kondō's planned bombardment, Lee had delayed Tanaka's convoy late enough that the transports could not unload under cover of darkness, and so they were forced to beach themselves on the island, where they were repeatedly attacked and badly damaged by aircraft from Enterprise and Henderson Field, field artillery, and the destroyer later that morning.
Later operations
Washington returned to screening the carriers of TF 11——and TF 16—Enterprise—while South Dakota departed for repairs. By late November, Lee's command was reinforced by North Carolina, followed later by the battleship . These battleships were grouped together as TF 64, still under Lee's command, and they covered convoys to support the fighting in the Solomons into the next year. These operations included covering a group of seven transports carrying elements of the 25th Infantry Division to Guadalcanal from 1 to 4 January 1943. During another of these convoy operations later that month, Lee's battleships were too far south to be able to reach the American cruiser force during the Battle of Rennell Island. Washington remained in the south Pacific until 30 April, when she departed Nouméa for Pearl Harbor. On the way, she joined the ships of TF 16. The ships arrived on 8 May.
For the next twenty days, Washington operated as the flagship of TF 60, which conducted combat training off the coast of Hawaii. On 28 May, she went into dry dock at the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard for repairs and installation of new equipment. This included a new set of screws that again failed to remediate the vibration problems. Once this work was completed, she resumed training exercises in the area until 27 July, when she got underway with a convoy bound for the south Pacific. For the voyage, she was attached to TG 56.14, and on arriving in the area was detached on 5 August to proceed independently to Havannah Harbor at Efate in the New Hebrides, which she reached two days later. Washington spent the next two months conducting tactical training with the carrier task forces in the Efate area in preparation for upcoming campaigns in the central Pacific.
Now part of TG 53.2, which included three other battleships and six destroyers, Washington got underway on 31 October. The ships met TG 53.3, centered on the carriers Enterprise, , and , the next day, for extensive training exercises that lasted until 5 November. The groups then dispersed and Washington left with escorting destroyers for Viti Levu in the Fiji Islands, which she reached on 7 November.
Gilberts and Marshall Islands campaign
Washington, still Lee's flagship, sortied on 11 November in company with the ships of BatDivs 8 and 9, and four days later they joined TG 50.1, centered on the carrier . The fleet proceeded on to the Gilbert Islands, where marines were preparing to land on Tarawa. The carriers of TF 50 launched their strikes on 19 November, continuing into the next day as the marines went ashore on Tarawa and Makin. The attacks continued through 22 November, when the fleet steamed to the north of Makin to patrol the area. On 25 November, the groups of TF 50 were reorganized and Washington was transferred to TG 50.4, along with the carriers and and the battleships South Dakota and .
From 26 to 28 November, the carrier groups operated off Makin to cover the landing of troops and supplies on the island. Japanese aircraft attacked the groups on 27 and 28 November, but they inflicted little damage on the American ships. On 6 December, with the fighting in the Gilberts over, Washington was detached to create TG 50.8 along with North Carolina, South Dakota, Alabama, Indiana, and , covered by Bunker Hill, Monterey, and eleven destroyers. The battleships were sent to bombard the island of Nauru two days later, thereafter returning to Efate on 12 December. The ships remained there only briefly before departing on 25 December for gunnery training with North Carolina and four destroyers. The ships returned to port on 7 January 1944, at which time Washington was assigned to TG 37.2, along with Bunker Hill and Monterey. The ships got underway on 18 January, bound for the next target in the campaign: the Marshall Islands.
The ships stopped briefly in Funafuti in the Ellice Islands on 20 January before departing three days later to meet the rest of what was now TF 58; the unit, which comprised the fast carrier task force, had been created under the command of Rear Admiral Marc Mitscher on 6 January. Washingtons unit was accordingly re-numbered as TG 58.1. Having arrived off the main target at Kwajalein by late January, Washington screened the carriers while they conducted extensive strikes on the island and neighboring Taroa. On 30 January, Washington, Massachusetts, and Indiana were detached from the carriers to bombard Kwajalein with an escort of four destroyers. After returning to the carriers the next day, the battleships resumed guard duty while the carriers resumed their air strikes.
While patrolling off the island in the early hours of 1 February, Indiana cut in front of Washington to go refuel a group of destroyers, causing the latter to ram the former and significantly damaging both ships. Washington had some of bow plating torn from her bow, causing it to collapse. The two vessels withdrew to Majuro for temporary repairs; Washingtons crumpled bow was reinforced to allow her to steam to Pearl Harbor on 11 February for further temporary repairs. After arriving there, she was fitted with a temporary bow before continuing on to the Puget Sound Navy Yard in Bremerton, Washington, for permanent repairs. Another new set of screws was installed and in April, Washington conducted vibration tests that revealed a partial solution: the ship could now steam at high speed without significant issues, but vibration was still excessive at speeds between . Once the work was completed, the ship joined BatDiv 4 and took on a group of 500 passengers before departing for Pearl Harbor. She arrived there on 13 May and disembarked the passengers and proceeding back to the fleet at Majuro. On arrival on 7 June, she resumed her service as now-Vice Admiral Lee's flagship.
Mariana and Palau Islands campaign
Shortly after Washington arrived, the fleet got underway to begin the assault on the Mariana Islands; the carriers struck targets on Saipan, Tinian, Guam, Rota, and Pagan to weaken Japanese defenses before ground forces went ashore. At the time, she was assigned to TG 58.7, which consisted of seven fast battleships, was distributed between the four carrier task groups. On 13 June, Washington and several other battleships were detached to bombard Saipan and Tinian before being relieved by the amphibious force's bombardment group the next day. On 15 June, the fast carrier task force steamed north to hit targets in the Volcano and Bonin Islands, including Iwo Jima, Chichi Jima, and Haha Jima. At the same time, marines stormed the beaches on Saipan; landing was a breach of Japan's inner defensive perimeter that triggered the Japanese fleet to launch a major counter-thrust with the 1st Mobile Fleet, the main carrier strike force.
Ozawa's departure was observed by the American submarine ; other submarines, including and , tracked the Japanese fleet as it approached, keeping Admiral Raymond Spruance, the Fifth Fleet commander, informed of their movements. As the Japanese fleet approached, Washington and the rest of TF 58 steamed to meet it on 18 June, leading to the Battle of the Philippine Sea on 19–20 June. Washington and the other battleships, with four cruisers and thirteen destroyers, were deployed some west of the carrier groups to screen the likely path of approach. The Japanese launched their aircraft first, and as they probed the American fleet's defenses, Washington and North Carolina were the first battleships to open fire on the attacking Japanese aircraft. During the action, which was fought primarily by the carriers, the US fleet inflicted serious losses on the Japanese, destroying hundreds of their aircraft and sinking three carriers.
With the 1st Mobile Fleet defeated and withdrawing, Washington and the rest of TF 58 returned to the Marianas. She continued to screen the carriers during the Battle of Guam until 25 July, when Washington steamed with the carriers of TG 58.4 to raid the Palau Islands. The attacks lasted until 6 August, when Washington, Indiana, Alabama, the light cruiser , and escorting destroyers were detached as TG 58.7 to proceed to Eniwetok. After arriving there on 11 August, the ships refueled and replenished ammunition and other supplies, remaining there for most of the month. On 30 August, the task group got underway with the rest of the fast carrier strike force, which by now had been transferred to Third Fleet command and renumbered TF 38. At this time, Washington was assigned to TG 38.3. The ships sailed first south to the Admiralty Islands and then west, back to the Palaus. There, the carriers began a series of strikes from 6 to 8 September on various targets in the Palaus; Washington contributed her heavy guns to the bombardment of Peleliu and Anguar before the marines assaulted both islands later that month.
On 9 and 10 September, task groups 38.1, 38.2, and 38.3 left the Palaus to raid Japanese airfields on Mindanao in the southern Philippines, part of the standard practice to neutralize nearby positions that could interfere with the upcoming assault on the Palaus. Finding few Japanese forces on the island, the carriers shifted north to the Visayas in the central Philippines from 12 to 14 September. The carrier groups then withdrew to refuel at sea before returning to the Philippines to attack airfields on Luzon from 21 and 22 September before making further attacks on installations in the Visayas on 24 September. The carrier groups then proceeded north to make a series of strikes on airfields in Okinawa, Formosa, and Luzon in preparation for the upcoming invasion of the Philippines.
Philippines campaign
TF 38 embarked on the raids to isolate the Philippines and suppress the units of the 1st Air Fleet on 6 October; Washington remained Lee's flagship, attached to TG 38.3. The first operation was a major strike on Japanese air bases on the island of Okinawa on 10 October. The next day, the ships of TG 38.3 refueled at sea before joining the other three task groups for major raids on Formosa that took place from 12 to 14 October. As the fleet withdrew the next day, it defended itself against heavy Japanese air attacks, though the ships of TG 38.3 were not directly engaged as the Japanese attacks concentrated on task groups 38.1 and 38.4. On the 16th, a submarine reported observing a Japanese squadron consisting of three cruisers and eight destroyers searching for damaged Allied warships, and TG 38.3 and TG 38.2 steamed north to catch them, but the aircraft were only able to locate and sink a torpedo boat.
On 17 October, the two task groups withdrew to the south to cover the invasion of Leyte with the rest of TF 38, the same day that elements of Sixth Army went ashore; the raids on Luzon continued into 19 October. By this time, Washington had been reassigned to TG 38.4, screening Enterprise, the fleet carrier , and the light carriers and . On 21 October, TG 38.4 withdrew to refuel, during which time they also covered the withdrawal of ships that had been damaged during the Formosa raid, which were still on their way to Ulithi. TG 38.4 was recalled to Leyte the next day.
Battle of Leyte Gulf
The landing on Leyte led to the activation of Operation Shō-Gō 1, the Japanese navy's planned riposte to an Allied landing in the Philippines. The plan was a complicated operation with three separate fleets: The 1st Mobile Fleet, now labeled the Northern Force under Jisaburō Ozawa, the Center Force under Takeo Kurita, and the Southern Force under Shōji Nishimura. Ozawa's carriers, by now depleted of most of their aircraft, were to serve as a decoy for Kurita's and Nishimura's battleships, which were to use the distraction to attack the invasion fleet directly. Kurita's ships were detected in the San Bernardino Strait on 24 October, and in the ensuing Battle of the Sibuyan Sea, American carrier aircraft sank the powerful battleship , causing Kurita to temporarily reverse course. This convinced Admiral William F. Halsey, the commander of Third Fleet, to send the fast carrier task force to destroy the 1st Mobile Fleet, which had by then been detected. Washington steamed north with the carriers, and on the way Halsey established TF 34, under Lee's command, consisting of Washington and five other fast battleships, seven cruisers, and eighteen destroyers.
On the morning of 25 October, Mitscher began his first attack on the Northern Force, initiating the Battle off Cape Engaño; over the course of six strikes on the Japanese fleet, the Americans sank all four carriers and damaged two old battleships that had been converted into hybrid carriers. Unknown to Halsey and Mitscher, Kurita had resumed his approach through the San Bernardino Strait late on 24 October and passed into Leyte Gulf the next morning. While Mitscher was occupied with the decoy Northern Force, Kurita moved in to attack the invasion fleet; in the Battle off Samar, he was held off by a group of escort carriers, destroyers, and destroyer escorts, TU 77.4.3, known as Taffy 3. Frantic calls for help later that morning led Halsey to detach Lee's battleships to head south and intervene.
However, Halsey waited more than an hour after receiving orders from Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet, to detach TF 34; still steaming north during this interval, the delay added two hours to the battleships' voyage south. A need to refuel destroyers further slowed TF 34's progress south. Heavy resistance from Taffy 3 threw Kurita's battleships and cruisers into disarray and led him to break off the attack before Washington and the rest of TF 34 could arrive. Halsey detached the battleships and as TG 34.5 to pursue Kurita through the San Bernardino Strait while Lee took the rest of his ships further southwest to try to cut off his escape, but both groups arrived too late. The historian H. P. Wilmott speculated that had Halsey detached TF 34 promptly and not delayed the battleships by refueling the destroyers, the ships could have easily arrived in the strait ahead of Center Force and, owing to the marked superiority of their radar-directed main guns, destroyed Kurita's ships.
Later operations
After the battle, the units of TF 38 withdrew to Ulithi to replenish fuel and ammunition for further operations in the Philippines. The carrier task forces got underway again on 2 November for more strikes on the airfields on Luzon and the Visayas that continued until 14 November, when they withdrew again to Ulithi, arriving there three days later. On 18 November, Lee exchanged flagships with Rear Admiral Edward Hanson, the commander of BatDiv 9, who had used South Dakota as his flagship. At the same time, Washington was transferred to TG 38.3, in company with South Dakota and North Carolina. The ships sortied on 22 November for gunnery training while the carriers conducted strikes independently against targets in the Philippines over the next three days. She arrived back in Ulithi on 2 December, where the crew made repairs and loaded ammunition and stores for future operations.
The units of TF 38 got underway again on 11 December for more attacks on Luzon to suppress Japanese aircraft as the amphibious force prepared for its next landing on the island of Mindoro in the western Philippines. The raid lasted from 14 to 16 December, and while the fleet withdrew to refuel on 17 December, Typhoon Cobra swept through the area, battering the fleet and sinking three destroyers. The damage inflicted on the fleet delayed further support of ground troops for two days and the continuing bad weather led Halsey to break off operations; the ships arrived back in Ulithi on 24 December.
On 30 December, the fleet got underway to make preparatory strikes for the landing on Luzon; Washington remained with TG 38.3 for the operation. The carriers struck Formosa again on 3 and 4 January 1945; after refueling at sea on 5 January, the carriers struck kamikazes massed at airfields on Luzon on 6 and 7 January to neutralize them before the invasion of Lingayen Gulf. Further attacks on Formosa and Okinawa followed on 9 January. The next day, the carrier groups entered the South China Sea, where it refueled and then struck targets in French Indochina on the assumption that significant Japanese naval forces were present, but only merchant ships and a number of minor warships were caught and sunk there. During these raids, other elements of the Allied fleet invaded Lingayen Gulf on Luzon.
Iwo Jima and Okinawa campaigns
In February, she escorted carriers during attacks on the Japanese island of Honshu to disrupt Japanese air forces that might interfere with the planned invasion of Iwo Jima in the Volcano Islands. Fifth Fleet had re-assumed command of the fast carrier task force by this point, and Washington was now part of TG 58.4. The fleet sortied from Ulithi on 10 February, and after conducting training exercises off Tinian on the 12th, refueled at sea on 14 February and continued on north to launch strikes on the Tokyo area two days later. The raids continued through 17 February and the next day, the fleet withdrew to refuel and TG 58.4 was sent to hit other islands in the Bonin chain to further isolate Iwo Jima. During the preparatory bombardment for that attack, Washington, North Carolina, and the heavy cruiser were detached from the task group to reinforce TF 54, the assault force for the invasion; she remained on station during the marine assault and provided fire support as they fought their way across the island through 22 February. The next day, the carrier groups reassembled and refueled on 24 February for further operations against the Japanese mainland.
After leaving Iwo Jima, the fleet resumed air attacks on the Home Islands to prepare for the next amphibious assault on Okinawa in the Ryukus. The first of these, on 25 and 26 February, hit targets in the Tokyo area, followed by another attack on Iwo Jima the next day. The fleet refueled on 28 February and on 1 March raided Okinawa, thereafter returning to Ulithi on 4 March. While in Ulithi, the fleet was reorganized and Washington was transferred to TG 58.3. The fleet sortied on 14 March for additional attacks on Japan; the ships refueled on 16 March on the way and they launched their aircraft two days later to hit targets in Kyushu. The attacks continued into the next day, causing significant damage to Japanese facilities on the island and sinking or damaging numerous warships. The task groups withdrew to refuel and reorganize on 22 March, as several carriers had been damaged by kamikaze and air attacks.
On 24 March, Washington bombarded Japanese positions on Okinawa as the fleet continued to pummel defenses before the invasion. By this time, Washington had been transferred to TG 58.2. Carrier raids on the Home Islands and the Ryukus continued after landing on Okinawa on 1 April. While operating off the island, the fleet came under heavy and repeated kamikaze attacks, one of the largest of which took place on 7 April in concert with the sortie of the battleship . Washington was not damaged in these attacks, however, which were largely defeated by the carriers' combat air patrols. On 19 April, the battleship again closed with Okinawa to bombard Japanese positions as the Marines fought their way south. Washington remained off the island until late May, when she was detached for an overhaul. She proceeded first to San Pedro Bay, Leyte, arriving there on 1 June, before departing for Puget Sound on 6 June. While crossing the Pacific, she stopped in Guam and Pearl Harbor before finally arriving in Bremerton on 23 June. Her refit continued into September, by which time Japan had surrendered on 15 August and formally ended the war on 2 September.
Post-war
After completing her refit in September, Washington conducted sea trials, followed by a short period of training while based in San Pedro, Los Angeles. She then got underway for the Panama Canal and on 6 October joined TG 11.6 on the way, thereafter passing through the canal and steaming north to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. She arrived there on 17 October and took part in Navy Day celebrations on 27 October. Slated to take part in Operation Magic Carpet, the sea-lift operation to bring American service members home, Washington went into the shipyard in Philadelphia to be modified to carry additional personnel. Additional space was provided by substantially reducing the crew, to 84 officers and 835 enlisted men; with the war over, the ship's weapons needed no gun crews. The work was completed by 15 November, when she got underway for Britain. She arrived in Southampton on 22 November. Washington embarked a contingent of Army personnel totaling 185 officers and 1,479 enlisted men and then re-crossed the Atlantic to New York, where she was decommissioned on 27 June 1947.
She was assigned to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet, based in New York, where she remained through the 1950s. Beginning already in 1946, the Ships Characteristics Board authorized the removal a number of the 40 mm guns from the North Carolina and South Dakota class battleships that had been decommissioned. These guns were then installed on the s when they were reactivated for the Korean War. Washington and the other battleships had their 20 mm batteries removed entirely by October 1951. The Navy considered modernizing Washington and North Carolina in May 1954, which would have provided an anti-aircraft battery of twelve guns in twin turrets. The ships' slow speed prevented them from effectively serving with the carrier task forces and the Navy determined that a speed of would be necessary. To achieve this, the power plant would have to provide at the current displacement; even removing the aft turret and using that magazine space for additional boilers would not have produced the necessary power. By removing all of the belt armor, the ship would have only required to reach the desired speed, but the aft hull would have had to have been significantly rebuilt to accommodate the larger screws that would have been required. The Navy considered the possibility of removing the ships' current propulsion system altogether and replacing it with the same type as used in the Iowas, which were capable of , but there was not enough room to fit the larger system. To reach the same speed, Washington would have needed to have all side armor and all three turrets removed in addition to a power plant capable of .
The cost of the project, estimated at around $40 million per ship, was deemed to be prohibitively expensive and so the project was abandoned. The ship remained in the inventory until 1 June 1960, when the ship was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register. She was sold for scrap on 24 May 1961. Washington was towed to the Lipsett Division of Luria Brothers and broken up thereafter.
Footnotes
Notes
Citations
References
Further reading
External links
navsource.org: USS Washington
1940 ships
North Carolina-class battleships
Ships built in Philadelphia
United States Navy Washington (state)-related ships
World War II battleships of the United States
|
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] |
207215
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dax
|
Dax
|
Dax or DAX may refer to:
Business and organizations
DAX, stock market index of the top 40 German companies
DAX 100, an expanded index of 100 stocks, superseded by the HDAX
TecDAX, stock index of the top 30 German technology firms
Dax Cars, British sports car manufacturer
Honda Dax, a motorcycle model
US Dax, a rugby union club based in France
People
People with the given name
Dax Cowart, American attorney
Dax Dellenbach (born 1990), American football player
Dax Griffin (born 1972), American actor
Dax Harwood (born 1984), American professional wrestler
Dax Holdren (born 1972), American beach volleyball player
Dax McCarty (born 1987), American soccer player
Dax Milne (born 1999), American football player
Dax O'Callaghan (born 1986), English singer, dancer and actor
Dax Reynosa (born 1969/1970), American hip hop artist and producer and smooth jazz musician
Dax Phelan (born 1975), American screenwriter, producer, and director,
Dax Pierson (born 1970), American musician
Dax Riggs (born 1973), lyricist and vocalist for the Louisiana metal band Acid Bath
Dax Shepard (born 1975), American actor
Dax (rapper), stagename of Nigerian Canadian rapper Daniel Nwosu Jr.
Dax, nickname for Davide Cesare (1977–2003), Italian antifascist activist
Mr. DAX, nickname for Dirk Müller, German stock trader
People with the surname
Elsa Dax (born 1972), French visual artist
Eric Cunningham Dax (1908 – 2008), Australian psychiatrist
Danielle Dax (born 1958), British musician
Guiraude de Dax (c. 1100 – c. 1130), Gascon heiress
Marc Dax (1770–1837), French neurologist
Fictional characters
Dax (Power Rangers), character in Power Rangers Operation Overdrive
Dax (Star Trek), character from the television show Star Trek: Deep Space Nine
"Dax" (Star Trek: Deep Space Nine), an episode of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine
Dax Xenos, a character in the Harold Robbins novel The Adventurers, later adapted into a film also titled The Adventurers
Colonel Dax, character in the film Paths of Glory
Dax, character on The Philanthropist
Dax, one of Haviland Tuf's cats in the series Tuf Voyaging, first seen in "Guardians"
Places
Arrondissement of Dax, an arrondissement of the Landes département of France
Canton of Dax-1, or Canton de Dax Nord, a subdivision of the arrondissement
Canton of Dax-2, or Canton de Dax Sud, a subdivision of the arrondissement
Dax, Landes, a town in France
Dax Cathedral, cathedral in the town
Dazhou Heshi Airport (IATA code), China
Science and technology
DAX or Data analysis expressions, a query language used by Microsoft software products
DAX (application), a film and television production workflow application
Microsoft Dynamics AX, an enterprise resource planning software
Other uses
Dax (rapper), stage name of Canadian rapper, singer, and songwriter Daniel Nwosu
DAX, the main German stock market index
Dax (typeface), a sans-serif typeface designed by Hans Reichel
Dax Riders, French techno/synth-funk band funded by Oliver Dax
Daxophone, a musical instrument invented by Hans Reichel
See also
DAX1, a protein involved in sex determination
DACS (disambiguation)
Daxter, a fictional character
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magi
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Magi
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Magi (; singular magus ; from Latin magus, cf. ) were priests in Zoroastrianism and the earlier religions of the western Iranians. The earliest known use of the word magi is in the trilingual inscription written by Darius the Great, known as the Behistun Inscription. Old Persian texts, predating the Hellenistic period, refer to a magus as a Zurvanic, and presumably Zoroastrian, priest.
Pervasive throughout the Eastern Mediterranean and Western Asia until late antiquity and beyond, mágos was influenced by (and eventually displaced) Greek goēs (γόης), the older word for a practitioner of magic, to include astronomy/astrology, alchemy and other forms of esoteric knowledge. This association was in turn the product of the Hellenistic fascination for Pseudo-Zoroaster, who was perceived by the Greeks to be the Chaldean founder of the Magi and inventor of both astrology and magic, a meaning that still survives in the modern-day words "magic" and "magician".
In the Gospel of Matthew, "μάγοι" (magoi) from the east do homage to the newborn Jesus, and the transliterated plural "magi" entered English from Latin in this context around 1200 (this particular use is also commonly rendered in English as "kings" and more often in recent times as "wise men"). The singular "magus" appears considerably later, when it was borrowed from Old French in the late 14th century with the meaning magician.
Hereditary Zoroastrian priesthood has survived in India and Iran. They are termed Herbad, Mobad (Magupat, i.e. chief of the Maga) and Dastur depending on the rank.
Iranian sources
The term only appears twice in Iranian texts from before the 5th century BCE, and only one of these can be dated with precision. This one instance occurs in the trilingual Behistun inscription of Darius the Great, and which can be dated to about 520 BCE. In this trilingual text, certain rebels have magian as an attribute; in the Old Persian portion as maγu- (generally assumed to be a loan word from Median). The meaning of the term in this context is uncertain.
The other instance appears in the texts of the Avesta, the sacred literature of Zoroastrianism. In this instance, which is in the Younger Avestan portion, the term appears in the hapax moghu.tbiš, meaning "hostile to the moghu", where moghu does not (as was previously thought) mean "magus", but rather "a member of the tribe" or referred to a particular social class in the proto-Iranian language and then continued to do so in Avestan.
An unrelated term, but previously assumed to be related, appears in the older Gathic Avestan language texts. This word, adjectival magavan meaning "possessing maga-", was once the premise that Avestan maga- and Median (i.e. Old Persian) magu- were coeval (and also that both these were cognates of Vedic Sanskrit magha-). While "in the Gathas the word seems to mean both the teaching of Zoroaster and the community that accepted that teaching", and it seems that Avestan maga- is related to Sanskrit magha-, "there is no reason to suppose that the western Iranian form magu (Magus) has exactly the same meaning" as well. But it "may be, however", that Avestan moghu (which is not the same as Avestan maga-) "and Medean magu were the same word in origin, a common Iranian term for 'member of the tribe' having developed among the Medes the special sense of 'member of the (priestly) tribe', hence a priest."cf
Greco-Roman sources
Classical Greek
The oldest surviving Greek reference to the magi – from Greek μάγος (mágos, plural: magoi) – might be from 6th century BCE Heraclitus (apud Clemens Protrepticus 12), who curses the magi for their "impious" rites and rituals. A description of the rituals that Heraclitus refers to has not survived, and there is nothing to suggest that Heraclitus was referring to foreigners.
Better preserved are the descriptions of the mid-5th century BCE Herodotus, who in his portrayal of the Iranian expatriates living in Asia Minor uses the term "magi" in two different senses. In the first sense (Histories 1.101), Herodotus speaks of the magi as one of the tribes/peoples (ethnous) of the Medes. In another sense (1.132), Herodotus uses the term "magi" to generically refer to a "sacerdotal caste", but "whose ethnic origin is never again so much as mentioned." According to Robert Charles Zaehner, in other accounts, "we hear of Magi not only in Persia, Parthia, Bactria, Chorasmia, Aria, Media, and among the Sakas, but also in non-Iranian lands like Samaria, Ethiopia, and Egypt. Their influence was also widespread throughout Asia Minor. It is, therefore, quite likely that the sacerdotal caste of the Magi was distinct from the Median tribe of the same name."
As early as the 5th century BCE, Greek magos had spawned mageia and to describe the activity of a magus, that is, it was his or her art and practice. But almost from the outset the noun for the action and the noun for the actor parted company. Thereafter, mageia was used not for what actual magi did, but for something related to the word 'magic' in the modern sense, i.e. using supernatural means to achieve an effect in the natural world, or the appearance of achieving these effects through trickery or sleight of hand. The early Greek texts typically have the pejorative meaning, which in turn influenced the meaning of magos to denote a conjurer and a charlatan. Already in the mid-5th century BC, Herodotus identifies the magi as interpreters of omens and dreams (Histories 7.19, 7.37, 1.107, 1.108, 1.120, 1.128).
Other Greek sources from before the Hellenistic period include the gentleman-soldier Xenophon, who had first-hand experience at the Persian Achaemenid court. In his early 4th century BCE Cyropaedia, Xenophon depicts the magians as authorities for all religious matters (8.3.11), and imagines the magians to be responsible for the education of the emperor-to-be.
Roman period
Once the magi had been associated with "magic" – Greek – it was but a natural progression that the Greeks' image of Zoroaster would metamorphose into a magician too. The first century Pliny the Elder names "Zoroaster" as the inventor of magic (Natural History xxx.2.3), but a "principle of the division of labor appears to have spared Zoroaster most of the responsibility for introducing the dark arts to the Greek and Roman worlds. That dubious honor went to another fabulous magus, Ostanes, to whom most of the pseudepigraphic magical literature was attributed." For Pliny, this magic was a "monstrous craft" that gave the Greeks not only a "lust" (aviditatem) for magic, but a downright "madness" (rabiem) for it, and Pliny supposed that Greek philosophers – among them Pythagoras, Empedocles, Democritus, and Plato – traveled abroad to study it, and then returned to teach it (xxx.2.8–10).
"Zoroaster" – or rather what the Greeks supposed him to be – was for the Hellenists the figurehead of the 'magi', and the founder of that order (or what the Greeks considered to be an order). He was further projected as the author of a vast compendium of "Zoroastrian" pseudepigrapha, composed in the main to discredit the texts of rivals. "The Greeks considered the best wisdom to be exotic wisdom" and "what better and more convenient authority than the distant – temporally and geographically – Zoroaster?" The subject of these texts, the authenticity of which was rarely challenged, ranged from treatises on nature to ones on necromancy. But the bulk of these texts dealt with astronomical speculations and magical lore.
One factor for the association with astrology was Zoroaster's name, or rather, what the Greeks made of it. His name was identified at first with star-worshiping ( "star sacrificer") and, with the Zo-, even as the living star. Later, an even more elaborate mytho-etymology evolved: Zoroaster died by the living (zo-) flux (-ro-) of fire from the star (-astr-) which he himself had invoked, and even that the stars killed him in revenge for having been restrained by him. The second, and "more serious" factor for the association with astrology was the notion that Zoroaster was a Chaldean. The alternate Greek name for Zoroaster was Zaratas / Zaradas / Zaratos (cf. Agathias 2.23–5, Clement Stromata I.15), which – according to Bidez and Cumont – derived from a Semitic form of his name. The Suda's chapter on astronomia notes that the Babylonians learned their astrology from Zoroaster. Lucian of Samosata (Mennipus 6) decides to journey to Babylon "to ask one of the magi, Zoroaster's disciples and successors", for their opinion.
In Christian tradition
The word mágos (Greek) and its variants appear in both the Old and New Testaments. Ordinarily this word is translated "magician" or "sorcerer" in the sense of illusionist or fortune-teller, and this is how it is translated in all of its occurrences (e.g. Acts 13:6) except for the Gospel of Matthew, where, depending on translation, it is rendered "wise man" (KJV, RSV) or left untranslated as Magi, typically with an explanatory note (NIV). However, early church fathers, such as St. Justin, Origen, St. Augustine and St. Jerome, did not make an exception for the Gospel, and translated the word in its ordinary sense, i.e. as "magician". The Gospel of Matthew states that magi visited the infant Jesus to do him homage shortly after his birth (). The gospel describes how magi from the east were notified of the birth of a king in Judaea by the appearance of his star. Upon their arrival in Jerusalem, they visited King Herod to determine the location of the king of the Jews's birthplace. Herod, disturbed, told them that he had not heard of the child, but informed them of a prophecy that the Messiah would be born in Bethlehem. He then asked the magi to inform him when they find the infant so that Herod may also worship him. Guided by the Star of Bethlehem, the wise men found the baby Jesus in a house; Matthew does not say if the house was in Bethlehem. They worshiped him, and presented him with "gifts of gold and of frankincense and of myrrh." (2.11) In a dream they are warned not to return to Herod, and therefore return to their homes by taking another route. Since its composition in the late 1st century, numerous apocryphal stories have embellished the gospel's account. Matthew 2:16 implies that Herod learned from the wise men that up to two years had passed since the birth, which is why all male children two years or younger were slaughtered.
In addition to the more famous story of Simon Magus found in chapter 8, the Book of Acts () also describes another magus who acted as an advisor of Sergius Paulus, the Roman proconsul at Paphos on the island of Cyprus. He was a Jew named Bar-Jesus (son of Jesus), or alternatively Elymas. (Another Cypriot magus named Atomos is referenced by Josephus, working at the court of Felix at Caesarea.)
One of the non-canonical Christian sources, the Syriac Infancy Gospel, provides, in its third chapter, a story of the wise men of the East which is very similar to much of the story in Matthew. This account cites Zoradascht (Zoroaster) as the source of the prophecy that motivated the wise men to seek the infant Jesus.
In Jewish tradition
In the Talmud, instances of dialogue between the Jewish sages and various magi are recorded. Other references include the sages ridiculing practices performed by various magi, and one sage forbids learning from the magi.
In Islamic tradition
In Arabic, "Magians" (majus) is the term for Zoroastrians. The term is mentioned in the Quran, in sura 22 verse 17, where the "Magians" are mentioned alongside the Jews, the Sabians and the Christians in a list of religions who will be judged on the Day of Resurrection.
In the 1980s, Saddam Hussein's Ba'ath Party used the term majus during the Iran–Iraq War as a generalization of all modern-day Iranians. "By referring to the Iranians in these documents as majus, the security apparatus [implied] that the Iranians [were] not sincere Muslims, but rather covertly practice their pre-Islamic beliefs. Thus, in their eyes, Iraq's war took on the dimensions of not only a struggle for Arab nationalism, but also a campaign in the name of Islam."
In Indian tradition
In India, the Sakaldwipiya Brahmins are considered to be the descendants of the ten Maga (Sanskrit मग) priests who were invited to conduct worship of Mitra (Surya) at Mitravana (Multan), as described in the Samba Purana, Bhavishya Purana and the Mahabharata. Their original home was a region named as Sakadvipa. According to Varahamihira (c. 505 - c. 587), the statue of the Sun god (Mitra), is represented as wearing the "northern" (central Asian) dress, specifically with horse riding boots. Several Brahmin communities of India trace their descent from the Magas. Several of the classical astronomers and mathematicians of India such are Varahamihira are considered to be the descendants of the Magas.
Varahamihira specifies that installation and consecration of the Sun images should be done by the Magas. Albiruni mentions that the priests of the Sun Temple at Multan were Magas. The Magas had colonies in a number of places in India, and were the priests at Konark, Martanda and other sun temples.
Possible loan into Chinese
Victor H. Mair (1990) suggested that Chinese wū (巫 "shaman; witch, wizard; magician") may originate as a loanword from Old Persian *maguš "magician; magi". Mair reconstructs an Old Chinese *. The reconstruction of Old Chinese forms is somewhat speculative. The velar final -g in Mair's * (巫) is evident in several Old Chinese reconstructions (Dong Tonghe's *mywag, Zhou Fagao's *mjwaγ, and Li Fanggui's *mjag), but not all (Bernhard Karlgren's *mywo and Axel Schuessler's *ma).
Mair adduces the discovery of two figurines with unmistakably Caucasoid or Europoid features dated to the 8th century BCE, found in a 1980 excavation of a Zhou Dynasty palace in Fufeng County, Shaanxi Province. One of the figurines is marked on the top of its head with an incised ☩ graph.
Mair's suggestion is based on a proposal by Jao Tsung-I (1990), which connects the "cross potent" Bronzeware script glyph for wu 巫 with the same shape found in Neolithic West Asia, specifically a cross potent carved in the shoulder of a goddess figure of the Halaf period.
See also
Anachitis – "stone of necessity" – stone used to call up spirits from water, used by Magi in antiquity.
Epiphany (holiday) – a Christian holiday on January 6 marking the epiphany of the infant Jesus to the Magi.
Fire temple
References
External links
.
"Magi from the East" at Gates of Nineveh
The Magi in Medieval Mosaics, Sculptures, Tympanums and Art
History of astrology
Magic (supernatural)
Medes
Ancient Iranian religion
Achaemenid Empire
Chaldea
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dion%20Fortune
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Dion Fortune
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Dion Fortune (born Violet Mary Firth, 6 December 1890 – 6 January 1946) was a British occultist, ceremonial magician, novelist and author. She was a co-founder of the Fraternity of the Inner Light, an occult organisation that promoted philosophies which she claimed had been taught to her by spiritual entities known as the Ascended Masters. A prolific writer, she produced a large number of articles and books on her occult ideas and also authored seven novels, several of which expound occult themes.
Fortune was born in Llandudno, Caernarfonshire, North Wales, to a wealthy upper middle-class English family, although little is known of her early life. By her teenage years she was living in England's West Country, where she wrote two books of poetry. After time spent at a horticultural college she began studying psychology and psychoanalysis at the University of London before working as a counsellor in a psychotherapy clinic. During the First World War she joined the Women's Land Army and established a company selling soy milk products. She became interested in esotericism through the teachings of the Theosophical Society, before joining an occult lodge led by Theodore Moriarty and then the Alpha et Omega occult organisation.
She came to believe that she was being contacted by the Ascended Masters, including "the Master Jesus", and underwent trance mediumship to channel the Masters' messages. In 1922 Fortune and Charles Loveday claimed that during one of these ceremonies they were contacted by Masters who provided them with a text, The Cosmic Doctrine. Although she became the president of the Christian Mystic Lodge of the Theosophical Society, she believed the society to be uninterested in Christianity, and split from it to form the Community of the Inner Light, a group later renamed the Fraternity of the Inner Light. With Loveday she established bases in both Glastonbury and Bayswater, London, began issuing a magazine, gave public lectures, and promoted the growth of their society. During the Second World War she organised a project of meditations and visualisations designed to protect Britain. She began planning for what she believed was a coming post-war Age of Aquarius, although she died of leukemia shortly after the war's end.
Fortune is recognised as one of the most significant occultists and ceremonial magicians of the early 20th century. The Fraternity she founded survived her and in later decades spawned a variety of related groups based upon her teachings. Her novels in particular proved an influence on later occult and modern Pagan groups such as Wicca.
Biography
Early life: 1890–1913
Fortune was born Violet Mary Firth on 6 December 1890 at her family home on Bryn-y-Bia Road in Llandudno, North Wales. Her background was upper middle-class; the Firths were a wealthy English family who had gained their money through the steel industry in Sheffield, Yorkshire, where they had specialised in the production of guns. Fortune's paternal grandfather John Firth had devised a family motto, "Deo, non Fortuna" ("God, not Luck"), to mark out their nouveau riche status; she would later make use of it in creating her pseudonym.
One of John's sons – and Fortune's uncle – was the historian Charles Harding Firth, while her father, Arthur, had run a Sheffield law firm prior to establishing a hydropathic establishment in Limpley Stoke, Wiltshire. In August 1886 Arthur Firth married Sarah Jane Smith, before they relocated to Llandudno where Arthur established the new Craigside Hydrotherapeutic Establishment. Sarah was keenly interested in Christian Science, and while biographer Gareth Knight suggested that both of Firth's parents were active practitioners of the religion, fellow biographer Alan Richardson argued that there was insufficient evidence to support this idea.
Little is known about Fortune's time in Wales, in part because throughout her life she was deliberately elusive when providing biographical details about herself. In later life she reported that from the age of four she had experienced visions of Atlantis, something which she believed were past life memories. The Firths were still in Llandudno in 1900, although by 1904 Fortune was living in Somerset, south-west England. That year, she authored a book of poetry, titled Violets, which was likely published by her family. It was reviewed in the May 1905 volume of The Girls' Room, in which it was accompanied by the only known photograph of Fortune as a girl. In 1906, her second book of poetry, More Violets, was published.
After John Firth's death, Arthur moved with his family to London. According to Richardson they lived in the area around Liverpool Street in the east of the city, although Knight gives a different account, stating that they lived first in Bedford Park and then Kensington, both in the west of the city. From January 1911 to December 1912 Fortune studied at Studley Agricultural College in Warwickshire, a horticultural institution which advertised itself as being ideal for girls with psychological problems. Her proficiency with poultry led her to become a staff member at the college from January to April 1913. She later claimed that at the college she was the victim of mental manipulation from her employer, the college warden Lillias Hamilton, resulting in a mental breakdown that made her abandon the institution and return to her parental home.
Psychotherapy and esotericism: 1913–22
To recover from her experience at Studley, Fortune began studying psychotherapy. Her initial interest was in the work of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler, though she later moved on to that of Carl Jung. She studied psychology and psychoanalysis under John Flügel at the University of London, before gaining employment at a psychological clinic in London's Brunswick Square, which was likely run under the jurisdiction of the London School of Medicine for Women. Working as a counsellor from 1914 until 1916, she found that most of those she dealt with were coming to terms with sexual urges that were considered taboo in British society. Through her affiliation with the Society for the Study of Orthopsychics, she gave a series of lectures that were later published in 1922 as The Machinery of the Mind. While working at the clinic, she developed her interest in esotericism by attending lunchtime lectures organised by the Theosophical Society and reading some of the organisation's literature. With her interest in occultism increasing, Fortune became increasingly dissatisfied with the effectiveness of psychotherapy.
After the United Kingdom entered the First World War, Fortune joined the Women's Land Army. She was initially stationed on a farm near to Bishop's Stortford on the borders between Essex and Hertfordshire, before later being relocated to an experimental base for the Food Production Department. There she carried out experiments in the production of soy milk, subsequently founding the Letchworth-based Garden City Pure Food Company to sell her products and publishing The Soya Bean: An Appeal to Humanitarians in 1925. It was while working at the base that she underwent a spiritual experience and subsequently further immersed herself in Theosophical literature. After doing so, she became preoccupied by the idea of the 'Ascended Masters' or 'Secret Chiefs', claiming to have had visions of two such entities, the Master Jesus and the Master Rakoczi.
Her first magical mentor was the Irish occultist and Freemason Theodore Moriarty. She had befriended him while still involved in psychotherapy, believing that he could help one of her patients, a young man who had been fighting on the Western Front and claimed to be plagued by unexplained physical phenomena. Moriarty performed an exorcism, claiming that the young man was the victim of the soul of a deceased East European soldier which had latched onto him as a parasite. Fortune became an acolyte of Moriarty's Masonic-influenced lodge, which was based in Hammersmith, and joined his community of followers living at Gwen Stafford-Allen's home in Bishop's Stortford. Moriarty spent much time talking about the lost city of Atlantis, a topic that would also come to be embraced by Fortune. Fortune later fictionalised Moriarty as the character Dr. Taverner, who appeared in a number of short stories first published in 1922, later assembled in a collected volume as The Secrets of Dr. Taverner in 1926. Like Moriarty, Dr. Taverner was portrayed as carrying out exorcisms to protect humans from the attacks of etheric vampires.
In tandem with her studies under Moriarty, in 1919 Fortune had been initiated into the London Temple of the Alpha et Omega, an occult group that had developed from the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Here, her primary teacher was Maiya Curtis-Webb, a longstanding friend of the Firth family. Fortune later claimed that in the period after the First World War, the Order had been "manned mainly by widows and grey-bearded ancients". She was not enamoured with the ceremonial magic system that had been developed by the Golden Dawn, however it did provide her with the grounding in the study of the Hermetic Qabalah which would exert a great influence over her esoteric world-view. It was also through her involvement in the group that she embraced her family's "Deo, non Fortuna" as her personal magical motto. In January and March 1921 Fortune and Curtis-Webb embarked on a series of experiments in trance mediumship. This culminated in an act of trance mediumship that Fortune conducted in the Somerset town of Glastonbury with her mother and Frederick Bligh Bond. She claimed that in doing so, she had contacted spirit-entities known as "the Watchers of Avalon" who informed her that Glastonbury had once been the site of an ancient druidic college. Bond subsequently commissioned Fortune to write an article, "Psychology and Occultism", which was published in the transactions of the College of Psychic Science in 1922.
Glastonbury and The Cosmic Doctrine: 1922–26
In September 1922, Fortune returned to Glastonbury to visit her friend Charles Loveday. Along with an anonymous woman known only as "E. P.", the pair carried out acts of trance mediumship, claiming that in doing so they entered into psychic contact with the Ascended Masters; Fortune later identified these as Socrates, Thomas Erskine, and a young military officer named David Carstairs who had died at the Battle of Ypres. Fortune and Loveday characterised their method of communication as "inspirational mediumship", believing that in this process the Masters communicated through the medium's subconscious mind; they contrasted this with "automatic mediumship", which they believed involved the medium becoming completely dissociated from their own body.
It was in this manner that Fortune and Loveday claimed that they received a text, The Cosmic Doctrine, which was dictated to them in segments by the Masters between July 1923 and February 1925. These communications discussed the existence of seven planes of the universe, and were very similar to the ideas promoted in Moriarty's writings, in particular his Aphorism of Creation and Cosmic Principles. The cosmology present in this book was also similar to that presented in Theosophy. In the following years, Fortune distributed this material among her senior students, before publishing an edited version of The Cosmic Doctrine in 1949.
In August 1923 Moriarty died, and Fortune—who had never been particularly popular among his followers—tried to convince them that she should be their new leader. A few accepted her offer, but many others instead accepted the leadership of Stafford-Allen. Meanwhile, Fortune's parents relocated to the garden city of Letchworth, Hertfordshire in 1922, and it was here that Fortune carried out what she deemed to be additional communications with the Masters through trance mediumship between 1923 and 1925.
On 20 August 1924, Fortune, Loveday, and others established themselves as a formal occult group. Fortune appointed herself as the group's "Adeptus", while five acolytes also joined. Loveday—who had inherited a number of properties from his father—sold some of them to fund the group's acquisitions. That year, they purchased a house on Queensborough Terrace in Bayswater, Central London to use as a temple and headquarters, renting out some of the rooms to tenants to finance their operation. While the top floors were used as living quarters, the middle floor contained the temple space, and the lower floors held an office and private library. The group soon grew; it admitted four initiates in 1925, six in 1926, and ten in 1927. In November 1926, a second degree was established into which these initiates could progress. In 1924, the group also obtained an old orchard at the foot of Glastonbury Tor, there erecting a hut and eventually a veranda and series of chalets. At Whitsun 1926, Fortune and several other members of her group were on Glastonbury Tor when they underwent a spiritual experience that produced a feeling of ecstasy among them. They later came to believe that this experience was a result of a messenger from the Elemental Kingdoms, and it greatly influenced their developing beliefs.
Fortune's activities—including her leadership of the new group and a series of articles that she wrote for The Occult Review—raised concerns for Alpha et Omega leader Moina Mathers. After Fortune suggested that her own organisation could serve as a feeder group to Mathers's Alpha et Omega, Mathers expelled her from the order, claiming that this was necessitated by Fortune having the wrong signs in her aura. Fortune later claimed that she subsequently came under psychic attack from Mathers, during which she was confronted and assaulted by both real and etheric cats.
The Theosophical Society and the Community of the Inner Light: 1927–30
Later claiming that she was acting under instruction from the Ascended Masters, Fortune and Loveday joined the Christian Mystic Lodge of the Theosophical Society, which was run by Daisy M. Grove. Fortune soon became its president, and under her leadership the group's membership expanded and the readership of its published Transactions also grew. Throughout this period, she foregrounded the need for a Christian perspective within the Theosophical movement, emphasising the centrality and importance of the 'Master Jesus' in her various articles. She publicly criticised another Theosophical group, the Liberal Catholic Church founded by J. I. Wedgwood and Charles Webster Leadbeater, alleging that it was not concerned with the Master Jesus and was instead preoccupied with the Master Maitreya. One of the prominent figures in the Church, Bishop Piggott, accused her of attributing false claims to him in The Occult Review.
Amid these arguments with other sectors of the Theosophical movement, she resigned from the Theosophical Society in October. Her Christian Mystic Lodge abandoned its affiliation with the Society and renamed itself the Community of the Inner Light. Within this Community was established a group called the Guild of the Master Jesus, which held regular church services on Sundays at their Queensborough Terrace base from 1928 until 1939; in 1936 this group renamed itself the Church of the Graal. Fortune directed many seekers who lacked the self-discipline for ceremonial magical activity to the Guild, whose members were known by one senior Community member as the "teeny-weenies".
When Jiddu Krishnamurti abandoned Theosophy, causing problems for the Theosophical movement, Fortune endorsed the 'Back to Blavatsky' faction, attacking Leadbeater in print by accusing him of being a practitioner of black magic. She then involved herself with Bomanji Wadia and his United Lodge of Theosophists, through which she claimed to have contacted the Himalayan Masters. She nevertheless was cautious about these Himalayan adepts, relating that although she felt that they were "not evil", she thought them "alien and unsympathetic" and "hostile to my race". Unhappy with the concept of promoting Indian religious beliefs in Britain, she left the group. Subsequently, she claimed that Wadia had begun to psychically attack her.
In April 1927, Fortune married Tom Penry Evans—a Welsh medical doctor from a working-class background—at Paddington Registry Office, before the couple embarked on a honeymoon in Glastonbury. Their marriage was initially happy, although Evans may have been perturbed at having to immerse himself in occultism to a greater extent than he had planned. He was present throughout a program of trance mediumship in which Fortune claimed to be channelling the messages of a "Master of Medicine". Beginning in August 1927, the channelled messages focused around issues of alternative medicine and diagnostics and were later assembled as The Principles of Esoteric Medicine, which was privately circulated among Fortune's senior students. Some members of Fortune's group believed that the "Master of Medicine" was actually Paracelsus, although a later channelled message claimed that this Master's earthly identity had been Ignaz Semmelweis.
In 1927 Fortune published her first occult novel, The Demon Lover, which received a brief but positive review in The Times Literary Supplement.
The following year she published The Problem of Purity, her final book to appear under the name of "Violet Firth". In 1928 she published a textbook on her esoteric beliefs, The Esoteric Orders and their Work, which she followed with a companion work in 1930, The Training and Work of an Initiate.
In 1930 this was followed by Psychic Self-Defense, which contained many autobiographical elements and which was probably her most commercially popular book. According to the historian Claire Fanger, this book was "part anecdotal evidence, part do-it-yourself exorcism manual, part autobiography, and some part no doubt fiction."
Fortune and her group focused on 'Outer Court' work, which entailed engaging in publicity to boost membership. They held regular lectures at their Bayswater premises, with Fortune herself lecturing there twice a week for much of 1928. At their Glastonbury property, which they called the Chalice Orchard, they established a guest house and a social centre which was open in the summer, and where lectures were also carried out. In October 1927 they began production of a magazine, The Inner Light, with the initial print-run of 500 selling out in a fortnight. The magazine gained a wide readership, with many subscribers located outside of Britain. Within the group they formulated a three degree system, through which the initiate could progress as they gained a better knowledge and understanding of the group, its teachings, and its rituals. Progress through these degrees could be fairly rapid, with the only requirement being that an individual remain in one degree for at least three months before entering the next. Training in these three degrees was referred to as the 'Lesser Mysteries', allowing a practitioner to ascend into the 'Greater Mysteries'. The membership that they attracted was largely female, with 21 women to only 5 men being members in this period. All members, whether male or female, were initially referred to as "Brother", although this system later gave way to the term "Server Brother". At Midwinter 1928, they ritually established the Fraternity of the Inner Light—a sector of the group concerned with the 'Lesser Mysteries' that they could present to their membership—with Fortune, Evans, and Loveday as its principal officers.
Declining activity: 1930–38
At the vernal equinox of 1930, Fortune declared that—with the 'Lesser Mysteries' and three degree system now properly established—she wanted to turn away from public work and focus on personal spiritual development. At the vernal equinox of 1931, Fortune stepped down as leader of the Fraternity, with Loveday being appointed Magus of the Lodge in her place. During the 1930s, Fortune's emphasis moved away from mediumship and towards ritual, while at the same time other Fraternity members embraced mediumship in order to channel the messages of the Masters. In late 1931, Fortune began mooting the idea of the construction of a permanent base, or Sanctuary, at the Chalice Orchard, and despite the economic obstacles of the Great Depression was able to raise sufficient funds. The group experienced a growth in the numbers attending its lectures, subscribing to its correspondence course, and using their private library; conversely, their Sunday services were not very popular, with a move from the morning to the evening seeing no effect. One significant individual who joined the Fraternity was Christine Campbell Thomson, who had been Fortune's literary agent since 1926. Fortune subsequently aided Thomson in separating from her abusive husband, after which she grew close to another Fraternity member, Colonel C. R. F. Seymour, in 1937. Although Seymour became a senior member of the Fraternity, relations between him and Fortune were strained, and during the Second World War he left London and settled in Liverpool, terminating his involvement with Fortune's Bayswater temple.
By 1933, tensions in Fortune's marriage were tearing it apart. There were rumours that Evans was having extra-marital affairs with other women, while Fortune confided in female members of the Fraternity that she had married him for magical reasons rather than because she loved him. Evans eventually asked for a divorce in order to marry another woman; Fortune was appalled, but did not contest it. Fortune had begun renting The Belfry, a converted Presbyterian chapel in West Halkin Street, where she then took up residence. It was here, during the latter 1930s, that she produced a number of rituals, among them the Rite of Isis and the Rite of Pan. As these and other aspects of her work testify, during the latter half of the decade Fortune had moved in what Richardson described as "an increasingly pagan orientation".
Fortune published many articles in Inner Light magazine, a number of which were collected together and published in books. In 1930, the first such collection was published as Mystical Meditations upon the Collects, in which Fortune emphasised her Christian commitments. In 1931 a number of her Inner Light articles on Spiritualism appeared as Spiritualism in the Light of Occult Science. In this book Fortune expressed reservations about Spiritualism. She drew a distinction between normal Spiritualist mediums and 'cosmic mediums' such as herself who contacted the Ascended Masters, also arguing that the spirits of the dead should not be contacted without good reason, a view that generated controversy among the occult milieu. In 1934, she assembled a number of her Inner Light articles on Glastonbury as Avalon of the Heart, while further Inner Light articles were assembled as Practical Occultism in Daily Life, a book aimed at a general reader.
A number of Fortune's articles from The Occult Review were also collected to produce the book Sane Occultism.
Over four years, Fortune also published a number of articles in Inner Light that discussed the Hermetic Qabalah. These articles were then assembled as the book The Mystical Qabalah, which is widely perceived as a milestone in her esoteric career. While lambasting most of Fortune's works as "rather vulgar pot-boiling journalism", the writer Francis X. King characterised The Mystical Qabalah as "undoubtedly a classic of the Western Tradition". The work constituted a theoretical discussion based in the Golden Dawn system of correspondences to the Qabalic Tree of Life which she had obtained through her membership of the Alpha et Omega group. However, it was also rooted in her own personal experiences and visions; while meditating, she believed that she had visited the various Sephiroth of the Qabalic tree.
In 1935 she published her second occult novel, The Winged Bull—which was again reviewed in The Times Literary Review—and in 1936 her third, The Goat-Foot God. In 1938 Fortune wrote a fourth occult novel, The Sea Priestess, which was eventually self-published through the Fraternity after being declined by Williams and Norgate, who had published the previous two. Her final novel, Moon Magic, was apparently left unfinished prior to the outbreak of the Second World War; a protégé later completed it, claiming to have done so through channeling Blavatsky's disembodied spirit, and it was published posthumously.
Fortune corresponded with a number of prominent occultists in this period. One of these was Israel Regardie, whose book The Tree of Life was regarded by Fortune as "quite the best book on magic" that she had read. Regardie later publicly criticised her for misrepresenting his works in her reviews of them; she had claimed that his works bolstered her beliefs about the Masters, although Regardie insisted that he was sceptical about the existence of such entities. Fortune also corresponded with Olga Fröbe-Kapteyn, the Dutch esotericist who founded Eranos in Switzerland. She also renewed her interest in Jungian psychology, which was then growing in influence among the esoteric milieu, and was influenced by her reading of Friedrich Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy.
Later life: 1939–46
The outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 saw some of the Fraternity's members enlist in the armed forces, putting a stop to many of the group's activities. From October 1939 through to October 1942, Fortune organised group meditations every Sunday with the intent of focusing Fraternity members towards the cause of peace. In February 1940, she undertook a visualisation in which she imagined angelic forces patrolling Britain's coast, believing that in doing so she was helping to make these forces a reality. She urged Fraternity members to repeat a mantra every time the German Luftwaffe began bombing Britain, through which she hoped to call upon "Invisible Helpers" from the "Inner Planes" to aid the people affected. The Fraternity's London headquarters were damaged during the Blitz, although roofing repairs were made and the group were able to move back into the building after a week. In August 1940, the group had to suspend publication of Inner Light as a result of paper shortages in Britain.
After the United States entered the conflict in December 1941, Fortune began assembling plans for the post-war period, believing it would mark the dawning of the Age of Aquarius. In the spring of 1942 the Fraternity recommenced the Guild's Sunday services, and in March 1943 Fortune announced a new study course for aspiring members. As part of her plans for the post-war period, Fortune began mooting the idea of bringing together all of Europe's occultists to pool their knowledge. She also began discussing the possibility of uniting occult groups with the Spiritualist movement, writing articles that were more favourable towards Spiritualist mediums than she had previously been and meeting with Charles Richard Cammell, the editor of Light—the magazine of the College of Psychic Studies—who then published a favourable article about her. By at least 1942, Fortune corresponded with the prominent occultist and ceremonial magician Aleister Crowley, praising him as "a genuine adept" despite the many differences between their respective occult philosophies. She later visited him at his home in Hastings, with Crowley's assistant Kenneth Grant noting that the pair got along well.
In August 1940, Fortune embarked on a further project of trance mediumship, this time with her Alpha et Omega mentor, Curtis-Webb (now renamed Maiya Tranchall-Hayes), in the hope of contacting the same Masters who they believed had aided the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. In doing so, they believed that they were channelling messages from an entity known as "the Shemesh of the Aquarian Age". These communications were received between April 1941 and February 1942, and together became known as "the Arthurian Formula"; they provided the basis of much of the Fraternity's 'Greater Mystery' work following the war. The claims produced in these channelled meditations presented the Arthurian myths as racial memories that had been passed down from Atlantis, having been brought to Britain by Atlantean settlers after the cataclysm that destroyed their island. It also set forward a threefold system of training: that of Arthur and his Round Table Fellowship, that of Merlin and the Faery Woman, and that of Guinevere and the Forces of Love.
In late 1945, Fortune fell ill, and was unable to give her scheduled address to the Fraternity on that year's winter solstice.
She died at Middlesex Hospital of leukaemia in January 1946, at the age of 55. Her body was transferred to Glastonbury, where it was buried in a funeral overseen by the Reverend L. S. Lewis, vicar of St. John's Church. When Loveday died shortly after, he was buried close to her.
She bequeathed most of her money to her Society. During Fortune's lifetime, some of the Fraternity members had expressed concerns with regard to the organisation becoming a personality cult revolving around her, and so following her death they did not encourage an interest in her biography. Members of the society have alleged that her successor destroyed most of her diaries, correspondences, and photographs. However, a number of her books would be published posthumously, among them The Cosmic Doctrine, which appeared in 1949, and her novel Moon Magic, published in 1956.
Novels
Fortune completed seven novels during her lifetime. Four were occult and fantasy themed: The Demon Lover, The Winged Bull, The Goat-Foot God, and The Sea Priestess. The literary scholar Susan Johnson Graf categorises these alongside the work of H. Rider Haggard, Algernon Blackwood, Charles Williams, and Arthur Machen. The other three were romantic thrillers published under the pseudonym of "V. M. Steele": The Scarred Wrists, Hunters of Humans, and Beloved of Ishmael. Writing thrillers was one of few activities Fortune took part in unconnected to her magical work, and was something she did not publicise. Knight believed these three novels testified to the idea that "she must really have loved writing for writing's sake". An eighth novel, Moon Magic, was left unfinished but completed by her protégé and published posthumously.
Fortune saw her occult novels as an important part of her Fraternity work, initiating readers into the realms of occultism by speaking to their subconscious, even when their conscious mind rejects occult teachings. She thus perceived them as a means of disseminating her teachings to a wider audience. Each was related to one of the Sephirah on the Qabalic Tree of Life: The Winged Bull was associated with Tiphareth, The Goat-Foot God with Malkuth, and The Sea Priestess with Yesod.
Fortune's first novel was The Demon Lover, which tells the story of Veronica Mainwaring, a young virgin woman who becomes the secretary to a malevolent magician, Justin Lucas, who seeks to exploit her latent mediumistic powers for his own purposes. Although she falls in love with him, she eventually escapes his entrapments through her devotion to Christianity. Her next work, The Winged Bull, focuses on Ursula Brangwyn, who had been harmed by her involvement in an unscrupulous occult group but meets with Ted Murchison, whom she subsequently marries. The characters in The Winged Bull are based upon real people in Fortune's life; Murchison is based on her husband, for example, and she modeled Brangwyn after herself. The character of Hugo Astley has been interpreted as a "barely veiled fictional portrait" of Aleister Crowley. Richardson felt that The Winged Bull was "in many ways the worst of her books". The scholar Andrew Radford suggested that the novel reflected a "zeal in promoting a socially responsible occultism rooted in orthodox gender roles" and demonstrated her growing concern that occultism was increasingly being associated with what she regarded as an immoral cosmopolitan elite synonymous with Crowley and his activities.
The Goat-Foot God revolves around a wealthy widower, Hugh Patson, who teams up with an esoteric bookseller to seek out the ancient Greek god Pan. They achieve this with the aid of a poverty-stricken artist, Mona Wilton, who becomes close to Patson as the novel progresses. Richardson described The Goat-Foot God as "a masterpiece ... the finest occult novel ever written". The Sea Priestess is about Wilfred Maxwell, a man living with his mother and sister who learns to commune with the Moon after an asthma attack. He meets with Le Fay Morgan, a spiritual adept, and together they enter an obsessive (on Wilfred's part) but platonic relationship while establishing a temple to the sea gods.
Fortune's novels all follow the same basic theme: a heroine — a priestess and initiatrix who is magically experienced and assertive — who meets a man and saves him from himself. In her later novels this entails the duos reconstructing or revitalising a ritual space and working magical rituals to channel cosmic forces and bring them into balance.
In her discussion of Fortune's work, Sonja Sadovsky stated that the "unique element" of Fortune's fiction was "the recurring plotline of esoteric romance told from the priestess's viewpoint", suggesting that her female characters provided a template from which female readers could build upon in their own spiritual practice. Sadovsky further suggested that there were two types of priestess who appeared in Fortune's novels, the "Earth Mother" and the "Moon Mistress". According to Sadovsky, the "Earth Mother" was represented by the character of Mona Wilkins in The Goat-Foot God and that of Molly Coke in The Sea Priestess. She suggested that these characters derived their power from the masculine/feminine polarity and the creative power of sex, and that they also required a male priest in order to initiate them into their spiritual mysteries and to reach their full potential. The second type of priestess, the "Moon Mistress", appeared as Vivien/Lilith le Fay Morgan in The Sea Priestess and then becomes more dominant in Moon Magic. According to Sadovsky, this is a celibate figure who concentrates her creative powers on training priestesses and dealing with occult matters.
Belief and teachings
Religion and race
Fortune identified her beliefs as being part of what she termed "the Western Mystery Tradition".
She adhered to a form of esoteric Christianity, and has been described both as a Christian Qabalist, and as "a devout mystical Christian", albeit "a very unorthodox one". She expressed the opinion that "in any school of Western mysticism the author and finisher of our faith must be Christ Jesus, the Great Initiator of the West", and treated "the Master Jesus" as her personal spiritual guide. She believed that the teachings passed down from the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn served the purpose of recovering "sacred mysteries" or gnosis that had been overlooked by mainstream Christianity. Accordingly, she had no allegiance to any established Christian churches and was often critical of mainstream clergy. Moreover, she rejected a number of traditional Christian doctrines, such as that surrounding Heaven and Hell.
There is no evidence that Fortune considered herself to be a "Pagan". However, by the late 1930s, Fortune had developed some interest in the religion of ancient Egypt, but treated it as a preparation for the higher truth of Christianity. In the 1930s her attitude began to change as she became more favourable to pre-Christian religion, likely under the influence of her husband, Seymour, and D. H. Lawrence's The Rainbow, of which she was a fan. By The Winged Bull, she was declaring that pre-Christian gods were just as valid as facets of the divine as the Christian God, and around this time she began to adopt an increasingly critical attitude to Christianity, stating that it had been greatly degraded since its origins and distorted by "those two crusty old bachelors", Paul the Apostle and Augustine of Hippo. In her next novel, The Goat-Foot God, Fortune had fully embraced the idea of a modern Paganism reviving the belief systems of pre-Christian Europe, referring to this as "Vitamin P" and declaring that it was needed to heal the modern world. Around this time she began promoting the claim that "All the gods are one god, and all the goddesses are one goddess". However, during the Second World War her writings became more pronouncedly Christian once again.
Fortune believed in the existence of an underlying commonality between the teachings of Western esoteric orders and Asian religious traditions. Nevertheless, she believed that particular spiritual traditions were allotted to specific racial groups, stating that "the Great White Lodge gives to each race the religion suited to its needs". Writing in The Occult Review, Fortune stated: "Do not let it be forgotten that our traditions are racial. What that great initiate Rudolf Steiner did for the German-speaking races someone must do for those who use a Latin-root language and the Anglo-Saxon tongue."
She did not agree with allowing spiritual and magical techniques to transmit between different cultures, believing that to do so caused damage; she for instance cautioned against allowing Western esoteric teachings to be practised in India because "the Hindu dies readily from shock". Equally she strongly opposed the adoption of Asian religious techniques into Western esotericism, distancing herself from occultists who did so. In her words, she must "recommend to the white races the traditional Western system, which is admirably adapted to their psychic constitution". She nevertheless perceived value in Westerners studying Asian disciplines like Yoga on a theoretical level, so long as they eschewed any attempt to put these teachings into practice.
The religious studies scholar Gordan Djurdjevic highlighted that 21st century readers would likely deem there to be "a strong cultural essentialism and even racial prejudice in her writings", but that ideas regarding the close relationship between "culture, race, and religion" were "a part of everyday discourse" in Britain during her lifetime.
Magic
Fortune was a ceremonial magician. The magical principles on which her Fraternity was based were adopted from the late nineteenth century Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, with other influences coming from Theosophy and Christian Science. The magical ceremonies performed by Fortune's Fraternity were placed into two categories: initiations, in which the candidate was introduced to magical forces, and evocation, in which these forces were manipulated for a given purpose.
The Fraternity's rituals at their Bayswater temple were carried out under a dim light, with Fortune claiming that bright light disperses etheric forces. An altar was placed in the centre of a room, with the colours of the altar-cloth and the symbols on the altar varying according to the ceremony being performed. A light was placed on the altar while incense, usually frankincense, was burned. The senior officers sat in a row along the eastern end of the room, while officers—who were believed to be channels for cosmic forces—were positioned at various positions on the floor. The lodge was opened by walking around the room in a circle chanting, with the intent of building a psychic force up as a wall. Next, the cosmic entities would be invoked, with the members believing that these entities would manifest in astral form and interact with the chosen officers.
Fortune was particularly concerned with the issue of sex. In her early works she displayed a prudish attitude regarding sexuality, warning her readers about the perceived perils of masturbation, extra-marital sex, same-sex sexual activity, abortion, and free love. The only form of sexual expression that she considered appropriate was that between a heterosexual married couple, and she promoted a form of 'psychic masturbation' to quell any sexual urges that a celibate individual may have. According to Richardson, she was "a prude, at least by today's standards". In her later works she exhibited a more positive attitude toward sexuality, describing the sexual union between a man and woman as the most powerful expression of a "life-force" which flows throughout the universe. She believed that this erotic attraction between men and women could be harnessed for use in magic. She urged her followers to be naked under their robes when carrying out magical rituals, for this would increase the creative sexual tension between the men and women present. Although sex features in her novels, it is never described in graphic detail. Nevertheless, her later occult novels entail depictions of heterosexual sex outside of marriage, suggesting that by this point Fortune no longer believed that sex must be restrained to wedlock. The scholar Andrew Radford noted that Fortune's "reactionary and highly heteronormative" view of "sacralised sexuality" should be seen as part of a wider tradition among esoteric currents, going back to the ideas of Emanuel Swedenborg and Andrew Jackson Davis and also being found in the work of occultists like Paschal Beverly Randolph and Ida Craddock.
Fortune was among those who popularised the idea of a division between the left-hand path and right-hand path which had been introduced to Western esotericism by the Theosophist Helena Blavatsky. In doing so Fortune connected her disparaging views on what she considered to be the left hand path to the moral panic surrounding homosexuality in British society. Her works contained commentaries in which she condemned the "homosexual techniques" of malevolent male magicians, and she claimed that the acceptance of homosexuality was the cause of the downfall of the ancient Greek and Roman civilisations. The manner in which she sought to demonise the left hand path has been compared to that found in the work of English novelist Dennis Wheatley.
Personality and personal life
The historian Claire Fanger noted that Fortune exhibited a "dynamic personality and confident leadership". Janine Chapman, an esotericist who researched Fortune's life, stated that "in her prime", Fortune was "a strong, magnetic personality" with "an active, intellectually curious mind" who was also "physically imposing". Chapman noted that while studying at horticultural college, Fortune had earned a reputation for having a "keen sense of humor", being particularly fond of practical jokes. Richardson characterised Fortune as being "honest, and often ruthless with her honesty", adding that she was "an essentially good woman who had strands of darkness within". Chapman noted that she "set an example of super-achievement, self-sacrifice, and personal integrity" and that "sexually, she was modest, faithful, and chaste". In her later years, she earned a nickname among her friends in the Fraternity; "The Fluff".
Richardson believed that while "sex was all important to Dion, there is the constant impression that actual coitus was distasteful" to her. This was in keeping with the view of many esotericists at the time that "stainless-steel purity" free from sex was necessary for one to be a spiritual adept. Chapman characterised Fortune's marriage as "rocky", and the marriage produced no children. In later life, there were unsubstantiated rumours that Fortune had sexual relationships with both men and women, and in particular that she had a relationship with Tranchall-Hayes. Richardson nevertheless noted that there was no good evidence that Fortune had "actively lesbian tendencies".
Fortune did not involve herself or her group in any explicitly political movement or party. The historian Ronald Hutton noted that in her political and social views, Fortune was likely a High Tory, with Richardson noting that politically, she was "somewhat aligned" to the ideas of the Conservative politician Winston Churchill. Graf noted that although Fortune was not involved in the feminist movement and did not associate with feminists, she "thought herself every bit as powerful, capable, independent, and discerning as any man, and she worked to spiritually empower women." When staying at Queensborough, Fortune kept a vegetarian diet.
Reception and legacy
According to Richardson, Fortune fell into "relative obscurity" after her death, having been overshadowed by her more famous contemporary, Aleister Crowley. The historian of esotericism Dave Evans agreed, stating that Fortune had been "somewhat less" influential than Crowley.
Hutton nevertheless considered her to be the "foremost female figure" of early 20th century British occultism, while historian Alex Owen referred to her as "one of the most significant clairvoyants and occultists of the postwar period". Similarly, Knight termed her "one of the leading occultists of her generation", and the anthropologist Tanya Luhrmann referred to her as "one of the most influential twentieth-century magicians". Another esotericism scholar, Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, said Fortune was an "important heir of the Golden Dawn, and she had a significant influence on modern Western esotericism". Religious studies scholar Stephen Sutcliffe described her as having "played a key role in the cult of Glastonbury in the interwar years", while anthropologist Susan Greenwood thought Fortune's emphasis on a masculine/feminine polarity as the basis for magical working was a significant influence on both later ceremonial magic and Wicca.
Fortune's Fraternity survived her, and was renamed the Society of the Inner Light in 1946; the change was a legal refinement to help the group achieve charitable status. It continues to operate into the early 21st century. The Society sold the Chalice Orchard, which was eventually purchased by Geoffrey Ashe, and in 1959 sold their Bayswater headquarters after the socio-economic decline of the area, instead establishing a base in North London. While retaining its basis in Fortune's original teachings, the Society has changed its emphasis according to who has led it over the years. At various points it has been heavily influenced by Alice Bailey's ideas about the Ascended Masters, the ideas of Subud, and the use of Scientology's E-meters. In 1961, the Society adopted a new approach which further emphasised and foregrounded its Christian identity. This generated controversy in the group, with Gareth Knight leaving to form his own lodge based on Fortune's teachings, known as the Gareth Knight Group. In 1973 one of Fortune's students, W. E. Butler, likewise split with the Fraternity to found his own group in Jersey, the Servants of the Light, which would later be taken over by Dolores Ashcroft-Nowicki and remains one of the world's largest esoteric organizations in the early 21st century maintaining about 1000 active students. In 1975, another member of the Society, Alan Adams, departed to start the London Group, which was initially based in outer London but later moved to the East Midlands.
By the late 1990s the Society's membership had dropped to a few dozen, and under the control of a new warden it invited Knight to return to the group in order to help promote it. Knight agreed, leaving his own lodge to publish two works by Fortune based on her material in the Society's archive, and authoring a biography of her. The 1990s saw a number of pioneering biographical studies of Fortune, including Alan Richardson's in 1991 and Janine Chapman's in 1993. Richardson's book relied heavily on the recollections of Christine Hartley, while the publication of Fielding and Carr was based upon the authors' interactions with older members of the Society. However, in 2007 Graf noted that Fortune had yet to receive much scholarly attention.
In the early 21st century, Evans noted that Fortune's work was "still influential in some magical quarters", highlighting that in his experience she was one of only three female ceremonial magicians—alongside Leah Hirsig and Jaq Hawkins—that modern esotericists could readily name.
Fortune's literary influence on modern Paganism
The religious studies scholar Hugh Urban noted that Fortune was "one of the key links" between early twentieth-century ceremonial magic and the developing Pagan religion of Wicca. Similarly, the Wiccan high priestess Vivianne Crowley characterised Fortune as a "proto-Pagan". The scholar and esotericist Nevill Drury stated that Fortune "in many ways anticipated feminist ideas in contemporary Wicca", particularly through her belief that all goddesses were a manifestation of a single Great Goddess. Graf agreed, adding that Fortune's works found "resonance" in the work of the later feminist Wiccan Starhawk, and in particular in the latter's 1979 book, The Spiral Dance.
In researching ceremonial magic orders and other esoteric groups active in the London area during the 1980s, Luhrmann found that within them, Fortune's novels were treated as "fictionalized ideals" and that they were recommended to newcomers as the best way to understand magic. The Pagan studies scholar Joanne Pearson added that Fortune's books, and in particular the novels The Sea Priestess and Moon Magic, were owned by many Wiccans and other Pagans. The religious studies scholar Graham Harvey compared The Sea Priestess to the Wiccan Gerald Gardner's 1949 novel High Magic's Aid, stating that while neither were "great literature", they "evoke Paganism better than later more didactic works".
Fortune's priestesses were an influence on the characters of Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon, and her ideas were adopted as the basis for the Aquarian Order of the Restoration, a ceremonial magic group led by Bradley. Her works also influenced Bradley's collaborator and fellow Order member Diana Paxson. As of 2007, Fortune's latter three novels remained in print and had a wide readership. Evans nevertheless believed that her writings were "stuck in their era" in many places; as evidence, he highlighted passages in which Fortune warns her readers that their Indian servants may steal their body waste products for use in the worship of the Hindu goddess Kali.
Bibliography
Non-fiction
* = Published under the name "Violet M. Firth"
Fiction
A list of Fortune's fiction works was provided by Knight:
* = Published under the name "V. M. Steele"
See also
Margaret Lumley Brown
References
Footnotes
Sources
Further reading
External links
The Society of the Inner Light website
Short biography at the Inner Light site
The Companions of Dion Fortune website
1890 births
1946 deaths
Ceremonial magicians
Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn
Hermetic Qabalists
People from Llandudno
Society of the Inner Light
Welsh occult writers
Deaths from leukemia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol%20%28music%29
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Carol (music)
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A carol is a festive song, generally religious but not necessarily connected with church worship, and sometime accompanied by a dance. A caroller (or caroler) is someone who sings carols, and is said to be carolling (or caroling).
Today the carol is represented almost exclusively by the Christmas carol, the Advent carol, and to a lesser extent by the Easter carol; however, despite their present association with religion, this has not always been the case.
History
The word carol is derived from the Old French word carole, a circle dance accompanied by singers (in turn derived from the Latin choraula). Carols were very popular as dance songs from the 1150s to the 1350s, after which their use expanded as processional songs sung during festivals, while others were written to accompany religious mystery plays (such as the "Coventry Carol", written before 1534).
Sacred music was traditionally sung in Latin by clergy or appointed cantors of the Catholic church. Following the Protestant Reformation, reformers aimed to bring music "back to the people". To enable the common person to sing church music, great efforts were made to translate musical texts from Latin into the native languages that people spoke. Composers such as William Byrd composed motet-like works for Christmas that they termed carols; and folk-carols continued to be sung in rural areas. Nonetheless, some famous carols were written in this period, and they were more strongly revived from the nineteenth century and began to be written and adapted by eminent composers.
Modern carols
In modern times, songs that may once have been regarded as carols are now no longer classified as such (especially Christmas songs), even those that retain the traditional attributes of a carol – celebrating a seasonal topic, alternating verses and chorus, and danceable music.
Some writers of carols, such as George Ratcliffe Woodward who wrote "Ding Dong Merrily on High" and William Morris who wrote "Masters in This Hall", reverted to a quasi-mediaeval style; this became a feature of the early twentieth-century revival in Christmas Carols.
Some composers have written extended works based on carols. Examples include Benjamin Britten (A Ceremony of Carols), Ralph Vaughan Williams (Fantasia on Christmas Carols) and Victor Hely-Hutchinson (Carol Symphony).
Bibliography
Important anthologies of carols include:
The Carol Book ed. David Iliff and John Barnard, published RSCM (2005)
Carols for Choirs ed. David Willcocks, Reginald Jacques and John Rutter (1961–1988)
Christmas Carols New and Old ed. H. R. Bramley and John Stainer (1871)
The Cowley Carol Book ed. George Ratcliffe Woodward (1901–19)
The New Oxford Book of Carols ed. Hugh Keyte and Andrew Parrott (1992)
The Oxford Book of Carols ed. Percy Dearmer, Martin Shaw and Ralph Vaughan Williams (1928)
The Penguin Book of Carols ed. Ian Bradley (1999)
The University Carol Book ed. Erik Routley (1961)
See also
Cancionero de Upsala
Carols by Candlelight
Medieval dance
Piae Cantiones
Trick-or-treating
Villancico
Wassailing
Notes
External links
Medieval music genres
16th-century music genres
19th-century music genres
Song forms
Christian music genres
Medieval dance
Circle dances
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207225
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Hornet%20%28CV-8%29
|
USS Hornet (CV-8)
|
USS Hornet (CV-8), the seventh U.S. Navy vessel of that name, was a of the United States Navy. During World War II in the Pacific Theater, she launched the Doolittle Raid on Tokyo and participated in the Battle of Midway and the Buin-Faisi-Tonolai raid. In the Solomon Islands campaign, she was involved in the capture and defense of Guadalcanal and the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, where she was irreparably damaged by enemy torpedo and dive bombers. Faced with an approaching Japanese surface force, Hornet was abandoned and later torpedoed and sunk by approaching Japanese destroyers. Hornet was in service for a year and six days, and was the last US fleet carrier ever sunk by enemy fire. For these actions, she was awarded four service stars and a citation for the Doolittle Raid in 1942, and her Torpedo Squadron 8 received a presidential unit citation for extraordinary heroism for the Battle of Midway. Her wreck was located in late January 2019 near the Solomon Islands.
Construction and commissioning
Because of the cap on aggregate aircraft carrier tonnage included in the Washington Naval Treaty and subsequent London treaties, the United States had intended to build two of Yorktown class and use up the remaining allocated tonnage with a smaller, revised version of the same design, which eventually became . With war looming in Europe, though, and the repudiation of the naval limitation treaties by Japan and Italy, the Navy's General Board decided to lay down a third carrier to the Yorktown design immediately - followed by the first carrier of the follow-on CV-9 (Essex) class when that design was finalized; authorization from Congress came in the Naval Expansion Act of 1938.
Hornet had a length of at the waterline and overall. She had a beam of at the waterline, overall, with a draft of as designed and at full load. She displaced at standard load and at full load. She was designed for a ship's crew consisting of 86 officers and 1280 men and an air complement consisting of 141 officers and 710 men.
She was powered by nine Babcock & Wilcox boilers providing steam at and to four Parsons Marine geared steam turbines each driving its own propeller. The turbines were designed to produce a total of , giving her a range of at a speed of . She was designed to carry of fuel oil and of Avgas. Her designed speed was . During sea trials, she produced and reached .
Hornet was equipped with eight /38 caliber dual-purpose guns and 16 /75 caliber antiaircraft guns in quad mounts (four guns operating together). Originally, she had 24 M2 Browning machine guns, but these were replaced in January 1942 with 30 20-mm Oerlikon antiaircraft cannon. An additional quad mount was later added at her bow and two more 20 mm antiaircraft guns were added for a total of 32 mounts. In addition, her athwartships hangar-deck aircraft catapult was removed. In June 1942, following the battle of Midway, Hornet had a new CXAM radar installed atop her tripod mast, and her SC radar was relocated to her mainmast. Unlike her sisters, Hornets tripod mast and its signal bridge were not enclosed when the CXAM was installed, making her unique among the three ships.
For armor, she had an armor belt that was thick on a backing of special treatment steel (STS). The flight and hangar decks had no armor but the protective deck was STS. Bulkheads had armor, while the conning tower had splinter protection only, in contrast with her sister's armor on the sides with on top. The steering gear had protection on the sides with splinter protection on the deck.
Her flight deck was and her hangar deck was and high. She had three aircraft elevators each with a lifting capacity of . She had two flight-deck and one hangar-deck hydraulic catapults and equipped with Mark IV Mod 3A arresting gear with a capability of and . She was designed to host a Carrier Air Group of 18 fighters, 18 bombers, 37 scout planes, 18 torpedo bombers, and six utility aircraft.
Hornet was laid down on 25 September 1939 by Newport News Shipbuilding of Newport News, Virginia, and was launched on 14 December 1940, sponsored by Annie Reid Knox, wife of Secretary of the Navy Frank M. Knox. She was commissioned at Naval Station Norfolk on 20 October 1941, with Captain Marc A. Mitscher in command.
Service history
During the period before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hornet trained out of Norfolk. A hint of a future mission occurred on 2 February 1942, when Hornet departed Norfolk with two Army Air Forces B-25 Mitchell medium bombers on deck. Once at sea, the planes were launched to the surprise and amazement of Hornets crew. Her men were unaware of the meaning of this experiment, as Hornet returned to Norfolk, prepared to leave for combat, and on 4 March sailed for the West Coast via the Panama Canal.
Doolittle Raid, April 1942
Hornet arrived at Naval Air Station Alameda, California, on 20 March 1942. With her own planes on the hangar deck, by midafternoon on 1 April, she loaded 16 B-25s on the flight deck. Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel James H. Doolittle, 70 United States Army Air Corps officers and 64 enlisted men reported aboard. In company of her escort, Hornet departed Alameda on 2 April under sealed orders. That afternoon, Captain Mitscher informed his men of their mission: a bombing raid on Japan.
Eleven days later, Hornet joined the aircraft carrier at Midway, and Task Force 16 turned toward Japan. With Enterprise providing combat air patrol cover, Hornet was to steam deep into enemy waters. Originally, the task force intended to proceed to within of the Japanese coast, but on the morning of 18 April, a Japanese patrol boat, No. 23 Nitto Maru, sighted the American task force. sank the patrol boat. Amid concerns that the Japanese had been made aware of their presence, Doolittle and his raiders launched prematurely from out, instead of the planned . Because of this decision, none of the 16 planes made it to their designated landing strips in China. After the war, Tokyo was found to have received the Nitto Maru'''s message in a garbled form and the Japanese ship was sunk before it could get a clear message through to the Japanese mainland.
As Hornet came about and prepared to launch the bombers, which had been readied for take-off the previous day, a gale of more than churned the sea with crests; heavy swells, which caused the ship to pitch violently, shipped sea and spray over the bow, wet the flight deck, and drenched the deck crews. The lead plane, commanded by Colonel Doolittle, had only of flight deck, while the last B-25 hung its twin rudders far out over the fantail. Doolittle, timing himself against the rise and fall of the ship's bow, lumbered down the flight deck, circled Hornet after take-off, and set course for Japan. By 09:20, all 16 were airborne, heading for the first American air strike against the Japanese home islands.Hornet brought her own planes on deck as Task Force 16 steamed at full speed for Pearl Harbor. Intercepted broadcasts, both in Japanese and English, confirmed at 14:46 the success of the raids. Exactly one week to the hour after launching the B-25s, Hornet sailed into Pearl Harbor. That the Tokyo raid was the Hornets mission was kept an official secret for a year; until then, President Roosevelt referred to the ship from which the bombers were launched only as "Shangri-La." Two years later, the Navy gave this name to an aircraft carrier.Hornet steamed from Pearl Harbor on 30 April to aid and at the Battle of the Coral Sea, but the battle ended before she reached the scene. On 4 May, Task Force 16 crossed the equator, the first time ever for Hornet. After executing, with Enterprise, a feint towards Nauru and Banaba (Ocean) islands, which caused the Japanese to cancel their operation to seize the two islands, she returned to Hawaii on 26 May, and sailed two days later to help repulse an expected Japanese assault on Midway.
Battle of Midway, June 1942
On 28 May 1942, Hornet and Task Force 16 steamed out of Pearl Harbor heading for Point "Luck", an arbitrary spot in the ocean roughly northeast of Midway, where they would be in a flank position to ambush Japan's mobile strike force of four frontline aircraft carriers, the Kidō Butai. Japanese carrier-based planes were reported headed for Midway in the early morning of 4 June. Hornet, Yorktown, and Enterprise launched aircraft, just as the Japanese carriers struck their planes below to prepare for a second attack on Midway. Hornet dive bombers followed an incorrect heading and did not find the enemy fleet. Several bombers and all of the escorting fighters were forced to ditch when they ran out of fuel attempting to return to the ship; 15 torpedo bombers of Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT-8) found the Japanese ships and attacked. They were met by overwhelming fighter opposition about out, and with no escorts to protect them, they were shot down one by one. Ensign George H. Gay, USNR, was the only survivor of 30 men.
Further attacks by Enterprise and Yorktown torpedo planes proved equally disastrous, but succeeded in forcing the Japanese carriers to keep their decks clear for combat air patrol operations, rather than launching a counter-attack against the Americans. Japanese fighters were shooting down the last of the torpedo planes over when dive bombers of Enterprise and Yorktown attacked, causing enormous fires aboard the three other Japanese carriers, ultimately leading to their loss. Hiryu was hit late in the afternoon of 4 June by a strike from Enterprise and sank early the next morning. Hornet aircraft, launching late due to the necessity of recovering Yorktown scout planes and faulty communications, attacked a battleship and other escorts, but failed to score hits. Yorktown was lost to combined aerial and submarine attack.Hornets warplanes attacked the fleeing Japanese fleet on 6 June and they assisted in sinking the heavy cruiser , damaging a destroyer, and leaving the heavy cruiser , heavily damaged and on fire, to limp away from the battle zone. The attack by Hornet on the Mogami ended one of the great decisive battles of naval history. Midway Atoll was saved as an important base for American operations into the Western Pacific Ocean. Of greatest importance was the crippling of the Japanese carrier strength, a severe blow from which the Imperial Japanese Navy never fully recovered. The four large carriers took with them to the bottom about 250 naval aircraft and a high percentage of the most highly trained and experienced Japanese aircraft maintenance personnel. The victory at Midway was a decisive turning point in the War in the Pacific.
On 16 June 1942, Captain Charles P. Mason became commanding officer of Hornet upon her return to Pearl Harbor. Hornet spent the next six weeks replenishing her stores, having minor repairs performed, and most importantly, having additional light antiaircraft guns and the new RCA CXAM air-search radar fitted. She did not sail in late July with the forces sent to recapture Guadalcanal, but instead remained at Pearl Harbor in case she were needed elsewhere.
Solomons campaign, August–October, 1942 Hornet steamed out of harbor on 17 August 1942 to guard the sea approaches to the bitterly contested Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. Bomb damage to Enterprise on 24 August, torpedo damage to on 31 August, and the sinking of on 15 September left Hornet as the only operational U.S. carrier in the South Pacific. She was responsible for providing air cover over the Solomon Islands until 24 October 1942, when she was joined by Enterprise just northwest of the New Hebrides Islands. These two carriers and their escorts then steamed out to intercept a Japanese aircraft carrier/battleship/cruiser force closing in on Guadalcanal.
Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands
The Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands took place on 26 October 1942 without contact between surface ships of the opposing forces. That morning, Enterprises planes bombed the carrier , while planes from Hornet severely damaged the carrier and the heavy cruiser . Two other cruisers were also attacked by Hornets warplanes. Meanwhile, Hornet was attacked by a coordinated dive bomber and torpedo plane attack. In a 15-minute period, Hornet was hit by three bombs from Aichi D3A "Val" dive bombers. One "Val", after being heavily damaged by antiaircraft fire while approaching Hornet, crashed into the carrier's island, killing seven men and spreading burning aviation gas over the deck. Meanwhile, a flight of Nakajima B5N "Kate" torpedo planes attacked Hornet and scored two hits, which seriously damaged the electrical systems and engines. As the carrier came to a halt, another damaged "Val" deliberately crashed into Hornet's port side near the bow.
With power knocked out to her engines, Hornet was unable to launch or land aircraft, forcing her aviators to either land on Enterprise or ditch in the ocean. Rear Admiral George D. Murray ordered the heavy cruiser to tow Hornet clear of the action. Since the Japanese planes were attacking Enterprise, this allowed Northampton to tow Hornet at a speed of about . Repair crews were on the verge of restoring power when another flight of nine "Kate" torpedo planes attacked. Eight of these aircraft were either shot down or failed to score hits, but the ninth scored a fatal hit on the starboard side. The torpedo hit destroyed the repairs to the electrical system and caused a 14° list. After being informed that Japanese surface forces were approaching and that further towing efforts were futile, Vice Admiral William Halsey ordered Hornet sunk, and an order of "abandon ship" was issued. Captain Mason, the last man on board, climbed over the side, and the survivors were soon picked up by the escorting destroyers.
American warships next attempted to scuttle the stricken carrier, which absorbed nine torpedoes, many of which failed to explode, and more than 400 rounds from the destroyers and . The destroyers steamed away when a Japanese surface force entered the area. The Japanese destroyers and finally finished off Hornet with four Long Lance torpedoes. At 01:35 on 27 October, Hornet finally sank with the loss of 140 of her 2,200 sailors; 21 aircraft went down with the ship.
Legacy Hornet was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 13 January 1943. Her name was revived less than a year later, however, when the newly constructed Kearsarge was commissioned as . CV-8 is honored aboard her namesake, which is now the USS Hornet Museum docked in Alameda, California.Hornet was the last American fleet carrier CV ever sunk by enemy fire, albeit the light carrier and a number of much smaller escort carriers were sunk in combat in other battles.
Wreck discovered
In late January 2019, the research vessel located the wreck at more than deep off the Solomon Islands. The expedition team, largely funded by Paul Allen, aboard the Petrel, used information from the archives of nine other U.S. warships that saw the carrier shortly before she was sunk. One of two robotic vehicles aboard the Petrel found the Hornet during its first dive mission. The carrier lies upright on the ocean floor, with her signal bridge and a section of her stern that broke away coming to rest around her.
Awards Hornet was awarded four battle stars during World War II.
In addition, Torpedo Squadron 8 flying from Hornet'' was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation. "for extraordinary heroism and distinguished service beyond the call of duty" during the Battle of Midway.
Notes
References
External links
Yorktown-class aircraft carriers
1940 ships
World War II aircraft carriers of the United States
Ships of the Battle of Midway
World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
Ships built in Newport News, Virginia
Doolittle Raid
Maritime incidents in October 1942
Shipwreck discoveries by Paul Allen
2019 archaeological discoveries
|
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207228
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o%20Alberto
|
João Alberto
|
João Alberto Lins de Barros, Brazilian politician in the early 20th century. He was appointed by Getúlio Vargas provisional governor in place of the elected governor of São Paulo. Elite paulistas loathed Alberto, resenting his centralization efforts and alarmed by his economic reforms, such as a mere 5% wage increase and some minor distribution of some land to participants in the revolution. Amid threats of revolt, Vargas replaced João Alberto with a civilian from São Paulo, appointed a conservative paulista banker as his minister of finance, and announced a date for the holding of a constituent assembly. The coffee oligarchs were only emboldened, launching the counterrevolutionary revolt in July 1932, which collapsed after some minor, lackadaisical combat.
1897 births
1955 deaths
Governors of São Paulo (state)
People from Olinda
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Hornet%20%28CV-12%29
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USS Hornet (CV-12)
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USS Hornet (CV/CVA/CVS-12) is an Essex-class aircraft carrier built for the United States Navy (USN) during World War II. Completed in late 1943, the ship was assigned to the Fast Carrier Task Force (variously designated as Task Force 38 or 58) in the Pacific Ocean, the navy's primary offensive force during the Pacific War. In early 1944, she participated in attacks on Japanese installations in New Guinea, Palau and Truk among others. Hornet then took part in the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign and most of the subsidiary operations, most notably the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June that was nicknamed the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot" for the disproportionate losses inflicted upon the Japanese. The ship then participated in the Philippines Campaign in late 1944, and the Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign in the first half of 1945. She was badly damaged by a typhoon in June and had to return to the United States for repairs.
After the war she took part in Operation Magic Carpet, returning troops to the U.S. and was then placed in reserve in 1946. Hornet was reactivated during the Korean War of 1950–1953, but spent the rest of the war being modernized to allow her to operate jet-propelled aircraft. The ship was modernized again in the late 1950s for service as an anti-submarine carrier. She played a minor role in the Vietnam War during the 1960s and in the Apollo program, recovering the Apollo 11 and Apollo 12 astronauts as they returned from the Moon.
Hornet was decommissioned in 1970. She was eventually designated as both a National Historic Landmark and a California Historical Landmark, and she opened to the public as the USS Hornet Museum in Alameda, California, in 1998.
Design and description
The Essex-class ships were much larger than the preceding s, which allowed them to carry more aircraft, armor, and armament. The initial ships had a length of overall and at the waterline, although this was revised to an overall length of in the "long-hull" sub-class when the bow was reshaped to accommodate a pair of quadruple mounts in the bow compared to the single mount in the earlier "short-hull" ships like Hornet. All of the ships had a beam of at the waterline and a draft of at deep load. They displaced at standard load and at deep load. Their designed complement was approximately 268 officers and 2,362 enlisted men, but more men were added even before the ships were completed; the addition of more light weapons and other equipment greatly increased the overcrowding so that Hornets sister had a crew of 382 officers and 3,003 enlisted men in 1945. The ships had four geared steam turbines, each driving one shaft, using steam supplied by eight Babcock & Wilcox boilers. The turbines were designed to produce a total of , enough to give a maximum speed of . The ships carried enough fuel oil to give them a range of at .
Flight deck arrangements
The short-hull Essexs had a flight deck that was long and had a maximum width of . Below it was a hangar with a height of . The hangar was connected to the flight deck by three aircraft elevators, two in the flight deck and a folding one on the port side of the flight deck, abreast the island. Catapult arrangements for the early Essexs varied between ships; Hornet was built with a single hydraulic catapult on the forward part of the flight deck and another was fitted transversely on the hangar deck. All of the Essexs were fitted with arresting gear to allow them to land aircraft over both the stern and the bow.
Early in the design process, the Essexs were intended to carry over 100 aircraft: 27 fighters, 37 scout or dive bombers, 18 torpedo bombers, 3 observation and 2 utility aircraft, plus 21 partially disassembled spares. Early war experience increased the number of fighters to 36 at the expense of the observation and utility aircraft and reduced the number of spares to 9. By mid-1945, the air group typically consisted of 36 or 37 fighters, an equal number of fighter bombers, and dive and torpedo squadrons of 15 aircraft apiece for a total of 103. By this time, the fighter squadrons included specialist photo-reconnaissance and night fighter aircraft.
Armament, armor and electronics
The main armament of the Essex-class ships consisted of a dozen 38-caliber dual-purpose guns arranged in two superfiring pairs of twin-gun turrets fore and aft of the island and four guns in single mounts on the port side of the flight deck. These guns were controlled by a pair of Mk 37 directors, mounted on the top of the island; each director was fitted with a Mk 4 fire-control radar. The early short-hull Essexs were equipped with eight quadruple Bofors anti-aircraft (AA) guns; one mount each at the bow and stern, four atop the island and two on the port side of the flight deck, next to the 5-inch guns. Each mount was controlled by its own Mk 51 director. The carriers were also fitted with 46 Oerlikon light AA guns on single mounts along the sides of the flight deck and on the island.
The waterline armor belt of the carriers was high, long and covered the middle 62% of the hull. It was thick, tapering to at its bottom edge. The hangar deck was also 2.5 inches thick and the protective deck below it was thick. Transverse 4-inch bulkheads closed off the ends of the belt armor to form the ship's armored citadel. The steering gear was protected by 2.5-inches of special treatment steel.
The Essex-class carriers were designed with little space reserved for radar and the additional systems added while under construction contributed to the general overcrowding of the crew and the cramped island of the ships. Hornet was completed with most of her radars mounted on the tripod mast atop her island. It carried the SK early-warning radar, SM height-finding radar and the SG surface search radar. A SC early-warning radar was positioned on a stub lattice mast on the starboard side of the funnel.
Wartime modifications
Changes to the numbers of 20 mm guns aboard Hornet during the war are not available in the sources, although she had 35 single mounts by the end of the war. The ship did not return to any naval base in Hawaii or the West Coast until July 1945 when she arrived at San Francisco, California, for repairs for her typhoon damage, so it is unlikely that any major modifications were done before then. Facilities in Ulithi Atoll were limited, but they have been able to install some of the new equipment that was fielded in late 1944 and 1945. Some of the ship's Mk 51 directors may have been replaced by Mk 57 directors with an integral Mk 34 fire-control radar and the Mk 4 fire-control radar atop the Mk 37 directors may have been upgraded to a Mk 12 system that shared its mount with a Mk 22 height finder. The SP height finder was a lighter version of the SM and began to be installed in Essex-class ships in March 1945.
While being repaired, the Navy took the opportunity to refit the ship to the latest standard. Her SK radar was upgraded to a SK-2 model with a dish antenna that improved its performance and her hangar-deck catapult was replaced by one on the flight deck. Her island was remodeled to expand the flag bridge which caused the removal of the forward lower 40 mm mount on the island and 10 new quadruple mounts were added along the sides of the flight deck and the hull for a total of 68 guns in 17 mounts.
Construction and career
The Chief of Naval Operations had ordered three Essex-class carriers on 10 May 1940 in anticipation of Congress passing the Two-Ocean Navy Act, although the ship that later became Hornet originally had the name Kearsarge with the hull number of CV-12. The contract to build her was awarded to Newport News Shipbuilding on 9 September 1940, and her keel was laid down on 3 August 1942. The seventh was sunk in the Battle of Santa Cruz on 26 October 1942, and the CV-12 hull was renamed Hornet shortly afterwards. The ship was launched on 30 August 1943 with her sponsor being Annie Reid Knox, wife of Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox. She was commissioned on 29 November 1943 with Captain Miles R. Browning in command.
Hornet worked up off Bermuda before departing Norfolk, Virginia, on 14 February 1944 to join Task Force 58 at Majuro Atoll in the Marshall Islands where she arrived on 20 March. Two days later the Task Force departed to attack warships and airfields in the Palau Islands and the Kossol Roads to eliminate any threat to the scheduled operations in New Guinea and the Admiralty Islands. To block the exits from Kossol and trap all of the ships inside the lagoon, the torpedo bomber squadrons from Hornet and her sisters and had trained on aerial minelaying. To avoid detection, the American ships steamed far south of the Japanese naval base at Truk. They were spotted on the 28th and Admiral Mineichi Koga, commander of the Combined Fleet, ordered his warships to withdraw to Tawi-Tawi Island in the Philippines and for the merchant shipping to disperse.
As Task Force 58 approached its targets on the morning of 30 March, its carriers launched a fighter sweep that shot down 30 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters already airborne and they were soon followed by 39 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers, each of which carried a pair of magnetic mines that effectively bottled up the 40-odd ships in Kossol Roads. This was the first and only time that carrier aircraft laid mines during the Pacific War. Despite reinforcing fighters that flew in overnight, the Americans sank 24 merchant and auxiliary ships, totaling nearly of shipping, plus two old destroyers, four subchasers and a pair of repair ships on 30 and 31 March. American pilots claimed to have shot down 63 aircraft and destroyed over 100 more on the ground while losing 25 aircraft of their own. On their way back to Majuro, the carriers attacked targets on Woleai on 1 April to little effect.
Before Task Force 58 departed Majuro on 13 April, Rear Admiral Joseph J. Clark had hoisted his flag in Hornet as commander of Task Group 58.1 that consisted of his flagship and the three light carriers, , and . The task group was ordered to attack Sarmi, Sawar, and Wakde Airfields in Western New Guinea while the other task groups supported the amphibious landings at Hollandia. There was little Japanese air activity while the ships were off New Guinea, although the Task Group's fighters did shoot down two Mitsubishi G4M (Allied reporting name "Betty") bombers that were searching for them. Task Force 58 withdrew to Seeadler Harbor on Manus Island on 25 April to replenish for a few days before leaving to attack the shore facilities at Truk. The Japanese spotted the ships during the night of 28/29 April, but their weak attack later that morning was ineffective and the 84 Grumman F6F Hellcats of the morning fighter sweep were opposed by about 60 Zeros. Bad weather and a heavy overcast prevented the Americans from gaining complete air superiority until the mid-afternoon, but they were able to severely damaged the naval base's infrastructure over the next two days. They lost 9 aircraft in accidents and 27 in combat, mostly to anti-aircraft fire while claiming 59 aircraft in the air and 34 on the ground. En route to Majuro, Task Group 58.1 was detached to cover the bombardments of the airfields at Satawan and Ponape by the portions of the Task Force's escorting ships. Both islands had already been previously attacked and little additional damage appears to have been done in exchange for the loss of one aircraft shot down by AA guns. Task Force 58 arrived at Majuro on 4 May and spent the next month preparing for the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign. The abrasive Browning had made many enemies and his mistakes led him to be relieved for cause on 29 May; he was replaced by Captain William Sample.
Mariana and Palau Islands campaign
By June Hornets air group (Carrier Air Group 2 (CVG-2)) mustered 40 Hellcat fighters, including 4 night-fighter versions, 33 Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bombers and 20 Avengers. Task Group 58.1 had exchanged Cowpens for Hornets sister so it mustered a pair each of fleet and light carriers for the campaign. Task Force 58 departed Majuro on 6 June in time to begin the air strikes on the southern Marianas six days later, three days prior to the planned amphibious assault on Saipan, although the Japanese discovered that it had left Majuro on 8 June. Hornets night fighters began shooting down Japanese reconnaissance aircraft on the night of 10 June. Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher, commander of the task force, decided to move the air strikes forward to 11 June, hoping to catch the Japanese off guard. The task group's fighters discovered 30 Zeros over Guam during their sweep and claimed to have shot them all down, with Hornets 16 Hellcats claiming 23 of them as kills. A picket line of destroyers was stationed between the carriers and Guam and they controlled interceptions by the task group's fighters of about a dozen reconnaissance and attack aircraft that afternoon. The following days the task group continued to attack Guam to eliminate all of the aircraft based there as well as any reinforcements. Later that afternoon, Hornets aircraft discovered a seven-ship reinforcement convoy east of Guam, but it was too far away to attack if the aircraft were to land during daylight. That night the task group closed the distance while the convoy continued to approach Guam and was only when it launched 20 bomb-armed Hellcats. Their pilots were not trained for anti-shipping missions and failed to significantly damage the ships of the convoy before it reached Guam.
The new commander of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Soemu Toyoda, was uncertain if the Americans were merely attacking the Japanese facilities in the Marianas until the fast battleships escorting Task Force 58 were detached to make a preliminary bombardment of Saipan on 13 June. Even before he received the report of the bombardment, he ordered the 1st Mobile Fleet to move forward to Guimaras Island to start training their inexperienced aviators in a more protected environment. He then alerted all forces to prepare to implement Plan A-Go, effective on 19 June, once he had word of the bombardment. The plan was intended to inflict a decisive defeat on the USN and cause the American government to sue for peace after the collapse of public will to continue the war. An American submarine spotted the movement and alerted Vice Admiral Raymond Spruance, commander of the entire operation. Not knowing the Japanese intentions, he believed that the Japanese ships would not be able to attack before 17 June. To take advantage of this window of opportunity to destroy Japanese aerial reinforcements gathering in the Bonin Islands, Spruance ordered Task Groups 58.1 and 58.4 to rendezvous on the 14th, attack the airbases there the following day and return in time to concentrate for the battle that he expected on the 17th.
On 15 June, fighters from the two task groups conducted fighter sweeps over Iwo Jima, Hahajima and Chichi Jima, claiming to have shot down 20 Zeros over Iwo Jima for the loss of two Hellcats. Clark stationed his nightfighters over Iwo Jima that night to prevent the Japanese from launching reconnaissance missions or air strikes before launching more air strikes on the 16th. The bulk of the reinforcements intended for A-Go were still in Japan at this time, but the American carriers claimed to have destroyed a total of 81 aircraft, including 40 in the air, for the loss of 4 aircraft in combat and 7 others in accidents, before departing the area later that afternoon.
Battle of the Philippine Sea
Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa, commander of the 1st Mobile Fleet, ordered A-Go to begin on 16 April while he concentrated and refueled his forces east of the Philippines. At nightfall on the 17th his ships were spotted by an American submarine some west of Saipan, although Spruance did not receive its report until the early morning of 18 June. Japanese reconnaissance aircraft located Task Force 58 on that afternoon, but the shorter-ranged American aircraft failed to find the Japanese carriers. Ozawa decided to attack on the 19th rather than subject his inexperienced pilots to night landings that they had not trained for and turned south to keep the range from the Americans constant. Spruance had no idea where the Japanese were until a radio transmission from Ozawa was triangulated at a point west of his task force on the night of the 18th. A radar-equipped Martin PBM Mariner patrol bomber discovered the 1st Mobile Fleet at 01:15 on 19 June, but its message was not received for another eight hours due to radio troubles. The early morning searches by the Americans were not successful, but the Japanese had been tracking them continuously since 01:00.
That night the Americans had tracked reinforcements flying from Truk to Guam and Mitscher ordered fighters from Task Group 58.1 to patrol over Orote Field. Hellcats from Belleau Wood were the first to engage Japanese aircraft taking off at 07:00 and they had to be reinforced by fighters from Hornet and Yorktown. By 09:30 they had claimed to have shot down 45 fighters and 5 other aircraft while only losing a pair of Hellcats. At that time Hornet launched an air strike of 17 Helldivers and 7 Avengers, escorted by a dozen Hellcats, that bombed Orote without encountering Japanese aircraft. At 09:50 an incoming Japanese air strike had been picked up on radar and the carriers turned into the wind to begin launching 140 fighters; at 10:04, the fighters patrolling over Guam were summoned to reinforce the Combat Air Patrol (CAP) over Task Force 58, although they were too late to participate in the aerial battle. The CAP, reinforced by the newly launched Hellcats, intercepted the Japanese, shooting down 40 of the 57 Zeros involved and seriously disrupting the Japanese attack which only inflicted minor damage on one battleship. Hornet contributed Hellcats who claimed to have shot down 9 Zeros and 3 Nakajima B6N "Jill" torpedo bombers. The second wave of aircraft was detected at 11:07, but Hornets fighters did not participate in their defeat. The third wave was given erroneous locations for the American ships and were northwest of them at 12:40. Most of them turned back, but about a dozen did not and were detected by Task Group 58.1 at 12:56. They were intercepted by 17 Hellcats from Hornet and Yorktown which shot down 6 Zeros and a Jill, with Hornets fighters claiming 9 aircraft in exchange for a damaged Hellcat. The fourth wave was also misdirected and most of the aircraft decided to continue onwards and land on Guam. They arrived there around 15:00 and were intercepted by 41 Hellcats from Hornet, her sister , Cowpens and . They shot down 40 of the 49 aircraft; two of Hornets pilots shot down five Japanese aircraft as they were attempting to land.
Two hundred and ninety-five Hellcats, together with five Avengers and Dauntlesses, had engaged the Japanese during the day and they shot down 208 aircraft of the 373 flown off by the carriers. The Americans lost seven Hellcats at sea, nine over Guam and six by accidents; seven bombers had been shot down by AA guns over Guam and two others had crashed. All told they lost 31 aircraft to all causes during the day. The Japanese lost 35 aircraft in accidents and aboard the two carriers sunk by submarines during the battle, together with 18 Guam-based aircraft shot down and 52 destroyed on the ground for a grand total of 313 to all causes, an exchange ratio of almost exactly 10:1 in favor of the Americans. Not without cause did they nickname the battle "The Marianas Turkey Shoot".
At dusk, the Japanese turned away to the northwest to regroup and to refuel and the Americans turned west to close the distance. They discovered the retiring Japanese fleet during the afternoon of the following day and Mitscher ordered an air strike launched even though it meant recovering the aircraft at night. It consisted of 54 Avengers and 51 Helldivers, escorted by 85 Hellcats. The Japanese carriers launched their remaining 68 Zeros of which all but three were shot down for the loss of 20 American aircraft to all causes. Hornets aircraft badly damaged the carrier while the other aircraft sank the carrier , two tankers and lightly damaged three other carriers and a few other ships. Clark ordered his task group to turn on their lights to guide his pilots home before Mitscher ordered the entire task force to do the same. Despite these precautions, 6 Hellcats, 35 Helldivers and 28 Avengers were lost in deck-landing accidents or ran out of fuel, although most of their crews were rescued that night or over the next few days.
Follow-on attacks
After refuelling on 22 June, most of Task Force 58 sailed to Eniwetok in the Marshall Islands, but Clark took his task group north to attack the Bonins again to interdict any reinforcements for the Marianas. A reconnaissance aircraft spotted his ships on the morning of the 22nd and alerted the Japanese defenders. They scrambled about 60 Zeros and a few Yokosuka D4Y "Judy" dive bombers to intercept the inbound 51 Hellcats. They shot down 6 Hellcats for the loss of 24 Zeros and 5 Judys. The Japanese had enough remaining aircraft to mount two attacks against the task group. The first airstrike of about 20 torpedo bombers had every aircraft shot down by fighters and anti-aircraft fire and the second of 23 Zeros, 9 Judys and 9 Jills never found the American ships. They were intercepted and the Hellcats shot down 10 Zeros and 7 Jills.
The task group arrived at Eniwetok on 27 June and departed to attack the Bonins again three days later, now reinforced by Task Group 58.2. They attacked on 3–4 July; the surviving 9 Zeros and 8 torpedo bombers attempt to return the favor, but lost 5 Zeros and 7 bombers without inflicting any damage on the ships. The task groups relieved Task Group 58.4, which had been supporting the fighting on Saipan, and remained there a week before returning to Eniwetok. In late July, Task Group 58.1 attacked Japanese bases in Yap and nearby islands before attacking the Bonins again on 4–5 August; it arrived back at Eniwetok on the 9th.
That same day, Sample was relieved to take command of a carrier division and Captain Austin Doyle replaced him. Unwilling to serve under Vice Admiral William Halsey, Clark hauled down his flag and was relieved by Vice Admiral John McCain on 18 August. Clark remained aboard Hornet to assist McCain however he might and to serve as the reserve carrier-experienced admiral in case of need. Eight days later, Halsey relieved Spruance and Task Force 58 was redesignated as Task Force 38.
In a strategy conference in Pearl Harbor in July, President Franklin Roosevelt agreed with General Douglas MacArthur that the Philippines, an American territory, would be liberated and they set the date for 20 December. This required a series of preliminary operations to assault the Japanese bases in the western Caroline Islands and the approaches to the Philippines, including Yap and the Palaus. Mitscher began the process by taking three of his task groups, including Hornets TG 38.1, to attack the Palaus on 6–8 September before moving further west to attack Mindanao on 9–10 September, the southernmost large island of the Philippines. Encouraged by the lack of opposition, Halsey ordered Mitscher to attack the central Philippine islands, including Leyte and the other Visayan Islands. Resistance was weak during the attacks on 12–13 September and the American pilots claimed 173 aircraft shot down, 305 destroyed on the ground and 59 ships sunk for the loss of 9 aircraft to all causes. The reality was slightly different, the First Air Fleet defending the central Philippines had a strength of 176 aircraft before the American attacks and 85 after them; the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force (IJAAF) lost 31–40 aircraft during the attacks.
One of Hornets Hellcats was shot down off Leyte on 10 September. The pilot was rescued by Filipino fishermen and he had been contacted by members of the Filipino Resistance and informed that there was no Japanese garrison on Leyte. Halsey, coupling this information with the weak resistance put up by the Japanese during his raids on the Philippines, believed that most of the preliminary attacks planned before invading Luzon on 20 December, could be skipped and suggested to the Joint Chiefs of Staff that the landing date be moved forward to 20 October. They agreed, although Admiral Chester Nimitz, commander of the Pacific Fleet, still required that he should conduct those parts of the plan regarding seizing bases in the Palaus and the Western Carolines.
Halsey sent TG 38.1 south to attack Japanese airfields in the area during the invasion of Morotai that began on the 15th, but summoned them back to rejoin the bulk of TF 38 before his planned attack on Manila on 21 September. Hornets aircraft participated in the second wave of attacks on Manila Bay and sank the elderly destroyer . The American pilots claimed to have shot down 110 aircraft and destroyed 95 on the ground, although the First Air Fleet actually lost less than two dozen aircraft to all causes. TF38 claimed to have sunk or damaged seven oil tankers, but Japanese records show that nine were sunk or wrecked. Bad weather forced the cancellation of most of the airstrikes planned for the second day, but Halsey decided to attack Coron Bay in the Calamian Islands instead, an anchorage often used by Japanese oilers, on the other side of the Philippines with TGs 38.1 and 38.3. Hornets air group led the combined airstrike which sank two oilers, six freighters, several escorts and the seaplane tender . TG 38.1 then sailed to Seeadler Harbor to replenish and exchange Air Group 2 for Air Group 11. Clark finally departed Hornet on 1 October.
Liberation of the Philippines
The four carrier groups of TF 38 rendezvoused west of the Marianas on 7 October, after weathering a typhoon that inflicted only minor damage. At this time, Hornets Air Group 11 consisted of 39 Hellcats, 25 Helldivers and 18 Avengers. After refueling the following day, they proceeded north with the mission of destroying Japanese aircraft that could reinforce the defenses of the Philippines. Analysis of American radio traffic had alerted the Japanese and they were expecting an attack along the arc between the Ryukyu Islands and Formosa or in the northern Philippines. The Americans obliged with an attack on the Ryukyus on 10 October, claiming to have shot down over 100 aircraft while losing 21 of their own to all causes. This attack caused the Japanese to activate the Sho-1 and Sho-2 variants of their plan that provided for the defense of the Philippines and for the islands between the Philippines and Japan. As part of the plan, the carrier-based aircraft would operate from land bases. After recovering their aircraft, TF 38 headed south that night to refuel east of Luzon the next day. In the early afternoon of 11 October, TG 38.1 and 38.4 launched an airstrike again the airfield in Aparri, on the northern coast of Luzon, which claimed to have destroyed 15 aircraft on the ground.
Attack on Formosa
Before dawn, TF 38 launched a fighter sweep of 199 Hellcats against an alerted defense which already had fighters in the air. Despite this, Japanese losses were very heavy while the Americans lost 48 aircraft to all causes on 12 October. Throughout the night, the Japanese made multiple attacks, losing 42 aircraft to no effect. Another series of airstrikes followed on 13 October, although fewer defending aircraft made an appearance and TF 38's carriers lost 12 aircraft to all causes. At twilight, torpedo bombers attacked TG 38.1; Hornet evaded one torpedo that eventually crippled the heavy cruiser . Halsey had originally planned to withdraw that night to refuel on the 14th, but he had plenty of fuel left and decided to attack the airfields from which the Japanese might mount attacks on Canberra as she was towed westwards. Little opposition was encountered when the naval aviators flew their morning airstrike over Formosa and the carriers began to withdraw that afternoon, having lost 23 aircraft to all causes. TG 38.1 remained behind to protect the ships escorting Canberra. The Japanese repeated their twilight attacks against TG 38.1 and managed to cripple the light cruiser with a torpedo, but both cruisers reached Ulithi about a week later. Admitted Japanese losses during the airstrikes and on the attacks on the fleet amounted to 492 aircraft, including 100 from the IJAAF.
On 18 October TG 38.1 rendezvoused with TG 38.4 off the eastern coast of Luzon. Later that morning TG 38.1's aircraft attacked targets near Clark Air Base and San Bernardino Strait, losing seven aircraft to all causes. Pilots claimed to have shot down 30 aircraft and to have destroyed 29 more on the ground. The following day, the aviators were tasked to attack airfields near Clark Air Base and Manila and claimed to have destroyed 23 aircraft on the ground. After recovering their aircraft, both task groups headed south to where they could support the amphibious landings on Leyte scheduled for 20 October. Halsey ordered on 19 October that the air groups aboard the Essex-class carriers be reorganized with 54 fighters, 24 Helldivers and 18 Avengers, using locally available replacement aircraft beginning on 29 October.
That morning TG 38.1 launched a fighter sweep over northern Mindanao; there was no evidence of Japanese aerial activity in the air or on the ground. One aircraft was reportedly destroyed at Del Monte Airfield and six others were damaged. Both task groups launched large airstrikes later that morning to attack the defenses of the landing beaches themselves and the area immediately behind them. Their effectiveness was inhibited by the dense foliage, heavy smoke in the air and the large number of aircraft involved over a relatively small area. Many aircraft had to wait almost two hours before receiving their targets for lack of sufficient communications channels. That evening the task groups departed the area to refuel the next morning, returning to the area by the morning of the 22nd, although the bad weather prevented most flying. That evening Halsey ordered TG 38.1 to proceed to Ulithi to prepare for the attacks on the Japanese mainland scheduled for 11 November. After receiving reports of Japanese surface ships in the Sibuyan Sea, Halsey ordered the task group to reverse course on the night of 23/24 October.
Battle off Samar
The task group was too far away to intervene when the Japanese surprised the American escort carriers off the coast of Samar on the morning of 25 October with their force of battleships and cruisers, but McCain's carriers were able to close the distance enough by the early afternoon to launch two long-range airstrikes that accomplished little. The Americans lost 14 aircraft to all causes and failed to significantly damage any of Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita's ships. The following morning, after TG 38.1 and 38.2 rendezvoused, they launched an 257-aircraft airstrike that attacked Kurita's ships. Avengers from Hornet and Cowpens hit the light cruiser with one bomb that started a quickly extinguished fire. About twenty minutes later another Avenger put a torpedo into the cruiser; the detonation disabled all of her boilers and left her dead in the water. About an hour and a half after that, 28 of Hornets Avengers and Helldivers hit Noshiro again with a torpedo and she sank an hour later.
Afterwards TG 38.1 resumed their interrupted voyage to Ulithi on the 27th. Four days later McCain relieved Mitscher as commander of TF 38 and Rear Admiral Alfred Montgomery assumed command of TG 38.1. The task group, together with TGs 38.2 and 38.3 returned to the Philippines in early November and attacked airfields in Luzon on 5 November, claiming to have destroyed 439 aircraft, most on the ground, while losing 36 aircraft to all causes. The aviators sank the heavy cruiser , an oiler and a cargo ship. On 11 November a troop convoy heading for Ormoc Bay was spotted; it was attacked by a large airstrike that sank five troop ships and four of the escorting destroyers despite its defending fighters for the loss of 9 US aircraft. Two days later TF 38 attacked Manila again and sank the light cruiser , four destroyers and seven merchant ships. The aviators claimed to have damaged forty-three other ships and destroyed 84 aircraft while losing 25 aircraft. McCain attacked Manila again on 19 November, but with much less effect; sinking three merchantmen, damaging thirteen others and claimed to have destroyed 116 aircraft, mostly on the ground, for the loss of 13 planes in combat. TGs 38.1 and 38.2 attacked targets in Luzon on the 25th, sinking the crippled heavy cruiser and a few smaller ships, and claimed to have shot down 26 Japanese aircraft and destroyed 29 on the ground. Having interdicted the flow of reinforcements to Leyte and maintained control of the air over the Philippines, the carriers retired to Ulithi to recuperate now that the Army Air Force had enough operable aircraft of its own to assume those roles. After Hornet arrived there, Clark hoisted his flag aboard her again, although he was not in command of the task group.
The increasing threat from kamikaze suicide aircraft that had damaged seven carriers since the invasion of Leyte caused the navy to reassess its air group composition. Fighters were obviously needed more to intercept the kamikazes before they could reach the fleet so the groups were reorganized to consist of 73 fighters and 15 dive and torpedo bombers each. The change would take several months to implement and a single fighter squadron that large would prove to be too big for one man to lead, so they were split into two squadrons in January 1945.
Battle of Mindoro
The temporary loss of the damaged carriers for repairs caused the reorganization of TG 38 in which Hornet was transferred to TG 38.2 for the upcoming operations in support of the assault on Mindoro scheduled for 5 December. The landings were postponed 10 days and TF 38 sortied on 11 December. The ship mustered 51 Hellcats, 15 Helldivers and 18 Avengers at this time. For this operation, the Army would cover all targets south of Manila, the escort carriers would provide direct support while the fast carriers would gain air supremacy over Luzon. Starting on the 14th, TF 38 flew continuous missions in support of that objective until they had to refuel three days later. The aviators claimed to have destroyed 269 aircraft, mostly on the ground, sunk a few merchant ships and heavily damaged roads and railroads while losing 27 aircraft in combat and 38 to accidents. The task force was unable to refuel on the 17th due to worsening weather and another attempt the next morning also failed before Halsey sailed unwittingly into the path of Typhoon Cobra later that day. Low on fuel, many ships were top-heavy and rolled heavily which sometimes broke aircraft free from their tie-down chains. Across the fleet 146 aircraft were destroyed, three light carriers were damaged when aircraft broke loose inside the hangars and three destroyers were sunk. The Third Fleet was able to refuel on 19 December, but follow-on operations over Luzon scheduled for the 21st had to be canceled when the Americans realized that the typhoon was over Luzon, so TF 38 returned to Ulithi.
South China Sea raid
On 30 December, TF 38 departed Ulithi to attack Japanese airfields and shipping in Formosa, French Indo-China, Luzon, China, the Ryukyus and the Pescadores Islands in support of the scheduled landings at Lingayen Gulf in Luzon on 9 January 1945 and to interdict the maritime traffic between the Japanese home islands and her conquests in Southeast Asia. The carriers first attacked Formosa on 3–4 January before turning to Luzon for airstrikes on the 6th and 7th and then returned to bomb targets in Formosa on the 9th. While claiming to have destroyed over 150 aircraft with little aerial opposition, the Americans lost 46 aircraft in combat and 40 more in accidents. With his obligation to cover the Lingayen Gulf area until the landings were done, Halsey's ships entered the South China Sea during the night of 9–10 January in search of the two s that had been partially turned into seaplane carriers and had been mistakenly reported at Cam Ranh Bay. After refueling on the 11th, the carriers flew off almost 1,500 sorties against targets in French Indochina and off the coast. Halsey turned his ships northward and attacked Formosa and the Hong Kong area on 15–16 January and reattacked Formosa on the 21st after having exited the South China Sea. Until this date, the Third Fleet had not been attacked by the Japanese, but the kamikazes badly damaged Hornets sister . En route back to Ulithi, TF 38's planes flew reconnaissance missions over Okinawa on 22 January to aid the planned invasion of that island while also attacking Japanese positions. All told the carriers destroyed some 300,000 GRT of shipping and claimed to have destroyed 615 aircraft while losing 201 aircraft to all causes during their excursion.
Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign
On 27 January, Spruance relieved Halsey, Clark assumed command of TG 58.1 and brought Hornet back to the task group. The fast carriers, now renumbered as TF 58, departed Ulithi on 10 February for full-scale aerial assaults on the Tokyo area scheduled for 16–17 February that were intended to isolate Iwo Jima. TF 58's pilots claimed to have shot down 341 aircraft and destroyed 190 on the ground; attacks on industrial targets were not very effective and little shipping was sunk, with the most notable example being the recently completed Imperial Japanese Army escort carrier Yamashio Maru. The Japanese admitted losing at least 78 aircraft in aerial combat while claiming to having shot down 134 aircraft themselves; the Americans lost 88 aircraft to all causes. The Japanese did not attack TF 58 during their time off the coast of Honshu.
The carriers turned south late in the afternoon of the 17th to prepare to support the amphibious landings on Iwo Jima on 19 February. TG 58.1 was refueling on the day of the landing, but joined the other task groups providing close support for the Marines ashore on the 20th. Three days later, Spruance released the fast carriers to attack the Japanese Home Islands again in an attempt to neutralize the kamikaze threat. Bad weather limited the effectiveness of the airstrikes around Tokyo on 25 January; continued bad weather forced the cancellation of the airstrikes planned the following day despite moving southwards overnight. Mitscher refueled his ships on the 27th and turned south to attack Okinawa on 1 March before returning to Ulithi on the 4th. American claims were 52 aircraft shot down and more than 60 destroyed on the ground in exchange for 55 aircraft lost to all causes between 19 February and 1 March.
While refitting in Ulithi, Air Group 17 relieved Air Group 11 aboard the Hornet before departing on the 14th for another series of attacks on Japan in preparation for the invasion of Okinawa. A Japanese reconnaissance aircraft spotted TF 58 on 17 March which allowed the Japanese to disperse their aircraft and hide them. American attacks on the airfields in Kyushu were largely ineffective and were fiercely opposed. Hornets Fighter Squadron 17 encountered many fighters over Kanoya Air Field and claimed to have shot down 25 of them. Japanese attacks on TF 58 lightly damaged three carriers, none of which were under Clark's command. American fighter pilots claimed 126 aircraft shot down and the Japanese admitted losing 110 aircraft, including 32 kamikazes.
Reconnaissance aircraft had located the remnants of the IJN in Kure and Kobe on the 18th and Mitscher ordered TGs 58.1, 58.3 and 58.4 to attack the former port. The Japanese caught Clark's carriers with their decks full of aircraft, preparing to fly off the morning's airstrike, but all of the attack aircraft were shot down; one kamikaze crashed a thousand yards (910 meters) astern of Hornet and two other were splashed by her sister s gunners. After the airstrikes flew off, further Japanese attacks crippled her sister . As they approached Kure, the 20 Hellcats of Hornets Fighter-Bomber Squadron 17 encountered 40 fighters from the IJAAF's elite 434rd Kokutai. In a battle which lasted 25 minutes, six American and four Japanese fighters were shot down. The total casualties from the day's fighting over Japan, including the engagement between VBF-17 and the 434rd Kokutai, was 14 American and 25 Japanese aircraft shot down. The attacks on the warships in Kure were fairly ineffectual, with the American pilots lightly damaging four battleships and many other warships, but badly damaging only a single escort carrier and a light cruiser. Hornet lost 13 aircraft in combat during the day. The afternoon's scheduled airstrikes were canceled to allow TF 58 to protect its damaged ships as they withdrew; further attacks on 20 and 21 March failed to significantly damage any more ships.
TF 58 aircraft began hitting Okinawa on 23 March. The following day, TG 581.1 reconnaissance aircraft spotted a convoy that consisted of two troop transports, an ammunition ship and five escorts off Amami Ōshima headed for Okinawa; an 112-aircraft airstrike from Clark's carriers sank them all. Mitscher's carriers continued to attack Okinawa, ultimately flying a total of 3,095 sorties in the last seven days of March. The Japanese heavily attacked TF 58 between 26 and 31 March and damaged 10 ships, at the cost of around 1,100 aircraft. On 1 April, Hornets planes began to provide direct support to the forces landing on Okinawa. Five days later the Japanese launched a mass airstrike on 6 April that consisted to almost 700 planes, of which at least 355 were kamikazes. Mitscher cleared his flight decks of all non fighters and his pilots claimed to have shot down a total of 249 aircraft. Despite this, three destroyers, two ammunition ships, and one Landing Ship, Tank were sunk by kamikazes and eight destroyers, a destroyer escort and a minelayer were damaged. The following day, the Japanese continued to attack, albeit with fewer aircraft. Kamikazes damaged Hornets sister , one battleship, a destroyer and a destroyer escort.
Operation Ten-Go
Operation Ten-Go (Ten-gō sakusen) was the attempted attack by a strike force of 10 Japanese surface vessels, led by the large battleship Yamato. This small task force had been ordered to fight through enemy naval forces, then beach Yamato and fight from shore, using her guns as coastal artillery and her crew as naval infantry. The Ten-Go force was spotted by American submarines shortly after it put to sea on 6 April. Reconnaissance aircraft from TF 58 found the force the following morning and TG 58.1 began launching aircraft almost two hours later. Hornets Avengers put at least one torpedo into the battleship, the first of the ten torpedoes and five bomb hits that sank her less than two hours later. Of Yamatos screening force, the light cruiser and four of the seven destroyers were also sunk or scuttled. The Americans lost three fighters, four dive bombers and three torpedo bombers to all causes during the attack.
On 8 April, TF 58 returned to its previous mission of providing support to the US forces ashore, although continued kamikaze attacks exacted a toll. A week later, Mitscher ordered a fighter sweep over Kyushu to focus Japanese attention on his ships rather the more vulnerable amphibious shipping sustaining the ongoing battle. His pilots claimed to have shot down 29 aircraft and destroyed 51 on the ground. His strategy worked and the kamikazes attacked TF 58 on 17 April, badly damaging Intrepid despite Clark's pilots claiming 72 attackers. The fast carriers returned to Okinawan waters and none of them were damaged by a kamikaze until 11 May. When the weather worsened in late April, Mitscher sent TG 58.1 to Ulithi to refit and rest his exhausted crews on the 27th. After Clark's ships rejoined him on 12 May, Mitscher sent TG 58.1 and 58.3 the next day to attack airfields in Kyushu and Shikoku. Over 13–14 May, their pilots claimed to have shot down 72 aircraft and destroyed 73 on the ground while losing 14 aircraft. The Japanese evened the score when they badly damaged Enterprise on the 14th.
Halsey and McCain reassumed command and the task force resumed its former designation as TF 38 on 27–28 May, after the pace of aerial combat had slowed down. Bad weather forced the cancellation of air support over Okinawa on 30 May and on 1–3 June. Clark was able to refuel on the following day, despite worsening weather. He took his ships eastwards, hoping to avoid the developing typhoon to his southwest. Halsey, however, ordered him to steer northwestwards shortly after midnight on the 5th to position his ships for the planned airstrikes on Kyushu, which put TG 38.1 right into the path of the typhoon. Despite multiple requests to alter course to avoid the eye of the typhoon, the task group entered the eyewall region, where the most violent weather in a typhoon is located, around dawn when Clark was finally granted the freedom to maneuver. Shortly afterwards a massive wave crashed down on Hornets bow which collapsed some 25 feet (8 meters) of her forward flight deck. Not long afterwards the same thing happened to Bennington and the bow was ripped off the heavy cruiser . Only six men were killed during the storm, but 76 airplanes were destroyed or lost overboard and 70 were damaged. Both Hornet and Bennington were unable to launch their aircraft over the bow, as was proved when a Marine Vought F4U Corsair was flown off Hornet and almost immediately flipped over and spun into the sea.
Clark ordered that the damaged sisters steam backwards at and launch their aircraft over the stern on 7 June as they provided the CAP over the task group. He detached Bennington for repairs the next day while Hornets aircraft participated in the attack on Kanoya Air Field. On 9 April, McCain had Clark's aircraft demonstrate the effectiveness of napalm bombs on the coastal defenses of Okidaitōjima, southeast of Okinawa. The following day, his planes spotted for three battleships as they bombarded Minamidaitōjima. After arriving in Leyte on 13 June, Clark relinquished command of the task group and Hornet was ordered home for repairs, arriving in San Francisco on 7 July. Hornet earned seven battle stars and the Presidential Unit Citation for her service in the war.
Her repairs and refit were complete by 13 September, after which she was assigned to Operation Magic Carpet that had her ferry troops home from the Marianas and Hawaiian Islands, returning to San Francisco on 9 February 1946. Hornet was decommissioned on 15 January 1947 and assigned to the Pacific Reserve Fleet.
Peacetime tensions: 1951 to 1959
"Hornet was recommissioned on 20 March 1951, then sailed from San Francisco for the New York Naval Shipyard, where she was decommissioned on 12 May for conversion to an attack aircraft carrier CVA-12, under the SCB-27A upgrade program." Her sister badly damaged her bow in a collision on 26 April 1952; Hornets bow was cut away and used to repair Wasp. "On 11 September 1953, she was recommissioned as an attack carrier. The ship then trained in the Caribbean Sea before departure from Norfolk on 11 May 1954 on an eight-month global cruise."
"After operations in the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, Hornet joined the mobile 7th Fleet in the South China Sea to search for survivors of a Cathay Pacific Airways passenger plane, shot down by Chinese aircraft near Hainan Island. On 25 July, Hornet aircraft supported planes from as they shot down two attacking Chinese fighters. After tensions eased, she returned to San Francisco on 12 December, trained out of San Diego, then sailed on 4 May 1955 to join the 7th Fleet in the Far East. Hornet helped to cover the evacuation of Vietnamese from the Communist-controlled north to South Vietnam, then ranged from Japan to Formosa, Okinawa, and the Philippines in readiness training with the 7th Fleet. She returned to San Diego on 10 December and entered the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard the following month for the SCB-125 upgrade."
"Following her modernization overhaul, Hornet operated along the California coast. She departed San Diego on 21 January 1957 to bolster the strength of the 7th Fleet until her return from the troubled Far East on 25 July. Following a similar cruise, 6 January – 2 July 1958," she entered Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in August, to begin the conversion into an anti-submarine warfare (ASW) carrier. "On 3 April 1959, she sailed from Long Beach to join the 7th Fleet in antisubmarine warfare tactics ranging from Japan to Okinawa and the Philippines. She returned home in October, for training along the western seaboard." In the late 1950s, an anti-submarine air group consisted of one squadron with 20 twin-engined Grumman S2F Trackers ASW aircraft, a squadron of HSS-1 Seabat ASW helicopters and a detachment of Douglas AD-5W Skyraider airborne early warning (AEW) aircraft. A detachment of four McDonnell F2H Banshee fighters was often assigned to protect the other aircraft. After 1960, the ASW air group generally consisted of two squadrons of ASW aircraft, each of 10 Trackers, a helicopter squadron of 16 Seabats or Sikorsky SH-3 Sea Kings and an AEW detachment with Grumman E-1 Tracers. No fighters were assigned between 1960 and 1965. Afterwards, the ASW carriers sometimes received a detachment of Douglas A-4 Skyhawk attack aircraft.
Vietnam and the Space Race: 1960 to 1970
"In the following years, Hornet was regularly deployed to the 7th Fleet for operations ranging from the coast of South Vietnam, to the shores of Japan, the Philippines and Okinawa"; she also played a key part in the Apollo program, as a recovery ship for uncrewed and crewed spaceflights. On 6 March 1965, a Sea King helicopter took off from Hornet in San Diego and flew to the aircraft carrier , off Naval Station Mayport, Florida, without refueling or landing. It covered a distance of 2,106 miles (3,388 kilometers) in 16 hours, 52 minutes, and set a Fédération Aéronautique Internationale world record for helicopters. This exceeded the previous record distance by more than 750 miles (1,207 kilometers). Hornet was deployed to Vietnam for the first time from October 1965 to January 1966, by this time all of the ASW carriers had received the SCB-144 upgrade as part of the Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization II program. They received an AN/SQS-23 sonar mounted in the bow, as well as improved displays in the Combat Information Center. During these deployments the carriers were responsible for escorting the attack carriers in the South China Sea and providing combat search and rescue. Their Skyhawks were occasionally used to attack ground targets. On 20 September 1965, the destroyer 's steering malfunctioned and collided with Hornet while refueling. Nobody was injured on either ship, but both were lightly damaged.
On 25 August 1966, she was on recovery station for the flight of AS-202, the second uncrewed flight of production Apollo Command and Service Modules. The moonship rocketed three-quarters of the way around the globe in 93 minutes before splashdown near Wake Island. Scorched from the heat of its re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, the Apollo space capsule, designed to carry American astronauts to the Moon, was brought aboard Hornet after its test; that command module is currently on display aboard Hornet.
"Hornet returned to Long Beach on 8 September, but headed back to the Far East on 27 March 1967. She reached Japan exactly a month later and departed the Sasebo base on 19 May for the war zone." She operated in Vietnamese waters until October and returned for another deployment from November 1968 to April 1969. After the North Koreans shot down a Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star AEW aircraft on 14 April over international waters, Hornet was ordered to reinforce the American ships gathering in the area in what became a pointless show of force.
Hornet recovered the three astronauts (Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Buzz Aldrin) and their command module Columbia from the first Moon landing mission, Apollo 11, after splashdown about 900 miles southwest of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean on 24 July 1969. President Nixon was on board to welcome the returning astronauts back to Earth, where they lived in quarantine aboard Hornet prior to transfer to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at Houston. Hornet also recovered Apollo 12 on 24 November. Returning astronauts Charles Conrad, Jr., Alan L. Bean, and Richard F. Gordon, Jr., were picked up from their splashdown point near American Samoa.
Retirement: 1970 to present
Hornet was decommissioned 26 June 1970 and mothballed at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard and Intermediate Maintenance Facility. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 25 July 1989. In 1991, she was designated a National Historic Landmark. The carrier was donated to the Aircraft Carrier Hornet Foundation on 26 May 1998. On 17 October 1998, she was opened to the public as USS Hornet Museum in Alameda, California. She was designated a California State Historic Landmark in 1999, and is listed on the National Register of Historic places, #91002065.
Building on her status as an authentically restored aircraft carrier, Hornet has been featured in a number of film and television shows. Several TV shows, including a number of phantom-themed shows, have been recorded on board; and in 1997, she was the subject of an episode of the TV series JAG, the season-three opener titled "Ghost Ship". In 2004, she was the set for scenes from the movie XXX: State of the Union, which starred Ice Cube, and portions of the 2007 film Rescue Dawn, which starred Christian Bale, were shot on board. Hornet was both the subject and the setting of the independent film Carrier (2006). Hornet also hosted the final task and finish line of the thirtieth season of the reality show The Amazing Race.
Awards
Presidential Unit Citation
Meritorious Unit Commendation (3)
China Service Medal (extended)
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal (7 battle stars)
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Service Medal (with Europe clasp)
National Defense Service Medal (2)
Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal (2)
Vietnam Service Medal (6 battle stars)
Philippine Presidential Unit Citation
Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation (Gallantry Cross Medal with Palm)
Philippine Liberation Medal (1 battle star)
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
Gallery
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
USS Hornet Museum official website
USS Hornet Sea, Air & Space Museum post on AirMuseumGuide.com
USS Hornet by the US Navy
General Plan for the U.S.S. Hornet (CV-12), hosted by the Historical Naval Ships Association (HNSA) Digital Collections
Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
USS Hornet by Dwayne Miles
USS Hornet – Damage to Ship's Structure – Official report written by ship's captain after typhoon damage
CAG-17 Carrier Air Group 17 VT-17 Torpedo Group 17 was based on USS Hornet 1944–1945
USS Hornet pictures from the U.S. Naval History Center
Essex-class aircraft carriers
1943 ships
Apollo program
Apollo 11
Apollo 12
World War II aircraft carriers of the United States
Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States
Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States
Ships on the National Register of Historic Places in California
History of Alameda County, California
Ships built in Newport News, Virginia
National Register of Historic Places in Alameda County, California
World War II on the National Register of Historic Places in California
Space capsule recovery ships
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw%20IV%20Vasa
|
Władysław IV Vasa
|
Władysław IV Vasa or Ladislaus IV of Poland (9 June 1595 – 20 May 1648) was King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania and claimant of the thrones of Sweden and Russia, who ruled from 1632 until his death in 1648. Władysław IV was the eldest son of Sigismund III Vasa and his wife, Anna of Austria.
Born into the House of Vasa, Władysław was elected Tsar of Russia by the Seven Boyars in 1610 when the Polish army captured Moscow, but did not assume the throne due to his father's position and a popular uprising. Nevertheless, until 1634 he used the titular title of Grand Duke of Muscovy, a principality centered around Moscow. Elected king of Poland in 1632, he was largely successful in defending the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth against foreign invasion, most notably in the Smolensk War of 1632–34, in which he participated personally.
He supported religious tolerance and carried out military reforms, such as the founding of the Commonwealth Navy. Władysław was also a renowned patron of the arts and music. He failed, however, at reclaiming the Swedish throne, gaining fame by defeating the Ottoman Empire, strengthening royal power, and reforming the Commonwealth's political system. Despite these failures, his personal charisma and popularity among all segments of society contributed to relative internal calm in the Commonwealth.
He died without a legitimate son and was succeeded to the Polish throne by his half-brother, John II Casimir Vasa. Władysław's death marked the end of relative stability in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as conflicts and tensions that had been growing over several decades came to a head with devastating consequences. The Khmelnytsky Uprising in the east (1648) and the subsequent Swedish invasion ("the Deluge", 1655–60) weakened the country and diminished Poland's status as a regional power. For this reason, Władysław's reign was seen in following decades as a bygone golden era of stability and prosperity.
Life
Władysław IV's father, Sigismund III Vasa, grandson of Sweden's King Gustav I, had succeeded his father to the Swedish throne in 1592, only to be deposed in 1599 by his uncle, subsequently King Charles IX. This resulted in a long-standing feud, with the Polish kings of the House of Vasa claiming the Swedish throne. This led to the Polish–Swedish War of 1600–29 and later to the Deluge of 1655.
Childhood
The marriage of Anne of Austria to Sigismund III was a traditional, politically motivated marriage, intended to tie the young House of Vasa to the prestigious Habsburgs. Władysław was born 9 June 1595 at the King's summer residence in Łobzów, near Kraków, a few months after the main Wawel Castle had been consumed by fire.
Władysław's mother died on 10 February 1598, less than three years after giving birth to him. He was raised by one of her former ladies of the court, Urszula Meierin, who eventually became a powerful player at the royal court, with much influence.
Władysław's Hofmeister was Michał Konarski, a Polish-Prussian noble. Around early 17th century Urszula lost much of her influence, as Władysław gained new teachers and mentors, including such priests
as Marek Łętkowski, Gabriel Prowancjusz, and Andrzej Szołdrski and in military matters by Zygmunt Kazanowski.
Much of his curriculum was likely designed by Father Piotr Skarga, much respected by Sigmismund III. Władysław studied for several years in the Kraków Academy, and for two years, in Rome.
At the age of 10, he received his own prince court. He formed a friendship with brothers Adam and Stanisław Kazanowski. It was reported that young Władysław was interested in arts; later this led to him becoming an important patron of the arts. He spoke and wrote in German, Italian and Latin.
Władysław was liked by the szlachta (Polish nobility), but his father's plans to secure him the throne of Poland (vivente rege) were unpopular and eventually crushed in the Zebrzydowski Rebellion (rokosz).
Tsar
With the intensification of the Polish intervention in Muscovy, in 1609, the royal family moved to their residence in Vilnius, capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where he witnessed the fire of Vilnius, which required the royal family to evacuate from Vilnius Castle. Later that year, Władysław, aged 15, was elected Tsar by Muscovy's aristocracy council of Seven boyars, who overthrew tsar Vasily Shuysky during the Polish-Muscovite War and Muscovy's Time of Troubles.
His election was ruined by his father, Sigismund, who aimed to convert Muscovy's population from the Eastern Orthodox religion to Roman Catholicism. Sigismund refused to agree to the boyar's request to send prince Władysław to Moscow and his conversion to Orthodoxy. Instead, Sigismund proposed that he should reign as a regent in Muscovy instead. This unrealistic proposal led to a resumption of hostilities. In 1611-12, silver and gold coins (kopeks) were prematurely stuck in the Russian mints in Moscow and Novgorod with Władysław's titulary Tsar and Grand Prince Vladislav Zigimontovych of all Russia.
Władysław tried to regain the tsar's throne himself, organizing a campaign in 1616. Despite some military victories, he was unable to capture Moscow. The Commonwealth gained some disputed territories in the Truce of Deulino, but Władysław was never able to reign in Russia; the throne during this time was instead held by tsar Michael Romanov. He held on to the title, without any real power, until 1634.
Likely, the failure of this campaign showed Władysław the limits of royal power in Poland, as major factors for the failure included significant autonomy of the military commanders, which did not see Władysław as their superior, and lack of funds for the army, as the Polish parliament (sejm) refused to subsidize the war.
Prince
Before he was elected king of the Commonwealth, Władysław fought in many campaigns, seeking personal glory. After his final campaign against Russians in 1617–18 (the end of Dymitriads), he went to Silesia in 1619 looking for an opportunity to aid the Habsburgs in their struggle against the Czech Hussites in the Thirty Years' War, an opportunity that never materialized.
In 1620, he took part in the second phase of the Polish–Ottoman War, a consequence of the long series of struggles between Poland and the Ottomans over Moldavia. In 1621, he was a Polish commander at Chocim. He reportedly he was stricken with illness but despite that proved a voice of reason, convincing other Polish commanders there to stay and fight. His advice was correct, and the battle eventually ended with a peace treaty that returned the status quo from before the Ottoman invasion. This peace treaty also gave Władysław an international reputation as a "defender of the Christian faith", and increased his popularity in the Commonwealth itself.
In 1623, while near Gdańsk (Danzig), he witnessed Gustavus Adolphus's Swedish Navy use its naval superiority to demand concessions from Gdańsk (the Commonwealth had no navy).
In 1624, King Sigismund decided that the time had come for Władysław to travel, like many of his peers, to Western Europe. For security reasons, Władysław traveled under a fake name, Snopkowski (from Polish Snopek, meaning sheaf, as seen in the Vasa's coat of arms). On the long voyage (1624–25), he was accompanied by Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł and other courtiers.
First, he travelled to Wrocław (Breslau), then Munich, where he met Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria. In Brussels he met Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain; in Antwerp, Rubens. Near Breda he met Ambrosio Spinola. It was during his stay with Spinola that he was impressed by Western military techniques; this was later reflected when he became king, as military matters were always important to him.
While not a military genius, and surpassed by his contemporary, Commonwealth hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski, Władysław was known as a fairly skillful commander on his own. In Rome he was welcomed by Pope Urban VIII, who congratulated him on his fighting against the Ottomans. During his stay in Florence he was impressed by opera, and decided to bring this form of art to the Commonwealth, where it was previously unknown.
In Genoa and Venice he was impressed by the local shipyards, and in Pisa he witnessed a specially organized mock naval battle, experiences that resulted in his later attempt to create the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy.
After returning to Poland, he fought in 1626 against the Swedes in the last phase of the Polish–Swedish War, where he took part in the battle of Gniew. His involvement in this conflict, which lasted till the Truce of Altmark in 1629, was rather limited, and he spent much time in other parts of the country.
During that period and afterward, he lobbied for support of his candidature for the Polish throne, as his father, Sigismund, was getting more advanced in his age, and the succession to the Polish throne did not occur through inheritance but rather through the process of royal elections. While Władysław, and his father tried to ensure Władysław's election during Sigismund's lifetime, this was not a popular option for the nobility, and it repeatedly failed, up to and including at the sejm of 1631.
Sigismund suffered a sudden heart attack on 23 April 1632 and died a week later in the morning hours of 30 April, forcing the matter to be raised again.
King
The election sejm of 1632 eventually chose Władysław; there were no other serious contenders. The decision reached on 8 November, but as the pacta conventa were not yet ready, the official announcement was delayed until 13 November. In the pacta conventa, Władysław pledged himself to fund a military school and equipment; to find a way to fund a navy; to maintain current alliances; not to raise armies, give offices or military ranks to foreigners, negotiate peace treaties, or declare war without the Sejm's approval; not to take a wife without the Senate's approval; to convince his brothers to take an oath to the Commonwealth; and to transfer the profits from the Royal Mint to the Royal Treasury rather than to a private treasury. When the election result was announced by the Crown Grand Marshal, Łukasz Opaliński, the szlachta (nobility), who had taken part in the election, began festivities in honor of the new king, which lasted three hours. Władysław was crowned in the Wawel Cathedral, in Kraków on 6 February in the following year.
Military campaigns
In an attempt to take advantage of the confusion expected after the death of the Polish king, Tsar Michael I of Russia invaded the Commonwealth. A Muscovite army crossed the Commonwealth eastern frontier in October 1632 and laid siege to Smolensk (which was ceded to Poland by Russia in 1618, at the end of the Dymitriad wars). In the war against Russia in 1632–1634 (the Smolensk War), Władysław broke the siege in September 1633 and then in turn surrounded the Russian army under Mikhail Shein, which was then forced to surrender on 1 March 1634.
During that campaign Władysław started the modernisation program of the Commonwealth army, emphasising the usage of modern infantry and artillery. Władysław proved to be a good tactician, and his innovations in the use of artillery and fortifications based on Western ideas greatly contributed to the eventual Polish–Lithuanian success. King Władysław wanted to continue the war or, because the Polish–Swedish Treaty of Altmark would soon be expiring, ally with the Russians to strike against Sweden. However, the Sejm wanted no more conflict. As Stanisław Łubieński, the Bishop of Płock, wrote two weeks after Shein's surrender: "Our happiness is in remaining within our borders, guaranteeing health and well-being." The resulting Peace of Polyanov (Treaty of Polanów), favourable to Poland, confirmed the pre-war territorial status quo. Muscovy also agreed to pay 20,000 rubles in exchange for Wladyslaw's renunciation of all claims to the tsardom and return of the royal insignia, which were in the Commonwealth possession since the Dymitriads.
Following the Smolensk campaign, the Commonwealth was threatened by another attack by the Ottoman Empire. During the wars against Ottomans in 1633–1634 Władysław moved the Commonwealth army south of the Muscovy border, where under the command of hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski it forced the Turks to renew a peace treaty. In the resulting treaty, both countries agreed again to curb the border raids by Cossacks and the Tatars, and the Ottomans confirmed that the Commonwealth to be an independent power, and had not to pay tribute to the Empire.
After the southern campaign, the Commonwealth had to deal with a threat from the north, as the armistice, ending the Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629) was expiring. The majority of Polish nobles preferred to solve the problem through negotiations, unwilling to pay taxes for a new war, provided that Sweden was open to negotiations and concessions (in particular, to retreat from the occupied Polish coastal territories). Władysław himself was hoping for a war, which could yield some more significant territorial gains, and even managed to gather a sizeable army, with navy elements, near the disputed territories. Sweden, weakened by involvement in the Thirty Years' War, was however open to a peaceful solution. Władysław could not go against the decision of the Sejm and Senate, and agreed to support the treaty. Thus both sides agreed to sign the Armistice of Stuhmsdorf (Sztumska Wieś) on 12 September 1635, favourable to the Commonwealth, which regained the Prussian territories, and called for a reduction of the Swedish tolls on the maritime trade.
Politics
In the three months between his election and coronation, Władysław sounded the waters regarding the possibility of a peaceful succession to the Swedish throne, following the recent death of Gustavus Adolphus, but this, as well as his proposal to mediate between Sweden and its enemies, was rejected, primarily by the Swedish chancellor and head of the regency council, Axel Oxenstierna.
Władysław IV owed nominal allegiance to the Imperial Habsburgs as a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece. His relationship with the Habsburgs was relatively strong; although he was not above carrying some negotiations with their enemies, like France, he refused Cardinal Richelieu's 1635 proposal of an alliance and a full-out war against them, despite potential lure of territorial gains in Silesia. He realized that such a move would cause much unrest in a heavily Catholic Commonwealth, that he likely lacked the authority and power to push such a change of policy through the Sejm, and that the resulting conflict would be very difficult. From 1636 onward, for the next few years, Władysław strengthened his ties with the Habsburgs.
In the meantime, Władysław still tried to take a leading role in European politics, and negotiate a peaceful settlement to the Thirty Years' War, a settlement which he hoped would ease his way into regaining the Swedish crown. Following the armistice of Stuhmsdorf, Władysław came to increasingly realize that his prospects for regaining the Swedish throne were dim. In the years 1636–1638 he proposed several reforms to strengthen his and his dynasty's power in the Commonwealth. His first plan was an attempt to secure a hereditary province within the country, which would not be threatened by the possible power shift following a future royal election; this, however, did not gain sufficient support in the Sejm. Next, Władysław attempted to create an order of chivalry, similar to the Order of the Golden Fleece, but this plan was scuttled down as well, with the szlachta and the magnates seeing this as an attempt to create a royal, loyalist elite, and traditionally opposing anything that could lead to the reduction of their extensive power. Popular vote and opposition also resulted in the failure of the plan to raise taxes from trade tariffs; here it was not only the nobility but even the merchants and burghers from towns, like Gdańsk (Danzig) who were able to muster enough support (including from foreign powers) to stop the king's reforms. In fact, the defeat of his plans was so total, that he was forced to make certain conciliatory gestures to the nobility, as the Sejm passed several laws constraining his authority (such as to hire foreign troops), further indicating the limits of royal power in the Commonwealth.
Marriages
Early in his reign, there were plans regarding a marriage of Władysław and Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia, Princess Palatine (daughter of Frederick V, Elector Palatine). This was however unpopular, both with Catholic nobles and the Catholic Church, and when it became clear to Władysław that this would not convince the Swedes to elect him to their throne, this plan, with quiet support from Władysław himself, was dropped.
Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor's proposal of marriage between Władysław and Archduchess Cecilia Renata of Austria (sister of future Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor) arrived in Warsaw somewhere during spring 1636. In June that year, Władysław sent Jerzy Ossoliński to the Imperial Court, to work on improving the Imperial-Commonwealth relations. The king's trusted confessor, father Walerian Magni (of Franciscan religious order), and voivode Kasper Doenhoff arrived in Regensburg () on 26 October 1636 with consent and performed negotiations. The Archduchess' dowry was agreed for 100,000 złoty's, the Emperor also promised to pay the dowries of both of Siegmund III's wives: Anna and Konstance. Additionally the son of Władysław and Cecilia Renata was to obtain the duchy of Opole and Racibórz in Silesia (Duchy of Opole and Racibórz). However, before everything was confirmed and signed Ferdinand II died and Ferdinand III backed from giving the Silesian duchy to the son of Władysław. Instead a dowry was awarded to be secured by the Bohemian estates of Třeboň (Trebon). On 16 March 1637 a "family alliance" was signed between the Habsburgs and the Polish branch of the House of Vasa. Władysław promised not to sign any pacts against the Habsburgs, and to transfer his rights to the Swedish throne in case of his line's extinction; in return, Habsburg promised to support his efforts to regain the Swedish crown, and to transfer to him some territory in case of gains in a war against the Ottomans. The marriage took place in 1637, on 12 September.
The next few years were similarly unsuccessful with regards to his plans. Eventually, he tried to bypass the opposition in the Sejm with secret alliances, dealings, and intrigues, but did not prove successful. Those plans included schemes such as supporting the Holy Roman Emperor's raid on Inflanty in 1639, which he hoped would lead to a war; an attempted alliance with Spain against France in 1640–1641, and in 1641–1643, with Denmark against Sweden. On the international scene, he attempted to mediate between various religious factions of Christianity, using the tolerant image of the Commonwealth to portray himself as the neutral mediator. He organized a conference in Toruń (Thorn) that begun on 28 January 1645, but it failed to reach any meaningful conclusions.
After Cecilia's death in 1644, the ties between Władysław and the Habsburgs were somewhat loosened. In turn, the relations with France improved, and eventually Władysław married the French princess Ludwika Maria Gonzaga de Nevers, daughter of Karol I Gonzaga, prince de Nevers, in 1646.
Władysław's last plan was to orchestrate a major war between the European powers and the Ottoman Empire. The border with the Empire was in a near constant state of low-level warfare; some historians estimate that in the first half of the 17th century, Ottoman raids and wars resulted in the loss (death or enslavement) of about 300,000 Commonwealth citizens in the borderlands. The war, Władysław hoped, would also solve the problem of unrest among the Cossacks, a militant group living in the Ukraine, near the Ottoman border, who could find worth in such a campaign, and turn their attention to fighting for the Commonwealth, instead of against it. As usual, he failed to inspire the nobility, rarely willing to consider sponsoring another war, to agree to this plan. He received more support from foreign powers, from Rome, Venice and Muscovy. With the promise of funds for the war, Władysław started recruiting troops among the Cossacks in 1646. The opposition of the Sejm, demanding that he dismiss the troops, coupled with Władysław's worsening health, crippled that plan as well. Władysław still did not give up, and attempted to resurrect the plan in 1647, and with support of magnate Jeremi Wiśniowiecki (who organized military exercises near Ottoman border), attempted unsuccessfully to provoke the Ottomans to attack.
On 9 August 1647, his young son, Sigismund Casimir, then seven years old, suddenly fell ill and died; the death of his only legitimate heir to the throne was a major blow to the king, whose grief prevented his attendance at the boy's funeral held in Kraków.
Death
While hunting near Merkinė (Merecz) in early 1648, Władysław suffered from a case of gallstones or kidney stones. The King's condition supposedly worsened as he was given the incorrect medication to treat the ailment. Being aware that these might be his final days, the King had his last will dictated and then received his last rites. Władysław died around 02:00 at night on 20 May 1648.
His heart and viscera were interred in the Chapel of St. Casimir of Vilnius Cathedral. As he had no legitimate male heirs, he was succeeded by his half brother John II Casimir Vasa.
Character
Władysław has been described as outgoing and friendly, with a sense of humor, optimistic, a "people's person", able to charm many of those who interacted with him. On the other hand, he had a short temper and when angered, could act without considering all consequences.
Władysław was criticized for being a spendthrift; he lived lavishly, spending more than his royal court treasury could afford. He also dispensed much wealth among his courtiers, who were seen by people farther from the court as taking advantage of the king. He has also been known to maintain several mistresses throughout his life, including during his married period.
Patronage
One of the king's most substantial achievements was in the cultural sphere; he became a notable patron of the arts. Władysław was a connoisseur of the arts, in particular, theater and music. He spoke several languages, enjoyed reading historical literature and poetry. He collected paintings and created a notable gallery of paintings in the Warsaw castle. Władysław assembled an important collection of Italian and Flemish Baroque paintings, much of which were lost in the wars after his death. He sponsored many musicians and in 1637 created the first amphitheater in the palace, the first theater in Poland, where during his reign dozens of operas and ballets were performed. He is credited with bringing the very genre of opera to Poland. Władysław's attention to theater contributed to the spread of this art form in Poland. He was also interested in poetry, as well as in cartography and historical and scientific works; he corresponded with Galileo.
Notable painters and engravers Władysław supported and who attended his royal court included Peter Paul Rubens, Tommaso Dolabella, Peter Danckerts de Rij, Wilhelm Hondius, Bartłomiej Strobel, and Christian Melich. His royal orchestra was headed by kapellmeister Marco Scacchi, seconded by Bartłomiej Pękiel.
One of the most renowned works he ordered was the raising of the Sigismund's Column in Warsaw. The column, dedicated to his father, was designed by the Italian-born architect Constantino Tencalla and the sculptor Clemente Molli, and cast by Daniel Tym. He was less interested in decorative architecture; he supported the construction of two palaces in Warsaw – Kazanowski Palace and Villa Regia. Among other works sponsored by or dedicated to him is Guido Reni's The Rape of Europa.
Assessment
Władysław had many plans (dynastic, about wars, territorial gains: regaining Silesia, Inflanty (Livonia), incorporation of Ducal Prussia, creation of his hereditary dukedom etc.), some of them with real chances of success, but for various reasons, most of them ended in failure during his 16-year reign. Though his grand international political plans failed, he did improve the Commonwealth foreign policy, supporting the establishment of a network of permanent diplomatic agents in important European countries.
Throughout his life, Władysław successfully defended Poland against foreign invasions. He was recognized as a good tactician and strategist, who did much to modernize the Polish Army. Władysław ensured that the officer corps was significantly large so that the army could be expanded; introduced foreign (Western) infantry to the Polish Army, with its pikes and early firearms, and supported the expansion of the artillery. His attempt to create a Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy resulted in the creation of a new port village, Władysławowo. Despite promising beginnings, Władysław failed to secure enough funds for the fleet creation; the ships were gone – sunk, or stolen – by the 1640s.
The king, while Catholic, was very tolerant and did not support the more aggressive policies of the Counter-Reformation. When he took power, the Senate of Poland had 6 Protestant members; at the time of his death, it had 11. Despite his support for religious tolerance, he did fail, however, to resolve the conflict stemming from the Union of Brest split. Despite his support for the Protestants, he did not stop the growing tide of intolerance, either in Poland or abroad, as shown by the fate of the Racovian Academy, or an international disagreement between the faiths. Neither did he get involved with the disagreement about the Orthodox Cossacks, a group that he respected and counted on in his plans.
In internal politics he attempted to strengthen the power of the monarchy, but this was mostly thwarted by the szlachta, who valued their independence and democratic powers. Władysław suffered continuing difficulties caused by the efforts of the Polish Sejm (parliament) to check the King's power and limit his dynastic ambitions. Władysław was fed up with the weak position of the king in the Commonwealth; his politics included attempting to secure a small, preferably hereditary territory – like a duchy – where his position would be much stronger.
Władysław used the title of the King of Sweden, although he had no control over Sweden whatsoever and never set foot in that country. However, he continued his attempts to regain the Swedish throne, with similar lack of results as his father. He might have been willing to trade his claim away, but the offer was never put down in the negotiations.
Some historians see Władysław as a dreamer who could not stick to one policy, and upon running into first difficulties, ditched it and looked for another opportunity. Perhaps it was due to this lukewarmness that Władysław was never able to inspire those he ruled to support, at least in any significant manner, any of his plans. Władysław Czapliński in his biography of the king is more understanding, noting the short period of his reign (16 years) and the weakness of the royal position he was forced to deal with.
Several years after his death, a diplomatic mission from Muscovy demanded that publications about Władysław's victories in the Smolensk War of 1633–1634 be collected and burned. Eventually, to much controversy, their demand was met. Polish historian Maciej Rosalak noted: "under the reign of Władysław IV, such a shameful event would have never been allowed."
Royal titles
In Latin: "Vladislaus Quartus Dei gratia rex Poloniae, magnus dux Lithuaniae, Russiae, Prussiae, Masoviae, Samogitiae, Livoniaeque, Smolenscie, Severiae, Czernichoviaeque necnon Suecorum, Gothorum Vandalorumque haereditarius rex, electus magnus dux Moschoviae."
In English: "Władysław IV, by grace of God the King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Ruthenia, Prussia, Masovia, Samogitia, Livonia, Smolensk, Severia and Chernigov and hereditary King of the Swedes, Goths and Vandals, elected Grand Duke of Muscovy."
In 1632 Władysław was elected King of Poland. He claimed to be King of Sweden by paternal inheritance, but was never able to gain possession of that throne. His titles were the longest of any Polish king ever.
Ancestry
See also
History of Poland (1569–1795)
Golden Liberty
Notes
a After some discussions early on, he chose the title of elected Grand Duke of Moscow (electus Magnus Dux Moscoviae) rather than that of a tsar.
b Władysław had no children with his second wife, and his first wife bore him only two children (Maria Anna Izabela and Zygmunt Kazimierz), both of them died in their youth. He had at least one known illegitimate son, Władysław Konstanty Vasa, but he played no significant role in Polish politics.
c The confusion stems from an undisambiguated use of the Polish medical term kamica in the cited reference work (Czapliński 1976). Czapliński also mentions that Władysław suffered from ill health throughout his life, related to obesity, rheumatism and kidney issues. There were months-long periods, particularly in 1635 and 1639, when he could not walk.
Footnotes
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Iter per Europam Bibliotheca Augustana
Testimony Kunstkammer and opera of Władysław Vasa
Timeline of Władysław's life
Quotes about Władysław
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1595 births
1648 deaths
17th-century Russian monarchs
17th-century Polish monarchs
Grand Dukes of Lithuania
Russian tsars
House of Vasa
Wladislaw 1595
Polish Roman Catholics
Dukes of Opole
Knights of the Golden Fleece
Nobility from Kraków
Burials at Vilnius Cathedral
Polish people of the Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)
Polish people of the Smolensk War
People of the Polish–Ottoman War (1620–21)
Burials at Wawel Cathedral
Disinherited European royalty
Sons of kings
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pianosa
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Pianosa
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Pianosa () is an island in the Tuscan Archipelago in the Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy. It is about in area, with a coastal perimeter of .
Geography
In Roman times the island was named Planasia (plain) because of its flatness – its highest point stands at above sea level. It is a triangular-shaped land mass south west of Elba, and is a frazione of the municipality of Campo nell'Elba.
Pianosa is the fifth biggest island of the Tuscan Archipelago and the only one to be formed out of sedimentary rock of the Neogene and Quaternary; such fossils as echinoderms, mollusca and bryozoa of the Pliocene are frequently found.
Flora
The vegetation consists mainly of Mediterranean species as lentisco, fennel, juniper, rosemary and Pinus halepensis, which was introduced on the island in the 1900s.
Fauna
The animals living on the island are largely small mammals, such as hedgehog and hare, introduced in the 1800s, as well as the pheasant and the red-legged partridge; the magpie and the Audouin's gull nest along the coast and are protected by the National Park. The island is a stopping place for migrating birds in their seasonal passage from North to South. The sea around Pianosa is rich in fish because the coast was unapproachable for a long time, while today National Park regulations forbid fishing. Grouper, dory, dentex, moray, crawfish and many other species of fish inhabit the seas around the island.
History
The island was first inhabited in the Upper Palaeolithic, the Later Stone Age, but when in 5000 BC the sea level rose and reached the current level, the few inhabitants took refuge on the nearby Scola islet where traces of their presence were found. Fishing tools and ceramics of the Mesolithic were found as well as artefacts in quartz and flint probably coming from Elba.
The ancient Romans' Planasia had structures and was extensively cultivated. It became noted in history when the princeps Augustus banished his grandson and former designated heir Agrippa Postumus there in 6 or 7 AD.
Postumus remained there until his murder by an assassin sent by Tiberius, around 14 AD. Postumus lived in Pianosa at Villa Agrippa which was discovered by abbot Gaetano Chierici in the second half of 1800s and included a theatre, a thermal bath (Bagni di Agrippa), and a Roman villa with black and white mosaic floors with marine-themed mythological decorations.
In the 4th century a small Christian community lived in Pianosa and left traces of their presence in catacombs. These are on two levels and are the largest north of Rome; 700 catacombs were discovered, indicating a fair number of residents.
Pisa had custody of the island after a nearby naval battle victory in 874. In the Middle Ages the island's ownership was disputed by Pisa and Genoa because of its strategic position. In 1238 Genoa sent troops to the island with the pretence that the inhabitants engaged in piracy. The troops destroyed the village and the fortifications built by the Pisans and took the 150 inhabitants prisoner. Pianosa was returned shortly afterward to Pisa, but Genoa had the supremacy of the Tyrrhenian Sea after the Battle of Meloria. The island returned to Pisan control under an agreement that required the Pisans leave it uncultivated and uninhabited, but the pact was not honoured. The Appiano family, who ruled Pisa, leased the island to the De Leis family and then to the Landi family in 1344. The Appianos sold Pisa to Gian Galeazzo Visconti in 1399 and established the small Principality of Piombino which included Suvereto, Scarlino, Vignale, Populonia and the islands of Elba, Montecristo and Pianosa. On August 15, 1552, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V of Spain consigned to Cosimo I de' Medici the Principality of Piombino in exchange of a loan of 200,000 scudi.
Pianosa underwent numerous incursions by pirates but the worst took place in 1553 by a French Turkish fleet commanded by Dragut who wiped out the population. After that the island changed ownership several times and was populated only seasonally by farmers coming from Elba to cultivate the land. On 27 August 1802 Napoleon established that Elba, Capraia, Gorgona, Pianosa, Palmaiola and Montecristo were part of the French territory and in 1805 assigned the regions of Piombino, Elba, and the part of Pianosa that was fortified to his sister Elisa Bonaparte. On 9 April 1809 the Archipelago returned to Tuscan ownership, when Tuscany was ruled by the French. On 10 May British marines and sailors from and HMS Halcyon landed on Pianosa and Giannutri. The landing parties destroyed the forts and captured about 100 prisoners during four hours of fighting. British losses were one marine killed and one wounded. The landing party also sent the farmers back to Elba and left the island deserted. Napoleon went to Pianosa from Elba twice, rebuilt the tower, set up a garrison to defend the island, and built some houses to settle farmers. The Congress of Vienna assigned Elba and the Tuscan Archipelago to the Grand Duke of Tuscany.
Although 18th-century documents report that it was once densely wooded, humans and the animals they brought have destroyed the trees on the island, which is now largely grassland except some coastal areas.
Penal colony
In 1856, Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany established a penal colony in Pianosa because it was considered a perfect place to isolate, segregate, and oversee detainees. At the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, there were 149 prisoners on the island. In 1864 a structure able to contain 350 prisoners was built, but in 1872 the island was divided into numerous farms organizing the inmates as small communities. In 1880 there were 960 detainees. The captives cultivated cereals, produced oil, and wine such as Sangiovese and Procanico. There were poultry, pig, and cattle farms. From 1884 until 1965, because of its dry climate, Pianosa hosted convicts from the Italian mainland who had been affected by tuberculosis. At the beginning of the 1900s, the population on the island was 21 civilians, 80 prison guards, 40 soldiers, and 800 prisoners. Sandro Pertini, later President of the Republic of Italy, became an inmate in 1932 for political reasons. During World War II, on 17 September 1943, German troops invaded Pianosa and occupied it. On 19 March 1944 French commandos landed on the island, and after a short firefight left taking away 40 prison guards as hostages. The following month an allied bomber attacked the island, killing six people.
In the post-war period the colony returned to its original role as a prison island. A Carabinieri station was established, as was a detachment of Guardia di Finanza, and houses were built to accommodate the families of the soldiers. In the 1970s, on order of General Carlo Alberto Dalla Chiesa, the former sanatorium, named Agrippa Branch, was transformed into a maximum security prison to confine Mafia bosses, and terrorists of the Red Brigades: Giovanni Senzani, Renato Curcio, Alberto Franceschini, and Bruno Seghetti. Under the article 41-bis prison regime, in May 1977 aircraft and helicopters transferred 600 convicts from all over Italy to Pianosa in only two days.
A reinforced concrete wall, six metres high and long, was built in 1979 to separate the village from the penitentiary. The murder of judges Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino in 1992 led to the reopening of the Agrippa Branch under the 41-bis regime and during the night of July 20, fifty-five Mafia bosses incarcerated at Palermo Ucciardone prison, among them Michele Greco, were transferred by military transport aircraft to Pisa Airport and then to Pianosa by helicopter.
The island was a prison fortress until 17 July 1997, when Gaetano Murana, the last 41-bis prison regime detainee, was transferred to another prison. Prior to that time Pianosa had hosted Mafia bosses such as Pippo Calò, Nitto Santapaola and Giovanni Brusca, and had become well known for the brutality inflicted on the prisoners.
The Prodi government decided to close the penitentiary permanently on 28 June 1998. Pianosa was evacuated in a single day by the remaining detainees and residents, leaving a few guards on the island as caretakers.
Marine protected area
Pianosa is part of the Arcipelago Toscano National Park, which has been a marine protected area since 1996 to preserve its archaeological and environmental heritage, which had been preserved in the past due to its inaccessibility to tourism.
The island permits visits by only 250 tourists per day, arriving by ferry from the Island of Elba. Fishing, diving, or anchoring are not allowed without a special authorization. During the summer season Pianosa can be reached once a week from Rio Marina and Piombino on the Toremar fleet, twice a week from San Vincenzo and daily from Marina di Campo on the service. It is possible to visit the island, but only with organized excursions or trekking by bicycle escorted by park guides.
Geographical landmarks
Bagni di Agrippa
Cala dell’Alga
Cala Giovanna
Cala dei Turchi
Cala San Giovanni
Cala di Biagio
Cala del Bruciato
Cala della Ruta
Golfo della Botte
Porto Romano
Punta del Marchese
Punta del Grottone
Punta Secca
Punta Brigantina
Punta del Segnale
Punta del Libeccio
Punta del Pulpito
In popular culture
Joseph Heller's absurdist anti-war novel Catch-22 is set mostly on Pianosa, at a United States Army Air Forces bomber base, during World War II. Heller notes at the beginning of Catch-22 that the real Pianosa is too small to "accommodate all the actions described." One obvious difference is that Heller's "Pianosa" has a small community of Italian villagers, unlike the real island.
In reality, Heller was stationed on Corsica between May 1944 and December 1944, and flew 60 combat missions as a bombardier in B-25 Mitchell bombers, with the 488th Bombardment Squadron (340th Bombardment Group, 57th Bombardment Wing, 12th Air Force).
See also
List of islands of Italy
Tuscan Archipelago
Pianosa Lighthouse
Battle of Pianosa
References
External links
Arcipelago Toscano National Park
Catch-22
Frazioni of Campo nell'Elba
Arcipelago Toscano National Park
Prison islands
Province of Livorno
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20II%20Casimir%20Vasa
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John II Casimir Vasa
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John II Casimir (; ; 22 March 1609 – 16 December 1672) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1648 until his abdication in 1668 as well as titular King of Sweden from 1648 until 1660. He was the second son of Sigismund III Vasa and Constance of Austria. His older brother and predecessor on the throne was Władysław IV Vasa.
As a prince, John Casimir embarked at Genoa for Spain in 1638 to negotiate a league with Philip IV against France, but was captured by Cardinal Richelieu and imprisoned at Vincennes where he remained for two years. He was released when his brother, Władysław IV, promised never to wage war against France. John Casimir then travelled extensively throughout western Europe and entered the order of Jesuits in Rome in 1643. He was made cardinal by Innocent X, however, after returning to Poland, he became a layman and succeeded his brother in 1648. His reign commenced amid the confusion and disasters caused by the great revolt of the Cossacks under Bohdan Khmelnytsky in Ukraine, who had advanced into the very heart of Poland. The power of the king had been stripped of almost all its prerogatives by the growing influence of the nobles.
The Tsardom of Russia and Sweden, which had long been active enemies of Poland, renewed their attacks. George II Rakoczy of Transylvania also invaded the Polish territory, while the Sejm was continuously dissolved due to abuse of the liberum veto law. Charles X Gustav of Sweden triumphantly marched through the country and occupied Kraków in 1655 forcing John Casimir to flee to Silesia. The Swedes were eventually stopped by Stefan Czarniecki under Częstochowa. The wars with the Swedes and Russians were terminated by treaties involving considerable cessions of provinces on the Baltic and the Dnieper on the part of Poland, which also lost its sway over the Cossacks who placed themselves under the protection of Russian Tsars. During these long battles, John Casimir, though feeble and of a peaceful disposition, frequently proved his patriotism and bravery.
The intrigues of his wife in favor of the Duke of Enghien as successor to the Polish throne triggered a series of revolts, including a rebellion under Hetman Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski. As a result, John Casimir abdicated at the Sejm of Warsaw on 16 September 1668. In the following year, he retired to France where he was hospitably treated by Louis XIV. John Casimir's reign was one of the most disastrous in the history of Poland. He was the third and last monarch on the Polish throne from the House of Vasa.
Royal titles
Official titles in
English translation: John Casimir, by God's grace King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Ruthenia, Prussia, Masovia, Samogitia, Livonia, Smolensk, Severia and, Chernihiv; and also hereditary King of the Swedes, Goths and Vandals.
Biography
Early life, family and rise to power
John Casimir was born in Kraków on 22 March 1609. His father, Sigismund III, the grandson of Gustav I of Sweden, had in 1592 succeeded his own father to the Swedish throne, only to be deposed in 1599 by his uncle, Charles IX of Sweden. This led to a long-standing feud wherein the Polish kings of the House of Vasa claimed the Swedish throne, resulting in the Polish–Swedish War of 1600–1629. Poland and Sweden were also on opposite sides in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), although in that conflict Poland for the most part avoided joining any major military actions and campaigns, instead supporting the Austrian Habsburg and Catholic fraction. His mother, Queen Constance, was the daughter of Charles II of Austria and Maria Anna of Bavaria and also the younger sister of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor.
John Casimir for most of his life remained in the shadow of his older half-brother, Władysław IV Vasa. He had few friends among the Polish nobility. Unfriendly, secretive, dividing his time between lavish partying and religious contemplation, and disliking politics, he did not have a strong power base nor influence at the Polish court, instead supporting unfavorable Habsburg policies. He did, however, display talent as a military commander, showing his abilities in the Smolensk War against Muscovy (1633).
Between 1632 and 1635, Władysław IV sought to enhance his brother's influence by negotiating a marriage for John Casimir to Christina of Sweden, then to an Italian princess, but to no avail. In 1637 John Casimir undertook a diplomatic mission to Vienna, which he abandoned to join the army of the Holy Roman Empire and fight against the French. After his regiment was defeated in battle, he spent a year living lavishly at the Viennese court where his strong anti-Cossack interests and political views were greatly shaped under the direct influence of the Austrian Emperor.
In 1636 he returned to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and fell in love with Baroness Guldentern, but his desire to marry her was thwarted by King Władysław. In return, Władysław attempted to make him the sovereign of the Duchy of Courland, but this was vetoed by the Commonwealth parliament (Sejm). Taking offence at this, John Casimir in 1638 left for the Kingdom of Spain to become Viceroy of Portugal, but was captured by French agents and imprisoned by the order of Cardinal Richelieu until 1640. He was then freed by a diplomatic mission of the appointed Voivode of Smolensk Krzysztof Gosiewski and as a result of anti-French Polish-Spanish negotiations.
In 1641 John Casimir decided to become a Jesuit. In 1642 he again left the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, accompanying his sister to Germany. In 1643 he joined the Jesuits, against vocal opposition from King Władysław, causing a diplomatic rift between the Commonwealth and the Pope. John Casimir was made a cardinal, but in December 1646, finding himself unsuited to ecclesiastical life, he returned to Poland. In October 1647 he resigned as cardinal to stand in elections for the Polish throne. He attempted to gain the support of the Habsburgs and marry an Austrian princess to create an alliance between the nations in case of an unexpected attack, possibly from the east.
King of Poland
In 1648 John Casimir was elected by the Polish Parliament to succeed his half-brother on the Polish throne. The reign of the last of the Vasas in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth would be dominated by the Russo-Polish War (1654–67), followed by the war with Sweden ("The Deluge"), the scene for which had been set by the Commonwealth's two previous Vasa kings. Most of Poland was invaded by the Swedish army during The Deluge without much of a fight, due to the conspiratorial complicity of Polish and Lithuanian governors and nobility. In the course of a few years, the Commonwealth rose to force the Swedes out of Poland, ending the short-lived intrusions and campaigns, however, at a high cost. Most of the cities and towns in the Commonwealth were sacked, plundered and some were burnt to the ground, mostly by the retreating enemy units. Although the reign of John Casimir is remembered to be one of the most disastrous and perhaps most unsuccessful in the history of Poland and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, he is often referred to as the "warrior king" that fought bravely to save his nation and his people.
In 1660 John II Casimir was forced to renounce his claim to the Swedish throne and acknowledge Swedish sovereignty over Livonia and the city of Riga in modern-day Latvia.
John Casimir had married his brother's widow, Marie Louise Gonzaga (), who was a major support to the King. Marie Louise suddenly died in 1667 and this may have caused the monarch's early political decline.
Abdication and death
On 16 September 1668, grief-stricken after the death of his wife in the previous year, John II Casimir abdicated the throne of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and returned to France, where he rejoined the Jesuits and became abbot of Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés in Paris. Following his abdication Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki (Michael I) was elected the new king and was crowned on 29 September 1669.
In the autumn of 1672, John Casimir had intended to return to Poland, but fell ill before departing and was prevented from doing so. The seizure of Kamieniec Podolski by the Ottoman Empire distressed him, exacerbating his condition. He requested the assistance of Pope Clement X to defend Poland against the Ottomans. He died on 16 December 1672 from apoplexy, and his burial took place inside the Wawel Cathedral in Kraków. His heart was interred in the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés.
The Lwów Oath
On 1 April 1656, during a Mass in the Latin Cathedral in Lwów, conducted by the papal legate Pietro Vidoni, John II Casimir in a grandiose and elaborate ceremony entrusted the Commonwealth under the protection of the Blessed Virgin Mary, whom he announced as The Queen of the Polish Crown and other of his countries. He also swore to protect the Kingdom's folk from any impositions and unjust bondage. This is referred to as the Lwów Oath.
As almost the whole country was occupied by Swedish or Russian armies, the vow was intended to incite the whole nation, including the peasantry, to rise up against the invaders. Two main issues raised by the king in the vows were the necessity to protect the Catholic faith, seen as endangered by the Lutheran (and to some extent Orthodox) aggressors, and to manifest the will to improve the condition of the peasantry.
After the King, a similar vow was taken by the Deputy Chancellor of the Crown and the bishop of Kraków, Andrzej Trzebicki, in the name of the szlachta noblemen of the Commonwealth.
The Commonwealth forces finally drove back the Swedes in 1657 and the Russians in 1661. After the war, promises made by John Casimir in Lwów, especially those considering the peasants' lot, were not fulfilled, mostly because of objections by the Sejm, which represented the szlachta nobility and was not attracted to the idea of reducing serfdom, which would negatively affect their economic interests.
Legacy
John Casimir left no surviving children. All his brothers and sisters having predeceased him without surviving issue, he was the last of the line of Bona Sforza. With him, all the legitimate issue of Alfonso II of Naples died out. His heir in Ferdinand I of Naples and in the Brienne succession was his distant cousin, Henry de La Tremoille, Prince of Talmond and Taranto, the heir-general of Frederick IV of Naples (second son of Ferdinand I of Naples and Isabella of Clermont), who also was the heir-general of Federigo's first wife, Anne of Savoy.
John Casimir was, after his brother, the head of the genealogical line of St. Bridget of Sweden, descending in primogeniture from Bridget's sister. After his death, the headship was offered to his second cousin, the already-abdicated Christina I of Sweden.
Patron of the arts
The vast collection of paintings, portraits, porcelain and other valuables belonging to the Polish Vasas was mostly looted by the Swedes and Germans of Brandenburg who brutally sacked Warsaw in the 1650s, during the Deluge. Most of them were sold off to wealthy nobles, displayed in other parts of Europe, or would eventually belong to private collectors, though some of the famous works survived hidden in Opole like The Rape of Europa by Guido Reni.
The most important additions to the royal collection were made by John II Casimir, a passionate collector of Dutch paintings, and a patron of Daniel Schultz (who painted a famous portrait of a son of Crimean Aga Dedesh, and was made Royal falconer in reward for his father's contribution during the war with Russia in 1663). A major part of the king's painting collection was acquired in 1660s, by way of Hendrick van Uylenburgh, an agent in Amsterdam, and later his son Gerrit van Uylenburgh. These were mainly Dutch paintings and works by Rembrandt. The collection also included works by Rubens, Jordaens, Reni, Guercino, Jan Brueghel the Younger, and Bassano, among others.
When John Casimir abdicated the Polish–Lithuanian throne, he brought many of his paintings and portraits with him to France. The collection remaining at Royal Castle in Warsaw was looted during the Great Northern War or appropriated in 1720 by Augustus II the Strong, Elector of Saxony, like two paintings by Rembrandt – Portrait of a Rabbi (1657) and Portrait of a Man in the Hat Decorated with Pearls (1667), today displayed in the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden, Germany.
In fiction
John Casimir was a character in Henryk Sienkiewicz's novels With Fire and Sword (Ogniem i Mieczem) and The Deluge (Potop).
Ancestry
See also
History of Poland (1569–1795)
References
Document image John II Casimir Vasa (1609–1672), King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania (1648–1668), ratifies decisions made by the Magistrate of the City of Krakow at portal.unesco.org
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1609 births
1672 deaths
17th-century Polish monarchs
Grand Dukes of Lithuania
House of Vasa
Dukes of Opole
17th-century Polish cardinals
Polish people of the Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)
Polish people of the Smolensk War
Former Jesuits
Nobility from Kraków
Burials at Wawel Cathedral
Monarchs who abdicated
Polish military personnel of the Khmelnytsky Uprising
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207245
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Dolphin%20%28AGSS-555%29
|
USS Dolphin (AGSS-555)
|
USS Dolphin (AGSS-555) was a United States Navy diesel-electric deep-diving research and development submarine. She was commissioned in 1968 and decommissioned in 2007. Her 38-year career was the longest in history for a US Navy submarine. She was the Navy's last operational, conventionally powered submarine.
Construction and service
Dolphin was designed under project SCB 207. Her keel was laid on 9 November 1962 at the Portsmouth Navy Yard, Kittery, Maine. She was launched on 8 June 1968, sponsored by Mrs. Maggie Shinobu Inouye, (née Awamura), wife of U.S. Senator Daniel K. Inouye, and commissioned on 17 August 1968 with Lieutenant Commander J.R. McDonnell in command.
Dolphins hull number, "555", is unusual in that it was taken out of sequence. At the time of her 1968 commissioning, the five other new submarines commissioned that year, all of the Sturgeon class, had hull numbers ranging from 638 to 663. Dolphins hull number was taken from a block of cancelled hull numbers from the World War II-vintage Tench class, the last of which was commissioned in 1951. The reason for the selection of "555" as Dolphins hull number is not known.
Despite a recent repair and upgrade, Dolphin was decommissioned on 15 January 2007 and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on the same date. She is now a museum ship in San Diego Bay under the management of the San Diego Maritime Museum.
Design
The single most significant technical achievement in the development of Dolphin is the pressure hull itself. It is a constant-diameter cylinder, closed at its ends with hemispherical heads, and uses deep frames instead of bulkheads. The entire design of the pressure hull was kept as simple as possible to facilitate its use in structural experiments and trials. Hull openings were minimized for structural strength and minimum hull weight, in addition to eliminating possible sources for flooding casualties. The submarine has no snorkel mast; the main hatch must be open when diesels are running.
Use
Employed in both civilian and Navy activities, Dolphin was equipped with an extensive instrumentation suite that supported missions such as acoustic deep-water and littoral research, near-bottom and ocean surveys, weapons launches, sensor trials, and engineering evaluations. Because she was designed as a test platform, Dolphin could be modified both internally and externally to allow installation of up to 12 tons of special research and test equipment. She has internal and external mounting points, multiple electronic hull connectors, and up to 10 equipment racks for project use.
Service record
In August 1969, Dolphin launched a torpedo from the deepest depth that one has ever been fired. Other examples of Dolphins work include:
first successful submarine-to-aircraft optical communications
development of a laser imaging system of photographic clarity
development of an extreme low frequency antenna for s
evaluation of various nonacoustic ASW techniques
evaluation of various low probability of interception active sonars
first submarine launch of a mobile submarine simulator system
first successful submarine test of BQS-15 sonar system
development of highly accurate (10 cm) towed body position monitoring system
development of a new obstacle-avoidance sonar system
development of a highly accurate target management system
evaluation of a possible "fifth force of nature"
first successful submarine-to-aircraft two-way laser communication
deepest submarine dive- more than 3,000 ft
Dolphin was overhauled in 1993. In the late 1990s, Dolphin tested a new sonar system. As a result of Dolphin'''s efforts, this new system will now be retrofitted into the fleet.
Fire and evacuation at sea
On 21 May 2002, around 23:30 PDT, while operating roughly off the coast of San Diego, California, Dolphin was cruising on the surface, recharging her batteries, when a torpedo shield door gasket failed, and the boat began to flood. Due to high winds and swells in the ocean, around 75 tons of seawater entered the ship, an amount perilously close to the boat's reserve buoyancy. The flooding shorted electrical panels and started fires.
Chief Machinist's Mate (SS) John D. Wise, Jr., dove into the water of the flooded pump room. With less than a foot of breathable space in the compartment, he ensured the seawater valves were lined up, allowing pumping out to commence. Once the valves were aligned, he remained in the pump room for more than 90 minutes to keep a submersible pump from becoming clogged. His courageous efforts prevented the loss of the ship and crew. Wise received the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for his efforts.
After 90 minutes, with fire and flooding beyond the ability of the crew to control, Commander Stephen Kelety, Dolphins commanding officer, ordered the crew of 41 and two civilian Navy employees to abandon ship. The Oceanographic Research ship McGaw was operating in the vicinity, and immediately responded to Kelety's call for assistance. They were evacuated by boat to McGaw after the hatches had been secured. All crewmembers were safely recovered with only a few minor injuries. Two were recovered from the water by United States Coast Guard helicopter during the transfer. McGaw transported the crew to San Diego. also came alongside Dolphin and rescued several crewman from the water, but the seas were too rough for full recovery or towing operations.
The quick response of the crew placed the submarine in a stable condition. Submarine Support Vessel Kellie Chouest got underway from San Diego early on 22 May to assist in recovery. Dolphin was towed back to San Diego the following day.
RetirementDolphin underwent three and a half years of repairs and upgrades at a cost of $50 million, then completed sea trials during the summer of 2005, and returned to her duties for one year.
In mid-2006, the Navy decided to retire Dolphin, citing the $18 million her operations cost annually. She was deactivated on 22 September 2006, and decommissioned and struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 15 January 2007. Her 38-year career was the longest in history for a US Navy submarine.Dolphin'' was officially transferred to the San Diego Maritime Museum in September 2008, to become the eighth vessel in their floating collection. She was opened to the public for the first time on 4 July 2009.
Awards
National Defense Service Medal with two stars
Global War on Terrorism Service Medal
See also
Major submarine incidents since 2000
NR-1
References
External links
Navy press release about the flooding incident and medal award
San Diego Union-Tribune article about decommissioning
Maritime Museum of San Diego
Submarines of the United States Navy
Cold War submarines of the United States
United States submarine accidents
Maritime incidents in 2002
Ships built in Kittery, Maine
1968 ships
Museum ships in California
Museum ships in San Diego
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denali
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Denali
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Denali (; also known as Mount McKinley, its former official name) is the highest mountain peak in North America, with a summit elevation of above sea level. With a topographic prominence of and a topographic isolation of , Denali is the third most prominent and third most isolated peak on Earth, after Mount Everest and Aconcagua. Located in the Alaska Range in the interior of the U.S. state of Alaska, Denali is the centerpiece of Denali National Park and Preserve.
The Koyukon people who inhabit the area around the mountain have referred to the peak as "Denali" for centuries. In 1896, a gold prospector named it "Mount McKinley" in support of then-presidential candidate William McKinley; that name was the official name recognized by the federal government of the United States from 1917 until 2015. In August 2015, 40 years after Alaska had done so, the United States Department of the Interior announced the change of the official name of the mountain to Denali.
In 1903, James Wickersham recorded the first attempt at climbing Denali, which was unsuccessful. In 1906, Frederick Cook claimed the first ascent, but this ascent is unverified and its legitimacy questioned. The first verifiable ascent to Denali's summit was achieved on June 7, 1913, by climbers Hudson Stuck, Harry Karstens, Walter Harper, and Robert Tatum, who went by the South Summit. In 1951, Bradford Washburn pioneered the West Buttress route, considered to be the safest and easiest route, and therefore the most popular currently in use.
On September 2, 2015, the U.S. Geological Survey announced that the mountain is high, not , as measured in 1952 using photogrammetry.
Geology and features
Denali is a granitic pluton, mostly pink quartz monzonite, lifted by tectonic pressure from the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate; at the same time, the sedimentary material above and around the mountain was stripped away by erosion. The forces that lifted Denali also caused many deep earthquakes in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. The Pacific Plate is seismically active beneath Denali, a tectonic region that is known as the "McKinley cluster".
Denali has a summit elevation of above sea level, making it the highest peak in North America and the northernmost mountain above 6,000 meters elevation in the world. Measured from base to peak at some , it is among the largest mountains situated entirely above sea level. Denali rises from a sloping plain with elevations from , for a base-to-peak height of . By comparison, Mount Everest rises from the Tibetan Plateau at a much higher base elevation. Base elevations for Everest range from on the south side to on the Tibetan Plateau, for a base-to-peak height in the range of . Denali's base-to-peak height is little more than half the of the volcano Mauna Kea, which lies mostly under water.
Geography of the mountain
Denali has two significant summits: the South Summit is the higher one, while the North Summit has an elevation of and a prominence of approximately . The North Summit is sometimes counted as a separate peak (see e.g., fourteener) and sometimes not; it is rarely climbed, except by those doing routes on the north side of the massif.
Five large glaciers flow off the slopes of the mountain. The Peters Glacier lies on the northwest side of the massif, while the Muldrow Glacier falls from its northeast slopes. Just to the east of the Muldrow, and abutting the eastern side of the massif, is the Traleika Glacier. The Ruth Glacier lies to the southeast of the mountain, and the Kahiltna Glacier leads up to the southwest side of the mountain. With a length of , the Kahiltna Glacier is the longest glacier in the Alaska Range.
Naming
The Koyukon Athabaskans who inhabit the area around the mountain have for centuries referred to the peak as or . The name is based on a Koyukon word for 'high' or 'tall'. During the Russian ownership of Alaska, the common name for the mountain was (; 'big'; 'mountain'), which is the Russian translation of Denali. It was briefly called Densmore's Mountain in the late 1880s and early 1890s after Frank Densmore, a gold prospector who was the first non-native Alaskan to reach the base of the mountain.
In 1896, a gold prospector named it McKinley as political support for then-presidential candidate William McKinley, who became president the following year. The United States formally recognized the name Mount McKinley after President Wilson signed the Mount McKinley National Park Act of February 26, 1917. In 1965, Lyndon B. Johnson declared the north and south peaks of the mountain the "Churchill Peaks", in honor of British statesman Winston Churchill. The Alaska Board of Geographic Names changed the name of the mountain to Denali in 1975, which was how it is called locally. However, a request in 1975 from the Alaska state legislature to the United States Board on Geographic Names to do the same at the federal level was blocked by Ohio congressman Ralph Regula, whose district included McKinley's home town of Canton.
On August 30, 2015, just ahead of a presidential visit to Alaska, the Barack Obama administration announced the name Denali would be restored in line with the Alaska Geographic Board's designation. U.S. Secretary of the Interior Sally Jewell issued the order changing the name to Denali on August 28, 2015, effective immediately. Jewell said the change had been "a long time coming". The renaming of the mountain received praise from Alaska's senior U.S. senator, Lisa Murkowski, who had previously introduced legislation to accomplish the name change, but it drew criticism from several politicians from President McKinley's home state of Ohio, such as Governor John Kasich, U.S. Senator Rob Portman, U.S. House Speaker John Boehner, and Representative Bob Gibbs, who described Obama's action as "constitutional overreach" because he said an act of Congress was required to rename the mountain. The Alaska Dispatch News reported that the Secretary of the Interior has authority under federal law to change geographic names when the Board of Geographic Names does not act on a naming request within a "reasonable" period of time. Jewell told the Alaska Dispatch News that "I think any of us would think that 40 years is an unreasonable amount of time."
Indigenous names for Denali can be found in seven different Alaskan languages. The names fall into two categories. To the south of the Alaska Range in the Dena'ina and Ahtna languages the mountain is known by names that are translated as "big mountain". To the north of the Alaska Range in the Lower Tanana, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Holikachuk, and Deg Xinag languages the mountain is known by names that are translated as "the high one", "the tall one" (Koyukon, Lower and Middle Tanana, Upper Kuskokwim, Deg Xinag, and Holikachuk), or "big mountain" (Ahtna and Dena'ina). Asked about the importance of the mountain and its name, Will Mayo, former president of the Tanana Chiefs Conference, an organization that represents 42 Athabaskan tribes in the Alaskan interior, said "It’s not one homogeneous belief structure around the mountain, but we all agree that we’re all deeply gratified by the acknowledgment of the importance of Denali to Alaska’s people."
The following table lists the Alaskan Athabascan names for Denali.
History
The Koyukon Athabaskans, living in the Yukon, Tanana and Kuskokwim basins, were the first Native Americans with access to the flanks of the mountain. A British naval captain and explorer, George Vancouver, is the first European on record to have sighted Denali, when he noted "distant stupendous mountains" while surveying the Knik Arm of the Cook Inlet on May 6, 1794. The Russian explorer Lavrenty Zagoskin explored the Tanana and Kuskokwim rivers in 1843 and 1844, and was likely the first European to sight the mountain from the other side.
William Dickey, a New Hampshire-born resident of Seattle, Washington who had been digging for gold in the sands of the Susitna River, wrote, after his returning from Alaska, an account in the New York Sun that appeared on January 24, 1897. His report drew attention with the sentence "We have no doubt that this peak is the highest in North America, and estimate that it is over high." Until then, Mount Logan in Canada's Yukon Territory was believed to be the continent's highest point. Though later praised for his estimate, Dickey admitted that other prospector parties had also guessed the mountain to be over . These estimates were confirmed in 1898 by the surveyor Robert Muldrow, who measured its elevation as .
On November 5, 2012, the United States Mint released a twenty-five cent piece depicting Denali National Park. It is the fifteenth of the America the Beautiful Quarters series. The reverse features a Dall sheep with the peak of Denali in the background.
Climbing history
During the summer of 1902, scientist Alfred Brooks explored the flanks of the mountain as a part of an exploratory surveying party conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey. The party landed at Cook Inlet in late May, then traveled east, paralleling the Alaska Range, before reaching the slopes of Denali in early August. Camped on the flank of the mountain on August 3, Brooks noted later that while "the ascent of Mount McKinley had never been part of our plans," the party decided to delay one day so "that we might actually set foot on the slopes of the mountain." Setting off alone, with good weather, on August 4, Brooks aimed to reach a 10,000 ft shoulder. At 7,500 ft, Brooks found his way blocked by sheer ice and, after leaving a small cairn as a marker, descended. After the party's return, Brooks co-authored a "Plan For Climbing Mt McKinley," published in National Geographic magazine in January, 1903, with fellow party-member and topographer D.L. Raeburn, in which they suggested that future attempts at the summit should approach from the north, not the south. The report received substantial attention, and within a year, two climbing parties declared their intent to summit.
In the early summer of 1903, Judge James Wickersham, then of Eagle, Alaska, made the first recorded attempt to climb Denali, along with a party of four others. The group attempted to get as close to the mountain as possible via the Kantishna river by steamer, before offloading and following Chitsia Creek with a poling boat, mules and backpacks, a route suggested to them by Tanana Athabaskan people they met along the way. The party received further navigational assistance at Anotoktilon, an Athabaskan hunting camp, where residents gave the group detailed directions to reach the glaciers at the foot of Denali. On reaching the mountain, the mountaineers set up base camp on the lower portion of Peters Glacier. Aiming for the northwest buttress of Denali's north peak, they attempted to ascend directly; however, crevasses, ice fall and the lack of a clear passage caused them to turn and attempt to follow a spur via Jeffery Glacier where they believed they could see a way to the summit. After a dangerous ascent, at around 10,000 ft, Wickersham found that the route did not connect as it had appeared from below, instead discovering "a tremendous precipice beyond which we cannot go. Our only line of further ascent would be to climb the vertical wall of the mountain at our left, and that is impossible." This wall, now known as the Wickersham Wall, juts 14,000 ft upwards from the glacier to the north peak of Denali. Because of the route's history of avalanche danger, it was not successfully climbed until 1963.
Later in the summer of 1903, Dr. Frederick Cook led a team of five men on another attempt at the summit. Cook was already an experienced explorer and had been a party-member on successful arctic expeditions led both by Robert Peary and Roald Amundsen. Yet he struggled to obtain funding for the expedition under his own leadership, eventually putting it together "on a shoestring budget" without any other experienced climbers. The party navigated up the Cook inlet and followed the path of the 1902 Brooks party towards Denali. Cook approached the mountain via the Peters Glacier, as Wickersham had done; however, he was able to overcome the ice fall that had caused the previous group to turn up the spur towards the Wickersham Wall. Despite avoiding this obstacle, on August 31, having reached an elevation of about 10,900 ft on the northwest buttress of the north peak, the party found they had reached a dead end and could make no further progress. On the descent, the group completely circumnavigated the mountain, the first climbing party to do so. Although Cook's 1903 expedition did not reach the summit, he received acclaim for the accomplishment, a 1000 mile trek in which he not only circled the entire mountain but also found, on the descent, an accessible pass northeast of the Muldrow Glacier following the headwaters of the Toklat and Chulitna rivers.
In 1906, Cook launched another expedition to Denali with co-leader Herschel Parker, a Columbia University professor of electrical engineering with extensive mountaineering experience. Belmore Browne, an experienced climber and five other men comprised the rest of the group. Cook and Parker's group spent the bulk of the summer season exploring the southern and southeastern approaches to the mountain, eventually reaching a high point on Tokositna glacier, 25 miles from the summit. During their explorations the party mapped out many of the tributaries and glaciers of the Susitna river along the mountain's south flank. As the summer ended, the team retreated to the coast and began to disperse. In September 1906, Cook and a single party-member, horseman Robert Barrill, struck out towards the summit again, in what Cook later described as "a last desperate attempt" in a telegram to his financial backers. Cook and Barrill spent 12 days in total on the attempt, and claimed to have reached the summit via the Ruth Glacier.
Upon hearing Cook's claims, Parker and Browne were immediately suspicious. Browne later wrote that he knew Cook's claims were lies, just as "any New Yorker would know that no man could walk from the Brooklyn Bridge to Grant's Tomb [a distance of eight miles] in ten minutes." In May 1907, Harper's Magazine published Cook's account of the climb along with a photograph of what appeared to be Barrill standing on the summit. By 1909, Barrill had recanted at least part of his story about the climb, and others publicly questioned the account; however, Cook continued to assert his claim The controversy continued for decades. In 1956, mountaineers Bradford Washburn and Walter Gonnason tried to settle the matter, with Gonnason attempting to follow Cook's purported route to the summit. Washburn noted inconsistencies between Cook's account of locations of glaciers and found a spot, at 5,400 ft and 19 miles southeast of the summit that appeared identical to the supposed summit image. Gonnason was not able to complete the climb, but because he was turned back by poor weather, felt that this did not definitely disprove Cook's story. In 1998, historian Robert Bryce discovered an original and un-cropped version of the "fake peak" photograph of Barrill standing on the promontory. It showed a wider view of surrounding features, appearing to definitively discount Cook's claim.
Given the skepticism surrounding Cook's story, interest in claiming the first ascent remained. Miners and other Alaskans living in Kantishna and Fairbanks wanted the honors to go to local men. In 1909, four Alaska residents – Tom Lloyd, Peter Anderson, Billy Taylor, and Charles McGonagall – set out from Fairbanks, Alaska in late December with supplies and dogs that were in part paid for by bettors in a Fairbanks bar. By March 1910, the men had established a base camp near one of the sites where the Brooks party had been and pressed on from the north via the Muldrow glacier. Unlike some previous expeditions, they discovered a pass, since named McGonagall Pass, which allowed them to bypass the Wickersham Wall and access the higher reaches of the mountain. At roughly 11,000 ft, Tom Lloyd, old and less physically fit than the others, stayed behind. According to their account, the remaining three men pioneered a route following Karstens Ridge around the Harper Icefall, then reached the upper basin before ascending to Pioneer Ridge. The three men carried a 14-ft-long spruce pole. Around 19,000 ft, Charles McGonagall, older and having exhausted himself carrying the spruce pole, remained behind. On April 3, 1910, Billy Taylor and Peter Anderson scrambled the final few hundred feet to reach the north peak of Denali, at 19,470 ft high, the shorter of the two peaks. The pair erected the pole near the top, with the hope that it would be visible from lower reaches to prove they had made it.
Following the expedition, Tom Lloyd returned to Fairbanks, while the three others remained in Kantishna to mine. In Lloyd's recounting, all four men made it to the top of not only the north peak, but the higher south peak as well. When the remaining three men returned to town with conflicting accounts, the entire expedition's legitimacy was questioned. Several years later, another climbing group would claim to have seen the spruce pole in the distance, supporting their north peak claim. However, some continue to doubt they reached the summit. Outside of the single later climbing group, who were friendly with some of the Sourdough expedition men, no other group would ever see it. Jon Waterman, author of the book Chasing Denali, which explored the controversy, outlined several reasons to doubt the claim: There was never any photographic evidence. The four men climbed during the winter season, known for much more difficult conditions, along a route that has never been fully replicated. They were inexperienced climbers, ascending without any of the usual safety gear or any care for altitude sickness. They claimed to have ascended from 11,000 ft to the top in less than 18 hours, unheard of at a time when siege-style alpinism was the norm. Yet Waterman says "these guys were men of the trail. They didn’t care what anybody thought. They were just tough SOBs.” He noted that the men were largely unlettered and that some of the ensuing doubt was related to their lack of sophistication in dealing with the press and the contemporary climbing establishment.
In 1912, the Parker-Browne expedition nearly reached the summit, turning back within just a few hundred yards of it due to harsh weather. On July 7, the day after their descent, a 7.4 earthquake shattered the glacier they had ascended.
The first ascent of the main summit of Denali came on June 7, 1913, by a party led by Hudson Stuck and Harry Karstens, along with Walter Harper and Robert Tatum. Karstens moved to Alaska in the gold rush of 1897, and in subsequent years became involved in a variety of endeavors beyond mining, including helping establish dog mushing routes to deliver mail across vast swathes of territory and supporting expeditions led by naturalist Charles Sheldon near the base of Denali. Stuck was an English-born Episcopal priest who came to Alaska by chance. He became acclimated to the often harsh Alaskan environment because of his many travels between far-flung outposts within his district, climbing mountains as a hobby. At 21 years old, Harper was already known as a skilled and strong outdoorsman, the Alaska-born son of a Koyukon-Athabascan mother and Irish gold prospector father. Tatum, also 21 years old, was a theology student working at a Tanana mission, and the least experienced of the team. His primary responsibility on the trip was as a cook.
The team approached the peak from the north via the Muldrow glacier and McGonagall pass. While ferrying loads up to a camp at around 10,800 ft, they suffered a setback when a stray match accidentally set fire to some supplies, including several tents. The prior year's earthquake had left what had previously been described by the Parker-Browne expedition as a gentle slope ascended in no more than three days as a dangerous, ice-strewn morass on a knife-edged ridge (later named Karstens ridge). It would take the team three weeks to cover the same ground, as Karstens and Harper laboriously cut steps into the ice. On May 30, the team, with the help of some good weather, ascended to a new high camp, situated at 17,500 ft in the Grand Basin between the north and south peaks. On June 7, the team made the summit attempt. Temperatures were below -20 F at times. Every man, and particularly Stuck, suffered from altitude sickness. By midday, Harper became the first climber to reach the summit, followed seconds later by Tatum and Karstens. Stuck arrived last, falling unconscious on the summit.
Using the mountain's contemporary name, Tatum later commented, "The view from the top of Mount McKinley is like looking out the windows of Heaven!" During the climb, Stuck spotted, via binoculars, the presence of a large pole near the North Summit; this report confirmed the Sourdough ascent, and today it is widely believed that the Sourdoughs did succeed on the North Summit. However, the pole was never seen before or since, so there is still some doubt. Stuck also discovered that the Parker-Browne party were only about 200 feet (61 m) of elevation short of the true summit when they turned back. Stuck and Karstens' team achieved the uncontroversial first ascent of Denali's south peak; however, the news was met with muted interest by the wider climbing community. Appalachia Journal, then the official journal of the American Alpine Club, published a small notice of the accomplishment a year later.
The mountain is regularly climbed today. In 2003, around 58% of climbers reached the top. But by that time, the mountain had claimed the lives of nearly 100 mountaineers over time. The vast majority of climbers use the West Buttress Route, pioneered in 1951 by Bradford Washburn, after an extensive aerial photographic analysis of the mountain. Climbers typically take two to four weeks to ascend Denali. It is one of the Seven Summits; summiting all of them is a challenge for mountaineers.
On August 4, 2018, five people died in the K2 Aviation de Havilland Beaver (DHC-2) crash near Denali.
Timeline
1896–1902: Surveys by Robert Muldrow, George Eldridge, Alfred Brooks.
1913: First ascent, by Hudson Stuck, Harry Karstens, Walter Harper, and Robert Tatum via the Muldrow Glacier route.
1932: Second ascent, by Alfred Lindley, Harry , Grant Pearson, Erling Strom. (Both peaks were climbed.)
1947: Barbara Washburn becomes the first woman to reach the summit while her husband Bradford Washburn becomes the first person to summit twice.
1951: First ascent of the West Buttress Route, led by Bradford Washburn.
1954: First ascent of the very long South Buttress Route by George Argus, Elton Thayer (died on descent), Morton Wood, and Les Viereck. Deteriorating conditions behind the team pushed them to make the first traverse of Denali. The Great Traleika Cirque, where they camped just below the summit, was renamed Thayer Basin, in honor of the fallen climber.
1954 (May 27) First ascent via Northwest Buttress to North Peak by Fred Beckey, Donald McLean, Charles Wilson, Henry Meybohm, and Bill Hackett
1959: First ascent of the West Rib, now a popular, mildly technical route to the summit.
1961: First ascent of the Cassin Ridge, named for Riccardo Cassin and the best-known technical route on the mountain. The first ascent team members are: Riccardo Cassin, Luigi Airoldi, Luigi Alippi, Giancarlo Canali, Romano Perego, and Annibale Zucchi.
1962: First ascent of the southeast spur, team of six climbers (C. Hollister, H. Abrons, B. Everett, Jr., S. Silverstein, S. Cochrane, and C. Wren)
1963: A team of six climbers (W. Blesser, P. Lev, R. Newcomb, A. Read, J. Williamson, F. Wright) made the first ascent of the East Buttress. The summit was attained via Thayer Basin and Karstens Ridge. See AAJ 1964.
1963: Two teams make first ascents of two different routes on the Wickersham Wall.
1967: First winter ascent, via the West Buttress, by Dave Johnston, Art Davidson and Ray Genet.
1967: Seven members of Joe Wilcox's twelve-man expedition perish, while stranded for ten days near the summit, in what has been described as the worst storm on record. Up to that time, this was the third worst disaster in mountaineering history in terms of lives lost. Before July 1967 only four men had ever perished on Denali.
1970: First solo ascent by Naomi Uemura.
1970: First ascent by an all-female team (the "Denali Damsels"), led by Grace Hoeman and the later famous American high altitude mountaineer Arlene Blum together with Margaret Clark, Margaret Young, Faye Kerr and Dana Smith Isherwood.
1972: First descent on skis down the sheer southwest face, by Sylvain Saudan, "Skier of the Impossible".
1976: First solo ascent of the Cassin Ridge by Charlie Porter, a climb "ahead of its time".<ref
name="supertopo"></ref>
1979: First ascent by dog team achieved by Susan Butcher, Ray Genet, Brian Okonek, Joe Redington, Sr., and Robert Stapleton.
1984: Uemura returns to make the first winter solo ascent, but dies after summitting. Tono Križo, František Korl and Blažej Adam from the Slovak Mountaineering Association climb a very direct route to the summit, now known as the Slovak Route, on the south face of the mountain, to the right of the Cassin Ridge.
1988: First successful winter solo ascent. Vern Tejas climbed the West Buttress alone in February and March, summitted successfully, and descended.
1990: Anatoli Boukreev climbed the West Rib in 10 hours and 30 mins from the base to the summit, at the time a record for the fastest ascent.
1997: First successful ascent up the West Fork of Traleika Glacier up to Karstens Ridge beneath Browne Tower. This path was named the "Butte Direct" by the two climbers Jim Wilson and Jim Blow.
2015: On June 24, a survey team led by Blaine Horner placed two global positioning receivers on the summit to determine the precise position and elevation of the summit. The summit snow depth was measured at . The United States National Geodetic Survey later determined the summit elevation to be .
2019: On June 20, Karl Egloff (Swiss-Ecuadorian) set new speed records for the ascent (7h 40m) and round-trip (11h 44m), starting and returning to a base camp at on the Kahiltna Glacier.
Weather station
The Japan Alpine Club installed a meteorological station on a ridge near the summit of Denali at an elevation of in 1990. In 1998, this weather station was donated to the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. In June 2002, a weather station was placed at the level. This weather station was designed to transmit data in real-time for use by the climbing public and the science community. Since its establishment, annual upgrades to the equipment have been performed with instrumentation custom built for the extreme weather and altitude conditions. This weather station is the third-highest weather station in the world.
The weather station recorded a temperature of on December 1, 2003. On the previous day of November 30, 2003, a temperature of combined with a wind speed of to produce a North American record windchill of .
Even in July, this weather station has recorded temperatures as low as and windchills as low as .
Historical record
The mountain is characterized by extremely cold weather. Temperatures as low as and wind chills as low as have been recorded by an automated weather station located at . According to the National Park Service, in 1932 the -Lindley expedition recovered a self-recording minimum thermometer left near Browne's Tower, at about , on Denali by the Stuck-Karstens party in 1913. The spirit thermometer was calibrated down to , and the lowest recorded temperature was below that point. Harry J. Lek took the thermometer back to Washington, D.C. where it was tested by the United States Weather Bureau and found to be accurate. The lowest temperature that it had recorded was found to be approximately . Another thermometer was placed at the level by the U.S. Army Natick Laboratory, and was there from 1950 to 1969. The coldest temperature recorded during that period was also .
Subpeaks and nearby mountains
Besides the North Summit mentioned above, other features on the massif which are sometimes included as separate peaks are:
South Buttress, ; mean prominence:
East Buttress high point, ; mean prominence:
East Buttress, most topographically prominent point, ; mean prominence:
Browne Tower, ; mean prominence:
Nearby peaks include:
Mount Crosson
Mount Foraker
Mount Silverthrone
Mount Hunter
Mount Huntington
Mount Dickey
The Moose's Tooth
Taxonomic honors
denaliensis
Ceratozetella denaliensis (formerly Cyrtozetes denaliensis Behan-Pelletier, 1985) is a species of moss mite in the family Mycobatidae :sv:Ceratozetella denaliensis
Magnoavipes denaliensis Fiorillo et al., 2011 (literally "bird with large feet found in Denali") is a Magnoavipes ichnospecies of bird footprint from the Upper Cretaceous of Alaska and was a large heron-like bird (as larger than a sandhill crane) with three toes and toe pads. :pt:Magnoavipes denaliensis
denali
Cosberella denali (Fjellberg, 1985) is a springtail. :sv:Cosberella denali
Proclossiana aphirape denali Klots, 1940 is a Boloria butterfly species of the subfamily Heliconiinae of family Nymphalidae.
Symplecta denali (Alexander, 1955) is a species of crane fly in the family Limoniidae. :sv:Symplecta denali
Tipula denali Alexander, 1969 is a species of crane fly in the family Tipulidae. :sv:Tipula denali
denalii
Erigeron denalii A. Nelson, 1945 or Denali fleabane is an Erigeron fleabane species.
Papaver denalii Gjaerevoll 1963 is an Papaver species and syn. of Papaver mcconnellii
mckinleyensis or mackinleyensis
Erebia mackinleyensis (Gunder, 1932) or Mt. McKinley alpine is a butterfly species of the subfamily Satyrinae of family Nymphalidae.
Oeneis mackinleyensis Dos Passos 1965 or Oeneis mckinleyensis Dos Passos 1949 is a butterfly species of the subfamily Satyrinae of family Nymphalidae (syn. of Oeneis bore)
Uredo mckinleyensis Cummins 1952 or Uredo mackinleyensis Cummins 1952 is a rust fungus species.
See also
List of mountain peaks of North America
List of mountain peaks of the United States
List of mountain peaks of Alaska
List of U.S. states by elevation
List of the highest major summits of the United States
List of the most prominent summits of the United States
List of the most isolated major summits of the United States
Extremes on Earth
References
Bibliography
External links
Mt. McKinley Weather Station
Denali at SummitPost
Timeline of Denali climbing history, National Park Service
Mount Mckinley Quadrangle Publications, Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys
North American 6000 m summit
Alaska Range
Mountains of Alaska
Seven Summits
Highest points of United States national parks
Sacred mountains
Mountains of Denali Borough, Alaska
Denali National Park and Preserve
Religious places of the indigenous peoples of North America
Highest points of U.S. states
Highest points of countries
Naming controversies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuckoo
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Cuckoo
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Cuckoos are birds in the Cuculidae family, the sole taxon in the order Cuculiformes . The cuckoo family includes the common or European cuckoo, roadrunners, koels, malkohas, couas, coucals and anis. The coucals and anis are sometimes separated as distinct families, the Centropodidae and Crotophagidae respectively. The cuckoo order Cuculiformes is one of three that make up the Otidimorphae, the other two being the turacos and the bustards.
The cuckoos are generally medium-sized slender birds. Most species live in trees, though a sizeable minority are ground-dwelling. The family has a cosmopolitan distribution; the majority of species are tropical. Some species are migratory. The cuckoos feed on insects, insect larvae and a variety of other animals, as well as fruit. Some species are brood parasites, laying their eggs in the nests of other species and giving rise to the metaphor cuckoo's egg, but the majority of species raise their own young.
Cuckoos have played a role in human culture for thousands of years, appearing in Greek mythology as sacred to the goddess Hera. In Europe, the cuckoo is associated with spring, and with cuckoldry, for example in Shakespeare's Love's Labour's Lost. In India, cuckoos are sacred to Kamadeva, the god of desire and longing, whereas in Japan, the cuckoo symbolises unrequited love.
Description
Cuckoos are medium-sized birds that range in size from the little bronze cuckoo, at 17 g and , to moderately large birds, ranging from in length, such as the giant coua of Madagascar, the coral-billed ground-cuckoo of Indochina, the channel-billed cuckoo and various large Indo-Pacific coucals such as the goliath coucal of Halmahera, Timor coucal, buff-headed coucal, ivory-billed coucal, violaceous coucal, and larger forms of the pheasant coucal. The channel-billed cuckoo, at and is the largest parasitic cuckoo. There is generally little sexual dimorphism in size, but where it exists, it can be either the male or the female that is larger. One of the most important distinguishing features of the family are the feet, which are zygodactyl, meaning that the two inner toes point forward and the two outer backward. There are two basic body forms, arboreal species (like the common cuckoo) which are slender and have short tarsi, and terrestrial species (like the roadrunners) which are more heavy set and have long tarsi. Almost all species have long tails which are used for steering in terrestrial species and as a rudder during flight in the arboreal species. The wing shape also varies with lifestyle, with the more migratory species like the black-billed cuckoo possessing long narrow wings capable of strong direct flight, and the more terrestrial and sedentary cuckoos like the coucals and malkohas having shorter rounded wings and a more laboured gliding flight.
The subfamily Cuculinae are the brood-parasitic cuckoos of the Old World. They tend to conform to the classic shape, with (usually) long tails, short legs, long narrow wings and an arboreal lifestyle. The largest species, the channel-billed cuckoo, also has the most outsized bill in the family, resembling that of a hornbill. The subfamily Phaenicophaeinae are the non-parasitic cuckoos of the Old World, and include the couas, malkohas, and ground-cuckoos. They are more terrestrial cuckoos, with strong and often long legs and short rounded wings. The subfamily typically has brighter plumage and brightly coloured bare skin around the eye. The coucals are another terrestrial Old World subfamily of long tailed long legged and short winged cuckoos. They are large heavyset birds with the largest, the greater black coucal, being around the same size as the channel-billed cuckoo. The subfamily Coccyzinae are arboreal and long tailed as well, with a number of large insular forms. The New World ground cuckoos are similar to the Asian ground-cuckoos in being long legged and terrestrial, and includes the long billed roadrunner, which can reach speeds of 30 km/h when chasing prey. The final subfamily are the atypical anis, which include the small clumsy anis and the larger guira cuckoo. The anis have massive bills and smooth glossy feathers.
The feathers of the cuckoos are generally soft, and often become waterlogged in heavy rain. Cuckoos often sun themselves after rain, and the anis hold their wings open in the manner of a vulture or cormorant while drying. There is considerable variation in the plumage exhibited by the family. Some species, particularly the brood parasites have cryptic plumage, whereas others have bright and elaborate plumage. This is particularly true of the Chrysococcyx or glossy cuckoos, which have iridescent plumage. Some cuckoos have a resemblance to hawks in the genus Accipiter with barring on the underside; this apparently alarms potential hosts, allowing the female to access a host nest. The young of some brood parasites are coloured so as to resemble the young of the host. For example, the Asian koels breeding in India have black offspring to resemble their crow hosts, whereas in the Australian koels the chicks are brown like the honeyeater hosts. Sexual dimorphism in plumage is uncommon in the cuckoos, being most common in the parasitic Old World species.
Cuckoo genera differ in the number of primary wing feathers as below.
Coccycua, Coccyzus, Phaenicophaeus, Piaya – 9
Cuculus – 9 or 10
Pachycoccyx, Clamator levaillantii, Centropus – 10
Microdynamis, Eudynamys, Clamator glandarius – 11
Some coucals – 12
Scythrops novaehollandiae – 13
Distribution and habitat
The cuckoos have a cosmopolitan distribution, ranging across all the world's continents except Antarctica. They are absent from the south west of South America, the far north and north west of North America, and the driest areas of the Middle East and North Africa (although they occur there as passage migrants). They generally only occur as vagrants in the oceanic islands of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, but one species breeds on a number of Pacific islands and another is a winter migrant across much of the Pacific.
Partly population of cuckoos like Jacobin Cuckoos are comes to India from eastern part of Africa. They generally only occur as vagrants in the oceanic islands of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, but one species breeds on a number of Pacific islands and another is a winter migrant across much of the Pacific.
Cuculinae is the most widespread subfamily of cuckoos, and is distributed across Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia and Oceania. Amongst the Phaenicophaeinae cuckoos the malkohas and Asian ground-cuckoos are restricted to southern Asia, the couas are endemic to Madagascar and the yellowbill widespread across Africa. The coucals are distributed from Africa through tropical Asia down into Australia and the Solomon Islands. The remaining three subfamilies have a New World distribution, all three are found in both North and South America. The Coccyzinae reaches the furthest north of the three subfamilies, breeding in Canada, whereas the anis reach as far north as Florida and the typical ground-cuckoos the south west United States.
For the cuckoos suitable habitat provides a source of food (principally insects and especially caterpillars) and a place to breed, for brood parasites the need is for suitable habitat for the host species. Cuckoos occur in a wide variety of habitats. The majority of species occur in forests and woodland, principally in the evergreen rainforests of the tropics. Some species inhabit or are even restricted to mangrove forests; these include the little bronze cuckoo of Australia, some malkohas, coucals, and the aptly-named mangrove cuckoo of the New World. In addition to forests some species of cuckoo occupy more open environments; this can include even arid areas like deserts in the case of the greater roadrunner or the pallid cuckoo. Temperate migratory species like the common cuckoo inhabit a wide range of habitats in order to make maximum use of the potential brood hosts, from reed beds (where they parasitise reed warblers) to treeless moors (where they parasitise meadow pipits).
Migration
Most species of cuckoo are sedentary, but some undertake regular seasonal migrations and others undertake partial migrations over part of their range.
Species breeding at higher latitudes migrate to warmer climates during the winter due to food availability. The long-tailed koel, which breeds in New Zealand, flies to its wintering grounds in Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, a feat described as "perhaps the most remarkable overwater migration of any land bird." The yellow-billed cuckoo and black-billed cuckoo breed in North America and fly across the Caribbean Sea, a non-stop flight of 4000 km. Other long migration flights include the lesser cuckoo, which flies from Africa to India, and the common cuckoo of Europe, which flies non-stop over the Mediterranean Sea and Sahara Desert on the voyage between Europe and central Africa.
Within Africa, ten species make regular intra-continental migrations that are described as polarised; that is, they spend the non-breeding season in the tropical centre of the continent and move north and south to breed in the more arid and open savannah and deserts. This is the same as the situation in the Neotropics, where no species have this migration pattern, or tropical Asia, where a single species does. 83% of the Australian species are partial migrants within Australia or travel to New Guinea and Indonesia after the breeding season.
In some species the migration is diurnal, as in the channel-billed cuckoo, or nocturnal, as in the yellow-billed cuckoo.
Behaviour and ecology
The cuckoos are for the most part solitary birds that seldom occur in pairs or groups. The biggest exception to this are the anis of the Americas, which have evolved cooperative breeding and other social behaviours. For the most part the cuckoos are also diurnal as opposed to nocturnal, but many species call at night (see below). The cuckoos are also generally a shy and retiring family, more often heard than seen. The exception to this are again the anis, which are often extremely trusting towards humans and other species.
Most cuckoos are insectivorous, and in particular are specialised in eating larger insects and caterpillars, including noxious hairy types avoided by other birds. They are unusual among birds in processing their prey prior to swallowing, rubbing it back and forth on hard objects such as branches and then crushing it with special bony plates in the back of the mouth. They also take a wide range of other insects and animal prey. The lizard cuckoos of the Caribbean have, in the relative absence of birds of prey, specialised in taking lizards. Larger, ground types such as coucals and roadrunners also feed variously on snakes, lizards, small rodents, and other birds, which they bludgeon with their strong bills. Ground species may employ different techniques to catch prey. A study of two coua species in Madagascar found that the Coquerel's coua obtained prey by walking and gleaning on the forest floor, whereas the red-capped coua ran and pounced on prey. Both species also showed seasonal flexibility in prey and foraging techniques. The parasitic cuckoos are generally not recorded as participating in mixed-species feeding flocks, although some studies in eastern Australia found several species participated in the non-breeding season, but were mobbed and unable to do so in the breeding season. Ground-cuckoos of the genus Neomorphus are sometimes seen feeding in association with army ant swarms, although they are not obligate ant-followers as are some antbirds. The anis are ground feeders that follow cattle and other large mammals when foraging; in a similar fashion to cattle egrets they snatch prey flushed by the cattle and enjoy higher foraging success rates in this way.
Several koels, couas, and the channel-billed cuckoo feed mainly on fruit, but they are not exclusively frugivores. The parasitic koels and channel-billed cuckoo in particular consume mainly fruit when raised by frugivore hosts such as the Australasian figbird and pied currawong. Other species occasionally take fruit as well. Couas consume fruit in the dry season when prey is harder to find.
Breeding
The cuckoos are an extremely diverse group of birds with regards to breeding systems. The majority of species are monogamous, but there are exceptions. The anis and the guira cuckoo lay their eggs in communal nests, which is built by all members of the group. Incubation, brooding and territorial defence duties are shared by all members of the group. Within these species the anis breed as groups of monogamous pairs, but the guira cuckoos are not monogamous within the group, exhibiting a polygynandrous breeding system. This group nesting behaviour is not completely cooperative; females compete and may remove others' eggs when laying hers. Eggs are usually only ejected early in the breeding season in the anis, but can be ejected at any time by guria cuckoos. Polyandry has been confirmed in the African black coucal and is suspected to occur in the other coucals, perhaps explaining the reversed sexual dimorphism in the group.
The majority of cuckoo species, including malkohas, couas, coucals, and roadrunners and most other American cuckoos, build their own nests, although a large minority engage in brood parasitism (see below). Most of these species nest in trees or bushes, but the coucals lay their eggs in nests on the ground or in low shrubs. Though on some occasions non-parasitic cuckoos parasitize other species, the parent still helps feed the chick.
The nests of cuckoos vary in the same way as the breeding systems. The nests of malkohas and Asian ground cuckoos are shallow platforms of twigs, but those of coucals are globular or domed nests of grasses. The New World cuckoos build saucers or bowls in the case of the New World ground cuckoos.
Non-parasitic cuckoos, like most other non-passerines, lay white eggs, but many of the parasitic species lay coloured eggs to match those of their passerine hosts.
The young of all species are altricial. Non-parasitic cuckoos leave the nest before they can fly, and some New World species have the shortest incubation periods among birds.
Brood parasitism
About 56 of the Old World species and 3 of the New World species (pheasant, pavonine, and striped) are brood parasites, laying their eggs in the nests of other birds and giving rise to the metaphor cuckoo's egg. These species are obligate brood parasites, meaning that they only reproduce in this fashion. The best-known example is the European common cuckoo. In addition to the above noted species, others sometimes engage in non-obligate brood parasitism, laying their eggs in the nests of members of their own species in addition to raising their own young. The shells of the eggs of brood-parasitic cuckoos are usually thicker and stronger than those of their hosts. This protects the egg if a host parent tries to damage it, and may make it resistant to cracking when dropped into a host nest. Cuckoo eggshells have two distinct layers. In some nesting cuckoos, there is a thick outer chalky layer that is not present on the eggs of most brood-parasitic species, although there are some exceptions and the eggshells of Old World parasitic cuckoos have a thick outer layer that is different from that of nesting cuckoos.
The cuckoo egg hatches earlier than the host eggs, and the cuckoo chick grows faster; in most cases the chick evicts the eggs and/or young of the host species. The chick has no time to learn this behavior, nor does any parent stay around to teach it, so it must be an instinct passed on genetically.
One reason for the cuckoo egg's hatching sooner is that, after the egg is fully formed, the female cuckoo holds it in her oviduct for another 24 hours prior to laying. This means that the egg has already had 24 hours of internal incubation. Furthermore, the cuckoo's internal temperature is 3-4 degrees Celsius higher than the temperature at which the egg is incubated in the nest, and the higher temperature means that the egg incubates faster, so at the time it is laid the egg has already had the equivalent of 30 hours incubation in a nest.
The chick encourages the host to keep pace with its high growth rate with its rapid begging call and the chick's open mouth which serves as a sign stimulus.
Since obligate brood parasites need to successfully trick their host in order for them to reproduce, they have evolved adaptations at several stages of breeding. However, there are high costs of parasitism on the host, leading to strong selections on the host to recognize and reject parasitic eggs. The adaptations and counter-adaptations between hosts and parasites have led to a coevolution arms race. This means that if one of the species involved were to stop adapting, it would lose the race to the other species, resulting in decreased fitness of the losing species. The egg-stage adaptation is the best studied stage of this arms race.
Cuckoos have various strategies for getting their eggs into host nests. Different species use different strategies based on host defensive strategies. Female cuckoos have secretive and fast laying behaviors, but in some cases, males have been shown to lure host adults away from their nests so that the female can lay her egg in the nest. Some host species may directly try to prevent cuckoos laying eggs in their nest in the first place – birds whose nests are at high risk of cuckoo-contamination are known to 'mob' cuckoos to drive them out of the area. Parasitic cuckoos are grouped into gentes, with each gens specializing in a particular host. There is some evidence that the gentes are genetically different from one another.
Female parasitic cuckoos sometimes specialize and lay eggs that closely resemble the eggs of their chosen host. Some birds are able to distinguish cuckoo eggs from their own, leading to those eggs least like the host's being thrown out of the nest. Parasitic cuckoos that show the highest levels of egg mimicry are those whose hosts exhibit high levels of egg rejection behavior. Some hosts do not exhibit egg rejection behavior and the cuckoo eggs look very dissimilar from the host eggs. It has also been shown in a study of the European common cuckoos that females will lay their egg in the nest of a host that has eggs that look similar to its own. Other species of cuckoo lay "cryptic" eggs, which are dark in color when their hosts' eggs are light. This is a trick to hide the egg from the host, and is exhibited in cuckoos that parasitize hosts with dark, domed nests. Some adult parasitic cuckoos completely destroy the host's clutch if they reject the cuckoo egg. In this case, raising the cuckoo chick is less of a cost than the alternative, total clutch destruction.
There are two main hypotheses on the cognitive mechanisms that mediate host distinguishing of eggs. One hypothesis is true recognition, which states that a host compares eggs present in its clutch to an internal template (learnt or innate), to identify if parasitic eggs are present. However, memorizing a template of a parasitic egg is costly and imperfect and likely not identical to each host's egg. The other one is the discordancy hypothesis, which states that host compares eggs in the clutch and identifies the odd ones. However, if parasitic eggs made the majority of eggs in the clutch, then hosts will end up rejecting their own eggs. More recent studies have found that it is more likely that both mechanisms contribute to host discrimination of parasitic eggs since one compensates for the limitations of the other.
The parasitism is not necessarily entirely detrimental to the host species. A 16-year dataset was used in 2014 to find that carrion crow nests in a region of Northern Spain were more successful overall (more likely to produce at least one crow fledgling) when parasitised by the great spotted cuckoo. The researchers attributed this to a strong-smelling predator-repelling substance secreted by cuckoo chicks when attacked, and noted that the interactions were not necessarily simply parasitic or mutualistic. This relationship was not observed for any other host species, or for any other species of cuckoo. Great spotted cuckoo chicks do not evict host eggs or young, and are smaller and weaker than carrion crow chicks, so both of these factors may have contributed to the effect observed.
However, subsequent research using a dataset from southern Spain failed to replicate these findings, and the second research team also criticised the methodology used in experiments described in the first paper. The authors of the first study have responded to points made in the second and both groups agree that further research is needed before the mutualistic effect can be considered proven.
Calls
Cuckoos are often highly secretive and in many cases best known for their wide repertoire of calls. These are usually relatively simple, resembling whistles, flutes, or hiccups. The calls are used in order to demonstrate ownership of a territory and to attract a mate. Within a species the calls are remarkably consistent across the range, even in species with very large ranges. This suggests, along with the fact that many species are not raised by their true parents, that the calls of cuckoos are innate and not learnt. Although cuckoos are diurnal, many species call at night.
The cuckoo family gets its English and scientific names from the call of the male common cuckoo, which is also familiar from cuckoo clocks. Some of the names of other species and genera are also derived from their calls, for example the koels of Asia and Australasia. In most cuckoos the calls are distinctive to particular species, and are useful for identification. Several cryptic species are best identified on the basis of their calls.
Phylogeny and evolution
The family Cuculidae was introduced by the English zoologist William Elford Leach in a guide to the contents of the British Museum published in 1820.
There is very little fossil record of cuckoos and their evolutionary history remains unclear. Dynamopterus was an Oligocene genus of large cuckoo, though it may have been related to cariamas instead.
A 2014 genome analysis by Jarvis et al. found a clade of birds that contains the orders Cuculiformes (cuckoos), Musophagiformes (turacos), and Otidiformes (bustards). This has been named the Otidimorphae. Relationships between the orders is unclear.
Living Cuculiformes from Sorenson & Payne (2005):
Taxonomy and systematics
For the living members of each genus, see the article List of cuckoo species.
Basal or incertae sedis
Genus Dynamopterus (fossil: Late Eocene/Early Oligocene of Caylus, Tarn-et-Garonne, France)
Genus Cursoricoccyx (fossil: Early Miocene of Logan County, USA) – Neomorphinae?
Cuculidae gen. et sp. indet. (fossil: Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, USA)
Genus Nannococcyx – Saint Helena cuckoo (extinct)
Subfamily Cuculinae – Brood-parasitic cuckoos
Genus Eocuculus (fossil: Late Eocene of Teller County, USA)
Genus Clamator (4 species)
Genus Pachycoccyx – thick-billed cuckoo
Genus Cuculus – typical cuckoos (11 species)
Genus Hierococcyx – hawk-cuckoos (8 species)
Genus Cercococcyx – long-tailed cuckoos (3 species)
Genus Cacomantis (10 species)
Genus Chrysococcyx – bronze cuckoos (13 species)
Genus Surniculus – drongo-cuckoos (4 species)
Genus Microdynamis – dwarf koel
Genus Eudynamys – typical koels (4 species, one prehistoric)
Genus Urodynamis – Pacific long-tailed cuckoo
Genus Scythrops – channel-billed cuckoo
Subfamily Phaenicophaeinae – malkohas and couas
Genus Ceuthmochares – yellowbills (2 species)
Genus Rhinortha – Raffles's malkoha (sometimes in Phaenicophaeus; tentatively placed here)
Genus Zanclostomus – red-billed malkoha
Genus Phaenicophaeus – typical malkohas (6 species)
Genus Dasylophus – (2 species)
Genus Taccocua – Sirkeer malkoha
Genus Rhamphococcyx – yellow-billed malkoha
Genus Carpococcyx – Asian ground-cuckoos (3 species)
Genus Coua – couas (9 living species, 1 recently extinct)
Subfamily Coccyzinae – American cuckoos
Genus Coccyzus – includes Saurothera and Hyetornis (13 species)
Genus Coccycua – formerly in Coccyzus and Piaya, includes Micrococcyx (3 species)
Genus Piaya (2 species)
Subfamily Neomorphinae – New World ground cuckoos
Genus Neococcyx (fossil: Early Oligocene of Central North America)
Genus Tapera – striped cuckoo
Genus Dromococcyx (2 species)
Genus Morococcyx – lesser ground cuckoo
Genus Geococcyx – roadrunners (2 species)
Genus Neomorphus – Neotropical ground-cuckoos (5 species)
Subfamily Centropodinae – coucals
Genus Centropus (some 30 species)
Subfamily Crotophaginae – Anis
Genus Crotophaga – true anis (3 species)
Genus Guira – guira cuckoo
In human culture
In Greek mythology the god Zeus transformed himself into a cuckoo so that he could seduce the goddess Hera, to whom the bird was sacred. In England, William Shakespeare alludes to the common cuckoo's association with spring, and with cuckoldry, in the courtly springtime song in his play Love's Labours Lost. In India, cuckoos are sacred to Kamadeva, the god of desire and longing, whereas in Japan, the cuckoo symbolises unrequited love. Cuckoos are a sacred animal to the Bon religion of Tibet.
The orchestral composition "On Hearing the First Cuckoo in Spring" by Frederick Delius imitates sounds of the cuckoo.
The greater roadrunner, a cuckoo, is the state bird of the US state of New Mexico and is a common symbol of the American Southwest in general. "Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner" was a long running series of cartoons by Warner Brothers Studios that has had enduring popularity from the time the characters were created in 1949 through the present and helps define the image of the roadrunner in popular culture.
Since 1962, Sonny the Cuckoo Bird has been the mascot for Cocoa Puffs, a product of General Mills that was launched six years before the character was created.
In The Legend of Zelda series of games created by Nintendo, there is a fictional species of bird known as the Cucco that was likely named after the Cuckoo, first appearing in 1992 with The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past. However, the species is more similar to a Chicken than a real Cuckoo.
References
Other sources
Feduccia, Alan (1996): The Origin and Evolution of Birds. Yale University Press, New Haven.
External links
Cuckoo sounds on xeno-canto.org
Cuckoo videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Articles containing video clips
Priabonian first appearances
Extant Eocene first appearances
Taxa named by William Elford Leach
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] |
207250
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20Georgia
|
Flag of Georgia
|
Flag of Georgia may refer to:
Flag of Georgia (country)
Flag of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic
Flag of Georgia (U.S. state)
|
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] |
207255
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20ships%20of%20the%20line%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Navy
|
List of ships of the line of the United States Navy
|
This is a list of ships of the line of the United States Navy. Because of the operating expense, a number of these were never launched.
These ships were maintained on the stocks, sometimes for decades, in case of an urgent need.
Continental Navy
(given to France upon launching, 1782)
Unnamed class
Unnamed, Boston (canceled, 1778)
Unnamed, Philadelphia (abandoned with the capture of Philadelphia, 1777)
Unnamed, Poughkeepsie, New York (canceled, unknown date)
United States Navy
Columbus class
Columbus (canceled, 1800)
Unnamed, Boston Navy Yard (canceled, 1800)
Unnamed, New York Navy Yard (canceled, 1800)
Franklin (canceled, 1800)
Unnamed, Washington Navy Yard (canceled, 1800)
Unnamed, Norfolk Navy Yard (canceled, 1800)
(1814–1912, razeed 1836)
(1814–1843)
(1815–1852)
(1819–1861)
(laid down 1815, never completed)
(laid down 1815, never completed)
(1837–1861)
(1820–1861)
(1848–1901)
(launched as depot ship, 1864; training ship, 1892–1921)
(laid down 1822, never launched)
(laid down 1820; burnt on ways, 1861)
(1820–1861)
(1820–1866)
Unnamed class
Not built, Boston Navy Yard (frames on hand, 1832; not built)
Not built, Boston Navy Yard (frames on hand, 1832; not built)
Not built, Norfolk Navy Yard (frames on hand, 1832; not built)
Not built, Norfolk Navy Yard (frames on hand, 1832; not built)
References
Ships of the line
Ships of the line
United States Navy ships of the line
Ships of the line
United States Navy
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Trek%3A%2025th%20Anniversary%20%28computer%20game%29
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Star Trek: 25th Anniversary (computer game)
|
Star Trek: 25th Anniversary is an adventure video game developed and published by Interplay Productions in 1992, based on the Star Trek universe. The game chronicles various missions of James T. Kirk and his crew of the USS Enterprise. Its 1993 sequel, Star Trek: Judgment Rites, continues and concludes this two-game series, which together may be seen as the final two years of the USS Enterprises five-year mission.
Gameplay
The player takes on the role of Captain James T. Kirk on board the USS Enterprise, a Starfleet vessel as seen in the American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Original Series. It is split into two main modes, a main bridge view, and a third-person mode whenever an away team is transported to a planet or space station. During several combat sequences the player controls the Enterprise in battle against enemies in space; originally required, Interplay later offered a patch making them optional. The controls on the bridge are split across the crew, with Montgomery Scott allowing access to the shield and power controls, Pavel Chekov controlling navigation, and Hikaru Sulu controlling the orbit of the ship, for example. The away team always consists of Kirk, Spock and Leonard McCoy, as well as one of eight different redshirts, many of whom can die during the mission. The player interacts with these modes using a point and click interface via the mouse.
Plot
The game was broken up into a series of episodes, with each episode opening with a message received in-game from Starfleet Command. They are typically structured to have a ship to ship combat before the game moves onto a third-person adventure game featuring an away team.
The Episodes are as follows:
Demon World: Settlers belonging to a religious sect have reported being attacked by "Demons" near their mines. Kirk must discover the truth behind these "Demons".
Hijacked: The USS Masada has not reported in. Upon investigation, The Enterprise discovers that the ship has been captured by Elasi Pirates who are holding the crew hostage. Kirk must discover a way to recover the ship and crew unharmed.
Love's Labor Jeopardized: Romulans have crossed the Neutral Zone and attacked the Federation Research Station Ark 7. Unfortunately, the attack has created a biohazard situation that Enterprise crew must deal with, as well as the Romulans.
Another Fine Mess.....: When responding to a distress call from a ship under attack by pirates, the Enterprise discovers none other than Harry Mudd is involved. He is traced to a derelict alien spacecraft. The Enterprise crew must discover the connection between the derelict, the pirates and Mudd.
Feathered Serpent: A Klingon battle fleet is about to cross into Federation space, in pursuit of a "War Criminal". The Enterprise must find this "War Criminal" to prevent a war.
That Old Devil Moon: Strange power readings have been detected from a large asteroid approaching a pre-warp star system. The Enterprise discovers an ancient nuclear missile base that does not realize that the war ended 1000 years earlier, and must prevent it from destroying the native civilization a second time.
Vengeance: The Enterprise, responding to a distress call from the USS Republic, finds it nearly destroyed. Kirk must figure out what destroyed the ship and stop those responsible from striking again. Unlike the other missions, this mission is longer and more complex in the CD version of the game; the original floppy version of this episode consists only of a brief away team segment followed by an extensive ship-to-ship combat sequence.
In the CD-ROM edition of the game, following the conclusion of the last mission is a title card memorializing Gene Roddenberry with a short voice over narration by William Shatner praising his life.
Development
The game was initially released in 1992 for the PC on a series of 3.5" floppy disks, with a later release on CD-ROM adding improved sound effects and the voices of the actors from The Original Series. When the game was ported to the Amiga for a 1994 release, it was restricted to the Amiga 1200 and 4000 models with hard-drive only, which was uncommon at that time on these machines. It became available on a DOS emulator via archive.org in January 2015.
Following a deal with CBS, Star Trek: 25th Anniversary was subsequently re-released on the distribution network GOG.com, with additional German and French subtitles, on 7 May 2015 alongside Star Trek: Judgment Rites and Star Trek: Starfleet Academy for Microsoft Windows, macOS and Linux. Shortly after, Interplay Entertainment also re-released Star Trek: 25th Anniversary to the distribution network Steam, however, only for Microsoft Windows and without subtitles. Both sequels followed the game to Steam the day after, 8 May 2015, respectively.
Reception
Together with Star Trek: Judgment Rites, 25th Anniversary sold more than 300,000 copies by April 1994. 25th Anniversary by itself ultimately sold more than 350,000 units and was a commercial hit, according to PC Player. The original PC version of 25th Anniversary was received positively by the critics; the review in Computer Gaming World stated that 25th Anniversary was "the most outstanding Star Trek yet produced for the computer". The graphics and sound audio were praised, and concluded that "for this Trek-fanatic-turned-reviewer, [the game]'s major shortcoming is that it is over too soon". Frank O'Connor in his review for Computer and Video Games said that "this is the first one to deliver" on the promise of a good Star Trek game. He praised detailing of the sprites and the authentic music, calling it "one of the most involving and entertaining games of its type".
The reviews for the Amiga port were more mixed than the PC version, with criticism often directed at the shaky graphics and unresponsive interface. Simon Clays, for Amiga Computing described the video sequences as "jerky" and called the mouse controls "sluggish", but praised the missions which "require you to use at least a touch of your grey matter". In Amiga Format, Tim Smith called the graphics "juddery", and also criticised the hour-long install of the 9mb onto a hard drive. He did praise both the storylines and the puzzles seen in the game, adding that it should appeal to Star Trek fans but general Amiga gamers would look elsewhere. Dave Golder said in Amiga Power that the game was "dull" and that the adventure segments of the game were "routine", while the space sequences "came across like a bog-standard flight sim" but were "moderately exciting".
Charles Ardai of Computer Gaming World said in May 1994 that the television cast's voices on the CD version was "a little like getting a phone call from an old friend ... the original, as good as it was, can't hold a candle to the new version". He stated that the episodes' "feel is Star Trek through and through", mostly because of the added music and "layer upon layer of digitized bloops, whirrs, hisses, and clicks taken straight off the TV. Phaser fire sounds like phaser fire. Communicators trill the way communicators ought to". Ardai wished that Shatner, Nimoy, and Kelley did not sound so "oddly sedate" but believed that "Trekkers ... will be rapturously grateful to have them at all", and concluded "I can't imagine the Star Trek fan who will want to miss the CD version ... it may be one of the last chances we'll have to see the old crew work together again".
Next Generation reviewed the Macintosh version of the game, rating it four stars out of five, and stated that "If you like Star Trek, you've just gotta have this game."
Stew Shearer reviewed the game after its release on GOG.com in 2015, saying that the plots were "predictable, but a lot of fun" and praised the voice work conducted by the original actors. He said that to his surprise, the game was still "rather enjoyable".
25th Anniversary was nominated for Best Fantasy Roleplaying/Adventure Game at the Compute! Choice Awards in 1993, but lost out to Dune. It has been listed as one of the best video games of the franchise. Mike Fahey, while writing for Kotaku in 2009, listed the game as one of the three best alongside Star Trek: Voyager – Elite Force and Star Trek: Bridge Commander, saying that Star Trek games until the release of 25th Anniversary were "generally ho-hum affairs".
In 2016, Tom's Guide ranked Star Trek: 25th Anniversary (PC and Mac version for 1992) as one of the top ten Star Trek games.
Sequel
Following the success of 25th Anniversary, Interplay developed a sequel entitled Star Trek: Judgment Rites. This was set up in the same manner as the original game, with it broken into a series of episodes and the split between the adventure game away team mode and the space combat/flight simulator mode using the same interface.
References
External links
1992 video games
Adventure games
Adventure games set in space
Amiga games
Amiga 1200 games
DOS games
Games commercially released with DOSBox
Interplay Entertainment games
MacOS games
Classic Mac OS games
Single-player video games
25th Anniversary
Video games developed in the United States
Video games scored by Allister Brimble
Video games scored by George Sanger
Windows games
Star Trek video games using TV cast members
|
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] |
207264
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mayors%20of%20Vancouver
|
List of mayors of Vancouver
|
The mayor of the City of Vancouver is the head and chief executive officer of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, elected for a four-year term. The 40th and current officeholder is Kennedy Stewart since 2018.
List
indicates the individual died in office.
Notes
List of mayors who held higher office
Two former mayors, Mike Harcourt and Gordon Campbell, went on to become premier of British Columbia.
George Clark Miller, Sam Sullivan, Art Phillips and James Garden became members of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia (MLAs) after being mayor.
Larry Campbell became a Canadian senator after being mayor.
Gregor Robertson, Charles Douglas, James Lyle Telford, Jonathan Webster Cornett and Charles Edward Tisdall were British Columbia MLAs prior to becoming mayor.
Jonathan Webster Cornett was reeve of South Vancouver before becoming Vancouver mayor.
Gerry McGeer was a BC MLA and provincial cabinet minister before becoming mayor of Vancouver and became a Canadian member of Parliament (MP) and senator after having been mayor.
Kennedy Stewart was the New Democratic Party MP for Burnaby South before being elected.
References
Vancouver
Mayors, Vancouver
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC%20Radio%204%20Extra
|
BBC Radio 4 Extra
|
BBC Radio 4 Extra (formerly BBC Radio 7) is a British digital radio station from the BBC, broadcasting archived repeats of comedy, drama and documentary programmes originally on BBC Radio 4 nationally, 24 hours a day. It is the principal broadcaster of the BBC's spoken-word archive, and as a result the majority of its programming originates from that archive. It also broadcasts extended and companion programmes to those broadcast on sister station BBC Radio 4, and provides a "catch-up" service for certain Radio 4 programmes.
The station launched in December 2002 as BBC 7, broadcasting a mix of archive comedy, drama and current children's radio. The station was renamed BBC Radio 7 in 2008, then relaunched as Radio 4 Extra in April 2011. For the first quarter of 2013, Radio 4 Extra had a weekly audience of 1.642 million people and had a market share of 0.95%; in the last quarter of 2016 the numbers were 2.184 million listeners and 1.2% of market share.
History
BBC 7
The station was initially launched as BBC 7 on 15 December 2002 by comedian Paul Merton. The first programme was broadcast at 8pm and was simulcast with Radio 4. The station, referred to by the codename 'Network Z' while in development, was so named to reflect the station's presence on the internet and on digital television in addition to radio. The station broadcast mostly archived comedy and drama, in that the programme was either three or more years old or had been broadcast twice on their original station.
The station also broadcast a themed section for Children's programmes. This section carried a variety of programmes, including The Little Toe Radio Show (later renamed CBeebies Radio), aimed at younger children and consisting of short serials, stories and rhymes, and The Big Toe Radio Show and Arthur Storey and the Department of Historical Correction with phone-ins, quizzes and stories for the 8+ age group. The segment also hosted the only news programme on the network presented by the Newsround team.
The station won the Sony Radio Academy Award for station sound in 2003, was nominated for the Promo Award in 2004, and in 2005 received a silver for the Short-Form award, plus nominations in the speech and digital terrestrial station-of-the-year sections. Because of the station's archive nature the station was scheduled, produced and researched by 17 people, excluding presenters.
The station was renamed on 4 October 2008 as BBC Radio 7 in an effort to bring it in line with other BBC Radio brands. It also coincided with the introduction of a new network logo for the station.
During this later period, Radio 7 saw growth in its audience, with a growth rate of 9.5% annually in 2010, going from 931,000 listeners in the first quarter of that year to 949,000 a quarter later, making it the second most listened to BBC digital radio station at the time. However, despite this growth, the audience of children between 4 and 14 was reported to be only at 25,000 and in February 2011 the BBC Trust approved a reduction in hours dedicated to children from 1,400 to 350.
BBC Radio 4 Extra
The BBC announced their intention to relaunch the station on 2 March 2010 and following a public consultation, the proposal was approved by the corporation's governing body the BBC Trust in February 2011. As a result, the station relaunched as BBC Radio 4 Extra on Saturday 2 April 2011. The relaunched station contained much of the same mix of programming with some new additions that reflected the new alignment with Radio 4, many of which were extended, archive or spin offs of flagship Radio 4 programmes.
Broadcast
BBC Radio 4 Extra is broadcast from Broadcasting House in central London, although due to the nature of the channel very little of the channel's content is broadcast live from there with even the continuity announcements being pre-recorded. The channel uses ten continuity announcers to link between programmes. Notable announcers include Wes Butters, Kathy Clugston, Jim Lee, David Miles, Susan Rae, Alex Riley, Alan Smith, Zeb Soanes, Chris Berrow and Steve Urquhart. Previous presenters, including those presenting Radio 7, include Penny Haslam, Helen Aitken, Rory Morrison and Michaela Saunders.
The station is broadcast nationally on digital radiovia the BBC National DAB multiplexand online via BBC Sounds and other services such as Radioplayer. It is also available on a number of digital television platforms; Freeview, Virgin Media, Freesat and Sky.
The controller of the station is Gwyneth Williams who is answerable to the Radio board in the BBC. BBC Radio 4 Extra is broadcast in stereo on television and online, although many of the older archive programmes were only recorded in mono. On DAB, all programmes are broadcast in mono, as the maximum bit rate is only 80kbps.
Programming
Although the current station is a rebranding of Radio 7 and contains a similar mix of archived programming, content has been brought further in line with BBC Radio 4 with new additions based upon their schedule. These include extended versions of programmes such as The News Quiz and Desert Island Discs, the broadcast of archived editions of the latter as Desert Island Discs Revisited. It has also previously included the addition of the programme Ambridge Extra, a more youth-orientated version of long-running radio soap The Archers, and an extended version of The Now Show.
Some programming is organised into programme blocks of similar programmes. The late night Comedy Club segment broadcasts "two hours of contemporary comedy" most nights of the week and is primarily hosted by Arthur Smith. A long-standing segment that remained following the change from Radio 7, it was previously fronted by Alex Riley and Phil Williams. Comedy previously available as CDs on the Laughing Stock label is also broadcast.
Drama is also broadcast, notably in The 7th Dimension segment. A long-running segment continued from Radio 7, the block airs speculative fiction, science fiction, fantasy and horror stories presented by Nicholas Briggs. The segment contains programmes including Doctor Who audio dramas starring Paul McGann as the Eighth Doctor, as well as programmes imported from overseas including American broadcasts The Twilight Zone and Garrison Keillor's Radio Show as well as Stuart McLean's Vinyl Cafe from Canada. The 7th Dimension was originally broadcast daily, but has now been reduced to weekends-only. With increasing repeats of old Radio 4 documentaries, interviews and "educational/cultural" programmes, some listeners are concerned that the station's original mandate to provide comedy, drama and entertainment is being increasingly sidelined.
Archive
Much of the channels schedule is formed of repeats from classic comedy and drama. The schedule spans The Goon Show (1950s) and Round the Horne (1960s), through Radio 2 favourites like The News Huddlines, Castle's On The Air and Listen to Les to recent Radio 4 shows such as Little Britain and Dead Ringers. Some of this content is newly discovered, such as copies of the version of Dick Barton Special Agent that were made for international distribution and early episodes of The Goon Show.
Original programmes
The station has broadcast original programmes. Newsjack is a topical news sketch show which encourages contributions from listeners. Spanking New on Seven was stand-up comedy, and the BBC New Comedy Competition a competition for new comedians. Those who went on to have their own series on Radio 7 include John-Luke Roberts with Spats and Miriam Elia with A Series of Psychotic Episodes.
The Mitch Benn Music Show featured comedy songs introduced by Mitch Benn. The Colin and Fergus' Digi Radio comedy sketch show ran for two series in 20052006. Serious About Comedy was a weekly show presented by Robin Ince in which comedians and comedy critics discussed comedy television, radio, DVDs, and films. Tilt was a satirical look at the week's news of views other than the norm. Knocker was a sitcom about a market researcher, written by and starring Neil Edmond.
Original Radio 7 programmes
While most shows on Radio 7 were repeats, original programmes included:
Big Toe Books (Children's show)
Serious About Comedy (Comedy review show)
Tilt (Satirical sketch comedy)
Newsjack (Satirical sketch comedy)
Spats (Sketch comedy)
Knocker (Sitcom)
The Penny Dreadfuls Present… (Comedy)
Undone (Sci-fi comedy)
The Spaceship (Sci-fi comedy)
Oneira (Sci-fi comedy)
The Laxian Key (Sci-fi comedy)
Cold Blood (Sci-fi drama)
The Voice of God (Sci-fi drama)
Slipstream (Sci-fi drama)
A Series of Psychotic Episodes (Sketch comedy)
CBeebies Radio (Children's show)
Colin and Fergus' Digi Radio (Sketch comedy)
No Tomatoes (Sketch comedy)
The Mitch Benn Music Show (Musical comedy)
Spanking New on Seven (Stand-up)
Play and Record (Sketch comedy)
Pleased to Meet You (Comedy)
Gus Murdoch's Sacred Cows (Comedy)
Planet B (Sci-fi drama)
Doctor Who: The Eighth Doctor Adventures (Sci-fi Drama)
The Man in Black (Horror)
The Scarifyers (Horror comedy)
This is Pulp Fiction (Crime fiction)
Original Radio 4 Extra programmes
Original programmes made for Radio 4 Extra.
Ambridge Extra (Soap opera, spin-off from The Archers)
Arthur Smith's Balham Bash (Variety show, debuted on Radio 4 Extra before being aired on Radio 4)
The 4 O'Clock Show (Chat show, including children's entertainment)
Let's Get Quizzical (Documentary)
Lord of the Flies (dramatisation of William Golding's novel)
Meet David Sedaris (Comedy, debuted on Radio 4 Extra before being aired on Radio 4)
The Nine Billion Names of God (readings from Arthur C. Clarke's short story collection of the same name)
Sarah Millican's Support Group (Sketch show, debuted on Radio 4 Extra before being aired on Radio 4)
What's So Funny? (Comedy review show)
Neverwhere (Neil Gaiman's fantasy, first episode aired on Radio 4 with subsequent episodes on Radio 4 Extra)
See also
List of BBC radio stations
References
External links
4 Extra
Comedy radio stations
British radio comedy
Radio stations established in 2002
2002 establishments in the United Kingdom
Radio stations in the United Kingdom
Digital-only radio stations
|
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] |
207266
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salazar
|
Salazar
|
Salazar may refer to:
Name
Salazar (surname), a surname and list of persons with the name
António de Oliveira Salazar (1889–1970), Prime Minister of Portugal from 1932 to 1968
Places
Salazar, Burgos, village in the municipality of Villarcayo de Merindad de Castilla la Vieja, Burgos, Spain
Salazar de las Palmas, a municipality in the department of North Santander, Colombia
Salazar Valley, eastern part of the autonomous community of Navarre, Spain
Vila Salazar, former name for N'dalatando, town and commune in the province of Cuanza Norte, Angola.
Fictional characters
Armando Salazar, the main antagonist of the film Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales, and the titular character of its international release name Pirates of the Caribbean: Salazar's Revenge
Bennie Salazar, a central character from the novel A Visit from the Goon Squad by Jennifer Egan
Hector Salazar (disambiguation), multiple fictional characters
Ramon Salazar (Resident Evil 4), from the video game Resident Evil 4
Ramon Salazar (24 character), from the television series 24
Rex Salazar, from the television series Generator Rex
Rosario Salazar, from the television series Will & Grace
Salazar Slytherin, from the Harry Potter novels
Transportation
Salazar, a de Havilland DH.88 Comet aircraft
Science
Trimeresurus salazar, a pit viper named after Salazar Slytherin
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Moultrie
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William Moultrie
|
William Moultrie (; November 23, 1730 – September 27, 1805) was an American planter and politician who became a general in the American Revolutionary War. As colonel leading a state militia, in 1776 he prevented the British from taking Charleston, and Fort Moultrie was named in his honor.
After independence, Moultrie advanced as a politician; he was elected by the legislature twice within a decade as Governor of South Carolina (1785–87, 1792–94), serving two terms. (The state constitution kept power in the hands of the legislature and prohibited governors from serving two terms in succession.)
Life
Moultrie was born in Charles Town in the Province of South Carolina. His parents were the Scottish physician Dr. John Moultrie and Lucretia Cooper, and he acquired a slave plantation, enslaving over 200 African Americans.
Moultrie fought in the Anglo-Cherokee War (1761). Before the advent of the American Revolution, he was elected to the colonial assembly representing St. Helena Parish.
In 1775, Moultrie was commissioned as colonel of the 2nd South Carolina Regiment of provincial troops. In 1776, Moultrie's defense of a small fort on Sullivan's Island (later named Fort Moultrie in his honor) prevented Sir Henry Clinton and Sir Peter Parker from taking Charleston. The Continental Congress passed a resolution thanking Moultrie. He was promoted to brigadier general and his regiment was taken into the Continental Army.
Moultrie successfully led a repulsive of the British at Port Royal in February 1779. That spring when Maj. Gen. Benjamin Lincoln took the bulk of the American force towards Augusta, Georgia, Moultrie was stationed at Black Swamp with a small contingent to watch the British on the other side of the Savannah River. When the British suddenly crossed the Savannah en masse and tried to move on Charleston, Moultrie managed a skillful tactical retreat across the Coosawhatchie and the Tullifiny Rivers and all the way back to Charleston where he held off a short siege. He refused to surrender at a time when the civilian authorities in Charleston felt somewhat abandoned by the Continental Congress and were almost ready to give up.
Moultrie was captured when Charleston surrendered to the British in 1780. He was left in command of the American POWs which required all of the patience and skill of a diplomat when advocating for his men against the harsh British commandant, Lt. Col. Nisbet Balfour. The British also attempted to lure him to their side, and he was absolutely indignant when he was approached by Charles Greville Montague. Moultrie was eventually exchanged for British prisoners and in the last year of the war, he was promoted to major general in 1782, the last man appointed by Congress to that rank.
After the war he was elected by the new state legislature as 35th Governor of South Carolina (1785–87). The state constitution prohibited men from serving two successive terms as governor, an effort to keep power in the hands of the legislature. Moultrie was re-elected by the legislature in 1792, serving into 1794.
William Moultrie was the first president of the Society of the Cincinnati of the State of South Carolina and served in that capacity until his death.
In 1802 he published his Memoirs of the Revolution as far as it Related to the States of North and South Carolina.
Legacy
After the war, the fort he had defended was renamed Fort Moultrie in his honor. It operated as a pivotal defense point until supplanted by Fort Sumter. Fort Moultrie was used as an active post of the United States Army from 1798 until the end of World War Two.
Moultrie County, Illinois is also named in his honor. Ochlockoney, Georgia was renamed in 1859 as Moultrie when it was incorporated by the Georgia General Assembly.
Moultrie Flag
During his notable defense of the fort in 1776, a flag of Moultrie's own design was flown: a field of blue bearing a white crescent with the word LIBERTY on it. The flag was shot down during the fight. Sergeant William Jasper held it up to rally the troops, and the story became widely known. The flag became an icon of the Revolution in the South. It was called the Moultrie, or the Liberty Flag. The new state of South Carolina incorporated its design into its state flag.
References
Further reading
Bragg, C.L. Crescent Moon Over Carolina: William Moultrie and American Liberty. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2013 (336 pages).
External links
SCIway Biography of William Moultrie
http://www.nga.org/cms/home/governors/past-governors-bios/page_south_carolina/col2-content/main-content-list/title_moultrie_william.html
The Society of the Cincinnati
The American Revolution Institute
1730 births
1805 deaths
American people of Scottish descent
American slave owners
American Revolutionary War prisoners of war held by Great Britain
Continental Army generals
Continental Army officers from South Carolina
Members of the South Carolina House of Representatives
Lieutenant Governors of South Carolina
People of South Carolina in the French and Indian War
Politicians from Charleston, South Carolina
Governors of South Carolina
South Carolina state senators
South Carolina Federalists
Federalist Party state governors of the United States
Flag designers
South Carolina militiamen in the American Revolution
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition%20of%20Progressive%20Electors
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Coalition of Progressive Electors
|
The Coalition of Progressive Electors (COPE) is a municipal political party in the Canadian city of Vancouver, British Columbia. It has traditionally been associated with tenants, environmentalists, and the labour movement. COPE is generally guided by democratic socialist principles following the split of its social democratic wing in 2014 to form OneCity Vancouver, and has a long history of advocating for issues such as improving public transit and investing in affordable housing. It last held a majority government on city council from 2002 to 2005. COPE describes itself as being committed to renter protections, ending homelessness, taxing the rich to build social housing, safe supply, free transit, Indigenous reconciliation, climate action, and other social and environmental reforms.
In 2014, the party adopted policies advocating for aboriginal representation at the municipal level.
Organization
According to its constitution, COPE has three purposes:
to unite individuals and groups behind a program of progressive civic reform;
to involve Vancouver residents and community organizations in public action in furtherance of their interests and the collective interests of Vancouver; and
to nominate and endorse candidates for election to civic office in order to promote these purposes, and to provide direction and guidance to such candidates, both before and after they have been elected.
Anybody who lives, works, or studies in Vancouver can become a member of COPE.
COPE members meet four times every year at General Meetings to discuss business relating to the party, with one of these meetings being an Annual General Meeting. In an election year, one meeting will be a Policy Conference, where the COPE membership decides on its election platform, and a Nominations Conference, where the COPE membership decides on its candidates for Vancouver City Council, Vancouver School Board, and Vancouver Park Board.
In between General Meetings, decisions are made by COPE's Executive Committee, which is elected each year at the party's Annual General Meeting.
History
COPE was formed in 1968, originally as the "Committee of Progressive Electors", when a number of left-wing community groups and social justice organizations joined with the city's Labour Council to organize more effectively against the Non-Partisan Association (NPA)—a centre-right political party which had dominated civic politics in Vancouver. Frank Kennedy of the Vancouver & District Labour Council and Harry Rankin, an outspoken lawyer and city councillor, were key figures in shaping the coalition, along with activists from the British Columbia New Democratic Party and the Communist Party of British Columbia.
Beginnings: 1970s and 1980s
For most of its history, COPE existed in an uneasy relationship with centre-left parties at the municipal level. From 1972 to 1986 COPE competed with The Electors' Action Movement, which governed the city under prominent federal Liberal Mayor Art Phillips in the mid-1970s. By the late 1970s, a breakaway faction of TEAM, comprising provincial NDP supporters and led by future premier Michael Harcourt formed an electoral alliance with COPE, from which both parties benefited. Led by Harcourt, the coalition governed from the centre and, although it ran a unified slate with COPE with the cooperation and support of the VDLC, Harcourt's small party of Civic Independents would sometimes vote with the councillors associated with the NDP and the remaining TEAM councilors against COPE's more socialist policies.
When Harcourt stepped down to become a provincial candidate and a renewed NPA led by future premier Gordon Campbell absorbed TEAM's two remaining councilors, COPE became the senior partner in its coalition with the Civic Independents. Nominating Rankin as its mayoral candidate, COPE fielded a virtually full slate of candidates (leaving three open spaces for the incumbent Civic Independents) but was badly beaten, the returning to power for the first time in 14 years, and deprived for the next two years of Rankin's leadership in the council chamber.
COPE and independents: 1980s–1990s
In 1988, COPE entered the election an equal partner with the newly formed Civic New Democrats, a party directly affiliated with the BC NDP. Led by anti-poverty activist Jean Swanson, the coalition made few gains but under the leadership of Jim Green in 1990, the party came close to winning the election. But while all COPE council candidates were elected, no Civic NDP candidates were (since a 1983 by-election, COPE had consistently out-performed all other leftist candidates on the concurrently elected School and Parks Boards). At this point, Vancouver's civic left conceded that the COPE brand was now more popular than any more centrist group. Thus, following the 1990 election, COPE merged with the Civic NDP, changing its name from the Committee of Progressive Electors to the Coalition of Progressive Electors. At this time, COPE made an official overture to the Green Party of Vancouver, the local affiliate of the Green Party of British Columbia, offering the group some minor policy concessions, joint billing in the party's ballot name ("COPE-Green '93") and assurances that important party members would ensure some Greens were nominated. The Greens turned the deal down.
Since 1993, COPE has nominated candidates for all civic offices (mayor, city councillor, school board trustee, and park commissioner) but its closer affiliation with an incumbent provincial NDP government and inability to negotiate a deal with the Greens, who began siphoning votes in increasing numbers, resulted in flagging performance. Rankin's retirement from council also damaged the party. In 1993, COPE's representation fell to only one councilor, future MLA Jenny Kwan. COPE did not win any seats in 1996, thanks to a strong showing for the Greens and a left-right coalition called VOICE, led by Rankin's wife Connie Fogal and 1984 mayoral candidate Jonathan Baker. With this fragmentation of the civic left, the NPA won all 27 contested seats in that election with only 43% of the vote.
In 1999, COPE regained its footholds on school board and city council and the Greens gained a seat on Parks Board under the leadership of mayoral candidate David Cadman. The two independent candidates who had also joined the coalition were defeated, although former NPA councilor Nancy Chiavario came close to keeping her council seat after being pushed out by supporters of Jennifer Clarke at the NPA nominating meeting.
COPE's first government: 2002
In 2002, the NPA was divided between a right-wing faction led by Jennifer Clarke and a moderate faction led by then NPA Mayor Philip Owen, creating the possibility of a COPE majority.
Former Chief Coroner and RCMP officer Larry Campbell, fictionalized on the CBC show Da Vinci's Inquest whom COPE nominated as its mayoral candidate. Although Campbell attempted to keep the Greens in the fold, a new provincial leadership had taken control and pulled the party out of its municipal coalitions.
But Clarke's takeover of the NPA and purge of its centrists was highly unpopular with Vancouver voters, especially her movement's deposition of the incumbent mayor, an ally of Campbell. Now led by a centrist for the first time, COPE defeated the NPA in every seat it contested.
In the 2002 municipal election, an unprecedented surge in voter turnout elected the first COPE mayor and board majorities in Vancouver's history. Every candidate running under COPE's banner was elected.
After the election, the party created a new Climate Task Force, implemented ethical purchasing policy, built bike routes, and legalized secondary suites, among other initiatives.
Vision Vancouver splits: 2005
By late 2004, there were growing signs of disunity between the COPE mayor and some COPE councillors. Campbell formed an independent caucus along with three of his COPE colleagues (although they all remained as members of the party). The other COPE councillors remained in the original COPE caucus.
The maverick COPE councillors (dubbed "COPE Lite" or "Diet COPE" by the media) eventually separated and formed a new party, Vision Vancouver, to run in the 2005 municipal election. COPE did not run a mayoral candidate to challenge Vision nominee, former COPE councillor Jim Green.
In the election for Vancouver City Council held in November 2005, only one COPE councillor (David Cadman) was elected. The party was reduced to three seats on the city school board and two on the parks board, newcomer Spencer Herbert, and Loretta Woodcock.
More alliances: 2007–2008
In May 2007, a slate was elected to the COPE Executive, called "the group of seven" or "the facebook group" by some media. All seven members of the slate were elected with a mandate to seek an electoral coalition with Vision Vancouver. From 2007 to 2008, 50% of COPE's Executive was under the age of 30, unprecedented for a major civic municipal party in Canada. From May 2007 to spring 2008, COPE made overtures to Vision Vancouver to enter into a coalition for the 2008 election "to defeat the NPA" with little success. It was not until Gregor Robertson was nominated as Vision Vancouver's mayoral candidate that formal negotiations between the two organizations began in early summer of 2008.
COPE and Vision Vancouver reached a tentative agreement in late summer 2008, which was later ratified by the Vision Vancouver Executive and COPE membership. COPE agreed not to run a mayoral candidate to avoid splitting the progressive vote.
Decline: 2008–2011
In the 2008 Vancouver municipal election voters replaced the NPA-dominated council with a near sweep of COPE, Green and Vision Vancouver candidates. COPE elected six of nine candidates, running a new media and youth-oriented campaign.
In the leadup to the 2011 election, several party activists launched a campaign to separate from Vision Vancouver, arguing that in coalition with Vision, that COPE "[hadn't] been able to do anything." The activists were defeated by the majority of COPE members.
In the November 19, 2011 election, a single COPE candidate was elected. The elected candidate was incumbent Allan Wong, as one of nine school trustees. COPE ran a total of nine candidates in the election.
On December 8, 2013, Allan Wong, COPE's sole elected politician, resigned from the party to join Vision Vancouver.
2011–2014
After the election loss in 2011, a group called "Independent COPE" was elected to COPE's Executive Board.
During this time, a number of high-profile COPE members and former candidates left the party, including former Vancouver School Board trustee Jane Bouey, former BC NDP MLA David Chudnovsky, former candidates RJ Aquino and Gwen Giesbrecht, and Stuart Parker.
At the party's annual general meeting in 2013, Independent COPE captured a majority by a wide margin. The membership also passed a motion to run a mayoral candidate in the 2014 election, and a majority of candidates for city council, school board, and park board.
In September 2014, only two of COPE's 17 candidates were endorsed by the Vancouver and District Labour Council – the labour organization that helped found the political party nearly five decades prior.
2014 mayoral campaign
At a general meeting in September 2014, an overwhelming majority of COPE membership endorsed Meena Wong as the 2014 mayoral candidate. The community organizer and activist stated that the focuses of her campaign would be giving citizens a voice and keeping housing affordable. She also proposed a tax on vacant homes in Vancouver.
In addition to Wong, the membership endorsed a slate of 16 candidates. In accordance with the party's equity policy there was a First Nations (Indigenous) candidate for each board and the majority of candidates are female.
The party's 2014 election platform advocated for a new Vancouver Housing Authority, for Vancouver to become a sanctuary city, to implement a minimum wage raise to $15/hr, and to hold a referendum for electoral reform to consider switching from a first-past-the-post voting system to a proportional representation system.
2014 candidates
2018 municipal election
In October 2018, COPE ran seven candidates for the 2018 Vancouver municipal election: Jean Swanson, Derrick O'Keefe, and Anne Roberts for city council; Gwen Giesbrecht and John Irwin for park board; and Diana Day and Barb Parrott for school board. The party had four of its candidates elected and achieved representation on each of the city's boards. The 2018 COPE campaign called for a mansion tax to end homelessness, a moratorium on renovictions, and a four-year rent freeze.
Election results
References
External links
Coalition of Progressive Electors
The Fiasco of Vancouver's Municipal Reform Party
David Cadman's Homepage
1968 establishments in British Columbia
Municipal political parties in Vancouver
Political parties established in 1968
Social democratic parties in Canada
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20cuckoo
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Common cuckoo
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The common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) is a member of the cuckoo order of birds, Cuculiformes, which includes the roadrunners, the anis and the coucals.
This species is a widespread summer migrant to Europe and Asia, and winters in Africa. It is a brood parasite, which means it lays eggs in the nests of other bird species, particularly of dunnocks, meadow pipits, and reed warblers. Although its eggs are larger than those of its hosts, the eggs in each type of host nest resemble the host's eggs. The adult too is a mimic, in its case of the sparrowhawk; since that species is a predator, the mimicry gives the female time to lay her eggs without being attacked.
Taxonomy
The species' binomial name is derived from the Latin cuculus (the cuckoo) and canorus (melodious; from canere, meaning to sing). The cuckoo family gets its common name and genus name by onomatopoeia for the call of the male common cuckoo. The English word "cuckoo" comes from the Old French cucu, and its earliest recorded usage in English is from around 1240, in the song Sumer Is Icumen In. The song is written in Middle English, and the first two lines are: "Svmer is icumen in / Lhude sing cuccu." In modern English, this translates to "Summer has come in / Loudly sing, Cuckoo!".
There are four subspecies worldwide:
C. c. canorus, the nominate subspecies, was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae. It occurs from Ireland through Scandinavia, northern Russia and Siberia to Japan in the east, and from the Pyrenees through Turkey, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, northern China and Korea. It winters in Africa and South Asia.
C. c. bakeri, first described by Hartert in 1912, breeds in western China to the Himalayan foothills in northern India, Nepal, Myanmar, northwestern Thailand and southern China. During the winter it is found in Assam, East Bengal and southeastern Asia.
C. c. bangsi was first described by Oberholser in 1919 and breeds in Iberia, the Balearic Islands and North Africa, spending the winter in Africa.
C. c. subtelephonus, first described by Zarudny in 1914, breeds in Central Asia from Turkestan to southern Mongolia. It migrates to southern Asia and Africa for the winter.
Lifespan and demography
Although the common cuckoo's global population appears to be declining, it is classified of being of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It is estimated that the species numbers between 25 million and 100 million individuals worldwide, with around 12.6 million to 25.8 million of those birds breeding in Europe. The longest recorded lifespan of a common cuckoo in the United Kingdom is 6 years, 11 months and 2 days.
Description
The common cuckoo is long from bill to tail (with a tail of and a wingspan of . The legs are short. It has a greyish, slender body and long tail, similar to a sparrowhawk in flight, where the wingbeats are regular. During the breeding season, common cuckoos often settle on an open perch with drooped wings and raised tail. There is a rufous colour morph, which occurs occasionally in adult females but more often in juveniles.
All adult males are slate-grey; the grey throat extends well down the bird's breast with a sharp demarcation to the barred underparts. The iris, orbital ring, the base of the bill and feet are yellow. Grey adult females have a pinkish-buff or buff background to the barring and neck sides, and sometimes small rufous spots on the median and greater coverts and the outer webs of the secondary feathers.
Rufous morph adult females have reddish-brown upperparts with dark grey or black bars. The black upperpart bars are narrower than the rufous bars, as opposed to rufous juvenile birds, where the black bars are broader.
Common cuckoos in their first autumn have variable plumage. Some have strongly-barred chestnut-brown upperparts, while others are plain grey. Rufous-brown birds have heavily barred upperparts with some feathers edged with creamy-white. All have whitish edges to the upper wing-coverts and primaries. The secondaries and greater coverts have chestnut bars or spots. In spring, birds hatched in the previous year may retain some barred secondaries and wing-coverts. The most obvious identification features of juvenile common cuckoos are the white nape patch and white feather fringes.
Common cuckoos moult twice a year: a partial moult in summer and a complete moult in winter. Males weigh around and females . The common cuckoo looks very similar to the Oriental cuckoo, which is slightly shorter-winged on average.
Mimicry in adult
The barred underparts of the common cuckoo resemble those of the Eurasian sparrowhawk, a predator of adult birds. A study comparing the responses of Eurasian reed warblers, a host of cuckoo chicks, to manipulated taxidermy model cuckoos and sparrowhawks found that reed warblers were more aggressive to cuckoos with obscured underparts, suggesting that the resemblance to sparrowhawks is likely to help the cuckoo access the nests of potential hosts. Other small birds, great tits and blue tits, showed alarm and avoided attending feeders on seeing either (mounted) sparrowhawks or cuckoos; this implies that the cuckoo's hawklike appearance functions as protective mimicry, whether to reduce attacks by hawks or to make brood parasitism easier.
Hosts attack cuckoos more when they see neighbors mobbing cuckoos. The existence of the two plumage morphs in females may be due to frequency-dependent selection if this learning applies only to the morph that hosts see neighbors mob. In an experiment with dummy cuckoos of each morph and a sparrowhawk, reed warblers were more likely to attack both cuckoo morphs than the sparrowhawk, and even more likely to mob a certain cuckoo morph when they saw neighbors mobbing that morph, decreasing the reproductive success of that morph and selecting for the less common morph.
Voice
The male's song, goo-ko, is usually given from an open perch. During the breeding season the male typically gives this vocalisation with intervals of 1–1.5 seconds, in groups of 10–20 with a rest of a few seconds between groups. The female has a loud bubbling call. The song starts as a descending minor third early in the year in April, and the interval gets wider, through a major third to a fourth as the season progresses, and in June the cuckoo "forgets its tune" and may make other calls such as ascending intervals. The wings are drooped when calling intensely and when in the vicinity of a potential female, the male often wags its tail from side to side or the body may pivot from side to side.
Distribution and habitat
Essentially a bird of open land, the common cuckoo is a widespread summer migrant to Europe and Asia, and winters in Africa. Birds arrive in Europe in April and leave in September. The common cuckoo has also occurred as a vagrant in countries including Barbados, the United States, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Indonesia, Palau, Seychelles, Taiwan and China. Between 1995 and 2015, the distribution of cuckoos within the UK has shifted towards the north, with a decline by 69% in England but an increase by 33% in Scotland.
Behaviour
Food and feeding
The common cuckoo's diet consists of insects, with hairy caterpillars, which are distasteful to many birds, being a specialty of preference. It also occasionally eats eggs and chicks.
Breeding
The common cuckoo is an obligate brood parasite; it lays its eggs in the nests of other birds. Hatched cuckoo chicks may push out host eggs out of the nest or be raised alongside the host's chicks. A female may visit up to 50 nests during a breeding season. Common cuckoos first breed at the age of two years.
Egg mimicry
More than 100 host species have been recorded: meadow pipit, dunnock and Eurasian reed warbler are the most common hosts in northern Europe; garden warbler, meadow pipit, pied wagtail and European robin in central Europe; brambling and common redstart in Finland; and great reed warbler in Hungary.
Female common cuckoos are divided into gentes – groups of females favouring a particular host species' nest and laying eggs that match those of that species in color and pattern. Evidence from mitochondrial DNA analyses suggest that each gente may have multiple independent origins due to parasitism of specific hosts by different ancestors. One hypothesis for the inheritance of egg appearance mimicry is that this trait is inherited from the female only, suggesting that it is carried on the sex-determining W chromosome (females are WZ, males ZZ). A genetic analysis of gentes supports this proposal by finding significant differentiation in mitochondrial DNA, but not in microsatellite DNA. A second proposal for the inheritance of this trait is that the genes controlling egg characteristics are carried on autosomes rather than just the W chromosome. Another genetic analysis of sympatric gentes supports this second proposal by finding significant genetic differentiation in both microsatellite DNA and mitochondrial DNA. Considering the tendency for common cuckoo males to mate with multiple females and produce offspring raised by more than one host species, it appears as though males do not contribute to the maintenance of common cuckoo gentes. However, it was found that only nine percent of offspring were raised outside of their father's presumed host species. Therefore, both males and females may contribute to the maintenance of common cuckoo egg mimicry polymorphism. It is notable that most non-parasitic cuckoo species lay white eggs, like most non-passerines other than ground-nesters.
As the common cuckoo evolves to lay eggs that better imitate the host's eggs, the host species adapts and is more able to distinguish the cuckoo egg. A study of 248 common cuckoo and host eggs demonstrated that female cuckoos that parasitised common redstart nests laid eggs that matched better than those that targeted dunnocks. Spectroscopy was used to model how the host species saw the cuckoo eggs. Cuckoos that target dunnock nests lay white, brown-speckled eggs, in contrast to the dunnock's own blue eggs. The theory suggests that common redstarts have been parasitised by common cuckoos for longer, and so have evolved to be better than the dunnocks at noticing the cuckoo eggs. The cuckoo, over time, has needed to evolve more accurate mimicking eggs to successfully parasitise the redstart. In contrast, cuckoos do not seem to have experienced evolutionary pressure to develop eggs which closely mimic the dunnock's, as dunnocks do not seem to be able to distinguish between the two species' eggs, despite the significant colour differences. The dunnock's inability to distinguish the eggs suggests that they have not been parasitised for very long, and have not yet evolved defences against it, unlike the redstart.
Studies performed on great reed warbler nests in central Hungary, showed an "unusually high" frequency of common cuckoo parasitism, with 64% of the nests parasitised. Of the nests targeted by cuckoos, 64% contained one cuckoo egg, 23% had two, 10% had three and 3% had four common cuckoo eggs. In total, 58% of the common cuckoo eggs were laid in nests that were multiply parasitised. When laying eggs in nests already parasitised, the female cuckoos removed one egg at random, showing no discrimination between the great reed warbler eggs and those of other cuckoos.
It was found that nests close to cuckoo perches were most vulnerable: multiple parasitised nests were closest to the vantage points, and unparasitised nests were farthest away. Nearly all the nests "in close vicinity" to the vantage points were parasitised. More visible nests were more likely to be selected by the common cuckoos. Female cuckoos use their vantage points to watch for potential hosts and find it easier to locate the more visible nests while they are egg-laying, however, novel studies highlight that host alarm calls might also play an important role during nest searching. In addition, cuckoos tend to lay the eggs on the host clutch initiation day or one day before.
The great reed warblers' responses to the common cuckoo eggs varied: 66% accepted the egg(s); 12% ejected them; 20% abandoned the nests entirely; 2% buried the eggs. 28% of the cuckoo eggs were described as "almost perfect" in their mimesis of the host eggs, and the warblers rejected "poorly mimetic" cuckoo eggs more often. The degree of mimicry made it difficult for both the great reed warblers and the observers to tell the eggs apart.
The egg measures and weighs , of which 7% is shell. Research has shown that the female common cuckoo is able to keep its egg inside its body for an extra 24 hours before laying it in a host's nest. This means the cuckoo chick can hatch before the host's chicks do, and it can eject the unhatched eggs from the nest. Scientists incubated common cuckoo eggs for 24 hours at the bird's body temperature of , and examined the embryos, which were found "much more advanced" than those of other species studied. The idea of 'internal incubation' was first put forward in 1802 and 18th- and 19th-century egg collectors had reported finding that cuckoo embryos were more advanced than those of the host species.
Complete list of common cuckoo's nest-host by Aleksander D. Numerov (2003); names of birds in whose nests cuckoo's eggs and chicks were found more than 10 times (in bold):
Yellow-bellied warbler (Abroscopus superciliaris)
Common linnet (Acanthis cannabina)
Common redpoll (Acanthis flammea)
Paddyfield warbler (Acrocephalus agricola)
Moustached warbler (Acrocephalus melanopogon)
Great reed warbler (Acrocephalus arundinaceus)
Black-browed reed warbler (Acrocephalus bistrigiceps)
Blyth's reed warbler (Acrocephalus dumetorum)
Aquatic warbler (Acrocephalus paludicola)
Marsh warbler (Acrocephalus palustris)
Sedge warbler (Acrocephalus schoenobaenus)
Eurasian reed warbler (Acrocephalus scirpaceus)
Clamorous reed warbler (Acrocephalus stentoreus)
Rusty-fronted barwing (Actinodura egertoni)
Long-tailed tit (Aegithalos caudatus)
Eurasian skylark (Alauda arvensis)
Dusky fulvetta (Alcippe brunnea)
Rufous-winged fulvetta (Alcippe castaneceps)
Yellow-throated fulvetta (Alcippe cinerea)
Nepal fulvetta (Alcippe nipalensis)
Brown-cheeked fulvetta (Alcippe poioicephala)
Tawny pipit (Anthus campestris)
Red-throated pipit (Anthus cervinus)
Blyth's pipit (Anthus godlewskii)
Olive-backed pipit (Anthus hodgsoni)
Australasian pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae)
Meadow pipit (Anthus pratensis)
Rosy pipit (Anthus roseatus)
Buff-bellied pipit (Anthus rubescens)
Water pipit (Anthus spinoletta)
Upland pipit (Anthus sylvanus)
Tree pipit (Anthus trivialis)
Little spiderhunter (Arachnothera longirostris)
Streaked spiderhunter (Arachnothera magna)
Lesser shortwing (Brachypteryx leucophrys)
White-browed shortwing (Brachypteryx montana)
Red-capped lark (Calandrella cinerea)
Lapland longspur (Calcarius lapponicus)
Carduelis caniceps
European goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis)
Twite (Carduelis flavirostris)
Common rosefinch (Carpodacus erythrinus)
Pallas's rosefinch (Carpodacus roseus)
Short-toed treecreeper (Certhia brachydactyla)
Eurasian treecreeper (Certhia familiaris)
Cetti's warbler (Cettia cetti)
Brown-flanked bush warbler (Cettia fortipes)
Rufous-tailed scrub robin (Cercotrichas galactotes)
European greenfinch (Chloris chloris)
Grey-capped greenfinch (Chloris sinica)
Golden-fronted leafbird (Chloropsis aurifrons)
Orange-bellied leafbird (Chloropsis hardwickii)
Brown dipper (Cinclus pallasii)
Zitting cisticola (Cisticola juncidis)
Golden-headed cisticola (Cisticola exilis)
Hawfinch (Coccothraustes coccothraustes)
Purple cochoa (Cochoa purpurea)
Green cochoa (Cochoa viridis)
White-rumped shama (Copsychus malabaricus)
Oriental magpie-robin (Copsychus saularis)
Black-winged cuckooshrike (Coracina melaschistos)
Grey-headed canary-flycatcher (Culicicapa ceylonensis)
Azure-winged magpie (Cyanopica cyanus)
Blue-and-white flycatcher (Cyanoptila cyanomelana)
Blue-throated blue flycatcher (Cyornis rubeculoides)
Common house martin (Delichon urbica)
Bronzed drongo (Dicrurus aeneus)
Ashy drongo (Dicrurus leucophaeus)
Yellow-breasted bunting (Emberiza aureola)
Red-headed bunting (Emberiza bruniceps)
Corn bunting (Emberiza calandra)
Yellow-browed bunting (Emberiza chrysophrys)
Rock bunting (Emberiza cia)
Meadow bunting (Emberiza cioides)
Cirl bunting (Emberiza cirlus)
Yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella)
Yellow-throated bunting (Emberiza elegans)
Chestnut-eared bunting (Emberiza fucata)
Ortolan bunting (Emberiza hortulana)
Emberiza icterica
Black-headed bunting (Emberiza melanocephala)
Little bunting (Emberiza pusilla)
Rustic bunting (Emberiza rustica)
Chestnut bunting (Emberiza rutila)
Common reed bunting (Emberiza schoeniclus)
Black-faced bunting (Emberiza spodocephala)
Tristram's bunting (Emberiza tristrami)
Black-backed forktail (Enicurus immaculatus)
Spotted forktail (Enicurus maculatus)
Slaty-backed forktail (Enicurus schistaceus)
European robin (Erithacus rubecula)
Horned lark (Eremophila alpestris)
Japanese grosbeak (Eophona personata)
Slaty-backed flycatcher (Ficedula hodgsonii)
European pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca)
Narcissus flycatcher (Ficedula narcissina)
Red-breasted flycatcher (Ficedula parva)
Ultramarine flycatcher (Ficedula superciliaris)
Slaty-blue flycatcher (Ficedula tricolor)
Common chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs)
Brambling (Fringilla montifringilla)
Crested lark (Galerida cristata)
Streaked laughingthrush (Garrulax lineatus)
Ashy bulbul (Hemixos flavala)
Rufous-backed sibia (Heterophasia annectans)
Grey sibia (Heterophasia gracilis)
Booted warbler (Iduna caligata)
Icterine warbler (Hippolais icterina)
Eastern olivaceous warbler (Hippolais pallida)
Melodious warbler (Hippolais polyglotta)
Sykes's warbler (Iduna rama)
Barn swallow (Hirundo rustica)
Black-naped monarch (Hypothymis azurea)
Malagasy bulbul (Hypsipetes madagascariensis)
Mountain bulbul (Ixos mcclellandi)
White-bellied redstart (Luscinia phoenicuroides)
Bull-headed shrike (Lanius bucephalus)
Red-backed shrike (Lanius collurio)
Brown shrike (Lanius cristatus)
Great grey shrike (Lanius excubitor)
Lesser grey shrike (Lanius minor)
Long-tailed shrike (Lanius schach)
Woodchat shrike (Lanius senator)
Tiger shrike (Lanius tigrinus)
Silver-eared mesia (Leiothrix argentauris)
Red-billed leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea)
White-browed tit-warbler (Leptopoecile sophiae)
Red-faced liocichla (Liocichla phoenicea)
River warbler (Locustella fluviatilis)
Savi's warbler (Locustella luscinioides)
Brown bush warbler (Locustella luteoventris)
Common grasshopper warbler (Locustella naevia)
Middendorff's grasshopper warbler (Locustella ochotensis)
Woodlark (Lullula arborea)
Indian blue robin (Luscinia brunnea)
Siberian rubythroat (Calliope calliope)
Siberian blue robin (Luscinia cyane)
Thrush nightingale (Luscinia luscinia)
Common nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos)
Himalayan rubythroat (Luscinia pectoralis)
Bluethroat (Luscinia svecica)
Pin-striped tit-babbler (Macronous gularis)
Striated grassbird (Megalurus palustris)
Blue-winged minla (Minla cyanouroptera)
Blue-capped rock thrush (Monticola cinclorhyncha)
Monticola erythrogastra
White-throated rock thrush (Monticola gularis)
Chestnut-bellied rock thrush (Monticola rufiventris)
Common rock thrush (Monticola saxatilis)
Blue rock thrush (Monticola solitarius)
White wagtail (Motacilla alba)
Grey wagtail (Motacilla cinerea)
Citrine wagtail (Motacilla citreola)
Western yellow wagtail (Motacilla flava)
Japanese wagtail (Motacilla grandis)
White wagtail (Motacilla alba)
Motacilla sordidus
Brown-breasted flycatcher (Muscicapa muttui)
Spotted flycatcher (Muscicapa striata)
Verditer flycatcher (Eumyias thalassinus)
White-winged grosbeak (Mycerobas carnipes)
Blue whistling thrush (Myophonus caeruleus)
Streaked wren-babbler (Napothera brevicaudata)
Eyebrowed wren-babbler (Napothera epilepidota)
Large niltava (Niltava grandis)
Small niltava (Niltava macgrigoriae)
Rufous-bellied niltava (Niltava sundara)
Western black-eared wheatear (Oenanthe hispanica)
Isabelline wheatear (Oenanthe isabellina)
Northern wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe)
Pied wheatear (Oenanthe pleschanka)
Eurasian golden oriole (Oriolus oriolus)
Dark-necked tailorbird (Orthotomus atrogularis)
Common tailorbird (Orthotomus sutorius)
Bearded reedling (Panurus biarmicus)
Black-breasted parrotbill (Paradoxornis flavirostris)
Vinous-throated parrotbill (Sinosuthora webbiana)
Eurasian blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus)
Great tit (Parus major)
Yellow-cheeked tit (Parus spilonotus)
House sparrow (Passer domesticus)
Spanish sparrow (Passer hispaniolensis)
Eurasian tree sparrow (Passer montanus)
Russet sparrow (Passer rutilans)
Spot-throated babbler (Pellorneum albiventre)
Buff-breasted babbler (Pellorneum tickelli)
Puff-throated babbler (Pellorneum ruficeps)
Grey-chinned minivet (Pericrocotus solaris)
Daurian redstart (Phoenicurus auroreus)
Eversmann's redstart (Phoenicurus erythronotus)
Blue-fronted redstart (Phoenicurus frontalis)
Plumbeous water redstart (Phoenicurus fuliginosus)
Moussier's redstart (Phoenicurus moussieri)
Black redstart (Phoenicurus ochruros)
Common redstart (Phoenicurus phoenicurus)
Thick-billed warbler (Phragmaticola aedon)
Western Bonelli's warbler (Phylloscopus bonelli)
Arctic warbler (Phylloscopus borealis)
Yellow-vented warbler (Phylloscopus cantator)
Common chiffchaff (Phylloscopus collybita)
Sulphur-bellied warbler (Phylloscopus griseolus)
Yellow-browed warbler (Phylloscopus inornatus)
Pallas's leaf warbler (Phylloscopus proregulus)
Blyth's leaf warbler (Phylloscopus reguloides)
Wood warbler (Phylloscopus sibilatrix)
Radde's warbler (Phylloscopus schwarzi)
Willow warbler (Phylloscopus trochilus)
Eurasian magpie (Pica pica)
Scaly-breasted cupwing (Pnoepyga albiventer)
Pygmy cupwing (Pnoepyga pusilla)
Rusty-cheeked scimitar babbler (Pomatorhinus erythrogenys)
Coral-billed scimitar babbler (Pomatorhinus ferruginosus)
Streak-breasted scimitar babbler (Pomatorhinus ruficollis)
White-browed scimitar babbler (Pomatorhinus schisticeps)
Black-throated prinia (Prinia atrogularis)
Himalayan prinia (Prinia crinigera)
Yellow-bellied prinia (Prinia flaviventris)
Graceful prinia (Prinia gracilis)
Rufescent prinia (Prinia rufescens)
Tawny-flanked prinia (Prinia subflava)
Black-throated accentor (Prunella atrogularis)
Alpine accentor (Prunella collaris)
Brown accentor (Prunella fulvescens)
Dunnock (Prunella modularis)
Robin accentor (Prunella rubeculoides)
Rufous-breasted accentor (Prunella strophiata)
Trilling shrike-babbler (Pteruthius aenobarbus)
Red-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer)
Flavescent bulbul (Pycnonotus flavescens)
Himalayan bulbul (Pycnonotus leucogenys)
Black-capped bulbul (Pycnonotus melanicterus)
Eurasian bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula)
Goldcrest (Regulus regulus)
White-throated fantail (Rhipidura albicollis)
White-browed fantail (Rhipidura aureola)
Desert finch (Rhodospiza obsoleta)
Long-billed wren-babbler (Rimator malacoptilus)
Pied bush chat (Saxicola caprata)
Grey bush chat (Saxicola ferrea)
White-tailed stonechat (Saxicola leucurus)
Whinchat (Saxicola rubetra)
Siberian stonechat (Saxicola maurus)
Streaked scrub warbler (Scotocerca inquieta)
Green-crowned warbler (Seicercus burkii)
Chestnut-crowned warbler (Seicercus castaniceps)
Grey-hooded warbler (Phylloscopus xanthoschistos)
Atlantic canary (Serinus canaria)
Red-fronted serin (Serinus pusillus)
Indian nuthatch (Sitta castanea)
Velvet-fronted nuthatch (Sitta frontalis)
Tawny-breasted wren-babbler (Spelaeornis longicaudatus)
Eurasian siskin (Spinus spinus)
Crested finchbill (Spizixos canifrons)
Grey-throated babbler (Stachyris nigriceps)
Rufous-fronted babbler (Stachyris rufifrons)
Common starling (Sturnus vulgaris)
Eurasian blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla)
Garden warbler (Sylvia borin)
Eastern subalpine warbler (Sylvia cantillans)
Common whitethroat (Sylvia communis)
Spectacled warbler (Sylvia conspicillata)
Lesser whitethroat (Sylvia curruca)
Tristram's warbler (Sylvia deserticola)
Western Orphean warbler (Sylvia hortensis)
Sardinian warbler (Sylvia melanocephala)
Barred warbler (Sylvia nisoria)
Dartford warbler (Sylvia undata)
Indian paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi)
Grey-bellied tesia (Tesia cyaniventer)
Chestnut-capped babbler (Timalia pileata)
Brown-capped laughingthrush (Trochalopteron austeni)
Striped laughingthrush (Trochalopteron virgatum)
Eurasian wren (Troglodytes troglodytes)
Japanese thrush (Turdus cardis)
Black-breasted thrush (Turdus dissimilis)
Redwing (Turdus iliacus)
Common blackbird (Turdus merula)
Eyebrowed thrush (Turdus obscurus)
Song thrush (Turdus philomelos)
Fieldfare (Turdus pilaris)
Ring ouzel (Turdus torquatus)
Tickell's thrush (Turdus unicolor)
Mistle thrush (Turdus viscivorus)
Long-tailed rosefinch (Uragus sibiricus)
Pale-footed bush warbler (Urosphena pallidipes)
Whiskered yuhina (Yuhina flavicollis)
Rufous-vented yuhina (Yuhina occipitalis)
Orange-headed thrush (Geokichla citrina)
Dark-sided thrush (Zoothera marginata)
Long-billed thrush (Zoothera monticola)
Indian white-eye (Zosterops palpebrosa)
Chicks
The naked, altricial chick hatches after 11–13 days. It methodically evicts all host progeny from host nests. It is a much larger bird than its hosts, and needs to monopolize the food supplied by the parents. The chick will roll the other eggs out of the nest by pushing them with its back over the edge. If the host's eggs hatch before the cuckoo's, the cuckoo chick will push the other chicks out of the nest in a similar way. At 14 days old, the common cuckoo chick is about three times the size of an adult Eurasian reed warbler.
The necessity of eviction behavior is unclear. One hypothesis is that competing with host chicks leads to decreased cuckoo chick weight, which is selective pressure for eviction behavior. An analysis of the amount of food provided to common cuckoo chicks by host parents in the presence and absence of host siblings showed that when competing against host siblings, cuckoo chicks did not receive enough food, showing an inability to compete. Selection pressure for eviction behavior may come from cuckoo chicks lacking the correct visual begging signals, hosts distributing food to all nestlings equally, or host recognition of the parasite. Another hypothesis is that decreased cuckoo chick weight is not selective pressure for eviction behavior. An analysis of resources provided to cuckoo chick in the presence and absence of host siblings also showed that the weights of cuckoos raised with host chicks were much smaller upon fledging than cuckoos raised alone, but within 12 days cuckoos raised with siblings grew faster than cuckoos raised alone and made up for developmental differences, showing a flexibility that would not necessarily select for eviction behavior.
Species whose broods are parasitised by the common cuckoo have evolved to discriminate against cuckoo eggs but not chicks. Experiments have shown that common cuckoo chicks persuade their host parents to feed them by making a rapid begging call that sounds "remarkably like a whole brood of host chicks." The researchers suggested that "the cuckoo needs vocal trickery to stimulate adequate care to compensate for the fact that it presents a visual stimulus of just one gape." However, a cuckoo chick needs the amount of food of a whole brood of host nestlings, and it struggles to elicit that much from the host parents with only the vocal stimulus. This may reflect a tradeoff—the cuckoo chick benefits from eviction by receiving all the food provided, but faces a cost in being the only one influencing feeding rate. For this reason, cuckoo chicks exploit host parental care by remaining with the host parent longer than host chicks do, both before and after fledging.
Common cuckoo chicks fledge about 17–21 days after hatching, compared to 12–13 days for Eurasian reed warblers. If the hen cuckoo is out-of-phase with a clutch of Eurasian reed warbler eggs, she will eat them all so that the hosts are forced to start another brood.
The common cuckoo's behaviour was firstly observed and described by Aristotle and the combination of behaviour and anatomical adaptation by Edward Jenner, who was elected as Fellow of the Royal Society in 1788 for this work rather than for his development of the smallpox vaccine. It was first documented on film in 1922 by Edgar Chance and Oliver G Pike, in their film The Cuckoo's Secret.
A study in Japan found that young common cuckoos probably acquire species-specific feather lice from body-to-body contact with other cuckoos between the time of leaving the nest and returning to the breeding area in spring. A total of 21 nestlings were examined shortly before they left their hosts' nests and none carried feather lice. However, young birds returning to Japan for the first time were found just as likely as older individuals to be lousy.
As a biodiversity indicator
The occurrence of common cuckoo in Europe is a good surrogate for biodiversity facets including taxonomic diversity and functional diversity in bird communities, and better than the traditional use of top predators as bioindicators. The reason for this is the strong correlation between the cuckoo's host species richness and overall bird species richness, due to co-evolutionary relationships. This may be useful for citizen science.
In culture
Aristotle was aware of the old tale that cuckoos turned into hawks in winter. The tale was an explanation for their absence outside the summer season, later accepted by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History. Aristotle rejected the claim, observing in his History of Animals that cuckoos do not have the predators' talons or hooked bills. These Classical era accounts were known to the Early Modern English naturalist, William Turner.
The 13th-century medieval English round, "Sumer Is Icumen In", celebrates the cuckoo as a sign of spring, the beginning of summer, in the first stanza, and in the chorus:
Middle English
Svmer is icumen in
Lhude sing cuccu
Groweþ sed
and bloweþ med
and springþ þe wde nu
Sing cuccu
Modern English
Summer has arrived,
Sing loudly, cuckoo!
The seed is growing
And the meadow is blooming,
And the wood is coming into leaf now,
Sing, cuckoo!
In England, William Shakespeare alludes to the common cuckoo's association with spring, and with cuckoldry, in the courtly springtime song in his play Love's Labours Lost:
When daisies pied and violets blue
And lady-smocks all silver-white
And cuckoo-buds of yellow hue
Do paint the meadows with delight,
The cuckoo then, on every tree,
Mocks married men; for thus sings he:
"Cuckoo;
Cuckoo, cuckoo!" O, word of fear,
Unpleasing to a married ear!
In Europe, hearing the call of the common cuckoo is regarded as the first harbinger of spring. Many local legends and traditions are based on this. In Scotland, gowk stanes (cuckoo stones) sometimes associated with the arrival of the first cuckoo of spring. "Gowk" is an old name for the common cuckoo in northern England, derived from the harsh repeated "gowk" call the bird makes when excited. The well-known cuckoo clock features a mechanical bird and is fitted with bellows and pipes that imitate the call of the common cuckoo. Cuckoos feature in traditional rhymes, such as '"In April the cuckoo comes, In May she'll stay, In June she changes her tune, In July she prepares to fly, Come August, go she must,"' quoted Peggy. 'But you haven't said it all,' put in Bobby. '"And if the cuckoo stays till September, It's as much as the oldest man can remember."'
On Hearing the First Cuckoo in Spring is a symphonic poem from Norway composed for orchestra by Frederick Delius.
Two English folk songs feature cuckoos. One usually called The Cuckoo starts:
The cuckoo is a fine bird and she sings as she flies,
She brings us good tidings, she tells us no lies.
She sucks little birds' eggs to make her voice clear,
And never sings cuckoo till the summer draws near
The second, "The Cuckoo's Nest" is a song about a courtship, with the eponymous (and of course, non-existent) nest serving as a metaphor for the vulva and its tangled "nest" of pubic hair.
Some like a girl who is pretty in the face
and some like a girl who is slender in the waist
But give me a girl who will wriggle and will twist
At the bottom of the belly lies the cuckoo's nest...
...Me darling, says she, I can do no such thing
For me mother often told me it was committing sin
Me maidenhead to lose and me sex to be abused
So have no more to do with me cuckoo's nest
One of the tales of the Wise Men of Gotham tells how they built a hedge round a tree in order to trap a cuckoo so that it would always be summer.
The theme music for film comedians Laurel and Hardy, titled "Dance of The Cuckoos" and composed by Marvin Hatley, was based on the call of the common cuckoo.
References
Further reading
External links
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 2.4 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
ARKive Still photos and videos.
Common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) videos and photos at the Internet Bird Collection
(European Cuckoo = ) Common Cuckoo - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds.
common cuckoo
Brood parasites
Birds of Eurasia
Birds of Africa
common cuckoo
common cuckoo
|
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] |
207278
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Telegram (disambiguation)
|
A telegram is a written or printed telegraph message that is directly delivered to the recipient by a messenger.
Telegram or Telegramme may also refer to:
Music
Telegram (album), a 1996 album by Björk
Telegram (EP), a 2004 extended-play (EP) release by Kate Miller-Heidke
"Telegram" (song), a song by Silver Convention, representing Germany at the 1977 Eurovision Song Contest
"Telegram", a 1976 song by Nazareth on the album Close Enough for Rock 'n' Roll
Telegram Sam, a 1972 song by T.Rex released as a single and also on the album The Slider
Newspapers
The Telegram, a newspaper in St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
The Telegram (Herkimer), a newspaper in Herkimer, New York, US
The Daily Telegram, a newspaper in Adrian, Michigan, US
Telegram & Gazette, a newspaper in Worcester, Massachusetts, US, known locally as The Telegram
Le Télégramme, a newspaper in Morlaix, Finistère, France
Toronto Telegram, a newspaper published from 1876 to 1971 in Ontario, Canada
Telegram Corporation, a media outlet created under a joint venture between the Toronto Telegram and the Eaton family
Winnipeg Telegram, a newspaper published from 1898 to 1920 in Manitoba, Canada
Other uses
Telegram (software), an instant messenger application
"The Telegram" (short story), a story by Ian Crichton Smith
Telegram Building, in Portland, Oregon, US
Telegram, a Soviet 1971 film featuring Yuri Nikulin
See also
Telegram style, the style of writing adopted for use in telegrams
Telegram messenger, person who delivers a telegram
Singing telegram, any message delivered as a song
International Telegram (disambiguation)
|
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207281
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindenburg
|
Hindenburg
|
Hindenburg may refer to:
Film and television
The Hindenburg (film), the 1975 film
Hindenburg: The Untold Story, a 2007 television docudrama
Places
Hindenburg, a village in Templin, Brandenburg, Germany
Hindenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, a village in Stendal, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany
Hindenburg Range, a mountain range in Papua New Guinea
Hindenburg O.S., former name of Zabrze, Poland
Vessels
LZ 129 Hindenburg, an airship involved in a disaster
Hindenburg-class airships
Hindenburg (icebreaker)
SMS Hindenburg, a 1917 battlecruiser built for the Imperial German Navy
SS Columbus or SS Hindenburg, a German liner
People with the name
Carl Hindenburg (1741–1808), mathematician
Gertrud von Hindenburg (1860–1921), German noblewoman and wife of Paul von Hindenburg
Paul von Hindenburg (1847–1934), German general in World War I and president of Germany (1925–1934)
Oskar von Hindenburg (1883–1960), German officer, Paul von Hindenburg's son
See also
Hindenburg Bridge, a former railway bridge over the Rhine river destroyed in World War II
Hindenburg Cup, a German aviation prize established in 1928
Hindenburg disaster
Hindenburg disaster newsreel footage
Hindenburg Kaserne, a former military base near Würzburg, Franconia, Germany
Hindenburg light, form of lighting used in the trenches during World War I
Hindenburg Line, a German defensive line on the Western front during World War I
Hindenburg-Oberrealschule, a former school in Königsberg, Germany
Hindenburg Omen, a proposed term in technical analysis of stock prices
Hindenburg Programme, a German armament program during World War I
Hindenburgdamm, a rail causeway linking northern Germany to the island of Sylt
|
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207286
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry%20Campbell
|
Larry Campbell
|
Larry W. Campbell (born 28 February 1948) was the 37th mayor of Vancouver, Canada from 2002 until 2005 and since 2005 has been a member of the Senate of Canada.
Before he was mayor, Campbell worked for the RCMP as a police officer, and in 1969, he was transferred to the Vancouver detachment. From 1973, he served as a member of the force's drug squad.
Starting in 1981, Campbell worked for the Vancouver District Coroner's office and in 1996 was appointed BC Chief Coroner, a post in which he served until 2000.
Early career
Originally from Ontario and of Scottish descent, after high school Campbell's grandfather found him a job digging ditches for coaxial cable. Later he was a steel worker as a hand riveter in a boxcar plant in Hamilton. He joined the RCMP on a bet with a Hamilton municipal police officer. He spent about three years in uniform, but did not like to issue traffic tickets. He was transferred to the drug squad in Vancouver where he worked in street enforcement mainly regarding heroin, including undercover work. He started a drug squad in Langley. Throughout his RCMP tenure, he never laid a single marijuana charge.
After serving in the RCMP for 12 years, the provincial chief coroner told him that the new Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms would negatively impact his drug enforcement efforts and convinced him to become Vancouver's coroner. During the emerging AIDS pandemic, he became a strong advocate for progressive harm reduction policies, quipping that needle exchanges causing drug addiction "is like flies causing garbage". He served for 20 years, retiring as chief coroner for the province.
As the city's former chief coroner, his life inspired a popular CBC Television drama called Da Vinci's Inquest. The show was later followed by a spinoff, Da Vinci's City Hall, in which the Da Vinci character followed his real-life counterpart into politics.
Mayor
Campbell was elected mayor in the 2002 Vancouver municipal election as a member of the Coalition of Progressive Electors, by a large margin of 58% to 30% for his nearest opponent.
Shortly after Campbell's election, divisions began to emerge within his COPE party between a centrist group, led by Campbell and a more left-wing group. On 14 December 2004, Campbell and councillors Jim Green, Raymond Louie and Tim Stevenson announced that they would form an independent caucus within COPE. The media quickly dubbed the bloc the "COPE Light" councillors (in contrast to the "COPE Classic" councillors). In 2005, the moderate group formed the centre-left Vision Vancouver party, but Campbell announced he would not run for re-election.
Senate
On 2 August 2005, Prime Minister Paul Martin announced Campbell's appointment by Governor General Adrienne Clarkson as a Liberal senator. Campbell completed his term as mayor before taking up his seat in the Canadian Senate.
On 29 January 2014, Liberal Party leader Justin Trudeau announced all Liberal senators, including Campbell, were removed from the Liberal caucus, and would continue sitting as Independents. According to Senate Opposition leader James Cowan, the senators will still refer to themselves as Liberals even if they are no longer members of the parliamentary Liberal caucus.
On 6 April 2016, Campbell left the Senate Liberal Caucus to sit as an Independent and later joined the Independent Senators Group. On 4 November 2019, he joined the Canadian Senators Group.
See also
Da Vinci's Inquest
Quincy, M.E.
References
External links
CityMayors article
'Legalize it, control it and tax the livin' hell out of it' (The Province)
Liberal Senate Forum
Mayors of Vancouver
1948 births
Living people
Canadian senators from British Columbia
Liberal Party of Canada senators
Independent Canadian senators
People from Brantford
Royal Canadian Mounted Police officers
Canadian coroners
21st-century Canadian politicians
Canadian Senators Group
|
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] |
207288
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt
|
Roosevelt
|
Roosevelt may refer to:
Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919), 26th U.S. president
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945), 32nd U.S. president
Businesses and organisations
Roosevelt Hotel (disambiguation)
Roosevelt & Son, a merchant bank
Roosevelt Institute, a think tank
Educational establishments
Roosevelt School (disambiguation)
Roosevelt Elementary School (disambiguation)
Roosevelt Middle School (disambiguation)
Roosevelt High School (disambiguation)
Roosevelt School District (disambiguation)
Colegio Franklin Delano Roosevelt, The American School of Lima, Peru
Eleanor Roosevelt College, University of California, San Diego, U.S.
President Theodore Roosevelt High School, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.
Roosevelt Intermediate School, Westfield, New Jersey, U.S.
Roosevelt University, Illinois, U.S.
University College Roosevelt, formerly Roosevelt Academy, Middelburg, the Netherlands
People
Roosevelt family, U.S. political family
Roosevelt (name)
List of people with surname Roosevelt
Roosevelt (musician) (Marius Lauber, born 1990), German singer and songwriter
Places
Roosevelt Bridge (disambiguation)
Roosevelt County (disambiguation)
Roosevelt Hall (disambiguation)
Roosevelt Island (disambiguation)
Roosevelt Park (disambiguation)
Roosevelt Township (disambiguation)
United States
Roosevelt, Arizona
Roosevelt, Kentucky
Roosevelt, Minnesota
Roosevelt Township, Minnesota (disambiguation)
Roosevelt, Missouri
Roosevelt, New Jersey
Roosevelt, New York
Roosevelt, Oklahoma
Roosevelt, Texas (disambiguation)
Roosevelt, Utah
Roosevelt, Washington
Roosevelt, Seattle, Washington
Roosevelt, Wisconsin (disambiguation)
Roosevelt Street, in Manhattan, New York
Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake, also called Lake Roosevelt, Washington
Elsewhere
Roosevelt, Rivadavia Partido, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Roosevelt Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines
Roosevelt Campobello International Park, New Brunswick, Canada
Roosevelt Range, Greenland
Roosevelt River, Brazil
Transportation
Roosevelt Bridge (disambiguation)
Roosevelt Expressway (disambiguation)
Roosevelt Highway (disambiguation)
Roosevelt Station (disambiguation)
Roosevelt (automobile), U.S., 1929–1930
Ships
, two steamships
, an American steamship
, several U.S. Navy ships
Other uses
Roosevelt, a 2016 album by The Spinto Band
Roosevelt, a 2016 album by Roosevelt (musician)
Roosevelt Apartment Building, a historic building in Washington D.C., U.S.
Roosevelt elk, North America
Roosevelt Raceway, in Long Island, New York, U.S.
Roosevelt Roads Naval Station, former United States Naval Station in Puerto Rico
Roosevelt's shrew, a mammal
See also
President Roosevelt (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanny%20Cradock
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Fanny Cradock
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Phyllis Nan Sortain Pechey (26 February 1909 – 27 December 1994), better known as Fanny Cradock, was an English restaurant critic, television chef and writer. She frequently appeared on television, at cookery demonstrations and in print with her fourth husband Major Johnnie Cradock who played the part of a slightly bumbling hen-pecked partner.
Early life
Cradock was born at her maternal grandparents' house, 33 Fairlop Road, Leytonstone, London. The birth was formally registered in the district of West Ham.
As a child, Cradock lived with her family at Fairlop Road, with her maternal grandparents. A plaque (with her name misspelled) can be found at Fairwood Court, Fairlop Road, London E11: "Fanny Craddock 1909–1994. On this site until 1930 stood a house called Apthorp, birthplace of the famous TV cookery expert Fanny Craddock; born Phyllis Pechey."
Her birthplace was named after Apthorp Villa, in Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, where her grandfather Charles Hancock had been born. Cradock's parents did not manage their money well; her mother, Bijou, spent extravagantly, and her father, Archibald, had sizeable gambling debts, many run up in Nice. In attempting to keep their creditors at bay, the family moved around the country, going to Herne Bay in Kent, then to Swanage in Dorset and on to Bournemouth in Hampshire, where Archibald's brother, Richard Francis Pechey (1872–1963), had become the Vicar of Holy Trinity Church in 1912. Whilst in Bournemouth the 15-year-old Fanny attended Bournemouth High School (now Talbot Heath School).
Archibald moved the family again to Wroxham in Norfolk, around 1927, where his creditors caught up with him and by 1930 he was appearing in Norfolk's bankruptcy court faced with debts of £3,500. Cradock began the next ten years of her life in London living in destitution, selling cleaning products door to door. She then worked in a dressmaking shop.
Culinary career
Cradock's fortunes began to change when she started work at various restaurants and was introduced to the works of Auguste Escoffier. She later wrote passionately about the change from service à la française to service à la russe and hailed Escoffier as a saviour of British cooking.
Fanny and Johnnie Cradock began writing a column under the pen name of "Bon Viveur" which appeared in The Daily Telegraph from 1950 to 1955. This sparked a theatre career, with the pair turning theatres into restaurants. Cradock would cook vast dishes that were served to the audience. They became known for their roast turkey, complete with stuffed head, tail feathers and wings. Complete with French accents, their act was one of a drunken hen-pecked husband and a domineering wife. At this time, they were known as Major and Mrs Cradock. She also wrote books under the names Frances Dale, Bon Viveur, Susan Leigh and Phyllis Cradock.
TV personality
In 1955 Cradock recorded a pilot for what became a very successful BBC television series on cookery. Each year the BBC published a booklet giving a detailed account of every recipe Fanny demonstrated, allowing her to frequently say in later years, "You'll find that recipe in the booklet, so I won't show you now." Fanny advocated bringing Escoffier-standard food into the British home and gave every recipe a French name. Her food looked extravagant, but was generally cost-effective, and Fanny seemed to care about her audience. Her catchphrases included "This won't break you", "This is perfectly economical", and "This won't stretch your purse". When presenting her Christmas cake recipe she once justified the cost of ingredients, saying "But on the other hand, we do want one piece of decent cake in the year."
As time went by, however, her food began to seem outdated, with her love of the piping bag and vegetable dyes. As she grew older, she applied more and more make-up and wore vast chiffon ballgowns on screen. Cradock had always included relatives and friends in her television shows. Johnnie suffered a minor heart attack in the early 1970s and was replaced with the daughter of a friend, Jayne. Another assistant was Sarah, and there was a series of young men who did not last long.
Throughout her television career, the Cradocks also worked for the British Gas Council, appearing at trade shows such as the Ideal Home Exhibition and making many "infomercials," instructing cooks, usually newlywed women, on how to use gas cookers for basic dishes. Despite the BBC's ban on advertising, Cradock used only gas stoves in her television shows and often stated that she "hated" electric stoves and ovens.
Her series Fanny Cradock Cooks for Christmas is the only one of several she made to have survived in the TV archives and to have been repeated in recent years, on the UK digital television channels BBC4, Good Food and Food Network UK, usually in the run-up to Christmas. Good Food also occasionally show Fanny Cradock Invites You to a Cheese and Wine Party, one of a few surviving stand-alone episodes from other series.
Cradock appeared in twenty-four television series between 1955 and 1975.
Career decline
In 1976, Gwen Troake, a farmer’s wife from Devon, won the Cook of the Realm competition, leading to the BBC selecting her for its TV series The Big Time, where talented amateurs were given the opportunity to take part in a spectacular professional event. Troake was to organise a three-course Foyles' Literary Lunch at The Dorchester in honour of the former Prime Minister Edward Heath, with Earl Mountbatten of Burma and other dignitaries in attendance, and asked Fanny Cradock, by then a tax exile in Ireland, along with chef Eugene Kaufeler, actor and gourmet Robert Morley, nutritionist Magnus Pyke and many other experts Troake admired to advise her.
The result brought the end of Fanny Cradock's television career. Troake went through her menu of seafood cocktail, duckling with a lemon jelly-and-cornstarch fortified bramble sauce and coffee cream dessert with rum. Her idea was that with seafood, water fowl and rum, the meal had a nautical "theme," which would appeal to Mr Heath’s love of sailing and also be an appropriate salute to the former Admiral Mountbatten. Cradock, grimacing and acting as if on the verge of gagging, told Troake that her menu was far too rich and she would "never in a million years" serve a seafood cocktail before a duck. She appeared not to be familiar with the term "bramble," and when told it meant a blackberry, was horrified that it would be paired with a savoury duck, remonstrated that a sauce like that should be brushed on flan. She derisively declared that the jam in it was "too English" and that the English had never had a cuisine, erroneously claiming that "Yorkshire pudding came from Burgundy". While accepting that Troake's dessert was delicious, she insisted that it was not suitable, as it was "too sickly" served after the sweetly-sauced, rich duck, countering Troake's numerous objections with "Yes, dear, but now you're among professionals."
Fanny suggested that unless Troake were to serve salad and cheese afterward, as is done in France, then she should use small almond pastry barquettes filled with a palate-cleansing fruit sorbet with spun sugar sails, as this was equally suitable for the naval theme. Troake kept insisting that she liked her signature coffee pudding with "nautical" rum in it, while Cradock appealed to her to think of her diners' taste buds and stomachs, and try to achieve a balance in her menu. Unfortunately, the replacement dessert was not executed properly, and Morley said he felt that Troake's original coffee pudding was perfect.
The public were incensed at her eye-rolling rudeness and condescension, and felt that Fanny Cradock had ruined Troake's special day. The Daily Telegraph wrote "Not since 1940 can the people of England have risen in such unified wrath....". Fanny wrote a letter of apology to Troake, but the BBC terminated her contract two weeks after the broadcast of the programme. She would never again present a cookery programme for the BBC. (Troake, by contrast, published A Country Cookbook of recipes the following year; it included the coffee cream dessert Cradock had vetoed.) Speaking about the incident on Room 101 in 1999, The Big Time producer Esther Rantzen described Cradock as "hell on wheels", and that she had "reduced this poor little lady [Troake] to nothing".
Final years
Fanny and Johnnie Cradock spent their final years living at Bexhill on Sea, East Sussex. They became regulars on the chat show circuit, and also appeared on programmes such as The Generation Game and Blankety Blank. Fanny appeared alone on Wogan, Parkinson and TV-am. When she appeared on the television chat show Parkinson with Danny La Rue and it was revealed to her that La Rue was actually a female impersonator, she stormed off the set. Her final BBC appearance and her final television appearance was in early 1988 on Windmill presented by Chris Serle.
Personal life
Cradock married four times, twice bigamously. She first married Sidney A. Vernon Evans on 10 October 1926, she was 17, he was 22. Cradock married as "Phyllis Nan Primrose Pechey"; "Primrose Pechey" was a form passed down her father's side. Sidney Evans died in a plane crash on 4 February 1927, leaving her pregnant with their son Peter Vernon Evans, who was adopted by his grandparents. Thanks to Johnnie Cradock, Peter later became a sous-chef at the Dorchester Hotel.
By July of the following year, Cradock had become pregnant again, and married the baby's father, Arthur William Chapman, on 23 July. For this marriage, Cradock gave her name as "Phyllis Nan Sortain Vernon Evans."
The couple had a son Christopher, but their marriage lasted less than a year before they separated. Cradock left her son Christopher and husband Arthur for a new life in central London. Christopher was brought up in Norfolk by his father, an aunt and grandmother, although he made contact with Fanny in his adult life. Arthur Chapman became a Catholic and so would not give Fanny the divorce she later requested, as it was against the teachings of the Catholic Church. He was given only a single line in Fanny's autobiography.
Cradock married again on 26 September 1939, as "Phyllis Nan Sortain Chapman"; her husband this time was Gregory Holden-Dye, a daredevil minor racing driver, driving Bentleys at Brooklands in Surrey. The marriage lasted only eight weeks, and produced no children, as she had soon met the love of her life, Johnnie Cradock. Gregory's mother had expressed a low opinion of Fanny, and ended up as a loathsome character in Fanny's first novel Scorpion's Suicide. Cradock later concluded that as Arthur Chapman had not granted her a divorce, her marriage to Gregory was not lawful, and so never publicised it.
John Whitby Cradock was a major in the Royal Artillery who was already married with four children. He soon left his wife, Ethel, and children to be with Fanny. Unable to marry Johnnie, because of Arthur's refusal to get divorced, she changed her surname to Cradock by deed poll in 1942. When she was misinformed that Arthur had died, she married Johnnie on 7 May 1977. (Arthur actually lived until 1978.) For this marriage Cradock went with a pared-down version of her name ("Phyllis Chapman"), and the then-68-year-old recorded her age as 55 on the marriage certificate, even though she had a son who was nearly fifty.
Death
She died following a stroke, on 27 December 1994, at the Ersham House Nursing Home, Hailsham, East Sussex. The cause of death was given as 'cerebrovascular atherosclerosis'. Fanny was cremated at Langney Crematorium, Eastbourne, as was Johnny when he died in 1987. There is a memorial plaque and a rosebush in the grounds of the crematorium for both of them.
Legacy
Fanny Cradock came to the attention of the public in the postwar-utility years, trying to inspire the average housewife with an exotic approach to cooking. She famously worked in various ball-gowns without the customary cook's apron, averring that women should feel cooking was easy and enjoyable, rather than messy and intimidating.
In her early anonymous role as a food critic, working with Major Cradock under the name of 'Bon Viveur', Fanny introduced the public to unusual dishes from France and Italy, popularising the pizza in the United Kingdom. She and Johnnie worked together on a touring cookery show, sponsored by the Gas Council, to show how gas could be used easily in the kitchen and, as their fame increased, Fanny's shows transferred to television, where she enjoyed 20 years of success.
Cradock has also been credited in the United Kingdom as the originator of the prawn cocktail. However, some have suggested that Cradock popularised her version of an established dish that was not well known until then in Britain. In their 1997 book The Prawn Cocktail Years, Simon Hopkinson and Lindsey Bareham note that the prawn cocktail has a "direct lineage to Escoffier".
In the course of her shows, Fanny made frequent concessions to the economic realities of the era, suggesting cheaper alternatives which would be within reach of the housewife's purse. The BBC published her recipes and suggestions for dinner-parties in a series of booklets, consolidating her reputation as the foremost celebrity chef of her day. Despite their extravagant appearance and eccentricity, her recipes were extremely widely used and her cookery books sold in record numbers.
Marguerite Patten has described Fanny Cradock as the saviour of British cooking after the war. Brian Turner has said that he respects Fanny's career and Delia Smith has attributed her own career to early inspirations taken from the Cradocks' television programmes. In a 2008 interview with The Daily Star, singer Amy Winehouse said that she discovered a love of cookery after reading Cradock's books. Others are less complimentary. The BBC series The Way We Cooked featured an episode dedicated to Cradock, in which Graham Kerr, Keith Floyd and Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall, amongst others, disparaged her methods and cooking skills. In the third series of The F Word, Gordon Ramsay held a series-long search for a new Fanny Cradock.
She is also mentioned in passing by the chef student Robin Tripp in Man About the House,
Media portrayals
Fanny Cradock's husky voice and theatrical style was ripe for mimicry, such as Betty Marsden's 'Fanny Haddock' in two BBC Radio comedy shows, Beyond Our Ken (1958–1964) and Round the Horne (1964–1968). Fanny and Johnnie were also parodied by The Two Ronnies and on Benny Hill, with Benny as Fanny and Bob Todd as an invariably drunk Johnnie.
Cradock's life has also been the subject of the plays Doughnuts Like Fanny's by Julia Darling and Fear of Fanny by Brian Fillis. After a successful run by the Leeds Library Theatre Company, touring the United Kingdom in October and November 2003, Fear of Fanny was turned into a television drama starring Mark Gatiss and Julia Davis and featuring Hayley Atwell. The production broadcast in October 2006 on BBC Four as one of a series of culinary-themed dramas.
Sucking Shrimp by Stephanie Theobald has Fanny Cradock as one of its central characters. To provincial Cornish heroine Rosa Barge, Cradock represents glamour, sophistication and the life she aspires to in her concoctions of a Taj Mahal out of Italian meringue and duchesse potato dyed vivid green.
In 2019, the cabaret group 'Duckie' staged Duckie Loves Fanny as part of the London Borough of Waltham Forest's programme of events marking the locale's year-long status as London Borough of Culture. Members of the cabaret group described their performance as a "very queer mashup of postwar pop culture, style, food and gender politics in honour of the fearsome TV cook in her home area of Leytonstone".
References
External links
1909 births
1994 deaths
English food writers
British restaurant critics
English women novelists
English television chefs
People educated at Talbot Heath School
People from Leytonstone
Women food writers
Women cookbook writers
20th-century English women writers
20th-century English novelists
20th-century English non-fiction writers
People from Bexhill-on-Sea
English women non-fiction writers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citigroup
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Citigroup
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Citigroup Inc. or Citi (stylized as citi) is an American multinational investment bank and financial services corporation headquartered in New York City. The company was formed by the merger of banking giant Citicorp and financial conglomerate Travelers Group in 1998; Travelers was subsequently spun off from the company in 2002. Citigroup owns Citicorp, the holding company for Citibank, as well as several international subsidiaries. Citigroup is incorporated in Delaware.
Citigroup is the third largest banking institution in the United States; alongside JPMorgan Chase, Bank of America, and Wells Fargo, it is one of the Big Four banking institutions of the United States. It is considered a systemically important bank by the Financial Stability Board and is commonly cited as being too big to fail. It is one of the nine global investment banks in the Bulge Bracket.
Citigroup is ranked 33rd on the Fortune 500 as of 2021. Citigroup has over 200 million customer accounts and does business in more than 160 countries. It has 204,000 employees, although it had 357,000 employees before the financial crisis of 2007–2008, when it was bailed out by a massive stimulus package from the U.S. government.
In 2020, it is one of the largest securities services provider, having over $23.6 trillion in assets under custody (AUC)
In February 2021 CEO Michael Corbat was replaced by Jane Fraser, who became the first woman CEO of a Big Four bank.
Current operations
Citigroup is the holding company for the following divisions:
Citigroup Global Markets, Inc., Citigroup Global Markets Limited (UK), and Citigroup Global Markets Japan - broker-dealers, including one of 24 primary dealers in United States Treasury securities.
Citi's Institutional Clients Group (ICG) offers investment and corporate banking services and products for companies, governments, institutions, and ultra high-net-worth investors. ICG consists of the following five main divisions:
Capital Markets Origination is focused on the capital-raising needs such as public offerings, private placements, and special purpose acquisition companies.
Corporate & Investment Banking provides strategic and financing products and advisory services to multinational and local corporations, financial institutions, governments, and privately held businesses in more than 160 countries. It also provides client services such as mergers & acquisitions advice and underwriting of initial public offerings.
Markets & Securities Services integrates capabilities of Markets and Securities Services. It has over $13 trillion assets under custody (AUC) with investor services and direct custody and clearing, hedge fund and private equity servicing, and issuer businesses. It provides financial products through underwriting, sales & trading of a range of investment assets. Products offered include servicing of equities, commodities, credit, futures, foreign exchange (FX), emerging markets, G10 rates, municipals, prime finance/brokerage services, and securitized markets, such as collateralized debt obligations and mortgage-backed securities. Its Citi Research team provides equity and fixed income research, company, sector, economic and geographic market analysis, and product-specific analysis for Citi's individual and institutional clients. Its flagship research reports include the following: Portfolio Strategist, Bond Market Roundup, U.S. Economics Weekly, International Market Roundup, Global Economic Outlook & Strategy and the Global Equity Strategist.
Citi Private Bank advises professional investors, ultra high-net-worth individuals and families, and lawyers throughout the world. It uses an open architecture network of more than 800 private bankers and investment professionals across 46 countries and jurisdictions to provide clients access to global investment opportunities. It has over $250 billion in assets under management. The minimum net worth requirement is $25 million in liquid assets and is waived for only law firm groups and other clients under special circumstances.
Treasury and Trade Solutions (TTS) provides cash management, working capital and trade solutions to companies, governments, and other institutions in the U.S. and more than 140 countries. TTS intermediates more than $3 trillion in global transactions daily. It has about $377 billion in average liability balances, serves 99% of the world's Fortune 100 companies and ~85% of the world's Fortune 500 companies, and has 10 regional processing centers worldwide using global processes. Institutions use TTS to support their treasury operations with global solutions for payments, collections, liquidity, and investments by working in partnership with export credit agencies and development banks. It also sells supply chain financing products as well as medium- and long-term global financing programs across multiple industries. Clients doing business with Citi in 10 or more countries generate more than 60% of Transaction Services' total revenues.
Citibanamex - the second largest bank in Mexico, purchased by Citigroup in 2001; it serves about 20 million clients.
Citicorp - the holding company for Citibank as well as several international banks. Citicorp contains two core businesses, Global Consumer Banking and Institutional Clients Group.
Citibank Retail banking encompasses Citi's global branch network, branded Citibank. Citibank has more than 4,600 branches in the world and holds more than $300 billion in deposits. Citibank is the 4th largest retail bank in the United States based on deposits, and it has Citibank branded branches in countries throughout the world, with the exception of Mexico which is under a separate subsidiary called Banamex. Citibank offers checking and savings accounts, small business and commercial banking, and personal wealth management among its services. Citibank offers Citigold services worldwide to mass affluent clients with at least US$200,000 in liquid assets. In certain markets, Citigold Select is available for clients with at least US$500,000 in liquid assets. Its highest level of service, Citigold Private Client, is for high-net-worth individuals with at least $1–$3 million in liquid assets (depending on the market region) and offers access to investments and ideas from Citi Private Bank.
Citi Branded Cards is the world's largest credit card issuer.
Citi Retail Services is one of the largest providers of private label and co-branded credit cards, retail consulting services, and retail loyalty products in the U.S.
Citi Commercial Bank serves 100,000 small to medium-size companies in 32 countries.
CitiMortgage originates real estate mortgages.
History
Citigroup was formed on October 8, 1998, following the $140 billion merger of Citicorp and Travelers Group to create the world's largest financial services organization. The history of the company is divided into several firms that eventually amalgamated into Citicorp, a multinational banking corporation operating in more than 100 countries; or Travelers Group, whose businesses covered credit services, consumer finance, brokerage, and insurance. The company history dates back to the founding of: the City Bank of New York (later Citibank) in 1812; Bank Handlowy in 1870; Smith Barney in 1873, Banamex in 1884; Salomon Brothers in 1910.
Citicorp (1812–1985)
City Bank of New York was chartered by New York State on June 16, 1812, with $2 million of capital. Serving a group of New York merchants, the bank opened for business on September 14 of that year, and Samuel Osgood was elected as the first President of the company. The company's name was changed to The National City Bank of New York in 1865 after it joined the new U.S. national banking system, and it became the largest American bank by 1895. It became the first contributor to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York in 1913, and the following year it inaugurated the first overseas branch of a U.S. bank in Buenos Aires, although the bank had been active in plantation economies, such as the Cuban sugar industry, since the mid-19th century. The 1918 purchase of U.S. overseas bank International Banking Corporation helped it become the first American bank to surpass $1 billion in assets, and it became the largest commercial bank in the world in 1929. As it grew, the bank became a leading innovator in financial services, becoming the first major U.S. bank to offer compound interest on savings (1921); unsecured personal loans (1928); customer checking accounts (1936) and the negotiable certificate of deposit (1961).
The bank merged with First National Bank of New York in 1955, becoming the First National City Bank of New York in 1955. The "New York" was dropped in 1962 on the 150th anniversary of the company's foundation. The company organically entered the leasing and credit card sectors, and its introduction of U.S. dollar-denominated certificates of deposit in London marked the first new negotiable instrument in the market since 1888. The bank introduced its First National City Charge Service credit card—popularly known as the "Everything card" and later to become MasterCard—in 1967. Also in 1967, First National City Bank reorganized as a one-bank holding company, First National City Corporation, or "Citicorp" for short. The bank had been nicknamed "Citibank" since the 1860s when it began using this as an eight-letter wire code address.
In 1974, under the leadership of CEO Walter B. Wriston, First National City Corporation changed its formal name to "Citicorp", with First National City Bank being formally renamed Citibank in 1976. Shortly afterward, the bank launched the Citicard, which pioneered the use of 24-hour ATMs. John S. Reed was elected CEO in 1984, and Citi became a founding member of the CHAPS clearing house in London. Under his leadership, the next 14 years would see Citibank become the largest bank in the United States and the largest issuer of credit cards and charge cards in the world, and expand its global reach to over 90 countries.
Travelers Group (1986–2007)
Travelers Group, at the time of the merger, was a diverse group of financial concerns that had been brought together under CEO Sandy Weill. Its roots came from Commercial Credit, a subsidiary of Control Data Corporation that was taken private by Weill in November 1986 after taking charge of the company earlier that year. Two years later, Weill mastered the buyout of Primerica Financial Services—a conglomerate that had already bought life insurance company A L Williams as well as brokerage firm Smith Barney. The new company took the Primerica name, and employed a "cross-selling" strategy such that each of the entities within the parent company aimed to sell each other's services. Its non-financial businesses were spun off.
In September 1992, Travelers Insurance, which had suffered from poor real estate investments and sustained significant losses in the aftermath of Hurricane Andrew, formed a strategic alliance with Primerica that would lead to its amalgamation into a single company in December 1993. With the acquisition, the group became Travelers Inc. Property & casualty and life & annuities underwriting capabilities were added to the business. Meanwhile, the distinctive Travelers red umbrella logo, which was also acquired in the deal, was applied to all the businesses within the newly named organization. During this period, Travelers acquired Shearson Lehman—a retail brokerage and asset management firm that was headed by Weill until 1985—and merged it with Smith Barney.
Ownership of Salomon Brothers (1997–2003)
In November 1997, Travelers Group (which had been renamed again in April 1995 when they merged with Aetna Property and Casualty, Inc.), acquired Salomon Brothers, a major bond dealer and bulge bracket investment bank, in a $9 billion transaction. This deal complemented Travelers/Smith Barney well as Salomon was focused on fixed-income and institutional clients, whereas Smith Barney was strong in equities and retail. Salomon Brothers absorbed Smith Barney into the new securities unit termed Salomon Smith Barney; a year later, the division incorporated Citicorp's former securities operations as well. The Salomon Smith Barney name was abandoned in October 2003 after a series of financial scandals that tarnished the bank's reputation.
Merger of Citicorp and Travelers (1998–2001)
On April 6, 1998, the merger between Citicorp and Travelers Group was announced to the world, creating a $140 billion firm with assets of almost $700 billion. The deal would enable Travelers to market mutual funds and insurance to Citicorp's retail customers while giving the banking divisions access to an expanded client base of investors and insurance buyers.
In the transaction, Travelers Group acquired all Citicorp shares for $70 billion in stock, issuing 2.5 new Citigroup shares for each Citicorp share. Existing shareholders of each company owned about half of the new firm. While the new company maintained Citicorp's "Citi" brand in its name, it adopted Travelers' distinctive "red umbrella" as the new corporate logo, which was used until 2007.
The chairmen of both parent companies, John S. Reed and Sandy Weill respectively, were announced as co-chairmen and co-CEOs of the new company, Citigroup, Inc., although the vast difference in management styles between the two immediately presented question marks over the wisdom of such a setup.
The remaining provisions of the Glass–Steagall Act—enacted following the Great Depression—forbade banks to merge with insurance underwriters, and meant Citigroup had between two and five years to divest any prohibited assets. However, Weill stated at the time of the merger that they believed "that over that time the legislation will change ... we have had enough discussions to believe this will not be a problem". Indeed, the passing of the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in November 1999 vindicated Reed and Weill's views, opening the door to financial services conglomerates offering a mix of commercial banking, investment banking, insurance underwriting, and brokerage.
Joe J. Plumeri worked on the post-merger integration of the two companies and was appointed CEO of Citibank North America by Weill and Reed. He oversaw its network of 450 branches. J. Paul Newsome, an analyst with CIBC Oppenheimer, said: "He's not the spit-and-polish executive many people expected. He's rough on the edges. But Citibank knows the bank as an institution is in trouble—it can't get away anymore with passive selling—and Plumeri has all the passion to throw a glass of cold water on the bank." Plumeri boosted the unit's earnings from $108 million to $415 million in one year, an increase of nearly 300%. He unexpectedly retired from Citibank, however, in January 2000.
In 2000, Citigroup acquired Associates First Capital Corporation for $31.1 billion in stock, which, until 1989, had been owned by Gulf+Western (now part of National Amusements), and later by Ford Motor Credit Company. The Associates was widely criticized for predatory lending practices and Citi eventually settled with the Federal Trade Commission by agreeing to pay $240 million to customers who had been victims of a variety of predatory practices, including "flipping" mortgages, "packing" mortgages with optional credit insurance, and deceptive marketing practices.
In 2001, Citigroup made additional acquisitions: European American Bank, in July, for $1.9 billion, and Banamex in August, for $12.5 billion.
Spin-off of Travelers (2002)
The company spun off its Travelers Property and Casualty insurance underwriting business in 2002. The spin-off was prompted by the insurance unit's drag on Citigroup stock price because Travelers earnings were more seasonal and vulnerable to large disasters and events such as the September 11 attacks. It was also difficult to sell insurance directly to its customers since most customers were accustomed to purchasing insurance through a broker.
Travelers merged with The St. Paul Companies Inc. in 2004 forming The St. Paul Travelers Companies. Citigroup retained the life insurance and annuities underwriting business; however, it sold those businesses to MetLife in 2005. Citigroup still sells life insurance through Citibank, but it no longer underwrites insurance.
In spite of divesting Travelers Insurance, Citigroup retained Travelers' signature red umbrella logo as its own until February 2007, when Citigroup agreed to sell the logo back to St. Paul Travelers, which renamed itself Travelers Companies. Citigroup also decided to adopt the corporate brand "Citi" for itself and virtually all its subsidiaries, except Primerica and Banamex.
Subprime mortgage crisis (2007)
Heavy exposure to troubled mortgages in the form of collateralized debt obligation (CDOs), compounded by poor risk management, led Citigroup into trouble as the subprime mortgage crisis worsened in 2007. The company had used elaborate mathematical risk models which looked at mortgages in particular geographical areas, but never included the possibility of a national housing downturn or the prospect that millions of mortgage holders would default on their mortgages. Trading head Thomas Maheras was close friends with senior risk officer David Bushnell, which undermined risk oversight. As Treasury Secretary, Robert Rubin was said to be influential in lifting the Glass–Steagall Act that allowed Travelers and Citicorp to merge in 1998. Then on the board of directors of Citigroup, Rubin and Charles Prince were said to be influential in pushing the company towards MBS and CDOs in the subprime mortgage market.
Starting in June 2006, Senior Vice President Richard M. Bowen III, the chief underwriter of Citigroup's Consumer Lending Group, began warning the board of directors about the extreme risks being taken on by the mortgage operation that could potentially result in massive losses. The group bought and sold $90 billion of residential mortgages annually. Bowen's responsibility was essential to serve as the quality control supervisor ensuring the unit's creditworthiness. When Bowen first became a whistleblower in 2006, 60% of the mortgages were defective. The number of bad mortgages began increasing throughout 2007 and eventually exceeded 80% of the volume. Many of the mortgages were not only defective but were a result of mortgage fraud. Bowen attempted to rouse the board via weekly reports and other communications. On November 3, 2007, Bowen emailed Citigroup Chairman Robert Rubin and the bank's chief financial officer, head auditor, and the chief risk management officer to again expose the risk and potential losses, claiming that the group's internal controls had broken down and requesting an outside investigation of his business unit. The subsequent investigation revealed that the Consumer Lending Group had suffered a breakdown of internal controls since 2005. Despite the findings of the investigation, Bowen's charges were ignored, even though withholding such information from shareholders violated the Sarbanes–Oxley Act (SOX), which he had pointed out. Citigroup CEO Charles Prince signed a certification that the bank was in compliance with SOX despite Bowen revealing this wasn't so. Citigroup eventually stripped Bowen of most of his responsibilities and informed him that his physical presence was no longer required at the bank. The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission asked him to testify about Citigroup's role in the mortgage crisis, and he did so, appearing as one of the first witnesses before the Commission in April 2010.
As the crisis began to unfold, Citigroup announced on April 11, 2007, that it would eliminate 17,000 jobs, or about 5 percent of its workforce, in a broad restructuring designed to cut costs and bolster its long underperforming stock. Even after securities and brokerage firm Bear Stearns ran into serious trouble in summer 2007, Citigroup decided the possibility of trouble with its CDOs was so tiny (less than 1/100 of 1%) that they excluded them from their risk analysis. With the crisis worsening, Citigroup announced on January 7, 2008, that it was considering cutting another 5 percent to 10 percent of its 327,000 member-workforce.
Collapse and US government intervention (2008)
By November 2008, Citigroup was insolvent, despite its receipt of $25 billion in taxpayer-funded federal Troubled Asset Relief Program funds. On November 17, 2008, Citigroup announced plans for about 52,000 new job cuts, on top of 23,000 cuts already made during 2008 in a huge job cull resulting from four quarters of consecutive losses and reports that it was unlikely to be in profit again before 2010. The same day on Wall Street markets responded, with shares falling and dropping the company's market capitalization to $6 billion, down from $300 billion two years prior. Eventually staff cuts totaled over 100,000 employees. Its stock market value dropped to $20.5 billion, down from $244 billion two years earlier. Shares of Citigroup common stock traded well below $1.00 on the New York Stock Exchange.
As a result, late in the evening on November 23, 2008, Citigroup and Federal regulators approved a plan to stabilize the company and forestall a further deterioration in the company's value. On November 24, 2008, the U.S. government announced a massive bailout for Citigroup designed to rescue the company from bankruptcy while giving the government a major say in its operations. A joint statement by the US Treasury Department, the Federal Reserve and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) announced: "With these transactions, the U.S. government is taking the actions necessary to strengthen the financial system and protect U.S. taxpayers and the U.S. economy." The bailout called for the government to back about $306 billion in loans and securities and directly invest about $20 billion in the company. The Treasury provided $20 billion in Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) funds in addition to $25 billion given in October. The Treasury Department, the Federal Reserve and the FDIC agreed to cover 90% of the losses on Citigroup's $335 billion portfolio after Citigroup absorbed the first $29 billion in losses. The Treasury would assume the first $5 billion in losses; the FDIC would absorb the next $10 billion; then the Federal Reserve would assume the rest of the risk. The assets remained on Citigroup's balance sheet; the technical term for this arrangement is ring fencing.
In return, the bank gave the U.S. Treasury $27 billion of preferred shares and warrants to acquire common stock. The government obtained wide powers over banking operations. Citigroup agreed to try to modify mortgages, using standards set up by the FDIC after the collapse of IndyMac Bank, with the goal of keeping as many homeowners as possible in their houses. Executive salaries would be capped. As a condition of the federal assistance, Citigroup's dividend payment was reduced to $0.01 per share.
According to The Wall Street Journal, the government aid provided to Citi in 2008/2009 was provided to prevent a worldwide chaos and panic by the potential collapse of its Global Transactions Services (now TTS) division. According to the article, former CEO Pandit said if Citigroup was allowed to unravel into bankruptcy, "100 governments around the world would be trying to figure out how to pay their employees".
In 2009, Jane Fraser, the CEO of Citi Private Bank, stopped paying its bankers with a commission for selling investment products, in a move to bolster Citi Private Bank's reputation as an independent wealth management adviser, as opposed to a product pusher.
Creation of Citi Holdings (2009)
On January 16, 2009, Citigroup announced its intention to reorganize itself into two operating units: Citicorp for its retail and institutional client business, and Citi Holdings for its brokerage and asset management. Citigroup will continue to operate as a single company for the time being, but Citi Holdings managers will be tasked to "take advantage of value-enhancing disposition and combination opportunities as they emerge", and eventual spin-offs or mergers involving either operating unit were not ruled out. Citi Holdings consists of Citi businesses that Citi wants to sell and are not considered part of Citi's core businesses. The majority of its assets are U.S. mortgages. It was created in the wake of the financial crisis as part of Citi's restructuring plan. It consists of several business entities including remaining interests in local consumer lending such as OneMain Financial, divestitures such as Smith Barney, and a special asset pool. Citi Holdings represents $156 billion of GAAP assets, or ~8% of Citigroup; 59% represents North American mortgages, 18% operating businesses, 13% special asset pool, and 10% categorized as other. Operating businesses include OneMain Financial ($10B), PrimeRe ($7B), MSSB JV ($8B) and Spain / Greece retail ($4B), less associated loan loss reserves. While Citi Holdings is a mixed bag, its primary objective is to wind down some non-core businesses and reduce assets, and strategically "breaking even" in 2015.
On February 27, 2009, Citigroup announced that the U.S. government would take a 36% equity stake in the company by converting US$25 billion in emergency aid into common stock with a United States Treasury credit line of $45 billion to prevent the bankruptcy of the company. The government guaranteed losses on more than $300 billion of troubled assets and injected $20 billion immediately into the company. The salary of the CEO was set at $1 per year and the highest salary of employees was restricted to $500,000. Any compensation amount above $500,000 had to be paid with restricted stock that could not be sold by the employee until the emergency government aid was repaid in full. The U.S. government also gained control of half the seats in the Board of Directors, and the senior management was subjected to removal by the US government if there were poor performance. By December 2009, the U.S. government stake was reduced from a 36% stake to a 27% stake, after Citigroup sold $21 billion of common shares and equity in the largest single share sale in U.S. history, surpassing Bank of America's $19 billion share sale 1 month prior. By December 2010, Citigroup repaid the emergency aid in full and the U.S. government had made a $12 billion profit on its investment in the company. Government restrictions on pay and oversight of the senior management were removed after the U.S. government sold its remaining 27% stake in December 2010.
On June 1, 2009, it was announced that Citigroup would be removed from the Dow Jones Industrial Average effective June 8, 2009, due to significant government ownership. Citigroup was replaced by Travelers Co.
Sale of Smith Barney (2009)
Smith Barney, Citi's global private wealth management unit, provided brokerage, investment banking and asset management services to corporations, governments and individuals around the world. With over 800 offices worldwide, Smith Barney held 9.6 million domestic client accounts, representing $1.562 trillion in client assets worldwide.
On January 13, 2009, Citi announced the merger of Smith Barney with Morgan Stanley Wealth Management. Citi received $2.7 billion and a 49% interest in the joint venture.
In June 2013, Citi sold its remaining 49% stake in Smith Barney to Morgan Stanley Wealth Management for $13.5 billion following an appraisal by Perella Weinberg.
Return to profitability, denationalization (2010)
In 2010, Citigroup achieved its first profitable year since 2007. It reported $10.6 billion in net profit, compared with a $1.6 billion loss in 2009. Late in 2010, the government sold its remaining stock holding in the company, yielding an overall net profit to taxpayers of $12 billion. A special IRS tax exception given to Citi allowed the US Treasury to sell its shares at a profit, while it still owned Citigroup shares, which eventually netted $12 billion. According to Treasury spokeswoman Nayyera Haq, "This (IRS tax) rule was designed to stop corporate raiders from using loss corporations to evade taxes and was never intended to address the unprecedented situation where the government owned shares in banks. And it was certainly not written to prevent the government from selling its shares for a profit."
Expansion of retail banking operations (2011)
In 2011, Citi was the first bank to introduce digitized Smart Banking branches in Washington, D.C., New York, Tokyo and Busan (South Korea) while it continued renovating its entire branch network. New sales and service centers were also opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Citi Express modules, 24-hour service units, were introduced in Colombia. Citi opened additional branches in China, expanding its branch presence to 13 cities in China.
Expansion of credit card operations (2011)
Citi Branded Cards introduced several new products in 2011, including: Citi ThankYou, Citi Executive/AAdvantage and Citi Simplicity cards in the U.S. It also has Latin America partnership cards with Colombia-based airline Avianca and with Banamex and AeroMexico; and a merchant loyalty program in Europe. Citibank is also the first and currently the only international bank to be approved by Chinese regulators to issue credit cards under its own brand without cooperating with Chinese state-owned domestic banks.
Chinese investment banking joint venture (2012)
In 2012, the Global Markets division and Orient Securities formed Citi Orient Securities, a Shanghai-based equity and debt brokerage operating in the Chinese market.
Federal Reserve stress tests (2012–2016)
On March 13, 2012, the Federal Reserve reported Citigroup is one of the four financial institutions, out of 19 major banks, that failed its stress tests, designed to measure bank capital during a financial crisis. The 2012 stress tests determined whether banks could withstand a financial crisis that has unemployment at 13%, stock prices to be cut in half, and home prices decreased by 21%. Citi failed the Fed stress tests due to Citi's high capital return plan and its international loans, which were rated by the Fed to be at higher risk than its domestic American loans. Citi received half of its revenues from its international businesses. In comparison, Bank Of America, which passed the stress test and did not ask for a capital return to investors, received 78% of its revenue in the United States.
By June 2012, the year of Citi's 200th anniversary, Citigroup had built up $420 billion in surplus cash reserves and government securities. As of March 31, 2012, Citi had a Tier 1 capital ratio of 12.4%. This was a result of selling more than $500 billion of its special assets placed in Citi Holdings, which were guaranteed from losses by the US Treasury while under federal majority ownership.
In 2013, Sanjiv Das was replaced as head of CitiMortgage with Jane Fraser, former head of Citi Private Bank.
On March 26, 2014, the Federal Reserve Board of Governors reported that Citigroup was one of the 5 financial institutions that failed its stress tests. Unlike in the failed stress test in 2012, Citigroup failed on qualitative concerns that were unresolved despite regulatory warnings. The report specifically stated that Citigroup failed "to project revenues and losses under a stressful scenario for material parts of the firm's global operations and its ability to develop scenarios for its internal stress testing that adequately reflects its full range business activities and exposures."
On March 11, 2015, Citi has passed its first CCAR test, allowing it to raise its dividend to 5 cent a share and unveiling a plan for a $7.8 billion share repurchase.
In February 2016, the company was subject to a lawsuit as a result of the bankruptcy of a Mexican oil services firm.
In April 2016, Citigroup announced that it would eliminate its bad bank, Citi Holdings.
On June 23, 2016, Federal Reserve handed Citi a passing grade on its stress test the second time in a row, giving permission to triple its dividend to 16 cents a share and approving an $8.6 billion stock repurchase program,
Spin-off of Napier Park Global Capital (2013)
Citi Capital Advisors (CCA), formerly Citi Alternative Investments, was a hedge fund that offered various investment strategies across multiple asset classes. To comply with the Volcker Rule, which limits bank ownership in hedge funds to no more than 3%, Citi spun off its hedge fund unit in 2013 and gave a majority of the company to its managers. The spin-off of CCA created Napier Park Global Capital, a $6.8 billion hedge fund with more than 100 employees in New York and London and managed by Jim O'Brien and Jonathan Dorfman.
Downsizing of consumer banking unit (2014)
In October 2014, Citigroup announced its exit from consumer banking in 11 markets, including Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Japan, Guam, the Czech Republic, Egypt, South Korea (consumer finance only), and Hungary.
2015 onwards
In May 2015, the bank announced the sale of its margin foreign exchange business, including CitiFX Pro and TradeStream, to FXCM and SAXO Bank of Denmark. Despite this deal, industry surveys pegged Citi as the biggest banking player in the forex market. The company's remaining foreign exchange sales & trading businesses continued operating in the wake of this deal under the leadership of James Bindler, who succeeded Jeff Feig as the firm's global head of foreign exchange in 2014.
In February 2016, Citi sold its retail and commercial banking operations in Panama and Costa Rica to the Bank of Nova Scotia (Scotiabank) for $360 million. The operations sold include 27 branches serving approximately 250,000 clients. Citi continues to offer corporate and institutional banking and wealth management in Panama and Costa Rica.
In November 2015, Springleaf acquired OneMain Financial from Citigroup.
On April 1, 2016, Citigroup became the exclusive issuer of Costco-branded credit cards.
In April 2016, Citi was given regulatory approval for its "living will", its plans to shut down operations in the event of another financial crisis.
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Citi provided support to cardholders including waiving late fees and so forth. It also announced that some lower paid employees would receive a one-off payment of US$1,000 to help them through the crisis. This was not just limited to the US. In Singapore where Citi had a large operation, low paid staff would receive S$1,200.
In August 2020, Citi wrongly wired $900 million to one of its clients, the American corporation, Revlon. The wire sparked a "protracted legal fight". In October, the same year, Citigroup was fined $400 million by the US bank regulators as a result of their risk in control systems and was ordered to update their technology. The company will have four months to make a new plan and submit it to the Federal Reserve.
Combination of Markets & Securities Services (2019)
In 2019, Citi combined its Global Markets and Securities Services business into Markets & Securities Services, which includes broad trading and execution capabilities in addition to financing, hedging, clearing, and custody services.
Shrinking of consumer banking unit (2021-2022)
In April 2021, Citi announced it would exit its consumer banking operations in 13 markets, including Australia, Bahrain, China, India, Indonesia, South Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Poland, Russia, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. The cutting implies that Citi will operate its consumer banking business in only 4 markets: Hong Kong, Singapore, London and the UAE across entire APAC and EMEA regions.
In January 2022, Citi further announced its plan to exit consumer banking in Mexico, as well as small-business and middle-market banking operations.
On 1st March 2022, Citi disclosed an exposure of over $10bn in Russian assets, which may be materially affected by Russia's expulsion form the SWIFT banking system.
Offices
New York City
Citigroup Center, a diagonal-roof skyscraper located in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, is Citigroup's most famous office building, which despite popular belief is not the company's headquarters building. Citigroup has its headquarters located in downtown Tribeca (388 Greenwich). Citigroup also owns a building in Tribeca, Manhattan at 388 Greenwich Street that serves as headquarters for its Investment and Corporate Banking operations and was the former headquarters of the Travelers Group.
All of Citigroup's New York City real estate, excluding the company's Smith Barney division and Wall Street trading division, lies along the New York City Subway's IND Queens Boulevard Line, served by the . Consequently, the company's Midtown buildings—including 787 Seventh Avenue, 666 Fifth Avenue, 399 Park Avenue, 485 Lexington, 153 East 53rd Street (Citigroup Center) in Manhattan, and One Court Square in Long Island City, Queens, are all on the short four-stop corridor of the Queens Boulevard Line between Court Square and Seventh Avenue.
Naming rights to Citi Field
Citigroup owns the naming rights to Citi Field, the home ballpark of the New York Mets Major League Baseball team, via a $400 million, 20-year deal that commenced with the stadium opening in 2009.
Chicago
Citicorp Center in Chicago has a series of curved archways at its peak, and sits across the street from major competitor ABN AMRO's ABN AMRO Plaza. It has shops and restaurants serving Metra customers via the Ogilvie Transportation Center.
Sioux Falls
Citibank moved its credit card operations to Sioux Falls, South Dakota in 1981 after the state eliminated caps on interest rates. In 2013, Citibank employed 2,900 in Sioux Falls and is one of the largest employers in the city. In 2018, they began building a new headquarters that will be 150,000 square feet of office space on a 19-acre campus.
Regulatory action, lawsuits, and arbitration
In 2004, Japanese regulators took action against Citibank Japan loaning to a customer involved in stock manipulation. The regulator suspended bank activities in one branch and three offices and restricted their consumer banking division. In 2009, Japanese regulators again took action against Citibank Japan, because the bank had not set up an effective money laundering monitoring system. The regulators suspended sales operations within Citibank's retail banking for a month.
On March 23, 2005, the National Association of Securities Dealers, the former name of the American self-regulatory organization for broker-dealers, now known as the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FInRA) announced total fines of $21.25 million against Citigroup Global Markets, Inc., American Express Financial Advisors and Chase Investment Services regarding suitability and supervisory violations of their mutual fund sales practices between January 2002 and July 2003. The case against Citigroup involved recommendations and sales of Class B and Class C shares of mutual funds.
On June 6, 2007, FInRA announced more than $15 million in fines and restitution against Citigroup Global Markets, Inc., to settle charges related to misleading documents and inadequate disclosure in retirement seminars and meetings for BellSouth Corp. employees in North Carolina and South Carolina. FInRA found that Citigroup did not properly supervise a team of brokers located in Charlotte, N.C., who used misleading sales materials during dozens of seminars and meetings for hundreds of BellSouth employees.
In July 2010, Citigroup agreed to pay $75 million to settle civil charges that it misled investors over potential losses from high-risk mortgages. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission said that Citigroup had made misleading statements about the company's exposure to subprime mortgages. In 2007, Citigroup indicated that its exposure was less than $13 billion, when in fact it was over $50 billion.
In April 2011, an arbitration panel ordered Citigroup Inc to pay $54.1 million for losses from municipal securities funds that cratered between 2007 and 2008.
In August 2012, Citigroup agreed to pay almost $25 million to settle an investor lawsuit alleging the bank misled investors about the nature of mortgage-backed securities. The lawsuit was on behalf of investors who purchased certificates in one of two mortgage-backed securities trusts from Citigroup Mortgage Loan Trust Inc in 2007.
In February 2012, Citigroup agreed to pay $158.3 million to settle claims that it falsely certified the quality of loans issued by its CitiMortgage unit over a period of more than six years, so that they would qualify for insurance from the Federal Housing Administration. The lawsuit was initially brought by Sherry Hunt, a CitiMortgage employee.
On February 9, 2012, it was announced that the five largest mortgage servicers (Ally/GMAC, Bank of America, Citi, JPMorgan Chase, and Wells Fargo) agreed to a historic settlement with the federal government and 49 states. The settlement, known as the National Mortgage Settlement (NMS), required the servicers to provide about $26 billion in relief to distressed homeowners and in-direct payments to the states and the federal government. This settlement amount makes the NMS the second largest civil settlement in U.S. history, only trailing the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. The five banks were also required to comply with 305 new mortgage servicing standards. Oklahoma held out and agreed to settle with the banks separately.
In 2014, Citigroup agreed to pay $7 billion to resolve claims it misled investors about shoddy mortgage-backed securities in the run-up to the financial crisis. Attorney General Eric H. Holder Jr. said "The bank's misconduct was egregious. ... As a result of their assurances that toxic financial products were sound, Citigroup was able to expand its market share and increase profits" and that "the settlement did not absolve the bank or its employees from facing criminal charges."
In July 2015, Citigroup was fined $70 million by the United States Consumer Financial Protection Bureau and the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, and ordered to pay $700 million to customers. Citigroup had conducted illegal practices in marketing add-on products for credit cards, including credit monitoring, debt-protection products and wallet-protection services.
In January 2017, Citigroup Global Markets Inc. was fined $25 million by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission for order spoofing in U.S. Treasury futures markets, i.e., placing orders that were intended to be canceled before execution, and for failing to diligently supervise its employees with regard to spoofing.
Enron, WorldCom, and Global Crossing bankruptcies
On October 22, 2001, Citigroup was sued for violating federal securities laws by misrepresenting Citigroup's Enron-related exposure in its 2001 Annual Report and elsewhere, and failing to disclose the true extent of Citigroup's legal liability arising out of its 'structured finance' deals with Enron. In 2003, Citigroup paid $145 million in fines and penalties to settle claims by the Securities and Exchange Commission and the Manhattan district attorney's office.
In 2004, Citigroup paid $2.65 billion pre-tax, or $1.64 billion after-tax, to settle a lawsuit concerning its role in selling stocks and bonds for WorldCom, the second largest telecommunications company in the world, which collapsed after an accounting scandal.
On February 5, 2002, Citigroup was sued for violating federal securities laws and misleading investors by issuing false information about Global Crossing's revenues and financial performance. In 2005, Citigroup paid $75 million to settle the lawsuit. Citigroup was accused of issuing exaggerated research reports and not disclosing conflicts of interest.
In 2005, Citigroup paid $2 billion to settle a lawsuit filed by investors in Enron. In 2008, Citi also agreed to pay $1.66 billion to Enron creditors.
On November 8, 2007, Citigroup was sued for financial misrepresentations and omissions of what amounted to more than two years of income and an entire line of business. In 2012, the company paid $590 million to settle the case.
Senior leadership
Chairman: John Dugan (since January 2019)
Chief executive officer: Jane Fraser (since March 2021)
Chief financial officer: Mark Mason (since February 2019)
Chief Compliance Officer: Mary McNiff (since June 2020)
List of former chairmen
This list only contains chairmen since the formation of Citigroup in 1998; for a full list of chairmen including Citigroup's predecessors, please see List of chairmen of Citigroup.
John Reed and Sandy Weill (1998–2000)
Sandy Weill (2000–2006)
Charles Prince (2006–2007)
Sir Win Bischoff (2007–2009)
Dick Parsons (2009–2012)
Michael O'Neill (2012–2019)
List of former chief executives
This list only contains chief executives since the formation of Citigroup in 1998.
Sandy Weill (1998–2003)
Charles Prince (2003–2007)
Vikram Pandit (2007–2012)
Michael Corbat (2012–2021)
CEO-to-worker pay ratio
Pursuant to Section 953(b) of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, publicly traded companies are required to disclose (1) the median total annual compensation of all employees other than the CEO and (2) the ratio of the CEO's annual total compensation to that of the median employee.
Total 2018 compensation for Michael Corbat, CEO, amounted to $24,195,749, and total compensation of the median employee was determined to be $49,766. The resulting pay ratio is estimated to be 486:1.
Criticism
Alleged money laundering by Raul Salinas
In 1998, the General Accounting Office issued a report critical of Citibank's handling of funds received from Raul Salinas de Gortari, brother of Carlos Salinas, the former president of Mexico. The report, titled "Raul Salinas, Citibank and Alleged Money Laundering", indicated that Citibank facilitated the transfer of millions of dollars through complex financial transactions that hid the funds' paper trail. The report indicated that Citibank took on Salinas as a client without making a thorough inquiry as to how he made his fortune, an omission that a Citibank official called a violation of the bank's "know your customer" policy.
Conflicts of interest on investment research
In December 2002, Citigroup paid fines totaling $400 million, to states and the federal government as part of a settlement involving charges that ten banks, including Citigroup, deceived investors with biased research. The total settlement with the ten banks was $1.4 billion. The settlement required that the banks separate investment banking from research, and ban any allocation of IPO shares.
Citigroup proprietary government bond trading scandal of 2004
Citigroup was criticized for disrupting the European bond market by rapidly selling €11 billion worth of bonds on August 2, 2004, on the MTS Group trading platform, driving down the price and then buying it back at cheaper prices.
Plutonomy report
In a leaked report for their investor clients from 2005, a team of global strategists at Citigroup wrote an analysis of the global distribution of income and wealth and what the implications for investment are. In the report, they state that rising global imbalances have transformed advanced Anglo-American economies into plutonomies, in which economic growth is both powered by and consumed by the wealthy. The authors cite data showing that the top 1% of households in the US economy account for about 20% of the total income in 2000, which is roughly equal to the share of the bottom 60% of households put together. Moreover, in terms of wealth, they demonstrate even more inequality such that "[T]he top 1% of households also account for 33% of net worth, greater than the bottom 90% of households put together. It gets better (or worse, depending on your political stripe) - the top 1% of households account for 40% of financial net worth, more than the bottom 95% of households put together."
As regards the current plutonomies (namely United States, United Kingdom, and Canada), they put forward six key drivers for plutonomy: "an ongoing [bio-]technological revolution; capitalist-friendly governments and tax regimes; globalization that re-arranges global supply chains with mobile well-capitalized elites and immigrants; greater financial complexity and innovation; the rule of law, and patent protection are all well." Next, the authors show that in industrialized countries, plutonomy has led to a relationship between income concentration (plutonomy) and the household savings rates such that the latter tend to fall in plutonomies because of the spending thrift of the wealthy. In view of the fact "the rich have been getting progressively richer over the last 30 years, saving less and spending more, the fortunes of companies that sell to the rich ought to have been good." Hence, the authors urge their investors to invest in equities of companies that cater to the wealthy (i.e. luxury industry).
While refraining from judging plutonomy as good or bad, the ultimate objective of their report is to examine how to make money of the observed savings and consumption imbalances. The report has also figured in Michael Moore's Capitalism: A love Story while his portrayal of the report has been criticized by the authors. Later reports by the same principal author mainly confirmed the previous findings.
TARP funding
In a The New York Times op-ed, Michael Lewis and David Einhorn described the November 2008 $306 billion guarantee as "an undisguised gift" without any real crisis motivating it.
According to New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo, Citigroup paid hundreds of millions of dollars in bonuses to more than 1,038 of its employees after it had received its $45 billion TARP funds in late 2008. This included 738 employees each receiving $1 million in bonuses, 176 employees each receiving $2 million bonuses, 124 each receiving $3 million in bonuses, and 143 each receiving bonuses of $4 million to more than $10 million. As a result of the criticism and the U.S. Government's majority holding of Citigroup's common stock, compensation and bonuses were restricted from February 2009 until December 2010.
Terra Securities scandal
In November 2007 it became public that Citigroup was heavily involved in the Terra Securities scandal, which involved investments by eight municipalities of Norway in various hedge funds in the United States bond market. The funds were sold by Terra Securities to the municipalities, while the products were delivered by Citigroup. Terra Securities ASA filed for bankruptcy on November 28, 2007, the day after they received a letter from the Financial Supervisory Authority of Norway announcing the withdrawal of permissions to operate. The letter stated, "The Supervisory Authority contends that Citigroup's presentation, as well as the presentation from Terra Securities ASA, appears insufficient and misleading because central elements like information about potential extra payments and the size of these are omitted."
Allegations of theft from customer accounts
In August 2008, Citigroup agreed to pay nearly $18 million in refunds and fines to settle accusations by California Attorney General Jerry Brown that it wrongly took funds from the accounts of credit card customers. Citigroup paid $14 million of restitution to roughly 53,000 customers nationwide. A three-year investigation found that Citigroup from 1992 to 2003 used an improper computerized "sweep" feature to move positive balances from card accounts into the bank's general fund, without telling cardholders. Brown said that Citigroup "knowingly stole from its customers, mostly poor people and the recently deceased when it designed and implemented the sweeps ... When a whistleblower uncovered the scam and brought it to his superiors [in 2001], they buried the information and continued the illegal practice."
Potential restructuring and liquidation by regulators
In September 2011, former Wall Street reporter Ron Suskind stated that Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner ignored a 2009 order from President Barack Obama to break up Citigroup in an enormous restructuring and liquidation process. According to Suskind, Obama wanted to restructure the bank into several leaner and smaller companies while Geithner was executing stress tests of American financial institutions.
Robert Kuttner wrote in his 2010 book A Presidency in Peril that in spring 2009, Geithner and chief economic adviser Larry Summers believed that they could not seize, liquidate and break up Citigroup because they lacked the legal authority or the tools to do so. The Treasury Department denied Suskind's account in an e-mail to the media stating "This account is simply untrue. The directive given by the president in March 2009, was to develop a contingency plan for tough restructurings if the government ended up owning large shares of institutions at the conclusion of the stress tests that Secretary Geithner worked aggressively to put in place as part of the Administration's Financial Stability Plan. While Treasury began work on those contingency plans, there was fortunately never a need to put them in place."
Shareholder rejection of executive compensation plan
At Citi's 2012 annual shareholders' meeting on April 17, Citi's executive compensation package was rejected, with approximately 55% of the votes being against approval. The non-binding vote was required under the Dodd-Frank Act, which requires corporations to hold advisory shareholder votes on their executive compensation plans. Many shareholders expressed concerns about Citi's failed 2012 Fed stress test and lack of long-term performance-based metrics in its executive compensation plan. One of the largest and most activist of the shareholders voting no, the California Public Employees' Retirement System, stated Citi "has not anchored rewards to performance". A Citigroup shareholder filed a lawsuit days after the vote, claiming Citi executives breached their fiduciary duties. In response, Richard Parsons, former chairman of Citigroup, called the vote a "serious matter". A spokesperson for Citi said "Citi's Board of Directors takes the shareholder vote seriously, and along with senior management will consult with representative shareholders to understand their concerns" and that the Compensation committee of the Board "will carefully consider their (shareholder) input as we move forward".
Accusations of futures market manipulation
In January 2017, bank regulators fined Citigroup $25 million on account of five traders from the bank having manipulated U.S. Treasury futures more than 2,500 times between July 2011 and December 2012. Citigroup was criticized for failing to adequately supervise its traders and for not having systems in place to detect spoofing, which involves entering fake orders designed to fool others into thinking prices are poised to rise or fall.
Criminal cartel charges in Australia
On 1 June 2018, the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) announced that criminal cartel charges are expected to be laid by the Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions (CDPP) against ANZ Bank, its Group Treasurer Rick Moscati, along with Deutsche Bank, Citigroup and a number of individuals.
Failure to establish effective risk management
In 2020, Citigroup agreed to pay $400 million to federal regulators over long-standing concerns regarding Citigroup's failure to establish effective risk management. The Federal Reserve and the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency said that Citi had engaged in “unsafe and unsound banking practices.” According to them, Citi had failed to correct problems that had been known for years.
The bank has also been accused of failing to control the flow of dark money through its accounts. In 2017, prosecutors claimed drug smugglers were using Citigroup's Banamex USA unit to sneak dirty money into the United States from Mexico. The company agreed to pay more than $97 million to settle the allegations. In 2018, the O.C.C again indicted Citi for shortcomings in its anti-money laundering policies, Citi was required to pay $70M.
Failure to match paternity and maternity leave
In 2020, Citi touted a big increase of its paternity leave when the company raised it to 4 weeks in Singapore. Citi claimed it would drive greater gender equality. This compares with the New York Times, which offer a minimum 10 weeks paternity leave for its American staff. Although Citi offers paternity leave, it does not make it mandatory nor does it offer equal leave to all employees. The Wall Street Journal argues that mandatory paternity leave would help close the wage gap, which is something Citigroup does not do. Why Citigroup does not do this is uncertain, because a study in Sweden found that for a new father that took a month off, the mother's income rises 6.7%.
Communications
Lobbying
Between 1998 and 2014, Citigroup spent nearly $100 million lobbying the federal government. As of 2008, Citigroup was the 16th largest political campaign contributor in the US, out of all organizations, according to the Center for Responsive Politics. From 1989 to 2006, members of the firm donated over $23,033,490, 49% of which went to Democrats and 51% of which went to Republicans.
Matthew Vadum, a senior editor at the conservative Capital Research Center, acknowledged these figures, but pointed out that Citigroup had been "a longtime donor to left-wing pressure groups", and referred to a Capital Research Center Foundation Watch 2006 study of Fortune 100 foundation giving, where Citigroup's foundation gave "20 times more money to groups on the left than to groups on the right" during the tax year 2003.
In 2014 Citigroup's PAC contributed $804,000 to campaigns of various members of Congress, i.e. 162 members of the House, including 72 Democrats, where donations averaged about $5,000 per candidate. Of the 57 Democrats supporting the 2015 Spending bill, 34 had received campaign cash from Citigroup's PAC at some point since 2010. Citigroup's 2014 donations favored Republicans only slightly. The bank's PAC had been nearly as generous to Democrats as Republicans – $30,000 to the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (the maximum) and $10,000 to the 'New Democrat Coalition', a group of moderate Democrats most of whom voted for the 2015 spending package. Citibank's PAC made donations to both the campaigns and the leadership PACs of many top Democrats who voted for the 2015 spending bill, including Steny Hoyer (Md.) House Democratic Whip and Representatives Jim Himes (D-Conn.) and Debbie Wasserman Schultz (D-Florida.).
Public and governmental relations
In 2009, former chairman Richard Parsons hired long-time Washington, D.C. lobbyist Richard F. Hohlt to advise him and the company about relations with the U.S. government, though not to lobby for the company. While some speculated anonymously that the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) would have been a particular focus of Hohlt's attention, Hohlt said he'd had no contact with the government insurance corporation. Some former regulators found room to criticize Hohlt's involvement with Citigroup, because of his earlier involvement with the financial services industry during the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s. Hohlt responded that though mistakes were made in the earlier episode he'd never been investigated by any government agency and his experience gave him a reason to be back in the "operating room" as parties address the more recent crisis.
In 2010, the company named Edward Skyler, formerly in New York City government and at Bloomberg L.P., to its senior public and governmental relations position. Before Skyler was named and before he began his job search, the company reportedly held discussions with three other individuals to fill the position: NY Deputy Mayor Kevin Sheekey, Mayor Michael Bloomberg's "political guru ... [who] spearheaded ... his short-lived flirtation with a presidential run ..., who will soon leave City Hall for a position at the mayor's company, Bloomberg L.P. ... After Mr. Bloomberg's improbable victory in the 2001 mayor's race, both Mr. Skyler and Mr. Sheekey followed him from his company to City Hall. Since then, they have been a part of an enormously influential coterie of advisers"; Howard Wolfson, the former communications director for Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign and Mr. Bloomberg's re-election bid; and Gary Ginsberg, now at Time Warner and formerly at News Corporation.
On 21 March 2018, it was announced that Citigroup changed its policy to forbid its business customers from performing certain firearm-related transactions. The policy doesn't affect clients who offer credit cards backed by Citigroup or borrow money, use banking services, or raise capital through the company.
One 19 March 2020, Citi announced that it would support 2019 coronavirus pandemic relief with some US$15 million.
Notable staff
Current
Jane Fraser is a Scottish-American banking executive. She currently holds the position of CEO from March 2021 and was formerly president of Citi, chief executive officer, Global Consumer Banking. Educated at Girton College, Cambridge, and Harvard Business School, she was a partner at McKinsey & Company for 10 years before joining Citigroup in 2004. She has been promoted numerous times and acceded to four CEO posts, the latest being CEO of Citigroup Latin America in April 2015. She was included on Fortune "Most Powerful Women in Business" list in 2014 and 2015 and has been called the "Number 1 Woman to Watch" for two consecutive years by American Banker.
Edward Skyler is an American politician and businessperson. He was deputy mayor for operations for New York City, the youngest deputy mayor in New York City's history. In 2010, he was named executive vice president, Global Public Affairs at Citigroup.
Edward L. Morse has been the global head of commodities research since 2011.
Catherine L. Mann has been the chief economist since 2018.
Manuel Falcó has been the global head of investment banking since 2018
Former
Sanford I. Weill - was CEO from 1998 until October 1, 2003. He was also one of the 25 people that Time magazine blamed for the financial crisis.
Robert Rubin - was an advisor and from 1999 to 2009 was a board director. Rubin received total compensation of $126 million from Citigroup between 1999 and 2009.
Charles Prince - was CEO from 2003 to November 2007. Prince was famously quoted as saying Citigroup was "still dancing" just as the financial crisis hit.
Vikram Pandit - was CEO from December 2007 to October 2012.
Willem Buiter - was the chief economist from 2010 until 2018.
Mark Carawan was chief compliance officer from 2012 until 2020.
Mike Corbat - was CEO from October 2012 to February 2021.
See also
Big Four banks
References
Further reading
Schull, Joseph, 100 Years of Banking in Canada: A History of the Toronto-Dominion Bank. Illustrated by Brad Smith. Vancouver: Copp Clark, c1958. ix, 222 p.; ill.; 24 cm.
External links
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Midtown Manhattan
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207301
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20newspapers%20in%20Sweden
|
List of newspapers in Sweden
|
The number of newspapers in Sweden was 235 in 1919. It reduced to 125 papers in the mid-1960s. In 2009 the number of the newspapers was 90 in the country.
This is a list of Swedish language newspapers in with their respective cities of publication. Swedish newspaper circulation (number of copies sold) is measured by Tidningsstatistik AB.
Major, subscription morning newspapers
Morning newspapers are mostly sold by subscription and delivered to homes after midnight or in the early morning. Traditionally, morning newspapers used the broadsheet format, but around the year 2000 all have changed to the smaller tabloid format.
Dagens Nyheter (Stockholm)
Göteborgs-Posten (Gothenburg)
Svenska Dagbladet (Stockholm)
Sydsvenska Dagbladet (Malmö and Lund)
Historic titles
Aftontidningen
Arbetet (Malmö), published 1887–2000
Dagsposten (Stockholm), published 1941–1951
Folkbladet, weekly newspaper published between 1894 and 1907
Göteborgs Handels- och Sjöfartstidning (GHT) (Gothenburg), published 1832–1973
Nationen, published 1925–1941
Nya Folkviljan, socialist weekly newspaper published in southern Sweden 1906-1920
Post- och Inrikes Tidningar, Sweden's official gazette, published 1645–2000, now only a web journal
Skånes köpmannablad, weekly business newspaper published 1919-1935
Stockholms-Tidningen, published 1889–1966 and 1981–1984
Vägen Framåt, nationalist weekly newspaper published 1932–1992
Evening newspapers
Evening newspapers are sold in stores only, not by subscription, starting around 10 AM daily. They are in the tabloid format. Their history dates back to Aftonbladet, founded in 1830.
Aftonbladet (Stockholm)
Expressen (Stockholm), founded in 1944, with local editions carrying the names of earlier independent newspapers:
GT (Gothenburg), founded in 1902, acquired by Expressen in 1998
Kvällsposten (Malmö), founded in 1948, acquired by Expressen in 1998
Free newspapers
Free newspapers, entirely financed by advertisements, were an innovation of the 1990s. They have successfully been distributed in local public transport, such as the Stockholm subway. They always use the tabloid format.
Metro, free, printed in four editions: Stockholm, Gothenburg, Skåne and National (Riks), which was distributed in 67 towns and cities throughout the country. Cancelled in August 2019.
Stockholm City, free, distributed in Stockholm, defunct since June 2011
Nationwide special topic newspapers
These are distributed as morning newspapers.
Dagen, Christian newspaper, founded in 1945 by pentecostalist preacher Lewi Pethrus
Dagens Industri (Di), daily business newspaper printed on pink paper in tabloid format
Computer Sweden (CS), the Swedish edition of IDG's Computerworld, tabloid format, published twice a week (Tuesday, Friday).
Proletären, the weekly newspaper of the Communist Party since the 1970s.
Local and regional newspapers
Arbetarbladet (Gävle)
Barometern (Kalmar)
Bohusläningen (Uddevalla)
Blekinge Läns Tidning (Karlskrona)
Borås Tidning (Borås)
Dagbladet (Sundsvall)
Dala-Demokraten (Falun)
Dik Manusch (Västerbotten)
Enköpings-Posten (Enköping)
Eskilstuna-Kuriren (Eskilstuna)
Fagersta-Posten (Fagersta, Norberg)
Falu Kuriren (Falun)
Folkbladet (Norrköping)
Folket (Eskilstuna)
Gefle Dagblad (Gävle)
Gotlands Allehanda (Visby)
Gotlands Tidningar (Visby)
Hallands Nyheter (Falkenberg)
Hallandsposten (Halmstad)
Haparandabladet (Haparanda)
Helsingborgs Dagblad (Helsingborg)
Hudiksvalls Tidning (Hudiksvall)
Jönköpings-Posten (Jönköping)
Karlstads-Tidningen (Karlstad)
Katrineholms-Kuriren (Katrineholm)
Kristianstadsbladet (Kristianstad)
Länstidningen (Östersund)
Länstidningen (Södertälje)
Nerikes Allehanda (Örebro)
Norra Skåne (Hässleholm)
Norra Västerbotten (Skellefteå)
Norrbottens-Kuriren (Luleå)
Norrköpings Tidningar (Norrköping)
Norrländska Socialdemokraten (Luleå)
Nya Wermlands-Tidningen (Karlstad)
Oskarshamnstidningen (Kalmar, Oskarshamn)
Östergötlands Arbetartidning (1945–57)
Skaraborgs Allehanda (Skövde)
Skånska Dagbladet (Scania)
Smålandsposten (Växjö)
Smålänningen (Ljungby)
Strengnäs Tidning (Strängnäs - local edition of Eskilstuna-Kuriren)
Sundsvalls Tidning (Sundsvall)
Sydsvenska Dagbladet (Scania)
Södermanlands Nyheter (Gnesta, Nyköping, Oxelösund, Trosa)
Tidningen Ångermanland (Härnösand, Kramfors, Sollefteå)
Trelleborgs Allehanda (Trelleborg)
TTELA (Trollhättan, Vänersborg, Lilla Edet, Mellerud)
Upsala Nya Tidning (Uppsala)
Upplands-Folket (Uppsala) (defunct)
Vestmanlands Läns Tidning (Västerås)
Vetlanda-Posten (Vetlanda)
Värmlands Folkblad (Karlstad)
Västerbottens Folkblad (Västerbotten)
Västerbottenskuriren (Umeå)
Västernorrlands Allehanda
Västerviks-Tidningen (Västervik)
Örnsköldsviks Allehanda (Örnsköldsvik)
Östersunds-Posten (Östersund)
Östgöta Correspondenten (Linköping)
Östra Småland (Kalmar)
Swedish language newspapers in Finland
Ålandstidningen (Mariehamn)
Borgåbladet (Borgå)
Hufvudstadsbladet (Helsingfors/Helsinki)
Nya Åland (Mariehamn)
Österbottens Tidning (Jakobstad)
Östra Nyland (Loviisa)
Saima (Turku)
Syd-Österbotten (Närpes)
Vasabladet (Vasa)
Västra Nyland (Ekenäs)
Swedish language newspapers in the United States
California Veckoblad (Los Angeles)
New Vestkusten (San Francisco)
Norden (Brooklyn)
Nordstjernan (New York City)
Svenska Amerikanska Posten (Minneapolis)
Svenska Amerikanaren Tribunen (Chicago)
See also
List of magazines in Sweden
List of Swedish television channels
List of Finnish newspapers
List of socialist newspapers in Sweden
List of All Media in Sweden
References
Further reading
External links
Swedish newspapers online
Svenska tidningar
Sweden
List
Newspapers
|
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] |
207311
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resortes
|
Resortes
|
Adalberto Martínez Chávez (25 January 1916 – April 4, 2003), better known in the entertainment world as Resortes, was a renowned Mexican actor. Known primarily for his talent as a comedian, Resortes was also a dancer. His stage name is Spanish for "spring", or also "coil".
Resortes, who began his career as a member of a circus, made his motion picture debut in 1946. He participated in more than 50 Mexican movies throughout his career, and he also participated in many television series. Many of his best films he made were El Rey de México (The King of Mexico), El Cartero del Barrio, Al son del mambo (To the Mambo's Rhythm) and El Futbolista Fenómeno (The Phenomenal Soccer Player). But one of his most famous movies was La Niña de la Mochila Azul (The Girl With the Blue Back Pack). That movie also had a sequel, La Niña de la Mochila Azul 2 (The Girl With the Blue Back Pack 2). Those two movies in particular became two of the largest teen movie hits in Mexican movie history and helped Resortes gain familiarity among the younger generations during the 1980s.
Resortes was hospitalized with emphysema on April 3, 2003, and died on April 4.
Selected filmography
Confessions of a Taxi Driver (1949)
They Say I'm a Communist (1951)
My Three Merry Widows (1953)
The King of Mexico (1956)
La Presidenta Municipal (1975)
La Esperanza de los Pobres (1983)
External links
1916 births
2003 deaths
Golden Ariel Award winners
Mexican male film actors
Mexican male telenovela actors
Mexican male television actors
Mexican male comedians
20th-century comedians
Deaths from emphysema
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faisal%20of%20Saudi%20Arabia
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Faisal of Saudi Arabia
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Faisal bin Abdulaziz Al Saud ( Fayṣal ibn ʿAbd al ʿAzīz Āl Suʿūd, Najdi Arabic pronunciation: ; 14 April 1906 – 25 March 1975) was a Saudi Arabian statesman and diplomat who was King of Saudi Arabia from 2 November 1964 until his assassination in 1975. Prior to his ascension, he served as Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia from 9 November 1953 to 2 November 1964, and he was briefly regent to his half-brother King Saud in 1964. He was the third son of King Abdulaziz, the founder of modern Saudi Arabia, and the second of Abdulaziz's six sons who were kings.
Faisal was the son of Abdulaziz and Tarfa bint Abdullah Al Sheikh. His father was still reigning as Emir of Nejd at the time of Faisal's birth,
and his mother was from the Al ash-Sheikh family which has produced many prominent Saudi religious leaders. Faisal emerged as an influential royal politician during his father's reign. He served as viceroy of Hejaz from 1926 to 1932. He was the Saudi foreign minister from 1930 and prime minister from 1954 until his death, except for a two-year break (1960–1962) in both positions. After his father died in 1953 and his half-brother Saud became king, Faisal became crown prince, and in that position he outlawed slavery in Saudi Arabia. He persuaded King Saud to abdicate in his favour in 1964 with the help of other members of the royal family and his first cousin Muhammad ibn Ibrahim Al ash-Sheikh, Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia.
Faisal implemented a policy of modernization and reform. His main foreign policy themes were pan-Islamism, anti-communism, and pro-Palestinianism. He attempted to limit the power of Islamic religious officials. Protesting against support that Israel received from the West, he led the oil embargo which caused the 1973 oil crisis. Faisal successfully stabilized the kingdom's bureaucracy, and his reign had significant popularity among Saudi Arabians despite his reforms facing some controversy. In 1975, he was assassinated by his nephew Faisal bin Musaid. King Faisal was succeeded by his half-brother Khalid bin Abdulaziz.
Early life and education
Faisal bin Abdulaziz was born in Riyadh on 14 April 1906. He was the third son of Abdulaziz, then Emir of Nejd; Faisal was the first of his father's sons who was born in Riyadh. His mother was Tarfa bint Abdullah Al Sheikh, whom Abdulaziz had married in 1902 after capturing Riyadh. Tarfa was a descendant of the religious leader Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab. Faisal's grandfather Abdullah bin Abdullatif Al Sheikh was one of Abdulaziz's principal religious teachers and advisers. Faisal had an older full sister, Noura, who married her cousin Khalid bin Muhammad, a son of King Abdulaziz's half-brother Muhammad bin Abdul Rahman.
Tarfa bint Abdullah died in 1906 when Faisal was six months old. He then began to live with his maternal grandparents, Abdullah bin Abdullatif and Haya bint Abdul Rahman Al Muqbel, and Abdullah educated his grandson. According to Helen Chapin Metz, Faisal, and most of his generation, was raised in an atmosphere in which courage was extremely valued and reinforced. From 1916 he was tutored by Hafiz Wahba who later served in various governmental posts.
In 1919 the British government invited Abdulaziz to visit London. He could not go, but he assigned his eldest son Prince Turki as his envoy. However, Prince Turki died due to Spanish flu before the visit. Therefore, Prince Faisal was sent to London instead, making him the first ever Saudi Arabian royal to visit England. His visit lasted for five months, and he met with British officials. During the same period, he also visited France, again being the first Saudi Arabian royal to pay an official visit there.
Early political experience
As one of Abdulaziz's eldest sons, Prince Faisal was given numerous responsibilities to consolidate control over Arabia. After the capture of Hail and initial control over Asir in 1922, he was sent to these provinces with nearly six thousand fighters. He achieved complete control over Asir at the end of the year. Prince Faisal was appointed viceroy of Hejaz on 9 February 1926 following his father's takeover of the region. He often consulted with local leaders during his tenure. In addition, Prince Faisal was the president of the consultative assembly and the minister of interior.
In December 1931 following the announcement of the constitution of the council of deputies (Majlis al Wukala) he became the president of the four-member council and minister of foreign affairs, and continued to hold his previous titles, viceroy of Hejaz, the president of the consultative assembly and the minister of interior. He would continue to oversee Saudi foreign policy until his death—even as king, with only a two-year break between 1960 and 1962.
Faisal visited several countries in this period, including Iran in May 1932, Poland in 1932 and Russia (as part of the USSR) in 1933. On 8 July 1932 Faisal visited Turkey and met with Kemal Atatürk, founder of modern Turkey.
He commanded a campaign during the Saudi–Yemeni War in 1934, resulting in a Saudi victory. He and his half-brother Khalid visited the US in October 1943 following the invitation of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. This is one of the early contacts between Saudi Arabia and the USA.
After he became foreign minister, Prince Faisal was recognized for his support for the Palestinian cause. His involvement with the Palestinian cause began in 1938, when he represented his father in the London Conference on the Palestine issue, where he delivered an important address opposing the partition plan. He wrote a message to the Saudi people in 1948 in which he discussed the Palestinian struggle and the suffering of the Palestinian people.
As King Abdulaziz neared the end of his life, he favored Prince Faisal as a possible successor over his eldest living son, Crown Prince Saud, due to Faisal's extensive knowledge, as well as his years of experience. Since Faisal was a child, Abdulaziz recognized him as the most brilliant of his sons and often tasked him with responsibilities in war and diplomacy. In addition, Faisal was known to embrace a simple Bedouin lifestyle. "I only wish I had three Faisals", King Abdulaziz once said when discussing who would succeed him. However, King Abdulaziz made the decision to keep Saud as crown prince in the fear that otherwise would lead to decreased stability.
Crown prince and prime minister
King Abdulaziz died on 9 November 1953, and Prince Faisal was at his side. Prince Faisal's elder half-brother, Saud, became king. Faisal was then appointed crown prince. On 16 August 1954 he was made prime minister.
King Saud embarked on a spending program that included the construction of a massive royal residence on the outskirts of the capital, Riyadh. He also faced pressure from neighboring Egypt, where Gamal Abdel Nasser had overthrown the monarchy in 1952. Nasser was able to cultivate a group of dissident princes (known as the Free Princes) led by Prince Talal bin Abdulaziz, who defected to Egypt. Fearing that King Saud's financial policies were bringing the state to the brink of collapse, and that his handling of foreign affairs was inept, senior members of the royal family and the ulema (religious leadership) pressured Saud into appointing Faisal to the position of prime minister in 1958, giving Faisal wide executive powers.
A power struggle ensued between King Saud and Crown Prince Faisal, and on 18 December 1960, Crown Prince Faisal resigned as prime minister in protest, arguing that King Saud was frustrating his financial reforms. King Saud took back his executive powers and, having induced Prince Talal to return from Egypt, appointed him as minister of finance in July 1958. In 1962, however, Crown Prince Faisal rallied enough support within the royal family to install himself as prime minister for a second time. Less than a month before this event Crown Prince Faisal and US President John F. Kennedy held a secret meeting in Washington, D.C. on 4 October 1962. The same year, Crown Prince Faisal announced the Ten Point Program, which outlined Saudi Arabia's path to becoming an industrialized nation by implementing economic, financial, political, and legal principles. Among the highlights were:
Issuing a basic system of governance derived from Islamic Sharia and developing the system of governance and the Council of Ministers.
Establishing a system for the provinces, clarifying the method of local government, in the various regions of the Kingdom.
Establishing a system for the independence of the judiciary, under the control of a Supreme Judicial Council, and establishing the Ministry of Justice.
Establishing a Supreme Council for issuing fatwas, comprising twenty members of jurists.
Improving the social level of the Saudi people, through free medical treatment, free education, and the exemption of many foodstuffs from customs duties. In addition, a social security system and a system to protect workers from unemployment were established.
Establishing a program for economic recovery, strengthening the financial position of the Kingdom, developing a program to raise the standard of living of citizens, establishing a road network linking parts of the Kingdom and its cities, providing water sources for drinking and agriculture, and ensuring the protection of light and heavy national industries. This includes allocating all the additional sums that the government will receive from Aramco for its rights claimed by the companies for the past years, and harnessing them to serve development projects.
Continuing to develop girls' education as well as the advancement of women.
The liberation of slaves and the abolition of slavery, once and for all in Saudi Arabia.
Crown Prince Faisal founded Economic Development Committee in 1958. He was instrumental in the establishment of the Islamic University of Madinah in 1961. In 1962 he helped found the Muslim World League, a worldwide charity to which the Saudi royal family has reportedly since donated more than a billion dollars. In 1963 he established the country's first television station, though actual broadcasts would not begin for another two years.
Struggle with King Saud
The struggle with King Saud continued in the background during this time. Taking advantage of the king's absence from the country for medical reasons in early 1963, Faisal began amassing more power for himself. He removed many of Saud's loyalists from their posts and appointed like-minded princes in key military and security positions, such as his half-brother Prince Abdullah, to whom he gave command of the National Guard in 1962. Upon King Saud's return, Crown Prince Faisal demanded that he be made regent and that King Saud be reduced to a purely ceremonial role. In this, he had the crucial backing of the ulema (elite Islamic scholars), including a fatwā (edict) issued by the grand mufti of Saudi Arabia, a relative of Crown Prince Faisal on his mother's side, calling on King Saud to accede to his brother's demands.
King Saud refused, however, and made a last-ditch attempt to retake executive powers, leading Crown Prince Faisal to order the National Guard to surround King Saud's palace. His loyalists outnumbered and outgunned, King Saud relented, and on 4 March 1964, Crown Prince Faisal was appointed regent. A meeting of the elders of the royal family and the ulema was convened later that year, and a second fatwā was decreed by the grand mufti, calling on King Saud to abdicate the throne in favor of his brother. The royal family supported the fatwā and immediately informed King Saud of their decision. King Saud, by now shorn of all his powers, agreed, and Faisal was proclaimed king on 2 November 1964. Saud then went into exile, finding refuge in Egypt before eventually settling in Greece.
King of Saudi Arabia
In a speech shortly after he came to power on 2 November 1964, Faisal said:
One of the earliest actions Faisal took as king was to establish a council to deal with future succession issues. The members were two of his uncles, Prince Abdullah and Prince Musaid, and five of his half-brothers, Crown Prince Khalid, Prince Fahd, Prince Abdullah, Prince Sultan and Prince Nawwaf. In 1967 King Faisal established the post of second prime minister and appointed Prince Fahd to this post. The reason for this newly established body was Crown Prince Khalid's request and suggestion. King Faisal's most senior adviser during his reign was Rashad Pharaon, his father's private physician. Another adviser was Mohammad ibn Ibrahim Al Sheikh, who was influential in shaping the king's political role in the Arab world.
Modernization
Early in his rule, King Faisal issued an edict that all Saudi princes had to school their children inside the country, rather than sending them abroad; this had the effect of making it popular for upper-class families to bring their sons back to study in the Kingdom. King Faisal also introduced the country's current system of administrative regions, and laid the foundations for a modern welfare system. In 1970 he established the Ministry of Justice and inaugurated the country's first "five-year plan" for economic development.
One of his modernization attempts was the new laws on media, publishing, and archiving and bilateral cultural cooperation protocols with foreign and corporate archives that kept records about mid-twentieth century Arabia. Television broadcasts officially began in 1965. The same year a nephew of Faisal attacked the newly established headquarters of Saudi television but was killed by security personnel. The attacker was the brother of Faisal's future assassin, and the incident is the most widely accepted motive for the murder. Although there was some discontent with the social changes he carried out, the Arab world grew to respect Faisal as a result of his policies modernizing Saudi Arabia, his management of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, his reputation as a staunch opponent of Zionism, and the country's fast-rising financial strength.
Steps against coups d'état
The 1950s and 1960s saw numerous coups d'état in the region. Muammar Gaddafi's coup that overthrew the monarchy in oil-rich Libya in 1969 was especially threatening for Saudi Arabia due to the similarity between the two sparsely-populated desert countries. As a result, King Faisal undertook to build a sophisticated security apparatus and cracked down firmly on dissent. As in all affairs, King Faisal justified these policies in Islamic terms. Early in his reign, when faced with demands for a written constitution for the country, King Faisal responded that "our constitution is the Quran". In the summer of 1969 King Faisal ordered the arrest of hundreds of military officers, including some generals, alleging that a military coup d'état was being planned. The coup was planned primarily by air force officers and aimed at overthrowing the monarchy and founding a Nasserist regime in the country. The arrests were possibly based on a tip from American intelligence.
Religious inclusiveness
King Faisal seemed to hold the pluralist view, favouring limited, cautious accommodation of popular demands for inclusive reform, and made repeated attempts to broaden political representation, harking back to his temporarily successful national integration policy from 1965 to 1975. King Faisal acknowledged his country's religious and cultural diversity, which includes the predominantly Shia Al Ahsa in the east; the Asir in the southwest, with tribal affinities to Yemen, especially among the Ismaili tribes of Najran and Jizan; and the Kingdom of the Hejaz, with its capital Mecca. He included non-Wahhabi, cosmopolitan Sunni Hejazis from Mecca and Jeddah in the Saudi government. It was said that he would not take any decision regarding Mecca without seeking the advice of Sunni (Sufi) scholar al-Sayyid 'Alawi ibn 'Abbas al-Maliki al-Hasani, the father of Muhammad ibn 'Alawi al-Maliki. Similarly in 1962, in promoting a broader, non-sectarian form of pan-Islamism, King Faisal launched the Muslim World League where the Tijani Sufi scholar Ibrahim Niass was invited. Furthermore, he countered the outlook of certain prior Saudi rulers in declaring to the Saudi state clergy that, "All Muslims, from Egypt, India etc. are your brothers". However Mai Yamani argued that after his reign, discrimination based on sect, tribe, region, and gender became the order of the day and has remained as such until today.
The role and authority of the state clergy declined after the rise of King Faisal even though they had helped bring him to the throne in 1964. Despite his piety and biological relationship through his mother to the Al as Shaykh family, and his support for the pan-Islamic movement in his struggle against pan-Arabism, he decreased the ulema's power and influence. Unlike his successor King Khalid, King Faisal attempted to prevent radical clerics from controlling religious institutions such as the Council of Senior Ulema, the highest religious institution in Saudi Arabia, or taking religious offices such as Grand Mufti, responsible for preserving Islamic law. But his advisers warned that, once religious zealots had been motivated, disastrous effects would result.
Due to his status as a pious Muslim, Faisal was able to implement careful social reforms such as female education. Despite this, religious conservatives staged large protests. By holding talks with the conservatives, he was able to persuade them of the importance of progress in the coming years by using their own logic.
Corruption in the royal family was taken very seriously by religious figures in the Islamic theological colleges. They challenged some of the accepted theological interpretations adopted by the Saudi regime. One such influential figure was Shaykh Abdulaziz bin Baz, then rector of the Al Medina college of theology. King Faisal would not tolerate his criticism and had him removed from his position. However, his teachings had already radicalized some of his students one of which was Juhayman al-Otaybi.
Abolition of slavery
Slavery did not vanish in Saudi Arabia until King Faisal issued a decree for its total abolition in 1962. BBC presenter Peter Hobday stated that about 1,682 slaves were freed at that time, at a cost to the government of $2,000 each. The political analyst Bruce Riedel argued that the US began to raise the issue of slavery after the meeting between King Abdulaziz and US president Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1945 and that John F. Kennedy finally persuaded the House of Saud to abolish slavery in 1962.
Foreign relations
As king, Faisal employed Islam as one of Saudi Arabia's foreign policy tools which differentiated him from King Abdulaziz and King Saud. However, he continued the close alliance with the United States begun by King Abdulaziz, and relied on the US heavily for arming and training his armed forces. King Faisal was anti-communist. He refused any political ties with the Soviet Union and other Communist bloc countries, professing to see a complete incompatibility between communism and Islam. His first official visit as king to the US was in June 1966.
Faisal is said to have reminded the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, in a correspondence that he was not "the Shah of France" and that he should keep in mind that Iran was a majority Muslim country. This was in response to comments from Mohammad Reza asking Faisal to modernise Saudi Arabia, allowing women to wear miniskirts and permitting the disco among other things. Otherwise, the Shah felt, he could not guarantee that the King would stay on the throne.
Six-Day War
During the Six-Day War, King Faisal ordered the Saudi Arabian Armed Forces to be on alert, canceling all vacations and mobilizing forces in the Kingdom's north. Following that, orders were issued for a force of 20,000 Saudi soldiers to travel to Jordan to participate alongside the Arab forces. After the war, he directed that a Saudi force be stationed inside Jordanian territory to provide support and assistance as needed for ten years.
Furthermore, at the Khartoum Conference, Saudi Arabia, Libya, and Kuwait agreed to establish a fund worth $378 million to be distributed among countries affected by the June 1967 War. Saudi Arabia would contribute $140 million.
Prince Amr bin Mohammed Al-Faisal said "I am told by my relatives, my other relatives, after 1967 and the fall of Jerusalem to the Israelis, that was a turning point in his life. He never smiled again, according to them. I didn't see him smile much, and he became very quiet and contemplative, and mostly he would spend his time listening rather than speaking himself."
Arson attack on Al-Aqsa Mosque
Between 23 and 25 September 1969, King Faisal convened a conference in Rabat, Morocco, to discuss the arson attack on the Al Aqsa Mosque that had occurred a month earlier. The leaders of 25 Muslim states attended and the conference called for Israel to give up territory conquered in 1967. The conference also set up the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and pledged its support for the Palestinians.
Yom Kippur War
Following the death of Nasser in 1970, King Faisal drew closer to Egypt's new president, Anwar Sadat, who himself was planning a break with the Soviet Union and a move towards the pro-American camp.
During the 1973 Arab–Israeli War launched by Sadat, King Faisal withdrew Saudi oil from world markets and was the primary force behind the 1973 oil crisis, in protest over Western support for Israel during the conflict. The embargo was initially imposed on Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States, but it was later extended to Portugal, Rhodesia, and South Africa. The price of oil had risen about 300 percent by the conclusion of the embargo in March 1974, from US to nearly globally; US prices were much higher. The embargo triggered an oil crisis, or "shock", with numerous short- and long-term implications for world politics and the economy. This was regarded as the defining act of King Faisal's career, and gained him lasting prestige among many Arabs and Muslims worldwide.
In 1974 King Faisal was named Time magazine's Man of the Year, and the financial windfall generated by the crisis fueled the economic boom that occurred in Saudi Arabia after his death. The new oil revenue also allowed Faisal to greatly increase the aid and subsidies begun following the 1967 Six-Day War to Egypt, Syria, and the Palestine Liberation Organization.
It is a commonly-held belief in Saudi Arabia, and the wider Arab world, that King Faisal's oil embargo was the real cause of his assassination, via a Western conspiracy.
Personal life
King Faisal married many times concurrently. His spouses were from powerful families: Al Kabir, Al Sudairi, Al Jiluwi and Al Thunayan. His wives were:
Sultana bint Ahmed Al Sudairi, the mother of his eldest son Prince Abdullah, whom Faisal fathered when he was between 15 and 17. Sultana was from the Sudairi family and the younger sister of Hassa bint Ahmed, the mother of the Sudairi brothers.
Iffat Al-Thunayan (1916–2000), who was born and raised in Turkey. Her ancestors were part of the Al Thunayan branch of the Al Saud family. They first met in Istanbul around 1932 while he was in Turkey for an official visit. They had nine children, including Prince Mohammed, Prince Saud, and Prince Turki. Iffat was credited with being the influence behind many of her husband's reforms, particularly with regard to women. Faisal also raised Iffat's younger half-brother, Kamal Adham. King Faisal later appointed Kamal as the first president of the Saudi intelligence agency, Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah. He was also an advisor to his royal brother-in-law.
Al Jawhara bint Saud Al Kabir, the daughter of his aunt Noura bint Abdul Rahman and Saud Al Kabir bin Abdulaziz Al Saud. They married in October 1935. With Al Jawhara, Faisal had one daughter, Mashail (died October 2011).
Haya bint Turki bin Abdulaziz Al Turki, the mother of Princess Noura, Prince Saad and Prince Khalid. She was a member of the Al Jiluwi clan.
Hessa bint Muhammad bin Abdullah Al Muhanna Aba Al Khail, the mother of Princess Al Anoud (died June 2011) and Princess Al Jawhara (died April 2014).
Munira bint Suhaim bin Hitimi Al Thunayan Al Mahasher, the mother of Princess Hessa (died in December 2020).
Fatima bint Abdulaziz bin Mushait Al Shahrani, the mother of Princess Munira (died young).
King Faisal's children were well educated and had prominent roles in Saudi society and government. His daughters were educated abroad and they went on to graduate from a variety of schools and universities around the world. His sons were likewise educated abroad. Comparatively, only six of the 108 children of his half-brother and predecessor, King Saud, graduated from high school. King Faisal's son Prince Turki received formal education at prestigious schools in New Jersey, and he later attended Georgetown University, while Prince Saud was an alumnus of Princeton University. King Faisal's sons held important positions in the Saudi government. His eldest son, Prince Abdullah, held governmental positions for a while. Prince Khalid was the governor of Asir Province in southwestern Saudi Arabia for more than three decades before becoming governor of Makkah Province in 2007. Prince Saud was the Saudi foreign minister between 1975 and 2015. Prince Turki served as head of Saudi Intelligence, ambassador to the United Kingdom, and later ambassador to the United States. Prince Abdul Rahman who was a graduate of Sandhurst Military Academy died in March 2014. Prince Mohammed who died in 2017 was a businessman. Prince Saad died in April 2017. King Faisal's daughters also held important roles in Saudi society. From 2013 to 2016, his daughter Princess Sara served in the Shura Council. She is also a prominent activist for women's education and other social issues in Saudi Arabia, and so are her sisters Princess Lolowah, Princess Latifa, and Princess Haifa.
King Faisal's daughter Haifa is married to Prince Bandar, son of the king's half-brother Prince Sultan by a concubine. The marriage forced Prince Sultan to recognize Bandar as a legitimate prince. Another daughter of King Faisal, Lolowah, is a prominent activist for women's education in Saudi Arabia. In 1962 his daughter Sara founded one of the first charitable organizations, Al Nahda, which won the first Chaillot prize for human rights organisations in the Gulf in 2009. Her spouse was Prince Muhammed, one of King Saud's sons. One of his daughters, Princess Mishail, died at the age of 72 in October 2011. His granddaughter Reem bint Mohammed is a photographer and gallery owner based in Jeddah.
Unlike most of his half-brothers, King Faisal spoke fluent English and French. However, he preferred to speak in Arabic. When his translators made errors, Faisal would correct them.
Personality and pastimes
King Faisal was known for his integrity, extreme humility, kindness, and tact with everyone. As a result, he was ascetic, avoiding displays of extravagance and luxury. He had many hobbies, some of which were falconry, hunting, literature, reading, and poetry. He was also a big admirer of the yearly Najdi festivals and celebrations. Faisal chose to work long hours and set aside some of his interests after assuming power and becoming preoccupied with state affairs.
Assassination and aftermath
On 25 March 1975, King Faisal was shot point-blank and killed by Faisal bin Musaid, son of his half-brother Musaid bin Abdulaziz. Prince Faisal bin Musaid had just come back from the United States. The murder occurred at a majlis (literally 'a place for sitting'), an event where the king or leader opens up his residence to the citizens to enter and petition him.
In the waiting room, Prince Faisal talked to Kuwaiti representatives who were also waiting to meet the king. When the prince went to embrace him, King Faisal leaned to kiss his nephew in accordance with Saudi custom. At that instant, Prince Faisal bin Musaid took out a pistol and shot him. The first shot hit King Faisal's chin and the second one went through his ear. A bodyguard hit Prince Faisal with a sheathed sword. Oil minister Zaki Yamani yelled repeatedly not to kill the prince.
King Faisal was quickly taken to a hospital. He was still alive as doctors massaged his heart and gave him a blood transfusion. Their efforts were unsuccessful, and King Faisal died shortly afterward. Both before and after the attack the assassin was reported to be calm. Following the killing, Riyadh had three days of mourning during which all government activities were suspended. The funeral service for King Faisal was performed in 'Id mosque in Riyadh, and he was buried in Al Oud cemetery on 26 March 1975. During the funeral, the newly ascended King Khalid wept over his murdered brother's body.
One theory for the murder of King Faisal was avenging the death of Prince Khalid bin Musaid, the brother of Prince Faisal bin Musaid. King Faisal instituted secular reforms that led to the installation of television, which provoked violent protests. Prince Khalid led an attack on a television station in 1966, and he was shot dead by a policeman.
According to claims by King Faisal's family and friends, Prince Faisal bin Musaid had informed his mother Watfa bint Muhammad Al Rashid of his assassination plans. Wafta then informed King Faisal, who said "if it is Allah's will, then it would happen." In a documentary entitled "Faisal, Legacy of a King", Faisal's grandson Amr bin Mohammed bin Faisal claims that the king had distanced himself from the world days before his death. Zaki Yamani claimed that King Faisal told his own relatives and friends about a dream he had in which his father, the late King Abdulaziz, was traveling in a car and asked him to get in. Yamani went on to say that if a dead person takes a living person in a dream, the living person will most likely die within a short amount of time according to Islamic beliefs.
Prince Faisal bin Musaid was captured directly after the attack. He was at first officially declared insane, but following the trial a panel of Saudi medical experts decided that he was sane when he shot the king. The nation's high religious court convicted him of regicide and sentenced him to execution. He was publicly beheaded in Deera Square in Riyadh.
Memorials and legacy
After his death, the King Faisal Foundation, a philanthropic organisation, was established in King Faisal's honour. King Faisal was eulogized by lyricist Robert Hunter in the title track of the Grateful Dead's 1975 album Blues for Allah.
Following the reign of King Faisal Gerald de Gaury published a biography of him entitled Faisal: King of Saudi Arabia. In 2013 Russian Arabist Alexei Vassiliev published another biography, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia: Personality, Faith and Times. A movie directed by Agustí Villaronga in 2019 entitled Born a King is about the visit of King Faisal to London in 1919 when he was thirteen years old.
In October 1976 King Khalid initiated the construction of Faisal Mosque in Islamabad, Pakistan. Lyallpur, the third largest city of Pakistan, was renamed Faisalabad (literally, "City of Faisal") in 1979 in his honor. One of the two major Pakistan Air Force bases in Pakistan's Sindh province's largest city, Karachi, is named "PAF Base Faisal" in honour of King Faisal.
His words
Generalized quotes
"The Islamic call, when it emerged from these places and spread its light to all parts of the earth, was a good call that calls for peace, calls for truth, calls for justice and calls for equality, and this is what our noble Sharia achieves, and this is what we must follow and adhere to."
"We are not the ones who say, 'We will work, but we are used to God's power to say: We have worked."
"Arm yourselves with science"
"If I were not a king, I would be a teacher."
"Our youth education is based on three pillars: belief, science and work."
"We want this Kingdom to be a beacon of light for humanity, now and fifty years from now."
Israel and Palestine
On 28 March 1965, Saudi Arabia's national radio broadcast a declaration by King Faisal about his country's willingness to use oil as a weapon against Israel. He said, "We consider the issue of Palestine our cause and the first Arab cause, and Palestine is more valuable to us than oil. Oil can be used as a weapon in battle if necessary. The Palestinian people must return to their homeland, even if it costs us all our lives."
Addressing the president of the American Tapline Company, King Faisal declared, "Any drop of oil that goes to Israel will make me cut off the oil for you."
The BBC conducted an interview with King Faisal. During the interview, the reporter asked King Faisal "what sequence of events would [Faisal] like to see now in the Middle East." The king replied, "The first thing is the demise of Israel."
When oil was cut off from the United States during the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, Henry Kissinger warned Faisal, "If Saudi Arabia does not lift the boycott, America will come and bomb the oilfields." King Faisal replied back "You are the ones who can't live without oil. You know, we come from the desert, and our ancestors lived on dates and milk and we can easily go back and live like that again."
Henry Kissinger said in his memoirs that when he met King Faisal in Jeddah the king was sad, so he told a joke to King Faisal, "My plane ran out of oil so will your majesty order it to get supplied with oil and we are ready to pay at international rates?" Unamused, King Faisal said to Kissinger, "And I'm an old man who wishes to pray in Al-Aqsa before I die so will you help me in my wish?" At supper Faisal remarked to Kissinger, "You must have noticed, nothing in this dinner tonight carries foreign mark. The meat on the table comes from locally hunted camels. The delicacies all made on Arab land, from Arab resources. The lamps that give us light tonight, burn on fuel extracted from camel fat. If you dare come here, we would set our wells on fire and wander into the deserts. We, as you see, would survive. What would you do?"
On the occasion of US President Richard Nixon's visit to the Kingdom on 21 June 1974, Faisal bin Abdulaziz told him, "The injustice and aggression inflicted on the Palestinian Arab people is unparalleled in history, even in the dark ages. An entire people has been displaced from their land and homeland to replace another people. The Arab States have appealed to the world's conscience for nearly a quarter of a century to realize the right and lift the injustice against them, but our pleas have not been heeded, forcing them to take up arms in defense of their rights, lands and sanctities."
Honors
Faisal has received numerous honors from the countries he visited both before and after assuming power. In 1983, the King Faisal Foundation, an international philanthropic organization founded by King Faisal's sons, established the King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies in Riyadh. The honors and awards given to King Faisal are displayed there. The awards are as follows:
, Order of the Sun and Collar, Order of Independence
, Order of Leopold
, National Order of Chad
, Order of Ismial (Kingdom), Order of the Nile Collar (Kingdom), and Order of the Nile Collar (Republic)
, Legion of Honor (First and Second Class)
, Order of George I
, The National Order
, Order of the Republic
, Order of Pahlavi with collar and Order of Taj
, Order of El-Rafidain and Order of Faisal I
, Order of the Crown
, Collar of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum
, Order of Al Hussein - Collar only and Order of Al Nahda (twice)
, Order of Distinguished Diplomatic Service
, Order of the Cedar
, Order of the Pioneers of Liberia
, Order of Idris I (Kingdom)
, Order of the Crown
, Order of Mauritania
, Order of Mohammed - Collar only
, Order of Orange-Nassau
, National Order of Niger and Order of Merit of Niger
, Order of Oman - Military and Collar
, Order of Polonia Restiituta
, Order of Imtiaz and Order of Pakistan
, Order of King Abdulaziz
, Order of Merit of Senegal
, Order of the Somali Star and Collar
, The Order of Civil Merit and Collar
, Collar of Honor
, Order of Omayyad
, Order of Brilliant Jade with Grand Cordon and Order of Brilliant Star
, Order of Iftikhar and Order of Independence and Collar
, Gold Red Crescent Medal
, Order of the Nile
, Royal Victorian Chain, Order of the British Empire, and Order of St. Michael and St. George (2nd Class)
, Order of the Leopard
Notes
References
External links
20th-century murdered monarchs
20th-century Saudi kings
1970s murders in Saudi Arabia
1975 murders in Asia
1906 births
1975 deaths
Anti-Zionism
Assassinated Saudi Arabian politicians
Burials at Al Oud cemetery
Collars of the Order of Civil Merit
Crown Princes of Saudi Arabia
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques
Deaths by firearm in Saudi Arabia
Finance ministers of Saudi Arabia
Foreign ministers of Saudi Arabia
Grand Cross of the Order of Civil Merit
Interior ministers of Saudi Arabia
People of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War
People of the Yom Kippur War
Prime Ministers of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabian anti-communists
Saudi Arabian Sunni Muslims
Sons of Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia
Time Person of the Year
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207317
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20of%20the%20Republic%20of%20Ireland
|
Law of the Republic of Ireland
|
The law of Ireland consists of constitutional, statute and common law. The highest law in the State is the Constitution of Ireland, from which all other law derives its authority. The Republic has a common-law legal system with a written constitution that provides for a parliamentary democracy based on the British parliamentary system, albeit with a popularly elected president, a separation of powers, a developed system of constitutional rights and judicial review of primary legislation.
History of Irish law
The sources of Irish law reflect Irish history and the various parliaments whose law affected the country down through the ages.
The Brehon Laws
The Brehon Laws were a relatively sophisticated early Irish legal system, the practice of which was only finally wiped out during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. The Brehon laws were a civil legal system only – there was no criminal law. Acts that would today be considered criminal were then dealt with in a similar manner to tort law today. A perpetrator would have to compensate the victim, rather than having a punishment, such as imprisonment, imposed upon him or her.
The first and second Dáil
The first and second Dáil sat in opposition to British rule in Ireland. The laws passed by the first and second Dáil had no official legal effect.
Constitutional law
The Irish Constitution was enacted by a popular plebiscite held on 1 July 1937, and came into force on 29 December of the same year. The Constitution is the cornerstone of the Irish legal system and is held to be the source of power exercised by the legislative, judicial and executive branches of government. The Irish Supreme Court and High Court exercise judicial review over all legislation and may strike down laws if they are inconsistent with the constitution.
The Constitution can only be amended by referendum. A proposal to amend the Constitution is introduced into Dáil Éireann (the lower house of parliament) as a bill and if passed by the Dáil, and passed or deemed to have been passed by the Senate (the upper house), is put to the people. Only Irish citizens resident in the state may vote. There is no threshold for such referendums and a simple majority of voters is sufficient for a proposal to be passed. Once passed by the people the President signs the referendum bill into law. As of November 2011, there have been 33 such referendums: 23 of which were approved by the people and 10 of which were rejected. The constitution was also amended twice during an initial transitional period of three years following the election of the first President of Ireland when amendments could be made without recourse to the people.
Statute law
Modern-day statute law is made by the bicameral National Parliament — more commonly known by its Irish name, the Oireachtas. Acts of the Oireachtas are split into sequentially numbered sections and may be cited by using a short title which gives the act a title roughly based on its subject matter and the year in which it was enacted. While the Oireachtas is bicameral, the upper house, the Senate, has little power which at most allows the Senate to delay rather than veto legislation, something that has only happened twice since 1937.
Article 50 of the Constitution of Ireland carried over all laws that had been in force in the Irish Free State prior to its coming into force on 29 December 1937, insofar as these laws were not repugnant to the new constitution. A similar function had been fulfilled by Article 73 of the Constitution of the Irish Free State, which carried overall legislation that had in force in Southern Ireland, insofar as these laws were not repugnant to the Constitution of the Irish Free State. As a result, while the Irish state has been in existence for less than one hundred years, the statute book stretches back in excess of 800 years. By virtue of the Statute Law Revision Act 2007, the oldest Act currently in force in Ireland is the Fairs Act 1204. The statute law of Ireland includes law passed by the following:
Pre-union Irish statutes
the King of England as a lawgiver for Ireland, and the Parliament of Ireland (1169–1800)
English and British statutes, which applied to Ireland in their original enactment or were subsequently applied to Ireland
the King of England (1066–1241)
the Parliament of England (1241–1706)
the Parliament of Great Britain (1707–1800)
Statutes of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which applied to Ireland in their original enactment or were subsequently applied to Ireland (1 January 1801 to 5 December 1922)
Statutes of independent Ireland
the Oireachtas of the Irish Free State (6 December 1922 to 28 December 1937)
the present Oireachtas (from 29 December 1937 to date)
Secondary legislation
Notwithstanding the declaration in the 1937 constitution that the Oireachtas is to be "the sole and exclusive" legislature, it has long been held that it is permissible for the Oireachtas to delegate its law-making power(s) to other bodies as long as such delegated legislation does not exceed the "principles and policies" set out in the relevant authorising statute.
All instances of delegated legislation in the Republic are known as statutory instruments, although only a small subset of these are numbered as statutory instruments and published by the Stationery Office. This latter subset is composed of statutory instruments which are required to be laid before the Oireachtas or which are of general application.
In addition, a body of charters, statutory rules and orders and other secondary legislation made prior to independence in 1922 continues to be in force in Ireland insofar as such legislation has not been revoked or otherwise ceased to be in force.
Common law
Ireland was the subject of the first extension of England's common law legal system outside England. While in England the creation of the common law was largely the result of the assimilation of existing customary law, in Ireland the common law was imported from England supplanting the customary law of the Irish. This, however, was a gradual process which went hand-in-hand with English (and later, British) influence in Ireland.
As with any common-law system, the Irish courts are bound by the doctrine of stare decisis to apply clear precedents set by higher courts and courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction. The main exception to this rule is that the Supreme Court has declared itself not to be bound by its own previous decisions.
While the doctrine clearly means that the present High Court is bound by decision of the present Supreme Court, it is not altogether clear whether the decisions of courts which previously performed the function of courts of last final appeal in Ireland – such as the British House of Lords – bind the present High Court. In Irish Shell v. Elm Motors, Mr Justice McCarthy doubted that decisions of pre-independence courts bound the courts of the state, stating that "[i]n no sense are our Courts a continuation of, or successors to, the British courts." However, the other two judges on the panel hearing the case declined to express an opinion on the matter as it had not been argued at the hearing of the appeal.
Post-independence judgments of the British courts, and all judgments of the American and Commonwealth courts are of persuasive value only and do not bind the Irish courts.
European Union law
The European Communities Act 1972, as amended, provides that treaties of the European Union are part of Irish law, along with directly effective measures adopted under those treaties. It also provides that government ministers may adopt statutory instruments to implement European Union law and that as an exception to the general rule such statutory instruments have effect as if they were primary legislation.
International law
Ireland is a dualist state and treaties are not part of Irish domestic law unless incorporated by the Oireachtas. An exception to this rule might well be the provision in the constitution which says that "Ireland accepts the generally recognised principles of international law as its rule of conduct in its relations with other States." However while this provision has been held to assimilate the doctrine of sovereign immunity into domestic law, the Supreme Court have held that the provision is not capable of conferring rights on individuals.
The dualist approach in international law contained in the Irish Constitution allows the state to sign and ratify treaties without incorporating them into domestic law. Thus while Ireland was one of the first states in Europe to ratify the European Convention on Human Rights it was one of the last to incorporate the Convention into domestic law. And when done it was not directly incorporated into Irish law but given indirect, sub-constitutional, interpretative incorporation.
In Crotty v. An Taoiseach, the Irish Supreme Court asserted a power to review the constitutionality of treaties signed by the state, such that the government could be prevented from signing up to international agreements which would be contrary to the constitution. A ruling which has resulted in ad hoc amendments to the constitution to permit the state to ratify treaties that might otherwise have been contrary to the constitution.
See also
Irish Statute Book
Legal systems of the world
List of Acts of the Oireachtas
Courts of the Republic of Ireland
Supreme Court
High Court
Special Criminal Court
Northern Ireland law
Further reading
References
External links
Government
Irish Statute Book
Constitution of Ireland
Acts of the Oireachtas in Irish and English
Office of the Attorney General of Ireland
Other
Irish Law Site at UCC
GlobaLex – Guide to Irish Law, 2016
Guide to Irish Law, 2001 — LLRX
The Irish Legal Information Institute
The British and Irish Legal Information Institute
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moritz%20Schlick
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Moritz Schlick
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Friedrich Albert Moritz Schlick (; ; 14 April 1882 – 22 June 1936) was a German philosopher, physicist, and the founding father of logical positivism and the Vienna Circle.
Early life and works
Schlick was born in Berlin to a wealthy Prussian family with deep nationalist and conservative traditions. His father was Ernst Albert Schlick and his mother was Agnes Arndt. At the age of sixteen, he started to read Descartes' Meditations and Schopenhauer's Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik. Especially Also sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spoke Zarathustra) by Friedrich Nietzsche would impress him.
He studied physics at the University of Heidelberg, the University of Lausanne, and, ultimately, the University of Berlin under Max Planck. Schlick explained this choice in his autobiography by saying that, despite his love for philosophy, he believed that only mathematical physics could help him obtain actual and exact knowledge. He felt deep distrust towards any metaphysical speculation.
In 1904, he completed his PhD thesis at the University of Berlin under the supervision of Planck. Schlick's thesis was titled Über die Reflexion des Lichts in einer inhomogenen Schicht (On the Reflection of Light in a Non-Homogeneous Medium). After a year as Privatdozent at Göttingen, he turned to the study of Philosophy in Zurich. In 1907, he married Blanche Hardy. In 1908, he published Lebensweisheit (The Wisdom of Life), a slim volume about eudaemonism, the theory that happiness results from the pursuit of personal fulfillment as opposed to passing pleasures.
His habilitation thesis at the University of Rostock, Das Wesen der Wahrheit nach der modernen Logik (The Nature of Truth According to Modern Logic), was published in 1910. Several essays about aesthetics followed, whereupon Schlick turned his attention to problems of epistemology, the philosophy of science, and more general questions about science. In this last category, Schlick distinguished himself by publishing a paper in 1915 about Einstein's special theory of relativity, a topic only ten years old. He also published Raum und Zeit in der gegenwärtigen Physik (Space and Time in Contemporary Physics), which extended his earlier results by applying Poincaré's geometric conventionalism to explain Einstein's adoption of a non-Euclidean geometry in the general theory of relativity.
The Vienna Circle and Wittgenstein
After early appointments at Rostock and Kiel, in 1922 Schlick assumed the chair of Naturphilosophie at the University of Vienna which had previously been held by Ludwig Boltzmann and Ernst Mach. Schlick displayed an unusual success in organizing talented individuals in the philosophical and scientific spheres. When Schlick arrived in Vienna, he was invited to lead a group of scientists and philosophers who met regularly (on Thursday evenings in the Chemistry Building) to discuss philosophical topics in the sciences. Early members included the mathematician Hans Hahn and, within a few years, they were joined by Rudolf Carnap, Herbert Feigl, Kurt Gödel, Otto Neurath, Friedrich Waismann and others. They initially called themselves the Ernst Mach Association, but they eventually became best known as the Vienna Circle. In the years 1925–26, the Thursday night group discussed recent work in the foundations of mathematics by Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Wittgenstein's book, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, was a work that advanced, among other things, a logical theory of symbolism and a "picture" or "model" theory of language. Schlick and his group were impressed by the work, devoting considerable time to its study and, even when it was no longer the principal focus of their discussion, it was mentioned in discussion. Eventually Wittgenstein agreed to meet with Schlick and other Circle members to discuss the Tractatus and other ideas but he later found it necessary to restrict the visitors to sympathetic interlocutors. Through Schlick's influence, Wittgenstein was encouraged to consider a return to philosophy after some ten years away from the field. Schlick and Waismann's discussions with Wittgenstein continued until the latter felt that germinal ideas had been used without permission in an essay by Carnap, a charge of dubious merit. But he continued discussions in letters to Schlick after he no longer met with other Circle members.
General Theory of Knowledge and later works
Schlick had worked on his Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre (General Theory of Knowledge) between 1918 and 1925, and, though later developments in his philosophy were to make various contentions of his epistemology untenable, the General Theory is perhaps his greatest work in its acute reasoning against synthetic a priori knowledge. This critique of synthetic a priori knowledge argues that the only truths which are self-evident to reason are statements which are true as a matter of definition, such as the statements of formal logic and mathematics. The truth of all other statements must be evaluated with reference to empirical evidence. If a statement is proposed which is not a matter of definition, and not capable of being confirmed or falsified by evidence, that statement is "metaphysical", which is synonymous with "meaningless", or "nonsense". This is the principle upon which members of the Vienna Circle were most clearly in agreement—with each other, as well as with Wittgenstein.
Problems of Ethics
Between 1926 and 1930, Schlick labored to finish Fragen der Ethik (Problems of Ethics), in which he surprised some of his fellow Circlists by including ethics as a viable branch of philosophy. In his 1932–33 contribution to Erkenntnis, "Positivism and Realism", Schlick offered one of the most illuminating definitions of positivism as every view "which denies the possibility of metaphysics" (Schlick [1932–1933], p. 260). Accordingly, he defined metaphysics as the doctrine of "true being", "thing in itself" or "transcendental being", a doctrine which obviously "presupposes that a non-true, lesser or apparent being stands opposed to it" (Ibid). Therefore, in this work he bases the positivism on a kind of epistemology which holds that the only true beings are givens or constituents of experience. Also during this time, the Vienna Circle published The Scientific View of the World: The Vienna Circle as a homage to Schlick. Its strong anti-metaphysical stance crystallized the viewpoint of the group.
Comment on Wittgenstein's Tractatus
Rudolf Carnap, in his book Logical Syntax of Language, included a comment by Schlick on Wittgenstein's Tractatus.
Death
With the rise of the Nazis in Germany and Austrofascism in Austria, many of the Vienna Circle's members left for the United States and the United Kingdom. Schlick, however, stayed on at the University of Vienna. When visited by Herbert Feigl in 1935, he expressed dismay at events in Germany. On 22 June 1936 Schlick was ascending the steps of the university for a class when he was confronted by a former student, Johann Nelböck, who killed Schlick with a pistol. The court declared Nelböck to be fully compos mentis; he confessed to the act, and was detained without any resistance, but was unrepentant. The killer used the judicial proceedings as a chance to present himself and his ideology in the public. He claimed that Schlick's anti-metaphysical philosophy had "interfered with his moral restraint". In another version of the events, the murderer covered up all political causes and claimed that he was motivated by jealousy over his failed attachment to the female student Sylvia Borowicka, leading to a paranoid delusion about Schlick as his rival and persecutor. Nelböck was tried and sentenced, but the event became a distorted cause célèbre around which crystallized the growing nationalist and anti-Jewish sentiments in the city. The fact that Schlick was not Jewish did not seem to matter to propagandists capitalizing on the crime, who associated Schlick with Jewish members of the intelligentsia. After the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in 1938 the murderer was released on probation after serving two years of a 10-year sentence.
Legacy
Schlick's enduring contribution to the world of philosophy is as the fount of logical positivism. His humanity, good will, gentleness, and especially his encouragement have been documented by many of his peers. Herbert Feigl and Albert Blumberg, in their introduction to the General Theory of Knowledge, wrote,
Works
Lebensweisheit. Versuch einer Glückseligkeitslehre. Munich, Becksche Verlagsbuchhandlung 1908
"Das Wesen der Wahrheit nach der modernen Logik", in: Vierteljahrsschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie und Soziologie, Jg. 34, 1910, p. 386–477
"Die philosophische Bedeutung des Relativitätsprinzips", in: Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik, 159, 1915, S. 129–175
Raum und Zeit in der gegenwärtigen Physik. Berlin: Verlag von Julius Springer 1917 (4th ed. 1922)
Hermann von Helmholtz. Schriften zur Erkenntnistheorie (Publishers: Moritz Schlick & Paul Hertz). Berlin: Springer 1921
Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre. Berlin: Verlag von Julius Springer 1918 (2nd edition 1925)
"Kritizistische oder empiristische Deutung der neuen Physik?", in: Kant-Studien, 26, 1921, p. 96–111
"Einsteins Relativitätstheorie". In: Mosse Almanach, 1921, S. 105–123.
"Erleben, Erkennen, Metaphysik", in: Kant-Studien, 31, 1926, p. 146–158
"Vom Sinn des Lebens", in: Symposion. Philosophische Zeitschrift für Forschung und Aussprache, Jg. 1, 1927, p. 331–354
Fragen der Ethik. Vienna: Verlag von Julius Springer 1930
"Gibt es ein Materiales Apriori?", 1930
"Unanswerable Questions?", 1935
"Meaning and Verification", 1936
Gesammelte Aufsätze 1926–1936. Vienna: Gerold & Co. 1938
Die Probleme der Philosophie in ihrem Zusammenhang. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag 1986
Moritz Schlick Gesamtausgabe. Vienna/New York: Springer Verlag 2006. — Almost complete author copy of Vol. I/1, I/2, I/3, I/5, I/6
See also
Definitions of philosophy
Notes
References
Edmonds, David and John Eidinow. Wittgenstein's Poker. New York: HarperCollins, 2001.
Fynn Ole Engler, Mathias Iven. Moritz Schlick. Leben, Werk und Wirkung. Berlin: Parerga 2008.
Schlick, Moritz. Positivism and Realism. Originally appeared in Erkenntnis 111 (1932/33); translated by Peter Heath and reprinted in Moritz Schlick: Philosophical Papers, Volume II (1925–1936) from Vienna Circle Collection, edited by Henk L. Mulder (Kluwer, 1979), pp. 259–284.
Further reading
Holt, Jim, "Positive Thinking" (review of Karl Sigmund, Exact Thinking in Demented Times: The Vienna Circle and the Epic Quest for the Foundations of Science, Basic Books, 449 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 20 (21 December 2017), pp. 74–76.
External links
Moritz Schlick Research Center at Rostock University
1882 births
1936 deaths
Atheist philosophers
Deaths by firearm in Austria
German atheists
German expatriates in Austria
20th-century German philosophers
20th-century German physicists
Linguistic turn
Logical positivism
People murdered in Austria
Philosophers of science
Vienna Circle
Writers from Berlin
University of Rostock faculty
German male writers
1930s murders in Austria
1936 crimes in Austria
1936 murders in Europe
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207326
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagens%20Nyheter
|
Dagens Nyheter
|
Dagens Nyheter (, lit. "the news of the day"), abbreviated DN, is a daily newspaper in Sweden. It is published in Stockholm and aspires to full national and international coverage.
History and profile
Dagens Nyheter was founded by Rudolf Wall in December 1864.
The first issue was published on 23 December 1864. During its initial period the paper was published in the morning. In 1874 the paper became a joint stock company. Its circulation in 1880 was 15,000 copies. In the 1890s, Wall left Dagens Nyheter and soon after, the paper became the organ of the Liberal Party. From 1946 to 1959 Herbert Tingsten was the executive editor.
The newspaper is owned by the Bonnier Group. Opinion leaders often choose Dagens Nyheter as the venue for publishing major opinion editorials. The stated position of the editorial page is "independently liberal". However, it left its formal alliance with the liberal establishment in the country in 1972.
Location
Dagens Nyheter operates from the so-called "DN-skrapan" (the DN skyscraper or Dagens Nyheter Tower) in Stockholm. This was completed in 1964 and was designed by the architect Paul Hedqvist. It is 84 metres (276 feet) tall and has 27 floors. In 1996, the entire enterprise moved to its current location on Gjörwellsgatan, which is adjacent to the old tower. The newspaper Expressen, also owned by the Bonnier Group, is located in this building as well.
Circulation
In the 1960s the circulation of Dagens Nyheter was much higher than that of other Swedish dailies. The paper has the largest circulation among the Swedish morning newspapers followed by Göteborgs-Posten and Svenska Dagbladet, and is the only morning newspaper that is distributed to subscribers across the entire country. In 2001 its circulation was 361,000 copies. The 2004 circulation of the paper was 363,000 copies. The circulation of the paper was 363,100 copies in weekdays in 2005 and had dropped to 292,300 copies in 2010. In 2013, the print edition of Dagens Nyheter had a circulation of 282,800 copies, reaching an approximate 758,000 persons every day. The web edition, www.dn.se, had on average roughly 1.5 million unique visitors per week during 2013.
See also
List of newspapers in Sweden
References
External links
in Swedish
1864 establishments in Sweden
Bonnier Group
Daily newspapers published in Sweden
Newspapers published in Stockholm
Publications established in 1864
Swedish-language newspapers
Swedish news websites
|
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207328
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6teborgs-Posten
|
Göteborgs-Posten
|
Göteborgs-Posten (lit. "The Gothenburg Post"), abbreviated GP, is a major Swedish language daily newspaper published in Gothenburg, Sweden.
History and profile
Göteborgs-Posten was first published in 1813, but ceased publication in 1822. It re-appeared in 1850. Publication seven days a week began in 1939. The paper is owned and published by a family company, Stampen, a subsidiary of Hjörne group. It changed its format from the classic broadsheet to compact on 5 October 2004.
Göteborgs-Posten is published in Gothenburg, with containing coverage of local, regional, national and international issues. It is chiefly distributed in western Götaland. The stated position of the editorial page is liberal (which in Sweden means center-right).
Circulation
According to its publisher, seven out of ten Gothenburgers read Göteborgs-Posten every day. In 1998 the circulation of the paper was 258,000 copies on weekdays and 286,000 copies on Sundays. The paper had a circulation of 245,900 copies on weekdays in 2005. It reached about 600,000 people every day with a circulation of 245,700 in 2006. Its 2010 circulation was 227,200 copies. The paper had a circulation of 189,400 copies in 2012 and 173,700 copies in 2013.
See also
Göteborgs Handels- och Sjöfartstidning
List of Swedish newspapers
References
External links
Official website
Official website - information in English
1813 establishments in Sweden
Publications established in 1813
Daily newspapers published in Sweden
Swedish-language newspapers
Mass media in Gothenburg
Swedish news websites
|
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207333
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mills%20Lane
|
Mills Lane
|
Mills Bee Lane III (born November 12, 1937) is an American former boxing referee and professional boxer, a two-term Washoe County, Nevada, District Court Judge, and television personality.
Lane is best known for having officiated several major heavyweight championship boxing matches in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, and for starring in the syndicated court show Judge Mills Lane. On June 9, 2013, Lane was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame and was likewise inducted into the Nevada Boxing Hall of Fame on August 10 of the same year.
Early life
Lane hails from a prominent Georgia family: his grandfather founded the largest bank in Georgia, and his uncle (and namesake) was the president of Citizens & Southern National Bank.
After his graduation from Middlesex School, Lane joined the United States Marine Corps in 1956. Subsequently, he enrolled at the University of Nevada, Reno, from which he graduated with a business degree in 1963. He then attended the University of Utah's S.J. Quinney College of Law, graduating with the class of 1970.
Boxing career
Lane became a boxer while serving as a Marine, becoming the All-Far East welterweight champ. He was an NCAA boxing champion. He turned pro while in college, eventually earning a 10–1 record as a professional. In the US Olympic Trials in San Francisco for the 1960 Summer Olympics, Lane was defeated by Phil Baldwin in the boxing semifinals.
Legal career
In 1979, Lane became Chief Deputy Sheriff of Investigative Services at the Washoe County Sheriff's Office. He was elected District Attorney in 1982 and District Judge in 1990.
Boxing referee career
Lane refereed his first world championship boxing match in 1971, when Betulio González had a fifteen-round draw with Erbito Salavarria for the WBC flyweight title.
Lane became a household name in the United States the night he refereed "The Bite Fight" rematch between world heavyweight champion Evander Holyfield and challenger Mike Tyson on June 28, 1997. Mitch Halpern was supposed to referee the fight, but Tyson's camp protested. So, Lane was brought in at the last minute. After Tyson bit Holyfield's ears twice, Lane disqualified him. Lane's shirt was stained with blood from the incident, and he sold it to a memorabilia collector on the same night.
Less than three weeks later, Lane refereed the match between Lennox Lewis and Henry Akinwande. Just like Tyson vs. Holyfield, it ended in disqualification when Akinwande used illegal tactics, these being excessive clinching and ignoring Lane's repeated orders to stop.
After the fight between Thomas Hearns and Jay Snyder on November 6, 1998, Lane retired as a boxing referee.
In 2013, Lane was elected to the International Boxing Hall of Fame. On August 10, 2013, he was also inducted into the Nevada Boxing Hall of Fame.
Television career
Lane presided over the court show, Judge Mills Lane. The court show lasted for three seasons, from 1998 to 2001. In addition to this show, the producers of MTV's Celebrity Deathmatch approached him about having his character and voice used in their show as the referee of their plasticine figure matches. Lane accepted the offer and became an MTV personality. As a referee, Lane started boxing matches by declaring "Let's get it on!", which became his catchphrase. This was reproduced in Celebrity Deathmatch as his character would shout the same phrase to initiate fights.
Lane made an appearance on the November 16, 1998, episode of WWE Raw. He appeared on the Titantron and made a ruling in regards to a contract dispute between Stone Cold Steve Austin and the McMahon family.
Lane guest voiced on an episode of Buzz Lightyear of Star Command, in which he played a judge.
Later life and legacy
Lane titled his autobiography Let's Get It On: Tough Talk from Boxing's Top Ref and Nevada's Most Outspoken Judge.
Lane suffered a debilitating stroke in March 2002, which left him partially paralyzed and virtually unable to speak. With his blessing, this led to his Celebrity Deathmatch alter-ego being voiced by Chris Edgerly (who played Nick Diamond) for the MTV2 revival.
Lane's adopted city of Reno proclaimed December 27, 2004, as “Mills Lane Day'”. In May 2006, Lane made his first public appearance in years at the dedication of a new courthouse in Reno which is named after him. The Mills B. Lane Justice Center houses the Reno Municipal Court and the Washoe County District Attorney's Office.
Professional boxing record
References
External links
1937 births
American male boxers
American male voice actors
Boxers from Georgia (U.S. state)
American boxing promoters
American boxing referees
International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees
Living people
Nevada lawyers
Sportspeople from Savannah, Georgia
Sportspeople from Reno, Nevada
Television judges
United States Marines
University of Nevada, Reno alumni
University of Utah alumni
Middlesex School alumni
Nevada state court judges
Welterweight boxers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydsvenskan
|
Sydsvenskan
|
{{Infobox newspaper
| name = Sydsvenska Dagbladet Snällposten
| logo = Sydsvenskan logo.svg
| image = Kvarteret Kaninen, Malmö 2014.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Sydsvenskans headquarters in Malmö.
| type = Daily newspaper
| format = Compact
| owners = Bonnier Group
| chiefeditor = Pia Rehnquist
| foundation =
| language = Swedish
| headquarters = Malmö, Sweden
| circulation = 99,800 (2013)
| ISSN = 1652-814X
| oclc =
| website = www.sydsvenskan.se
}}Sydsvenska Dagbladet Snällposten, generally known simply as Sydsvenskan''' (, The South Swedish), is a daily newspaper published in Scania in Sweden.
History and profileSydsvenskan was founded in 1870. In 1871 the paper merged with Snällposten which was started in 1848. Sydsvenskan is headquartered in Malmö and mostly distributed in southern Scania. Its coverage is characterized by local news from southwest Scania in addition to a full coverage of national, EU, and international news. The paper is owned by the Bonnier Group which bought it in 1994.
Until 1966, Sydsvenskan had close ties to the Rightist Party (now Moderate Party). In the Swedish debate about the country's role in the EU and in relation to the Eurozone, the paper has emphasized the importance of a closer political, economical, and cultural affiliation to Europe. Its stated editorial position is "independent liberal".
The newspaper changed its format from broadsheet to compact format on 5 October 2004.
Introduction and then removal of paywallSydsvenskan introduced a soft paywall in February 2013. Those who did not have a paper subscription could view a maximum of 20 free articles per month. A year after, this was changed to 5 articles per week. Subscription models were available from 28 Swedish kronor, with the cheapest one giving full access to the website. In August 2014, this was raised to 59 Swedish kronor (around US$7.10), as the former price was an introductory price. A year after the introduction of the paywall, 60,000 subscribers had created accounts on the website and 4,000 had purchased a digital subscription.
In January 2016, Sydsvenskan removed the paywall, with the editor-in-chief Pia Rehnquist saying that having a paywall had led to a general belief that you had to pay to read the website. She also said that the digital part is going well but they thought it would better to reach more readers.
Acquisition of Helsingborgs Dagblad
In the end of April 2014, Sydsvenskan acknowledged their intention to buy Helsingborgs Dagblad. A deal was reached in the end of May and the Swedish Competition Authority approved it around two weeks after. A strong reason was reported to be that both newspapers had seen their ad revenue decrease heavily.
Circulation
In 1998 the circulation of Sydsvenskan'' was 125,000 copies on weekdays and 146,000 copies on Sundays. The paper had a circulation of 129,300 copies on weekdays in 2005. It was 94,800 copies in 2012. The circulation of the paper was 99,800 copies in 2013.
See also
List of newspapers in Sweden
References
External links
Sydsvenskan
1870 establishments in Sweden
Bonnier Group
Mass media in Malmö
Daily newspapers published in Sweden
Publications established in 1870
Swedish-language newspapers
Swedish news websites
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salivary%20gland
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Salivary gland
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The salivary glands in mammals are exocrine glands that produce saliva through a system of ducts. Humans have three paired major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual), as well as hundreds of minor salivary glands. Salivary glands can be classified as serous, mucous, or seromucous (mixed).
In serous secretions, the main type of protein secreted is alpha-amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into maltose and glucose, whereas in mucous secretions, the main protein secreted is mucin, which acts as a lubricant.
In humans, between 0.5 and 1.5 l of saliva are produced every day. The secretion of saliva (salivation) is mediated by parasympathetic stimulation; acetylcholine is the active neurotransmitter and binds to muscarinic receptors in the glands, leading to increased salivation.
The fourth pair of salivary glands, the tubarial glands discovered in 2020, are named for their location, being positioned in front and over the torus tubarius. However, this finding from one study is yet to be confirmed.
Structure
The salivary glands are detailed below:
Parotid glands
The two parotid glands are major salivary glands wrapped around the mandibular ramus in humans. These are largest of the salivary glands, secreting saliva to facilitate mastication and swallowing, and amylase to begin the digestion of starches. It is the serous type of gland which secretes alpha-amylase (also known as ptyalin). It enters the oral cavity via the parotid duct. The glands are located posterior to the mandibular ramus and anterior to the mastoid process of the temporal bone. They are clinically relevant in dissections of facial nerve branches while exposing the different lobes, since any iatrogenic lesion will result in either loss of action or strength of muscles involved in facial expression. They produce 20% of the total salivary content in the oral cavity. Mumps is a viral infection, caused by infection in the parotid gland.
Submandibular glands
The submandibular glands (previously known as submaxillary glands) are a pair of major salivary glands located beneath the lower jaws, superior to the digastric muscles. The secretion produced is a mixture of both serous fluid and mucus, and enters the oral cavity via the submandibular duct or Wharton duct. Around 70% of saliva in the oral cavity is produced by the submandibular glands, though they are much smaller than the parotid glands. This gland can usually be felt via palpation of the neck, as it is in the superficial cervical region and feels like a rounded ball. It is located about two fingers above the Adam's apple (laryngeal prominence) and about two inches apart under the chin.
Sublingual glands
The sublingual glands are a pair of major salivary glands located inferior to the tongue, anterior to the submandibular glands. The secretion produced is mainly mucous in nature, but it is categorized as a mixed gland. Unlike the other two major glands, the ductal system of the sublingual glands does not have intercalated ducts and usually does not have striated ducts, either, so saliva exits directly from 8-20 excretory ducts known as the Rivinus ducts. About 5% of saliva entering the oral cavity comes from these glands.
Tubarial salivary glands
The tubarial glands are suggested as a fourth pair of salivary glands situated posteriorly in the nasopharynx and nasal cavity, predominantly with mucous glands, and its ducts opening into the dorsolateral pharyngeal wall. The glands were unknown until September 2020, when they were discovered by a group of Dutch scientists using with prostate-specific membrane antigen PET-CT. This discovery may explain mouth dryness after radiotherapy despite the avoidance of the three major glands. However, these findings from just one study need to be confirmed. On the other hand, an interdisciplinary group of scientists disagree with this new discovery. They believe that an accumulation of minor salivary glands has been described.
Minor salivary glands
Around 800 to 1,000 minor salivary glands are located throughout the oral cavity within the submucosa of the oral mucosa in the tissue of the buccal, labial, and lingual mucosa, the soft palate, the lateral parts of the hard palate, and the floor of the mouth or between muscle fibers of the tongue. They are 1 to 2 mm in diameter and unlike the major glands, they are not encapsulated by connective tissue, only surrounded by it. The gland has usually a number of acini connected in a tiny lobule. A minor salivary gland may have a common excretory duct with another gland, or may have its own excretory duct. Their secretion is mainly mucous in nature and have many functions such as coating the oral cavity with saliva. Problems with dentures are sometimes associated with minor salivary glands if dry mouth is present. The minor salivary glands are innervated by the seventh cranial or facial nerve.
Von Ebner's glands
Von Ebner's glands are found in a trough circling the circumvallate papillae on the dorsal surface of the tongue near the terminal sulcus. They secrete a purely serous fluid that begins lipid hydrolysis. They also facilitate the perception of taste through secretion of digestive enzymes and proteins.
The arrangement of these glands around the circumvallate papillae provides a continuous flow of fluid over the great number of taste buds lining the sides of the papillae, and is important for dissolving the food particles to be tasted.
Nerve supply
Salivary glands are innervated, either directly or indirectly, by the parasympathetic and sympathetic arms of the autonomic nervous system. Parasympathetic stimulation evokes a copious flow of saliva.
Parasympathetic innervation to the salivary glands is carried via cranial nerves. The parotid gland receives its parasympathetic input from the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) via the otic ganglion, while the submandibular and sublingual glands receive their parasympathetic input from the facial nerve (CN VII) via the submandibular ganglion. These nerves release acetylcholine and substance P, which activate the IP3 and DAG pathways respectively.
Direct sympathetic innervation of the salivary glands takes place via preganglionic nerves in the thoracic segments T1-T3 which synapse in the superior cervical ganglion with postganglionic neurons that release norepinephrine, which is then received by β1-adrenergic receptors on the acinar and ductal cells of the salivary glands, leading to an increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels and the corresponding increase of saliva secretion. Note that in this regard both parasympathetic and sympathetic stimuli result in an increase in salivary gland secretions, the difference lies on the composition of this saliva, once sympathetic stimulus results particularly in the increase of amilase secretion, which is produced by serous glands. The sympathetic nervous system also affects salivary gland secretions indirectly by innervating the blood vessels that supply the glands, resulting in vasoconstriction through the activation of α1 adrenergic receptors, lessening the saliva's water content.
Microanatomy
The gland is internally divided into lobules. Blood vessels and nerves enter the glands at the hilum and gradually branch out into the lobules.
Acini
Secretory cells are found in a group, or acinus. Each acinus is located at the terminal part of the gland connected to the ductal system, with many acini within each lobule of the gland. Each acinus consists of a single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells surrounding a lumen, a central opening where the saliva is deposited after being produced by the secretory cells. The three forms of acini are classified in terms of the type of epithelial cell present and the secretory product being produced - serous]], mucoserous, and mucous.
Ducts
In the duct system, the lumina are formed by intercalated ducts, which in turn join to form striated ducts. These drain into ducts situated between the lobes of the gland (called interlobar ducts or secretory ducts). These are found on most major and minor glands (exception may be the sublingual gland).
All of the human salivary glands terminate in the mouth, where the saliva proceeds to aid in digestion. The released saliva is quickly inactivated in the stomach by the acid that is present, but saliva also contains enzymes that are actually activated by stomach acid.
Gene and protein expression
About 20,000 protein-coding genes are expressed in human cells and 60% of these genes are expressed in normal, adult salivary glands. Less than 100 genes are more specifically expressed in the salivary gland. The salivary gland specific genes are mainly genes that encode for secreted proteins and compared to other organs in the human body; the salivary gland has the highest fraction of secreted genes. The heterogeneous family of proline-rich, human salivary glycoproteins, such as PRB1 and PRH1, are salivary gland-specific proteins with highest level of expression. Examples of other specifically expressed proteins include the digestive amylase enzyme AMY1A, the mucin MUC7 and statherin, all of major importance for specific characteristics of saliva.
Aging
Aging of salivary glands shows some structural changes, such as:
Decrease in volume of acinar tissue
Increase in fibrous tissue
Increase in adipose tissue
Ductal hyperplasia and dilation
In addition, changes occur in salivary contents:
Decrease in concentration of secretory IgE
Decrease in the amount of mucin
However, no overall change in the amount of saliva secreted is seen.
Function
Salivary glands secrete saliva, which has many benefits for the oral cavity and health in general. These benefits include:
Protection: Saliva consists of proteins (for example; mucins) that lubricate and protect both the soft and hard tissues of the oral cavity. Mucins are the principal organic constituents of mucus, the slimy viscoelastic material that coats all mucosal surfaces.
Buffering: In general, the higher the saliva flow rate, the faster the clearance and the higher the buffer capacity, hence better protection from dental caries. Therefore, people with a slower rate of saliva secretion, combined with a low buffer capacity, have lessened salivary protection against microbes.
Pellicle formation: Saliva forms a pellicle on the surface of the tooth to prevent wearing. The film contains mucins and proline-rich glycoprotein from the saliva.
The proteins (statherin and proline-rich proteins) within the salivary pellicle inhibit demineralisation and promote remineralisation by attracting calcium ions.
Maintenance of tooth integrity: Demineralization occurs when enamel disintegrates due to the presence of acid. When this occurs, the buffering capacity effect of saliva (increases saliva flow rate) inhibits demineralisation. Saliva can then begin to promote the remineralisation of the tooth by strengthening the enamel with calcium and phosphate minerals.
Antimicrobial action: Saliva can prevent microbial growth based on the elements it contains. For example, lactoferrin in saliva binds naturally with iron. Since iron is a major component of bacterial cell walls, removal of iron breaks down the cell wall, which in turn breaks down the bacterium. Antimicrobial peptides such as histatins inhibit the growth of Candida albicans and Streptococcus mutans. Salivary immunoglobulin A serves to aggregate oral bacteria such as S. mutans and prevent the formation of dental plaque.
Tissue repair: Saliva can encourage soft-tissue repair by decreasing clotting time and increasing wound contraction.
Digestion: Saliva contains amylase, which hydrolyses starch into glucose, maltose, and dextrin. As a result, saliva allows some digestion to occur before the food reaches the stomach.
Taste: Saliva acts as a solvent in which solid particles can dissolve and enter the taste buds through oral mucosa located on the tongue. These taste buds are found within foliate and circumvallate papillae, where minor salivary glands secrete saliva.
Clinical significance
A sialolithiasis (a salivary calculus or stone) may cause blockage of the ducts, most commonly the submandibular ducts, causing pain and swelling of the gland.
Salivary gland dysfunction refers to either xerostomia (the symptom of dry mouth) or salivary gland hypofunction (reduced production of saliva); it is associated with significant impairment of quality of life. Following radiotherapy of the head and neck region, salivary gland dysfunction is a predictable side-effect. Saliva production may be pharmacologically stimulated by sialagogues such as pilocarpine and cevimeline. It can also be suppressed by so-called antisialagogues such as tricyclic antidepressants, SSRIs, antihypertensives, and polypharmacy. A Cochrane review found there was no strong evidence that topical therapies are effective in relieving the symptoms of dry mouth.
Cancer treatments including chemotherapy and radiation therapy may impair salivary flow. Radiotherapy can cause permanent hyposalivation due to injury to the oral mucosa containing the salivary glands, resulting in xerostomia, whereas chemotherapy may cause only temporary salivary impairment. Furthermore surgical removal because of benign or malignant lesions may also impair function.
Graft versus host disease after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation may manifest as dry mouth and many small mucoceles. Salivary gland tumours may occur, including mucoepidermoid carcinoma, a malignant growth.
Clinical tests/investigations
A sialogram is a radiocontrast study of a salivary duct that may be used to investigate its function and for diagnosing Sjögren syndrome.
Other animals
The salivary glands of some species are modified to produce proteins; salivary amylase is found in many bird and mammal species (including humans, as noted above). Furthermore, the venom glands of venomous snakes, Gila monsters, and some shrews, are actually modified salivary glands. In other organisms such as insects, salivary glands are often used to produce biologically important proteins such as silk or glues, whilst fly salivary glands contain polytene chromosomes that have been useful in genetic research.
See also
Serous demilune
Sialome
References
External links
Salivary gland at the Human Protein Atlas
Illustration at merck.com
Illustration at .washington.edu
Medical Encyclopedia Medline Plus: Salivary gland
Glands of mouth
Exocrine system
Saliva
Arthropod glands
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Abbandando
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Frank Abbandando
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Frank Abbandando (July 11, 1910 – February 19, 1942), nicknamed "The Dasher", was a New York City contract killer who committed many murders as part of the infamous Murder, Inc. gang. His preferred killing method was to stab his victims through the heart with an ice pick. After a trial and conviction for murdering a Brooklyn loan shark, he was executed in the electric chair at Sing Sing on February 19, 1942.
Early years
Abbandando's parents, Lorenzo Abbondandolo and Rosaria Famighetti, emigrated from Avellino, Italy to New York City. He was born in New York on July 11, 1910. Abbandando was one of twelve children (of which seven did not survive childhood). His brothers and sisters were: Filomena (December 10, 1907 – December 6, 1970); Rocco (December 22, 1910 – October 19, 1912); Anna (June 25, 1912 – October 13, 1984); Carolina (1914 – September 16, 1915); Theresa (October 1, 1915 – April 11, 1997); Carmela (1917 – April 30, 1924); Rocco (the second, a mob associate; September 7, 1918 – March 31, 1976); Antonio (March 15, 1920 – April 6, 1981); Twins: Angelina and Arcangelo (August 1921 – October 18, 1921); Angelina (the second) (1923 – May 2, 1925).
Criminal career
Abbandando began as a teenager extorting money from shop owners by threatening to torch their shops. By his twenties, he had joined a street gang in the Ocean Hill section of Brooklyn where he quickly became a lieutenant of Harry "Happy" Maione. Abbandando organized gambling, loan sharking, and extortion rackets for the gang, as well as committing murders. In 1928, Abbandando was convicted of beating a New York police officer and was sent to reform school in Elmira, New York, where he demonstrated skill at baseball and received the nickname "The Dasher".
While Abbandando was said to be a connoisseur of fine clothes and fancy cars, he was also a habitual sexual predator who would drive around his neighborhoods of Brownsville and Ocean Hill looking for young women to rape. The prosecutor at his murder trial said that Abbandando had all but admitted one rape, to which Abbandando replied, "Well, that one doesn't count really—I married the girl later."
Contract killer
In the early 1930s, New York's Five Families began using gangs to commit their murders. This was because they had reformed their operating structures following the vicious, high-profile Castellammarese War which had made front-page news for its brutality. With the new peace, the mobs now wanted to keep a low public profile. By using contract killers, the Five Families were better protected from public and law enforcement scrutiny. These killers were led by Louis "Lepke" Buchalter, the young leader of the Jewish gang known as the "Gorilla Boys". With the growth in racketeering, Buchalter's small informal network of killers grew into a group of 250 criminals who were also involved in narcotics, labor unions, and other rackets such as gambling and prostitution. Buchalter called his group "The Combination" but the New York Press labeled it "Murder, Inc." Unlike the Five Families, which required members to be of Sicilian or Southern Italian ancestry, Murder Inc. was a diverse ethnic gang that included Jews, Italians, and Irish killers.
Abbandando had become associated with Murder Inc. in the 1920s. By the early 30s, he was reputed to have killed at least 30 people, mostly in Brooklyn, for a payment of about $500 per murder. In September 1931, Abbandando helped Buchalter and gang member Abe Reles eliminate the Shapiro Brothers, a rival outfit from the Lower East Side of Manhattan who controlled the garment industry in Brooklyn.
In 1937, Abbandando assisted in the murder of George Rudnick, a loan shark in Brooklyn. Reles had ordered Rudnick's murder because he had received information that Rudnick was a police informant. Using an ice pick and a meat cleaver, Abbandando and several other gang members strangled Rudnick, stabbed him 63 times, and crushed his head inside a garage. No one was arrested for the crime. In February 1939, Abbandando and others killed mobster Felice Esposito. The contract was issued because he had been a prosecution witness in a mob murder trial 17 years earlier.
Trial and execution
By the 1940s, Murder, Inc. would be severely weakened after the arrests and convictions of its leaders, like Buchalter and Jacob Shapiro, and top hitmen such as Charles "The Bug" Workman and Emanuel "Mendy" Weiss. Its downfall began in 1940 when Abe Reles had turned state witness after being indicted for murder. His testimonies against fellow Murder, Inc. soon led to the arrest of Abbandando for the murder of George Rudnick in 1937.
In May 1940, Abbandando was put on trial for murder along with co-defendants Harry "Happy" Maione and Harry "Pittsburgh Phil" Strauss. Abbandando was so confident that his allies would succeed in fixing the verdict, he even whispered a threat into the judge's ear while he was on the witness stand. However, to his surprise, they were all convicted of Rudnick's murder, but the verdicts were overturned on appeal.
In April 1941 Abbandando, along with Maione (Strauss had been subsequently convicted in September 1940 of killing Jewish mobster Irving Feinstein in 1939), went on trial a second time. This time he was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to death. Abbandando spent the next nine months in Sing Sing Prison in Ossining, New York. On February 19, 1942, he was executed using "Old Sparky", the electric chair at Sing Sing. In the moments up to his execution, Abbandando continued to mock and curse his guards. It was reported he displayed no fear and seemed to find a morbid humor in the proceedings.
A mass was said for him at Our Lady of Loretto Church in New York where his brother Rocco assaulted a news photographer. He was buried in the family plot in St John's Cemetery in Queens, New York City.
Aftermath
After Abbandando's conviction, six other members of Murder, Inc., including Buchalter and Maione, were also convicted of murder and executed based on Reles' testimony. On November 12, 1941, while under police protection, Reles fell out a hotel window in Coney Island. The official ruling was that Reles died trying to climb down bedsheets to the street below; however, it was rumored that the Cosa Nostra raised $100,000 to bribe Reles's guards to shove him out the window.
With Buchalter's death, Albert "Lord High Executioner" Anastasia, a made man in the Cosa Nostra, took over Murder, Inc. As a reaction to government informants in Murder, Inc., the New York crime families started using their own members and associates, who were more easily controlled, to carry out murders. Murder, Inc. soon faded away.
Personal life
Abbandando married Jennie DeLuca, a hairdresser from Ocean Hill, at his parents' urging, in September of 1927. He had two sons. Both became involved in organized crime.
Lawrence was born shortly after his parents' marriage on December 20, 1927. He became a mob associate who died of cancer in North Miami Beach, Florida on March 25, 1995.
His younger brother, Frank Abbandando Jr., who was born on October 17, 1935, was a Gambino crime family associate who was murdered in Florida on December 22, 1995. The 60-year old mobster was run over as he crossed Biscayne Boulevard in North Miami Beach by Rocco Napolitano, the brother of Aniello Napolitano, a small time drug dealer who might have been executed on the orders of Abbandando Jr.. After running him down, Napolitano fired several shots into Abbandando as he lay on the ground. Napolitano told police that he had shot him out of revenge for his brother. He was sentenced to life in prison. Abbandando Jr. was buried in Ocean Hill, Brooklyn.
References
Cited works
Further reading
Davis, John H. Mafia Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Gambino Crime Family, New York: HarperCollins, 1993.
Iannuzzi, Joseph and James Morton. Joe "Dogs" Iannuzzi: The Life and Times of a Real Life Mobster. Simon & Schuster, 1993.
Raab, Selwyn. Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empires. New York: St. Martin Press, 2005.
External links
1910 births
1942 deaths
20th-century executions by New York (state)
20th-century executions of American people
American people convicted of murder
American gangsters of Sicilian descent
Burials at St. John's Cemetery (Queens)
Executed people from New York (state)
Murder, Inc.
People convicted of murder by New York (state)
People executed by New York (state) by electric chair
People from Brownsville, Brooklyn
Inmates of Sing Sing
|
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207341
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lavocatia
|
Lavocatia
|
Lavocatia is a genus of extinct mammal from the Lower Cretaceous of Spain. It was a member of the also extinct order Multituberculata, and lived alongside of dinosaurs. Like most Mesozoic mammals, it was a shrewish-sized animal. It's in the suborder "Plagiaulacida" and family Pinheirodontidae. The genus Lavocatia was named by J. I. Canudo and G. Cuenca in 1996 based on a single tooth, with the generic epithet in honor of French paleontologist René Lavocat and the specific epithet a reference to the town of Alfambra.
The species Lavocatia alfambrensis is known from the Barremian-age Camarillas Formation of Galve, Spain. This genus is apparently differentiated by the number of cusps on the tooth; 15. Also referred to in the reference is Peramura. This was a more "advanced" group of mammals, possibly ancestral to ourselves (see Peramus).
References
Canudo,J. I.; and Cuenca, G. (1996). "Two new mammalian teeth (Multituberculata and Peramura) from the Lower Cretaceous (Barremian) of Spain". Cretaceous Research, 17 (2), p. 215-228.URL visited may, 18, 2011
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Hahn, G., and R. Hahn (1999), "Pinheirodontidae n. fam. (Multituberculata, Mammalia) aus der tiefen Unter-Kreide Portugals". "Palaeontographica", 253(4/6), p. 77-222.
Multituberculates
Cretaceous mammals of Europe
Barremian life
Fossils of Spain
Camarillas Formation
Fossil taxa described in 1996
Prehistoric mammal genera
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear%20power%20plant
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Nuclear power plant
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A nuclear power plant (sometimes abbreviated as NPP) is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a nuclear reactor. As is typical of thermal power stations, heat is used to generate steam that drives a steam turbine connected to a generator that produces electricity. , the International Atomic Energy Agency reported there were 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in 32 countries around the world.
Nuclear plants are very often used for base load since their operations, maintenance, and fuel costs are at the lower end of the spectrum of costs.
However, building a nuclear power plant often spans five to ten years, which can accrue to significant financial costs, depending on how the initial investments are financed.
Nuclear power plants have a carbon footprint comparable to that of renewable energy such as solar farms and wind farms, and much lower than fossil fuels such as natural gas and brown coal. Despite some spectacular catastrophes, nuclear power plants are among the safest mode of electricity generation, comparable to solar and wind power plants.
History
The first time that heat from a nuclear reactor was used to generate electricity was on December 20, 1951 at the Experimental Breeder Reactor I, feeding four light bulbs.
On June 27, 1954, the world's first nuclear power station to generate electricity for a power grid, the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant, commenced operations in Obninsk, in the Soviet Union.
The world's first full scale power station, Calder Hall in the United Kingdom, opened on October 17, 1956. The world's first full scale power station solely devoted to electricity production—Calder Hall was also meant to produce plutonium—the Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Pennsylvania, United States—was connected to the grid on December 18, 1957.
Basic components
Fuel handling
Radwaste system
Refueling floor
Spent fuel pool
Online refueling machine(s) in some designs such as RBMK and CANDU
Power generation
Condenser
Cooling tower
Electrical generator
Steam turbine
Reactor assembly
Control rod drives
Instrumentation such as ion chambers
Control rods
Coolant
Neutron howitzer
Neutron moderator
Neutron poison
Nuclear fuel
Nuclear reactor core
Reactor pressure vessel (In most reactors)
Startup neutron source
Safety systems
Containment building
Emergency core cooling system
Emergency power system
Essential service water system
Reactor protection system
Standby liquid control system
Steam generation
Boiler feedwater pump
Steam generators (in PWR reactors, which also have pressurizers)
Systems
The conversion to electrical energy takes place indirectly, as in conventional thermal power stations. The fission in a nuclear reactor heats the reactor coolant. The coolant may be water or gas, or even liquid metal, depending on the type of reactor. The reactor coolant then goes to a steam generator and heats water to produce steam. The pressurized steam is then usually fed to a multi-stage steam turbine. After the steam turbine has expanded and partially condensed the steam, the remaining vapor is condensed in a condenser. The condenser is a heat exchanger which is connected to a secondary side such as a river or a cooling tower. The water is then pumped back into the steam generator and the cycle begins again. The water-steam cycle corresponds to the Rankine cycle.
The nuclear reactor is the heart of the station. In its central part, the reactor's core produces heat due to nuclear fission. With this heat, a coolant is heated as it is pumped through the reactor and thereby removes the energy from the reactor. The heat from nuclear fission is used to raise steam, which runs through turbines, which in turn power the electrical generators.
Nuclear reactors usually rely on uranium to fuel the chain reaction. Uranium is a very heavy metal that is abundant on Earth and is found in sea water as well as most rocks. Naturally occurring uranium is found in two different isotopes: uranium-238 (U-238), accounting for 99.3% and uranium-235 (U-235) accounting for about 0.7%. U-238 has 146 neutrons and U-235 has 143 neutrons.
Different isotopes have different behaviors. For instance, U-235 is fissile which means that it is easily split and gives off a lot of energy making it ideal for nuclear energy. On the other hand, U-238 does not have that property despite it being the same element. Different isotopes also have different half-lives. U-238 has a longer half-life than U-235, so it takes longer to decay over time. This also means that U-238 is less radioactive than U-235.
Since nuclear fission creates radioactivity, the reactor core is surrounded by a protective shield. This containment absorbs radiation and prevents radioactive material from being released into the environment. In addition, many reactors are equipped with a dome of concrete to protect the reactor against both internal casualties and external impacts.
The purpose of the steam turbine is to convert the heat contained in steam into mechanical energy. The engine house with the steam turbine is usually structurally separated from the main reactor building. It is aligned so as to prevent debris from the destruction of a turbine in operation from flying towards the reactor.
In the case of a pressurized water reactor, the steam turbine is separated from the nuclear system. To detect a leak in the steam generator and thus the passage of radioactive water at an early stage, an activity meter is mounted to track the outlet steam of the steam generator. In contrast, boiling water reactors pass radioactive water through the steam turbine, so the turbine is kept as part of the radiologically controlled area of the nuclear power station.
The electric generator converts mechanical power supplied by the turbine into electrical power. Low-pole AC synchronous generators of high rated power are used. A cooling system removes heat from the reactor core and transports it to another area of the station, where the thermal energy can be harnessed to produce electricity or to do other useful work. Typically the hot coolant is used as a heat source for a boiler, and the pressurized steam from that drives one or more steam turbine driven electrical generators.
In the event of an emergency, safety valves can be used to prevent pipes from bursting or the reactor from exploding. The valves are designed so that they can derive all of the supplied flow rates with little increase in pressure. In the case of the BWR, the steam is directed into the suppression chamber and condenses there. The chambers on a heat exchanger are connected to the intermediate cooling circuit.
The main condenser is a large cross-flow shell and tube heat exchanger that takes wet vapor, a mixture of liquid water and steam at saturation conditions, from the turbine-generator exhaust and condenses it back into sub-cooled liquid water so it can be pumped back to the reactor by the condensate and feedwater pumps.
In the main condenser, the wet vapor turbine exhaust come into contact with thousands of tubes that have much colder water flowing through them on the other side. The cooling water typically come from a natural body of water such as a river or lake.
Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station, located in the desert about west of Phoenix, Arizona, is the only nuclear facility that does not use a natural body of water for cooling, instead it uses treated sewage from the greater Phoenix metropolitan area.
The water coming from the cooling body of water is either pumped back to the water source at a warmer temperature or returns to a cooling tower where it either cools for more uses or evaporates into water vapor that rises out the top of the tower.
The water level in the steam generator and the nuclear reactor is controlled using the feedwater system. The feedwater pump has the task of taking the water from the condensate system, increasing the pressure and forcing it into either the steam generators—in the case of a pressurized water reactor — or directly into the reactor, for boiling water reactors.
Continuous power supply to the plant is critical to ensure safe operation. Most nuclear stations require at least two distinct sources of offsite power for redundancy. These are usually provided by multiple transformers that are sufficiently separated and can receive power from multiple transmission lines. In addition, in some nuclear stations, the turbine generator can power the station's loads while the station is online, without requiring external power. This is achieved via station service transformers which tap power from the generator output before they reach the step-up transformer.
Economics
The economics of nuclear power plants is a controversial subject, and multibillion-dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy source. Nuclear power stations typically have high capital costs, but low direct fuel costs, with the costs of fuel extraction, processing, use and spent fuel storage internalized costs. Therefore, comparison with other power generation methods is strongly dependent on assumptions about construction timescales and capital financing for nuclear stations. Cost estimates take into account station decommissioning and nuclear waste storage or recycling costs in the United States due to the Price Anderson Act.
With the prospect that all spent nuclear fuel could potentially be recycled by using future reactors, generation IV reactors are being designed to completely close the nuclear fuel cycle. However, up to now, there has not been any actual bulk recycling of waste from a NPP, and on-site temporary storage is still being used at almost all plant sites due to construction problems for deep geological repositories. Only Finland has stable repository plans, therefore from a worldwide perspective, long-term waste storage costs are uncertain.
Construction, or capital cost aside, measures to mitigate global warming such as a carbon tax or carbon emissions trading, increasingly favor the economics of nuclear power. Further efficiencies are hoped to be achieved through more advanced reactor designs, Generation III reactors promise to be at least 17% more fuel efficient, and have lower capital costs, while Generation IV reactors promise further gains in fuel efficiency and significant reductions in nuclear waste.
In Eastern Europe, a number of long-established projects are struggling to find financing, notably Belene in Bulgaria and the additional reactors at Cernavodă in Romania, and some potential backers have pulled out. Where cheap gas is available and its future supply relatively secure, this also poses a major problem for nuclear projects.
Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must take into account who bears the risks of future uncertainties. To date all operating nuclear power stations were developed by state-owned or regulated utilities where many of the risks associated with construction costs, operating performance, fuel price, and other factors were borne by consumers rather than suppliers. Many countries have now liberalized the electricity market where these risks and the risk of cheaper competitors emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by station suppliers and operators rather than consumers, which leads to a significantly different evaluation of the economics of new nuclear power stations.
Following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan, costs are likely to go up for currently operating and new nuclear power stations, due to increased requirements for on-site spent fuel management and elevated design basis threats. However many designs, such as the currently under construction AP1000, use passive nuclear safety cooling systems, unlike those of Fukushima I which required active cooling systems, which largely eliminates the need to spend more on redundant back up safety equipment.
In 2020 March
Nuclear power is cost competitive with other forms of electricity generation, except where there is direct access to low-cost fossil fuels.
Fuel costs for nuclear plants are a minor proportion of total generating costs, though capital costs are greater than those for coal-fired plants and much greater than those for gas-fired plants.
System costs for nuclear power (as well as coal and gas-fired generation) are very much lower than for intermittent renewables.
Providing incentives for long-term, high-capital investment in deregulated markets driven by short-term price signals presents a challenge in securing a diversified and reliable electricity supply system.
In assessing the economics of nuclear power, decommissioning and waste disposal costs are fully taken into account.
Nuclear power plant construction is typical of large infrastructure projects around the world, whose costs and delivery challenges tend to be under-estimated.
Safety and accidents
Modern nuclear reactor designs have had numerous safety improvements since the first-generation nuclear reactors. A nuclear power plant cannot explode like a nuclear weapon because the fuel for uranium reactors is not enriched enough, and nuclear weapons require precision explosives to force fuel into a small enough volume to go supercritical. Most reactors require continuous temperature control to prevent a core meltdown, which has occurred on a few occasions through accident or natural disaster, releasing radiation and making the surrounding area uninhabitable. Plants must be defended against theft of nuclear material and attack by enemy military planes or missiles.
The most serious accidents to date have been the 1979 Three Mile Island accident, the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, and the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, corresponding to the beginning of the operation of generation II reactors.
Professor of sociology Charles Perrow states that multiple and unexpected failures are built into society's complex and tightly-coupled nuclear reactor systems. Such accidents are unavoidable and cannot be designed around. An interdisciplinary team from MIT has estimated that given the expected growth of nuclear power from 2005 to 2055, at least four serious nuclear accidents would be expected in that period. The MIT study does not take into account improvements in safety since 1970.
Controversy
The nuclear power debate about the deployment and use of nuclear fission reactors to generate electricity from nuclear fuel for civilian purposes peaked during the 1970s and 1980s, when it "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies," in some countries.
Proponents argue that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source which reduces carbon emissions and can increase energy security if its use supplants a dependence on imported fuels. Proponents advance the notion that nuclear power produces virtually no air pollution, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Proponents also believe that nuclear power is the only viable course to achieve energy independence for most Western countries. They emphasize that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants.
Opponents say that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment, and that costs do not justify benefits. Threats include health risks and environmental damage from uranium mining, processing and transport, the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation or sabotage, and the unsolved problem of radioactive nuclear waste. Another environmental issue is discharge of hot water into the sea. The hot water modifies the environmental conditions for marine flora and fauna. They also contend that reactors themselves are enormously complex machines where many things can and do go wrong, and there have been many serious nuclear accidents. Critics do not believe that these risks can be reduced through new technology, despite rapid advancements in containment procedures and storage methods.
Opponents argue that when all the energy-intensive stages of the nuclear fuel chain are considered, from uranium mining to nuclear decommissioning, nuclear power is not a low-carbon electricity source despite the possibility of refinement and long term storage being powered by a nuclear facility. Those countries that do not contain uranium mines cannot achieve energy independence through existing nuclear power technologies. Actual construction costs often exceed estimates, and spent fuel management costs are difficult to define.
On 1 August 2020, the UAE launched the Arab region's first-ever nuclear energy plant. Unit 1 of the Barakah plant in the Al Dhafrah region of Abu Dhabi commenced generating heat on the first day of its launch, while the remaining 3 Units are being built. However, Nuclear Consulting Group head, Paul Dorfman, warned the Gulf nation's investment into the plant as a risk "further destabilizing the volatile Gulf region, damaging the environment and raising the possibility of nuclear proliferation."
Reprocessing
Nuclear reprocessing technology was developed to chemically separate and recover fissionable plutonium from irradiated nuclear fuel. Reprocessing serves multiple purposes, whose relative importance has changed over time. Originally reprocessing was used solely to extract plutonium for producing nuclear weapons. With the commercialization of nuclear power, the reprocessed plutonium was recycled back into MOX nuclear fuel for thermal reactors. The reprocessed uranium, which constitutes the bulk of the spent fuel material, can in principle also be re-used as fuel, but that is only economic when uranium prices are high or disposal is expensive. Finally, the breeder reactor can employ not only the recycled plutonium and uranium in spent fuel, but all the actinides, closing the nuclear fuel cycle and potentially multiplying the energy extracted from natural uranium by more than 60 times.
Nuclear reprocessing reduces the volume of high-level waste, but by itself does not reduce radioactivity or heat generation and therefore does not eliminate the need for a geological waste repository. Reprocessing has been politically controversial because of the potential to contribute to nuclear proliferation, the potential vulnerability to nuclear terrorism, the political challenges of repository siting (a problem that applies equally to direct disposal of spent fuel), and because of its high cost compared to the once-through fuel cycle. In the United States, the Obama administration stepped back from President Bush's plans for commercial-scale reprocessing and reverted to a program focused on reprocessing-related scientific research.
Accident indemnification
Nuclear power works under an insurance framework that limits or structures accident liabilities in accordance with the Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, the Brussels supplementary convention, and the Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage.
However states with a majority of the world's nuclear power stations, including the U.S., Russia, China and Japan, are not party to international nuclear liability conventions.
United States In the United States, insurance for nuclear or radiological incidents is covered (for facilities licensed through 2025) by the Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act.
United Kingdom Under the energy policy of the United Kingdom through its 1965 Nuclear Installations Act, liability is governed for nuclear damage for which a UK nuclear licensee is responsible. The Act requires compensation to be paid for damage up to a limit of £150 million by the liable operator for ten years after the incident. Between ten and thirty years afterwards, the Government meets this obligation. The Government is also liable for additional limited cross-border liability (about £300 million) under international conventions (Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy and Brussels Convention supplementary to the Paris Convention).
Decommissioning
Nuclear decommissioning is the dismantling of a nuclear power station and decontamination of the site to a state no longer requiring protection from radiation for the general public. The main difference from the dismantling of other power stations is the presence of radioactive material that requires special precautions to remove and safely relocate to a waste repository.
Decommissioning involves many administrative and technical actions. It includes all clean-up of radioactivity and progressive demolition of the station. Once a facility is decommissioned, there should no longer be any danger of a radioactive accident or to any persons visiting it. After a facility has been completely decommissioned it is released from regulatory control, and the licensee of the station no longer has responsibility for its nuclear safety.
Timing and deferral of decommissioning
Generally speaking, nuclear stations were originally designed for a life of about 30 years. Newer stations are designed for a 40 to 60-year operating life. The Centurion Reactor is a future class of nuclear reactor that is being designed to last 100 years.
One of the major limiting wear factors is the deterioration of the reactor's pressure vessel under the action of neutron bombardment, however in 2018 Rosatom announced it had developed a thermal annealing technique for reactor pressure vessels which ameliorates radiation damage and extends service life by between 15 and 30 years.
Flexibility
Nuclear stations are used primarily for base load because of economic considerations. The fuel cost of operations for a nuclear station is smaller than the fuel cost for operation of coal or gas plants. Since most of the cost of nuclear power plant is capital cost, there is almost no cost saving by running it at less than full capacity.
Nuclear power plants are routinely used in load following mode on a large scale in France, although "it is generally accepted that this is not an ideal economic situation for nuclear stations." Unit A at the decommissioned German Biblis Nuclear Power Plant was designed to modulate its output 15% per minute between 40% to 100% of its nominal power.
See also
Footnotes
External links
Non Destructive Testing for Nuclear Power Plants
Glossary of Nuclear Terms
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiatsu
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Shiatsu
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Shiatsu ( ; ) is a form of Japanese bodywork based on pseudoscientific concepts in traditional Chinese medicine such as the use of qi meridians. Having been popularized in the twentieth century by Tokujiro Namikoshi (1905–2000), shiatsu derives from the older Japanese massage modality called anma.
There is no scientific evidence that shiatsu will prevent or cure any disease. Although it is considered a generally safe treatment–if sometimes painful–there have been reports of adverse health effects arising from its use, a few of them serious.
Description
In the Japanese language, shiatsu means "finger pressure". Shiatsu techniques include massages with fingers, thumbs, feet and palms; acupressure, assisted stretching; and joint manipulation and mobilization. To examine a patient, a shiatsu practitioner uses palpation and, sometimes, pulse diagnosis.
The Japanese Ministry of Health defines shiatsu as "a form of manipulation by thumbs, fingers and palms without the use of instruments, mechanical or otherwise, to apply pressure to the human skin to correct internal malfunctions, promote and maintain health, and treat specific diseases. The techniques used in shiatsu include stretching, holding, and most commonly, leaning body weight into various points along key channels."
The practice of shiatsu is based on the traditional Chinese concept of qi, which is sometimes described as an "energy flow". Qi is supposedly channeled through certain pathways in the human body, known as meridians, causing a variety of effects. Despite the fact that many practitioners use these ideas in explaining shiatsu, neither qi nor meridians exist as observable phenomena.
Efficacy
There is no evidence that shiatsu is of any benefit in treating cancer or any other disease, though some evidence suggests it might help people feel more relaxed. In 2015, the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance; shiatsu was one of 17 therapies evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found. Accordingly, in 2017, the Australian government named shiatsu as a practice that would not qualify for insurance subsidy, to ensure the best use of insurance funds.
Shiatsu'''s claims of having a positive impact on a recipient's sense of vitality and well-being have to some extent been supported by studies where recipients reported improved relaxation, sleep, and lessened symptom severity. However, the state of the evidence on its efficacy for treating any malady is poor, and one recent systematic review did not find shiatsu to be effective for any particular health condition. It is generally considered safe, though some studies have reported negative effects after a treatment with shiatsu, and examples of serious health complications exist including one case of thrombosis, one embolism, and a documented injury from a "shiatsu-type massaging machine".
HistoryShiatsu evolved from anma, a Japanese style of massage developed in 1320 by Akashi Kan Ichi. Anma was popularised in the seventeenth century by acupuncturist Sugiyama Waichi, and around the same time the first books on the subject, including Fujibayashi Ryohaku's Anma Tebiki ("Manual of Anma"), appeared.
The Fujibayashi school carried anma into the modern age. Prior to the emergence of shiatsu in Japan, masseurs were often nomadic, earning their keep in mobile massage capacities, and paying commissions to their referrers.
Since Sugiyama's time, massage in Japan had been strongly associated with the blind. Sugiyama, blind himself, established a number of medical schools for the blind which taught this practice. During the Tokugawa period, edicts were passed which made the practice of anma solely the preserve of the blind – sighted people were prohibited from practicing the art. As a result, the "blind anma" has become a popular trope in Japanese culture. This has continued into the modern era, with a large proportion of the Japanese blind community continuing to work in the profession.
Abdominal palpation as a Japanese diagnostic technique was developed by Shinsai Ota in the 17th century.
During the Occupation of Japan by the Allies after World War II, traditional medicine practices were banned (along with other aspects of traditional Japanese culture) by General MacArthur. The ban prevented a large proportion of Japan's blind community from earning a living. Many Japanese entreated for this ban to be rescinded. Additionally, writer and advocate for blind rights Helen Keller, on being made aware of the prohibition, interceded with the United States government; at her urging, the ban was rescinded.
Tokujiro Namikoshi (1905–2000) founded his shiatsu college in the 1940s and his legacy was the state recognition of shiatsu as an independent method of treatment in Japan. He is often credited with inventing modern shiatsu. However, the term shiatsu was already in use in 1919, when a book called Shiatsu Ho ("finger pressure method") was published by Tamai Tempaku. Also prior to Namikoshi's system, in 1925 the Shiatsu Therapists Association was founded, with the purpose of distancing shiatsu from anma massage.
Namikoshi's school taught shiatsu within a framework of western medical science. A student and teacher of Namikoshi's school, Shizuto Masunaga, brought shiatsu back to traditional eastern medicine and philosophic framework. Masunaga grew up in a family of shiatsu practitioners, with his mother having studied with Tamai Tempaku. He founded Zen Shiatsu and the Iokai Shiatsu Center school. Another student of Namikoshi, Hiroshi Nozaki founded the Hiron Shiatsu, a holistic technique of shiatsu'' that uses intuitive techniques and a spiritual approach to healing which identifies ways how to take responsibility for a healthy and happy life in the practitioner's own hands. It is practiced mainly in Switzerland, France and Italy, where its founder opened several schools.
See also
Acupressure
Alternative cancer treatments
Kiyoshi Ikenaga
Massage chair
Onsen
Reflexology
References
External links
European Shiatsu Federation
Acupuncture
Alternative medicine
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207349
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Chosun%20Ilbo
|
The Chosun Ilbo
|
The Chosun Ilbo (, ) is a leading daily newspaper in South Korea and the oldest daily newspaper in the country. With a daily circulation of more than 1,800,000, the Chosun Ilbo has been audited annually since the Audit Bureau of Circulations was established in 1993. Chosun Ilbo and its subsidiary company, Digital Chosun, operates the Chosun.com news website, which also publishes web versions of the newspaper in English, Chinese, and Japanese.
History
The Chosun Ilbo Establishment Union was created in September 1919 while the Chosun Ilbo company was founded on 5 March 1920 by Sin Sogu. The newspaper was critical of, and sometimes directly opposed to, the actions of the Japanese government during Japanese colonial rule (1910–1945).
On 27 August 1920, the Chosun Ilbo was suspended after it published an editorial criticizing what it said was the use of excessive force by the Japanese police against Korean citizens. This was the first in a string of suspensions. On 5 September 1920, three days after the first suspension was lifted, the newspaper published an editorial, "Did the Japanese central governing body shut down our newspaper?" Then, Chosun Ilbo was given an indefinite suspension.
In 1927, the Chosun Ilbos editor and publisher were arrested. The editor was also the chief staff writer. The alleged offense in this case was an editorial describing the mistreatment of prisoners by the colonial government. In May of the same year, in response to an editorial criticizing the deployment of troops into Shandong, the newspaper was suspended for a fourth time - in this case for 133 days. The publisher and chief staff writer, An Jae-hong, were again imprisoned.
After these events, the Chosun Ilbo remained at the forefront of events, trying to improve general public life and sponsoring collaborative events. This was a turbulent period; within the space of three years, the president was replaced three times. On 21 December 1935, in opposition to compulsory Japanese education and plans to assimilate the Korean people and language, the Chosun Ilbo published 100,000 Korean-language textbooks nationwide.
Over the years, the Chosun Ilbo company also published many additional titles, including a monthly current affairs magazine, Youth Chosun, the first of its kind in Korea. Others included its sister publication, Jogwang.
In 31 July 1940, the newspaper published "Lessons of American Realism", the fourth part of an editorial series. Ten days later - following issue 6,923 - the paper was declared officially discontinued by the Japanese ruling government. In the twenty years since its founding, the paper had been suspended by the Japanese government four times, and its issues confiscated over five hundred times before 1932.
When Korea gained independence in 1945, the Chosun Ilbo came back into publication after a five-year, three-month hiatus.
Subsidiaries
Besides the daily newspaper, the company also publishes the weekly Jugan Chosun, the monthly Wolgan Chosun and other newspapers and magazines. Subsidiaries include Digital Chosun, Wolgan Chosun, Edu-Chosun, and ChosunBiz.
North Korean position
The Chosun Ilbo has taken a skeptical line on governmental policy towards North Korea such as Kim Dae-jung's "Sunshine policy". For this reason, it has attracted heavy criticism and threats from the North.
Controversy
On 31 May 2019, the newspaper reported that, based on "an unidentified source", the head diplomat of North Korea's nuclear envoy Kim Hyok-chol, had been executed by a North Korean Government firing squad. However, two days later, on 2 June 2019, the top diplomat was seen at a concert sitting a few seats away from North Korea's leader Kim Jong-un.
The Educational Broadcasting System's popular instructor Choi Tae-seong, sued a Chosun Ilbo reporter for publishing an article that defamed him as a supporter of North Korea.
See also
Chojoongdong
List of newspapers in South Korea
Communications in South Korea
Issues in reporting on North Korea
List of Korea-related topics
References
External links
Korean-language newspapers
Newspapers published in South Korea
Newspaper companies of South Korea
Conservative media in South Korea
Right-wing newspapers
Anti-communism in South Korea
English-language newspapers
Publications established in 1920
1920 establishments in Korea
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Morton-Finney
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John Morton-Finney
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John Morton-Finney (June 25, 1889 – January 28, 1998) was an American civil rights activist, lawyer, and educator who earned eleven academic degrees, including five law degrees. He spent most of his career as an educator and lawyer after serving from 1911 to 1914 in the U.S. Army as a member of the 24th Infantry Regiment, better known as the Buffalo soldiers, and with the American Expeditionary Forces in France during World War I. Morton-Finney taught languages at Fisk University in Tennessee and at Lincoln University in Missouri, before moving to Indianapolis, Indiana, where he taught in the Indianapolis Public Schools for forty-seven years. Morton-Finney was a member of the original faculty at Indianapolis's Crispus Attucks High School when it opened in 1927 and later became head of its foreign language department. He also taught at Shortridge High School and at other IPS schools. Morton-Finney was admitted as a member of the Bar of the Indiana Supreme Court in 1935, as a member of the Bar of the U.S. District Court in 1941, and was admitted to practice before the U.S. Supreme Court in 1972.
When Morton-Finney retired from practicing law on June 25, 1996, his 107th birthday, he was believed to have been the oldest practicing attorney in the United States. At the time of his death in 1998 he was Indiana's oldest veteran. Morton-Finney was honored with numerous honorary awards and certificates, including one from the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court in 1989, in addition to being commissioned a Kentucky Colonel (1991) from the Governor of Kentucky and named a recipient of a Sagamore of the Wabash award from the Governor of Indiana. He also received distinguished alumni and graduate awards from Indiana University and was inducted into the National Bar Association Hall of Fame (1991). In addition, the Indianapolis Bar Association and Butler University present awards named in his honor.
Early life and family
Born Morton Finney on June 25, 1889, to a former slave father and a free mother, George and Maryatta "Mattie" (Gordon) Finney, in Uniontown, Kentucky, and was one of the family's seven children. After the death of his mother in 1903, when John was fourteen, his father was unable to care for the children and sent them to live with their grandfather on his farm in Missouri.
Prior to his enlistment in the U.S. Army in 1911, Morton-Finney was enrolled at Lincoln College in Jefferson City, Missouri. After his return to the United States in 1914, Morton-Finney resumed his studies at Lincoln College, where he met and married Pauline Angeline Ray (November 19, 1889 – September 3, 1975) of Geneva, New York. Ray was a graduate of Cornell University and a French teacher at Lincoln College. The couple moved to Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1922 and, later, had a daughter, Gloria Ann Morton-Finney. John and Pauline Morton-Finney were married for more than fifty-two years.
Military service
Morton-Finney enrolled at Lincoln College in Missouri, but his education was interrupted by military service. He enlisted in the U.S. Army in 1911, becoming a member of the 24th U.S. Infantry Regiment (a regiment of African American soldiers, better known as Buffalo soldiers) and served in the Philippines. Morton-Finney was promoted to the rank of corporal and sergeant, but was denied an officer's commission due to racial discrimination. He received an honorable discharge and returned to the United States in 1914. Morton-Finney also served as an infantryman in the American Expeditionary Force in 1918 in France during World War I. During World War II, he was cited for directing the rationing tickets program for African Americans in Indianapolis.
Education
Morton-Finney had a lifelong interest in education, earning eleven academic degrees in law, French, mathematics, and history. After his military service in the Philippines in 1914, he returned to Lincoln College in Missouri, where he resumed his education and met his wife, Pauline, who was also an educator at the college. His education was disrupted again with military service in 1918, this time serving in France during World War I, but continued his education following his return to the United States.
Morton-Finney earned a total of five law degrees, the first one from Lincoln College in 1935, followed by law degrees from Indiana Law School and Indiana University in 1944, IU's School of Law in 1946, and Martin University in 1995. In addition, he earned master's degrees from Indiana University in education (1925) and in French (1933), while at teaching at Crispus Attucks High School in Indianapolis. Morton-Finney also held undergraduate degrees from Lincoln Institute (1920), Iowa State University (1922), and Butler University (1965). Late in life he was awarded a Doctor of Letters (Litt.D.) from Lincoln University (1985), and received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree (L.H.D) from Butler University (1989). Morton-Finney was fluent in French, Latin, Greek, and Spanish, and conversant in German and Portuguese.
Career
Educator and administrator
Morton-Finney taught languages at Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, and at Lincoln University in Jefferson City, Missouri, before moving to Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1922 to teach in the Indianapolis Public Schools. Morton-Finney spent forty-seven years as an IPS teacher and school administrator, beginning at Shortridge High School. He was one of the original faculty members hired for the new Crispus Attucks High School when it opened in 1927. (Attucks High School was the only public high school in Indianapolis designated specifically for African Americans.) Morton-Finney became head of Attucks's foreign language department, taught Greek, Latin, German, Spanish, and French, and later taught at other IPS schools, including junior high mathematics and social studies. He also served as an IPS school principal. In addition, Morton-Finney taught life skills, invited presidents from black colleges to speak to the students, and helped students with college scholarships. In honor of his nearly five decades of service in the Indianapolis Public Schools, the school district's downtown Center for Education Services building was renamed the Dr. John Morton-Finney Center for Educational Services.
Lawyer
In addition to his long career as an educator in the Indianapolis public schools, Morton-Finney practiced law in Indiana for many years. He was admitted as a member of the Bar of the Indiana Supreme Court in 1935 and as a member of the Bar of the U.S. District Court in 1941. At the age of 83, Morton-Finney was admitted to practice before the U.S. Supreme Court in 1972. He was inducted into the National Bar Association Hall of Fame in 1991. When Morton-Finney retired from practicing law at the age of 107, he was believed to have been the oldest practicing attorney in the United States.
Later years
Due to his African family's ancestry, ninety-year-old Morton-Finney was crowned Adeniran I, Paramount Chief of Yoruba Descendants in Indiana during ceremonies held at The Children's Museum of Indianapolis on August 31, 1979. Morton-Finney's family ancestors migrated from Ethiopia to what is present-day Badagry, Nigeria, and became enslaved in America.
At the age of 96, Morton-Finney was awarded a Doctor of Letters (Litt.D.) from Lincoln University in 1985. He was also the recipient of an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree (L.H.D) from Butler University in 1989 at the age of 100.
Death and legacy
Morton-Finney died on January 28, 1998, at the age of 108. He was buried with full military honors at Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis, Indiana. At the time of his death, Morton-Finney was Indiana's oldest veteran.
Morton-Finney was recognized during his lifetime for his public service contributions with honorary awards and certificates from Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (June 9, 1989), the Indianapolis Public Schools (May 22, 1990), Harvard University, the Indianapolis City Council (1995), and the Mayor of Indianapolis, in addition to being commissioned a Kentucky Colonel (1991) by the Governor of Kentucky and receiving a Sagamore of the Wabash award from the Governor of Indiana. Morton-Finney also received distinguished alumni and graduate awards from Indiana University and was inducted into the National Bar Association Hall of Fame (1991). In recognition of his years as a legal professional the Indianapolis Bar Association presents awards to local lawyers for their leadership in legal education in Morton-Finney's honor. Butler University presents an award in Morton-Finney's honor to students who demonstrate leadership in promoting "diversity and inclusion in their schools or communities."
Awards and honors
Crowned Adeniran I, Paramount Chief of Yoruba Descendants in Indiana (1979)
To honor his lifelong commitment to education and his 47 years with the Indianapolis Public Schools, the IPS board renamed its Center for Education Services to the Dr. John Morton-Finney Center for Educational Services. Commander Carlton Philpot, who was the Chairman of the Buffalo Soldiers Monument committee at Fort Leavenworth, KS, was the keynote speaker for the dedication.
Recipient of Indiana University's College of Arts and Sciences Distinguished Alumni Award (1983)
Recipient of the Distinguished Graduate, School of Education, Award from the Indiana University Alumni Association (1983)
Honored at a White House dinner by President George H. W. Bush in 1990.
Recipient of a Kentucky Colonel Award (1991)
Inducted into the National Bar Association Hall of Fame (1991)
Recipient of a Sagamore of the Wabash Award
Recipient of an honorary doctorate degree from Martin University (1991)
Named an honorary member of the U.S. 9th and 10th (Horse) Cavalry Association (1995)
In 1998, Congresswoman Julia Carson made a tribute to Morton-Finney on the floor of the U.S. House of Representatives.
The Indianapolis Bar Association established the Dr. John Morton-Finney Jr. Award for Excellence in Legal Education in his honor (1998).
A residential house on the IUPUI campus was named in his honor in 2014.
Butler University's Dr. John Morton-Finney Leadership Award to students who have taken a leadership role promoting diversity and inclusion in their schools or communities is named in his honor.
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20030405193808/http://www.indystar.com/library/factfiles/history/black_history/black_hoosiers.html
Alumni Profile
"Dr. John Morton-Finney," photograph dated February 19, 1966, in the Indianapolis Recorder Collection, Indiana Historical Society, Indianapolis
American centenarians
African-American centenarians
Men centenarians
1889 births
1998 deaths
American civil rights lawyers
American educators
People from Kentucky
People from Indianapolis
American people of Yoruba descent
20th-century American lawyers
Yoruba legal professionals
Yoruba educators
Indiana University alumni
Iowa State University alumni
Butler University alumni
Fisk University faculty
Yoruba academics
American people of World War I
Burials at Crown Hill Cemetery
Lincoln University (Missouri) alumni
20th-century African-American people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel%20Mule
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Marcel Mule
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Marcel Mule (24 June 1901 – 18 December 2001) was a French classical saxophonist. He was known worldwide as one of the great classical saxophonists, and many pieces were written for him, premiered by him, and arranged by him. Many of these pieces have become staples in the classical saxophone repertoire. He is considered to be the founder of the French Saxophone School and the most representative saxophone soloist of his time, being a fundamental figure in the development of the instrument.
Early life
Marcel Mule was born in a village in Aube, France, to a father who learned the saxophone while doing his military service and became director of the brass band of Beaumont-le-Roger. In a time when Paris lacked saxophone teachers, having contact with brass bands was the only way to learn to play the saxophone. His father introduced him to the saxophone at the age of eight, in addition to violin and piano. He also taught him to play with a "straight" tone (no vibrato), which was the custom of the day.
Though Marcel exhibited the talent necessary to pursue a musical career, at a time when a musician's life was not easy, Mule's father recommended that he choose a teaching career instead. Thus, he enrolled in the École Normale at Évreux and received his diploma after three years. He taught for only six months in a school in town before he was called up for military service.
In the Garde républicaine
The First World War brought Marcel to Paris to serve with the Fifth Infantry. It was there that he returned to music, playing in the regiment's military band in 1921. It was also during his time in Paris that he continued his music studies in harmony, piano and violin.
It wasn't until he concluded his military service that Marcel's musical career took off. In 1923, he completed an exam to become a member of the Garde républicaine's band, La Musique de la Garde Républicaine. It provided a regular income for him. He became known for his beautiful sound, and became the saxophone soloist in the Garde, which caused him to be asked to play in concerts with orchestras and also in the orchestra of the Opéra-Comique (although almost exclusively for Massenet's Werther, as this was the only opera in the repertoire that called for an orchestral saxophone). As Mule admits, in that time people liked his sound, though he played as other people did at that time, with a straight interiorised sound. It was during this period that he played frequently with modern dance bands, and where his exposure to American jazz bands, with their treatment of vibrato, inspired him to experiment with and develop his trademark classical saxophone vibrato.
In 1927, Mule formed a saxophone quartet along with members of the Garde, under the name of Quatuor de la Garde Républicaine. In its earliest stage (it was to last for some 40 years) there was no music for such groups. Mule transcribed the music of classical composers such as Albéniz (Sevilla from the Suite Española Op. 47) and Mozart. His new ensemble achieved critical acclaim early on. As a consequence, important composers of the day, including Gabriel Pierné, Florent Schmitt and Alexander Glazunov, contributed their own works to an ever-expanding repertoire for the instrument group. This influx of exciting new material proved essential for the establishment of the saxophone quartet as a viable, sustainable ensemble type.
The Golden Age
In 1936, facing concerts abroad, Mule left the Garde and dedicated himself to performing and composing. The quartet changed its name to Quatuor de Saxophones de Paris, but later became referred to as simply the Quatuor Marcel Mule. The ensemble was heard in concerts and recitals throughout France, Belgium, Holland, England, Switzerland, Germany, Italy and North Africa. It was a period of intense effort, which enabled him to reveal the true nobility and musical potential of the saxophone.
In 1944, Claude Delvincourt, director of the Paris Conservatoire, allowed for the reestablishment of a saxophone class, an offering which had been abandoned with the departure of Adolphe Sax in 1870. Delvincourt entrusted the post to Marcel Mule, who was by then 43 years of age and highly respected in France and abroad. During his years at the Conservatoire, Mule taught over 300 students, many of whom went on to become famous saxophone performers and teachers in their own right.
In 1958, Mule's career culminated as he embarked on a twelve concert tour of the United States with the Boston Symphony Orchestra under the direction of Charles Münch. His program choice for the tour was Jacques Ibert's Concertino da Camera for alto saxophone, and Henri Tomasi's Ballade.
Writing about Mule's tour with the Boston Symphony Orchestra, New York journalist Louis Leopold Biancolli (1907–1992) called Mule the "Rubinstein of the saxophone". A few years earlier, a French journalist had dubbed Mule as the "Paganini of the saxophone". In 1939, Alfred Frankenstein (1906–1981), music critic for the San Francisco Chronicle wrote, "Marcel Mule is the Jascha Heifetz of the Saxophone".
As a teacher
According to Mule, the quality of sound depends on four conditions:
A firm but light embouchure.
The precision and quality of emission.
The mastery of breathing, necessary for the maintenance of the air column.
The mastery of vibrato, the novelty of which depends on the quality of the expression.
Mule's methodic teachings follow these guidelines:
Breathing: The breath must be relaxed and through the mouth, using the diaphragm. This will allow the player to have a more confident and serene attitude when performing.
The embouchure: An embouchure subjecting the mouthpiece with the lower lip on top of the lower teeth and the upper teeth. The embouchure must be firm but relaxed. The different registers of the saxophone must be produced with little variations of the oral cavity and throat.
The tonguing: The tonguing must be produced using the syllable DA.
The intonation: The saxophone is not a perfectly tuned instrument; this forces the instrumentalist to develop a very good ear for tuning. To vary the tuning, the player must use the throat and the tongue (positioning the tongue with different vowels), vary the pressure from the lower lip, vary the air pressure, and use corrective fingerings.
The vibrato: Mule had a clear idea from the beginning how the vibrato should be done, giving clear exercises and the right speed. The right speed is at 300 undulations per minute (i.e. 5 per second), which gives four undulations per crotchet at M.M. 80. The vibrato is accomplished with a movement of the jaw, which creates a variation of the pressure of the lower lip on the reed.
Technique, based on scales and arpeggios, including articulation.
All these methods are widely explained in his books. Mule gave to the saxophone history a very extensive amount of teaching material, incomparable to anything that existed previously.
Study books produced by Mule
The books produced by Marcel Mule focused on the points mentioned above: technique (scales, arpeggios), articulation and tone production.
Some of the study books created by Marcel Mule are:
24 Easy Studies for All Saxophones after A. Samie, Leduc. Alphonse Leduc, 1946, SS, 19 pages. Based on works by the French violinist A. Samie, and suitable for second and third year students with keys ranging to 3 sharps and 3 flats.
30 Great Exercises or Studies (Trente Grands Exercices ou Études) for All Saxophones after Soussmann Book 1 and 2 by Marcel Mule. Alphonse Leduc, 1944, SS, 31 pages. These advanced pieces based on studies by the flautist Henri Soussmann are more exercises than etudes (many feature short phrases repeating through the range of the instruments and in different keys). Book 1 has 15 exercises starting in C and moving through the circle of fifths in major and minor sharp keys.
48 Studies by Ferling for All Saxophones by Marcel Mule. Alphonse Leduc, 1946, SS, 30 pages. In addition to editing the 48 studies by Franz Wilhelm Ferling for oboe, Professor Mule has written an additional 12 studies in major and minor keys. (Ferling did not include the enharmonic keys of C flat major, A flat minor, etc. in his work.)
53 Studies for All Saxophones Book 1, 2 and 3 by Marcel Mule. Alphonse Leduc, SS, 1946, 27 pages. After Theobald Boehm, Adolf Terschak and Anton Bernhard Fürstenau.
Daily Exercises (Exercices Journaliers) for All Saxophones after Terschak by Marcel Mule. Alphonse Leduc, 1944, SS, 37 pages. Twenty-six technical exercises based on the works of the flautist Adolf Terschak for better intermediate and advanced students. Keys range from 7 sharps to 5 flats.
Scales and Arpeggios, Fundamental Exercises for the Saxophone Book 1, 2 and 3 by Marcel Mule. Alphonse Leduc, SS, 1948, 30 pages. This book includes scales, scales in thirds, arpeggios, arpeggios on the dominant seventh chord in all major and minor keys. Instructions are in French, English, German, Spanish and Japanese.
Varied Studies (Études Variées) in All Keys adapted by Marcel Mule. Alphonse Leduc, 1950, SS, 31 pages. Thirty etudes by various composers (Jakob Dont, Rodolphe Kreutzer, Jacques Mazas, Niccolò Paganini, Pierre Rode, etc.) at the advanced intermediate level.
18 Exercices ou Études d'après Berbiguier, by M. Mule, Leduc (based on studies by the French flautist Benoit Tranquille Berbiguier)
Pièces Célèbres Volume 1, 2 and 3, by M. Mule, Leduc
Tablature de la gamme chromatique, by M. Mule, Leduc
Retirement
In 1967, Marcel Mule retired to a villa near the Mediterranean, with his saxophone, though he never played it again. As he said, it was time to let the new generations make their way through.
On 24 June 2001, all his many friends and alumni met with him to celebrate his centenary. There were Guy Lacour, who was formerly tenor saxophone in the Quatuor, Michel Nouaux, Jean Ledieu, Jacques Person, Jean-Marie Londeix and others from France, but also from Spain, Canada and the United States. In October 2001, the Faculty of Music of the University of Laval (Canada) paid an enthusiastic homage to the Master.
A little over a month after the Laval visit, Marcel Mule died in his sleep at the age of 100.
Legacy
Marcel Mule is universally recognized as a modern master of the classical saxophone and a spiritual heir to Adolphe Sax. His labours as arranger and transcriber became central to the development of the repertoire for the instrument. His influence attracted the attention of some of the most important composers of the day, including Darius Milhaud, Arthur Honegger and Florent Schmitt, whose new works consequently included the saxophone among their forces. Many of the most important figures in classical saxophone history have been Mule's disciples, including Frederick Hemke, Jean-Marie Londeix, Eugene Rousseau, Daniel Deffayet (who succeeded Mule at the Paris Conservatoire in 1968) and Claude Delangle (who succeeded Deffayet in 1988).
Marcel Mule's virtuosity in performance was combined with a capability to extract concepts from the playing and explain them to other people. In short, apart from being a fine performer, Mule was an extraordinary teacher who was able to relate his methods most effectively. His depth of character, warmth and enthusiasm earned the affection and respect of his colleagues and students while making inestimable contributions in establishing the saxophone as a viable voice for musical expression.
Recordings
Mule made many recordings over the course of his career, mostly on 78RPM and 33RPM records. Notable ones include:
His LP issued in the 1930s ("Marcel Mule - 'Le Patron' of the Saxophone") on the Clarinet Classics label, numbered CCOO13, which aroused world wide interest in the art of classical saxophone.
His rendition of Jacques Ibert's Concertino da camera, recorded in 1947.
Books about Marcel Mule
Eugene Rousseau, Marcel Mule, his life and the saxophone, Shell Lake, Wisconsin, 1982, http://www.eugene-rousseau.com
Jean-Pierre Thiollet, Sax, Mule & Co, H & D, Paris, 2004
External links
Article in Saxophone Journal about Marcel Mule's life
Interview with the legendary Marcel Mule on the History of Saxophone Vibrato by Claude Delangle
References
Inline citations
French classical musicians
Classical saxophonists
Mule, Marcel
1901 births
2001 deaths
People from Orne
Conservatoire de Paris faculty
20th-century classical musicians
20th-century French musicians
20th-century saxophonists
Men centenarians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Vereker%2C%206th%20Viscount%20Gort
|
John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort
|
Field Marshal John Standish Surtees Prendergast Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort, (10 July 1886 – 31 March 1946) was a senior British Army officer. As a young officer during the First World War he was decorated with the Victoria Cross for his actions during the Battle of the Canal du Nord. During the 1930s he served as Chief of the Imperial General Staff (the professional head of the British Army). He is best known for commanding the British Expeditionary Force that was sent to France in the first year of the Second World War, only to be evacuated from Dunkirk the following year. Gort later served as Governor of Gibraltar and Malta, and High Commissioner for Palestine and Transjordan.
Early life and family
Vereker was born in London. His mother was Eleanor, Viscountess Gort née Surtees (1846–1933; later Eleanor Benson), who was a daughter of writer Robert Smith Surtees. J. S. S. P. Vereker's father was John Gage Prendergast Vereker, 5th Viscount Gort (1849–1902).
J. S. S. P. Vereker grew up in County Durham and the Isle of Wight. He was educated at Malvern Link Preparatory School, Harrow School,
and entered the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich in January 1904. As Viscount Gort, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Grenadier Guards on 16 August 1905, and promoted to lieutenant on 1 April 1907.
In November 1908, Gort visited his uncle, Jeffrey Edward Prendergast Vereker, a retired British army major, who was living in Canada, at Kenora, Ontario. During a moose hunting trip, Gort slipped off a large boulder, causing his rifle to discharge; the bullet injured a local guide, William Prettie, who later died of his wound in Winnipeg. Gort returned immediately to England. While studying at Trinity College, Cambridge he was initiated into Isaac Newton University Lodge.
Gort commanded the detachment of Grenadier Guards that bore the coffin at the funeral of King Edward VII in May 1910. He was made a Member of the Royal Victorian Order for his services in that role.
On 22 February 1911, Gort married Corinna Katherine Vereker, his second cousin; the couple had two sons and a daughter, before divorcing (1925). Their elder son, Charles Standish Vereker, was born on 23 February 1912, and served as a lieutenant with the Grenadier Guards, before committing suicide (26 February 1941). A second son, Jocelyn Cecil Vereker, was born on 27 July 1913, but died before his second birthday. Gort's daughter, Jacqueline Corinne Yvonne Vereker, who was born on 20 October 1914, married (June 1940) The Honourable William Sidney, later the 1st Viscount De L'Isle.
First World War
On 5 August 1914, Gort was promoted to captain. He went to France with the British Expeditionary Force and fought on the Western Front, taking part in the retreat from Mons in August 1914. He became a staff officer with the First Army in December 1914 and then became Brigade Major of the 4th (Guards) Brigade in April 1915. He was awarded the Military Cross in June 1915. Promoted to the brevet rank of major in June 1916, he became a staff officer at the Headquarters of the British Expeditionary Force and fought at the Battle of the Somme throughout the autumn of 1916. He was given the acting rank of lieutenant-colonel in April 1917 on appointment as Commanding Officer of 4th Battalion Grenadier Guards and, having been awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) in June 1917, he led his battalion at the Battle of Passchendaele, earning a Bar to his DSO in September 1917.
On 27 November 1918, Gort was awarded the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces, for his actions on 27 September 1918 at the Battle of the Canal du Nord, near Flesquieres, France.
Victoria Cross citation
Subsequent to this he became known as "Tiger" Gort. He won a second Bar to his DSO in January 1919. He was also mentioned in despatches eight times during the war.
Inter-war years
Gort was promoted to the substantive rank of major on 21 October 1919. After attending a short course at the Staff College, Camberley, in 1919 he joined Headquarters London District and, having been promoted to brevet lieutenant-colonel on 1 January 1921, he returned to the College as an instructor. He left the Staff College in May 1923.
Gort was promoted to colonel in April 1926 (with seniority backdated to 1 January 1925). In 1926 he became a staff officer at London District before becoming a chief instructor at the Senior Officers' School at Sheerness. In January 1927, he went to Shanghai, returning in August to give a first hand account of the Chinese situation to the King and the Prince of Wales. He returned home to be a staff officer at Headquarters 4th Infantry Division at Colchester in July 1927.
In June 1928, Gort was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire. He went on to command the Guards Brigade for two years from 1930 before overseeing training in India with the temporary rank of brigadier. In 1932, he took up flying, buying the de Haviland Moth aircraft Henrietta and being elected chairman of the Household Brigade Flying Club. On 25 November 1935, he was promoted to major-general. He returned to the Staff College, Camberley in 1936 as Commandant.
In May 1937, Gort was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath. In September 1937, he became Military Secretary to the War Minister, Leslie Hore-Belisha, with the temporary rank of lieutenant-general. On 6 December 1937, as part of a purge by Hore-Belisha of senior officers, Gort was appointed to the Army Council, made a general and replaced Field Marshal Sir Cyril Deverell as Chief of the Imperial General Staff. On 1 January 1938, he was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath.
As Chief of the Imperial General Staff, Gort advocated the primacy of building a land army and defending France and the Low Countries over Imperial defence after France had said she would not be able on her own to defend herself against a German attack.
On 2 December 1938 Gort submitted a report on the readiness of the British Army. He observed that Germany, as a result of the acquisition of Czechoslovakia, was in a stronger position than the previous year and that as a result of the government's decision in 1937 to create a "general purpose" army, Britain lacked the necessary forces for the defence of France.
On 21 December Gort recommended to the Chiefs of Staff that Britain would need to help France defend Holland and Belgium and that for that purpose the British Army needed complete equipment for four Regular army infantry divisions and two mobile armoured divisions, with the Territorial army armed with training equipment and then war equipment for four divisions. The First Sea Lord, Admiral Sir Roger Backhouse, replied that Britain's continental commitment might not be a limited liability. Gort replied: "Lord Kitchener had clearly pointed out that no great country can wage a 'little' war". He also attacked as a fallacy the theory of strategic mobility by the use of seapower because in modern war land transport was faster and cheaper than transport by sea. The experience of David Lloyd George's 1917 Alexandretta project "proved that [maritime side-shows] invariably led to vast commitments out of all proportion to the value of the object attained". If a purely defensive position was taken the Maginot Line would be broken, and the British Army (with anti-aircraft defence) was only getting £277 million out of a total £2,000 million spent on defence.
Second World War
On the outbreak of the Second World War, Gort was appointed by Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain as the Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France, arriving there on 19 September 1939.
During this time Gort played a part in a political manoeuvre, the Pillbox affair, that led to the dismissal of War Minister Leslie Hore-Belisha. Unimpressed by his qualities for command, Hore-Belisha described Gort as: "utterly brainless and unable to grasp the simplest problem".
Following the period of the "Phoney War", the Wehrmacht's attack and breakthrough in the Ardennes in May 1940 succeeded in splitting the Allied Armies, and surrounding the French 1st Army and BEF, Gort took the unilateral decision to abandon his orders received from the British Government for a southward attack to be made to support the French Army, instead on 25 May 1940 ordering a retreat by the BEF northwards to the French coast. On reaching the coast Gort oversaw the en masse retirement of the BEF back to the British Isles, involving the Battle of Dunkirk and the Dunkirk evacuation, while France was defeated and surrendered to the armies of the Third Reich four weeks later.
With regard to his conduct as C.-in-C. in France in 1940, Gort is credited by some historians as reacting efficiently to the crisis and saving the BEF, while others hold a more critical view of his leadership, seeing his decision to abandon France during Germany's attack into the west as defeatist.
Gort went on to serve in various positions for the remainder of the war, but the chaotic rout of the BEF under his command from France had convinced Winston Churchill, the newly installed British Prime Minister, that he was an undesirable as a British Army General Staff field commander, and he was side-lined to non-combatant posts. On the day of his return to England from France on 1 June 1940 he was appointed an ADC General to George VI. On 25 June 1940 he went by flying boat, with Duff Cooper, to Rabat, Morocco, to rally anti-Nazi French cabinet ministers, but was instead held on his flying boat. He quickly returned to Britain.
Gort was given the post of Inspector of Training and the Home Guard, and with nothing constructive to do visited Iceland, Orkney and Shetland. He went on to serve as Governor of Gibraltar (1941–42). In 1943 he succeeded Lord Galway as Colonel Commandant of the Honourable Artillery Company, a position he held until his death.
As Governor of Malta (1942–44), Gort's courage and leadership during the siege was recognised by the Maltese giving him the Sword of Honour. He pushed ahead with extending the airfield into land reclaimed from the sea, against the advice of the British government, but was later thanked by the War Cabinet for his foresight when the airfield proved vital to the British Mediterranean campaign. The King gave Gort his field marshal's baton on 20 June 1943 at Malta. On 29 September, Gort, together with Generals Eisenhower and Alexander, witnessed Marshal Badoglio signing the Italian surrender in Valletta harbour.
Gort was present when his son-in-law, Major William Sidney, received the Victoria Cross from General Sir Harold Alexander, Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the Allied Armies in Italy, on 3 March 1944 in Italy.
Gort ended the war as High Commissioner for Palestine and Transjordan. He served in this office for only one year. In 1945 he nominated William James Fitzgerald, Chief Justice of Palestine, to enquire into the Jewish-Arab conflict in Jerusalem. Chief Justice Fitzgerald issued his report in which he proposed to divide the city into separate Jewish and Arab Quarters. Despite growing tensions in Palestine, Gort strove to cultivate good personal relations with both Jews and Arabs, and was greatly admired and respected by the Jewish and Arab communities.
During his time in Palestine, Gort's health deteriorated, and he was suffering from great pain and discomfort in his abdomen. He was in fact suffering from liver cancer, but the doctors he consulted in London were unable to properly diagnose his condition. Gort ruled Palestine at the time that the Jewish insurgency was beginning. Despite his efforts, he was unable to stem the growing confrontation between the Yishuv (Jewish community) and British authorities. On 5 November 1945, he stepped down as High Commissioner and returned to Britain. Commenting on his departure, The Palestine Post wrote that "No High Commissioner in the twenty-five years of British rule in Palestine enjoyed greater popular trust and none repaid it with greater personal kindness."
Death
After leaving Palestine and returning to England, Gort was admitted to Guy's Hospital in London, where exploratory surgery revealed that he was dying from inoperable liver cancer. In February 1946 he was created a Viscount in the Peerage of the United Kingdom under the same title as his existing Viscountcy in the Peerage of Ireland. On 31 March 1946 he died in Guy's Hospital at the age of 59 years. As he did not have a surviving son, the Irish Viscountcy of Gort passed to his brother, Standish Vereker, and the British creation became extinct. His body was entombed in the Sidney family vault at St. John the Baptist Church, Penshurst, in the county of Kent.
Film portrayal
Gort was portrayed by Cyril Raymond in the cinema film Dunkirk (1958).
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
British Army Officers 1939−1945
Location of grave and VC medal (Kent)
Memorial to Lord Gort in the Sidney Chapel at St John the Baptist, Penshurst
Generals of World War II
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1886 births
1946 deaths
People educated at Harrow School
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
British World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross
British field marshals of World War II
British Army personnel of World War I
Deaths from cancer in England
Deaths from liver cancer
Viscounts in the Peerage of Ireland
English people of Dutch descent
English people of Irish descent
Governors of Gibraltar
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British High Commissioners of Palestine
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
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Members of the Royal Victorian Order
Knights of the Order of St John
Recipients of the Military Cross
Diplomatic peers
Governors and Governors-General of Malta
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Chiefs of the Imperial General Staff
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Mandatory Palestine people of World War II
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louviers
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Louviers
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Louviers () is a commune in the Eure department in Normandy in north-western France.
Louviers is from Paris and from Rouen.
Population
History
Prehistory
In the area around Louviers, cut stones from the Paleolithic era have been found. Some of these are in the town's museum, alongside fragments of a mammoth tusk found not far from the cemetery. Other evidence of human presence in the area at different periods of prehistory includes the menhir of Basse-Cremonville and the Neolithic tomb which was close to it. Various objects from these periods - weapons, vases, stone and bronze tools - have also been found in the area.
Ancient Gaul and Roman Gaul
A few elements dating from the period of Ancient Gaul have been found at Louviers: a Celtic grave found in 1863 against the wall of the Église Notre-Dame, and several Gallic coins. A hypothesis of a fortified Gallic village has been formulated, but not proven. The Louviers of Roman Gaul is, however, better known. It was not, however, unimportant, as judged by the fact that it appeared in neither the Antonine Itinerary nor the Tabula Peutingeriana.
Middle ages
Under the Merovingians, Louviers had at least two cemeteries, but it is only from the 9th Century that certain historical events can be dated.
On 10 February 856, King Charles II (Charles the Bald), father of the future Louis II (in French, Louis le Bègue), promised his son in marriage to a daughter of Erispoe, king of Brittany. In return, Erispoe gave to Charles the duchy of Mans. This arrangement greatly displeased the Breton vassals, and was perhaps one of the reasons for the plot which followed the death of the Breton king the following year.
In 965, Richard I, Duke of Normandy gave the churches of Louviers and Pinterville, the fisheries of the water-mills of Louviers, and forty sols of rent on these mills to the Abbey of Saint-Taurin, which he had just founded at Évreux. It is the first time, at the end of the period, that the name of Louviers appears in an official deed.
In 1026, this donation was confirmed by Richard II, Duke of Normandy.
In 1184, the "mills of the king" burnt down, and were rebuilt.
In 1195, Richard Lionheart confirmed the charter of his predecessors.
In 1196, Philip II of France and Richard Lionheart signed the Trêve de Louviers (written confirmation of the peace of Issoudun).
In 1197, Richard Lionheart gave Louviers to the archbishop of Rouen, Walter de Coutances, in return for which, Richard received Les Andelys and with it, the opportunity to build Château Gaillard. From this date up to the French Revolution, the archbishops of Rouen were counts of Louviers.
Starting from around the beginning of the 13th century, the church of Notre-Dame de Louviers, was built. By 1240, the principal parts were finished: the choir, the nave and the transept surmounted by a lantern tower.
The town continued to prosper up to the middle of the 14th century, thanks to its cloth industry, and it is possible that the population exceeded 10,000. Evidence of this wealth includes the construction of a buildings: a bishop's manor, houses of wood and of wattle and daub, and stone dwellings for the master drapers and the rich merchants.
In 1346 and again in 1356, the town was again captured and sacked. It was occupied for four years up to 1360. On 16 May of that year, Edward the Black Prince, solemnly pronounced, in the name of his father, Edward III of England, the ratification of the treaty which, in exchange for one quarter of the kingdom of France, set at liberty John II of France (French: Jean le Bon), who had been a prisoner in Poitiers.
In 1364, the people of Louviers asked Charles V of France for authorisation to fortify the town's ramparts.
From 1379 to 1385, the church was repaired: the vaults of the nave were raised and a spire 50 metres high was built on top of the bell-tower.
On 12 July 1380, the constable of the garrison, inspecting the walls towards midnight, found a sentinel asleep. The constable angrily threw him, head first, at a wooden sentry box, and killed him.
In 1409, the townspeople started work again on the fortifications, which had been neglected after the victories of Bertrand du Guesclin against the English. They undertook to build on the side of their church a bell-tower in a style more military than religious.
In 1418, the English laid siege to the town. The battle was fierce and the victors pitiless. The town was taken after 26 hours (15 according to English sources): 120 townspeople were killed at sword-point, while the others were spared only by paying a large ransom (15,000 ecus). The occupation that followed lasted 11 years.
In December 1429, Étienne de Vignolles, also called La Hire, companion of Joan of Arc, retook the town. The English, not able to accept this fact, besieged the town in May 1431 with 12,000 men. The new siege lasted nearly six months. The town capitulated on 22 October after it had lost most of its defenders. The English promised honourable conditions to the survivors, but razed the town.
In 1440, the town was again liberated and its inhabitants were able to rebuild it. The English tried one last time to take the town in 1441. In that year, Charles VII of France exempted the people of Louviers in perpetuity from paying most royal taxes, and in particular, the heaviest tax, the taille. The town received, incorporated in its coast of arms, the motto "Loviers le Franc" (Louviers the loyal), and the inhabitants received the right to bear the letter L in embroidery, goldsmithery or wherever else they pleased.
In the 15th century, Louvier's cloth industry kept its royal protection under the king Louis XI, as was the case with other towns of Normandy.
Renaissance
Between 1496 and 1510 the southern façade of the church of Notre-Dame was expanded in the flamboyant gothic style. At about the same time, the lantern tower was also renovated.
In 1562, Rouen fell into the hands of the Protestants. On the orders of Charles IX of France, the Parliament of Normandy was transferred to Louviers, where it sat from 5 August to 28 October.
In 1591, Charles de Gontaut, Marshal de Biron (1562 – 1602), the lieutenant of Henri IV, presented himself in front of Louviers on 6 June and seized the town, after a brief but violent fight; this allowed the king to enter.
17th and 18th centuries
In the 17th century, several epidemics of plague struck the town (1619, 1620, 1624, 1648, 1694), with many victims.
In 1620, the franchises granted by Charles VII were abolished by Louis XIII.
In 1681, the royal administration installed in Louviers a cloth factory specialising in products of very high quality. Managed for more than 50 years by Francois Le Camus, it brought some prosperity to the town. But regulations brought in by minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert facilitated competition from the town of Elbeuf.
In the 18th century, many natural disasters hit the town: terrible winters (1709, 1740, 1776, 1784); a hurricane (1705); floods (1740, 1776, 1784); and major fires (1782, 1783).
In 1709, a rabid wolf entered the town and bit 15 people, killing five.
In 1785, Louviers got its first factory with mechanical machinery. It spun cotton using the new English methods.
1789–1945
During the French Revolution, Louviers' citizens were moderate in their cahiers de doléances (grievances presented to the king), and followed the currents of thought and action of the rest of the country. This moderation was shown by constitutional royalists at the time of the first two revolutionary assemblies; by Girondists at the start of the National Convention, and by the Thermidorian Reaction after the execution of Robespierre.
Food shortages under the Revolution and the fact that they became worse under the French Directory favoured support of a strong government, and the consular constitution was accepted unanimously by the voters. The first consul (Napoleon) visited Louviers on 30 October 1802. He returned on 1 June 1810 with his wife Marie-Louise and they visited the town's factories.
The town was occupied by the Prussians in 1815.
The regulations of Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683) had led the manufacturers of Louviers to specialise in extremely fine cloth. But the Revolution did not favour luxury fabrics, leading to a severe downturn in manufacturing in the town. With the introduction of new manufacturing methods, however, the quality was maintained while lowering the price. With this, the town enjoyed a new prosperity that lasted up to the middle of the twentieth century. This prosperity was reflected in some important civic projects:
Under the Bourbon Restoration (1814–1830), the old ramparts were demolished and replaced by boulevards.
Under the July Monarchy (1830–1848) a library, a savings bank, and the first true public school for boys were built, and Notre-Dame was restored.
Under the Second Empire (1852–1870), streets were opened and paved, schools, the port, bridges and lighting were improved; important works were done to l'Hotel de ville and a new railway station was opened.
The revolutions of 1830 (the July Revolution) and 1848 passed almost unnoticed in Louviers.
In 1870, the war against Prussia caused 16 deaths, 13 wounded and 23 prisoners. The town was evacuated at the beginning of March 1871, then life resumed as normal under the Third Republic. In 1855 the école primaire supérieure was established – it subsequently became a college then a lycée. In 1899, Louviers' streets were lit with electricity. Before World War I, a municipal theatre, a museum and a range of organisations – scholarly, sporting, musical, cooperative – flourished.
In June 1940, Louviers suffered greatly under the bombardments of the Battle of France. Members of several of the Resistance groups in the town were arrested and deported. On 25 August 1944, the Americans, then the British, liberated the town after several bombardments. On 8 October 1944, Louviers was visited by General de Gaulle, and on 26 June 1949, the town was awarded the Croix de Guerre.
Recent history
After the Second World War, the town was reconstructed, and several new quarters were created: Saint-Lubin, Saint-Germain, la Roquette, la Côte de Paris, Saint-Jean.
In the second half of the twentieth century, Louviers' political history has a left-wing tilt. From 1953–1958, the mayor was Pierre Mendès France (1907–1982), a member of the left-wing Radical Party. From 1965–69, the mayor was Ernest Martin of the DVG (Miscellaneous left). The candidates on the list that he headed were left-wing and anti-authoritarian; their party allegiances went from the Parti Socialiste Unifié (PSU) to the anarchists. They sought self governance (autogestion), and the events of May 1968 led in Louviers to the establishment of self-managing bodies – neighbourhood committees, avant-garde cultural policies, and so on.
The right won the municipal elections in 1969. For eight years, town hall debates were stormy, but then in 1977, Henri Fromentin was elected mayor on a platform of implementing Ernest Martin's revolutionary programme.
Sights
Its church, Notre-Dame, has parts which date from the thirteenth century. The 16th century porch on the south side is an example of Late Gothic Flamboyant architecture.
Personalities
It is also well known for its Musée des décors de Théâtre, d'Opéra et de Cinéma (Fondation Wakhévitch), after Georges Wakhévitch (1907–1984) who lived nearby. The composer Maurice Duruflé (b. in Louviers 1906 - d. in Louveciennes 1986) was born in Louviers. Other famous persons include:
Jacques Ovyn (16th-century French playwright).
Jean Nicolle (Louviers 1604- Louviers 1650), painter.
Pierre Mendès-France, mayor of Louviers in 1954.
Olivier Besancenot, politician.
Susan Loomis. Author 1998–present.
MAURICE DURUFLÉ organiste
International relations
Louviers is twinned with:
Weymouth and Portland, England
Holzwickede, Germany
San Vito dei Normanni, Italy
See also
Communes of the Eure department
Treaty of Louviers
References
Surprising history and 16th century sculpture in the church of Notre Dame, Louviers - info and photos
External links
Official Web site
Communes of Eure
Eure communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia
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] |
207354
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communes%20of%20the%20Oise%20department
|
Communes of the Oise department
|
The following is a list of the 679 communes of the Oise department of France.
The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2020):
Communauté d'agglomération du Beauvaisis
Communauté d'agglomération de la Région de Compiègne et de la Basse Automne
Communauté d'agglomération Creil Sud Oise
Communauté de communes de l'Aire Cantilienne
Communauté de communes du Clermontois
Communauté de communes des Deux Vallées
Communauté de communes du Liancourtois
Communauté de communes des Lisières de l'Oise
Communauté de communes de l'Oise Picarde
Communauté de communes du Pays de Bray
Communauté de communes du Pays Noyonnais
Communauté de communes des Pays d'Oise et d'Halatte
Communauté de communes du Pays des Sources
Communauté de communes du Pays de Valois
Communauté de communes de la Picardie verte
Communauté de communes de la Plaine d'Estrées
Communauté de communes du Plateau Picard
Communauté de communes des Sablons
Communauté de communes Senlis Sud Oise
Communauté de communes Thelloise
Communauté de communes du Vexin-Thelle
References
Oise
|
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] |
207358
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20prime%20ministers%20of%20Finland
|
List of prime ministers of Finland
|
This is a list of prime ministers of Finland since the establishment of that office in 1917.
History
In 1918, the Finnish Senate was transformed into the Finnish Government, and the position of Vice-Chairman of the Economic Division of the Senate was transformed into that of a prime minister. Kesäranta (in Swedish Villa Bjälbo), located in the Meilahti neighborhood of Helsinki, has been the official residence of the prime minister of Finland since 1919.
Since its independence (declared on 6 December 1917), Finland has had 75 cabinets, including the current one, the longest lasting being the cabinet of Prime Minister Juha Sipilä, lasting 1,469 days.
Before the 1980s cabinets tended to be short-lived: the president was the most important political figure and he had the right to form a new cabinet whenever he wanted. From the 1980s onwards cabinets have tended to serve full terms (although the prime minister may have changed midterm in a few cases, most of the other cabinet has remained nearly unchanged) and the prime minister has become more powerful a figure than the president. Under the current constitution, the prime minister is chosen by the Parliament and only appointed by the president.
List of prime ministers
Finnish cabinets and prime ministers are numbered sequentially. A prime minister can serve as the head of multiple cabinets. For example, Matti Vanhanen is both the 39th and the 40th prime minister.
|}
Interim prime ministers
List of living former prime ministers
The most recent death of a former prime minister of Finland is that of Mauno Koivisto (1968–1970, 1979–1982) on 12 May 2017.
See also
Politics of Finland
Lists of incumbents
President of Finland
List of presidents of Finland
Senate of Finland
References
External links
Official site
From Senate to independent Government
-
Prime Minister
Finland
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichstag%20fire
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Reichstag fire
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The Reichstag fire (, ) was an arson attack on the Reichstag building, home of the German parliament in Berlin, on Monday 27 February 1933, precisely four weeks after Nazi leader Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor of Germany. Marinus van der Lubbe, a Dutch "council communist", was the apparent culprit; however, Hitler attributed the fire to Communist agitators. He used it as a pretext to claim that Communists were plotting against the German government, and induced President Paul von Hindenburg to issue the Reichstag Fire Decree suspending civil liberties, and pursue a "ruthless confrontation" with the Communists. This made the fire pivotal in the establishment of Nazi Germany.
A German court decided later that year that Van der Lubbe had acted alone, as he himself had claimed.
The first report of the fire came shortly after 9:00p.m., when a Berlin fire station received an alarm call. By the time police and firefighters arrived, the Chamber of Deputies (the lower house) was engulfed in flames. The police conducted a thorough search inside the building and found Van der Lubbe, who was arrested.
After the Fire Decree was issued, the Nazi-controlled police made mass arrests of Communists, including all of the Communist Reichstag delegates. This severely crippled Communist participation in the 5 March elections. After the 4 March elections, the absence of the Communists gave the Nazi Party a majority in the Reichstag, greatly assisting the Nazi seizure of total power.
As part of the effort to blame the Fire on the Communists, on 9 March the Prussian state police arrested Bulgarians Georgi Dimitrov, Vasil Tanev, and Blagoy Popov, who were known Comintern operatives. (Though the police did not know it, Dimitrov was head of all Comintern operations in Western Europe.) Ernst Torgler, head of the Communist Party, had surrendered himself to police on 28 February.
They and Van Der Lubbe were the defendants in the Leipzig Trial. All four Communists were acquitted. The responsibility for the Reichstag fire remains a topic of debate and research. The Nazis accused the Comintern of the act. However, some historians believe, based on archive evidence, that the arson had been planned and ordered by the Nazis as a false flag operation. The building remained in its damaged state until it was partially repaired from 1961 to 1964 and completely restored from 1995 to 1999. In 2008, Germany posthumously pardoned Van der Lubbe under a law introduced in 1998 to lift unjust verdicts dating from the Nazi era.
Prelude
After the November 1932 German federal election, the Nazi Party had a plurality, not a majority; the Communists posted gains. Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor and head of the coalition government on 30 January 1933. As chancellor, Hitler asked President Paul von Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag and call for a new parliamentary election. The date set for the elections was 5 March 1933.
Hitler hoped to abolish democracy in a more or less legal fashion, by passing the Enabling Act. The Enabling Act was a special law that gave the Chancellor the power to pass laws by decree, without the involvement of the Reichstag. These special powers would remain in effect for four years, after which time they were eligible to be renewed. Under the Weimar Constitution, the President could rule by decree in times of emergency using Article 48.
During the election campaign, the Nazis alleged that Germany was on the verge of a Communist revolution and that the only way to stop the Communists was to put the Nazis securely in power. The message of the campaign was simple: increase the number of Nazi seats.
Fire
Shortly after 9p.m. on 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was reported as on fire, and firefighters were dispatched. Despite their efforts, most of the building was gutted. By 11:30, the fire was put out. The firefighters and police inspected the ruins and found 20 bundles of flammable material (firelighters) unburned lying about. At the time the fire was reported, Hitler was having dinner with Joseph Goebbels at Goebbels' apartment in Berlin. When Goebbels received an urgent phone call informing him of the fire, he regarded it as a "tall tale" at first and hung up. Only after the second call did he report the news to Hitler. Both left Goebbels' apartment and arrived by car at the Reichstag, just as the fire was being put out. They were met at the site by Hermann Göring, Interior Minister of Prussia, who told Hitler, "This is Communist outrage! One of the Communist culprits has been arrested." Hitler called the fire a "sign from God" and claimed it was a signal meant to mark the beginning of a Communist revolt. The next day, the Prussian Press Service reported that "this act of incendiarism is the most monstrous act of terrorism carried out by Bolshevism in Germany". The Vossische Zeitung newspaper warned its readers that "the government is of the opinion that the situation is such that a danger to the state and nation existed and still exists".
Walter Gempp was head of the Berlin fire department at the time of the Reichstag fire on 27 February 1933, personally directing the operations at the incident. On 25 March he was dismissed for presenting evidence that suggested Nazi involvement in the fire. Gempp asserted that there had been a delay in notifying the fire brigade and that he had been forbidden from making full use of the resources at his disposal. In 1937, Gempp was arrested for abuse of office. Despite his appeal, he was imprisoned. Gempp was strangled and killed in prison on 2 May 1939.
Political consequences
The day after the fire, at Hitler's request, President Hindenburg signed the Reichstag Fire Decree into law by using Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. The Reichstag Fire Decree suspended most civil liberties in Germany, including habeas corpus, freedom of expression, freedom of the press, the right of free association and public assembly, and the secrecy of the post and telephone. These rights were not reinstated during Nazi reign. The decree was used by the Nazis to ban publications not considered "friendly" to the Nazi cause. Despite the fact that Marinus van der Lubbe claimed to have acted alone in the Reichstag fire, Hitler, after having obtained his emergency powers, announced that it was the start of a Communist plot to take over Germany. Nazi Party newspapers then published this fabricated "news". This sent the German population into a panic and isolated the Communists further among the civilians; additionally, thousands of Communists were imprisoned in the days following the fire (including leaders of the Communist Party of Germany) on the charge that the Party was preparing to stage a putsch. Speaking to Rudolph Diels about Communists during the Reichstag fire, Hitler said "These sub-humans do not understand how the people stand at our side. In their mouse-holes, out of which they now want to come, of course they hear nothing of the cheering of the masses." With Communist electoral participation also suppressed (the Communists previously polled 17% of the vote), the Nazis were able to increase their share of the vote in the 5 March 1933 Reichstag elections from 33% to 44%. This gave the Nazis and their allies, the German National People's Party (who won 8% of the vote), a majority of 52% in the Reichstag.
While the Nazis emerged with a majority, they fell short of their goal, which was to win 50–55% of the vote that year. The Nazis thought that this would make it difficult to achieve their next goal, passage of the Enabling Act giving Hitler the right to rule by decree, which required a two-thirds majority. However, several important factors weighed in the Nazis' favour, mainly the continued suppression of the Communist Party and the Nazis' ability to capitalize on national security concerns. Moreover, some deputies of the Social Democratic Party (the only party that would vote against the Enabling Act) were prevented from taking their seats in the Reichstag, due to arrests and intimidation by the Nazi SA. As a result, the Social Democratic Party would be under-represented in the final vote tally. The Enabling Act passed easily on 23 March 1933, with the support of the right-wing German National People's Party, the Centre Party, and several fragmented middle-class parties. The measure went into force on 24 March, effectively making Hitler dictator of Germany.
The Kroll Opera House, sitting across the Königsplatz from the burned-out Reichstag building, functioned as the Reichstag's venue for the remaining 12 years of the Third Reich's existence.
Trial
In July 1933, Marinus van der Lubbe, Ernst Torgler, Georgi Dimitrov, Blagoi Popov, and Vasil Tanev were indicted on charges of setting the Reichstag on fire. From 21 September to 23 December 1933, the Leipzig Trial took place and was presided over by judges from the German Supreme Court, the Reichsgericht. This was Germany's highest court. The presiding judge was Judge Dr. Wilhelm Bünger of the Fourth Criminal Court of the Fourth Penal Chamber of the Supreme Court. The accused were charged with arson and with attempting to overthrow the government.
The Leipzig Trial was widely publicized and was broadcast on the radio. It was expected that the court would find the Communists guilty on all counts.
The trial began at 8:45 on the morning of 21 September, with Van der Lubbe testifying. Van der Lubbe's testimony was very hard to follow as he spoke of losing his sight in one eye and wandering around Europe as a drifter and that he had been a member of the Dutch Communist Party, which he quit in 1931, but still considered himself a communist. Georgi Dimitrov began his testimony on the third day of the trial. He gave up his right to a court-appointed lawyer and defended himself successfully. When warned by Judge Bünger to behave himself in court, Dimitrov stated: "Herr President, if you were a man as innocent as myself and you had passed seven months in prison, five of them in chains night and day, you would understand it if one perhaps becomes a little strained." During the course of his defence, Dimitrov claimed that the organizers of the fire were senior members of the Nazi Party and frequently verbally clashed with Göring at the trial. The high point of the trial occurred on 4 November 1933, when Göring took the stand and was cross-examined by Dimitrov. The following exchange took place:
In his verdict, Judge Bünger was careful to underline his belief that there had in fact been a Communist conspiracy to burn down the Reichstag, but declared, with the exception of Van der Lubbe, there was insufficient evidence to connect the accused to the fire or the alleged conspiracy. The Bulgarians were acquitted and were expelled to the Soviet Union. Only Van der Lubbe was found guilty and sentenced to death. Torgler was also acquitted and survived the war.
The outcome of this trial caused Hitler to remove treason trials from the regular courts. He decreed that henceforth treason—among many other offenses—would only be tried by a newly established People's Court (Volksgerichtshof). The People's Court later became associated with the number of death sentences it handed down, including those following the 1944 attempt to assassinate Hitler, which were presided over by then Judge-President Roland Freisler.
Execution of Van der Lubbe
At his trial, Van der Lubbe was found guilty and sentenced to death. He was beheaded by guillotine (the customary form of execution in Saxony at the time) on 10 January 1934, three days before his 25th birthday. The Nazis alleged that Van der Lubbe was part of a Communist conspiracy to burn down the Reichstag and seize power, while the Communists alleged that Van der Lubbe was part of the Nazi conspiracy to blame the crime on them. Van der Lubbe, for his part, maintained that he acted alone to protest the condition of the German working class.
In 1967, a court in West Berlin overturned the 1933 verdict, and posthumously changed Van der Lubbe's sentence to eight years in prison. In 1980, another court overturned the verdict, but was overruled. In 1981, a West German court posthumously overturned Van der Lubbe's 1933 conviction and found him not guilty by reason of insanity. This ruling was subsequently overturned. However, in January 2008, he was pardoned under a 1998 law for the crime on the grounds that anyone convicted under Nazi Germany is officially not guilty. The law allows pardons for people convicted of crimes under the Nazis, based on the idea that the laws of Nazi Germany "went against the basic ideas of justice".
Dispute about Van der Lubbe's role
According to historian Ian Kershaw, by 1998, nearly all historians agreed that Van der Lubbe had set the Reichstag on fire, that he had acted alone, and that the incident was merely a stroke of good luck for the Nazis. However, in the days following the incident, major newspapers in the US and London were immediately sceptical of the good fortune of the Nazis in finding a Communist scapegoat.
It has been alleged that the idea that Van der Lubbe was a "half-wit" or "mentally disturbed" was propaganda spread by the Dutch Communist Party, to distance itself from an insurrectionist antifascist, who had once been a member. John Gunther, who covered the trial, described Van der Lubbe as "an obvious victim of manic-depressive psychosis" and said that the Nazis would not have chosen "an agent so inept and witless". Citing a letter that was allegedly written by Karl Ernst before his death during the Night of Long Knives, Gunther believed that Nazis, who heard Van der Lubbe boast of planning to attack the Reichstag, started a second simultaneous fire they blamed on him. Hans Mommsen concluded that the Nazi leadership was in a state of panic on the night of the Reichstag fire, and seemed to regard the fire as confirmation that a communist revolution was as imminent as they had claimed.
The British reporter, Sefton Delmer, criticised for being a Nazi sympathiser at the time, witnessed that night's events. He reported Hitler arriving at the Reichstag, appearing uncertain how it began, and concerned that a communist coup was about to be launched. Delmer viewed Van der Lubbe as being solely responsible, but that the Nazis sought to make it appear to be a "communist gang" that set the fire. On the other hand, the communists sought to make it appear that Van der Lubbe was working for the Nazis, so each side constructed a conspiracy theory in which the other was the villain.
In private, Hitler said of the chairman of the Communist Party, Ernst Torgler: "I'm convinced he was responsible for the burning of the Reichstag, but I can't prove it".
In 1960, Fritz Tobias, a West German SPD public servant and part-time historian, published a series of articles in Der Spiegel, later turned into a book, in which he argued that Vаn der Lubbe had acted alone. Tobias showed that Van der Lubbe was a pyromaniac, with a long history of burning down buildings or attempting to burn them down. Tobias established that Van der Lubbe had committed a number of arson attacks on buildings in the days prior to 27 February.
In March 1973, the Swiss historian Walter Hofer organized a conference intended to rebut the claims made by Tobias. At the conference, Hofer claimed to have found evidence that some of the detectives who investigated the fire had been Nazis. Mommsen commented on Hofer's claims by stating: "Professor Hofer's rather helpless statement that the accomplices of Van der Lubbe 'could only have been Nazis' is tacit admission that the committee did not actually obtain any positive evidence in regard to the alleged accomplices' identity". Mommsen also had a theory supporting Hofer, which was suppressed for political reasons, an act that he admitted was a serious breach of ethics.
In 2014, Richard J. Evans summarized: "the bulk of the historical profession [agrees] that Tobias was right, and that the sole author of the Reichstag fire was Marinus van der Lubbe".
Historian Benjamin Carter Hett laments that "Today the overwhelming consensus among historians who specialize in Nazi Germany remains that Marinus van der Lubbe burned the Reichstag all by himself. Hett argues that Tobias’ analysis is fundamentally flawed. Tobias’ undertook his study when tasked to defend West German police officials who had investigated the initial fire as SS members. In doing so, Tobias disregarded any information from persons who had been targeted by the Nazi regime as biased while accepting the testimony of former SS members as objective, even though their post-war testimony is clearly contradicted by records from 1933. Furthermore, Hett shows that Tobias used his access to secret archives to coerce historians with opposing views by threatening to reveal compromising personal information. Hett argues that the most recent evidence makes clear that the fire could not have been the work of an individual and Hett feels there is far more evidence of Nazi collaboration than there is of a communist plot.
1955 testimony of SA member Hans-Martin Lennings
In July 2019, more than 80 years after the event, Germany's Hannoversche Allgemeine Zeitung and the RedaktionsNetzwerk Deutschland published a 1955 affidavit, uncovered in some papers of Fritz Tobias, which were found in the archives of the Amtsgericht (court) in Hannover. The affidavit by Hans-Martin Lennings (1904–1962), a former member of the Nazis' paramilitary SA unit, stated that on the night of the fire, he and his SA group drove Van der Lubbe from an infirmary to the Reichstag, where they noticed "a strange smell of burning and there were clouds of smoke billowing through the rooms". The statement suggests the fire had already started when they arrived and that the SA played a role in the arson.
Lennings, who died in 1962, further stated in his account that he and other members of his squad had protested the arrest of Van der Lubbe, "because we were convinced that Van der Lubbe could not possibly have been the arsonist, because according to our observation, the Reichstag had already been burning when we dropped him off there". He claimed he and the other witnesses were detained and forced to sign a paper that denied any knowledge of the incident. Later, nearly all of those with knowledge of the Reichstag fire were executed. Lennings said that he had been warned and escaped to Czechoslovakia.
Lennings had asked that his account be certified in 1955, in the event the Reichstag fire case ever returned to trial.
The uncovering of Lennings's affidavit led to the speculation that Tobias had ignored it to protect his single perpetrator theory on the arson, and to protect the post-war career of former Nazis. It also led to more sober speculation about whether unknown or forgotten documents might still be hidden in German archives, and which might be valuable and revealing historical sources, especially on the Nazi regime.
Göring's commentary
In The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, William L. Shirer wrote that at the Nuremberg Trials, General Franz Halder stated in an affidavit that Hermann Göring had boasted about setting the fire: "On the occasion of a lunch on the Führer's birthday in 1943, the people around the Führer turned the conversation to the Reichstag building and its artistic value. I heard with my own ears how Göring broke into the conversation and shouted: 'The only one who really knows about the Reichstag building is I, for I set fire to it.' And saying this he slapped his thigh". Under cross-examination at the Nuremberg trial in 1945 and 1946, Halder's affidavit was read to Göring, who denied any involvement in the fire.
"Countertrial" organised by the German Communist Party
During the summer of 1933, a mock countertrial was organised in London by a group of lawyers, democrats and other anti-Nazis under the aegis of German Communist émigrés. The chairman of the mock trial was British Labour Party barrister D. N. Pritt, and the chief organiser was the KPD propaganda chief Willi Münzenberg. The other "judges" were Piet Vermeylen of Belgium, George Branting of Sweden, Vincent de Moro-Giafferi and Gaston Bergery of France, Betsy Bakker-Nort, a lawyer and member of parliament of the Netherlands for the progressive liberal party Free-thinking Democratic League, Vald Hvidt of Denmark, and Arthur Garfield Hays of the United States.
The mock trial began 21 September 1933. It lasted one week and ended with the conclusion that the defendants were innocent and the true initiators of the fire were to be found amid the leading Nazi Party elite. The countertrial received much media attention, and Sir Stafford Cripps delivered the opening speech. Göring was found guilty at the mock trial, which served as a workshop that tested all possible scenarios, and all speeches of the defendants had been prepared. Most of the "judges", such as Hays and Moro-Giafferi, complained that the atmosphere at the "countertrial" was more like a show trial, with Münzenberg constantly applying pressure behind the scenes on the "judges" to deliver the "right" verdict, without any regard for the truth. One of the "witnesses", a supposed SA man, appeared in court wearing a mask and claimed that it was the SA that had really set the fire. In fact, the "SA man" was Albert Norden, the editor of the German communist newspaper Rote Fahne. Another masked witness, whom Hays described as "not very reliable", claimed that Van der Lubbe was a drug addict and a homosexual, who was the lover of Ernst Röhm and a Nazi dupe. When the lawyer for Ernst Torgler asked the mock trial organisers to turn over the "evidence" that exonerated his client, Münzenberg refused the request because he lacked any "evidence" to exonerate or to convict anyone of the crime.
The countertrial was an enormously successful publicity stunt for the German communists. Münzenberg followed the triumph with another by writing, under his name, the bestselling The Brown Book of the Reichstag Fire and Hitler Terror, an exposé of what Münzenberg alleged to be the Nazi conspiracy to burn down the Reichstag and to blame the act on the communists. (As with all of Münzenberg's other books, the real author was one of his aides: in this case, the Czechoslovak communist Otto Katz.) The success of The Brown Book was followed by another, published in 1934, dealing with the trial.
See also
A Lesson in History
List of attacks on legislatures
References
Notes
Bibliography
Originally published as:
External links
Review of Bahar and Kugel book
Van der Lubbe exonerated by German courts
German court overturns Lubbe decision
Documentary about Reichstag fire and Marinus van der Lubbe
Newsreel footage from UK about the fire
The Conspiracists at London Review of Books
Review of Hett book
The Brown Book of the Hitler Terror and the Burning of the Reichstag A HathiTrust full text of the US edition held by the University of Michigan: Alfred A Knopf Inc, NY, 1933.
1933 crimes in Germany
1933 fires
1930s in Berlin
Arson in Germany
Arson in the 1930s
Attacks on buildings and structures in Berlin
Attacks on buildings and structures in the 1930s
Attacks on legislatures
Conspiracy theories in Germany
February 1933 events
Fires at legislative buildings
Fires in Germany
Fire
Urban fires in Europe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiiumaa
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Hiiumaa
|
Hiiumaa (, ) is the second largest island in Estonia and is part of the West Estonian archipelago, in the Baltic Sea. It has an area of 989 km2 and is 22 km from the Estonian mainland. Its largest town is Kärdla. It is located within Hiiu County.
Names
Hiiumaa is the main island of Hiiu County, called or in Estonian. The Swedish and German name of the island is or ('Day' island) and in Danish. In modern Finnish, it is called , literally 'Hiisi's Land'. In Russian it is known as (). In Old Gutnish, it was ('day isthmus'), from which the local North Germanic name is derived.
History
Prehistory
Hiiumaa emerged from the Baltic Sea 8500 years ago due to isostatic uplift after the retreat of the ice cap. Mesolithic settlements are found on the island's Kõpu Peninsula from about 5500 BC. These settlements seem to be related mostly to seal hunting and extend into the earliest Neolithic. As Hiiumaa is constantly uplifting the local sea level was 20 m higher than today at this time. For this reason these settlements are located far from the modern coastline. The pottery found at these sites is of the Narva Type and is similar to that found on Saaremaa and the Estonian mainland.
A series of stone-cist graves are also present on the island from the Late Bronze Age through to the Late Iron Age.
Crusades
The first documented record of the island of Dageida was made by contemporary chroniclers in 1228, when Hiiumaa and the rest of Estonia were conquered by Germanic crusaders. In 1254, Hiiumaa was divided between the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek and the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order, acting partly on behalf of the Hanseatic League.
Swedish and Russian era
The island was part of Swedish Estonia from 1563 to 1721, after which it passed to the Russian Empire as part of the Governorate of Estonia, though Dagö's Swedish population kept most of their privileges. Most of the island's previously numerous Swedish-speaking population emigrated or were "Estonianised" during the period of Imperial Russian rule, although a minority remained until the 20th century. Estonian Swedes are also known as aibofolke ("island people" in Swedish) or rannarootslased ("coastal Swedes" in Estonian). Administratively the island of Hiiumaa belonged to Lääne County.
World War I
Hiiumaa was occupied during World War I by the Imperial German Army, in Operation Albion. After the war, in 1918, it became a part of independent Estonia.
World War II
The waters near Hiiumaa were active during World War II:
23 June 1941- The Soviet destroyer Gnevny was sunk by a German seamine.
25 June- the Soviet minesweeper T-208 Shkiv was destroyed by a German seamine.
27 June- Two German motor torpedo boats, S43 and S106, were destroyed by Soviet seamines.
1 July- the Soviet submarine M-81 was destroyed by a German seamine north of Hiiumaa.
7 July- the Soviet minesweeper T-216 was sunk.
30 July- the Soviet minesweeper T-201 Zarjad was sunk.
10 August- the German submarine was sunk by a torpedo from the Soviet submarine SC-307.
Hiiumaa Island was occupied by the Stalinist Soviet Union in 1940, by Nazi Germany in 1941, and by the USSR again in 1944.
Hiiumaa remained under Soviet control until Estonia regained independence in August 1991. During the period of Soviet occupation 1944-1991, Hiiumaa was declared a restricted zone, closed to foreigners and to most mainland Estonians. A number of derelict Soviet forts and communication towers are still present on the island's northern coast.
Natural environment
Hiiumaa is an island in Estonia located north of Saaremaa in the Baltic Sea. It is the northernmost island in the Muhu archipelago, which includes Saaremaa and Muhu. Hiiumaa has a low relief (up to 68 m above sea level) and is mostly formed of limestone, that is exposed in cliffs around parts of the island's coast. In the North of the island there are a series of fossilized beaches preserved as uplift has occurred. The modern beaches are primarily on the northern and western coast lines. The natural environment is protected within the Tahkuna Nature Reserve and West Estonian Archipelago Biosphere Reserve.
The Hiiu Shoal (Nekmangrund) is located off the northwestern shore of Hiiumaa Island. The Soela Strait separates Hiiumaa from Saaremaa to its south, and the Muhu Strait separates it from the mainland of Estonia.
Ecology
The fauna and flora of Hiiumaa are similar to the Estonian mainland. The mammal fauna includes elk, red deer, roe deer, wild boars, foxes, lynxes and martens. Wolves have recently started to repopulate the island after being made locally extinct.
Minks were also reintroduced in 2000, after they were exterminated by trappers. Since the end of the 1990s the island shelters a conservation project aimed at restoring populations of European mink, an endangered species of which there is about only 1,000 individual specimens left in Europe as of 2017. This project started with removing from the island all American minks that had escaped from breeding farms, and reintroducing some European minks. The latter started breeding.
The bird species found on the island include black storks, golden eagles, cranes, avocets and swans. The forests are dominated by pine and deciduous trees, the rest of the uncultivated land is covered by swamps and dunes. The island has about 1000 species of large plants of which 50 are protected.
Geology
The exposed geology of Hiiumaa is composed of Paleozoic Limestone which dips towards the South, covered by glacial sediments. In the North of the island the limestones are Ordovician and they young upwards to the Silurian in the South. These limestones formed at 30 degrees South and have since been moving North with the rest of the Estonian block. Bore holes have found Cambrian sedimentary rocks and a crystalline basement.
In the Ordovician (c. 455 million years ago) the sea floor was hit by a meteorite forming the 4 km wide Kärdla Impact Structure. This structure was then filled with Paleozoic sediment. It located about 4 km west-southwest of Kärdla and is barely visible in the modern geomorphology. The crater is well preserved at depth, with a clear rim, breccia and minerals and rocks formed from the heat and pressure of the impact.
The limestone is overlain by Pleistocene glacial deposits that were deposited as the ice cap retreated 11 to 12 thousand years ago. These include terminal moraines, the two most prominent being one in the South of Island running towards the North-East and another forming the Kõpu Peninsula.
Climate
Towns and buildings
The island has several villages, as well a small town of Kärdla (pop. 3,287) and small boroughs of Käina and Kõrgessaare. The oldest surviving church was built in Pühalepa in 1259, though it was rebuilt in the 18th century. The Hanseatic League built a lighthouse in Kõpu near the start of the 16th century. It is the third oldest continuously operating lighthouse in the world.
Employment and land-use
The islands economy is mostly tourism, livestock, farming, wrecking, fishing, and fish processing. The tourism is mostly seasonal.
Hiiumaa council agrees to the construction of a wind farm. Recently there has been a trend towards smaller farms and more tourism
Transport
Road transport from Estonian mainland to Hiiumaa involves a 90-minute (28 km) ferry crossing from Rohuküla to Heltermaa, which is 25 km by road from Kärdla. There are about 10 ferry departures a day operated by TS Laevad. In the summer weekends, getting car space on the ferry usually requires advance booking. There are about 2 scheduled buses a day between Tallinn (the capital of Estonia) and Kärdla.
In the winter, the island can be reached, conditions permitting, via a 26.5 km ice road (the longest in Europe) across the frozen Baltic Sea. A bridge to the mainland of Estonia has been occasionally proposed.
Hiiumaa is served by Kärdla Airport, with regular flights to Tallinn. Bicycle rental is also available in Kärdla and there is a good bicycle path built from Kärdla towards Kõrgessaare.
Culture and politics
The island is part of the B7 Network, a loose grouping of the major island of the Baltic Sea. Smoked cooked plaice is a traditional summertime delicacy. There is a friendly rivalry with the neighboring island of Saaremaa.
Notable people
Roman von Ungern-Sternberg (1885-1921), White military commander in the Russian Civil War.
Juhan Maaker (1845-1930), Estonian folk musician
Rudolf Tobias (1873-1918), Estonian composer
Marie Under (1883-1980), Estonian poet, nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature several times
Aleksander Maaker (1890-1968), the last traditional player of the torupill (Estonian bagpipe)
Lydia Mei (1896-1965), Estonian artist
Ivan Triesault (1898-1980), Estonian-American actor
Natalie Mei (1900-1975), Estonian artist
Elmar Tampõld (1920-2013), Estonian-Canadian architect
Ülo Sooster (1924-1970), Estonian artist
Ave Alavainu (b. 1942), Estonian poet
Erkki-Sven Tüür (b. 1959), Estonian composer of contemporary classical music
Heiki Nabi (b. 1985), Estonian Olympic champion Greco-Roman wrestler
Image gallery
See also
List of islands of Estonia
List of islands in the Baltic Sea
Estonian Swedes
Windtower Experience center
References
External links
Hiiumaa County government Official site
Pictures of Coastal batteries World War I and World War II in Hiiumaa Official site
Estonian islands in the Baltic
Landforms of Hiiu County
Kreis Wiek
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207369
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dag%C3%B6
|
Dagö
|
Dagö is a folk rock band from Tallinn, Estonia.
Dagö was formed in 1998 by Lauri Saatpalu, Peeter Rebane and Tiit Kikas. Dagö is the old name of Hiiumaa, an Estonian island. The band's first album, Dagö, was released in 2000, and received the Folk/Ethno Album Of The Year award in Estonia. Toomas Rull (drums) and Raul Vaigla (bass) joined the band soon after. In 2001, Dagö won first prize in the Midsummer Night’s Improvisational Festival in Pärnu. Tiit Kikas left the group in 2002, and producer and musician Kristo Kotkas became the “invisible member” of the band. The second album, Toiduklubi (Food Club), was released in the same year, and Taavi Kerikmäe, a keyboard player, joined the band soon after. Their third album, Hiired Tuules (Mice in the Wind), was released in 2003, and in the same year drummer Petteri Hasa also joined the band. The fourth album, Joonistatud mees (The Picture Perfect Man), was released in 2006. Also in 2006, the band were awarded the folk rock Group Of The Year award in Estonia. The fifth album, Möödakarvapai (Smoothing Caress), was released in 2008, and soon after, the band announced that they were disbanding. In autumn 2010 the band started recording again, with new members, and in March 2011 they released their sixth studio album, Plaan Delta.
Members
Lauri Saatpalu (vocals)
Peeter Rebane (guitar)
Raul Vaigla (bass)
Taavi Kerikmäe (keyboards)
Toomas Rull (drums)
Petteri Hasa (drums)
Albums
2000: Dagö
2002: Toiduklubi
2003: Hiired tuules
2006: Joonistatud mees
2008: Möödakarvapai
2011: Plaan Delta
2020: "Küte"
References
External links
Official website
Musical groups established in 1998
Estonian folk rock groups
Estonian rock music groups
|
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207371
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%2C%20Hong%20Kong
|
Central, Hong Kong
|
Central (also Central District) is the central business district of Hong Kong. It is located in Central and Western District, on the north shore of Hong Kong Island, across Victoria Harbour from Tsim Sha Tsui, the southernmost point of Kowloon Peninsula. The area was the heart of Victoria City, although that name is rarely used today.
As the central business district of Hong Kong, it is the area where many multinational financial services corporations have their headquarters. Consulates general and consulates of many countries are also located in this area, as is Government Hill, the site of the government headquarters. The area, with its proximity to Victoria Harbour, has served as the centre of trade and financial activities from the earliest days of the British colonial era in 1841, and continues to flourish and serve as the place of administration after the handover to China in 1997.
Naming
The area of Chung Wan (), named Central in English, was one of the districts () in Victoria City. The English name Central became prevalent after the Island line of the MTR metro system was built in the early 1980s, and the connected stations of Pedder and Chater renamed as Central. On some older maps, it and the area to its west are named Kwan Tai Lo () below Victoria Peak. It formed a channel, Chung Mun (), with Tsim Sha Tsui, on the sea route along the coast of southern China. The eastern part of Central District has been known as Admiralty since the completion of Admiralty station in the early 1980s.
Location
Central is located on the north shore of Hong Kong Island, across Victoria Harbour from Tsim Sha Tsui, the southernmost point of Kowloon Peninsula. It is bordered in the west by Sheung Wan, with the border being along Aberdeen Street (also called Wing Kut Street). It is bordered in the east by Admiralty, an eastern extension of the central business district. As such, Admiralty is sometimes considered a part of Central. Central is bordered in the south by Mid-Levels, an area halfway up Victoria Peak. The boundary between Central and Mid-Levels is not clearly defined.
For district council elections purposes, the area, together with Admiralty, correspond roughly to the "Chung Wan" constituency. The boundaries of such constituencies may be subject to modification.
History
The British landed on Possession Point of Sheung Wan in 1841. They soon decided to build a city on the north coast of Hong Kong Island, and the present-day Central was chosen to house major military facilities and an administrative centre. The area soon attracted both Westerners and Chinese to trade and live in the area, and a Canton Bazaar (precursor of Central Market) was built between Cochrane Street and Graham Street in 1842. The area was soon zoned for Westerners only, and the Chinese residents were restricted to Sheung Wan. [It was zoned for "Western-style buildings," meaning buildings with minimum space and hygiene standards]. The area was largely dominated by the presence of Victoria City. The popularity of this area would also boost the population of Hong Kong from 5,000 in 1841 to 24,000 in 1848. Government House and other Hong Kong Government buildings were completed during this period on Government Hill. Various barracks, naval base and residence of Commander, Flagstaff House were built on the east end of the district. Between 1860 and 1880 the construction of City Hall, Theatre Royal and other financial structures made Central the heart of Hong Kong.
In 1904, the Praya Reclamation Scheme added of land to Central's waterfront. Many of the proposals came from Sir Paul Chater and James Johnstone Keswick, the founders of Hongkong Land. During the 1920s, Hong Kong was able to push far ahead economically, because of the cohesive collaboration between Central and all waterfront commerce.
The military structures survived until the 1980s. Only Flagstaff House remains as Museum of Tea Ware in Hong Kong Park. City Hall sat on the present premises of the HSBC Hong Kong headquarters. Hong Kong's first road, Queen's Road, passes through the area and the business centre continued to expand toward the shoreline as far as the reclaimed lands.
Central has been the site of a number of major political protests. From October 2011 to September 2012, the Occupy Central movement against global economic inequality was based in front of the HSBC Main Building. Two years later, in September 2014, democratic activists initiated Occupy Central with Love and Peace, demanding universal suffrage for the election of the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, eventually contributing to the Umbrella Revolution.
Economy
There are many Grade-A commercial buildings in Central, a prime commercial district in Hong Kong.
Bank of China (Hong Kong) has its head office in the Bank of China Tower. The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, a subsidiary of HSBC, has its head office in the HSBC Main Building. Bank of East Asia and Hang Seng Bank have their head offices in Central. Chu Kong Passenger Transport is headquartered in the Chu Kong Shipping Tower (珠江船務大廈) in Central.
Before 1999, Cathay Pacific had its head office in the Swire House in Central. In 1999, the airline relocated its head office to Hong Kong International Airport.
Nord Anglia Education, which operates international schools in various countries, formerly had its head office in Central. The head office moved to Hong Kong in 2012. In 2018 the company announced it was returning its head office to the United Kingdom.
Notable places, streets and buildings
Office buildings
9 Queen's Road Central
AIA Central
Alexandra House
Bank of America Tower
Bank of China Building, housing the China Club
Bank of China Tower
Central Building
Chater House
Cheung Kong Center
Citibank Plaza
CITIC Tower
Entertainment Building
Exchange Square, housing the Hong Kong Stock Exchange
Hong Kong Club Building, housing the Hong Kong Club
Hong Kong Trade Centre
HSBC Main Building
Hutchison House
Jardine House
Man Yee Building
Prince's Building
St. John's Building
Standard Chartered Bank Building
The Center
The Centrium
The Landmark (office and shopping complex)
International Finance Centre (IFC), the second tallest building in Hong Kong
Wheelock House
Wing On House
World-Wide House
York House
Streets and squares
Aberdeen Street, marking the limit between Central and Sheung Wan
Arbuthnot Road
Battery Path
Chater Road
Connaught Place
Cochrane Street
Connaught Road Central
Cotton Tree Drive
D'Aguilar Street
Des Voeux Road Central
Edinburgh Place, a public square adjacent to the Victoria Harbour
Elgin Street
Gage Street, a market street
Garden Road
Glenealy
Graham Street, a market street
Gutzlaff Street
Hollywood Road
Ice House Street
Jubilee Street (). Named for the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1887.
Lower Albert Road
Lyndhurst Terrace
Old Bailey Street
On Lan Street
Pedder Street
Peel Street
Pottinger Street, one of the "ladder streets"
Queen's Road Central, the first road in Hong Kong built by the Government of Hong Kong between 1841 and 1843
Queen Victoria Street
Queensway, in Admiralty
Stanley Street
Statue Square, a public pedestrian square
Staunton Street
Staveley Street, one of the "ladder streets"
Theatre Lane, home to many of Hong Kong's shoe shiners
Wellington Street
Wyndham Street
Wing On Street (), aka. Cloth Street ()
Government buildings
Central Government Complex, Tamar
Former Central Government Offices on Government Hill
Chinese People's Liberation Army Forces Hong Kong Building
City Hall
Former French Mission Building, housing the Court of Final Appeal
General Post Office, Hong Kong
Government House
Hong Kong Planning and Infrastructure Exhibition Gallery
Legislative Council Building
Queensway Government Offices
Other historical buildings
Bishop's House
Central Market
Central Police Station
Duddell Street Steps and Gas Lamps
Flagstaff House
Former Central Magistracy
Hong Kong Visual Arts Centre
Old Dairy Farm Depot, housing the Hong Kong Fringe Club and the Foreign Correspondents' Club
Pedder Building
The Cenotaph
The Helena May main building
Victoria Prison
Zetland Hall
Central and Western Heritage Trail
Dr Sun Yat-sen Historical Trail
Hotels
Central, together with Tsim Sha Tsui and Tsim Sha Tsui East, is home to many hotels.
Conrad Hong Kong (Pacific Place, Admiralty)
Four Seasons Hotel Hong Kong (IFC)
Hong Kong Hilton (demolished in 1995)
JW Marriott Hotel Hong Kong (Pacific Place, Admiralty)
Landmark Mandarin Oriental (The Landmark)
Mandarin Oriental (Connaught Road Central)
The Murray, Hong Kong
Ovolo Hotels (2 Arbuthnot Road). Opened in October 2012.
Ritz-Carlton (Chater Road), closed 1 January 2008.
Island Shangri-La (Pacific Place, Admiralty)
Entertainment areas
Lan Kwai Fong, the location of numerous bars, restaurants and clubs
Hong Kong Maritime Museum, Central Ferry Pier 8
SoHo, Hong Kong
Wyndham Street
Places of worship
Various Buddhist temples
St. John's Cathedral (Sheng Kung Hui, Anglican Church)
First Church of Christ Scientist
Union Church
Immaculate Conception Cathedral, Hong Kong (Roman Catholic)
St. Joseph's Church (Roman Catholic)
Parks
Chater Garden
Cheung Kong Park
Hong Kong Park, former location of the Victoria Barracks
Hong Kong Zoological and Botanical Gardens
Statue Square
Schools
Raimondi College
Sacred Heart Canossian School
St Joseph's College, Hong Kong
Ying Wa Girls' School (in Mid-Levels)
St. Paul's Co-educational College (in Mid-Levels)
Former buildings
Beaconsfield House, demolished in 1995
Hong Kong Hilton, closed in 1995
Hongkong Hotel, closed in 1952
Murray House, part of Murray Barracks, moved to Stanley
Old Central Government Offices, demolished in 1954
Wellington Barracks, demolished in 1992
City Hall Ferry Pier, barge pier, closed due to the Central and Wan Chai Reclamation
Edinburgh Place Ferry Pier, demolished in 2007
Blake Pier, Central, demolished, partially moved to Stanley
Queen's Pier, demolished in 2008
United Pier, demolished in 1994
Transport
Public transport
The area is a major transport hub for Hong Kong (see also Transport in Hong Kong).
Bus
KMB, serving only cross-harbour routes on Hong Kong Island
First Bus
Citybus
Minibus
Trains and Trams
MTR – Island line, Tsuen Wan line, Tung Chung line, Airport Express, South Island line at Sheung Wan, Hong Kong, Central and Admiralty stations
Tram
Peak Tram
Ferries
Sun Ferry, to Silvermine Bay (Mui Wo), Peng Chau and Cheung Chau
Hong Kong & Kowloon Ferry, to Sok Kwu Wan and Yung Shue Wan on Lamma Island
Star Ferry, to Tsim Sha Tsui and Hung Hom
Discovery Bay Ferry, to Tsim Sha Tsui East and Discovery Bay
Park Island Ferry
Ferry piers:
Central Piers
Star Ferry Pier, Central
Pedestrian facilities
Central Elevated Walkway
Central–Mid-Levels escalator
Expressways and routes
Route 4
Connaught Road Central
Central–Wan Chai Bypass
Climate
References
External links
Photo Tour of Central Hong Kong, About.com
Map of Central District in 1964 (crown copyright)
Map of Hongkong Central 1911
Central and Western District, Hong Kong
Central business districts
Economy of Hong Kong
Financial districts in China
Populated coastal places in Hong Kong
Populated places in Hong Kong
Areas of Hong Kong
Victoria City
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Labour
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New Labour
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New Labour is a period in the history of the British Labour Party from the mid to late 1990s until 2010 under the leadership of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown. The name dates from a conference slogan first used by the party in 1994, later seen in a draft manifesto which was published in 1996 and titled New Labour, New Life for Britain. It was presented as the brand of a newly reformed party that had altered Clause IV and endorsed market economics. The branding was extensively used while the party was in government between 1997 and 2010. New Labour was influenced by the political thinking of Anthony Crosland and the leadership of Blair and Brown as well as Peter Mandelson and Alastair Campbell's media campaigning. The political philosophy of New Labour was influenced by the party's development of Anthony Giddens' Third Way which attempted to provide a synthesis between capitalism and socialism. Mark Bevir argues that another motivation for the creation of New Labour was as a response to the emergence of the New Right in the preceding decades. The party emphasised the importance of social justice, rather than equality, emphasising the need for equality of opportunity and believed in the use of markets to deliver economic efficiency and social justice.
The New Labour brand was developed to regain trust from the electorate and to portray a departure from their traditional socialist policies which was criticised for its breaking of election promises and its links between trade unions and the state, and to communicate the party's modernisation to the public. Calls for modernisation became prominent following Labour's heavy defeat in the 1983 general election, with the new Labour leader, Neil Kinnock, who came from the party's soft left Tribune Group of Labour MPs, calling for a review of policies that led to the party's defeat, and for improvements to the party's public image to be made by Peter Mandelson, a former television producer. This was complemented by MPs such as Giles Radice calling for the systematic modernisation of the party, coupled with calls for the party to become more moderate in order to increase electability. Modernisation intensified following Labour's narrow defeat in the 1992 general election, which Dennis Kavanagh and David Butler argued was caused by the party still being viewed as traditional Labour, and they stated that a 'new' party was created to rectify this and Labour's "return to electability within months of the 1992 election defeat [was] remarkable". Following the leadership of Neil Kinnock and John Smith, the party under the New Labour brand attempted to widen its electoral appeal and by the 1997 general election it had made significant gains in the middle class, effectively giving the party a landslide victory. Labour maintained this wider support at the 2001 general election and won a third consecutive victory in the 2005 general election for the first time ever in the history of the Labour Party.
In 2007, Blair resigned from the party leadership after thirteen years and was succeeded by his Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown. Labour lost the 2010 general election which resulted in the first hung parliament in thirty-six years and led to the creation of a Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government. Brown resigned as Prime Minister and as Labour Party leader shortly thereafter. He was succeeded as party leader by Ed Miliband, who abandoned the New Labour branding and moved the Labour Party's political stance further to the left under the branding One Nation Labour. Miliband resigned in 2015 and was replaced by democratic socialist Jeremy Corbyn, leading some to comment that New Labour is "dead and buried". However, in 2021, it was reported that key New Labour figure Peter Mandelson had been advising Labour leader Keir Starmer on moving the party beyond Corbyn's leadership and broadening its electoral appeal.
History
First elected to parliament as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Sedgefield, County Durham at the 1983 general election, Tony Blair became the leader of the Labour Party in 1994 after winning 57% of the vote in that year's leadership election, defeating John Prescott and Margaret Beckett. His first shadow cabinet role came in November 1988, when Neil Kinnock appointed him as Shadow Secretary of State for Energy and in July 1992 was promoted to the role of Shadow Home Secretary on the election of John Smith as Leader of the Labour Party.
Gordon Brown, who went on to hold senior positions in Blair's Labour government before succeeding him as Prime Minister in June 2007, was not a candidate in the 1994 leadership election because of an agreement between the two made in 1994 in which Brown promised not to run for election. The media has since speculated that Blair agreed to stand down and allow Brown the premiership in the future, although Blair's supporters have contended that such a deal never took place. The term New Labour was coined by Blair in his October 1994 Labour Party Conference speech as part of the slogan "new Labour, new Britain". During this speech, Blair announced the modification of Clause IV of the party's constitution which abandoned Labour's attachment to nationalisation and embraced market economics. The new version of the clause committed Labour to a balance of market and public ownership and to balance creation of wealth with social justice. Blair argued for increased modernisation at the conference, asserting that "parties that do not change die, and [Labour] is a living movement not a historical monument". During the period from 1994 to 1997, after Blair's election as party leader, Labour managed to reverse decades of decline in party membership by increasing the number by around 40%, increasing its capacity to compete for office whilst also legitimising the leadership of Blair.
In 1997, New Labour won a landslide victory at the general election after eighteen years of Conservative government, winning a total of 418 seats in the House of Commons—the largest victory in the party's history. The party was also victorious in 2001 and 2005, making Blair Labour's longest-serving Prime Minister and the first to win three consecutive general elections. He was also the first Labour leader to win a general election since Harold Wilson in 1974.
In the months following Labour's 1997 election victory, referendums were held in Scotland and Wales regarding devolution. There was a clear majority supporting devolution in Scotland and a narrower majority in Wales—Scotland received a stronger degree of devolution than Wales. The Labour government passed laws in 1998 to establish a Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly and the first elections for these were held in 1999. Blair attempted to continue peace negotiations in Northern Ireland by offering the creation of a regional parliament and government. In 1998, the Good Friday Agreement was made, allowing for a 108-member elected assembly and a power-sharing arrangement between nationalists and unionists. Blair was personally involved in these negotiations. The Fabian Society was a forum for New Labour ideas and for critical approaches from across the party. The most significant Fabian contribution to Labour's policy agenda in government was Ed Balls's 1992 pamphlet advocating Bank of England independence. In 1998, Blair and his New Labour government introduced the Human Rights Act. This was made to give UK law what the European convention of human rights had established. It was given the royal assent on the 9 November 1998, but it was not truly put in place until early October 2000.
After the United States strikes on Afghanistan and Sudan in 1998, Blair released a statement supporting the actions. He lent military support to the United States' 2001 invasion of Afghanistan. In March 2003, the Labour government, fearing Saddam Hussein's alleged access to weapons of mass destruction, participated in the American-led invasion of Iraq. British intervention in Iraq promoted public protest. Crowds numbering 400,000 and more demonstrated in October 2002 and again the following spring. On 15 February 2003, over 1,000,000 people demonstrated against the war in Iraq and 60,000 marched in Manchester before the Labour Party conference, with the demonstrators' issues including British occupation of Afghanistan and the forthcoming invasion of Iraq.
In June 2007, Blair resigned as the leader of the Labour Party and Gordon Brown, previously the Chancellor of the Exchequer, succeeded him following the 2007 Labour Party conference. Three years earlier, Blair had announced that he would not be contesting a fourth successive general election as Labour Party leader if he won the 2005 general election. Brown initially had strong public support and plans for a quick general election were widely publicised, although they never were officially announced. On 18 February 2008, Chancellor of the Exchequer Alistair Darling announced that the failing bank Northern Rock would be nationalised, supporting it with loans and guarantees of £50,000,000,000. The bank had been destabilised by the subprime mortgage crisis the previous year in the United States and a private buyer of the bank could not be found.
The 2010 general election ended in a hung parliament in which Labour won 258 seats, 91 fewer than in 2005. Following failure to achieve a coalition agreement with the Liberal Democrats, Brown announced his intention to resign as leader of the party on 10 May and resigned as the Prime Minister the following day. Shortly thereafter, David Cameron and Nick Clegg announced the formation of a coalition between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats. Cameron became the Prime Minister and Clegg the Deputy Prime Minister of a cabinet that contained eighteen Conservative ministers and five Liberal Democrat ministers. In announcing his intention to run for the leadership, David Miliband declared that the New Labour era was over. Following the publication of Blair's memoirs on 1 September 2010, Ed Miliband said: "I think it is time to move on from Tony Blair and Gordon Brown and Peter Mandelson and to move on from the New Labour establishment and that is the candidate that I am at this election who can best turn the page. I think frankly most members of the public will want us to turn the page". Miliband won the leadership election and was able to mobilise support from the trade union electorate. In a July 2011 speech, Blair stated that New Labour died when he left office and Brown assumed the party leadership, claiming that from 2007 the party "lost the driving rhythm". Nonetheless, New Labour's Third Way influenced a range of centre-left political parties across the world.
Political branding
Once New Labour was established, it was developed as a brand, portrayed as a departure from Old Labour, the party of pre-1994 which had been criticised for regularly betraying its election promises and was linked with trade unionism, the state and benefit claimants. The previous two party leaders Neil Kinnock and John Smith had begun efforts to modernise the party as a strategy for electoral success before Smith died in 1994. Kinnock undertook the first wave of modernisation between the 1987 and 1992 general elections, with quantitative research conducted by Anthony Heath and Roger Jowell indicating that the electorate viewed Labour as more moderate and electable in 1992 than in 1987, arguably legitimising the arguments for increased modernisation. However, Smith's approach which was dubbed (sometimes pejoratively) "one more heave" was perceived as too timid by modernisers like Blair, Brown and Mandelson. They felt that his cautious approach which sought to avoid controversy and win the next election by capitalising on the unpopularity of the Conservative government was not sufficient. New Labour also used the party's brand to continue this modernisation and it was used to communicate the modernisation of the party to the public. The party also began to use focus groups to test whether their policy ideas were attractive to swing voters. Its purpose was to reassure the public that the party would provide a new kind of governance and mitigate fears that a Labour government would return to the labour unrest that had characterised its past. Blair explained that modernisation was "about returning Labour to its traditional role as a majority mainstream party advancing the interests of the broad majority of people".
While the party was in power, press secretary Alastair Campbell installed a centralised organisation to co-ordinate government communication and impose a united message to be delivered by ministers. This process, known as "Millbankization" in reference to the campaign headquarters of Labour at the Millbank, was strict but very effective. Charlie Whelan, Brown's press officer, was often in conflict with Campbell because of the former's attempts to brief the press by his own initiatives—this continued until his resignation in 1999. Campbell followed a professional approach to media relations to ensure that a clear message was presented and the party planned stories in advance to ensure a positive media reaction. Campbell used his own experience in journalism as he was known for his attention to detail and effective use of sound bites. Campbell developed a relationship with News International, providing their newspapers with early information in return for positive media coverage.
In 2002, Philip Gould, a policy advisor to the Labour Party, wrote to the party's leadership that the brand had become contaminated and an object of criticism and ridicule, undermined by an apparent lack of conviction and integrity. The brand was weakened by internal disputes and the apparent failure to deal with issues. This assessment was supported by Blair, who argued that the government needed to spend more time working on domestic affairs, develop a unifying strategy and create "eye-catching initiatives". Blair also announced the need to be more assertive in foreign affairs.
The leaders of New Labour therefore created and ran an efficient and calculated media-handling strategy in an effort to increase electoral success. Florence Faucher-King and Patrick Le Galés note that "by 2007 the party had been emptied of its capacities for intermediation with society and, in the space of 10 years, lost half of its membership. But it had become a formidable machine for winning elections".
Electoral support
Under Neil Kinnock, Labour attempted to widen its electoral support from narrow class divisions. After Blair took the leadership, the party made significant gains in higher social classes and won 39% support from managers and administrators in the 1997 election, more than in previous elections that the party had lost. This was due to the calculated targeting of C1 and C2 voters by the Labour campaign and an anti-Conservative vote as opposed to an endorsement of Labour. Labour won greater support among younger voters than older, but there was no significant gender difference. During the 1980s, much of Labour's support had retreated into industrial areas of the north and in 1997 Labour performed much better in the south of England. In the elections of 2001 and 2005, Labour maintained much of the middle-class support that it had won in 1997. According to academics Charles Pattie and Ron Johnston, Labour's landslide in 1997 was achieved through Labour's strong performance in opposition, their modernisation efforts and moderate policies. These all encouraged many Conservative voters to abstain as the landslide was seen by many as a foregone conclusion. The 2001 election resulted in significant drops in turnout in Labour heartland seats which has been attributed to voters regarding the re-election of Labour incumbents as a foregone conclusion, coupled with discontent surrounding Labour's perceived inability to deliver significant improvements in public services during their first term. In 2005, Labour's support was much lower than in the previous two elections which David Rubinstein has attributed to anger at the war in Iraq and towards Blair himself.
Professors Geoffrey Evans, John Curtice and Pippa Norris of Strathclyde University published a paper considering the incidence of tactical voting in the 1997 general election. Their studies showed that tactical voting increased in 1997—there was a strong increase in anti-Conservative voting and a decrease in anti-Labour tactical voting. Political commentators Neal Lawson and Joe Cox wrote that tactical voting helped to provide New Labour with its majorities in 1997, 2001 and 2005, arguing that the party won because of public opposition to the Conservative Party. The party declared after its victory that it "won as New Labour and would govern as New Labour", but Cox and Lawson challenged this view, suggesting that the party won on account of public opposition to the Conservative Party.
Key figures
Tony Blair
Tony Blair became the leader of the Labour Party after 1994's leadership election and coined the term New Labour in that October's party conference. Blair pursued a Third Way philosophy that sought to use the public and private sectors to stimulate economic growth and abandon Labour's commitment to nationalisation. Blair's approach to government included a greater reliance on the media, using that to set the national policy agenda, rather than Westminster. He spent considerable resources maintaining a good public image which sometimes took priority over the cabinet. Blair adopted a centralised political agenda in which cabinet ministers took managerial roles in their departments and strategic vision was to be addressed by the Prime Minister. Ideologically, Blair believed that individuals could only flourish in a strong society and this was not possible in the midst of unemployment.
Tony Blair Served as Prime Minister, from 1997–2007.
Gordon Brown
Gordon Brown was an important figure in Blair's Labour government and played a key role in developing the party's philosophy. Brown served as Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1992 to 1997 and was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer following Labour's election victory in 1997. He attempted to control public spending and sought to increase the funding for education and healthcare. His economic strategy was market-based, attempting to reform the welfare state through a tax credit scheme for poorer working families and assigned the Bank of England to set interest rates.
Peter Mandelson
In 1985, Peter Mandelson was appointed as the Labour Party's director of communications. Previously, he had worked in television broadcasting and helped the party become increasingly effective at communication and more concerned with its media image, especially with non-partisans. Mandelson headed the Campaigns and Communications Directorate (established in 1985) and initiated the Shadow Communications Agency. He oversaw Labour's relationship with the media and believed in the importance of the agenda-setting role of the press. He felt that the agenda of the press (broadsheets in particular) would influence important political broadcasters. In government, Mandelson was appointed minister without portfolio to co-ordinate the various government departments. In 1998, he resigned as a cabinet minister after being accused of financial impropriety.
Alastair Campbell
Alastair Campbell was the Labour Party's Press Secretary and led a strategy to neutralise the influence of the press which had weakened former Labour leader Neil Kinnock and create allies for the party. While in government, Campbell established a Strategic Communications Unit, a central body whose role was to co-ordinate the party's media relations and ensure that a unified image was presented to the press. Because of his background in tabloid journalism, Campbell understood how different parts of the media would cover stories. He was a valued news source for journalists because he was close to Blair—Campbell was the first press secretary to regularly attend cabinet meetings.
Political philosophy
New Labour developed and subscribed to the Third Way, a platform designed to offer an alternative "beyond capitalism and socialism". The ideology was developed to make the party progressive and attract voters from across the political spectrum. According to Florence Faucher-King and Patrick Le Galés, "New Labour's leadership was convinced of the need to accept a globalized capitalism and join forces with the middle classes, who were often hostile to the Unions", therefore shaping policy direction. New Labour offered a middle way between the neoliberal market economics of the New Right which it saw as economically efficient; and the ethical reformism of post-1945 Labour which shared New Labour's concern for social justice. New Labour's ideology departed with its traditional beliefs in achieving social justice on behalf of the working class through mass collectivism. Blair was influenced by ethical and Christian socialist views and used these to cast what some consider a modern form of socialism or liberal socialism.
Social justice
New Labour tended to emphasise social justice rather than the equality which was the focus of previous Labour governments and challenged the view that social justice and economic efficiency are mutually exclusive. The party's traditional attachment to equality was reduced as minimum standards and equality of opportunity were promoted over the equality of outcome. The Commission on Social Justice set up by John Smith reported in 1994 that the values of social justice were equal worth of citizens, equal rights to be able to meet their basic needs, the requirement to spread opportunities as much as possible and the need to remove unjustified inequalities. The party viewed social justice primarily as the requirement to give citizens equal political and economic liberty and also as the need for social citizenship. It encompasses the need for equal distribution of opportunity, with the caveat that things should not be taken from successful people to give to the unsuccessful.
Economics
New Labour accepted the economic efficiency of markets and believed that they could be detached from capitalism to achieve the aims of socialism while maintaining the efficiency of capitalism. Markets were also useful for giving power to consumers and allowing citizens to make their own decisions and act responsibly. New Labour embraced market economics because they believed they could be used for their social aims as well as economic efficiency. The party did not believe that public ownership was efficient or desirable, ensuring that they were not seen to be ideologically pursuing centralised public ownership was important to the party. In government, the party relied on public-private partnerships and private finance initiatives to raise funds and mitigate fears of a tax and spend policy or excessive borrowing. New Labour maintained Conservative spending plans in their first two years in office and, during this time, Gordon Brown earned the reputation as an "Iron Chancellor" with his "Golden Rule" and conservative handling of the budget.
Welfare
Welfare reforms proposed by New Labour in their 2001 manifesto included Working Families Tax Credit, the National Childcare Strategy and the National Minimum Wage. Writing in Capital & Class, Chris Grover argued that these policies were aimed at promoting work and that this position dominated New Labour's position on welfare. He considered the view that New Labour's welfare reforms were workfarist and argued that in this context it must refer to social policy being put in line with market economic growth. Gower proposed that under New Labour this position was consolidated through schemes to encourage work.
Crime
Parts of New Labour's political philosophy linked crime with social exclusion and pursued policies to encourage partnerships between social and police authorities to lower crime rates whereas other areas of New Labour's policy maintained a traditional approach to crime, Tony Blair's approach to crime is quoted as being 'Tough on crime, Tough on the causes of crime'. The First Government under New Labour Spent a smaller percentage of the budget on crime than the previous Tory government, however the second Labour Government spent practically double (roughly 6.5% of the budget), Finally the Third Labour Government spent roughly the same percentage of the budget on crime as the First. Incidents of Crime did drastically decrease under New Labour, from around 18,000 in 1995 to 11,000 in 2005-6, yet this doesn't account for the decrease in Police reports that Occurred as well during this time.
The prison population in 2005 rose to over 76,000, mostly owing to the increasing length of sentences. Following the September 11 attacks, the Labour government attempted to emphasise counter-terrorism measures. From 2002, the government followed policies aimed at reducing anti-social behaviour; in the 1998 Crime and Disorder Act, New Labour introduced Anti-Social Behaviour Orders. Under this Labour Government, the '7/7' bombings took place, the first Islamic suicide attack and most deadly since the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103.
Multiculturalism
Controversy on the subject came to the fore when Andrew Neather—a former adviser to Jack Straw, Tony Blair and David Blunkett—said that Labour ministers had a hidden agenda in allowing mass immigration into Britain. This alleged conspiracy has become known by the sobriquet Neathergate.
According to Neather, who was present at closed meetings in 2000, a secret government report called for mass immigration to change Britain's cultural make-up and that "mass immigration was the way that the government was going to make the UK truly multicultural". Neather went on to say that "the policy was intended—even if this wasn't its main purpose—to rub the right's nose in diversity and render their arguments out of date". Neather later stated that his words had been twisted, saying: "The main goal was to allow in more migrant workers at a point when—hard as it is to imagine now—the booming economy was running up against skills shortages. [...] Somehow this has become distorted by excitable Right-wing newspaper columnists into being a "plot" to make Britain multicultural. There was no plot".
In February 2011, the then Prime Minister David Cameron stated that the "doctrine of state multiculturalism" (promoted by the previous Labour government) had failed and will no longer be state policy. He stated that the United Kingdom needed a stronger national identity and signalled a tougher stance on groups promoting Islamist extremism. However, official statistics showed that European Union and non-European Union mass immigration, together with asylum seeker applications, all increased substantially during Cameron's term in office.
Reception
Trade union activist and journalist Jimmy Reid wrote in The Scotsman in 2002 criticising New Labour for failing to promote or deliver equality. He argued that Labour's pursuit of a "dynamic market economy" was a way of continuing the operation of a capitalist market economy which prevented governments from interfering to achieve social justice. Reid argued that the social agenda of Clement Attlee's government was abandoned by Margaret Thatcher and not revived by New Labour. He criticised the party for not preventing inequality from widening and argued that New Labour's ambition to win elections had moved the party towards the right. Many left-wing Labour members such as Arthur Scargill left the party because of New Labour's emergence; however, New Labour attracted many from the centre and centre-right into its ranks. Underlining the significant ideological shifts that had taken place and indicating why the reception of New Labour was negative amongst traditional left-wing supporters, Lord Rothermere, the proprietor of The Daily Mail, defected to the Labour Party, stating: "I joined New Labour because that was obviously the New Conservative party".
Warwick University politics lecturer Stephen Kettell criticised the behaviour of the leadership of New Labour and their use of threats in parliament such as overlooking promotions for MPs in order to maintain party support. While referring to the other parties in Westminster as well, he likened these MPs as "little more than docile lobby-fodder for their respective oligarchies".
Although close to New Labour and a key figure in the development of the Third Way, sociologist Anthony Giddens dissociated himself from many of the interpretations of the Third Way made in the sphere of day-to-day politics. For him, it was not a succumbing to neoliberalism or the dominance of capitalist markets. The point was to get beyond both market fundamentalism and traditional top down socialism—to make the values of the centre-left count in a globalising world. He argued that "the regulation of financial markets is the single most pressing issue in the world economy" and that "global commitment to free trade depends upon effective regulation rather than dispenses with the need for it". In 2002, Giddens listed problems facing the New Labour government, naming spin as the biggest failure because its damage to the party's image was difficult to rebound from. He also challenged the failure of the Millennium Dome project and Labour's inability to deal with irresponsible businesses. Giddens saw Labour's ability to marginalise the Conservative Party as a success as well its economic policy, welfare reform and certain aspects of education. Giddens criticised what he called Labour's "half-way houses", including the National Health Service and environmental and constitutional reform.
See also
Economic liberalism
Blatcherism
Fabian Society
New Democrats
New Labour, New Danger
Thatcherism
Third Way
References
Bibliography
Diamond, Patrick. New Labour's Old Roots (Andrews UK Limited, 2015).
Faucher-King, Florence, and Patrick Le Gales, eds. The New Labour experiment: change and reform under Blair and Brown (Stanford UP, 2010).
Minkin, Lewis. The Blair Supremacy: A Study in the Politics of Labour's Party Management (Manchester University Press, 2014).
Rawnsley, Andrew. The End of the Party: The Rise and Fall of New Labour (Penguin, 2010).
Centrism in the United Kingdom
Labour Party (UK) factions
Liberal socialism
Neoliberalism
Political terms in the United Kingdom
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207373
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronelism
|
Coronelism
|
Coronelism, from the term Coronelismo () was the Brazilian political machine during the Old Republic (1889–1930), also known as the "rule of the coronels", responsible for the centralization of the political power in the hands of a locally dominant oligarch, known as a coronel, who would dispense favors in return for loyalty.
The patron-client political machines of the countryside enabled agrarian oligarchs, especially coffee planters in the dominant state of São Paulo to dominate state structures to their advantage, particularly the weak central state structures that effectively devolved power to local agrarian oligarchies.
In time, growing trade, commerce, and industry in São Paulo state would serve to undermine the domination of the republic's politics by the São Paulo landed gentry (dominated by the coffee industry) and Minas Gerais (dominated by dairy interests)—known then by observers as the coffee with milk (café com leite) politics. Under Getúlio Vargas, Brazil moved toward a more centralized state structure that has served to regularize and modernize state governments, moving toward universal suffrage and secret ballots, gradually freeing Brazilian politics from the grips of coronelismo. However, the legacy of the oligarchies is still strongly visible in what is described as Neo-Coronelism or electronic coronelism. Brazilian politics is still known for being highly patrimonial, oligarchic, and personalistic.
See also
List of Brazilian oligarchs
References
Political history of Brazil
Oligarchy
Coffee with milk politics
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Laos-related%20topics
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List of Laos-related topics
|
This is a list of topics related to Laos. This is so that those interested in the subject can monitor changes to the pages by clicking on Recent changes in the sidebar.
The list is not necessarily complete or up to date - if you see an article that should be here but is not (or one that should not be here but is), please do update the page accordingly.
Since the page is a maintenance page, the interested parties also want to know when changes are made to this list as well; so please do not remove the self-link.
Laos
Laos
Military of Laos
International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos
Talat Sao
Buildings and structures in Laos
Overview
Laos Cultural Profile (Ministry of Information and Culture/Visiting Arts)
Specific buildings and structures
Patuxay
Pha That Luang
Reservoirs and dams in Laos
Xieng Keo
Airports in Laos
Luang Prabang International Airport
Savannakhet Airport
Wattay International Airport
Archaeological sites in Laos
Plain of Jars
Bridges in Laos
Thai–Lao Friendship Bridge
Second Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge
Third Thai-Lao Friendship Bridge
Dams in Laos
Nam Theun II
Houses in Laos
Royal residences in Laos
Royal Palace Museum
Libraries in Laos
National Library of Laos
Digital Library of Lao Manuscripts
Museums in Laos
List of museums in Laos
Royal Palace Museum
Places of worship in Laos
Buddhist temples in Laos
Wat Manorom
Pha That Luang
Wat Phou
Wat Si Saket
Wat Xieng Thong
Hindu temples in Laos
Wat Phou
World Heritage Sites in Laos
Luang Prabang
Wat Phou
Cities in Laos
List of cities in Laos
Ban Houayxay
Champasak (town)
Louang Namtha
Luang Prabang
Muang Xay
Pakse
Phongsali
Phonsavan
Sainyabuli
Salavan (city)
Savannakhet (city)
Thakhek
Vang Vieng
Vientiane
Xam Neua
Communications in Laos
Communications in Laos
.la
Conservation in Laos
Laotian culture
Culture of Laos
Coat of arms of Laos
Cuisine of Laos
Dance and theater of Laos
Festivals of Laos
Flag of Laos
Lao alphabet
Pheng Xat Lao
Phra Lak Phra Lam
Saksit
Scouting in Laos
Vixakha Bouxa
Laotian art
Lao ceramics
Laotian art
Lao Buddhist sculpture
Lao cuisine
Beerlao
Cuisine of Laos
Glutinous rice
Kaffir lime
Larb
Padek
Tam mark hung
Languages of Laos
Bahnaric languages
Halang language
Hmong language
Katuic languages
Khmu language
Kuy language
Lao French
Lao language
Mlabri
Northern Thai language
Romanization of Lao
Saek language
Sedang language
Tai Dam language
Tai Lü language
Tua Tham
Laotian music
Khene
Lao music
Music of Laos
Lam
Banyen Rakgan
Christy Gibson
Jintara Poonlarp
Khene
Mor lam
Mor lam sing
Siriporn Ampaipong
Laotian musicians
Laotian writers
Douangdeuane Viravongs
Outhine Bounyavong
Thavisouk Phrasavath
Ova Saopeng
Bryan Thao Worra
Catzie Vilayphonh
Saymoukda Vongsay
Economy of Laos
Economy of Laos
Lao kip
Companies of Laos
Lao Brewery Company
Trade unions of Laos
Lao Federation of Trade Unions
Education in Laos
Schools in Laos
Vientiane International School
Sharon English School
The Sai Nyai Eco-School
Universities and colleges in Laos
National University of Laos
Sisavangvong University
Soutsaka College of Management and Technology
University of Health Sciences
Environment of Laos
National Biodiversity Conservation Areas
Fauna of Laos
Geography of Laos
Geography of Laos
Demographics of Laos
ISO 3166-2:LA
Khong Island
Reservoirs and dams in Laos
Xiangkhoang Plateau
Caves of Laos
Pak Ou Caves
Viengxay caves
Maps of Laos
Maps of Laos
Old maps of Laos
Maps of Laos
Mountains of Laos
Phou Bia
Rivers of Laos
Ca River
Kong River
Ma River
Mekong
Nam Ou
Nam Song River
Tha River
Villages in Laos
Pakbeng
Waterfalls of Laos
Khone Falls
Government of Laos
Foreign relations of Laos
Human rights in Laos
Ministry of Security
National Assembly of Laos
Prime Minister of Laos
Health in Laos
Health in Laos
History of Laos
History of Laos
History of Laos since 1945
History of Laos to 1945
Fa Khai
Fa Ngum
First Indochina War
French colonial administration of Laos
Haw wars
Khamtum
Kings of Luang Prabang
Kong Le
Laasaenthai Bouvanaat
Lan Kham Deng
Lan Xang
List of Kings of Lan Xang
Meunsai
Ming Shi-lu
Muang Sua
Na Champassak
Pathet Lao
Phommathat
Photisarath
Royal Lao Air Force
Royal Palace Museum
Samsenethai
Laotian Civil War the Secret War
Setthathirath
Sompou
Sourigna Vongsa
Sri Sattanak
Vang Tao Incident
Vientiane Treaty
Visunarat
Elections in Laos
Elections in Laos
Governors-General of French Indochina
Governor-General of French Indochina
Paul Bert
Georges Catroux
Jean Antoine Ernest Constans
Jean Decoux
Paul Doumer
Albert Sarraut
Joost van Vollenhoven
Laotian law
Law enforcement in Laos
Ministry of Security
Laos-related lists
List of Laos-related topics
President of Laos
Prime Minister of Laos
Disappeared People in Laos
Eugene DeBruin
Laotian media
Newspapers published in Laos
List of newspapers in Laos
Le Rénovateur
Vientiane Times
Military of Laos
Military of Laos
Royal Lao Army
Royal Lao Air Force
Laotian people
Anouvong
Boun Oum
Bounkhong
Fa Khai
Fa Ngum
Khamphoui
Khamtum
Khun Borom
Khun Lo
Kouprasith Abhay
Laasaenthai Bouvanaat
Lan Kham Deng
Lee Lue
Mangkra Souvannaphouma
Meunsai
Na Champassak
Phoumi Nosavan
Pa Kao Her
Phetsarath Rattanavongsa
Phommathat
Photisarath
Ratsadanay
Samsenethai
Sauryavong Savang
Savang Vatthana
Bounleut Saycocie
Siluck Saysanasy
Setthathirath
Sisavang Vong
Sompou
Soulivong Savang
Sourigna Vongsa
Souvannarath
Thao Ma
Thayavong Savang
Three Princes
Visunarat
Vong Savang
Vilayphone Vongphachanh
Lao Monarchy
Boun Oum
Bounkhong
Khamphoui
Mangkra Souvannaphouma
Phetsarath Rattanavongsa
Ratsadanay
Sauryavong Savang
Soulivong Savang
Souphanouvong
Souvanna Phouma
Souvannarath
Thayavong Savang
Savang Vatthana
Vong Savang
Laotian Americans
List of Laotian Americans
TC Huo
Kay Sivilay
Bryan Thao Worra
Vang Pao
People of Laotian descent
Laotian Australians
Kaz Patafta
Laotian politicians
Souvanna Phouma
Zong Zoua Her
Lao People's Revolutionary Party members
Bouasone Bouphavanh
Bounnhang Vorachith
General Cheng
Choummaly Sayasone
Kaysone Phomvihane
Khamtai Siphandon
Nouhak Phoumsavanh
Somsavat Lengsavad
Souphanouvong
Soutchay Thammasith
Thongloun Sisoulith
Phoumi Vongvichit
Hill people
Hill people SECTION South-East Asia
Ong Keo
Ong Kommandam
Khom script (Ong Kommadam)
Hmong people
Lee Lue
Pa Chay Vue
Vang Pao
Vang Seu
Hmong Americans
Hmong American
List of Hmong Americans
Dia Cha
Mee Moua
Brenda Song
Vang Pao
Chai Vang
Hmong writers
Dia Cha
Gary Yia Lee
Shoua Lee
Mai Neng Moua
Pacyinz Lyfoung
Ka Vang
May Lee Yang
Khmuic peoples
Politics of Laos
Politics of Laos
Committee for Independence and Democracy in Laos
Foreign relations of Laos
Human rights in Laos
National Assembly of Laos
President of Laos
Political parties in Laos
List of political parties in Laos
Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Provinces of Laos
Provinces of Laos
Attapu Province
Bokeo Province
Bolikhamxai
Champasak Province
Houaphan
Khammouan
Louang Namtha Province
Louangphabang Province
Oudomxai Province
Phongsali Province
Salavan Province
Savannakhet Province
Template:Laos provinces
Vientiane (prefecture)
Vientiane Province
Wikipedia:WikiProject Countries/Templates/Navboxes
Xaignabouli Province
Xaisomboun
Xekong Province
Xiangkhoang Province
Religion in Laos
Buddhism in Laos
Mission évangélique au Laos
Phra Bang
Protestants in Laos
Roman Catholicism in Laos
Roman Catholic dioceses in Laos
Vicariate Apostolic of Luang Prabang
Vicariate Apostolic of Paksé
Vicariate Apostolic of Savannakhet
Laotian society
Demographics of Laos
Human rights in Laos
Laotian American
Scouting in Laos
Ethnic groups in Laos
List of ethnic groups in Laos
Dai people
Hmong people
Katang
Khmu people
Lao Lum
Lao Sung
Lao Theung
Lao people
Mlabri
Mon people
Si La
Sport in Laos
Laotian athletes
Chamleunesouk Ao Oudomphonh
Football in Laos
Lao Football Federation
Laos national football team
Laos national under-17 football team
Laos national under-23 football team
Football venues in Laos
New Laos National Stadium
Chao Anouvong Stadium
Attapeu Stadium
Luang Prabang Stadium
Champasak Stadium
Lao-American College FC Stadium
Savannakhet Stadium
Laos at the Olympics
Laos at the 1980 Summer Olympics
Laos at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Laos at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Laos at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Tourism in Laos
Tourism in Laos
Airlines of Laos
Lao Airlines
Visitor attractions in Laos
Transportation in Laos
Transportation in Laos
Roads in Laos
Kunming-Bangkok Expressway
Laos stubs
See also
Lists of country-related topics - similar lists for other countries
Notes
Most of the articles in :Category:Articles needing Thai script or text actually need Lao-language help
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canga%C3%A7o
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Cangaço
|
Cangaço () was a phenomenon of Northeast Brazil in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This region of Brazil is known for its aridness and hard way of life, and in a form of "social banditry" against the government, many men and women decided to become nomadic bandits, roaming the hinterlands seeking money, food and revenge.
Origin of the word
By 1834, the term cangaceiro was already used to refer to bands of poor peasants who inhabited the northeastern deserts, wearing leather clothing and hats, carrying carbines, revolvers, shotguns, and the long narrow knife known as the .
"Cangaceiro" was a pejorative expression, meaning a person who could not adapt himself to the coastal lifestyle.
Types of Banditry
By the mid 19th century in that region, there were two main groups of loosely organized armed outlaws: the jagunços, mercenaries who worked for whoever paid their price, usually land-owners who wanted to protect or expand their territorial limits and also deal with farm workers; and the cangaceiros, "social bandits", who had some level of support from the poorest population. The 1920s and 1930s saw the height of cangaceiro activity, with the most prominent bands numbering up to as many as 100 bandits. The bandits often behaved well to the poorer sections of society performing acts of charity, buying goods for higher than usual prices from small shopkeepers and giving free parties ("bailes"). In contrast, the wealthy were robbed, targeted for forced monetary contributions (extortion) and were often kidnapped and held to ransom. The cangaceiro bands were sheltered by helpers within the population, who also provided information which helped them escape from police forces, known as volantes, sent by the government to destroy them. The poorer inhabitants of the backlands of the Brazilian Northeast were generally badly treated by the paramilitary police, and often preferred the presence of cangaceiro bands in their settlements.
Lampião
The most famous cangaceiro of them all, the one who is often associated with the whole history of the cangaço, was a man called Virgulino Ferreira da Silva, also known as "Lampião" ("Oil Lamp", because, he could fire a lever-action rifle so quickly that it looked like he was holding a lamp). He began when he was just a boy, amongst vendetta plots of the Pereira and Nogueira-Carvalho families. When his parents were killed because of these disputes, some of his brothers ran away, but Antônio, Livino, and Ezequiel followed Virgulino into the cangaço.
Seen as a mixture of hero and bandit, Lampião became one of the most representative icons of Brazil.
Wandering around Santa Brígida, in the state of Bahia, he met Maria Alia da Silva (a.k.a. Maria de Déia), wife of shoemaker Zé de Nenê. Later she would be better known as Mrs. Lampião, Maria Bonita (literally "Pretty Maria").
Lampião was killed by the police in 1938, in Sergipe, next to the state limits of Sergipe and Alagoas, when an informer, Joca Bernardes gave away their location to the police. A massive offensive led to bloodshed, and eleven members of the band were killed: Lampião, Maria Bonita, Luís Pedro, Mergulhão, Enedina, Elétrico, Quinta-Feira, Moeda, Alecrim, Colchete and Macela. Forty others in the band managed to escape.
Coiteiros
Coiteiros were people who helped the cangaceiros, giving them shelter and food. They did this for many reasons – they could be relatives of a cangaceiro, friends, ex-neighbours, or simply had some interest in their power, or they were afraid of them.
Volantes and monkeys
The volantes were a small and special band of troops—around twenty to sixty—from every state of the Brazilian federation, formed by the government Law-Enforcement agencies sent to seek and destroy the cangaceiros. The cangaceiros often referred to them as "monkeys", because of their brown uniforms and their willingness to obey their orders. Some of them carried modern Hotchkiss machine guns, weapons that the cangaceiros quickly learned to fear—but were always willing to steal for their own use.
Cangaceiro style
The cangaceiros had very specific notions of how to behave and dress. First of all, most of them knew how to sew quite well. Living in the desert lands of the northeast of Brazil, they had to survive amidst spiky dry bushes. Despite the heat during the day, the cangaceiros preferred to wear leather clothing, embellished with all kinds of coloured ribbons and metal pieces.
They also used leather gloves with coins and other pieces of metal sewn onto them, almost like armour but with decorative purposes.
Because of the heat and the absence of water some cangaceiros -–especially Lampião-– wore French perfume. They often stole it from rich people's houses, but usually paid for it if obtained from small shopkeepers, and used it in large quantities.
Cangaceiro weapons
The weapons of the Cangaceiros were mostly revolvers, shotguns, and the famous "pára belo". It is claimed that like 'macaco' (monkey), 'belo' (beautiful) was another slang term for the policemen. Hence, pistols and Winchester-like rifles were called "pára belo" (belo stopper). However, the name seems to be actually a derivation of the Latin expression para bellum, which means "prepare for war" and was used to refer to the then official sidearm used by the Brazilian governmental troops and by some of the law enforcement soldiers, the Luger pistol, which was produced by the German arms maker DWM.
They also made famous a thin, long, and very sharp knife nicknamed a "peixeira", a fish-filleting knife, used mostly to torture or cut the throats of their victims. The knife was also used in a very specific way to kill quickly; the blade was stabbed downwards between the neck and collarbone, due to its length the blade would cause instantly lethal damage to major blood vessels and the heart.
Famous cangaceiros
Adolfo Meia-Noite
Antônio Silvino
Cabeleira
Corisco
Diogo da Rocha Figueira aka "Dioguinho" (in São Paulo)
Jesuíno Brilhante
Lampião
Lucas da Feira
Maria Bonita
Sinhô Pereira
The Cangaço in film
O Cangaceiro, Lima Barreto 1953
A Morte Comanda o Cangaço, Carlos Coimbra and Walter Guimarães Motta 1961
Lampião, Rei do Cangaço, Carlos Coimbra 1963
Deus e o Diabo na Terra do Sol, English title: "Black God, White Devil" Glauber Rocha 1964
O Dragão da Maldade Contra o Santo Guerreiro, English title: "Antonio das Mortes" Glauber Rocha 1969
Baile Perfumado, Paulo Caldas and Lírio Ferreira 1997
O Auto Da Compadecida, English title: "A God's Will" Guel Arraes 2000
O Matador, Marcelo Galvão 2017
See also
History of Brazil
Land reform
Landless Workers' MovementThe epic cycle of the cangaceiros in popular poetry from northeastern Brazil - thesis by Ronald Daus, Free University of Berlin: see bibliography.
References
Bibliography
Singelmann, Peter (1975) Political Structure and Social Banditry in Northeast Brazil.'' Journal of Latin American Studies, Vol. 7, No. 1.
Brazilian folklore
Outlaws
Gangs in Brazil
Brazilian rebels
Brazilian criminals
Vargas Era
|
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207378
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ally
|
Ally
|
An ally is a member of an alliance.
Ally may also refer to:
Place names
Ally, Cantal, a commune in the Cantal department in south-central France
Ally, County Tyrone, a townland in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland
Ally, Haute-Loire, a commune in the Haute-Loire department in south-central France
People
Ally (name)
Art, entertainment, and media
Ally (novel), a 2007 science fiction novel by Karen Traviss
Ally (TV series), a 1999 American television sitcom that was a spin-off of Ally McBeal
Biology
Another species belonging to the same biological family
Enterprises
Ally Fashion, an Australian women's fashion retailer
Ally Financial, a bank holding company, formerly known as General Motors Acceptance Corporation (GMAC)
Other
Straight ally
See also
Alley
Aly (disambiguation)
Ali (disambiguation)
Alli (disambiguation)
Allie (disambiguation)
Allies (disambiguation)
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic%20stripe%20card
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Magnetic stripe card
|
A magnetic stripe card is a type of card capable of storing data by modifying the magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles on a band of magnetic material on the card. The magnetic stripe, sometimes called swipe card or magstripe, is read by swiping past a magnetic reading head. Magnetic stripe cards are commonly used in credit cards, identity cards, and transportation tickets. They may also contain an RFID tag, a transponder device and/or a microchip mostly used for business premises access control or electronic payment.
Magnetic recording on steel tape and wire was invented by Valdemar Poulsen in Denmark around 1900 for recording audio. In the 1950s, magnetic recording of digital computer data on plastic tape coated with iron oxide was invented. In 1960, IBM used the magnetic tape idea to develop a reliable way of securing magnetic stripes to plastic cards, under a contract with the US government for a security system. A number of International Organization for Standardization standards, ISO/IEC 7810, ISO/IEC 7811, ISO/IEC 7812, ISO/IEC 7813, ISO 8583, and ISO/IEC 4909, now define the physical properties of the card, including size, flexibility, location of the magstripe, magnetic characteristics, and data formats. They also provide the standards for financial cards, including the allocation of card number ranges to different card issuing institutions.
History
Magnetic storage was known from World War II and computer data storage in the 1950s.
In 1969 Forrest Parry, an IBM engineer, had the idea of securing a piece of magnetic tape, the predominant storage medium at the time, to a plastic card base. He became frustrated because every adhesive he tried produced unacceptable results. The tape strip either warped or its characteristics were affected by the adhesive, rendering the tape strip unusable. After a frustrating day in the laboratory, trying to get the right adhesive, he came home with several pieces of magnetic tape and several plastic cards. As he walked in the door at home, his wife Dorothea was ironing clothing. When he explained the source of his frustration: inability to get the tape to "stick" to the plastic in a way that would work, she suggested that he use the iron to melt the stripe on. He tried it and it worked. The heat of the iron was just high enough to bond the tape to the card.
First magnetic striped plastic credit and badge access cards
The major development of the magnetic striped plastic card began in 1969 at the IBM Information Records Division (IRD) headquartered in Dayton, New Jersey. In 1970, the marketing organization was transferred by IBM DPD back to the Information Records Division in order to begin sales and marketing strategies for the magnetically striped and encoded cards being developed. It took almost two years for IBM IRD engineers to not only develop the process for reliably applying the magnetic stripe to plastic cards via a hot stamping method, but also develop the process for encoding the magnetic stripe utilizing the IBM Delta Distance C Optical Bar Code format. This engineering effort resulted in IBM IRD producing the first magnetic striped plastic credit and ID cards used by banks, insurance companies, hospitals and many others. Another result of this project was that IBM IRD and IBM Data Processing Division announced on February 24, 1971, the first Magnetic Credit Card Service Center and the IBM 2730-1 Transaction Validation Terminal.
Arthur E. Hahn Jr. was hired by IBM IRD in Dayton, New Jersey, on August 12, 1969, to head up this engineering effort. Other members of the group were David Morgan (Manager), Billy House (Software Developer), William Creeden (Programmer), and E. J. Gillen (Mechanical Engineering/Machining). They were given a recently announced IBM 360 Model 30 computer with 50k of RAM for control of the encoding/embossing of the Magnetic Stripe Cards. The IBM 360 computer was for scientific/business applications so the IRD engineers first had to convert the 360 into a "process control computer" and then develop software and hardware around it. Due to the limited RAM, the software was developed in 360 Assembler Language. This conversion enabled the 360 computer to monitor and control the entire production process the IRD engineers designed and built. The engineering design/build effort was carried out in a raised floor secured area of IBM IRD in Dayton, which was built specifically for the project. This tightly secured area with limited access was required because of the sensitivity of the data that would ultimately be used to encode and emboss the credit and ID cards.
Bar code encoding developments
The IRD engineers first had to develop a reliable process of hot stamping the magnetic stripe to the plastic cards. This was necessary in order to meet the close tolerances required to reliably encode and read the data on the Magnetic Stripe Cards by magnetic write/read heads. The magnetic stripe was encoded with a single track of data utilizing the IBM Delta Distance C Optical Bar Code format. The Delta Distance C Optical Bar Code was developed by the IBM Systems Development Division working at Research Triangle Park in Raleigh, North Carolina, headed up by George J. Laurer. Other members of the group were N. Joseph Woodland, Paul McEnroe, Dr. Robert Evans, Bernard Silver, Art Hamburgen, Heard Baumeister and Bill Crouse. The IBM group in Raleigh was competing with RCA, Litton-Zellweger and other companies who were working with the National Retail Merchants Association (NRMA) to develop a standard optical bar code to be used in the retail industry. NRMA wanted an optically readable code that could be printed on products allowing purchasers to rapidly "check out" at the new electronic cash register/checkout counters being developed. The code would also be used for production and inventory control of products. Of the many optical bar codes submitted to NRMA by IBM and other companies, NRMA finally selected the later version of the IBM bar code known as the Delta Distance D Optical Bar Code format. The Delta Distance C Code was an earlier version of the Universal Product Code (UPC). The UPC code was selected in 1973 by NRMA as their standard and has become the World Wide Standard that we all know today as the UPC Uniform Product Code.
Up until 1982 systems using magnetic cards for access control were called "Card Wipe" Systems. The continuous use of the mag strip made them unreliable.
In 1983 a UK company Mirocache Ltd, run by ex-retailer Norman Guiver, replaced the mag strip with a Type 39 dot matrix printed bar code for use in access control and as a membership card, and coined the name Swipe Card. The barcode proved very reliable and has been the standard format for Swipe cards ever since, for high use applications.
Production
In 1971, after the IBM IRD engineers completed the development and building phase of the project they began in 1969, they released the equipment to the IRD manufacturing group in Dayton, New Jersey, to begin producing the plastic magnetic striped credit and ID cards. Because of the sensitivity of the customer data and the security requirements of banks, insurance companies and others, the manufacturing group decided to leave the entire line in the secured area where it was developed.
Banks, insurance companies, hospitals etc., supplied IBM IRD with "raw plastic cards" preprinted with their logos, contact information etc. They also supplied the data information which was to be encoded and embossed on the cards. This data was supplied to IRD on large 0.5 inch wide, 10.5 inch diameter IBM Magnetic Tape Reels which was the standard for computers at that time.
The manufacturing process started by first applying the magnetic stripe to the preprinted plastic cards via the hot stamping process developed by the IBM IRD engineers. This operation of applying the magnetic stripe to the plastic cards was done off line in another area of IBM IRD and not in the secured area. The cards were then brought into the secured area and placed in "hoppers" at the beginning of the production line.
The tape reels containing the data were then installed on the modified IBM 360 computer prior to beginning the encoding, embossing and verification of the cards. After the 360 performed a check to verify that all systems and stations were loaded and ready to go, the computer began feeding the Magnetic Striped Plastic Cards from the hoppers at the front end of the production line down a motorized track. The entire operation was fully automated and controlled by the modified IBM 360 business computer. The line consisted of the following stations and operations:
Plastic card feeder station: The cards were fed down a track in single file from card hoppers.
Magnetic write/read encoding station: The IBM 360 computer sent over the data which was encoded on the magnetic stripe utilizing the IBM Delta Distance C Optical Bar Code format. The card passed under the read head and the encoded data was sent back to the 360 for verification.
An embossing station: The IRD engineers purchased and modified a Data Card Corp embossing machine and interfaced it with the IBM 360 computer to emboss the cards. The original design concept called for an Addressograph-Multigraph embossing machine, however, the IRD engineers quickly switched to a Data Card Corp embossing machine. Data Card Corp, a Minneapolis/St. Paul company, had just developed the first electronically controlled embossing machine for plastic cards and effectively obsoleted all other mechanical operated embossers.
A topping station: To highlight the embossing.
An imprinter station: To imprint the embossing on an automatically fed paper roll.
An optical reader station: To read the embossed information off the paper roll and feed it back to the 360 computer for verification.
A one card rejection station: If either the encoding or embossing data on the card was not verified by the 360 computer, that one card was rejected. If both the encoded and embossed data was confirmed by the 360 computer, the card proceeded down the line.
A mailer station: A mailer was printed with the name and address of the card holder along with the date and other relevant card information. These mailers were also preprinted and die cut by IRD according to the customers specs and logo requirements and were fed into the line out of boxes in a continuous fan feed method.
A card insertion station: Here the card was automatically inserted onto the mailer.
A bursting and folding station: Here the mailers were burst apart and then folded into a 3 fold packet that would fit into a business size envelope.
An envelope printer/insertion station: Here an envelope was printed with the name and address of the customer and the mailer containing the card was automatically inserted into the envelope and sealed.
This completed the manufacturing line for the magnetic striped encoded and embossed plastic credit and badge access cards. The envelopes were then taken to be posted and mailed directly to the customers of the companies who had ordered the cards from IRD.
What this small engineering group at IBM IRD and the IBM Bar Code development group in Raleigh accomplished in developing the first magnetic stripe credit and ID cards cannot be overstated. They laid the foundation for the entire magnetic stripe card industry that we know and use today through our use of credit cards, ATM cards, ID cards, hotel room and access cards, transportation tickets, and all the terminals and card readers that read the cards and enter the data into computers.
Neither IBM nor anyone else applied for or received any patents pertaining to the magnetic stripe card, the delta-distance barcodes or even the Uniform Product Code (UPC). IBM felt that with an open architecture, it would enhance the growth of the media thereby resulting in more IBM computers and associated hardware being sold.
As with all new technologies, the magnetic stripe card developed and produced by IBM IRD with one track of encoded data using the Delta Distance C Bar Code format was quickly obsolete. Because of the electronic ATM/reservation/check out/and access systems that were rapidly developing, the banks, airlines and other industries required more encoded data. A wider magnetic stripe enabling multiple tracks of encoding along with new encoding standards was required.
The first US Patents for the ATM were granted in 1972 and 1973.
Other groups within IBM and other companies continued on with expanding the work done by this small group of engineers at IBM IRD, however, the contributions that these IBM IRD engineers made to the development of the magnetic stripe card is analogous to the Wright Brothers' contribution to the airline industry of today.
Further developments and encoding standards
There were a number of steps required to convert the magnetic striped media into an industry acceptable device. These steps included:
Creating the international standards for stripe record content, including which information, in what format, and using which defining codes.
Field testing the proposed device and standards for market acceptance.
Developing the manufacturing steps needed to mass-produce the large number of cards required.
Adding stripe issue and acceptance capabilities to available equipment.
These steps were initially managed by Jerome Svigals of the Advanced Systems Division of IBM, Los Gatos, California, from 1966 to 1975.
In most magnetic stripe cards, the magnetic stripe is contained in a plastic-like film. The magnetic stripe is located 0.223 inches (5.66 mm) from the edge of the card, and is 0.375 inches (9.52 mm) wide. The magnetic stripe contains three tracks, each 0.110 inches (2.79 mm) wide. Tracks one and three are typically recorded at 210 bits per inch (8.27 bits per mm), while track two typically has a recording density of 75 bits per inch (2.95 bits per mm). Each track can either contain 7-bit alphanumeric characters, or 5-bit numeric characters. Track 1 standards were created by the airlines industry (IATA). Track 2 standards were created by the banking industry (ABA). Track 3 standards were created by the thrift-savings industry.
Magstripes following these specifications can typically be read by most point-of-sale hardware, which are simply general-purpose computers that can be programmed to perform specific tasks. Examples of cards adhering to these standards include ATM cards, bank cards (credit and debit cards including Visa and MasterCard), gift cards, loyalty cards, driver's licenses, telephone cards, membership cards, electronic benefit transfer cards (e.g. food stamps), and nearly any application in which value or secure information is not stored on the card itself. Many video game and amusement centers now use debit card systems based on magnetic stripe cards.
Magnetic stripe cloning can be detected by the implementation of magnetic card reader heads and firmware that can read a signature of magnetic noise permanently embedded in all magnetic stripes during the card production process. This signature can be used in conjunction with common two-factor authentication schemes utilized in ATM, debit/retail point-of-sale and prepaid card applications.
Counterexamples of cards which intentionally ignore ISO standards include hotel key cards, most subway and bus cards, and some national prepaid calling cards (such as for the country of Cyprus) in which the balance is stored and maintained directly on the stripe and not retrieved from a remote database.
Magnetic stripe coercivity
Magstripes come in two main varieties: high-coercivity (HiCo) at 4000 Oe and low-coercivity (LoCo) at 300 Oe, but it is not infrequent to have intermediate values at 2750 Oe. High-coercivity magstripes require a higher amount of magnetic energy to encode, and therefore are harder to erase. HiCo stripes are appropriate for cards that are frequently used, such as a credit card. Other card uses include time and attendance tracking, access control, library cards, employee ID cards and gift cards. Low-coercivity magstripes require a lower amount of magnetic energy to record, and hence the card writers are much cheaper than machines which are capable of recording high-coercivity magstripes. However, LoCo cards are much easier to erase and have a shorter lifespan. Typical LoCo applications include hotel room keys, time and attendance tracking, bus/transit tickets and season passes for theme parks. A card reader can read either type of magstripe, and a high-coercivity card writer may write both high and low-coercivity cards (most have two settings, but writing a LoCo card in HiCo may sometimes work), while a low-coercivity card writer may write only low-coercivity cards.
In practical terms, usually low coercivity magnetic stripes are a light brown color, and high coercivity stripes are nearly black; exceptions include a proprietary silver-colored formulation on transparent American Express cards. High coercivity stripes are resistant to damage from most magnets likely to be owned by consumers. Low coercivity stripes are easily damaged by even a brief contact with a magnetic purse strap or fastener. Because of this, virtually all bank cards today are encoded on high coercivity stripes despite a slightly higher per-unit cost.
Magnetic stripe cards are used in very high volumes in the mass transit sector, replacing paper based tickets with either a directly applied magnetic slurry or hot foil stripe. Slurry applied stripes are generally less expensive to produce and are less resilient but are suitable for cards meant to be disposed after a few uses.
Financial cards
There are up to three tracks on magnetic cards known as tracks 1, 2, and 3. Track 3 is virtually unused by the major worldwide networks , and often is not even physically present on the card by virtue of a narrower magnetic stripe. Point-of-sale card readers almost always read track 1, or track 2, and sometimes both, in case one track is unreadable. The minimum cardholder account information needed to complete a transaction is present on both tracks. Track 1 has a higher bit density (210 bits per inch vs. 75), is the only track that may contain alphabetic text, and hence is the only track that contains the cardholder's name.
Track 1 is written with code known as DEC
SIXBIT plus odd parity. The information on track 1 on financial cards is contained in several formats: A, which is reserved for proprietary use of the card issuer, B, which is described below, C-M, which are reserved for use by ANSI Subcommittee X3B10 and N-Z, which are available for use by individual card issuers:
Track 1
Format B:
Start sentinel — one character (generally '%')
Format code="B" — one character (alpha only)
Primary account number (PAN) — up to 19 characters. Usually, but not always, matches the credit card number printed on the front of the card.
Field Separator — one character (generally '^')
Name — 2 to 26 characters, surnames separated by space if necessary, Surname separator: /
Field Separator — one character (generally '^')
Expiration date — four characters in the form YYMM.
Service code — three characters
Discretionary data — may include Pin Verification Key Indicator (PVKI, 1 character), PIN Verification Value (PVV, 4 characters), Card Verification Value or Card Verification Code (CVV or CVC, 3 characters)
End sentinel — one character (generally '?')
Longitudinal redundancy check (LRC) — it is one character and a validity character calculated from other data on the track.
Track 2
This format was developed by the banking industry (ABA). This track is written with a 5-bit scheme (4 data bits + 1 parity), which allows for sixteen possible characters, which are the numbers 0-9, plus the six characters : ; < = > ? . The selection of six punctuation symbols may seem odd, but in fact the sixteen codes simply map to the ASCII range 0x30 through 0x3f, which defines ten digit characters plus those six symbols. The data format is as follows:
Start sentinel — one character (generally ';')
Primary account number (PAN) — up to 19 characters. Usually, but not always, matches the credit card number printed on the front of the card.
Separator — one char (generally '=')
Expiration date — four characters in the form YYMM.
Service code — three digits. The first digit specifies the interchange rules, the second specifies authorization processing and the third specifies the range of services
Discretionary data — as in track one
End sentinel — one character (generally '?')
Longitudinal redundancy check (LRC) — it is one character and a validity character calculated from other data on the track. Most reader devices do not return this value when the card is swiped to the presentation layer, and use it only to verify the input internally to the reader.
Service code values common in financial cards:
First digit
1: International interchange OK
2: International interchange, use IC (chip) where feasible
5: National interchange only except under bilateral agreement
6: National interchange only except under bilateral agreement, use IC (chip) where feasible
7: No interchange except under bilateral agreement (closed loop)
9: Test
Second digit
0: Normal
2: Contact issuer via online means
4: Contact issuer via online means except under bilateral agreement
Third digit
0: No restrictions, PIN required
1: No restrictions
2: Goods and services only (no cash)
3: ATM only, PIN required
4: Cash only
5: Goods and services only (no cash), PIN required
6: No restrictions, use PIN where feasible
7: Goods and services only (no cash), use PIN where feasible
United States and Canada driver's licenses
The data stored on magnetic stripes on American and Canadian driver's licenses is specified by the American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators. Not all states and provinces use a magnetic stripe on their driver's licenses. For a list of those that do, see the AAMVA list.
The following data is stored on track 1:
Start Sentinel - one character (generally '%')
State or Province - two characters
City - variable length (seems to max out at 13 characters)
Field Separator - one character (generally '^') (absent if city reaches max length)
Last Name - variable length
Field Separator - one character (generally '$')
First Name - variable length
Field Separator - one character (generally '$')
Middle Name - variable length
Field Separator - one character (generally '^')
Home Address (house number and street) - variable length
Field Separator - one character (generally '^')
Unknown - variable length
End Sentinel - one character (generally '?')
The following data is stored on track 2:
ISO Issuer Identifier Number (IIN) - 6 digits
Drivers License / Identification Number - 13 digits
Field Separator - generally '='
Expiration Date (YYMM) - 4 digits
Birth date (YYYYMMDD) - 8 digits
DL/ID# overflow - 5 digits (If no information is used then a field separator is used in this field.)
End Sentinel - one character ('?')
The following data is stored on track 3:
Template V#
Security V#
Postal Code
Class
Restrictions
Endorsements
Sex
Height
Weight
Hair Color
Eye Color
ID#
Reserved Space
Error Correction
Security
Note: Each state has a different selection of information they encode, not all states are the same.
Note: Some states, such as Texas, have laws restricting the access and use of electronically readable information encoded on driver's licenses or identification cards under certain circumstances.
Other card types
Smart cards are a newer generation of card that contain an integrated circuit. Some smart cards have metal contacts to electrically connect the card to the reader, and contactless cards use a magnetic field or radio frequency (RFID) for proximity reading.
Hybrid smart cards include a magnetic stripe in addition to the chip—this is most commonly found in a payment card, so that the cards are also compatible with payment terminals that do not include a smart card reader.
Cards with all three features: magnetic stripe, smart card chip, and RFID chip are also becoming common as more activities require the use of such cards.
Vulnerabilities
DEF CON 24
During DEF CON 24, Weston Hecker presented Hacking Hotel Keys, and Point Of Sales Systems. In the talk, Hecker described the way magnetic strip cards function and utilised spoofing software, and an Arduino to obtain administrative access from hotel keys, via service staff walking past him. Hecker claims he used administrative keys from POS systems on other systems, effectively providing access to any system with a magnetic stripe reader, providing access to run privileged commands.
See also
Access badge
Access control
Common Access Card
Credential
Credit card number
Forrest Parry, the IBM engineer who invented the magnetic stripe card
Identity document
ID card printer
Keycard
MetroCard (New York City)
Photo identification
Physical security
Proximity card
Security
Security engineering
Smart card
Stored-value card
References
External links
Magnetic Stripe Formats
A brief comparison of Mag stripe and RFID technology (2012)
A Brief History of Reprogrammable Card Technology (2012)
Magnetic Developer and Magnetic Encoding Standards
Magnetic devices
Identity documents
Banking technology
Radio-frequency identification
American inventions
1960 introductions
20th-century inventions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Put%20option
|
Put option
|
In finance, a put or put option is a financial market derivative instrument that gives the holder (i.e. the purchaser of the put option) the right to sell an asset (the underlying), at a specified price (the strike), by (or at) a specified date (the expiry or maturity) to the writer (i.e. seller) of the put. The purchase of a put option is interpreted as a negative sentiment about the future value of the underlying stock. The term "put" comes from the fact that the owner has the right to "put up for sale" the stock or index.
Puts may also be combined with other derivatives as part of more complex investment strategies, and in particular, may be useful for hedging. Holding a European put option is equivalent to holding the corresponding call option and selling an appropriate forward contract. This equivalence is called "put-call parity".
Put options are most commonly used in the stock market to protect against a fall in the price of a stock below a specified price. If the price of the stock declines below the strike price, the holder of the put has the right, but not the obligation, to sell the asset at the strike price, while the seller of the put has the obligation to purchase the asset at the strike price if the owner uses the right to do so (the holder is said to exercise the option). In this way the buyer of the put will receive at least the strike price specified, even if the asset is currently worthless.
If the strike is , and at time the value of the underlying is , then in an American option the buyer can exercise the put for a payout of any time until the option's maturity date . The put yields a positive return only if the underlying price falls below the strike when the option is exercised. A European option can only be exercised at time rather than at any time until , and a Bermudan option can be exercised only on specific dates listed in the terms of the contract. If the option is not exercised by maturity, it expires worthless. (The buyer will not usually exercise the option at an allowable date if the price of the underlying is greater than .)
The most obvious use of a put option is as a type of insurance. In the protective put strategy, the investor buys enough puts to cover their holdings of the underlying so that if the price of the underlying falls sharply, they can still sell it at the strike price. Another use is for speculation: an investor can take a short position in the underlying stock without trading in it directly.
Instrument models
The terms for exercising the option's right to sell it differ depending on option style. A European put option allows the holder to exercise the put option for a short period of time right before expiration, while an American put option allows exercise at any time before expiration.
The most widely traded put options are on stocks/equities, but they are traded on many other instruments such as interest rates (see interest rate floor) or commodities.
The put buyer either believes that the underlying asset's price will fall by the exercise date or hopes to protect a long position in it. The advantage of buying a put over short selling the asset is that the option owner's risk of loss is limited to the premium paid for it, whereas the asset short seller's risk of loss is unlimited (its price can rise greatly, in fact, in theory it can rise infinitely, and such a rise is the short seller's loss). The put buyer's prospect (risk) of gain is limited to the option's strike price less the underlying's spot price and the premium/fee paid for it.
The put writer believes that the underlying security's price will rise, not fall. The writer sells the put to collect the premium. The put writer's total potential loss is limited to the put's strike price less the spot and premium already received. Puts can be used also to limit the writer's portfolio risk and may be part of an option spread.
The put buyer/owner is short on the underlying asset of the put, but long on the put option itself. That is, the buyer wants the value of the put option to increase by a decline in the price of the underlying asset below the strike price. The writer (seller) of a put is long on the underlying asset and short on the put option itself. That is, the seller wants the option to become worthless by an increase in the price of the underlying asset above the strike price. Generally, a put option that is purchased is referred to as a long put and a put option that is sold is referred to as a short put.
A naked put, also called an uncovered put, is a put option whose writer (the seller) does not have a position in the underlying stock or other instrument. This strategy is best used by investors who want to accumulate a position in the underlying stock, but only if the price is low enough. If the buyer fails to exercise the options, then the writer keeps the option premium.
If the underlying stock's market price is below the option's strike price when expiration arrives, the option owner (buyer) can exercise the put option, forcing the writer to buy the underlying stock at the strike price. That allows the exerciser (buyer) to profit from the difference between the stock's market price and the option's strike price. But if the stock's market price is above the option's strike price at the end of expiration day, the option expires worthless, and the owner's loss is limited to the premium (fee) paid for it (the writer's profit).
The seller's potential loss on a naked put can be substantial. If the stock falls all the way to zero (bankruptcy), his loss is equal to the strike price (at which he must buy the stock to cover the option) minus the premium received. The potential upside is the premium received when selling the option: if the stock price is above the strike price at expiration, the option seller keeps the premium, and the option expires worthless. During the option's lifetime, if the stock moves lower, the option's premium may increase (depending on how far the stock falls and how much time passes). If it does, it becomes more costly to close the position (repurchase the put, sold earlier), resulting in a loss. If the stock price completely collapses before the put position is closed, the put writer potentially can face catastrophic loss. In order to protect the put buyer from default, the put writer is required to post margin. The put buyer does not need to post margin because the buyer would not exercise the option if it had a negative payoff.
Example of a put option on a stock
Buying a put
A buyer thinks the price of a stock will decrease. They pay a premium that they will never get back, unless it is sold before it expires. The buyer has the right to sell the stock at the strike price.
Writing a put
The writer receives a premium from the buyer. If the buyer exercises her option, the writer will buy the stock at the strike price. If the buyer does not exercise her option, the writer's profit is the premium.
"Trader A" (Put Buyer) purchases a put contract to sell 100 shares of XYZ Corp. to "Trader B" (Put Writer) for $50 per share. The current price is $50 per share, and Trader A pays a premium of $5 per share. If the price of XYZ stock falls to $40 a share right before expiration, then Trader A can exercise the put by buying 100 shares for $4,000 from the stock market, then selling them to Trader B for $5,000.
Trader A's total earnings S can be calculated at $500. The sale of the 100 shares of stock at a strike price of $50 to Trader B = $5,000 (P). The purchase of 100 shares of stock at $40 = $4,000 (Q). The put option premium paid to Trader B for buying the contract of 100 shares at $5 per share, excluding commissions = $500 (R)). Thus
S = (P − Q) − R = ($5,000 − $4,000) − $500 = $500
If, however, the share price never drops below the strike price (in this case, $50), then Trader A would not exercise the option (because selling a stock to Trader B at $50 would cost Trader A more than that to buy it). Trader A's option would be worthless and he would have lost the whole investment, the fee (premium) for the option contract, $500 ($5 per share, 100 shares per contract). Trader A's total loss is limited to the cost of the put premium plus the sales commission to buy it.
A put option is said to have intrinsic value when the underlying instrument has a spot price (S) below the option's strike price (K). Upon exercise, a put option is valued at K-S if it is "in-the-money", otherwise its value is zero. Prior to exercise, an option has time value apart from its intrinsic value. The following factors reduce the time value of a put option: shortening of the time to expire, decrease in the volatility of the underlying, and increase of interest rates. Option pricing is a central problem of financial mathematics.
See also
Call option
CBOE S&P 500 PutWrite Index (PUT)
Married put
Options
Credit default option
Interest rate cap and floor
Options on futures
Real option
References
External links
Basic Options Concepts: Put Options at Yahoo! Finance
Index Options at Shyam Advisory
Options (finance)
|
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207384
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microquasar
|
Microquasar
|
A microquasar, the smaller version of a quasar, is a compact region surrounding a stellar black hole with a mass several times that of its companion star. The matter being pulled from the companion star forms an accretion disk around the black hole. This accretion disk may become so hot, due to friction, that it begins to emit X-rays. The disk also projects narrow streams or "jets" of subatomic particles at near-light speed, generating a strong radio wave emission.
Overview
In 1979, SS 433 became the first microquasar to be discovered. It was thought to be the most exotic case until similar objects such as GRS 1915+105 were discovered in 1994.
In some cases, blobs or "knots" of brighter plasma within the jets appear to be traveling faster than the speed of light, an optical illusion called superluminal motion which is caused by sub-light-speed particles being projected at a small angle relative to the observer.
The 1996 Bruno Rossi Prize of the American Astronomical Society was awarded to Felix Mirabel and Luis Rodríguez for their discovery of the superluminal motion of radio knots in GRS 1915+105, as well as the discovery of double-sided radio jets from galactic sources 1E1740.7-2942 and GRS 1758-258.
Due to the smaller size of microquasars, many of the effects are scaled differently in relation to normal quasars. In quasars, the mean temperature of the accretion disk is several thousand degrees, while in a microquasar the mean temperature is several million degrees. The average size of the accretion disk of a quasar is , whereas in microquasars the average size is only . Quasars can project jets up to several million light-years, whereas microquasars can project them only a few light-years; however, the "knots" within the jets of microquasars can exhibit a proper motion (angular motion across the sky) on the order of a thousand times faster than that of knots within a quasar jet because observed microquasars (being within the Milky Way galaxy) are at typical distances on the order of kiloparsecs, rather than hundreds of megaparsecs to several gigaparsecs.
See also
List of microquasars
References
Astronomical radio sources
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Put%E2%80%93call%20parity
|
Put–call parity
|
In financial mathematics, put–call parity defines a relationship between the price of a European call option and European put option, both with the identical strike price and expiry, namely that a portfolio of a long call option and a short put option is equivalent to (and hence has the same value as) a single forward contract at this strike price and expiry. This is because if the price at expiry is above the strike price, the call will be exercised, while if it is below, the put will be exercised, and thus in either case one unit of the asset will be purchased for the strike price, exactly as in a forward contract.
The validity of this relationship requires that certain assumptions be satisfied; these are specified and the relationship is derived below. In practice transaction costs and financing costs (leverage) mean this relationship will not exactly hold, but in liquid markets the relationship is close to exact.
Assumptions
Put–call parity is a static replication, and thus requires minimal assumptions, namely the existence of a forward contract. In the absence of traded forward contracts, the forward contract can be replaced (indeed, itself replicated) by the ability to buy the underlying asset and finance this by borrowing for fixed term (e.g., borrowing bonds), or conversely to borrow and sell (short) the underlying asset and loan the received money for term, in both cases yielding a self-financing portfolio.
These assumptions do not require any transactions between the initial date and expiry, and are thus significantly weaker than those of the Black–Scholes model, which requires dynamic replication and continual transaction in the underlying.
Replication assumes one can enter into derivative transactions, which requires leverage (and capital costs to back this), and buying and selling entails transaction costs, notably the bid–ask spread. The relationship thus only holds exactly in an ideal frictionless market with unlimited liquidity. However, real world markets may be sufficiently liquid that the relationship is close to exact, most significantly FX markets in major currencies or major stock indices, in the absence of market turbulence.
Statement
Put–call parity can be stated in a number of equivalent ways, most tersely as:
where is the (current) value of a call, is the (current) value of a put, is the discount factor, is the forward price of the asset, and is the strike price. Note that the spot price is given by (spot price is present value, forward price is future value, discount factor relates these). The left side corresponds to a portfolio of long a call and short a put, while the right side corresponds to a forward contract. The assets and on the left side are given in current values, while the assets and are given in future values (forward price of asset, and strike price paid at expiry), which the discount factor converts to present values.
Using spot price instead of forward price yields:
Rearranging the terms yields a different interpretation:
In this case the left-hand side is a fiduciary call, which is long a call and enough cash (or bonds) to pay the strike price if the call is exercised, while the right-hand side is a protective put, which is long a put and the asset, so the asset can be sold for the strike price if the spot is below strike at expiry. Both sides have payoff max(S(T), K) at expiry (i.e., at least the strike price, or the value of the asset if more), which gives another way of proving or interpreting put–call parity.
In more detail, this original equation can be stated as:
where
is the value of the call at time ,
is the value of the put of the same expiration date,
is the spot price of the underlying asset,
is the strike price, and
is the present value of a zero-coupon bond that matures to $1 at time This is the present value factor for K.
Note that the right-hand side of the equation is also the price of buying a forward contract on the stock with delivery price K. Thus one way to read the equation is that a portfolio that is long a call and short a put is the same as being long a forward. In particular, if the underlying is not tradeable but there exists forwards on it, we can replace the right-hand-side expression by the price of a forward.
If the bond interest rate, , is assumed to be constant then
Note: refers to the force of interest, which is approximately equal to the effective annual rate for small interest rates. However, one should take care with the approximation, especially with larger rates and larger time periods. To find exactly, use , where is the effective annual interest rate.
When valuing European options written on stocks with known dividends that will be paid out during the life of the option, the formula becomes:
where D(t) represents the total value of the dividends from one stock share to be paid out over the remaining life of the options, discounted to present value.
We can rewrite the equation as:
and note that the right-hand side is the price of a forward contract on the stock with delivery price K, as before.
Derivation
We will suppose that the put and call options are on traded stocks, but the underlying can be any other tradeable asset. The ability to buy and sell the underlying is crucial to the "no arbitrage" argument below.
First, note that under the assumption that there are no arbitrage opportunities (the prices are arbitrage-free), two portfolios that always have the same payoff at time T must have the same value at any prior time. To prove this suppose that, at some time t before T, one portfolio were cheaper than the other. Then one could purchase (go long) the cheaper portfolio and sell (go short) the more expensive. At time T, our overall portfolio would, for any value of the share price, have zero value (all the assets and liabilities have canceled out). The profit we made at time t is thus a riskless profit, but this violates our assumption of no arbitrage.
We will derive the put-call parity relation by creating two portfolios with the same payoffs (static replication) and invoking the above principle (rational pricing).
Consider a call option and a put option with the same strike K for expiry at the same date T on some stock S, which pays no dividend. We assume the existence of a bond that pays 1 dollar at maturity time T. The bond price may be random (like the stock) but must equal 1 at maturity.
Let the price of S be S(t) at time t. Now assemble a portfolio by buying a call option C and selling a put option P of the same maturity T and strike K. The payoff for this portfolio is S(T) - K. Now assemble a second portfolio by buying one share and borrowing K bonds. Note the payoff of the latter portfolio is also S(T) - K at time T, since our share bought for S(t) will be worth S(T) and the borrowed bonds will be worth K.
By our preliminary observation that identical payoffs imply that both portfolios must have the same price at a general time , the following relationship exists between the value of the various instruments:
Thus given no arbitrage opportunities, the above relationship, which is known as put-call parity, holds, and for any three prices of the call, put, bond and stock one can compute the implied price of the fourth.
In the case of dividends, the modified formula can be derived in similar manner to above, but with the modification that one portfolio consists of going long a call, going short a put, and D(T) bonds that each pay 1 dollar at maturity T (the bonds will be worth D(t) at time t); the other portfolio is the same as before - long one share of stock, short K bonds that each pay 1 dollar at T. The difference is that at time T, the stock is not only worth S(T) but has paid out D(T) in dividends.
History
Forms of put-call parity appeared in practice as early as medieval ages, and was formally described by a number of authors in the early 20th century.
Michael Knoll, in The Ancient Roots of Modern Financial Innovation: The Early History of Regulatory Arbitrage, describes the important role that put-call parity played in developing the equity of redemption, the defining characteristic of a modern mortgage, in Medieval England.
In the 19th century, financier Russell Sage used put-call parity to create synthetic loans, which had higher interest rates than the usury laws of the time would have normally allowed.
Nelson, an option arbitrage trader in New York, published a book: "The A.B.C. of Options and Arbitrage" in 1904 that describes the put-call parity in detail. His book was re-discovered by Espen Gaarder Haug in the early 2000s and many references from Nelson's book are given in Haug's book "Derivatives Models on Models".
Henry Deutsch describes the put-call parity in 1910 in his book "Arbitrage in Bullion, Coins, Bills, Stocks, Shares and Options, 2nd Edition". London: Engham Wilson but in less detail than Nelson (1904).
Mathematics professor Vinzenz Bronzin also derives the put-call parity in 1908 and uses it as part of his arbitrage argument to develop a series of mathematical option models under a series of different distributions. The work of professor Bronzin was just recently rediscovered by professor Wolfgang Hafner and professor Heinz Zimmermann. The original work of Bronzin is a book written in German and is now translated and published in English in an edited work by Hafner and Zimmermann ("Vinzenz Bronzin's option pricing models", Springer Verlag).
Its first description in the modern academic literature appears to be by Hans R. Stoll in the Journal of Finance.
Implications
Put–call parity implies:
Equivalence of calls and puts: Parity implies that a call and a put can be used interchangeably in any delta-neutral portfolio. If is the call's delta, then buying a call, and selling shares of stock, is the same as selling a put and selling shares of stock. Equivalence of calls and puts is very important when trading options.
Parity of implied volatility: In the absence of dividends or other costs of carry (such as when a stock is difficult to borrow or sell short), the implied volatility of calls and puts must be identical.
See also
Spot-future parity
Vinzenz Bronzin
References
External links
Put-Call parity
Put-call parity, tutorial by Salman Khan (educator)
Put-Call Parity and Arbitrage Opportunity, investopedia.com
The Ancient Roots of Modern Financial Innovation: The Early History of Regulatory Arbitrage, Michael Knoll's history of Put-Call Parity
Other arbitrage relationships
Arbitrage Relationships for Options, Prof. Thayer Watkins
Rational Rules and Boundary Conditions for Option Pricing (PDFDi), Prof. Don M. Chance
No-Arbitrage Bounds on Options, Prof. Robert Novy-Marx
Tools
Option Arbitrage Relations, Prof. Campbell R. Harvey
Finance theories
Mathematical finance
Options (finance)
Arbitrage
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerkno
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Cerkno
|
Cerkno (; ; ) is a small town in the Littoral region of Slovenia.
It has around 2,000 inhabitants and is the administrative centre of the Cerkno Hills. It is the seat of the Municipality of Cerkno.
Cerkno is a small but important local cultural center in the traditional Littoral region near Idrija. It is known for the Laufarija carnival, a spring festival with carved wooden masks; for Franja Partisan Hospital (Partizanska bolnica Franja); for a Partisan hospital from World War II; and as a ski resort.
Name
Cerkno was attested in written records in 1257 as Curchinitz (and as Chyrchayn in 1299, Circhinç in 1337, and Circhiniz in 1486). The modern Slovene name is an ellipsis of *Cerьkъvьno (selo/polje); literally, 'church (village/field)'. The medieval attestations of the name indicate that the settlement was also once called Cerknica. The name indicates that the place was formerly a church property.
History
Historically, the Cerkno Hills belonged to Tolmin County. In the 16th century, the area came under Habsburg rule, and was included in the County of Gorizia and Gradisca. After the end of World War I, the area was occupied by the Italian Army, and then officially annexed to Italy in 1920. Between 1920 and 1943, it was part of the administrative region known as the Julian March. After the Italian armistice in September 1943, Cerkno was liberated by the Yugoslav Partisans and became one of the most important centres of Partisan resistance in the Slovenian Littoral.
Mass grave
Cerkno is the site of a mass grave associated with the Second World War. The Lajše Mass Grave () is located south of the town, in a shaft on the edge of the woods on the eastern slope of Lajše Hill. It contains the remains of 14 civilian victims (one escaped) that were suspected of anti-communist activity and were murdered on 6 February 1944 by the Partisans. They were killed in revenge for an attack on a Communist Party training school in Cerkno on 27 January 1944 that left 47 dead.
Churches
The parish church in the town is dedicated to Saint Anne and belongs to the Diocese of Koper. The church consist of a rectangular presbytery, a wide rectangular nave, and a belfry north of the front wall. The church dates from 1714 and has been attributed to the builder Matija Maček (c. 1657–1737) from the Poljane Valley. A second church in the settlement is dedicated to Saint Bartholomew.
Notable people
Notable people that were born or lived in Cerkno include:
France Bevk (1890–1970), writer
(1854–1931), Archbishop of Gorizia
Milica Kacin-Wohinz (1930–), historian
(1947–), historian
Franc Močnik (1814–1892), mathematician
Janez Podobnik (1959–), politician
(1960–), politician
Rafael Podobnik (1942–), photographer
See also
Cerkno Ski Resort
References
External links
Cerkno municipal site
Cerkno at Geopedia
Populated places in the Municipality of Cerkno
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loggerhead%20shrike
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Loggerhead shrike
|
The loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovicianus) is a passerine bird in the family Laniidae. It is the only member of the shrike family endemic to North America; the related northern shrike (L. borealis) occurs north of its range, however it is also found in Siberia. It is nicknamed the butcherbird after its carnivorous tendencies, as it consumes prey such as amphibians, insects, lizards, small mammals and small birds, and some prey end up displayed and stored at a site, for example in a tree. Due to its small size and weak talons, this predatory bird relies on impaling its prey upon thorns or barbed wire for facilitated consumption. The numbers of loggerhead shrike have significantly decreased in recent years, especially in Midwestern, New England and Mid-Atlantic areas.
Taxonomy
In 1760 the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the loggerhead shrike in his Ornithologie based on a specimen collected in Louisiana in the United States. He used the French name La pie-griesche de la Louisiane and the Latin Lanius ludovicianus. Although Brisson coined Latin names, these do not usually conform to the binomial system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. When in 1766 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the twelfth edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson. One of these was the loggerhead shrike. Linnaeus included a brief description, adopted the binomial name Lanius ludovicianus (identical to Brisson's Latin name) and cited Brisson's work. The specific name ludovicianus is Late Latin for "Louis". “Loggerhead,” a similar word to “blockhead,” refers to the unusually large head to body ratio of this bird.
There are seven recognized subspecies:
L. l. excubitorides Swainson, 1832 – central Canada, central and west USA
L. l. migrans Palmer, W, 1898 – east North America
L. l. ludovicianus Linnaeus, 1766 – coastal southeast USA
L. l. anthonyi Mearns, 1898 – Channel Islands (off south California, southwest USA)
L. l. mearnsi Ridgway, 1903 – San Clemente Island (off south California, southwest USA)
L. l. grinnelli Oberholser, 1919 – extreme south California and north Baja California (northwest Mexico)
L. l. mexicanus Brehm, CL, 1854 – west and central Mexico, south Baja California (northwest Mexico)
Miller, in 1931, suggested that the wing-chord-to-tail-length ratio was an important indicator for distinguishing between subspecies.
Lanius ludovicianus migrans, found in eastern North America, can be distinguished from the western subspecies, L. l. excubitorides by wing length, tail length, and colour. L. l. migrans have a paler forehead than the top of the head.
According to Mundy et al.’s 1997 study, there is a substantial genetic difference between the island subspecies L. l. mearnsi and the mainland subspecies L. l. gambeli due to a gene flow barrier between the two species.
Description
The loggerhead shrike is a medium-sized passerine. "Loggerhead" refers to the relatively large size of the head as compared to the rest of the body. The wing and tail length are about and long, respectively. It weighs on average , with a range of for a healthy adult shrike.
Measurement ranges
Length:
Weight:
Wingspan:
The adult plumage of the loggerhead shrike is grey above with a white to pale grey breast and black tarsi and feet. The bird possesses a black mask that extends across the eyes to its bill. The wings are black with a distinct white patch on the primaries. The tail is black edged with white and the irises are brown. The beak is short, black, and hooked, and contains a tomial tooth to help tear into prey. It is difficult to sex an adult loggerhead shrike in the field as they are sexually monochromatic. However, several studies have reported sexual dimorphism in plumage and size traits. Juveniles possess a paler gray plumage that is subtly vermiculated.
The loggerhead shrike can be distinguished from the northern shrike by its smaller size, darker grey plumage, and larger black face mask that covers the eye completely. It also has a shorter bill with less prominent hook. Their calls are similar.
Vocalization
Their vocal range is broad and varied, and has been described as harsh and jarring. The shrike's notes include squeaky whistles, shrill trills, and guttural warbles. The trills sung by males during breeding season vary in rhythm and pitch. When alarmed, a shrike will produce a “schgra-a-a” shriek while spreading out its tail feathers. Nestlings will make “tcheek” and “tsp” sounds shortly after hatching. During courtship feedings, females may ask for food with “mak” begging notes; conversely, males emit “wuut” or “shack” sounds to offer food. The male emits a territorial, harsh shriek, while the female's song is pitched lower and softer than the male's. Generally, the male is far more vocal than the female.
Distribution and habitat
Loggerhead shrikes were once widely distributed across southern Canada, the contiguous USA and Mexico. However, their populations have heavily declined since the 1960s. Four subspecies reside in southern coastal California: mearnsi, gambeli, grinnelli and anthonyi. L. l. mearnsi is only found on San Clemente Island in California, whereas L. l. gambeli breeds on the mainland and L. l. anthonyi breeds on the Channel Islands. L. l. excubitorides is found in central North America, whereas the non-migrating L. l. ludovicianus resides in southeastern North America. The distribution of L. l. migrans ranges from north to eastern North America; however, its range has been diminishing since the 1940s.
The bird requires an open habitat with an area to forage, elevated perches, and nesting sites. They are often found in open pastures or grasslands and appear to prefer red-cedar and hawthorn trees for nesting. The hawthorn's thorns and the cedar's pin-like needles protect and conceal the shrike from predators. It may also nest in fence-rows or hedge-rows near open pastures and requires elevated perches as lookout points for hunting. Open pastures and grasslands with shorter vegetation are preferred by loggerhead shrikes, as they increase the bird's hunting efficiency. Longer vegetation often requires more time and energy to be spent searching for prey, so these birds gravitate towards areas of shorter vegetation.
Behavior
Diet
Loggerhead shrikes have been repeatedly observed killing prey larger than themselves by spearing the neck or head of the animal and twisting. The speed at which this occurs causes a whiplash injury to the animal. The neck strength of the shrikes compensates, making their talon weakness inconsequential.
Although loggerhead shrikes are passerines, they are a predatory species that hunt during the day. They primarily eat insects, but also consume arachnids, reptiles, amphibians, rodents, bats and small birds. They have even eaten venomous snakes such as the water adder. The size of prey ranges from insects to mice or reptiles.
They are not true birds of prey, as they lack the large, strong talons used to catch and kill prey. Instead, they are sit-and-wait hunters that stalk prey by hawking and diving from elevated perches. By scanning their vicinity from a perch instead of flying, the shrike does not exhaust its energy during the search. Preferred perches are approximately off the ground, and are usually outer branches of trees or telephone wires. In winter, prey availability is low due to the shrike's preference for insects and poikilothermic prey; during this time, shrikes may be energetically stressed and underweight. Insects are consumed in mid-flight, but vertebrates usually require more handling time and therefore more energy. Due to the shrike's small size in proportion to the size of its prey, it must rely on specialized adaptations to facilitate its hunting. The powerful, hooked beak of the loggerhead shrike allows it to sever the neck of a small vertebrate. Larger prey are subjected to impaling, in which they are pushed down into a sharp projection, such as a thorn or barbed wire. The bird can then tear off flesh by using the projection as an anchor. The shrike may also use the thorn to fasten and store its food to return to at a later time.
The motion of impalement appears to be instinctive, as parent shrikes do not demonstrate the behavior to their nestlings. However, a young shrike must experience impaling prey upon an actual projection during a critical developmental period; otherwise, it will not learn to use the instinctive impaling action upon an actual projection. Kleptoparasitism has also been observed in nature, in which the shrike chased down another bird and stole its recently-caught prey.
Reproduction
Loggerhead shrikes are monogamous birds. They begin breeding during their first spring. During this time, the male performs a courtship ritual that occurs in flight. He dances erratically in the air, flying rapidly up and down and occasionally chasing the female. He presents himself to his potential mate by fanning out his tail and fluttering his wings. Females may respond to the fluttering display with begging notes, similar to those of juveniles begging for food; this encourages the male to feed her.
The bird breeds in semi-open areas in southern Ontario, Quebec, and the Canadian prairie provinces, south to Mexico. It nests in dense trees and shrubs. There is an increase in average clutch size as latitude increases. Shrikes begin incubation after laying the second to last egg, resulting in asynchronous hatching. Incubation, on average, lasts 16 days. The female lays 4 to 8 eggs in a bulky cup made of twigs and grass. Once hatched, nestlings are fed by both the male and female parent. Average fledging period is about 19 days. Young may then remain nearby and dependent on adults for 3 to 4 weeks. After that, they begin to forage independently. Oftentimes, nestlings do not survive long past hatching. In the case of dead nestlings, adult shrikes may eat or discard their bodies or else feed them to their remaining young. The oldest recorded age of a loggerhead shrike was 12 years and 6 months.
Conservation status
Loggerhead shrike populations have been decreasing in North America since the 1960s. Reasons behind the decline remain unclear, although suggestions include habitat loss, pesticide contamination, and human disturbance. The eastern loggerhead shrike (L.l. migrans) is critically endangered in Canada, with fewer than 35 known breeding pairs in Canada. The San Clemente Island shrike, L. l. mearnsi, is critically endangered, with a population as low as 5–10 individuals during 1983–1988. (Although only this island subspecies is legally listed as endangered in the United States, the species is declining continent-wide and no longer occurs in most of the northeastern U.S.) A captive population was established at the Toronto Zoo and McGill University in 1997. In 2001, an experimental field breeding and release program managed by Wildlife Preservation Canada was established. "Field breeding" refers to moving captive pairs from their wintering cages at the Toronto Zoo and McGill to large enclosures within shrike habitat in Ontario where the pairs nest and raise their young. The young then are released to the wild when they'd naturally disperse from their parents. Since 2004, over 90 young have been released annually and between 2% and 6.5% of young released have successfully migrated and returned to breed in the subsequent year.
References
External links
The Ontongeny of Cricket and Mouse Killing in the Loggerhead Shrike
The Effects of Dieldren on the Behavior of Young Loggerhead Shrikes
Loggerhead Shrike Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Loggerhead Shrike – Lanius ludovicianus – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Stamps (for Mexico) with Range Map at bird-stamps.org
Recording of its call
loggerhead shrike
loggerhead shrike
Endemic birds of North America
loggerhead shrike
loggerhead shrike
Extant Late Pleistocene first appearances
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jump%20cut
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Jump cut
|
A jump cut is a cut in film editing in which a single continuous sequential shot of a subject is broken into two parts, with a piece of footage being removed in order to render the effect of jumping forward in time. Camera positions of the subject in the remaining pieces of footage of the sequence should vary only slightly in order to achieve the effect. It is a manipulation of temporal space using the duration of a single shot, and fracturing the duration to move the audience ahead. This kind of cut abruptly communicates the passing of time as opposed to the more seamless dissolve heavily used in films predating Jean-Luc Godard's Breathless, which made extensive use of jump cuts and popularized the technique during the 1960s. For this reason, jump cuts are considered a violation of classical continuity editing, which aims to give the appearance of continuous time and space in the story-world by de-emphasizing editing, but are sometimes nonetheless used for creative purposes. Jump cuts tend to draw attention to the constructed nature of the film. More than one jump cut is sometimes used in a single sequence.
Continuity editing uses a guideline called the "30-degree rule" to avoid jump cuts. The 30-degree rule advises that for consecutive shots to appear seamless, the camera position must vary at least 30 degrees from its previous position. Some schools would call for a change in framing as well (e.g., from a medium shot to a close up). Generally, if the camera position changes less than 30 degrees, the difference between the two shots will not be substantial enough, and the viewer will experience the edit as a jump in the position of the subject that is jarring, and draws attention to itself. Although jump cuts can be created through the editing together of two shots filmed non-continuously (spatial jump cuts), they can also be created by removing a middle section of one continuously filmed shot (temporal jump cuts).
Jump cuts can add a sense of speed to the sequence of events.
History
Georges Méliès is known as the father of the jump cut, as a result of having discovered it accidentally and then using it to simulate magical tricks; however, he tried to make the cut appear seamless to complement his illusions. The effect was used in the early film The Tempest (1908) when Ariel magically disappears and reappears. Dziga Vertof's avant-garde Russian film Man With a Movie Camera (1929) is almost entirely composed of jump cuts. Contemporary use of the jump cut largely stems from its appearance in the work of Jean-Luc Godard (at the suggestion of Jean-Pierre Melville) and other filmmakers of the French New Wave of the late 1950s and 1960s. In Godard's ground-breaking Breathless (1960), for example, he cut together shots of Jean Seberg riding in a convertible (see image) in such a way that the discontinuity between shots is emphasized and its jarring effect deliberate. In the clip above the scene abruptly changes perspective, emphasizing a gap in action. Recently the jump cut has been used in films like Snatch by Guy Ritchie, and Run Lola Run by Tom Tykwer. It is frequently used in TV editing, in documentaries produced by Discovery Channel and National Geographic Channel, for example. It is noticeable in Universal Monsters films and music videos.
Notable examples
The jump cut has sometimes served a political use in film. It has been used as an alienating Brechtian technique (the Verfremdungseffekt) that makes the audience aware of the unreality of the film experience, in order to focus the audience's attention on the political message of a film rather than the drama or emotion of the narrative—as may be observed in some segments of Sergei Eisenstein's The Battleship Potemkin.
It was also used in Alexander Dovzhenko's Arsenal (Soviet Union, 1930), where a close-up shot of a character's face cuts closer and closer a total of nine times. Mark Cousins comments that this "fragmentation captured his indecision... and confusion", adding that "Although the effect jars, the idea of visual conflict was central to Soviet montage cinema of that time".
Jump cuts are sometimes used to show a nervous searching scene, as is done in the 2009 science fiction film Moon in which the protagonist, Sam Bell, is looking for a secret room on a moon base, and District 9 in which the protagonist, Wikus, searches for illegal objects in the house of Christopher's friend.
Jump cuts plays a significant and disorienting role in a scene of Joel and Ethan Coen's A Serious Man, in which shots of Rabbi Nachtner and Larry Gopnik having a conversation in the Rabbi's office are interspersed with shots depicting another meeting that Nachtner previously had with a different person in the same office.
In television, Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In editor Arthur Schneider won an Emmy Award in 1968 for his pioneering use of the jump cut. Jump cutting remained an uncommon TV technique until shows like Homicide: Life on the Street popularized it on the small screen in the 1990s.
The music video for "Everybody Have Fun Tonight" has a jump cut for virtually every frame.
Other uses of the jump cuts include Vincent Gallo's short Flying Christ in which various shots of "Christ" jumping are cut together as he is in mid-jump, creating the illusion of flight, and in many vlogs online, as popularized by the show with zefrank.
British comedian Russell Kane has produced a series of comic, satirical videos, named "Kaneings", in response to current events. These make extensive use of jump-cut-style editing.
Confusion with other transitions
Vernacular use of the term jump cut can describe any abrupt or noticeable edit in a film. However, technically, many such over-broad usages are incorrect. In particular, a cut between two different subjects is not a true jump cut, no matter how jarring. A jump cut usually involves a jump through narrative time (as with the famous holiday greeting in Citizen Kane—a schoolboy Kane sulkily wishes his guardian "Merry Christmas", and the scene then cuts to the guardian wishing his charge, about to turn twenty-five, "and a Happy New Year") or an "elliptical" edit, wherein a shot of continuous action is broken up with a sudden cut.
See also
Match cut
Smash cut
References
External links
"Jump cut", moviesaremade.com article on jump cuts as film storytelling techniques and showcasing an array of examples from various genres of movies.
"Avoiding Audio Jump Cuts", AskTheCameraMan.net article explaining what jump cuts in audio are and how/why to avoid them
Film editing
Cinematic techniques
|
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207395
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video%20editing
|
Video editing
|
Video editing is the manipulation and arrangement of video shots. Video editing is used to structure and present all video information, including films and television shows, video advertisements and video essays. Video editing has been dramatically democratized in recent years by editing software available for personal computers. Editing video can be difficult and tedious, so several technologies have been produced to aid people in this task. Pen based video editing software was developed in order to give people a more intuitive and fast way to edit video.
Types of editing
Though once the province of expensive machines called video editors, video editing software is now available for personal computers and workstations. Video editing includes cutting segments (trimming), re-sequencing clips, and adding transitions and other special effects.
Linear video editing uses video tape and is edited in a very linear way. Several video clips from different tapes are recorded to one single tape in the order that they will appear.
Non-linear editing systems (NLE) allow video to be edited on computers with specialized software. This process is not destructive to the raw video footage and is done by using programs such as DaVinci Resolve, Avid Media Composer, Adobe Premiere Pro and Final Cut Pro.
Offline editing is the process by which raw footage is copied from an original source, without affecting the original film stock or video tape. Once the editing is complete, the original media is then re-assembled in the online editing stage.
Online editing is the process of reassembling the edit to full resolution video after an offline edit has been performed. It is done in the final stage of a video production.
Cloud-based editing is the process of utilising the internet to work with content remotely, collaboratively or of a time-critical nature such as editing of live sports events in real-time using video proxies (lower resolution copies) of original material.
Vision mixing is used when working within live television and video production environments. A vision mixer is used to cut live feed coming from several cameras in real time.
Background
Video editing is the process of editing segments of motion video production footage, special effects and sound recordings in the post-production process. Motion picture film editing is a predecessor to video editing and, in several ways, video editing simulates motion picture film editing, in theory and the use of linear video editing and video editing software on non-linear editing systems (NLE). Using video, a director can communicate non-fictional and fictional events. The goal of editing is to manipulate these events to bring the communication closer to the original goal or target. It is a visual art.
Early 1950s video tape recorders (VTR) were so expensive, and the quality degradation caused by copying was so great, that a 2-inch Quadruplex videotape was edited by visualizing the recorded track with ferrofluid, cutting it with a razor blade or guillotine cutter, and splicing with video tape. The two pieces of tape to be joined were painted with a solution of extremely fine iron filings suspended in carbon tetrachloride, a toxic and carcinogenic compound. This "developed" the magnetic tracks, making them visible when viewed through a microscope so that they could be aligned in a splicer designed for this task.
Improvements in quality and economy, and the invention of the flying erase-head, allowed new video and audio material to be recorded over the material already present on an existing magnetic tape. This was introduced into the linear editing technique. If a scene closer to the beginning of the video tape needed to be changed in length, all later scenes would need to be recorded onto the video tape again in sequence. In addition, sources could be played back simultaneously through a vision mixer (video switcher) to create more complex transitions between scenes. A popular 1970-80s system for creating these transitions was the U-matic equipment (named for the U-shaped tape path). That system used two tape players and one tape recorder, and edits were done by automatically having the machines back up, then speed up together simultaneously, so that the edit didn't roll or glitch. Later, in the 1980-90's came the smaller beta equipment (named for the B-shaped tape path), and more complex controllers, some of which did the synchronizing electronically.
There was a transitional analog period using multiple source videocassette recorders (VCR) with the Montage Picture Processor and Ediflex, or EditDroid using LaserDisc players, but modern NLE systems edit video digitally captured onto a hard drive from an analog video or digital video source. Content is ingested and recorded natively with the appropriate codec that the video editing software uses to process captured footage. High-definition video is becoming more popular and can be readily edited using the same video editing software along with related motion graphics programs. Video clips are arranged on a timeline, music tracks, titles, digital on-screen graphics are added, special effects can be created, and the finished program is "rendered" into a finished video. The video may then be distributed in a variety of ways including DVD, web streaming, QuickTime Movies, iPod, CD-ROM, or video tape.
Home video editing
Like some other technologies, the cost of video editing has declined over time. The original 2" Quadruplex system cost so much that many television production facilities could only afford a single unit, and editing was a highly involved process that required special training. In contrast to this, nearly any home computer sold since the year 2000 has the speed and storage capacity to digitize and edit standard-definition television (SDTV). The two major retail operating systems include basic video editing software – Apple's iMovie and Microsoft's Windows Movie Maker. Additional options exist, usually as more advanced commercial products. As well as these commercial products, there are open-source video-editing programs. Automatic video editing products have also emerged, opening up video editing to a broader audience of amateurs and reducing the time it takes to edit videos. These exist usually as media storage services, such as Google with its Google Photos or smaller companies like Vidify.
Applications
Video editing can be used for many purposes such as education, entertainment, and documentation.
Virtual reality—Advancements are being made to help with editing spherical video used in virtual reality settings. The ability to edit in virtual reality was created so that users would be able to check their video edits in real time, without having to continually view the video in a headset between edits.
Social media—Video editing can be used for entertainment and other purposes on YouTube and other social media sites. School teachers have used video editing to help their students retain information and extend lessons outside the classroom.
See also
Edit decision list
Video mashups
Photo slideshow software
Video scratching
Video manipulation
Video server
List of video editing software
Comparison of video editing software
References
External links
Film and video technology
Film editing
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear%20video%20editing
|
Linear video editing
|
Linear video editing is a video editing post-production process of selecting, arranging and modifying images and sound in a predetermined, ordered sequence. Regardless of whether it was captured by a video camera, tapeless camcorder, or recorded in a television studio on a video tape recorder (VTR) the content must be accessed sequentially.
For the most part video editing software has replaced linear editing. In the past, film editing was done in linear fashion, where film reels were literally cut into long strips divided by takes and scenes, and then glued or taped back together to create a logical sequence of film. Linear video editing is more time consuming and highly specialised and tedious work. Still, it is relevant today because of these reasons:
The method is simple and inexpensive.
Mandatory for some jobs: for example if only two sections of video clips are to be joined together in sequence it is often the quickest and easiest way.
If video editors learn linear editing skills it increases their knowledge as well as versatility. According to many professional editors who learn linear editing skills first they tend to become proficient all-round editors.
Until the advent of computer-based random access non-linear editing systems (NLE) in the early 1990s, linear video editing was simply called video editing.
History
Live television is still essentially produced in the same manner as it was in the 1950s, although transformed by modern technical advances. Before videotape, the only way of airing the same shows again was by filming shows using a kinescope, essentially a video monitor paired with a movie camera. However, kinescopes (the films of television shows) suffered from various sorts of picture degradation, from image distortion and apparent scan lines to artifacts in contrast and loss of detail. Kinescopes had to be processed and printed in a film laboratory, making them unreliable for broadcasts delayed for different time zones.
The primary motivation for the development of video tape was as a short or long-term archival medium. Only after a series of technical advances spanning decades did video tape editing finally become a viable production tool, up to par with film editing.
Early technology
The first widely accepted video tape in the United States was two-inch quadruplex videotape and travelled at 15 inches per second. To gain enough head-to-tape speed, four video recording and playback heads were spun on a head wheel across most of the two-inch width of the tape. (Audio and synchronization tracks were recorded along the sides of the tape with stationary heads.) This system was known as "quad" (for "quadruplex") recording.
The resulting video tracks were slightly less than a ninety-degree angle (considering the vector addition of high-speed spinning heads tracing across the 15 inches per second forward motion of the tape).
Originally, video was edited by visualizing the recorded track with ferrofluid and cutting it with a razor blade or guillotine cutter and splicing with video tape, in a manner similar to film editing. This was an arduous process and avoided where possible. When it was used, the two pieces of tape to be joined were painted with a solution of extremely fine iron filings suspended in carbon tetrachloride, a toxic and carcinogenic compound. This "developed" the magnetic tracks, making them visible when viewed through a microscope so that they could be aligned in a splicer designed for this task. The tracks had to be cut during a vertical retrace, without disturbing the odd-field/even-field ordering. The cut also had to be at the same angle that the video tracks were laid down on the tape. Since the video and audio read heads were several inches apart it was not possible to make a physical edit that would function correctly in both video and audio. The cut was made for video and a portion of audio then re-copied into the correct relationship, the same technique as for editing 16mm film with a combined magnetic audio track.
The disadvantages of physically editing tapes were many. Some broadcasters decreed that edited tapes could not be reused, in an era when the relatively high cost of the machines and tapes was balanced by the savings involved in being able to wipe and reuse the media. Others, such as the BBC, allowed reuse of spliced tape in certain circumstances as long as it conformed to strict criteria about the number of splices in a given duration, usually a maximum of five splices for every half hour. The process required great skill, and often resulted in edits that would roll (lose sync) and each edit required several minutes to perform, although this was also initially true of the electronic editing that came later.
In the United States, the 1961-62 Ernie Kovacs ABC specials and Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In were the only TV shows to make extensive use of splice editing of videotape.
Introduction of computerized systems
A system for editing Quad tape "by hand" was developed by the 1960s. It was really just a means of synchronizing the playback of two machines so that the signal of the new shot could be "punched in" with a reasonable chance at success. One problem with this and early computer-controlled systems was that the audio track was prone to suffer artifacts (i.e. a short buzzing sound) because the video of the newly recorded shot would record into the side of the audio track. A commercial solution known as "Buzz Off" was used to minimize this effect.
For more than a decade, computer-controlled Quad editing systems were the standard post-production tool for television. Quad tape involved expensive hardware, time-consuming setup, relatively long rollback times for each edit and showed misalignment as disagreeable "banding" in the video. However, it should be mentioned that Quad tape has a better bandwidth than any smaller-format analogue tape, and properly handled could produce a picture indistinguishable from that of a live camera.
Further advancement in technology
When helical scan video recorders became the standard it was no longer possible to physically cut and splice the tape. At this point video editing became a process of using two video tape machines, playing back the source tape (or "raw footage") from one machine and copying just the portions desired on to a second tape (the "edit master").
The bulk of linear editing is done simply, with two machines and an edit controller device to control them. Many video tape machines are capable of controlling a second machine, eliminating the need for an external editing control device.
This process is "linear", rather than non-linear editing, as the nature of the tape-to-tape copying requires that all shots be laid out in the final edited order. Once a shot is on tape, nothing can be placed ahead of it without overwriting whatever is there already. (Such a replacement is sometimes called an "insert edit".) If absolutely necessary, material can be dubbed by copying the edited content onto another tape, however as each copy generation degrades the image cumulatively, this is not desirable.
One drawback of early video editing technique was that it was impractical to produce a rough cut for presentation to an Executive producer. Since Executive Producers are never familiar enough with the material to be able to visualise the finished product from inspection of an edit decision list (EDL), they were deprived of the opportunity to voice their opinions at a time when those opinions could be easily acted upon. Thus, particularly in documentary television, video was resisted for quite a long time.
Peak usage
Video editing reached its full potential in the late 1970s when computer-controlled minicomputer edit controllers along with communications protocols were developed, which could orchestrate an edit based on an EDL, using timecode to synchronize multiple tape machines and auxiliary devices using a 9-Pin Protocol. The most popular and widely used computer edit systems came from Sony, Ampex and the venerable CMX. Systems such as these were expensive, especially when considering auxiliary equipment like VTR, video switchers and character generators (CG) and were usually limited to high-end post-production facilities.
Jack Calaway of Calaway Engineering was the first to produce a lower-cost, PC-based, "CMX-style" linear editing system which greatly expanded the use of linear editing systems throughout the post-production industry. Following suit, other companies, including EMC and Strassner Editing Systems, came out with equally useful competing editing products.
Current usage
While computer based non-linear video editing software has been adopted throughout most of the commercial, film, industrial and consumer video industries, linear video tape editing is still commonplace in television station newsrooms for the production of television news, and medium-sized production facilities which haven’t made the capital investment in newer technologies. News departments often still use linear editing because they can start editing tape and feeds from the field as soon as received since no additional time is spent capturing material as is necessary in non-linear editing systems and systems that are able to digitally record and edit simultaneously have only recently become affordable for small operations.
See also
Offline editing
References
External links
Archived version of the late Jack Calaway's site
Video Production Support – Linear Editing Primer
Film and video technology
|
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] |
207397
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20straggler
|
Blue straggler
|
A blue straggler is a main-sequence star in an open or globular cluster that is more luminous and bluer than stars at the main sequence turnoff point for the cluster. Blue stragglers were first discovered by Allan Sandage in 1953 while performing photometry of the stars in the globular cluster M3. Standard theories of stellar evolution hold that the position of a star on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram should be determined almost entirely by the initial mass of the star and its age. In a cluster, stars all formed at approximately the same time, and thus in an H–R diagram for a cluster, all stars should lie along a clearly defined curve set by the age of the cluster, with the positions of individual stars on that curve determined solely by their initial mass. With masses two to three times that of the rest of the main-sequence cluster stars, blue stragglers seem to be exceptions to this rule. The resolution of this problem is likely related to interactions between two or more stars in the dense confines of the clusters in which blue stragglers are found. Blue stragglers are also found among field stars, although their detection is more difficult to disentangle from genuine massive main sequence stars. Field blue stragglers can however be identified in the Galactic halo, since all surviving main sequence stars are low mass.
Formation
Several explanations have been put forth to explain the existence of blue stragglers. The simplest is that blue stragglers formed later than the rest of the stars in the cluster, but evidence for this is limited. Another simple proposal is that blue stragglers are either field stars which are not actually members of the clusters to which they seem to belong, or are field stars which were captured by the cluster. This too seems unlikely, as blue stragglers often reside at the very center of the clusters to which they belong. The most likely explanation is that blue stragglers are the result of stars that come too close to another star or similar mass object and collide. The newly formed star has thus a higher mass, and occupies a position on the HR diagram which would be populated by genuinely young stars.
Cluster interactions
The two most viable explanations put forth for the existence of blue stragglers both involve interactions between cluster members. One explanation is that they are current or former binary stars that are in the process of merging or have already done so. The merger of two stars would create a single more massive star, potentially with a mass larger than that of stars at the main-sequence turn-off point. While a star born with a mass larger than that of stars at the turn-off point would evolve quickly off of the main sequence, the components forming a more massive star (via merger) would thereby delay such a change. There is evidence in favor of this view, notably that blue stragglers appear to be much more common in dense regions of clusters, especially in the cores of globular clusters. Since there are more stars per unit volume, collisions and close encounters are far more likely in clusters than among field stars and calculations of the expected number of collisions are consistent with the observed number of blue stragglers.
One way to test this hypothesis is to study the pulsations of variable blue stragglers. The asteroseismological properties of merged stars may be measurably different from those of typical pulsating variables of similar mass and luminosity. However, the measurement of pulsations is very difficult, given the scarcity of variable blue stragglers, the small photometric amplitudes of their pulsations and the crowded fields in which these stars are often found. Some blue stragglers have been observed to rotate quickly, with one example in 47 Tucanae observed to rotate 75 times faster than the Sun, which is consistent with formation by collision.
The other explanation relies on mass transfer between two stars born in a binary star system. The more massive of the two stars in the system will evolve first and as it expands, will overflow its Roche lobe. Mass will quickly transfer from the initially more massive companion on to the less massive and like the collision hypothesis, would explain why there would be main-sequence stars more massive than other stars in the cluster which have already evolved off of the main sequence. Observations of blue stragglers have found that some have significantly less carbon and oxygen in their photospheres than is typical, which is evidence of their outer material having been dredged up from the interior of a companion.
Overall, there is evidence in favor of both collisions and mass transfer between binary stars. In M3, 47 Tucanae and NGC 6752, both mechanisms seem to be operating, with collisional blue stragglers occupying the cluster cores and mass transfer blue stragglers at the outskirts. The discovery of low-mass white dwarf companions around two blue stragglers in the Kepler field suggests these two blue stragglers gained mass via stable mass transfer.
Field formation
Blue stragglers are also found among field stars, as a result of close binary interaction. Since the fraction of close binaries increases with decreasing metallicity, blue stragglers are increasingly likely to be found across metal poor stellar populations. The identification of blue stragglers among field stars however is more difficult than in stellar clusters, because of the mix of stellar ages and metallicities among field stars. Field blue stragglers however can be identified among old stellar populations, like the Galactic halo, or dwarf galaxies.
Red and Yellow Stragglers
"Yellow stragglers" or "red stragglers" are stars with colors between that of the turnoff and the red-giant branch but brighter than the subgiant branch. Such stars have been identified in open and globular star clusters. These stars may be former blue straggler stars that are now evolving toward the giant branch.
See also
References
Star types
Star clusters
Articles containing video clips
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] |
207401
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Amsterdam
|
USS Amsterdam
|
USS Amsterdam may refer to either of two U.S. Navy ships named for Amsterdam, New York:
, was to have been a light cruiser numbered CL-59, but she was completed as the light aircraft carrier Independence (CVL-22).
, was a light cruiser, commissioned in 1945 and briefly participated in the final campaign against Japan.
Sources
United States Navy ship names
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bautzen%20%28district%29
|
Bautzen (district)
|
The district of Bautzen (, ) is a district in the state of Saxony in Germany. Its largest towns are Bautzen, Bischofswerda, Kamenz, Hoyerswerda and Radeberg. It is the biggest district in Saxony by area, and a member of the Neisse Euroregion.
It is bordered to the south by the Czech Republic. Clockwise, it also borders the district of Sächsische Schweiz-Osterzgebirge, the district-free city of Dresden, the district of Meißen, the state of Brandenburg, and the Görlitz district.
History
Historically, most of Upper Lusatia belonged to Bohemia. After the end of the Thirty Years' War, it became a part of Saxony. Only the small town of Schirgiswalde remained Bohemian until 1809.
The district was established in 1994 by merging the former districts of Bautzen and Bischofswerda. The district of Kamenz and the district-free city of Hoyerswerda were merged into the district in August 2008.
Geography
The district of Bautzen is part of the region of Upper Lusatia (Oberlausitz). The south of the district is occupied by the Lusatian Mountains, and the countryside slopes away to the north.
The Spree river enters the district from the southeast and runs through Schirgiswalde and Bautzen before leaving to the north. North of Bautzen, the river is dammed by a reservoir (Talsperre Bautzen, 5.5 km²).
At its widest, the district is 65 km east-west, and 63 km north-south.
Towns and municipalities
{|
! align="left" | Towns
! align="left" | Municipalities
!
|- valign="top"
|
Bautzen (Budyšin)
Bernsdorf (Njedźichow)
Bischofswerda (Biskupicy)
Elstra (Halštrow)
Großröhrsdorf
Hoyerswerda (Wojerecy)
Kamenz (Kamjenc)
Königsbrück (Kinspork)
Lauta (Łuty)
Pulsnitz (Połčnica)
Radeberg
Schirgiswalde-Kirschau
Weißenberg (Wospork)
Wilthen Wjelećin)
Wittichenau (Kulow)
||
Arnsdorf
Burkau (Porchow)
Crostwitz (Chrósćicy)
Cunewalde (Kumwałd)
Demitz-Thumitz (Zemicy-Tumicy)
Doberschau-Gaußig (Dobruša-Huska)
Elsterheide (Halštrowska hola)
Frankenthal
Göda (Hodźij)
Großdubrau (Wulka Dubrawa)
Großharthau
Großnaundorf
Großpostwitz (Budestecy)
Haselbachtal
||
Laußnitz (Łužnica)
Hochkirch (Bukecy)
Lichtenberg
Königswartha (Rakecy)
Kubschütz (Kubšicy)
Lohsa (Łaz)
Malschwitz (Malešecy)
Nebelschütz (Njebjelćicy)
Neschwitz (Njeswaćidło)
Neukirch/Lausitz (Wjazońca)
Neukirch (bei Königsbrück)
Obergurig (Hornja Hórka)
Ohorn
Oßling (Wóslink)
||
Puschwitz (Bóšicy)
Ottendorf-Okrilla
Panschwitz-Kuckau (Pančicy-Kukow)
Räckelwitz (Worklecy)
Radibor (Radwor)
Ralbitz-Rosenthal (Ralbicy-Róžant)
Rammenau (Ramnow)
Schmölln-Putzkau (Smělna-Póckowy)
Schwepnitz (Sepicy)
Sohland an der Spree (Załom')
Spreetal (Sprjewiny doł'')
Steina
Steinigtwolmsdorf
Wachau
|}
Coat of arms
The district's arms are identical to the arms of the margravate of Upper Lusatia. The coat of arms was established about 1350, when six towns of Upper Lusatia founded a confederacy. This loose alliance became a margravate under the Bohemian crown in 1378.
References
External links
Official website (German)
Districts of Saxony
Geography of Lusatia
|
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] |
207409
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean%20bag%20round
|
Bean bag round
|
A bean bag round, also known by its trademarked name flexible baton round, is a type of baton round, fired from a shotgun, and used for less lethal apprehension of suspects.
Description
The bean bag round consists of a small fabric "pillow" filled with #9 lead shot weighing about . It is fired from a normal 12-gauge shotgun. When fired, the bag is expelled at around ; it spreads out in flight and distributes its impact over about of the target. It is designed to deliver a blow that will cause minimum long-term trauma and no penetration but will result in a muscle spasm or other reaction to briefly render a violent suspect immobile. It still can cause serious injury and death. The shotgun round is inaccurate over about and has a maximum range of around . Changes to the bean bag round since its inception in the early 1970s have included a velocity reduction from 120 to 90 meters per second (400 to 300 ft/s) as well as a shift from a square shape to a more rounded sock-shaped projectile.
Shotguns dedicated to being used for bean bag rounds are often visibly modified with either yellow or green markings, or bright orange stocks and stops, to reduce the possibility that a user might inadvertently load lethal munitions into the weapon.
Use
Bean bag rounds are used when a person is a danger to themselves or others but is not a direct threat in such a manner that deadly force would be appropriate – typically a suicidal individual with a bladed weapon. The round is intended to disable the person without killing them.
Dangers
A bean bag round can severely injure or kill in a wide variety of ways. They have caused around one death a year since their introduction in the US. A round can hit the chest, break the ribs and send the broken ribs into the heart. A shot to the head can break the nose, crush the larynx or break the neck or skull of the subject. This is why many officers are taught to aim for the extremities when using a bean bag round. A strike in the abdominal area can cause internal bleeding or strike the celiac plexus which can disrupt breathing or heartbeat, but such a hit is generally safer than most other areas as well as presenting a larger target than an extremity. Fatalities are occasionally the result of mistaking other shotgun rounds for bean bags.
In 2006, during anti-corruption protests in Budapest (Hungary), protestors were shot by beanbag rounds to the head. At least 3 of them were permanently blinded. One of the victims committed suicide in 2013 due to psychological complications arising from his blindness. In addition, many people suffered minor injuries (nose and finger fractures, hemorrhagic bruises). Furthermore, a few victims suffered from long-term psychological trauma due to the shock.
In 2013, in Park Forest, Illinois, an autopsy showed that a 95-year-old man had died from hemoperitoneum as a result of being shot by police with a bean bag gun.
11 August 2019, during the Hong Kong anti-extradition bill protests, a female First Aider was suspected to have been hit with a bean bag round, resulting in rupture of one of her eyeballs.
In 23 November 2019, a bean bag round fired by the Colombian riot police hit student Dilan Cruz in the head, killing him.
31 May 2020, 20-year-old Justin Howell was shot in the head by the Austin PD, suffering a skull fracture leading to seizure and brain trauma. The next day, 1 June 2020, 16-year-old Brad Levi Ayala also suffered a skull fracture after being shot in the head with a beanbag round by the Austin PD.
See also
Non-lethal weapon
Wooden bullet
Shooting of Victoria Snelgrove
References
Further reading
Non-lethal projectiles
Projectiles
Shotgun shells
Police weapons
Paramilitary cartridges
Riot control weapons
|
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] |
207410
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20tower%20%28astronomy%29
|
Solar tower (astronomy)
|
A solar tower, in the context of astronomy, is a structure used to support equipment for studying the Sun, and is typically part of solar telescope designs. Generically, the term solar tower has many more uses especially for a type of power production using Earth's Sun. Solar tower observatories are also called vacuum tower telescopes.
Solar towers are used to raise the observation equipment above atmospheric turbulence caused by solar heating of the ground and the radiation of the heat into the atmosphere. Traditional observatories do not have to be placed high above ground level, as they do most of their observation at night, when ground radiation is at a minimum.
The horizontal Snow solar observatory was built on Mount Wilson in 1904. It was soon found that heat radiation was disrupting observations. Almost as soon as the Snow Observatory opened, plans were started for a tower that opened in 1908 followed by a tower in 1912. The tower is currently used to study helioseismology, while the tower is active in UCLA's Solar Cycle Program.
The term has also been used to refer to other structures used for experimental purposes, such as the Solar Tower Atmospheric Cherenkov Effect Experiment (STACEE), which is being used to study Cherenkov radiation, and the Weizmann Institute solar power tower.
Examples
List of solar telescopes
Solar Observatory Tower Meudon in France
External links
Mount Wilson
150 ft Solar Tower
60 ft Solar Tower
STACEE home page
Astronomical observatories
Telescope types
|
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] |
207411
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Port%20Royal
|
USS Port Royal
|
USS Port Royal may refer to:
was a sidewheel steamer gunboat commissioned in 1862, active in the Civil War, and decommissioned 1866
The Ticonderoga-class cruiser, hull number CG-69, which was originally named Port Royal, but changed to . Commissioned in 1992
is a Ticonderoga-class guided missile cruiser, commissioned in 1994
United States Navy ship names
|
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] |
207417
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolly%20Shepherd
|
Dolly Shepherd
|
Elizabeth "Dolly" Shepherd (1886-1983), born as Elizabeth Shepherd, was a parachutist and fairground entertainer in the Edwardian era.
Life and career
Shepherd was born in Potters Bar, Middlesex, England. At the age of 16, she got a job as a waitress at the Alexandra Palace in North London so that she could see the composer John Philip Sousa. She overheard two men discussing the loss of a target for an act in which they shot an apple off a girl's head; she volunteered on the spot.
In 1905 she ascended on a trapeze slung below a hot-air balloon to a height of two to four-thousand feet before descending on a parachute. On one occasion both the balloon and the parachute malfunctioned, and she found herself rising to 15,000 feet. At this height, both the cold and lack of oxygen were threatening to make her lose her grip and fall to her death. Fortunately, the balloon returned to earth before it was too late.
The mishap foreshadowed a later, more serious incident during an exhibition jump in July 1908. Shepherd had ascended with another female parachutist, Louie May. During descent May's parachute failed to release, leading Shepherd to implore May wrap her arms and legs around Shepherd so that they could descend on one parachute. Weighed down by May, Shepherd's descended too rapidly and was left paralyzed from the impact of her landing. She lay in bed, unable to move, for weeks. A doctor prescribed a course of electrical shock treatment. The doctor accidentally gave Dolly an excessively powerful electrical shock that resulted in her being ejected from the bed, but the powerful jolt realigned the vertebrae in Dolly's back and healed her. She then returned to her act and first flew again at Ashby-de-la-Zouch.
Edith Maud Cook died from injuries sustained following a jump from a balloon at Coventry on 9 July 1910 when her parachute collapsed after a gust of wind blew her on to a factory roof. Shepherd had been due to make the jump at Coventry but Cook had taken her place.
According to BBC History magazine she liked to "go high because I had it in my head that if I had to be killed, I’d like to be killed completely: good and proper!" She recalled that on one occasion she almost landed on a steam train "That driver, he had some forethought: he blew the steam and just blew me off into a canal at Grantham."
In 1912, she thought she heard a voice telling her to "[not] go up again" and she never did.
She was not done with flying, though. She joined the Women's Volunteer Reserve during WWI, where she drove a munition's truck. It was at that time that she met Captain Percy Sedgwick, the man whom she chauffeured. Shepherd later married him, (married name Elizabeth Sedgwick), but still managed a flight with the Red Devils display team a few years before she died at the age of 96.
There has now been a road named after Shepherd in the town where she first flew again (Ashby-de-la-Zouch); "Dolly Shepherd Close" is off Philip Bent Road approximately 0.6 miles due West of the town centre.
See also
Rossa Matilda Richter
References
Sourcces
Shepherd, Dolly, Hearn, Peter, and Sedgwick, Molly, When the 'Chute Went Up . . . The Adventures of an Edwardian Lady Parachutist, Robert Hale, (London), 1984.
External links
Profile and Photographs
Ashby-de-la-Zouch Museum.
English stunt performers
English balloonists
English aviators
People from Potters Bar
1886 births
1983 deaths
British women aviators
|
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] |
207419
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Dolphin%20%28SS-169%29
|
USS Dolphin (SS-169)
|
USS Dolphin (SF-10/SC-3/SS-169), a submarine and one of the "V-boats", was the sixth ship of the United States Navy to be named for that aquatic mammal. She also bore the name V-7 and the classifications SF-10 and SC-3 prior to her commissioning. She was launched on 6 March 1932 by the Portsmouth Navy Yard, sponsored by Mrs. E.D. Toland, and commissioned on 1 June 1932 with Lieutenant John B. Griggs, Jr. in command.
Design
Dolphin was the penultimate design in the V-boat series. With a length of and a displacement only a little more than half that of the previous three large cruiser submarines ( surfaced, submerged), Dolphin was clearly an attempt to strike a happy medium between those latter submarines and earlier S-class submarines, which were little more than large coastal boats. The general arrangement of propulsion machinery was identical to that of V-5 and V-6, but even with a surface displacement of only 1,718 tons, Dolphin′s scaled-down main engines—rated at each—could only just deliver the surface speed of the larger ships, and her endurance and torpedo load-out were much reduced. The torpedo armament was six 21 inch (533 mm) tubes (4 bow, 2 stern), with 18 torpedoes. A 4 inch (102 mm)/50 caliber deck gun was equipped. Dolphin'''s size and weight were nearly ideal for the range and duration of the war patrols that became customary in the Pacific during World War II, and the war-time Gato, Balao, and Tench classes had similar dimensions.
The engine specifications were two BuEng-built, MAN-designed direct-drive 6-cylinder 4-stroke diesel engines, each, with two BuEng MAN 4-cycle 6-cylinder auxiliary diesel engines, each, driving electrical generators. The auxiliary engines were for charging batteries or for increased surface speed via a diesel-electric system providing power to the main electric motors. Unusually for the V-boats, Dolphin's engines were never replaced.Dolphin was built to a partial welded/partial riveted construction method. The Portsmouth Navy Yard expanded the use of welding with this boat, and in addition to the superstructure, piping brackets, and various support frames, the Portsmouth engineers used welding on the outer hull flanges to the Kingston valves and on interior tanks in the forward and aft torpedo rooms. Adopting a cautious, economically driven approach they still riveted both the inner and outer hulls. The designer of the Dolphin, Andrew McKee, was concerned about weight growth and so he made the decision to trim off a portion of the standing flange on the I-beams used in hull construction, leaving them looking somewhat like the number 1. He later admitted that this was not the best idea, as it adversely affected hull strength.
Service history
Inter-war periodDolphin departed Portsmouth, New Hampshire on 24 October 1932 for San Diego, California, arriving on 3 December to report to Submarine Division 12 (SubDiv 12). She served on the West Coast, taking part in tactical exercises and test torpedo firings until 4 March 1933, when she got underway for the East Coast. She arrived at Portsmouth Navy Yard on 23 March for final trials and acceptance, remaining there until 1 August. Dolphin returned to San Diego on 25 August 1933 to rejoin SubDiv 12.
In 1933, Dolphin tested an unusual feature for submarines of having a waterproof motor boat, stored in a compartment aft of the sail, which could be brought out when needed. At that time, most navies adhered to the prize rules, which required submarines to board and inspect merchant vessels before they could sink them, as had often been done in World War I, except in periods of unrestricted submarine warfare.
She cruised on the west coast with occasional voyages to Pearl Harbor, Alaska, and the Panama Canal Zone for exercises and fleet problems. On 1 December 1937, Dolphin departed San Diego for her new homeport, Pearl Harbor, arriving one week later. She continued to operate in fleet problems and training exercises, visiting the West Coast on a cruise from 29 September to 25 October 1940. Located at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, Dolphin took the attacking enemy planes under fire, and then left for a patrol in search of Japanese submarines in the Hawaiian Islands.
World War IIDolphin departed from Pearl Harbor on 24 December 1941 on her first war patrol, during which she reconnoitered in the Marshall Islands in preparation for later air strikes.
She returned to Pearl Harbor on 3 February 1942 to refit and resupply, and then got underway once more on 14 May. Searching a wide area west of Midway Island, she patrolled off the island itself during the pivotal Battle of Midway from 3 to 6 June. She put in to the atoll for repairs from 8 to 11 June, and then she returned to her patrol, attacking a destroyer and a tanker with undetermined results before returning to Pearl Harbor on 24 July.
Her third war patrol, from 12 October to 5 December, was in the storm-tossed waters of the Kurile Islands, where she performed reconnaissance essential to the operations that were to keep Japanese bases there largely ineffective throughout the war.
By 1943 Dolphin was thoroughly worn out and badly in need of a modernization. Her age and basic limitations argued against the time-consuming and costly work, so for most of 1943 she was used in training operations at Pearl Harbor. A shipyard inspection showed that she was suffering badly from rusting and corrosion inside her tanks, in some cases structural members were found rusted completely through. With newer submarines now available for offensive war patrols and not willing to delay work on newer boats at Pearl Harbor, Dolphin was assigned less dramatic but still vital service on training duty until 29 January 1944, when she sailed for exercises in the Canal Zone. She then sailed for Portsmouth Navy Yard where she was given patch repairs only, with her operating depth reduced to 150 feet. Dolphin was then assigned duty as a school boat at Submarine Base New London, Connecticut, where she arrived on 6 March. She served in this essential task until the end of the war, then was decommissioned on 12 October 1945 at the Portsmouth Navy Yard.Dolphin was sold for scrap on 26 August 1946.
Popular culture
The Dolphin was featured in the 1937 movie Submarine D-1.
Awards
American Defense Service Medal with "FLEET" clasp
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with two battle stars
World War II Victory Medal
See also
Unrestricted submarine warfare
Torpedo
List of submarine classes of the United States Navy
List of lost United States submarines
List of submarines of the Second World War
References
Bibliography
Alden, John D. The Fleet Submarine in the U.S. Navy: A Design and Construction History, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 1979,
Blair, Clay, Jr. Silent Victory. New York: Bantam, 1976 (reprints Lippincott 1975 edition).
Lenton, H. T. American Submarines (Navies of the Second World War) (Doubleday, 1973),
Silverstone, Paul H. U.S. Warships of World War II (Ian Allan, 1965),
Archived list of US submarines of World War II, previously at www.FleetSubmarine.com
Gardiner, Robert and Chesneau, Roger Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1922–1946, Conway Maritime Press, 1980. .
Friedman, Norman US Submarines through 1945: An Illustrated Design History'', Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 1995, .
Navsource.org USS Dolphin (SS-169) photo page
Pigboats.com V-7, V-8, and V-9 page
External links
PigBoats.COM
V-boats
Ships built in Kittery, Maine
1932 ships
World War II submarines of the United States
Ships present during the attack on Pearl Harbor
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] |
207421
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Dolphin
|
USS Dolphin
|
USS Dolphin may refer to:
, a cutter in commission during 1777
, a schooner in commission from 1821 to 1835
, a brig intermittently in and out of commission from 1836 to 1860
, a gunboat and dispatch vessel intermittently in and out of commission from 1885 to 1921
, a fishing vessel examined for potential naval use in 1917 but apparently never taken over by the Navy
, a patrol vessel in commission during 1918
, a submarine in commission from 1932 to 1945
, a research and development submarine in commission from 1968 to 2007
United States Navy ship names
|
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] |
207426
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Japanese%20prefectures%20by%20area
|
List of Japanese prefectures by area
|
Prefectures of Japan ranked by area as of October 1, 2015
Figures here are according to the official estimates of Japan. Ranks are given by estimated areas. Undetermined areas here account for domestic boundary regions either in uncertainty or disputed among Japanese prefectures.
Prefectures of Japan ranked by area as of January 1, 1883
population for January 1, 1883 was calculated based on information of . Areas were calculated based on maps drawn by Inō Tadataka. Ranks are given by estimated areas.
See also
List of Japanese prefectures by GDP
List of Japanese prefectures by population
ISO 3166-2 codes for Japan
Government of Japan
Prefectures of Japan
External links
Geographical Survey Institute of Japan
Statistics Bureau of Japan
References and notes
Area
Area
Japan, area
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuvan%20People%27s%20Republic
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Tuvan People's Republic
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The Tuvan People's Republic (TPR; ; Yanalif: Tьʙа Arat Respuʙlik, ), known as the Tannu Tuva People's Republic until 1926, was a partially recognized socialist republic that existed between 1921 and 1944. The country was located in the same territory as the former Tuvan protectorate of Imperial Russia, known as Uryankhay Krai, north-west of Mongolia, and now corresponds to the Tuva Republic within the Russian Federation.
The Soviet Union and Mongolia were the only countries to formally recognize it during its existence, in 1924 and 1926 respectively. Widely considered a puppet state of the Soviet Union, after a period of increased Soviet influence, in October 1944, the polity was absorbed into the Russian SFSR (the largest constituent republic of the Soviet Union) at the request of the Tuvan parliament, ending twenty-three years of independence.
History
Establishment
Since 1759, Tuva (then called Tannu Uriankhai) had been part of Mongolia, which in turn was a part of the territory of the Chinese Qing dynasty. As the Qing dynasty fell in the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, revolutions in Mongolia were also occurring, leading to the independence of both Mongolia and the Tuvan Uryankhay Republic. After a period of political uncertainty, the new republic became a protectorate of the Russian Empire in April 1914, known as Uryankhay Krai. After the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917 and the establishment of the Russian Republic, both it and Uryankhay Krai reaffirmed its status as a Russian protectorate.
During the subsequent Russian Civil War, both Russian Whites and Reds, Mongols, as well as Chinese soldiers seeking to retake Mongolia and Tuva, were engaged in combat in the region. In the 5th Congress of the Russian population in Uryankhay Krai in the summer of 1918, it was decided that the power would be transferred to the Uryankhay Regional Council of Workers, Peasants and Soldiers' Deputies, and with backing from the Russian SFSR, that a Soviet power would be established and would recognize the Tuvan people and allow them to create their own national state. On 26 January 1920, Ivan Smirnov – Chairman of the Siberian Revolutionary Committee – sent an encrypted telegraph regarding Tuva to Moscow stating: "The Mongols have entered the province and ejected our [Russian] peasants from the villages. These peasants fought against Kolchak and were independent of him. The Soyoty [Tuvans] are a nomadic tribe oppressed by both Mongols and Russians. Do you consider it necessary to allow the Mongols possession of the Uryankhay [Tuvan] region or to take it by force of arms or to organise an Uryankhay Soviet Republic on the Bashkir pattern? Let me know."
The Reds had, by December 1920, taken the capital of Khem-Beldyr and had, by March 1921, taken all of Tuva. On 14 August 1921, the "Tannu Tuvan People's Republic" ("Tannu" refers to the Tannu-ola Mountains) declared independence and the newly created Tuvan People's Revolutionary Party (TPRP) became the ruling party. The first chapter of the first constitution of the newborn country stated that "...in international affairs, the state acts under the auspices of Soviet Russia."
Early independence
In the beginning of February 1922, the first meeting of the TPRP took place and a government was created, which began to work on 2 March the same year. The Soviet-Tuvan border was defined in January 1923 and Red Army divisions on Tuvan territory were withdrawn in accordance with an agreement from 1921. The First Great Khural (People's Congress) was held on 12 October 1923 and, in the second one, on 28 September 1924, a new constitution proclaimed that the country would develop along non-capitalist lines with the TPRP being the only party and the Tuvan section of the Communist International.
In the summer of 1925, the Soviet Union initiated the “Agreement between the Russian SFSR and the Tannu Tuvan People’s Republic on the Establishment of Friendly Relationships”, which was signed by the two countries, strengthening their relations. The treaty stated that the Soviet government "[did] not consider Tannu-Tuva as its territory and [had] no views on it."
In 1926, the government adopted their first official flag and emblem, changed the name of its capital from "Khem-Beldyr" to "Kyzyl" (meaning "Red"), and the name of the country to simply "Tuvan People's Republic". It also signed a “Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Recognition” with the Mongolian People's Republic, another Soviet satellite state. Much of this work was done by Prime Minister Donduk Kuular, a former Lama monk with strong ties to the country's many lamas. Kuular sought to establish stronger ties with Mongolia and to make Buddhism the state religion while trying to limit Soviet influence and propaganda. The Soviet Union responded with alarm to Kuular's theocratic and nationalist leanings and policies, which were considered in opposition to the communist principles of state atheism and internationalism.
Sovietization
Kuular's theocratic, nationalist and anti-Soviet policies led to a Soviet-backed coup d'état in 1929. While Kuular was implementing his policies, the Soviet Union had laid foundations for a new leadership – staunchly loyal to Joseph Stalin – including the creation of the "Tuva Revolutionary Youth Union" where members received military training. Five young Tuvan graduates from the Communist University of the Toilers of the East were appointed "Extraordinary Commissioners" and overthrew the government in January 1929 during the 2nd Plenary Session of the Central Committee.
Following the coup, Kuular was removed from power and executed, and about a third to half the members of the TPRP were also purged. Kuular's policies were reverted and the country's traditionally nomadic cattle-breeders were put in collectivization programs. Similarly to the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia, Buddhist lamas, aristocrats, members of the intelligentsia and other political dissidents were purged, and Buddhist temples and monasteries were destroyed. As part of this process, the written language in Tuva was changed from the Mongol script to the Latin-based alphabet in June 1930. Religious symbols, such as the Khorlo, were also removed from the flag and emblem. Evidence of the success of these actions can be seen in the decline in the numbers of lamas in the country: in 1929, there were 25 lamaseries and about 4,000 lamas and shamans; in 1931, there were just one lamasery, 15 lamas, and approximately 725 shamans. The attempts at eradicating nomadic husbandry were more difficult. A census in 1931 showed that 82.2% of Tuvans still engaged in nomadic cattle breeding.
One of the five Extraordinary Commissioners, Salchak Toka, became General Secretary of the Central Committee of the TPRP in 1932 and would be the de facto leader of Tuva until his death in 1973.
Border dispute with Mongolia
In July 1932, with mediation from the Soviet Union, Tuva signed an agreement and received a substantial territorial gain from Mongolia as a fixed border was created between the two countries. Mongolia was forced to sign under Soviet pressure and did not ratify the agreement in the Mongol Great Khural. The new territory notably included mountain, the only source of salt mining for Tuva. The border between Tuva and Mongolia remained controversial during the 1930s, with Mongolia referring to Qing dynasty documents to argue their ownership of the mountain.
The debate continued to flare up in the following years, and Mongolian leadership demanded the return of the mountain "arbitrarily captured by Tuvans", criticizing the 1932 agreement as unjust due to Soviet pressure for Mongolia to sign. Soviet authorities reiterated their official position that Mongolia had no reason to revise the 1932 agreement and did not need the salt mountain, asking Tuva not to revise the agreement. Mongolia promised not to raise the issue again, but relations between it and Tuva became very strained. The Tuvan government made concessions to avoid conflict with its neighbor, and in 1940, the two governments signed a new agreement "On the border based on historical materials and documents". However, while Tuva sought to clarify the border established in 1932, Mongolia sought to revise it completely; this led to irreconcilable positions and the ratification of the new agreement was stopped.
Both parties turned to the Soviet Union for mediation, but with the outbreak of World War II, Soviet authorities insisted on ceasing any discussion regarding the border dispute, especially in regard to Mount Dus-Dag. In 1943, the Mongolian ambassador said "The Salt Mountain has been exploited by the Tuvans for about ten years now and is also located in disputed territory, so the demand for the Tuvan government to return it is too harsh." This more or less ended the controversial issue, but some minor disputes continued until the absorption of Tuva into the Soviet Union in 1944, at which point Mongolia ratified the original 1932 agreement (and even then, border protection such as alarmed fences had to be introduced in the area in 1946).
World War II
In the 1930s, the Empire of Japan undertook several aggressive actions against China. This included the invasion of Manchuria and the creation of the Manchukuo puppet state, and culminated in a full-scale war against China in 1937. The Tuvan government undertook measures to strengthen their army, and the 11th Congress of the TPRP, held in November 1939, instructed the Central Committee to fully equip the Tuvan People's Revolutionary Army in the next two to three years and to further raise combat readiness. The Ministry of Military Affairs was created in late February 1940 and immediately started equipping the army with new weapons and equipment, as well as improving training of officers and army units. The Soviet Union assisted the Tuvans with significant assistance in materiel and technical development. The middle and high commands of the Tuvan Army were trained in Soviet military academies, including the M. V. Frunze Military Academy and the General Staff Academy.
As Germany and other Axis powers launched their invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, the 10th Great Khural of Tuva declared that "The Tuvan people, led by the entire revolutionary party and government, not sparing their lives, are ready by any means to participate in the struggle of the Soviet Union against the fascist aggressor until their final victory over it." It has sometimes been stated that Tuva declared war on Germany on 25 June 1941, but the sources are dubious.
Nevertheless, Tuva helped the Soviet Union in substantial ways, transferring its entire gold reserve of ~20,000,000 rubles to the Soviet Union, with additional extracted Tuvan gold worth around 10,000,000 rubles annually. Between June 1941 and October 1944, Tuva supplied the Soviet Red Army with 700,000 livestock, of which almost 650,000 were donated. In addition, 50,000 war horses, 52,000 pairs of skis, 10,000 winter coats, 19,000 pairs of gloves, 16,000 boots and 67,000 tons of sheep wool as well as several hundreds tons of meats, grain, carts, sledges, horse tacks and other goods totaling 66,500,000 rubles were sent. Up to 90% were donated.
In March 1943, 10 Yakovlev Yak-7 fighters were built with funds raised by the Tuvans and placed at the disposal of the Soviet Air Forces. Also during 1943, Tuva mustered 11 volunteer tankers and 208 volunteer cavalrymen. The tankers and 177 of the cavalrymen were assigned to the Red Army and served on the Eastern Front from early 1944, especially around Ukraine.
Absorption into the USSR
Tuvan orientation towards Moscow intensified during the war. In September 1943, the written language was again changed, this time from the Latin to the Cyrillic alphabet, the standard alphabet in the Soviet Union. By 1941, the national symbols, such as the flag and emblem, had been changed to the same style as various Soviet regions. Tuvan underwent intense Russification of social and economic practices, and virtually all remaining opposition to Stalinist policy was eradicated. The Soviets desired the mineral resources of the republic and a permanent end to Mongolian-Chinese geopolitical intrigues in the region. This process culminated in the absorption of Tuva in 1944, under the rule of General Secretary Salchak Toka and his wife, Head of State Khertek Anchimaa-Toka.
On 7 August 1944, the Central Committee of the TPRP decided to subsume Tuva into the Soviet Union. This was supported on 15 August by the 9th Plenary Session. On 17 August, the 7th Extraordinary Session of the Little Khural created a "Declaration of the Accession of the Tuvan People's Republic to the Soviet Union". Finally, on 11 October 1944, at a meeting of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, Khertek Anchimaa-Toka read out the declaration detailing the desire for Tuva to join the USSR, which was accepted. The decision went into effect on 1 November 1944, and the Tuvan People's Republic thus became the Tuvan Autonomous Oblast, a part of the Russian SFSR (the largest constituent republic of the Soviet Union).
Salchak Toka's position changed from "General Secretary of the TPRP" to "First Secretary of the Oblast Committee of the CPSU of the Tuvan Autonomous Oblast" (changed to "Republican Committee" in 1961) and continued his rule of the region until his death in 1973.
On 10 October 1961, the Tuvan Autonomous Oblast became the Tuvan ASSR, still within the Russian SFSR, and remained so until 1992. The area that was the Tuvan People's Republic is now known as the Tuva Republic within the Russian Federation.
Population
See also
List of leaders of Communist Tuva
Postage stamps and postal history of Tannu Tuva
Uryankhay Krai
Tuvan akşa, the national currency.
Tuva or Bust!, a book by Ralph Leighton about the author and his friend Richard Feynman's attempt to travel to Tuva.
Notes
References
External links
The World at War – Tannu Tuva 1911–1944
China–Soviet Union relations
Communism in Russia
Tuva
Former countries in North Asia
Former unrecognized countries
Post–Russian Empire states
States and territories established in 1921
States and territories disestablished in 1944
History of Tuva
1921 establishments in Asia
1944 disestablishments in Asia
Former polities of the interwar period
Historical Turkic states
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207437
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actus%20reus
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Actus reus
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Actus reus (), sometimes called the external element or the objective element of a crime, is the Latin term for the "guilty act" which, when proved beyond a reasonable doubt in combination with the mens rea, "guilty mind", produces criminal liability in the common law−based criminal law jurisdictions of England and Wales, Canada, Australia, India, Kenya, Pakistan, Philippines, South Africa, New Zealand, Scotland, Nigeria, Ghana, Ireland, Israel and the United States of America. In the United States, some crimes also require proof of attendant circumstances and/or proof of a required result directly caused by the actus reus.
Definitions
The terms actus reus and mens rea developed in English law are derived from the principle stated by Edward Coke, namely, actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea, which means: "an act does not make a person guilty unless (their) mind is also guilty"; hence, the general test of guilt is one that requires proof of fault, culpability or blameworthiness in conjugation of thought (Mens rea) and action (Actus reus).
In order for an actus reus to be committed there has to have been an act or action. Various common law define action differently but generally, an action or act is a "bodily movement whether voluntary or involuntary." In Robinson v. California, , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a California law making it illegal to be a drug addict was unconstitutional because the mere status of being a drug addict was not an act and thus not criminal. Commentator Dennis Baker asserts: "Although lawyers find the expression actus reus convenient, it is misleading in one respect. It means not just the criminal act but all the external elements of an offence. Ordinarily, there is a criminal act, which is what makes the term actus reus generally acceptable. But there are crimes without an act, and therefore without an actus reus in the obvious meaning of that term. The expression 'conduct' is more satisfactory, because wider; it covers not only an act but an omission, and (by a stretch) a bodily position. The conduct must sometimes take place in legally relevant circumstances. The relevant circumstances might include consent in the case of rape. The act of human sexual intercourse becomes a wrongful act if it is committed in circumstances where one party does not consent and/or one or more parties concerned are below the age of consent. Other crimes require the act to produce a legally forbidden consequence. Such crimes are called result crimes. ... All that can truly be said, without exception, is that a crime requires some external state of affairs that can be categorized as criminal. What goes on inside a person's head is never enough in itself to constitute a crime, even though it might be proven by a confession that is fully believed to be genuine."
An act can consist of commission, omission or possession.
Omission
Omission involves a failure to engage in a necessary bodily movement resulting in injury. As with commission acts, omission acts can be reasoned casually using the but for approach. But for not having acted, the injury would not have occurred. The Model Penal Code specifically outlines specifications for criminal omissions:
the omission is expressly made sufficient by the law defining the offense; or
a duty to perform the omitted act is otherwise imposed by law (for example one must file a tax return).
So if legislation specifically criminalizes an omission through statute; or a duty that would normally be expected was omitted and caused injury, an actus reus has occurred.
In English law, there is no Good Samaritan rule therefore one cannot be criminally liable for an omission unless a duty of care is owed. An omission can be criminal if there is a statute that requires one to act. Situations that impose a duty of care and require one to act include when one is: under a contract (R v Pittwood), has assumed care (R v Stone and Dobinson), has created a dangerous situation (R v Miller) or holds an official position within society (R v Dytham).
Possession
Possession holds a special place in that it has been criminalized but under common law does not constitute an act. Some countries like the United States have avoided the common law conclusion in Regina v. Dugdale by legally defining possession as a voluntary act. As a voluntary act, it fulfills the requirements to establish actus reus.
Voluntariness
For conduct to constitute an actus reus, it must be engaged in voluntarily. Few sources enumerate the entirety of what constitutes voluntary and involuntary conduct. Oliver Wendell Holmes, in his 1881 book The Common Law, disputed whether such a thing as an involuntary act exists: "[a] spasm is not an act. The contraction of the muscles must be willed." A few sources, such as the Model Penal Code, provide a more thorough treatment of involuntary conduct:
a reflex or convulsion;
a bodily movement during unconsciousness or sleep;
conduct during hypnosis or resulting from hypnotic suggestion;
a bodily movement that otherwise is not a product of the effort or the determination of the actor, either conscious or habitual.
Reflex or convulsion
Generally, if, during an uncontrollable flailing caused by a sudden paroxysmal episode, such as that produced by an epileptic seizure, a person strikes another, that person will not be criminally liable for the injuries sustained by the other person. However, if prior to the assault on another, the seized individual was engaging in conduct that he knew to be dangerous given a previous history of seizures, then he is culpable for any injuries resulting from the seizure. For example, in People v. Decina, 2 N.Y.2d 133 (1956), the defendant, Emil Decina, appealed a conviction under § 1053-a of the New York Penal Law. On March 14, 1955, Decina suffered a serious seizure while operating a motor vehicle. He swerved wildly through the streets and struck a group of school girls, killing four of them. On direct examination, Decina's physician testified that Decina informed him that prior to the accident "he noticed a jerking of his right hand" and recounted his extensive history of seizures, a consequence of brain damage from an automobile accident at age seven. Decina argued, inter alia, that he had not engaged in criminal conduct because he did not voluntarily strike the school girls. The New York Court of Appeals disagreed and held that since the defendant knew he was susceptible to a seizure at any time without warning and decided to operate a motor vehicle on a public highway anyway, he was guilty of the offense. "To hold otherwise," wrote Froessel, J, "would be to say that a man may freely indulge himself in liquor in the same hope that it will not affect his driving, and if it later develops that ensuing intoxication causes dangerous and reckless driving resulting in death, his unconsciousness or involuntariness at that time would relieve him from prosecution[.]"
Unconsciousness or sleep
In Hill v Baxter, Kilmuir, LC, articulated the necessity of eliminating automatism, defined as "the existence in any person of behaviour of which he is unaware and over which he has no conscious control," in proving the voluntariness of the actus reus:
Thus, a person suffering from somnambulism, a fugue, a metabolic disorder, epilepsy, or other convulsive or reflexive disorder, who kills another, steals another's property, or engages in other facially criminal conduct, may not have committed an actus reus, for such conduct may have been elicited unconsciously, and "one who engages in what would otherwise be criminal conduct is not guilty of a crime if he does so in a state of unconsciousness[.]" Depending on jurisdiction, automatism may be a defense distinct from insanity or a species of it.
Hypnosis
While the general scientific consensus is that hypnosis cannot induce individuals to engage in conduct in which they would not otherwise engage, the Model Penal Code, as well as the criminal codes of Montana, New York, and Kentucky do provide hypnosis and hypnotic suggestion as negating volition, and consequently, actus reus.
Perhaps the earliest case of hypnotism as negating voluntary conduct is California v. Ebanks, . In Ebanks, the court categorically rejected Ebanks' argument that the trial court committed reversible err in denying him leave to present expert testimony concerning the effects of hypnotism on the will. The lower court bluntly remarked that "[t]he law of the United States does not recognize hypnotism. It would be an illegal defense, and I cannot admit it." Nearly sixty years later, however, the California Court of Appeals ruled that the trial court did not err in allowing expert testimony on hypnosis, though it did not rule on whether hypnotism negates volition. The Supreme Court of Canada ruled confessions made under hypnosis inadmissible because they are involuntarily given; Germany and Denmark provide a hypnotist defense.
Omission
Voluntariness includes omission, for implicit in omission is that the actor voluntarily chose to not perform a bodily movement and, consequently, caused an injury. The purposeful, reckless, or negligent absence of an action is considered a voluntary action and fulfills the voluntary requirement of actus reus.
See also
Common law
Mens rea
Rei vindicatio
References
Notes
Sources
External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Theories of Criminal Law
Criminal law
Elements of crime
Forensic psychology
Latin legal terminology
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