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207666	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command%20%26%20Conquer	Command & Conquer	Command & Conquer (C&C) is a real-time strategy (RTS) video game franchise, first developed by Westwood Studios. The first game was one of the earliest of the RTS genre, itself based on Westwood Studios' influential strategy game Dune II and introducing trademarks followed in the rest of the series. This includes full-motion video cutscenes with an ensemble cast to progress the story, as opposed to digitally in-game rendered cutscenes. Westwood Studios was taken over by Electronic Arts in 1998 and closed down in 2003. The studio and some of its members were absorbed into EA Los Angeles, which continued development on the series. History After Westwood Studios developed the critically acclaimed Dune II, Computer Gaming World reported in 1993 that the company would not use the Dune license for Westwood's next strategy game "mostly because the programmers are tired of sand". The magazine stated that it would have "new terrain and enemies", and that "the design team is serious about doing a multi-player version". Command & Conquer was released worldwide by Westwood in 1995. The plot is set sometime in the near future where the Earth becomes contaminated by a mysterious substance known as Tiberium. A global war ensues between the UN-formed Global Defense Initiative to contain it and the cult quasi-state revolutionary Brotherhood of Nod, led by the enigmatic Kane, which seeks to harness it. Highly successful, it was followed by Command & Conquer: Red Alert in 1996 which is set in an alternate universe where the Soviet Union wages war with the Allies. Developed as the prequel to the original, the Red Alert series was spun off into a separate, lighthearted and comic series, while the original game and its sequels became known as the "Tiberium" series, retaining its science fiction and serious tone. The first game is sometimes referred to as Tiberian Dawn as a result. The original game was followed by Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun in 1999 and its expansion pack Firestorm. In 2002, Westwood Studios released Command & Conquer: Renegade, a first-person shooter. Renegade was praised for its online features. A spin-off game in 2003, Command & Conquer: Generals, set in a more realistic near-future and featuring the United States, China and the Global Liberation Army was followed by an expansion pack, Zero Hour. Command & Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars was released in 2007 and followed by the expansion pack Kane's Wrath. Command & Conquer 4: Tiberian Twilight, released in 2010 as the conclusion to the Tiberium saga, received mixed reviews because of its deviation from traditional gameplay and story. The Red Alert series was continued by the 2000 title Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2, its expansion, Yuri's Revenge and Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 in 2008, which introduced a third faction, the Empire of the Rising Sun, which resembles Japan with futuristic robotic technology. The series is primarily developed for personal computers running Microsoft Windows, although some titles have been ported to various video game consoles and Apple Macintosh. Other games for platforms such as iOS and web-based have also been developed. As of July 2010, the Command & Conquer franchise consists of eleven games and eight expansion packs. The first three games of the series have been released as freeware to promote the successors. A free-to-play game, entitled Command & Conquer, was in development with the studio Victory Games. It was set to be the next game in the series and was expected to be released in 2013. However, after a short alpha period the game was cancelled, and Victory Games disbanded by EA. The Command & Conquer series has been a commercial success with over 30 million Command & Conquer games sold as of 2009. Gameplay The Command & Conquer titles are real-time strategy games, with the exception of the first-person shooter Command & Conquer: Renegade. A staple of the series is the parallel campaigns of various different factions to one central storyline. Games in the series also offered multiplayer game options, via LAN and modem connection. All games in the series have also offered online play, as well as "skirmish" matches in which players can face AI enemies. All Command & Conquer real-time strategy games except Command & Conquer: Generals and its expansions have featured the "side bar" for navigation and control as opposed to many other similar games where the control bar is located on the bottom of the screen. Command & Conquer gameplay typically requires the player to construct a base and acquire resources, in order to fund the ongoing production of various types of forces with which to assault and conquer the opponent's base. All available structures of the faction chosen by the player are constructed on-site at so-called "construction yard" - which typically begin as large-sized vehicles capable of deploying themselves into the aforementioned construction yards, called MCVs or Mobile Construction Vehicle. When a construction yard has finished building a new structure, the player can select a spot near to a preexisting structure in order to place it, where the prefabricated building will rapidly unfold in a distinctive manner. In all games in the series except Command & Conquer: Generals and its expansion Zero Hour, funds are acquired by specialised "harvester" units which bring their cargo (Tiberium for the Tiberian series of games or ore or the more valuable gems for the Red Alert series) to a "refinery" structure. This in turn will convert the raw material into usable resources, expressed as credits. The raw materials themselves, in games released before Red Alert 2 as well as Command & Conquer 3 require storage space in the form of refineries and, in the case of excess, "storage silo" structures. In Generals and Zero Hour, funds are collected by two methods: collection of supplies by specialised units and converted to money in "supply centers" or directly produced by specialised units, buildings, or tech buildings at a set interval of time. All factions have structures and units with similar functions at their disposal. However, they are adjusted to fit each faction's theme and have somewhat varying properties. Units can be classified into infantry, vehicles, and aircraft, each with their own subdivisions (note: in the Red Alert series there is also naval craft available). Unit effectiveness against opponents follows the rock-paper-scissors (intransitivity) principle found in most real-time strategy games, and units' attack characteristics can vary according to faction. Virtually every type of structure in the series acts as a tech tree node, and additional units, structures and faction-specific abilities will become available as new structures are built and placed. Access to advanced units and abilities may be temporarily blocked if the required structures are destroyed or if they are not being provided with adequate power by the supporting "power plant" structures. Multiplayer Each Command & Conquer game has included the ability to play multiplayer games against other players. Each box of Command & Conquer contained two CD copies of the game, making multiplayer gaming possible with a single purchase of the game. Westwood Studios advertised this on the packaging with the slogan "A second copy, so you and your friend can destroy each other." This resulted in Command & Conquer becoming the first RTS game title to feature competitive online play, and this is considered the most pertinent outside factor in the success of Command & Conquer. All games in the series up to Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2 featured two CDs that could be used for this reason. Later games did not. Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 was noted for being the first RTS game to enable the campaigns to be played cooperatively online; others had only supported single player campaigns. However, it was only possible to connect to other computers through EA's servers and not with LAN play. Games produced by Westwood use the proprietary Westwood Online system to facilitate multiplayer games over the Internet; Renegade also supported GameSpy. Games under EA's development continued to use GameSpy, but dropped support for Westwood Online in favor of using EA's own servers. The GameSpy master servers have shut down in 2013. Games Tiberian series Command & Conquer, released on September 26, 1995, is the first game in the series and is considered as the title which originally defined and popularized the real-time strategy genre. Command & Conquer introduced the warring factions of the Global Defense Initiative (GDI) and the Brotherhood of Nod. Command & Conquer was well received and was widely praised by critics: "Command & Conquer is one of the finest, most brilliantly-designed computer games I have ever seen" said GameSpot reviewer Chris Hudak. Command & Conquer has attained 94% as an aggregate score from Metacritic with the less well received Covert Operations expansion pack obtaining an aggregate score of 72% after its 1996 release. The year in which C&C takes place is never specified in game but Command & Conquer: Renegade manual hints to take place between 2017-2020. Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun, released on August 27, 1999, takes place in the year 2030. While the original Command & Conquers plot was centered around an allegorical world politics setting, Tiberian Sun shifted this to a more science fiction-like setting against the apocalyptic background of Tiberium beginning to assimilate vast portions of the Earth's ecosystems. In 1998, Westwood Studios, the developers of Tiberian Sun, was acquired by Electronic Arts. However, EA had no direct part in the development of the title. Compared to its predecessor, Tiberian Sun relies heavily on science fiction technologies and introduces a new isometric game engine featuring varying level terrain to give the impression of a true 3D environment. The full motion video is also scripted differently; while the cutscenes of Command & Conquer and Red Alert were filmed from a first-person perspective, Tiberian Sun used traditional cinematic shots for its FMVs featuring actors such as James Earl Jones and Michael Biehn. Command & Conquer: Renegade, released February 26, 2002, takes place in the final days of the events of Command & Conquer and was the last Command & Conquer game to be created by Westwood Studios before their liquidation in 2003. Unlike any other games in the series, Renegade is a first-person shooter. Although receiving average reviews, with an aggregate score of 75% on both GameRankings and Metacritic, Renegade was praised for its online features. GameSpy awarded Renegade its 2002 "Wish it had been better" award, condemning the single player but saying that "C&C: Renegades multiplayer was innovative and fun". Online play was praised for encouraging teamwork and coordinated assaults, unlike other contemporary first-person shooters. Command & Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars, released March 29, 2007, was a return to the real-time strategy roots of the Command & Conquer series. As a direct sequel to Tiberian Sun, Tiberium Wars is set in 2047 and features the introduction of a third faction, the Scrin. The sequel attained an aggregate score of 85% from both GameRankings and Metacritic. PC Gamer U.S. gave the game its "Editor's Choice" rating at 90%, stating that "one of the greatest RTS franchises of all time returns to glory", while PC Gamer UK gave it a more reserved rating of 82%, stating that it was "a welcome, but limited, return". Shortly after the release of Tiberium Wars, the expansion pack Command & Conquer 3: Kane's Wrath was announced. Released on March 24, 2008, Kane's Wrath limited the player to only the Brotherhood of Nod in the campaign mode, though the original factions and six new sub-factions are available for the new strategic mode and skirmish mode. Reception was mainly positive with the expansion attaining an aggregate score of 77%. Command & Conquer 4: Tiberian Twilight, released on March 16, 2010, saw a big change in gameplay from the previous Command & Conquer by removing the resource gathering and base building elements in previous games as well as the removal of the third faction, the Scrin. It is a direct sequel to Kane's Wrath (however not directly following on from its storyline), and is set in 2062, a time when Tiberium has advanced to its next evolutionary stage, and is rapidly spreading across Earth, making it soon to be uninhabitable. Renegade X, is a free, fan-made remake of Command & Conquer: Renegade. The developers received approval from EA to release their game, and it entered open beta on February 26, 2014. Renegade X includes a short single-player campaign called Black Dawn. EA announced in November 2018 its plans to remaster Command & Conquer, including expansions and Red Alert, for modern computer systems through Petroglyph Games. It was released on June 5, 2020. The Remastered Collection received a score of 82/100 on Metacritic, with 48 positive, 10 mixed, and 0 negative reviews, indicating a "generally favorable" reception. Along with the release, EA also released the source code to the mod libraries for the base game and Red Alert into open source as to allow players to build improved mods for the games. Red Alert series Command & Conquer: Red Alert, released on November 22, 1996, is set in an alternate universe 1950s and was originally made to be the prequel to Command & Conquer establishing Red Alert as the prologue of the entire Tiberium series of games. Louis Castle has said that connecting Red Alert with the Tiberium series was a "failed experiment". Red Alert introduces the Allies and the Soviets as rival factions roughly analogous to NATO and the Warsaw Pact of the Cold War. The game was received well by critics and has the highest average score of any Command & Conquer game with an average of over 90% from GameRankings and Metacritic, unlike the title's two expansion packs, Red Alert: Counterstrike and Red Alert: The Aftermath of which both received below average reviews for the series with 63% and 70% average scores respectively. Both expansions gave the game more missions and more units. For PlayStation only, there was also a separate release to the original called Red Alert: Retaliation which included all the maps, missions and units of Red Alert: Counterstrike and Red Alert: The Aftermath as well as some newly filmed cut-scenes only available with Red Alert: Retaliation. Before being re-released as freeware on 31 August 2008 by Electronic Arts Command & Conquer: Red Alert had sold over three million copies. Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2 was released on October 23, 2000. It featured a Soviet invasion of North America with tanks, conscripts, large airships, and psychically dominated anti-ship giant squid. Since that game lacked reference to the Tiberian series, the connection established in the first Red Alert game became unclear. However, it has been implied by the original creators of the series, now working at Petroglyph Games, that Red Alert 2 takes place in a parallel universe that came about as a result of time travel experiments taking place some time into the Tiberian series. Red Alert 2 was received fairly positively with an aggregate score of 86% from GameRankings. An expansion pack to Red Alert 2, Command & Conquer: Yuri's Revenge was released on October 10, 2001. In Yuri's Revenge, an ex-Soviet figure named Yuri, tries to conquer the world using psychic technology and his own private army. The expansion pack received mostly positive reviews. GameRankings reports an average score of 85% based on 31 reviews, making Yuri's Revenge the best received expansion pack in the Command & Conquer series. Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3, released on October 28, 2008, followed up on the story of Red Alert 2 and continued the series' more "light-hearted" take on Command & Conquer. It introduced many new comical units and the Empire of the Rising Sun faction, an anime inspired version of the Empire of Japan. Executive producer Chris Corry stated in a pre-release interview that Red Alert 3 will further differentiate the playable factions from each other and "[play] up the silliness in their faction design whenever possible". This approach was seen as popular with Red Alert 3 obtaining an aggregate score of 82% from Metacritic. A stand-alone expansion to Red Alert 3, Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 – Uprising was released on March 12, 2009 to fairly poor reviews for the series with an average score of 64% from Metacritic. Another downloadable standalone game for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 was released known as Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 - Commander's Challenge which contained the Commander's Challenge mode of Uprising for consoles. Command & Conquer: Red Alert was released on October 16, 2009 for iOS which was a continuation of the story of Red Alert 2 and takes place before Red Alert 3. It contained two factions, the Allies and Soviet Union with a third faction, the Empire of the Rising Sun, to be added in its expansion pack. This version of the game is not available in some regions (e.g. the UK). The Chinese developer Tencent made a new iOS version of Red Alert, with a highly mixed reception from fans online. Generals series Command & Conquer: Generals, released on February 10, 2003, has a plotline which is unrelated to the other games of the Command & Conquer series. Generals is set in the near future and features the United States, China and the fictional terrorist organization, the Global Liberation Army. Generals uses an engine dubbed SAGE (or Strategy Action Game Engine) and is the first fully three-dimensional Command & Conquer real-time strategy game. After its release, Generals received mostly positive reviews. Based on 34 reviews, Metacritic gives it a score of 84/100 which includes a score of 9.3/10 from IGN. Generals has also received the E3 2002 Game Critics Awards Best Strategy Game award. One review noted that Generals was the first Command & Conquer real-time strategy game that did not include full-motion video cutscenes to tell the story and that it departed from the unique interface and base-building mechanics that had characterized all of the previous Command & Conquer RTS titles. An expansion for Generals, Command & Conquer: Generals – Zero Hour, was released on September 22, 2003 to further the Generals storyline. Zero Hour added 9 new armies to the game, over a dozen new campaign missions, and a gameplay mode known as Generals Challenge. Unlike Generals, Zero Hour featured the return of full motion videos to the series. Zero Hour obtained much the same reception as Generals with an aggregate score of 85% and 84% from GameRankings and Metacritic respectively. After EA Los Angeles started up their new internal group Danger Close and switched its focus to the Medal of Honor series, EA launched a new studio named Victory Games to continue the Command & Conquer franchise. In December 10, 2011, Electronic Arts posted that the next game in the series would be Command & Conquer: Generals 2. Three days later, a new browser-based, free-to-play MMO Command & Conquer game was also under development, under the name Command & Conquer: Tiberium Alliances. On December 15, Tiberium Alliances began a closed beta. In August 2012, Generals 2 was repurposed to a free-to-play game known as simply Command & Conquer. The new game would have been based around the Generals franchise. However, following feedback from players who were able to play the alpha trial, the game was cancelled in October 2013. EA has said that the franchise will continue, but has given no other information at the time. Recent EA revealed Command & Conquer: Rivals, which was under development by the newly formed EA Redwood Studios and released for Android and iOS mobile devices in December 2018. Petroglyph Games released remastered versions of Red Alert and Command and Conquer in June 2020, where both games have been updated with features that improve gameplay for players while also including all expansions initially released for the games. Chronology Westwood Studios (1995–2002) 1995 – Command & Conquer 1996 – Command & Conquer – The Covert Operations 1996 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert 1997 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert – Counterstrike 1997 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert – The Aftermath 1998 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert – Retaliation 1997 – Command & Conquer: Sole Survivor 1999 – Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun 2000 – Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun – Firestorm 2000 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2 2001 – Command & Conquer: Yuri's Revenge 2002 – Command & Conquer: Renegade EA Los Angeles (2003–2010) 2003 – Command & Conquer: Generals 2003 – Command & Conquer: Generals – Zero Hour 2007 – Command & Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars 2008 – Command & Conquer 3: Kane's Wrath 2008 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 2009 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 – Uprising 2009 – Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 – Commander's Challenge 2010 – Command & Conquer 4: Tiberian Twilight EA Phenomic (2011) 2012 – Command & Conquer: Tiberium Alliances EA Redwood Studios (2018–) 2018 – Command & Conquer: Rivals Petroglyph Games (2020) 2020 – Command & Conquer Remastered Collection See also canceled Command & Conquer games. Music Much of the music for the series was composed and produced by Westwood Studios' former sound director and video game music composer Frank Klepacki for the early games, with composition duties being taken on by several others following the liquidation of Westwood Studios in 2003. Klepacki returned to the series in 2008 to assist with the soundtrack for Red Alert 3. The music has been received positively by critics, although praise was higher with earlier entries. The original score for Command & Conquer: Red Alert was composed by Frank Klepacki and was voted the best video game soundtrack of 1996 by PC Gamer and Gameslice magazines. Among his most famous songs from the series is the theme of Red Alert, titled "Hell March", which accents the style of the game with adrenalized riffs of electric guitar, the sounds of marching feet, and synthesizers to a dramatic chant. Originally intended to be the theme for the Brotherhood of Nod faction in the Covert Operations expansion to the original 1995 Command & Conquer game, the track eventually ended up enlisting itself as a staple in the Red Alert series instead, and a second version of "Hell March" was specifically created for Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2. Reception The Command & Conquer series have been a commercial success with over 30 million Command & Conquer games sold as of 2009. In 1997, Screen Digest said it was "probably the world's biggest PC CD-ROM entertainment franchise to date." Games in the series have nearly consistently scored highly on video game review aggregator websites GameRankings and Metacritic, which collect data from numerous review websites. As noted in the table below, the highest rated game is Command & Conquer with a score of 94% from Metacritic. The highest rated game averaged over both sites is Command & Conquer: Red Alert with an average of just over 90%. As a series, Command & Conquer games have averaged approximately 80% when including expansion packs and approximately 84% without. Command & Conquers long history resulted in Guinness World Records awarding the series six world records in the Guinness World Records: Gamer's Edition 2008. These records include "Biggest Selling RTS Series", "Most Number of Platforms for an RTS", and "Longest Running Actor in Video Game Role" for Joe Kucan, who has played the part of Kane, the villainous mastermind of the series, for 15 years. References Notes External links Command & Conquer Wiki Alternate history video games Electronic Arts franchises Electronic Arts games Real-time strategy video games Science fiction video games Military science fiction video games Terrorism in fiction Westwood Studios games Video game franchises Nintendo 64 games Video game franchises introduced in 1995	[ -0.6720741987228394, 0.22366155683994293, 0.44332894682884216, 0.23936761915683746, 0.24799440801143646, 0.05915899574756622, -0.5646501779556274, 0.12676581740379333, -0.15980888903141022, -0.25976449251174927, -0.42994967103004456, 0.37644100189208984, -0.10915108025074005, 0.5302308201789856, 0.006243220064789057, 0.4509405493736267, -0.034884802997112274, -0.07937803119421005, 0.06065356731414795, -0.3254338800907135, -0.11755248159170151, -0.1966521143913269, -0.1655811220407486, -0.24067997932434082, -0.153463214635849, 0.07999220490455627, -0.019285403192043304, 0.09635008126497269, 0.20036445558071136, 0.34838271141052246, 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207668	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%208%2C%202003%20journalist%20deaths%20by%20U.S.%20fire	April 8, 2003 journalist deaths by U.S. fire	On April 8, 2003, three locations in Baghdad housing journalists were fired upon by U.S. armed forces during 2003 invasion of Iraq, killing three journalists and wounding four. Al Jazeera's office Two American air-to-surface missiles hit the Qatar satellite TV station at Al Jazeera's office in Baghdad and killed Tareq Ayyoub, a Palestinian reporter, and wounded Zouhair al-Iraqi, an Iraqi cameraman. They were live broadcasting on the roof of the building. Al Jazeera accused the U.S. of intentionally targeting Al Jazeera as the U.S. bombed its Kabul bureau in 2001 during the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan. Palestine Hotel A U.S. Army tank fired into the 15th floor of the Palestine Hotel in Baghdad, where almost all foreign journalists were based. The image of the hotel had been frequently broadcast in the news, since many journalists filmed their reports nearby. The tank fire killed the Reuters cameraman Taras Protsyuk and wounded three. José Couso of Telecinco Spanish television who was on the 14th floor also died. At the time, Company A of the 4th Battalion, 64th Armored Regiment was holding the west end of the al-Jumhuria Bridge. The U.S. Forces were under attack from Iraqi units on both sides of the Tigris River, including mortar fire. Earlier that morning, the battalion had captured an Iraqi two-way radio, over which they heard an Iraqi forward observer directing mortar fire against Company A. This information was relayed to the forces at the bridge, who began looking for the enemy spotter. An A-Company tank spotted an individual on a balcony on the upper floor of a high-rise building to the southeast who appeared to be observing the company with "some kind of optics" (likely Protsyuk). Assuming this was the enemy spotter, the tank commander asked for and received permission to fire. The tank fired a HEAT round at the balcony, killing Protsyuk and Couso. Prior to the incident, no one in the 4-64 had been briefed about the Palestine Hotel or its location, since the hotel was not in their sector (the east bank of the Tigris was allocated to the 1st Marine Division). U.S. forces later determined that the Iraqi artillery spotter was probably in a nearby building, not the hotel. In 2008, Sgt. Adrienne Kinne, a former Arabic linguist in U.S. Army Intelligence, reported that she had seen secret documents listing the Palestine Hotel as a possible military target prior to the 2003 shelling incident. Abu Dhabi's office Office of the United Arab Emirates satellite channel Abu Dhabi was hit by air strikes. The station aired the picture of Iraqi fire from beneath the camera. Responses to the three in general Pentagon During a briefing from The Pentagon on April 8, a reporter asked "(...) There are reports that a tank took small arms and perhaps R.P.G. fire from the direction of the hotel, although journalists say that they saw no sign of it. Do you think that's reason enough for a tank to fire a round at the hotel where you know there are unarmed journalists?" Major General Stanley McChrystal answered "(...) particularly with this war, journalists have been closer to coalition soldiers than probably ever before with the embedded program, and those who are not. (...) When [forces] get into combat in the cities, which, from the beginning, we had specifically said would be dangerous and difficult, you put yourself in their position, they had the inherent right of self-defense. When they are fired at, they have not only the right to respond, they have the obligation to respond to protect the soldiers with them and to accomplish the mission at large (...)." U.S. Central Command At a briefing in Doha, Qatar, Brigadier General Vincent K. Brooks said of the Al Jazeera attack, "This coalition does not target journalists. We don't know every place journalists are operating on the battlefield. It's a dangerous place indeed." Governments On March 8, Spanish and Portuguese governments insisted that all the journalists of the countries evacuate from Baghdad. Journalist and civil organizations Committee to Protect Journalists sent a letter to Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld to demand investigation. Reporters Without Borders demanded proof from Donald Rumsfeld that the incidents "were not deliberate attempts to dissuade the media from reporting." Amnesty International demanded independent investigation. Report of Committee to Protect Journalists On May 27, 2003, the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) published a report of their investigation into the tank shelling of the Palestine Hotel on April 8, 2003. After interviewing "about a dozen reporters who were at the scene, including two embedded journalists who monitored the military radio traffic before and after the shelling occurred" the CPJ determined that the facts suggest that the "attack on the journalists, while not deliberate, was avoidable". The CPJ determined that the tank's intended target was an Iraqi forward artillery observer when it hit the hotel. The report went on to say "CPJ has learned that Pentagon officials, as well as commanders on the ground in Baghdad, knew that the Palestine Hotel was full of international journalists and were intent on not hitting it." See also Media coverage of the Iraq War Notes Sources At Least 3 Journalists Die in Blast at Baghdad Hotel The New York Times (registration required) News Organizations in Baghdad Fired / Three Correspondents Died Asahi Shimbun (Japanese) Three foreign journalists killed in Baghdad AFP via Yahoo news Spanish Government to Demand Explanation to the U.S. for Death of its Cameraman Asahi Shimbun (Japanese) In Spain, Premier Is Focus of Anger at Journalist Deaths in Iraq The New York Times (registration required) Briefing at the Pentagon: 'We Choose Targets Carefully to Avoid Civilians' The New York Times (registration required) External links International Federation of Journalists Committee to Protect Journalists Reporters Without Borders International Freedom of Expression Exchange Iraq War 2003 in Iraq April 2003 events in Asia Attacks on mass media offices	[ 0.11579465121030807, 0.5636739730834961, -0.35124489665031433, 0.008147941902279854, -0.3108261227607727, -0.3285943269729614, 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207674	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contre-jour	Contre-jour	Contre-jour (French for "against daylight") is a photographic technique in which the camera is pointing directly toward a source of light and an equivalent technique of painting. Description Before its use in photography, Contre-jour was used in painting, where the shadows would fall to the left on the left, to the right on the right and forward in the lower centre. The edges of the subject would show surprising colour effects. Contre-jour produces backlighting of the subject. This effect usually hides details, causes a stronger contrast between light and dark, creates silhouettes and emphasizes lines and shapes. The Sun, or other light source, is often seen as either a bright spot or as a strong glare behind the subject. Fill light may be used to illuminate the side of the subject facing toward the camera. The subject is generally considered silhouetted when there is a lighting ratio of 16:1 or more. 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207676	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muckraker	Muckraker	The muckrakers were reform-minded journalists, writers, and photographers in the Progressive Era in the United States (1890s–1920s) who exposed corruption and wrongdoing in established institutions, often through sensationalist publications. The modern term generally references investigative journalism or watchdog journalism; investigative journalists in the US are occasionally called "muckrakers" informally. The muckrakers played a highly visible role during the Progressive Era. Muckraking magazines—notably McClure's of the publisher S. S. McClure—took on corporate monopolies and political machines, while trying to raise public awareness and anger at urban poverty, unsafe working conditions, prostitution, and child labor. Most of the muckrakers wrote nonfiction, but fictional exposés often had a major impact, too, such as those by Upton Sinclair. In contemporary American usage, the term can refer to journalists or others who "dig deep for the facts" or, when used pejoratively, those who seek to cause scandal. The term is a reference to a character in John Bunyan's classic Pilgrim's Progress, "the Man with the Muck-rake", who rejected salvation to focus on filth. It became popular after President Theodore Roosevelt referred to the character in a 1906 speech; Roosevelt acknowledged that "the men with the muck rakes are often indispensable to the well being of society; but only if they know when to stop raking the muck." History While a literature of reform had already appeared by the mid-19th century, the kind of reporting that would come to be called "muckraking" began to appear around 1900. By the 1900s, magazines such as Collier's Weekly, Munsey's Magazine and McClure's Magazine were already in wide circulation and read avidly by the growing middle class. The January 1903 issue of McClure's is considered to be the official beginning of muckraking journalism, although the muckrakers would get their label later. Ida M. Tarbell ("The History of Standard Oil"), Lincoln Steffens ("The Shame of the Cities") and Ray Stannard Baker ("The Right to Work"), simultaneously published famous works in that single issue. Claude H. Wetmore and Lincoln Steffens' previous article "Tweed Days in St. Louis" in McClure's October 1902 issue was called the first muckraking article. Changes in journalism prior to 1903 The muckrakers would become known for their investigative journalism, evolving from the eras of "personal journalism"—a term historians Emery and Emery used in The Press and America (6th ed.) to describe the 19th century newspapers that were steered by strong leaders with an editorial voice (p. 173)—and yellow journalism. One of the biggest urban scandals of the post-Civil War era was the corruption and bribery case of Tammany boss William M. Tweed in 1871 that was uncovered by newspapers. In his first muckraking article "Tweed Days in St. Louis", Lincoln Steffens exposed the graft, a system of political corruption, that was ingrained in St. Louis. While some muckrakers had already worked for reform newspapers of the personal journalism variety, such as Steffens who was a reporter for the New York Evening Post under Edwin Lawrence Godkin, other muckrakers had worked for yellow journals before moving on to magazines around 1900, such as Charles Edward Russell who was a journalist and editor of Joseph Pulitzer's New York World. Publishers of yellow journals, such as Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, were more intent on increasing circulation through scandal, crime, entertainment and sensationalism. Just as the muckrakers became well known for their crusades, journalists from the eras of "personal journalism" and "yellow journalism" had gained fame through their investigative articles, including articles that exposed wrongdoing. Note that in yellow journalism, the idea was to stir up the public with sensationalism, and thus sell more papers. If, in the process, a social wrong was exposed that the average man could get indignant about, that was fine, but it was not the intent to correct social wrongs as it was with true investigative journalists and muckrakers. Julius Chambers of the New York Tribune could be considered to be the original muckraker. Chambers undertook a journalistic investigation of Bloomingdale Asylum in 1872, having himself committed with the help of some of his friends and his newspaper's city editor. His intent was to obtain information about alleged abuse of inmates. When articles and accounts of the experience were published in the Tribune, it led to the release of twelve patients who were not mentally ill, a reorganization of the staff and administration of the institution and, eventually, to a change in the lunacy laws. This later led to the publication of the book A Mad World and Its Inhabitants (1876). From this time onward, Chambers was frequently invited to speak on the rights of the mentally ill and the need for proper facilities for their accommodation, care and treatment. Nellie Bly, another yellow journalist, used the undercover technique of investigation in reporting Ten Days in a Mad-House, her 1887 exposé on patient abuse at Bellevue Mental Hospital, first published as a series of articles in The World newspaper and then as a book. Nellie would go on to write more articles on corrupt politicians, sweat-shop working conditions and other societal injustices. Other works that predate the muckrakers Helen Hunt Jackson (1831–1885) –A Century of Dishonor, U.S. policy regarding Native Americans. Henry Demarest Lloyd (1847–1903) – Wealth Against Commonwealth, exposed the corruption within the Standard Oil Company. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931) – an author of a series of articles concerning Jim Crow laws and the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad in 1884, and co-owned the newspaper The Free Speech in Memphis in which she began an anti-lynching campaign. Ambrose Bierce (1842–1913(?)) – author of a long-running series of articles published from 1883 through 1896 in The Wasp and the San Francisco Examiner attacking the Big Four and the Central Pacific Railroad for political corruption. B. O. Flower (1858–1918) – author of articles in The Arena from 1889 through 1909 advocating for prison reform and prohibition of alcohol. The muckrakers appeared at a moment when journalism was undergoing changes in style and practice. In response to yellow journalism, which had exaggerated facts, objective journalism, as exemplified by The New York Times under Adolph Ochs after 1896, turned away from sensationalism and reported facts with the intention of being impartial and a newspaper of record. The growth of wire services had also contributed to the spread of the objective reporting style. Muckraking publishers like Samuel S. McClure also emphasized factual reporting, but he also wanted what historian Michael Schudson had identified as one of the preferred qualities of journalism at the time, namely, the mixture of "reliability and sparkle" to interest a mass audience. In contrast with objective reporting, the journalists, whom Roosevelt dubbed "muckrakers", saw themselves primarily as reformers and were politically engaged. Journalists of the previous eras were not linked to a single political, populist movement as the muckrakers were associated with Progressive reforms. While the muckrakers continued the investigative exposures and sensational traditions of yellow journalism, they wrote to change society. Their work reached a mass audience as circulation figures of the magazines rose on account of visibility and public interest. Magazines Magazines were the leading outlets for muckraking journalism. Samuel S. McClure and John Sanborn Phillips started McClure's Magazine in May 1893. McClure led the magazine industry by cutting the price of an issue to 15 cents, attracting advertisers, giving audiences illustrations and well-written content and then raising ad rates after increased sales, with Munsey's and Cosmopolitan following suit. McClure sought out and hired talented writers, like the then unknown Ida M. Tarbell or the seasoned journalist and editor Lincoln Steffens. The magazine's pool of writers were associated with the muckraker movement, such as Ray Stannard Baker, Burton J. Hendrick, George Kennan (explorer), John Moody (financial analyst), Henry Reuterdahl, George Kibbe Turner, and Judson C. Welliver, and their names adorned the front covers. The other magazines associated with muckraking journalism were American Magazine (Lincoln Steffens), Arena (G. W. Galvin and John Moody), Collier's Weekly (Samuel Hopkins Adams, C.P. Connolly, L. R. Glavis, Will Irwin, J. M. Oskison, Upton Sinclair), Cosmopolitan (Josiah Flynt, Alfred Henry Lewis, Jack London, Charles P. Norcross, Charles Edward Russell), Everybody's Magazine (William Hard, Thomas William Lawson, Benjamin B. Lindsey, Frank Norris, David Graham Phillips, Charles Edward Russell, Upton Sinclair, Lincoln Steffens, Merrill A. Teague, Bessie and Marie Van Vorst), Hampton's (Rheta Childe Dorr, Benjamin B. Hampton, John L. Mathews, Charles Edward Russell, and Judson C. Welliver), The Independent (George Walbridge Perkins, Sr.), Outlook (William Hard), Pearson's Magazine (Alfred Henry Lewis, Charles Edward Russell), Twentieth Century (George French), and World's Work (C.M. Keys and Q.P.). Other titles of interest include Chatauquan, Dial, St. Nicholas. In addition, Theodore Roosevelt wrote for Scribner's Magazine after leaving office. Origin of the term, Theodore Roosevelt After President Theodore Roosevelt took office in 1901, he began to manage the press corps. To do so, he elevated his press secretary to cabinet status and initiated press conferences. The muckraking journalists who emerged around 1900, like Lincoln Steffens, were not as easy for Roosevelt to manage as the objective journalists, and the President gave Steffens access to the White House and interviews to steer stories his way. Roosevelt used the press very effectively to promote discussion and support for his Square Deal policies among his base in the middle-class electorate. When journalists went after different topics, he complained about their wallowing in the mud. In a speech on April 14, 1906 on the occasion of dedicating the House of Representatives office building, he drew on a character from John Bunyan's 1678 classic, Pilgrim's Progress, saying: While cautioning about possible pitfalls of keeping one's attention ever trained downward, "on the muck", Roosevelt emphasized the social benefit of investigative muckraking reporting, saying: Most of these journalists detested being called muckrakers. They felt betrayed that Roosevelt would describe them with such a term after they had helped him with his election. Muckraker David Graham Philips believed that the tag of muckraker brought about the end of the movement as it was easier to group and attack the journalists. The term eventually came to be used in reference to investigative journalists who reported about and exposed such issues as crime, fraud, waste, public health and safety, graft, and illegal financial practices. A muckraker's reporting may span businesses and government. Early 20th century muckraking Some of the key documents that came to define the work of the muckrakers were: Ray Stannard Baker published "The Right to Work" in McClure's Magazine in 1903, about coal mine conditions, a coal strike, and the situation of non-striking workers (or scabs). Many of the non-striking workers had no special training or knowledge in mining, since they were simply farmers looking for work. His investigative work portrayed the dangerous conditions in which these people worked in the mines, and the dangers they faced from union members who did not want them to work. Lincoln Steffens published "Tweed Days in St. Louis", in which he profiled corrupt leaders in St. Louis, in October 1902, in McClure's Magazine. The prominence of the article helped lawyer Joseph Folk to lead an investigation of the corrupt political ring in St. Louis. Ida Tarbell published The Rise of the Standard Oil Company in 1902, providing insight into the manipulation of trusts. One trust they manipulated was with Christopher Dunn Co. She followed that work with The History of The Standard Oil Company: the Oil War of 1872, which appeared in McClure's Magazine in 1908. She condemned Rockefeller's immoral and ruthless business tactics and emphasized "our national life is on every side distinctly poorer, uglier, meaner, for the kind of influence he exercises." Her book generated enough public anger that it led to the splitting up of Standard Oil under the Sherman Anti Trust Act. Upton Sinclair published The Jungle in 1906, which revealed conditions in the meat packing industry in the United States and was a major factor in the establishment of the Pure Food and Drug Act and Meat Inspection Act. Sinclair wrote the book with the intent of addressing unsafe working conditions in that industry, not food safety. Sinclair was not a professional journalist but his story was first serialized before being published in book form. Sinclair considered himself to be a muckraker. "The Treason of the Senate: Aldrich, the Head of it All", by David Graham Phillips, published as a series of articles in Cosmopolitan magazine in February 1906, described corruption in the U.S. Senate. This work was a keystone in the creation of the Seventeenth Amendment which established the election of Senators through popular vote. The Great American Fraud (1905) by Samuel Hopkins Adams revealed fraudulent claims and endorsements of patent medicines in America. This article shed light on the many false claims that pharmaceutical companies and other manufacturers would make as to the potency of their medicines, drugs and tonics. This exposure contributed heavily to the creation of the Pure Food and Drug Act alongside Upton Sinclair's work. Using the example of Peruna in his article, Adams described how this tonic, which was made of seven compound drugs and alcohol, did not have "any great potency". Manufacturers sold it at an obscene price and hence made immense profits. His work forced a crackdown on a number of other patents and fraudulent schemes of medicinal companies. Many other works by muckrakers brought to light a variety of issues in America during the Progressive era. These writers focused on a wide range of issues including the monopoly of Standard Oil; cattle processing and meat packing; patent medicines; child labor; and wages, labor, and working conditions in industry and agriculture. In a number of instances, the revelations of muckraking journalists led to public outcry, governmental and legal investigations, and, in some cases, legislation was enacted to address the issues the writers identified, such as harmful social conditions; pollution; food and product safety standards; sexual harassment; unfair labor practices; fraud; and other matters. The work of the muckrakers in the early years, and those today, span a wide array of legal, social, ethical and public policy concerns. Muckrakers and their works Samuel Hopkins Adams (1871–1958) – The Great American Fraud (1905), exposed false claims about patent medicines. Paul Y. Anderson (August 29, 1893 – December 6, 1938) is best known for his reporting of a race riot and the Teapot Dome scandal. Ray Stannard Baker (1870–1946) – of McClure's & The American Magazine. Louis D. Brandeis (1856–1941) – published his combined findings of the monopolies of big banks and big business in his 1914 book Other People's Money And How the Bankers Use It. Subsequently appointed to the Supreme Court (1916). Marion Hamilton Carter (1865-1937) - "Pellagra" and "The Vampire of the South" 1909 McClure's. Burton J. Hendrick (1870–1949) – "The Story of Life Insurance" May – November 1906 McClure's. Frances Kellor (1873–1952) – studied chronic unemployment in her book Out of Work (1904). Thomas William Lawson (1857–1924) Frenzied Finance (1906) on Amalgamated Copper stock scandal. Edwin Markham (1852–1940) – published an exposé of child labor in Children in Bondage (1914). Gustavus Myers (1872–1942) – documented corruption in his first book "The History of Tammany Hall" (1901) unpublished, Revised edition, Boni and Liveright, 1917. His second book (in three volumes) related a "History of the Great American Fortunes" Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1909–10; Single volume Modern Library edition, New York, 1936. Other works include "History of The Supreme Court of the United States" Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1912. "A History of Canadian Wealth" Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1914. "History of Bigotry in the United States" New York: Random House, 1943 Published posthumously. Frank Norris (1870–1902) The Octopus. Fremont Older (1856–1935) – wrote on San Francisco corruption and on the case of Tom Mooney. Drew Pearson (1897–1969) – wrote syndicated newspaper column "Washington Merry-Go-Round". Jacob Riis (1849–1914) – How the Other Half Lives, the slums. Charles Edward Russell (1860–1941) – investigated Beef Trust, Georgia's prison. Upton Sinclair (1878–1968) – The Jungle (1906), US meat-packing industry, and the books in the "Dead Hand" series that critique the institutions (journalism, education, etc.) that could but did not prevent these abuses. John Spargo (1876–1966) – American reformer and author, The Bitter Cry of Children (child labor). Lincoln Steffens (1866–1936) The Shame of the Cities (1904) – uncovered the corruption of several political machines in major cities. Ida M. Tarbell (1857–1944) exposé, The History of the Standard Oil Company. John Kenneth Turner (1879–1948) – author of Barbarous Mexico (1910), an account of the exploitative debt-peonage system used in Mexico under Porfirio Díaz. Ida B. Wells (1862–1931) – The Free Speech (1892) condemned the flaws in the United States justice system that allowed lynching to happen. Disappearance The influence of the muckrakers began to fade during the more conservative presidency of William Howard Taft. Corporations and political leaders were also more successful in silencing these journalists as advertiser boycotts forced some magazines to go bankrupt. Through their exposés, the nation was changed by reforms in cities, business, politics, and more. Monopolies such as Standard Oil were broken up and political machines fell apart; the problems uncovered by muckrakers were resolved and thus the muckrakers of that era were needed no longer. Impact According to Fred J. Cook, the muckrakers' journalism resulted in litigation or legislation that had a lasting impact, such as the end of Standard Oil's monopoly over the oil industry, the establishment of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, the creation of the first child labor laws in the United States around 1916. Their reports exposed bribery and corruption at the city and state level, as well as in Congress, that led to reforms and changes in election results. "The effect on the soul of the nation was profound. It can hardly be considered an accident that the heyday of the muckrakers coincided with one of America's most yeasty and vigorous periods of ferment. The people of the country were aroused by the corruptions and wrongs of the age – and it was the muckrakers who informed and aroused them. The results showed in the great wave of progressivism and reform cresting in the remarkable spate of legislation that marked the first administration of Woodrow Wilson from 1913 to 1917. For this, the muckrakers had paved the way." Other changes that resulted from muckraker articles include the reorganization of the U.S. Navy (after Henry Reuterdahl published a controversial article in McClure's). Muckraking investigations were used to change the way senators were elected by the Seventeenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and led to government agencies to take on watchdog functions. Since 1945 Some today use "investigative journalism" as a synonym for muckraking. Carey McWilliams, editor of the Nation, assumed in 1970 that investigative journalism, and reform journalism, or muckraking, were the same type of journalism. Journalism textbooks point out that McClure's muckraking standards "Have become integral to the character of modern investigative journalism." Furthermore, the successes of the early muckrakers have continued to inspire journalists. Moreover, muckraking has become an integral part of journalism in American history. Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein exposed the workings of the Nixon Administration in Watergate, which led to Nixon's resignation. More recently, Edward Snowden disclosed the activities of governmental spying, albeit illegally, which gave the public knowledge of the extent of the infringements on their privacy. See also History of American newspapers Whistleblower References Bibliography Applegate, Edd. Muckrakers: A Biographical Dictionary of Writers and Editors (Scarecrow Press, 2008); 50 entries, mostly American contents . . Lucas, Stephen E. "Theodore Roosevelt's 'the man with the muck‐rake': A reinterpretation." Quarterly Journal of Speech 59#4 (1973): 452–462. . . . . 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207680	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nell%20%28film%29	Nell (film)	Nell is a 1994 American drama film directed by Michael Apted from a screenplay written by William Nicholson. The film stars Jodie Foster (who also produced) as Nell Kellty, a young woman who has to face other people for the first time after being raised by her mother in an isolated cabin. Liam Neeson, Natasha Richardson, Richard Libertini, and Nick Searcy are featured in supporting roles. Based on Mark Handley's play Idioglossia, the script for Nell was developed by co-producer Renée Missel and was inspired by Handley's time living in the Cascade Mountains in the 1970s, and the story of Poto and Cabengo, twins who created their own language. Partway through the movie, the other characters discover that Nell is actually speaking English, just mispronouncing all the words. As an example, when Nell says "Nay Cay Chickabay," she is actually saying "Don't Cry Chickadee." Nell received limited release on December 16, 1994, before expanding into wide release on December 23. The film upon release received mixed reviews from critics who praised the direction, score and performances but criticised its execution and limited exploration of the titular character, and was a box office success grossing over $106 million worldwide, on a $24.5 million production budget. Foster's performance was widely praised and brought her various awards and nominations. She won the inaugural Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress and the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama. The film also received two additional nominations at the 52nd Golden Globe Awards for Best Motion Picture - Drama, and Best Original Score. Plot When Violet Kellty, who had an undiagnosed stroke, dies in her isolated cabin in the North Carolina mountains, Dr. Jerome "Jerry" Lovell, the town doctor, finds a terrified young woman hiding in the house rafters. She speaks angrily and rapidly, but seems to have a language of her own. Looking at Violet's Bible, Jerry finds a note asking whoever finds it to look after Violet's daughter Nell. Sheriff Todd Peterson shows Jerry a news clipping that Nell was conceived through rape. Jerry seeks the help of Dr. Paula Olsen, a researcher working with autistic children. Paula and her colleague Dr. Alexander "Al" Paley are interested in studying a "wild child" (feral child), and Al continues calling Nell this even after studying films showing that Nell does not fit the "wild child" profile. Paula and Al get a court order to institutionalize Nell for further study. Jerry hires lawyer Don Fontana and prevents it. The judge gives Jerry and Paula three months to interact with Nell and discover her needs. Paula shows up on a houseboat with electronic equipment to monitor Nell's behavior while Jerry chooses to stay in a tent by Nell's cabin and quietly observe. Paula discovers that Nell's seemingly indecipherable language is English, based partly on her mother's aphasic speech after a stroke, and partly on the secret language she shared with her decades-deceased identical twin sister. Jerry and Paula begin a grudging friendship. Nell sleeps during the day or works inside her home and is active outdoors only after sunset. She explains to Jerry that her mother told her about the rape and warned her that men were evildoers. As Nell comes to trust Jerry, she sees him as a friend, the "gah'inja" her mother promised would come. Jerry later realizes that "gah'inja" is Nell's phrase for "guardian angel." Using popcorn as an incentive, Jerry is able to lead Nell outside and into the sun. Nell leads Jerry and Paula to the decayed remains of her identical twin sister, May, who died in a fall while the two were playing in the woods. Mike Ibarra, a reporter, learns of Nell's existence and visits her cabin. Nell is curious of the visitor at first, but when he snaps a photo, the flash frightens Nell. Jerry arrives and throws the reporter out. Paula believes that Nell would be safer in a hospital, while Jerry feels that Nell should be left alone and allowed to live as she pleases. The two decide that Nell should be shown a little of the world, and they make the decision to bring Nell into town. While in town, Nell befriends Mary, Todd's depressed wife, but also encounters some raunchy boys in a pool hall until Jerry gets her out. With increased intrusion by the press, Jerry and Paula take Nell to a hospital for her protection. There, Nell becomes extremely despondent and unresponsive. Jerry removes her from the hospital and hides her in a hotel. Paula joins him, and the two admit that they love each other. At the court hearing the next day, Al, who wants to study Nell in a controlled environment, delivers his opinion that Nell has Asperger syndrome and belongs in an institution. Nell then comes forward and, with Jerry interpreting, speaks for herself. Five years later, Jerry and Paula bring their daughter, Ruthie, to visit Nell in her house. It is Nell's birthday, and friends surround her. Cast Jodie Foster as Nell Kellty Liam Neeson as Dr. Jerome "Jerry" Lovell Natasha Richardson as Dr. Paula Olsen Richard Libertini as Dr. Alexander "Al" Paley Nick Searcy as Sheriff Todd Peterson Jeremy Davies as Billy Fisher Robin Mullins as Mary Peterson O'Neal Compton as Don Fontana Sean Bridgers as Mike Ibarra Joe Inscoe as Judge Heather M. Bomba and Marianne E. Bomba as Twins Stephanie Dawn Wood as Ruthie Lovell Nicole Adair as Autistic Child Marlon Jackson as Male Nurse Production Production took place in North Carolina, including the town of Robbinsville and the city of Charlotte. Reception Box office The film debuted with $5.7 million. It eventually grossed $33.6 million domestically while bringing over $73 million around the world to a total of $106.6 million worldwide. Critical response Nell received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the cast but criticised the screenplay. Foster received widespread praise for her performance. The Washington Posts review noted that "Jodie Foster, transcendent in the bravura title role, is far grander than the film itself, and her performance helps camouflage the weaknesses of its structure and the naivete of its themes." In her review for The New York Times, Janet Maslin noted that: "For all its technical brilliance, not even Ms. Foster's intense, accomplished performance in the title role holds much surprise. The wild-child story of 'Nell' unfolds in unexpectedly predictable ways, clinging fiercely to the banal thought that Nell's innocence makes her purer than anyone else in the story." Maslin also wished the film had explored Nell's adult sexuality. Roger Ebert liked the movie, commenting that "Despite its predictable philosophy, however, Nell is an effective film, and a moving one." He also singled out the performances of Foster and Neeson. The film holds a score of 55% on Rotten Tomatoes from 33 reviews as of 2018, and with an average rating of 5.00/10. The site's consensus states: "Despite a committed performance by Jodie Foster, Nell opts for ponderous melodrama instead of engaging with the ethical dilemmas of socializing its titular wild child." On Metacritic it has a score of 60% based on reviews from 23 critics. Year-end lists 2nd – John Hurley, Staten Island Advance 5th – Christopher Sheid, The Munster Times Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked) – Eleanor Ringel, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution Top 10 (listed alphabetically, not ranked) – Jeff Simon, The Buffalo News Honorable mention – Betsy Pickle, Knoxville News-Sentinel Honorable mention – Duane Dudek, Milwaukee Sentinel Honorable mention – Michael MacCambridge, Austin American-Statesman Accolades References External links 1994 films 1994 drama films 20th Century Fox films American drama films American films American films based on plays 1990s English-language films Fictional-language films Films about autism Films about language Films directed by Michael Apted Films scored by Mark Isham Films set in forests Films set in North Carolina Films shot in North Carolina Films with screenplays by William Nicholson PolyGram Filmed Entertainment films	[ -0.24937693774700165, 0.027777396142482758, -0.2959285378456116, -0.20387998223304749, 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207685	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiopeia%20%28constellation%29	Cassiopeia (constellation)	Cassiopeia () is a constellation in the northern sky named after the vain queen Cassiopeia, mother of Andromeda, in Greek mythology, who boasted about her unrivaled beauty. Cassiopeia was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century Greek astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations today. It is easily recognizable due to its distinctive 'W' shape, formed by five bright stars. Cassiopeia is located in the northern sky and from latitudes above 34°N it is visible year-round. In the (sub)tropics it can be seen at its clearest from September to early November, and at low southern, tropical, latitudes of less than 25°S it can be seen, seasonally, low in the North. At magnitude 2.2, Alpha Cassiopeiae, or Schedar, is generally the brightest star in Cassiopeia, though it is occasionally outshone by the variable Gamma Cassiopeiae, which has reached magnitude 1.6. The constellation hosts some of the most luminous stars known, including the yellow hypergiants Rho Cassiopeiae and V509 Cassiopeiae and white hypergiant 6 Cassiopeiae. In 1572, Tycho Brahe's supernova flared brightly in Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia A is a supernova remnant and the brightest extrasolar radio source in the sky at frequencies above 1 GHz. Fourteen star systems have been found to have exoplanets, one of which—HR 8832—is thought to host seven planets. A rich section of the Milky Way runs through Cassiopeia, containing a number of open clusters, young luminous galactic disc stars, and nebulae. IC 10 is an irregular galaxy that is the closest known starburst galaxy and the only one in the Local Group of galaxies. Mythology The constellation is named after Cassiopeia, the queen of Aethiopia. Cassiopeia was the wife of King Cepheus of Aethiopia and mother of Princess Andromeda. Cepheus and Cassiopeia were placed next to each other among the stars, along with Andromeda. She was placed in the sky as a punishment after enraging Poseidon with the boast that her daughter Andromeda was more beautiful than the Nereids or, alternatively, that she herself was more beautiful than the sea nymphs. She was forced to wheel around the North Celestial Pole on her throne, spending half of her time clinging to it so she does not fall off, and Poseidon decreed that Andromeda should be bound to a rock as prey for the monster Cetus. Andromeda was then rescued by the hero Perseus, whom she later married. Cassiopeia has been variously portrayed throughout her history as a constellation. In Persia, she was drawn by al-Sufi as a queen holding a staff with a crescent moon in her right hand, wearing a crown, as well as a two-humped camel. In France, she was portrayed as having a marble throne and a palm leaf in her left hand, holding her robe in her right hand. This depiction is from Augustin Royer's 1679 atlas. In Chinese astronomy, the stars forming the constellation Cassiopeia are found among three areas: the Purple Forbidden enclosure (紫微垣, Zǐ Wēi Yuán), the Black Tortoise of the North (北方玄武, Běi Fāng Xuán Wǔ), and the White Tiger of the West (西方白虎, Xī Fāng Bái Hǔ). The Chinese astronomers saw several figures in what is modern-day Cassiopeia. Kappa, Eta, and Mu Cassiopeiae formed a constellation called the Bridge of the Kings; when seen along with Alpha and Beta Cassiopeiae, they formed the great chariot Wang-Liang. The charioteer's whip was represented by Gamma Cassiopeiae, sometimes called "Tsih", the Chinese word for "whip". In Hindu Mythology, Cassiopeia was associated with the mythological figure Sharmishtha – the daughter of the great Devil (Daitya) King Vrishparva and a friend to Devayani (Andromeda). In Welsh Mythology Llys Dôn (literally "The Court of Dôn") is the traditional Welsh name for the constellation. At least three of Dôn's children also have astronomical associations: Caer Gwydion ("The fortress of Gwydion") is the traditional Welsh name for the Milky Way, and Caer Arianrhod ("The Fortress of Arianrhod") being the constellation of Corona Borealis. In the 17th century, various Biblical figures were depicted in the stars of Cassiopeia. These included Bathsheba, Solomon's mother; Deborah, an Old Testament prophet; and Mary Magdalene, a follower of Jesus. A figure called the "Tinted Hand" also appeared in the stars of Cassiopeia in some Arab atlases. This is variously said to represent a woman's hand dyed red with henna, as well as the bloodied hand of Muhammad's daughter Fatima. The hand is made up of the stars α Cas, β Cas, γ Cas, δ Cas, ε Cas, and η Cas. The arm is made up of the stars α Per, γ Per, δ Per, ε Per, η Per, and ν Per. Another Arab constellation that incorporated the stars of Cassiopeia was the Camel. Its head was composed of Lambda, Kappa, Iota, and Phi Andromedae; its hump was Beta Cassiopeiae; its body was the rest of Cassiopeia, and the legs were composed of stars in Perseus and Andromeda. Other cultures see a hand or moose antlers in the pattern. These include the Sámi, for whom the W of Cassiopeia forms an elk antler. The Chukchi of Siberia similarly saw the five main stars as five reindeer stags. The people of the Marshall Islands saw Cassiopeia as part of a great porpoise constellation. The main stars of Cassiopeia make its tail, Andromeda and Triangulum form its body, and Aries makes its head. In Hawaii, Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Cassiopeiae were named. Alpha Cassiopeiae was called Poloahilani, Beta Cassiopeiae was called Polula, and Gamma Cassiopeiae was called Mulehu. The people of Pukapuka saw the figure of Cassiopeia as a distinct constellation called Na Taki-tolu-a-Mataliki. Characteristics Covering 598.4 square degrees and hence 1.451% of the sky, Cassiopeia ranks 25th of the 88 constellations in area. It is bordered by Cepheus to the north and west, Andromeda to the south and west, Perseus to the southeast and Camelopardalis to the east, and also shares a short border with Lacerta to the west. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Cas". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 30 segments. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between 77.69° and 46.68°. Its position in the Northern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers north of 12°S. High in the northern sky, it is circumpolar (that is, it never sets in the night sky) to viewers in the British Isles, Canada and the northern United States. Features Stars The German cartographer Johann Bayer used the Greek letters Alpha through Omega, and then A and B, to label the most prominent 26 stars in the constellation. Upsilon was later found to be two stars and labelled Upsilon1 and Upsilon2 by John Flamsteed. B Cassiopeiae was in fact the supernova known as Tycho's Supernova. Within the constellation's borders, there are 157 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6.5. 'W' asterism The five brightest stars of Cassiopeia – Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Epsilon Cassiopeiae – form the characteristic W-shaped asterism. All five are prominent naked eye stars, three are noticeably variable, and a fourth is a suspected low amplitude variable. The asterism is oriented as a W when below Polaris during northern spring and summer nights. In northern winter, and when seen from southern latitudes, it is "above" Polaris (i.e. closer to the zenith) and the W appears inverted. Alpha Cassiopeiae, traditionally called Schedar (from the Arabic Al Sadr, "the breast"), is a four-star system. The primary dominates, an orange-hued giant of magnitude 2.2, 228 ± 2 light-years from Earth. With a luminosity of around 771 times that of the Sun, it has swollen and cooled after exhausting its core hydrogen over its 100 to 200 million-year lifespan, spending much of it as a blue-white B-type main-sequence star. Magnitude 8.9 yellow dwarf companion (B) is widely separated; companions (C and D) are closer and magnitudes 13 and 14 respectively. Beta Cassiopeiae, or Caph (meaning "hand"), is a white-hued star of magnitude 2.3, 54.7 ± 0.3 light-years from Earth. Around 1.2 billion years old, it has used up its core hydrogen and begun expanding and cooling off the main sequence. It is around 1.9 times as massive as the Sun, and around 21.3 times as luminous. Rotating at about 92% of its critical speed, Caph completes a full rotation every 1.12 days. This is giving the star an oblate spheroid shape with an equatorial bulge that is 24% larger than the polar radius. It is a Delta Scuti variable with a small amplitude and period of 2.5 hours. Gamma Cassiopeiae is the prototype Gamma Cassiopeiae variable star, a type of variable star that has a variable disc of material flung off by the high rotation rate of the star. Gamma Cassiopeiae has a minimum magnitude of 3.0 and a maximum magnitude of 1.6, but is generally near magnitude 2.2, with unpredictable fades and brightenings. It is a spectroscopic binary, with an orbital period of 203.59 days and a companion with a calculated mass about the same as the Sun. However, no direct evidence of this companion has been found, leading to speculation that it might be a white dwarf or other degenerate star. It is 550 ± 10 light-years from Earth. Delta Cassiopeiae, also known as Ruchbah or Rukbat, meaning "knee," is a possible Algol-type eclipsing binary star with a maximum brightness of magnitude 2.7. It has been reported to show eclipses of less than 0.1 magnitudes with a period of 2 years and 1 month., but this has never been confirmed. It is 99.4 ± 0.4 light-years from Earth. Epsilon Cassiopeiae has an apparent magnitude of 3.3. Located 410 ± 20 light-years from Earth, it is a hot blue-white star of spectral type B3 III with a surface temperature of 15,680 K. It is 6.5 times as massive and 4.2 times as wide as the Sun, and belongs to a class of stars known as Be stars—rapidly spinning stars that throw off a ring or shell of matter. Fainter stars The next seven brightest stars in Cassiopeia are also all confirmed or suspected variable stars, including 50 Cassiopeiae which was not given a Greek letter by Bayer and is a suspected variable with a very small amplitude. Zeta Cassiopeiae (Fulu) is a suspected slowly pulsating B-type star. Eta Cassiopeiae (Achird) is a spectroscopic binary star with a period of 480 years, and a suspected RS Canum Venaticorum variable. The primary is a yellow-hued star of magnitude 3.5 and the secondary is a red-hued star of magnitude 7.5. The system is 19 light-years from Earth. Kappa Cassiopeiae is a blue supergiant of spectral type BC0.7Ia that is some 302,000 times as luminous as the Sun and has 33 times its diameter. It is a runaway star, moving at around 2.5 million mph relative to its neighbors (1,100 kilometers per second). Its magnetic field and wind of particles creates a visible bow shock 4 light-years ahead of it, colliding with the diffuse, and usually invisible, interstellar gas and dust. The dimensions of the bow shock are vast: around 12 light-years long and 1.8 light-years wide. Theta Cassiopeiae, named Marfak, is a suspected variable star whose brightness changes by less than a tenth of a magnitude. Iota Cassiopeiae is a triple star 142 light-years from Earth. The primary is a white-hued star of magnitude 4.5 and an α2 Canum Venaticorum variable, the secondary is a yellow-hued star of magnitude 6.9, and the tertiary is a star of magnitude 8.4. The primary and secondary are close together but the primary and tertiary are widely separated. Omicron Cassiopeiae is a triple star and the primary is another γ Cassiopeiae variable. Sigma Cassiopeiae is a binary star 1500 light-years from Earth. It has a green-hued primary of magnitude 5.0 and a blue-hued secondary of magnitude 7.3. Psi Cassiopeiae is a triple star 193 light-years from Earth. The primary is an orange-hued giant star of magnitude 4.7 and the secondary is a close pair of stars that appears to be of magnitude 9.0. Rho Cassiopeiae is a semi-regular pulsating variable yellow hypergiant, among the most luminous stars in the galaxy at approximately . It has a minimum magnitude of 6.2 and a maximum magnitude of 4.1; its period is approximately 320 days. It has around 450 times the Sun's diameter and 17 times its mass, having begun life 45 times as massive as the Sun. Rho Cassiopeiae is about 10,000 light-years from Earth. Cassiopeia includes V509 Cassiopeiae, a second example of the extremely rare yellow hypergiants, which is around 400,000 times as luminous as the Sun and 14 times as massive, as well as 6 Cassiopeiae which is a hotter white hypergiant. It also hosts the red supergiant PZ Cassiopeiae, which is one of the largest known stars with an estimate of and is also a semiregular variable. Between 240,000 and 270,000 times as luminous as the Sun, it is around 9,160 light-years distant from Earth. AO Cassiopeiae is a binary system composed of an O8 main sequence star and an O9.2 bright giant that respectively weigh anywhere between 20.30 and 57.75 times and 14.8 and 31.73 times the mass of the Sun. The two massive stars are so close to each other they distort each other into egg-shapes. Tycho Brahe's supernova was visible within Cassiopeia, and the star Tycho G is suspected of being the donor of the material that triggered that explosion. Pattern from Alpha Centauri If the Earth's Sun could be observed from α Centauri, the closest star to the Solar System, it would be visible in Cassiopeia as a yellow-white 0.5 magnitude star, far brighter than any of the other stars of the constellation. The famous W of Cassiopeia would be unchanged because its stars are much further away than α Centauri, but the Sun would appear as an addition at the leftmost end, closest to ε Cas, creating a zig-zag pattern. Deep-sky objects A rich section of the Milky Way runs through Cassiopeia, stretching from Perseus towards Cygnus, and it contains a number of open clusters, young luminous galactic disc stars, and nebulae. The Heart Nebula and the Soul Nebula are two neighboring emission nebulae about 7,500 light-years away. Two Messier objects, M52 (NGC 7654) and M103 (NGC 581), are located in Cassiopeia; both are open clusters. M52, once described as a "kidney-shaped" cluster, contains approximately 100 stars and is 5200 light-years from Earth. Its most prominent member is an orange-hued star of magnitude 8.0 near the cluster's edge. M103 is far poorer than M52, with only about 25 stars included. It is also more distant, at 8200 light-years from Earth. Its most prominent member is actually a closer, superimposed double star; it consists of a 7th-magnitude primary and 10th-magnitude secondary. The other prominent open clusters in Cassiopeia are NGC 457 and NGC 663, both of which have about 80 stars. NGC 457 is looser, and its brightest member is Phi Cassiopeiae, a white-hued supergiant star of magnitude 5.0. The stars of NGC 457, arrayed in chains, are approximately 10,000 light-years from Earth. NGC 663 is both closer, at 8200 light-years from Earth, and larger, at 0.25 degrees in diameter. There are two supernova remnants in Cassiopeia. The first, designated 3C 10 or just Tycho's Supernova Remnant, is the aftermath of the supernova called Tycho's Star. It was observed in 1572 by Tycho Brahe and now exists as a bright object in the radio spectrum. Within the 'W' asterism formed by Cassiopeia's five major stars lies Cassiopeia A (Cas A). It is the remnant of a supernova that took place approximately 300 years ago (as observed now from Earth; it is 10,000 light-years away), and has the distinction of being the strongest radio source observable outside the Solar System. It was perhaps observed as a faint star in 1680 by John Flamsteed. It was also the subject of the first image returned by the Chandra X-Ray Observatory in the late 1990s. The shell of matter expelled from the star is moving at per second; it has a temperature of 30,000 kelvins on average. NGC 457 is another open cluster in Cassiopeia, also called the E.T. Cluster, the Owl Cluster, and Caldwell 13. The cluster was discovered in 1787 by William Herschel. It has an overall magnitude of 6.4 and is approximately 10,000 light-years from Earth, lying in the Perseus arm of the Milky Way. However, its most prominent member, the double star Phi Cassiopeiae, is far closer – between 1000 and 4000 light-years away. NGC 457 is fairly rich; it is a Shapley class e and Trumpler class I 3 r cluster. It is concentrated towards its center and detached from the star field. It contains more than 100 stars, which vary widely in brightness. Two members of the Local Group of galaxies are in Cassiopeia. NGC 185 is a magnitude 9.2 elliptical galaxy of type E0, 2 million light-years away. Slightly dimmer and more distant NGC 147 is a magnitude 9.3 elliptical galaxy, like NGC 185 it is an elliptical of type E0; it is 2.3 million light-years from Earth. Though they do not appear in Andromeda, both dwarf galaxies are gravitationally bound to the far larger Andromeda Galaxy. IC 10 is an irregular galaxy that is the closest known starburst galaxy and the only one in the Local Group of galaxies. Cassiopeia also contains part of the closest galaxy group to our Local Group, the IC 342/Maffei Group. The galaxies Maffei 1 and Maffei 2 are located just to the south of the Heart and Soul Nebula. As a result of this location in the Zone of Avoidance, both are surprisingly faint despite both being within 10 million light-years away (Maffei 2 is below the range of most amateur telescopes). Meteor shower The December Phi Cassiopeiids are a recently discovered early December meteor shower that radiates from Cassiopeia. Phi Cassiopeiids are very slow, with an entry velocity of approximately 16.7 kilometers per second. The shower's parent body is a Jupiter family comet, though its specific identity is unknown. Namesakes USS Cassiopeia (AK-75) was a United States Navy Crater-class cargo ship named after the constellation. See also Cassiopeia (Chinese astronomy) References Notes Citations Sources External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Cassiopeia The clickable Cassiopeia Star Tales – Cassiopeia Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Cassiopeia) Constellations Northern constellations Constellations listed by Ptolemy	[ 0.33395248651504517, -0.14808069169521332, -0.2681446075439453, 0.13435965776443481, 0.06359170377254486, 0.9617448449134827, 0.15640924870967865, 0.606840968132019, -0.7073549628257751, -0.4779350459575653, -0.3649854362010956, -0.2249542474746704, -0.47108009457588196, 0.3952826261520386, -0.19324621558189392, -0.1412726640701294, 0.5963138341903687, 0.997649073600769, -0.10947172343730927, -0.1809457391500473, 0.11319183558225632, 0.1717539280653, 0.21065570414066315, -0.3611885905265808, -0.11711692065000534, -0.0752175971865654, -0.3774632513523102, 0.21986888349056244, 0.8305463790893555, 0.32334911823272705, 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207686	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurent	Laurent	Laurent may refer to: Laurent (name), a French masculine given name and a surname Saint Laurence (aka: Saint Laurent), the martyr Laurent Pierre Alphonse Laurent, mathematician Joseph Jean Pierre Laurent, amateur astronomer, discoverer of minor planet (51) Nemausa Laurent, South Dakota, a proposed town for the Deaf to be named for Laurent Clerc See also Laurent series, in mathematics, representation of a complex function f(z) as a power series which includes terms of negative degree, named for Pierre Alphonse Laurent Saint-Laurent (disambiguation) Laurence (name), feminine form of "Laurent" Lawrence (disambiguation)	[ -0.38254421949386597, 0.6563134789466858, -0.6066031455993652, 0.2623491883277893, -0.5789998173713684, 1.0943301916122437, 1.0786961317062378, 0.4344103932380676, -0.4932686984539032, -0.7562857866287231, -0.07189986109733582, 0.301797091960907, -0.09315330535173416, 0.21675027906894684, -0.017420951277017593, 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207688	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrid	Astrid	Astrid is a feminine given name of Scandinavian origin, a modern form of the name Ástríðr. Derived from the Old Norse Ássfriðr, a compound name composed of the elements (a god) and (beautiful, fair). Variants Assan (diminutive) (Swedish) Asta (diminutive) (Swedish, Norwegian, Danish. Estonian, Finnish) Astrid (Swedish, Dutch, Danish, German, Norwegian, Estonian, French, Spanish) Astride (French, Portuguese) Ástríður (Icelandic) Astrithr (North Germanic) Ásta (Icelandic) Ástride, Astride (Portuguese) Sassa (diminutive) (Swedish) People Arts and culture Astrid Roelants, Belgian singer Astrid Allwyn (1905–1978), American actress Astrid Bergès-Frisbey Catalan-French actress Astrid Carolina Herrera (born 1963), Venezuelan actress and Miss World 1984 Astrid Hadad (born 1957), Mexican vocalist and performance artist Astrud Gilberto (born 1940), Brazilian singer Astrid Holm (1893–1961), Danish stage and film actress Astrid Jorgensen, New Zealand-Australian vocalist, conductor and composer Astrid Kannel (born 1967), Estonian television journalist Astrid Kirchherr (1938–2020), German photographer and artist, known for her association with The Beatles Astrid Lindgren (1907–2002), Swedish author of children's literature, among others Pippi Longstocking Astrid Lepa (1924–2015), Estonian actress and director Astrid Noack (1888–1957), Danish sculptor Astrid North (1973–2019), German soul singer Astrid Reinla (1948–1995), Estonian writer Astrid S (born Astrid Smeplass, born 1996), a Norwegian singer and songwriter Astrid Sartiasari (born 1982), Indonesian singer Astrid Varnay (1918–2006), Swedish-born operatic soprano Astrid Villaume (1923–1995), Danish actress Astrid Williamson, Scottish musician Astrid Young (born 1962), Canadian singer, songwriter, and musician Politics and royalty Astrid Gjertsen (born 1928), Norwegian politician Astrid Krag (born 1982), Danish politician, member of parliament for the Socialist People's Party (SF) Astrid Løken (1911–2008), Norwegian entomologist and member of the Norwegian resistance movement during World War II Astrid Lulling (born 1929), Luxembourg politician and Member of the European Parliament Astrid Njalsdotter (died 1060), Swedish queen, consort of King Edmund the Old Astrid Olofsdotter (died 1035), Queen Consort of King Olav II of Norway Astrid Thors (born 1957), Finnish politician Princess Astrid of Belgium, Archduchess of Austria-Este (born 1962), daughter of Albert II, sister of current king Philippe I Princess Astrid of Norway (born 1932), sister to King Harald V of Norway Queen Astrid of the Belgians (1905–1935), Swedish princess and first wife of King Leopold III of the Belgians. Science Astrid Beckmann (born 1957), German physicist Astrid Cleve (1875–1968), Swedish botanist, chemist, geologist, and researcher Astrid Linder, Swedish researcher in motor vehicle safety Sports Astrid Kumbernuss (born 1970), champion German shot putter and discus thrower Astrid Lødemel (born 1971), Norwegian alpine skier Astrid Strauss (born 1968), former freestyle swimmer for East Germany Astrid Uhrenholdt Jacobsen (born 1987), Norwegian cross-country skier Other Astrid Medina (born 1977), Colombian coffee producer Estrid, 11th century Swedish woman whose saga is immortalized on six or seven runestones Astrid Holleeder (born 1965), sister to Dutch criminal Willem Holleeder and author Astrid Rosing Sawyer (1874-1954), Danish-born Chicago businesswoman, translator Fictional characters Astrid Hofferson, a major protagonist in the How to Train Your Dragon franchise Astrid, a Danish countess from Wallace Stegner's 1976 novel The Spectator Bird Astrid, a friend of Juliette Darling's in the short-lived drama Dirty Sexy Money Astrid, an assassin from the video game The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim Astrid, character in the television series Vikings Astrid Bromure, main character from the Belgian comics series of the same name, by Fabrice Parme Astrid Ellison, a female protagonist in the Gone series by Michael Grant Astrid Farnsworth, a character on the Tv Sci-fi series “Fringe”. Astrid Ferrier, the main guest protagonist in the 1967–1968 Doctor Who serial The Enemy of the World Astrid Finch, a character on the TV Series The Tomorrow People Astrid Larsson, a character in The Emberverse series Astrid Leong, a character in the novel Crazy Rich Asians by Kevin Kwan Astrid Levinson, a character on NBC's The Office Astrid Magnussen, troubled teenage protagonist of the novel White Oleander Astrid Peth, the Companion in the 2007 Doctor Who Christmas special Voyage of the Damned Astrid Thomas, A Tremere vampire from Vampire: The Eternal Struggle TCG Astrid Zexis, A character from the game series Atelier Rorona, Atelier Totori, and Atelier Meruru Astrid O'Hara, a character in the Australian sitcom Ja'mie: Private School Girl Astrid, an alternate protagonist in The Long Dark video game. Astrid, a female wizard NPC played by Matthew Mercer in the web series 'Critical Role' Astrid, a female warrior character, knight to King Thane in MOBA games, Arena of Valor. See also Astrit References External links https://naamism.com/name/astrid Feminine given names Danish feminine given names Dutch feminine given names Estonian feminine given names English feminine given names German feminine given names Norwegian feminine given names Swedish feminine given names Scandinavian feminine given names	[ -0.38769084215164185, 0.002394698327407241, 0.027398381382226944, -0.251608282327652, -1.1688382625579834, 0.33645400404930115, 0.7513699531555176, -0.2307046502828598, -0.7716659903526306, 0.2849184572696686, -0.29818373918533325, -0.1070067435503006, -0.0215073823928833, 0.32763373851776123, -0.10376284271478653, 0.3048546612262726, 0.29483315348625183, 1.375332236289978, -0.6970452666282654, -0.6150714755058289, 0.3924591839313507, -0.22724871337413788, 0.348681777715683, -0.4302810728549957, 0.4097265303134918, 0.13469620048999786, 0.7313855290412903, -0.09204345941543579, 0.4921761453151703, 0.3237699866294861, 0.026737447828054428, 0.2562175989151001, 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207690	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sula%2C%20M%C3%B8re%20og%20Romsdal	Sula, Møre og Romsdal	Sula () is a municipality in Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. It is part of the Sunnmøre district. The administrative centre is the village of Langevåg. Other villages include Solevåg, Fiskarstrand, Veibust, Leirvågen, and Mauseidvåg. Sula is one of the most densely populated municipalities in Møre og Romsdal county, and it is part of the Ålesund Region since it is just south of the city of Ålesund. The municipality encompasses the island of Sula and the many small surrounding islets. The municipality is the 346th largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Sula is the 119th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 9,310. The municipality's population density is and its population has increased by 17.4% over the previous 10-year period. General information Originally, most of the island of Sula was part of the former municipality of Borgund and the small southwestern part of the island was part of extant municipality of Ulstein (see formannskapsdistrikt). On 1 July 1958, the southwestern part of Sula island was transferred to Borgund. In 1968, Borgund (including all of the island of Sula) was merged with the town of Ålesund to form the large municipality of Ålesund. On 1 January 1977, the entire island of Sula and the many small islets around it were separated from Ålesund to become the new municipality of Sula. The initial population of the Sula was 6,302. Name The municipality is named after the island of Sula. The name is probably identical with the word sula which means "cleft", probably referring to the cleft between the twin peaks of Rundehornet and Vardane. Coat of arms The coat of arms was granted on 16 December 1983. The arms show a silver and blue figure which represents the cleft of the island. Churches The Church of Norway has one parish () within Sula. It is part of the Nordre Sunnmøre prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Møre. Geography Sula includes one main island and many small surrounding islets. It is bordered by the Sulafjorden strait to the west, the Storfjorden to the south, the Hessafjorden and Borgundfjorden to the north, and the narrow Vegsundet strait to the east. The only road access to the island is the European route E39 highway bridge over the Vegsundet. The natural environment is typically coastal with a sparse forest. The landscape is mostly rocky with heather covering the ground. The highest elevation is the tall mountain Vardane. Its neighbouring municipalities are all separated from it by sea, with Hareid to the west, Ørsta to the south, Giske to the northwest, and Ålesund to the north and east. Government All municipalities in Norway, including Sula, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elect a mayor. The municipality falls under the Sunnmøre District Court and the Frostating Court of Appeal. Municipal council The municipal council () of Sula is made up of 29 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the council is as follows: Mayor The mayors of Sula (incomplete list): 2015-present: Jim Arve Røssevoll (Ap) 2011-2015: Geir Ove Vegsund (H) 2003-2011: Ronny Harald Blomvik (FrP) 1999-2003: Egil Weltzien Holst (KrF) 1995–1999: Gunvor Reistad Aannø (H) 1986–1995: Ivar H. Molvær (KrF) Culture Sula is noted for strong traditions in the field of music. Nils Petter Molvær grew up in Langevåg. Also, the community harbours a strong maritime heritage. The influence of neighbouring city of Ålesund is strong; many live in Sula while working in Ålesund, which is a short ferry ride or a longer car ride away. Economy Manufacturing and production is the most important economical sector. Shipyards, fish processing, textile manufacturing, and furniture production are especially vital. The most famous clothing brand from Sula is Devold of Norway, with high quality woolen sweaters and underwear. Transportation Transportation in the municipality includes the European route E39 highway and several minor highways. The E39 highway enters Sula from the north (Ålesund) and it crosses the bridge at Vegsundet and continues west and then south to the Solevågen ferry quay where there are regular ferry routes to Festøya in Ørsta, across the Storfjorden. Also, there is a ferry connection in southwestern portion of Sula. This ferry has regular routes across the Sulafjorden from Sulasund to the village of Hareid on the island of Hareidlandet in the neighbouring municipality of Hareid. Notable people Anton Ludvig Alvestad (1883 in Sula – 1956) politician, Govt. minister and Mayor of Ålesund, 1920/21 Inger Giskeødegård (born 1956 in Langevåg) a Norwegian autodidact illustrator Cecilie Fiskerstrand (born 1996) a footballer, plays goalkeeper for Brighton & Hove Albion W.F.C. Musicians Stein Erik Tafjord (born 1953 in Langevåg) a jazz musician (tuba), one of The Brazz Brothers Runar Tafjord (born 1957 in Langevåg) a jazz French horn player, one of The Brazz Brothers Nils Petter Molvær (born 1960 on Sula) a jazz trumpeter, composer and record producer Harald Devold (1964 in Langevåg – 2016) jazz musician (alto & soprano saxophone and flute) Hild Sofie Tafjord (born 1974 in Langevåg) a Norwegian jazz musician (French horn) Kåre Nymark (born 1974 in Langevåg) a Norwegian jazz trumpeter and composer Robert Post (born 1979 in Langevåg) a Norwegian singer-songwriter Lena Nymark (born 1980) a jazz singer and music teacher; raised on the island Sula References External links Municipal fact sheet from Statistics Norway Municipalities of Møre og Romsdal 1977 establishments in Norway	[ -0.0523005872964859, 0.42447128891944885, 0.054227471351623535, -0.46996229887008667, -0.380810409784317, 0.24898909032344818, 0.7100803256034851, 0.2597418427467346, 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207691	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library%20of%20Congress%20Country%20Studies	Library of Congress Country Studies	The Country Studies are works published by the Federal Research Division of the United States Library of Congress, freely available for use by researchers. No copyright is claimed on them. Therefore, they have been dedicated to the public domain and can be copied freely, though not all the pictures used therein are in the public domain. The Country Studies Series presents a description and analysis of the historical setting and the social, economic, political, and national security systems and institutions of countries throughout the world. The series examines the interrelationships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural factors. The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not be construed as an expression of an official United States Government position, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Online information contained in the online Country Studies is not copyrighted and thus is available for free and unrestricted use by researchers. As a courtesy, however, appropriate credit should be given to the series. The material may be copied into Wikipedia, but its plagiarism rule requires explicit credit be given. Hard-copy editions of all books in the series (except the regional studies on Macau and Afghanistan) can be ordered from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Publishing Office at the U.S. Government Bookstore. The last appropriation for the program was in fiscal year 2004. In response to this one-time infusion "...the Federal Research Division initiated action to produce five new Country Studies, as well as a number of shorter, updated Country Profiles. All of that work continues, but in the absence of renewed funding ... no additional work can be initiated." Countries with published studies This is a list of countries for which studies are available at LOCCS, not links to such studies. Afghanistan Albania Algeria Angola Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Belarus Belize Bhutan Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria 1974 Area Handbook; 1992 Country Study; Cambodia Caribbean Islands Chad Chile China Colombia Comoros Ivory Coast Cyprus Czechoslovakia (former) Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Estonia Ethiopia Finland Georgia Germany Germany, East (former) Ghana Guyana Haiti Honduras Hungary India Indonesia Iran (also Army Area Handbooks 1964, 1971) Iraq Israel Italy Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Latvia Laos Lebanon Liberia—country study 1985, earlier editions 1960s, 1970s Libya Lithuania Macau Madagascar Maldives Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Moldova Mongolia Nepal Nicaragua Nigeria North Korea Oman Pakistan Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Qatar Romania Russia Rwanda (Army Area Handbook 1968) Saudi Arabia Seychelles Singapore Somalia South Africa South Korea South Vietnam (former) Soviet Union (former) Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Syria 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207697	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20crowned%20crane	Black crowned crane	The black crowned crane (Balearica pavonina) is a part of the family Gruidae, along with its sister species, the grey crowned crane. It is topped with its characteristic bristle-feathered golden crown. It is usually found in the shallow wetlands of sub-Saharan Africa during the wet season, which act as its principal breeding, feeding and roosting sites although it can also be found foraging in grasslands and near croplands of dry savanna. Taxonomy The black crowned crane is of the order Gruiformes, which includes all cranes as well as the rails (family Rallidae). Cranes are further classified in the Gruidae family which includes sister species like the grey crowned crane as well as the sandhill crane and the whooping crane. The black crowned crane has two subspecies: Balearica pavonina pavonina and Balearica pavonina ceciliae. Description The black crowned crane can measure up to 105 cm in length, weigh between 3000-4000 g and has a wingspan of 180–200 cm. Naturally, it is characterized by its dark slate-grey to black plumage, and it has stiff golden feathers at the top of its head which make up its crown. Each golden bristle-like feather is a spiral that is white on one side and brown on the other with black at the very tip. Other distinct features of these birds include the white feathers on the upper section of their wings and the small pouch of red skin, the gular sac, hanging underneath their chins. Their long legs and their toes are black, and they possess a long hind toe that allows them to grasp onto perches. The black crowned crane also has large red cheek patches just behind its eye that differ in size between its two subspecies; the West African black crowned crane (Balearica pavonina pavonina) has red on the lower half of its cheek patch while the Sudan black crowned crane (Balearica pavonine ceciliae) has red extending to the upper half as well. Male black crowned cranes are larger but are otherwise indistinguishable from females. Juveniles are mostly grey with a brown crown and a nape, grey to brown body. Habitat and distribution The black crowned crane is found across the Sahel and Sudan Savanna regions of Africa, occupying open areas such as grasslands, shallow wetlands, marshes, as well as the margins of lakes and rivers. It is also known to roost in trees. Its range extends from the Senegal Basin and Guinea-Bissau Drainage in West Africa to the Ethiopian Highlands and South-West Rift Valley in East Africa. Balearica pavonina pavonina occupies the western part of this range, while Balearica pavonina ceciliae is found in the east with the greatest numbers in Sudan. Behavior Vocalization Black crowned crane vocalization is characterized as generally low-pitched and mellow “honk” and “ka-wonk ka-wonk ka-wonk” expressions. Diet Black crowned cranes are generalist feeders, with a diet consisting of insects like grasshoppers, locust, and flies; other invertebrates, like molluscs, millipedes, and crustaceans; fish, amphibians, and small reptiles. They will be mostly resident to wetlands except during the dry season and will sometimes forage in short and dry grasses or in upland areas by livestock where insect numbers are high. Black crowned cranes may also forage in croplands and feed on rice, corn, teff, millet, chickpea, and lentil. They will seldom dig for food but rather will peck at it off surfaces. As an alternative to digging, they might stomp their feet to disturb and reveal invertebrates in the soil. Breeding Breeding may occur from May to December for the West African black crowned crane and from July to January for the Sudan black crowned crane. The margins for breeding time are wide as breeding success is dependent on the wet and dry seasons and the suitability of the environment. Black crowned crane numbers will peak in the dry season where flocks may include several hundred individuals. They gather in this way before the next breeding season commences, which allows for juvenile cranes to merge with other young flocks that have not yet reached the first breeding age of 3–5 years. In the breeding season, Black crowned cranes are usually found in pairs but are also observed in groups of up to 20 individuals. Nests (base of 69–109 mm x 71–140 mm diameters) are built within or on the edges of dense wetlands and are constructed with grasses and sedges modified into circular platforms. Due to their opportunistic nature regarding food availability and shelter, Black crowned cranes may alter their nesting sites accordingly with the season. Clutch sizes for the black crowned crane are made up of 1 to 3 eggs, which will be 122—168 g in mass. Incubation of eggs will be performed by both males and females and will last 28–31 days. Males are known to stand guard by the nest in nearby trees, prepared to signal a threat, as females forage. Chicks will forage with their parents in grassland areas the day after hatching. Fledging takes place between 60–100 days. Conservation status and threats Currently, the black crowned crane is listed as a Vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List, with a population of 28 000—47 000 individuals remaining. Black crowned cranes face major conservation threats due to the degradation of wetlands which act as the principal breeding, feeding and roosting sites for the species. Increases in drought and the draining of wetlands in the name of farming, dam construction or irrigation projects have led to the destruction of these ecosystems. Furthermore, fragmented wetlands result in reduced movement of aquatic mammals and therefore limits Black crowned crane food availability. The negative effects of habitat degradation on black crowned crane populations are further aggravated by the hunting, capturing or trade of these birds which have claimed much of their remaining wild populations. In culture The black crowned crane is the national bird of Nigeria, and is often regarded as a symbol of peace. Gallery References External links BirdLife Species Factsheet - Black Crowned-crane Balearica pavonina International Crane Foundation's Black crowned crane Crowned Crane (Balearica pauonina) from Cranes of the World, by Paul Johnsgard black crowned crane Birds of the Sahel black crowned crane Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Articles containing video clips	[ 0.1643475592136383, 0.0428113155066967, -0.40843403339385986, -0.34479162096977234, 0.025908559560775757, 0.6564954519271851, 0.17634958028793335, 0.5852760672569275, -0.9108512997627258, -0.023526815697550774, -0.23467029631137848, 0.3422184884548187, -0.6542870998382568, 0.04758916050195694, -0.5278632044792175, 0.9940905570983887, 0.5668660998344421, 0.28411224484443665, -0.03396402671933174, -0.9910686016082764, 0.07409660518169403, -0.7376204133033752, 0.6469056010246277, -0.39532655477523804, 0.30455973744392395, 0.2721603810787201, 0.3447040319442749, 0.5867026448249817, 0.21270589530467987, 0.637447714805603, 0.1320589929819107, 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207714	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Independence%20%28CVL-22%29	USS Independence (CVL-22)	USS Independence (CVL-22) (also CV-22) was a United States Navy light aircraft carrier. The lead ship of her class, she served during World War II. Converted from the hull of a Cleveland-class light cruiser, she was built by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation and commissioned in January 1943. She took part in the attacks on Rabaul and Tarawa before being torpedoed by Japanese aircraft, necessitating repairs in San Francisco from January to July 1944. After repairs, she launched many strikes against targets in Luzon and Okinawa. Independence was part of the carrier group that sank the remnants of the Japanese Mobile Fleet in the Battle of Leyte Gulf and several other Japanese ships in the Surigao Strait. Until the surrender of Japan, she was assigned to strike duties against targets in the Philippines and Japan. She finished her operational duty off the coast of Japan supporting occupation forces until being assigned to return American veterans back to the United States as part of Operation Magic Carpet. Independence was later used as a target during the Operation Crossroads atomic bomb tests. After being transported back to Pearl Harbor and San Francisco for study, she was later sunk near the Farallon Islands. Construction and deployment Begun as light cruiser Amsterdam, CL-59, she was launched as CV-22 on 22 August 1942 by New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey, sponsored by Mrs. Dorothy Warner, wife of Rawleigh Warner, Sr, Chairman of Pure Oil Co., and commissioned 14 January 1943, Captain G. R. Fairlamb, Jr., in command. The first of a new class of carriers converted from cruiser hulls, Independence conducted shakedown training in the Caribbean. She then steamed through the Panama Canal to join the Pacific Fleet, arriving at San Francisco on 3 July 1943. Independence got underway for Pearl Harbor 14 July, and after two weeks of training exercises sailed with carriers and for a raid on Marcus Island. Aircraft from the carrier force struck on 1 September and destroyed over 70 percent of the installations on the island. The carrier began her next operation, a similar strike against Wake Island 5 to 6 October as CVL-22, having been redesignated 15 July 1943. Rabaul and Gilbert Islands strikes Independence sailed from Pearl Harbor for Espiritu Santo on 21 October. During an ensuing carrier attack on Rabaul on 11 November, the ship's gunners scored their first success – six Japanese aircraft shot down. After this operation, the carrier refueled at Espiritu Santo, headed for the Gilbert Islands, and conducted pre-landing strikes on Tarawa 18 to 20 November 1943. During a Japanese counterattack on 20 November, Independence was attacked by a group of aircraft low on the water. Six were shot down, but the aircraft launched at least five torpedoes, one of which hit the carrier's starboard quarter. Seriously damaged, the ship steamed to Funafuti on 23 November for emergency repairs. Independence returned to San Francisco 2 January 1944 for more permanent repairs. Refitting and training for night operations The now-veteran carrier returned to Pearl Harbor 3 July 1944. During her repair period, the ship had been fitted with an additional catapult, and upon her arrival in Hawaiian waters, Independence began training for night carrier operations embarking the specially trained night fighter and torpedo units of Night Air Group 41 (NAG-41) in August. She continued this pioneering work 24 to 29 August out of Eniwetok. The ship sailed with a large task group 29 August to take part in the Palau operation and the Battle of Peleliu, aimed at securing bases for the final assault on the Philippines in October. Independence provided night reconnaissance and night combat air patrol for Task Force 38 during this operation. Philippines In September the fast carrier task force regularly pounded the Philippines in preparation for the invasion. When no Japanese counterattacks developed in this period, Independence shifted to regular daytime operations, striking targets on Luzon. After replenishment at Ulithi in early October, the great force sortied 6 October for Okinawa. In the days that followed the carriers struck Okinawa, Formosa, and the Philippines. Japanese air counterattacks were repulsed, with Independence providing day strike groups in addition to night fighters and reconnaissance aircraft for defensive protection. As the carrier groups steamed east of the Philippines 23 October, it became apparent, as Admiral Carney later recalled, that "something on a grand scale was underfoot." And indeed it was, as the Japanese fleet moved in a three-pronged effort to turn back the American beachhead on Leyte Gulf. Aircraft from Independences Task Group 38.2, under Rear Admiral Bogan, spotted Kurita's striking force in the Sibuyan Sea 24 October and the carriers launched a series of attacks. Aircraft from Independence and other ships sank the battleship and disabled a cruiser. That evening Admiral Halsey made the decision to turn Task Force 38 northward in search of Admiral Ozawa's carrier group. Independences night search aircraft made contact and shadowed the Japanese ships until dawn 26 October, when the carriers launched an attack. In this second part of the great Battle for Leyte Gulf, all four Japanese carriers were sunk. Meanwhile, American heavy ships had won a victory in Surigao Strait; and a light carrier force had outfought the remainder of Kurita's ships in the Battle off Samar; Independence also assisted TF38 in the destruction of Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa's diversion fleet off Cape Engaño. After the battle, which virtually spelled the end of the Japanese Navy as a major threat, Independence continued to provide search aircraft and night fighter protection for TF 38 in strikes on the Philippines. Independence returned to Ulithi for long-delayed rest and replenishment 9 to 14 November, but soon got underway to operate off the Philippines on night attacks and defensive operations. This phase continued until 30 December 1944, when the task force sortied from Ulithi once more and moved northward. From 3 to 9 January 1945 the carriers supported the Lingayen landings on Luzon, after which Halsey took his fleet on a foray into the South China Sea. In the days that followed the aircraft struck at air bases on Formosa and on the coasts of Indo-China and China. These operations in support of the Philippines campaign marked the end of the carrier's night operations, and she sailed 30 January 1945 for repairs at Pearl Harbor. Okinawa Independence returned to Ulithi 13 March 1945 and got underway next day for operations against Okinawa. She carried out pre-invasion strikes 30 to 31 March, and after the assault 1 April remained off the island supplying combat air patrol and strike aircraft. Her aircraft shot down numerous enemy aircraft during the desperate Japanese attacks on the invasion force. Independence remained off Okinawa until 10 June when she sailed for Leyte. During July and August the carrier took part in the final carrier strikes against Japan itself. After the end of the war 15 August, Independence aircraft continued surveillance flights over the mainland locating prisoner of war camps and covered the landings of Allied occupation troops. The ship departed Tokyo 22 September 1945, arriving at San Francisco via Saipan and Guam 31 October. Operation Crossroads Independence joined the Operation Magic Carpet fleet beginning 15 November 1945, transporting veterans back to the United States until arriving at San Francisco once more 28 January 1946. Assigned as a target vessel for the Operation Crossroads atomic bomb tests, she was placed within one-half-mile of ground zero for the 1 July explosion. The veteran ship did not sink, however (though her funnels and island were crumpled by the blast), and after taking part in another explosion on 25 July was taken to Kwajalein and decommissioned 28 August 1946. Sinking and wreck The highly radioactive hull was later moved to Pearl Harbor and then San Francisco for further tests. She was finally scuttled near the Farallon Islands off the coast of California on 29 January 1951, by packing two torpedoes in her hull. Controversy has subsequently arisen about the sinking of Independence, as it is claimed that she was loaded with barrels of radioactive waste at the time of her sinking, and that the waste has subsequently contaminated the wildlife refuge and commercial fisheries associated with the Farallon Islands. However, in 2015, it was considered that "any public health risk was small", as might be expected after this period of time. In 2009 the position of the wreck of Independence in of water in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary off the Farallon Islands at approximately was confirmed via deep-water multibeam sonar survey conducted from the . In March 2015, scientists and technicians of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) embarked aboard the sanctuary vessel R/V Fulmar used the autonomous underwater vehicle Echo Ranger to make a survey of the wreck, employing the Echoscope three-dimensional imaging sonar to make a series of images of her. The ship is resting upright with a slight list to starboard and most of the flight deck intact, although there are gaping holes in the flight deck leading to the hangar deck below it. No signs of radioactive contamination were detected, although the barrels of waste are still visible inside the hangar deck, and some have rusted open. A NOAA spokesman described the wreck as "amazingly intact." In 2016, a mission led by James P. Delgado, deep sea archaeologist, and partnered with the Ocean Exploration Trust and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, brought investigators closer to the wreckage than ever before. Using robotic exploration vehicles, the team surveyed the USS Independence for the first time since she sank 65 years ago, streaming footage online. While investigating the wreckage, researchers found evidence of at least one existing Grumman Hellcat plane as well as the partial remains of an SB2C-4 Helldiver, and 40-mm and 20-mm anti-aircraft weaponry. Honors and awards Independence received eight battle stars for World War II service. References Further reading External links USS Independence CVL-22 Reunion Group homepage USS Independence CVL-22 Reunion Group, Inc. Veteran's Website USS Independence CVL-22 Website USS Independence at Nine Sisters Light Carrier Historical Documentary Project video of ship, taken by "Nautilus Live" Independence-class aircraft carriers Ships built in Camden, New Jersey 1942 ships World War II aircraft carriers of the United States Military in the San Francisco Bay Area Ships sunk as targets Ships involved in Operation Crossroads Maritime incidents in 1951	[ -0.5112814903259277, -0.3605493903160095, -0.32838717103004456, 0.5695264339447021, 0.08772672712802887, 0.23586028814315796, 0.11845402419567108, -0.020908253267407417, -0.742425799369812, 0.4277203381061554, 0.013526014052331448, 0.2529454529285431, -0.407382071018219, 0.24552133679389954, 0.2161867767572403, 0.3244163393974304, 0.5150036811828613, 0.6959379315376282, 0.4565260410308838, -0.37908118963241577, -0.37389063835144043, -0.09799263626337051, 0.13059505820274353, 0.23915787041187286, -0.33266010880470276, 0.3086717426776886, 0.5178844332695007, 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207723	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integralism	Integralism	In politics, integralism, integrationism or integrism () is the principle that the Catholic faith should be the basis of public law and public policy within civil society, wherever the preponderance of Catholics within that society makes this possible. Integralists uphold the 1864 definition of Pope Pius IX in Quanta cura that the religious neutrality of the civil power cannot be embraced as an ideal situation and the doctrine of Leo XIII in Immortale Dei on the religious obligations of states. In December 1965, the Second Vatican Council approved and Pope Paul VI promulgated the document Dignitatis humanae–the Council's "Declaration on Religious Freedom"–which states that it "leaves untouched traditional Catholic doctrine on the moral duty of men and societies toward the true religion and toward the one Church of Christ" while simultaneously declaring "that the human person has a right to religious freedom," a move that some traditionalists such as Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, the founder of the Society of St. Pius X, have argued is in contradiction to previous doctrinal pronouncements. The term is sometimes used more loosely to refer to a set of theoretical concepts and practical policies that advocate a fully integrated social and political order based on a comprehensive doctrine of human nature. In this generic sense some forms of integralism are focused purely on achieving political and social integration, others national or ethnic unity, while others were more focused on achieving religious and cultural uniformity. Integralism has, thus, also been used to describe non-Catholic religious movements, such as Protestant fundamentalism or Islamism. In the political and social history of the 19th and 20th centuries, the term integralism was often applied to traditionalist conservatism and similar political movements on the right wing of a political spectrum, but it was also adopted by various centrist movements as a tool of political, national and cultural integration. The generic concept would cover many philosophies across the political spectrum from left to right. Professed integralists in the narrow sense generally reject the left/right dichotomy. As a distinct intellectual and political movement, integralism emerged during the 19th and early 20th century polemics within the Catholic Church, especially in France. The term was used as an epithet to describe those who opposed the modernists, who had sought to create a synthesis between Christian theology and the liberal philosophy of secular modernity. Proponents of Catholic political integralism taught that all social and political action ought to be based on the Catholic Faith. They rejected the separation of Church and State, arguing that Catholicism should be the proclaimed religion of the State. Contemporary discussions of integralism were renewed in 2014, with critiques of capitalism and liberalism. Catholic integralism History The first polity that formally embraced Christianity was Armenia under Tiridates III. However, the establishment of the civil order upheld by integralists is generally thought of as beginning with the conversion of Roman Emperor Constantine I in 312. While Constantine personally embraced Christianity, it was only in 380 that Theodosius I formally adopted Catholicism as the religion of the empire by the Edict of Thessalonica. What R. W. Southern called the identification of the Church with the whole of organised society was intensified by the legal reforms of Justinian in the 6th century. The climactic stage in the identification began in the Latin West with the papal transference of Translatio imperii to Charlemagne in 800. The Constantinian age began to decline with the Reformation and is generally treated as ending with the French Revolution. In 1950, Pius XII identified the Dominican friar and prophet Savonarola as an early pioneer of integralism in the face of the "neo-pagan" influences of the Renaissance: "Savonarola shows us the strong conscience of the ascetic and an apostle who has a lively sense of things divine and eternal, who takes a stand against rampant paganism, who remains faithful to the evangelical and Pauline ideal of integral Christianity, put into action in public life as well and animating all institutions. This is why he started preaching, prompted by an interior voice and inspired by God." Teachings Catholic integralism (also called integrism) is an "anti-pluralist" trend in Catholicism; the Catholic integralism born in 19th-century Portugal, Spain, France, Italy and Romania was a movement that sought to assert a Catholic underpinning to all social and political action, and to minimize or eliminate any competing ideological actors, such as secular humanism and liberalism. Integralism arose in opposition to liberalism, which some Catholics saw as a "relentless and destructive ideology". Catholic integralism does not support the creation of an autonomous "Catholic" State Church, or Erastianism (Gallicanism in French context). Rather, it supports subordinating the State to the moral principles of Catholicism. Thus it rejects separating morality from the State, and favours Catholicism as the proclaimed religion of the State. Catholic integralism appeals to the teaching on the necessity of the subordination of the State, and on the subordination of temporal to spiritual power, of medieval popes such as Pope Gregory VII and Pope Boniface VIII. However, Catholic integralism as a more consciously articulated doctrine came about as a reaction against the political and cultural changes that followed the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. The 19th-century papacy challenged the growth of liberalism (with its doctrine of popular sovereignty) as well as new scientific and historical methods and theories (which were thought to threaten the special status of the Christian revelation). Pope Pius IX condemned a list of liberal and Enlightenment ideas in his Syllabus of Errors. The term integralism was applied to a Spanish political party founded about 1890, which based its programme on the Syllabus. Catholic integralism reached its "classical" form in the reaction against modernism. The term did not, however, become popular till the time of Pope Pius X, whose papacy lasted from 1903 to 1914. After the papal condemnation of modernism in 1907, those most active in promoting the papal teachings were sometimes referred to as "integral Catholics" (), from which the words intégrisme (integrism) and intégralisme (integralism) were derived. Encouraged by Pope Pius X, they sought out and exposed any co-religionist whom they suspected of modernism or liberalism. An important integralist organization was the Sodalitium Pianum, known in France as La Sapinière (fir plantation), which was founded in 1909 by Umberto Benigni. Another component of the anti-modernist programme of Pius X was its insistence on the importance of Thomas Aquinas, both in theology and philosophy. In his decree Postquam Sanctissimus of 1914, the pope published a list of 24 philosophical theses to summarise 'the principles and more important thoughts' of St Thomas. Thus integralism is also understood to include a commitment to the teachings of the Angelic Doctor, understood especially as a bulwark against the subjectivist and sceptical philosophies emanating from Descartes and his successors. Decline Catholic integralism suffered a decline after the Second Vatican Council, due to a lack of support from the Catholic hierarchy; during that time, other ideas had been proposed about the relation between the Church and State. However, even the Second Vatican Council finally sided with the integralist understanding in some ways, stating in Dignitatis humanae that the council "leaves intact the traditional teaching of the duty which the State owes to the Church", namely, recognition of the Church as the State religion, unless it would be a detriment to the common good. However, the document also affirmed personal freedom of conscience and freedom from coercion, and in the heyday after the council this became the focus of theological discourse, to the exclusion of the traditional teaching on Church–State relations. In the post-conciliar period, Catholic integralism came to be supported mainly by traditionalist Catholics such as those associated with the Society of St. Pius X and various lay Catholic organizations, though some clergy still supported it in theory, if not vociferously. Political authority The idea that temporal political authority should be subordinated to man’s ultimate, spiritual end is a common theme – if not the main theme – of contemporary Catholic integralism. Revival In recent years, however, a "revived Catholic integralism" has been noted among the younger generation of Catholics writing for websites such as The Josias. Integralism could be said to merely be the modern continuation of the traditional Catholic conception of Church–State relations elucidated by Pope Gelasius I and expounded upon throughout the centuries up to the Syllabus of Errors, which condemned the idea that the separation of Church and State is a moral good. For example, some Catholics have praised the actions of Pius IX in the 1858 Mortara case, in which he ordered the abduction of a six-year-old Jewish boy who had been baptized without his parents' consent. A systematic account of Catholic integralism as a coherent political philosophy has recently been attempted by Thomas Crean and Alan Fimister in their work, 'Integralism: a manual of political philosophy'. Scholars have drawn parallels between Catholic integralism and a view held by a minority in the Reformed churches, Christian reconstructionism. In the National Catholic Reporter, Joshua J. McElwee stated that both Catholic integralists and Reformed Christian reconstructionists have created a non-traditional ecumenical alliance to achieve the goal of establishing a "theocratic type of State". Many integralist movements have emerged on the left wing of the political spectrum. Tradistae and Tradinista, both groups acknowledge what they see as the duty of the state towards the Catholic Church as well as supporting Liberation Theology and rejecting capitalism. Variants of integralism There are a number of variants and localized permutations of integralist political theory, often named by their country of origin. French integralism The term "integrism" is largely used generically and pejoratively in French philosophical and sociopolitical parlance, particularly to label any religious extremism. Integralism in the narrow sense is often but controversially applied to the integral nationalism and Action Française movement founded by Charles Maurras although Maurras was an atheist and his movement was condemned by Rome as 'political modernism' in 1926. Jacques Maritain claimed that his own position of Integral humanism, which he adopted after rejecting Action Francaise, was the authentically integralist stance (although it is generally viewed as its antithesis). Portuguese integralism Integralismo Lusitano (Lusitanian Integralism) was the integralist movement of Portugal, founded in 1914. Portuguese integralism was traditionalist, but not conservative. It was against parliamentarism and, instead, it favored decentralization, Catholicism and the monarchy. Brazilian integralism Somewhat rooted in the Portuguese integralist tradition, the Brazilian integralist movement led by Plínio Salgado – Ação Integralista Brasileira –was founded in Brazil in 7 of October 1932, it lasted less than six years as a legally recognized organization. Salgado's organization was, however, an integral nationalist movement only tangentially connected to Catholic integralism. Spanish integralism The political implications of Catholic integralism are apparent in the Basque-Navarrese context of Spain, where that Integrism or Traditionalist Catholicism refers to a 19th- and 20th-century anti-Liberal movement advocating for the re-establishment of not only clerical but also native institutions lost in the context of the First Carlist War (1833, 1840). One of its branches evolved by the turn of the 20th century into Basque nationalism. The term may also refer to the Spanish formation (1888-1932) led by Ramon Nocedal and Juan Olazábal. Criticism SPLC The Southern Poverty Law Center uses the term "integrism" to refer to "radical traditional Catholics" who reject the Second Vatican Council. SPLC describes them as antisemitic, sedevacantist, and "extremely conservative" regarding women. Fascism Critics and opponents of integralism, such as George Weigel, argue that the movement can be associated with fascism. Benito Mussolini rejected integralism for relativizing the value of the state. Speaking of the key integralist claim, that the spiritual power has rights over the temporal order, Mussolini declared: "We reject this thesis in the most categorical manner, insofar as we are not told where this power starts, nor where it finishes, nor what means it enjoys nor for what ends." Religious liberty John Zmirak criticizes contemporary Catholic integralists as enemies of "religious liberty" while authors such as Thomas Pink insist integralism is compatible with Vatican II's account of religious freedom. See also References Sources Catholicism and society Conservatism Counter-Enlightenment Criticisms of economics Economic ideologies Economy and Christianity Political ideologies Political systems Separation of church and state Theocracy Traditionalist Catholicism Catholic political philosophy Fascism	[ 0.16426892578601837, -0.26130813360214233, -0.20131047070026398, 0.11767642945051193, 0.1543155312538147, 0.20736852288246155, 0.3685142993927002, 0.1708584576845169, 0.2483295202255249, -0.7834212779998779, -0.4411589503288269, 0.8663081526756287, -0.47916287183761597, 0.0042412057518959045, 0.4738108813762665, 0.14374184608459473, 0.6510893106460571, 0.22757838666439056, -0.2570602595806122, 0.10987793654203415, -0.5611425042152405, 0.2976570427417755, -0.2381586730480194, 0.40179443359375, 0.26936131715774536, -0.13431653380393982, 0.5679308772087097, -0.13620908558368683, -0.3774298131465912, 0.44987189769744873, 0.5291463732719421, 0.1538722962141037, -0.4735451936721802, 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207724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milton%2C%20Queensland	Milton, Queensland	Milton is a riverside inner suburb of the City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. In the , the population of Milton was 2,274 people. Geography Milton is approximately west of the central business district. The suburb is a mixture of light industry, warehouses, commercial offices, retail and single and multiple occupancy residences. The main roads are Milton Road, which runs beside the main western rail line and Coronation Drive (formerly River Road), which runs along the Brisbane River. The postcode for Milton is 4064. History Settlement in the Milton area by Europeans began in the 1840s, with land mostly used for farming and grazing. The suburb's name was derived from the farm name "Milton Farm", used from the late 1840s by Ambrose Eldridge, chemist. Eldridge named the farm after John Milton, the English poet. Circa 1862 the Anglican Church established a mortuary chapel for the North Brisbane Burial Ground (now Lang Park). It was demolished in 1891. Christ Church Anglican was dedicated in 1876. It was re-built and re-dedicated in 1891. In 1878 68 allotments were advertised to be auctioned by John Cameron on Monday, 27 May 1878. This area was called the "Milton Estate" and was subdivisions of portion 14 in the parish of Enoggera. The allotments were situated across the road from the Milton railway station. It was reported in The Brisbane Courier that 44 of the 68 allotments were sold at the auction for between £11 and £39. In 1879 98 allotments were advertised to be auctioned by J.B. Ellis & Co on Monday, 24 February 1879. This area was called the "Bayswater Estate" and was subdivision of portions 228 and 229 in the parish of Enoggera. Milton State School opened on 18 March 1889. In 1989 the school celebrated its centenary. In 1899 461 allotments were advertised to be auctioned by Isles, Love & Co on Saturday, 2 September 1899 (Federation Day), Saturday 9 September 1899 and Saturday 16 September 1899. This area was called the "Dunmore Estate" and is now mostly in Toowong as well as partly in Milton. On the real estate map for "Dunmore Estate", Cribb's Paddock, Milton is a black and white photo titled "Panoramic view of the river looking towards town". In 1899 it was advertised in the Brisbane Courier for contractors for the "Dunmore Estate", Cribb's Paddock, Milton to make an access road through the lagoon and a roadway under the railway bridge. It was reported in The Brisbane Courier and The Telegraph that a total of 240 lots were sold - 108 lots on 2 September 1899, 81 lots on 9 September 1899 and 51 lots on 16 September 1899. Between 1900 and 1962, Milton was served by trams running along Milton Road from Toowong and Rainworth, with the latter branching off at Baroona Road. The services were withdrawn after the disastrous Paddington tram depot fire and replaced by buses. The suburb continues to be served by most western suburb bus routes operated by Brisbane Transport. In 1911 20 allotments were advertised to be auctioned by Isles, Love & Co on Saturday, 30 September 1911. This area was called the "Payne Estate" and was subdivisions 4 to 7 and 10 to 22 and 27 to 29 in the parish of Enoggera. The allotments were situated on Park Road, Milton near the Brisbane River and near Milton Railway Station. It was reported in The Brisbane Courier that 15 of the 20 allotments were sold at the auction. In 1913 32 allotments were advertised to be auctioned by Cameron Bros. on Saturday, 10 May 1913. This area was called the "Fairholme Estate". It was reported in The Telegraph that 28 allotments were sold at the auction. The Morrow biscuit factory opened in December 1913 on the north-east corner of Coronation Drive and Boomerang Street (). In 1949 the Morrow company merged with the Arnott's Biscuits company and the factory became known as the Arnott's factory. It was well known because of the pleasant smell of baking biscuits that surrounded it. The factory was demolished in the 1980s, after Arnotts' moved their Brisbane operations to 46 Robinson Road East, Virginia. The Morrow/Arnott's site was redeveloped as apartments in 2004. Milton Courts opened in 1915. They were Brisbane's major tennis courts, where major international and national tournaments were held until the courts closed in the 1990s. Between 1927 and 1969, the Brisbane City Council's tramway workshops were located at Boomerang Street, a site formerly used as a nightsoil dump. Trams accessed the workshops from Milton Road, under the railway line. After the closure of the tram system on 13 April 1969, the workshops continued to be used to service the City Council's bus fleet, until the workshop complex was shifted to Toowong in 1979. The workshops were then demolished and the site used as a successful "Park and Ride" car park, where commuters could park their cars at the edge of the CBD and continue their journey by bus. However, in the late 1980s, a change in City Council policy saw the site sold for office development. Milton Bowl opened in 1962. It was a ten-pin bowling alley located at the Rosalie end of the suburb. It closed on 17 March 2008, after 45 years. The Brisbane City Council's trolley-bus depot and garage was located between Chippendall and Castlemaine Streets and operated between 1951 and 1969. The building remained until it was demolished to make way for the redevelopment of Lang Park as a stadium. Hubbard's School (also known as Hubbards Academy) opened in 1952 as an after-school tutoring institution. From 1953 it accepted students on a full-time basis. In January 2011, Milton experienced flooding as part of the 2010–2011 Queensland floods. In 2014 Brisbane City Council redeveloped the former Milton Courts and Milton Bowl sites as Frew Park, a large inner city parkland incorporating tennis courts, children's playground and open space. In the the population of Milton was 2,274 people. Heritage listings Milton has a number of heritage-listed sites, including: Bayswater Street: Milton State School 249 Coronation Drive: Cook Terrace 16 Hale Street: Christ Church 50 McDougall Street: Milton House 233 Milton Road: Old Bishopsbourne Chapel (Chapel of the Holy Spirit) 233 Milton Road: Old Bishopsbourne Demographics In the the population of Milton was 2,274, 48.9% female and 51.1% male. The median age of the Milton population was 29 years of age, 9 years below the Australian median. 57.8% of people living in Milton were born in Australia, compared to the national average of 66.7% 71.5% of people spoke only English at home; the next most common language was Mandarin at 4.6%. The most common responses for religion were No Religion 39.7% and Catholic 21.3%. Education Milton State School is a government primary (Prep-6) school for boys and girls at Bayswater Street (). In 2018, the school had an enrolment of 717 students with 54 teachers (44 full-time equivalent) and 25 non-teaching staff (15 full-time equivalent). It includes a special education program. Hubbard's School is a private secondary (11-12) school for boys and girls at 15 Lang Parade (). In 2018, the school had an enrolment of 59 students with 11 teachers (4 full-time equivalent) and 3 non-teaching staff. Amenities The Anglican Chapel of the Holy Spirit at St Francis' Theological College is at 223 Milton Road (). Christ Church Anglican is at 3-9 Chippendall Street (). Behind the church is the Christ Church Memorial Reserve which contains a small number of headstones relocated from the North Brisbane Burial Ground (subsequently redeveloped as Lang Park Stadium). Frew Park is between Milton Road and Frew Street (). It has tennis courts and other recreational activities. Attractions Notable landmarks in Milton include the Castlemaine Perkins brewery (), known for the "Fourex" (XXXX) range of beers, Lang Park (also known as Brisbane Stadium and by the sponsor name of Suncorp Stadium), a portion of the Brisbane riverwalk and the Park Road strip of restaurants and cafés. Castlemaine Perkins brewery offers tours and tastings in its Alehouse. Lang Park Lang Park is at 40 Castlemaine Street, Milton, with frontage and entrance now on Caxton Street, Paddington (). In 1840 the site was originally established as a cemetery by Reverend John Dunmore Lang for which it was used until 1875. In 1911 the cemetery was closed and most of the graves were moved to Toowong and Lutwyche Cemeteries. The site then became a rubbish tip. In 1914 the site established as parkland (John Brown Oval after a City Council alderman and used for cycling, athletics and soccer). In 1955 Frank Burke persuaded Queensland Rugby League to sign a 21-year lease on the grounds with the Brisbane City Council and the newly christened Lang Park became the official headquarters for the Rugby League football code in Queensland. The first Rugby League match was held there in 1958 and in 1963 the Lang Park Trust was established under an Act of Parliament. Rugby internationals (1965 First Rugby Union Test against South African Springboks), cricket internationals (1966 the Ashes campaign, Australia vs. Great Britain with a new attendance record of 45,047), soccer internationals (1970 Queensland vs Russian Club Moscow Dynamo) and local baseball (1972 All Stars vs Ipswich with a 2,000 crowd) were played there. The first State of Origin match between Queensland and New South Wales was held there in 1980, and it became the home of the Brisbane Broncos Rugby league team (1988–92, 2003– ), and the now defunct Crushers rugby league team (1995). The old stadium and its various grandstands were demolished in 2000 (quite controversially) and a new state of the art modern stadium was completed in 2003 and rechristened Suncorp Stadium after its major corporate sponsor. Older fans still refer to the ground as Lang Park as do some media personalities much to the chagrin of the Suncorp sponsor. Radio humorists and State of Origin match callers, Roy and HG, were reprimanded for referring to the new stadium as Lang Park and from then on referred to the site as "the place formerly called Lang Park".Officially the correct title is the Suncorp Stadium at Lang Park. The stadium is unofficially known as "The Cauldron", and Queensland fans developed a reputation for vocal support of their teams, adding to this mythology. Extensive use of steel has helped to provide a built-in atmosphere and the designers of the redevelopment have opted for the use of a low flat steel roof because of its ability to enclose crowd noise within the stadium and re-creating the Cauldron atmosphere of the original Lang Park. The 1992 statue of rugby league footballer Wally Lewis erected at the southern end of the Stadium. Transport By Ferry, the Milton Ferry Terminal () is at the end of Park Road as it meets Coronation Drive. By Train, the Milton Railway Station () is the first station on the Ipswich line west of Roma Street Station. It is served by commuter trains only. References External links University of Queensland: Queensland Places: Milton Christ Church, Milton	[ -0.14428982138633728, 0.4218042194843292, -0.15423861145973206, -0.6858850121498108, 0.07081831246614456, 0.778124213218689, 0.18407109379768372, 0.05097585543990135, -0.8658162355422974, -0.318326473236084, -0.5997064113616943, 0.04565304145216942, 0.23978565633296967, 0.4824204742908478, -0.06527212262153625, 0.8716908097267151, -0.07285092771053314, 0.6168950200080872, 0.3208227753639221, -0.29474562406539917, 0.5065843462944031, -0.4800533354282379, -0.08779575675725937, 0.5560900568962097, 0.25612756609916687, 0.07500075548887253, 0.6734020113945007, 0.637574315071106, -0.5676642060279846, 0.271881103515625, -0.0703999325633049, 0.42164796590805054, 0.1714884489774704, 0.14576856791973114, 0.8295742273330688, 0.044336624443531036, 0.4853501617908478, -0.6666320562362671, -0.2269393503665924, -0.08369431644678116, 0.09875455498695374, -0.14763033390045166, 0.163974329829216, 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207727	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicopteriformes	Phoenicopteriformes	Phoenicopteriformes is a group of water birds which comprises flamingos and their extinct relatives. Flamingos and their relatives are well attested in the fossil record, with the first unequivocal member of the Phoenicopteridae, Elornis known from the late Eocene epoch. An extinct family of peculiar "swimming flamingos", the Palaelodidae, are believed to be the closest relatives of the modern flamingos, with the extinct genus Juncitarsus slightly more primitive than the group which contains flamingos and grebes (Mirandornithes). The foot and wing anatomy of the palaelodids suggests that they were surface-swimming birds, rather than grebe-like divers as was proposed in the past. Whether swimmers or divers, that both primitive phoenicopteriforms and their closest relatives, the grebes, were highly aquatic, indicates that the entire clade Mirandornithes evolved from aquatic, probably swimming ancestors. References Bird orders Extant Eocene first appearances Eocene taxonomic orders Oligocene taxonomic orders Miocene taxonomic orders Pliocene taxonomic orders Pleistocene taxonomic orders Holocene taxonomic orders Taxa named by Max Fürbringer	[ 0.25816962122917175, 0.0001221658894792199, -0.9619960188865662, 0.04093817248940468, 0.0176125168800354, 0.9753699898719788, 0.46179813146591187, 0.3295019567012787, -0.3619230389595032, -0.670553982257843, 0.1123310998082161, 0.03861931711435318, -0.36961448192596436, -0.3296947479248047, -0.15271706879138947, 0.37233394384384155, -0.13109943270683289, 0.3470454514026642, 0.34762585163116455, -0.3767647445201874, -0.6540701389312744, -0.5190824866294861, 0.23852692544460297, -0.5569655895233154, 0.373658150434494, -0.12296871840953827, 0.11472354084253311, 0.6977468729019165, 0.962618887424469, 0.14722798764705658, 0.11673731356859207, 1.023919701576233, 0.13244031369686127, -0.33338817954063416, -0.4356939196586609, -0.5794894695281982, 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207736	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peregrine	Peregrine	Peregrine, Latin Peregrinus, is a name originally meaning "one from abroad", that is, a foreigner, traveller, or pilgrim. It may refer to: Peregrine falcon, a bird of prey People Peregrine Peregrine (martyr) (died 182 AD), Roman Catholic saint Peregrine of Auxerre (martyr) (died c. 304 AD), Roman Catholic saint Perry Anderson (born 1938), British intellectual and essayist Peregrine Bertie (disambiguation), several people Peregrine Cavendish, 12th Duke of Devonshire (born 1944), British peer Peregrine Cust (disambiguation), several people Peregrine Hoby (1602–1679), English Member of Parliament Peregrine Honig (born 1976), American artist Peregrine Hopson (1696–1759), British army officer Peregrine Laziosi (1260–1345), Roman Catholic saint Sir Peregrine Maitland (1777–1854), British soldier and colonial administrator Peregrine Ó Duibhgeannáin (1600s), Irish historian Peregrine Osborne (disambiguation), several people Peregrine Pelham (died 1650), English Member of Parliament Howell Peregrine (1938–2007), British applied mathematician Sir Peregrine Simon (born 1950), British High Court judge Peregrine White (1620–1704), first English child born in America after the arrival of the Mayflower Sir Peregrine Worsthorne (1923–2020), British journalist Peregrinus Peregrinus, Bishop of Terni (died 138 AD), Roman Catholic saint Peregrinus Proteus (died 165 AD), a Cynic philosopher Tiberius Pollenius Armenius Peregrinus (3rd century AD), Roman consul Peregrino I (514) and Peregrino II (649), Archbishops of Messina Cetteus or Peregrinus (died 597), Roman Catholic saint and bishop of Amiternum Peregrinus or Piligrim (died 990) Bartolfus Peregrinus (died by 1109) or Bartolf of Nangis Guilielmus Peregrinus (died 1146), a German pilgrim Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt (1200s), French scholar Art, music, and literature Passing of Peregrinus, a 2nd-century satire by Lucian Peregrine (album), 2006 album by the Appleseed Cast Peregrine (band), Australian indie rock band "Peregrine", a song by Donovan on the 1968 album The Hurdy Gurdy Man "Peregrines", a 2004 short story by Suzy McKee Charnas The Peregrine, a 1967 book by J. A. Baker "The Peregrin", a story in The Psychotechnic League series Tonus Peregrinus, a British vocal ensemble Tonus peregrinus, reciting tone in Gregorian chant Biology Peregrine falcon, a bird of prey Peregrinus (planthopper), a genus of planthoppers in the family Delphacidae Erigeron peregrinus, a flowering plant of the daisy family Nicodamus peregrinus, the red and black spider Pinus peregrinus, an extinct species of pine Platycorynus peregrinus, a species of beetle Pseudocheirus peregrinus, the common ringtail possum Business Peregrine Investments Holdings, a Hong Kong investment company Peregrine Financial Group, an American futures brokerage firm Peregrine Holdings Limited, a company traded on the Johannesburg Securities Exchange Peregrine Semiconductor, an American fabless semiconductor company Peregrine Systems, a software company Characters Peregrine Fisher, lead character in the 2019 television series Ms Fisher's Modern Murder Mysteries and niece of Phryne Fisher James Peregrine Lester, a character played by Ben Miller in British television series Primeval Miss Peregrine, a character in the 2011 novel Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children by Ransom Riggs Peregrine (comics), a Marvel Comics character Peregrine (Wild Cards), a character in the Wild Cards comic series Peregrine Pickle, the titular protagonist of a 1751 novel by Tobias Smollett Peregrin Took, character in the 1950s series The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien Peregrine, a character in Volpone a 1600s play by Ben Jonson Peregrine family, characters in the 1989 and 1991 novels by Jude Deveraux Peregrine Hazard, a character in the 1991 novel Wise Children by Angela Carter Sir Walter Peregrine, a character in the 1637 play The Example by James Shirley Military Operation Peregrine, a 2003 Canadian military operation USS Peregrine (AM-373), a U.S. Navy ship Places El Peregrino, a settlement in General Pinto Partido, Argentina Peregrinus Peak, an Antarctic peak Mons Peregrinus or the Citadel of Raymond de Saint-Gilles Sport Peregrine (horse) (1878 – c. 1898), British racehorse, winner of the 2000 Guineas in 1881 St. Peregrines, a Gaelic athletic club Transportation LNER Class A4 60034 Lord Faringdon, a steam locomotive that was at one point named Peregrine , a British ship Peregrine (spacecraft), a lunar lander designed by Astrobotic Technology Rolls-Royce Peregrine, an aero engine Other uses Pilgrim Peregrine (journal), full title: Peregrine: American Immigration in the 21st Century, an online journal on immigration to the United States Peregrinus (Roman), a designation for a non-citizen subject of the Roman empire The Peregrine Fund, a bird conservation organization An astrology term for a planet with no essential dignity See also Pellegrino (disambiguation)	[ -0.35561197996139526, -0.036945641040802, -0.42587536573410034, -0.17656169831752777, -0.07963348180055618, 0.33893802762031555, 0.4623543322086334, 0.6136006712913513, -0.19770745933055878, -0.11537892371416092, -0.7002595067024231, -0.09431667625904083, -0.5332538485527039, 0.26900947093963623, -0.17493826150894165, 0.2225044220685959, -0.21410009264945984, 0.1923193633556366, -0.5085846781730652, -0.5585382580757141, -0.2846299707889557, 0.20670396089553833, 0.15123338997364044, -0.2887538969516754, 0.6822496652603149, -0.19607339799404144, 0.30766379833221436, -0.4906397759914398, -0.3344404697418213, 0.07267383486032486, 0.051791563630104065, 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207737	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mydriasis	Mydriasis	Mydriasis is the dilation of the pupil, usually having a non-physiological cause, or sometimes a physiological pupillary response. Non-physiological causes of mydriasis include disease, trauma, or the use of drugs. Normally, as part of the pupillary light reflex, the pupil dilates in the dark and constricts in the light to respectively improve vividity at night and to protect the retina from sunlight damage during the day. A mydriatic pupil will remain excessively large even in a bright environment. The excitation of the radial fibres of the iris which increases the pupillary aperture is referred to as a mydriasis. More generally, mydriasis also refers to the natural dilation of pupils, for instance in low light conditions or under sympathetic stimulation. Fixed, unilateral mydriasis could be a symptom of raised intracranial pressure. The opposite, constriction of the pupil, is referred to as miosis. Both mydriasis and miosis can be physiological. Anisocoria is the condition of one pupil being more dilated than the other. Causes There are two types of muscle that control the size of the iris: the iris sphincter, composed of circularly arranged muscle fibers, and the iris dilator, composed of radially arranged muscle fibers. The sphincter is controlled by nerves of the parasympathetic nervous system, and the dilator by the sympathetic nervous system. Sympathetic stimulation of the adrenergic receptors causes the contraction of the radial muscle and subsequent dilation of the pupil. Conversely, parasympathetic stimulation causes contraction of the circular muscle and constriction of the pupil. The mechanism of mydriasis depends on the agent being used. It usually involves either a disruption of the parasympathetic nerve supply to the eye (which normally constricts the pupil) or overactivity of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Pupil diameter also increases in reaction to cognitive tasks requiring memory and attention, and this phenomenon is used as an indicator of mental activation (‘arousal’) in psychophysiological experiments. Drugs A mydriatic is an agent that induces dilation of the pupil. Drugs such as tropicamide are used in medicine to permit examination of the retina and other deep structures of the eye, and also to reduce painful ciliary muscle spasm (see cycloplegia). One effect of administration of a mydriatic is intolerance to bright light (photophobia). Purposefully-induced mydriasis via mydriatics is also used as a diagnostic test for Horner's syndrome. Mydriasis can be induced via modulation of adrenergic or cholinergic signalling. Drugs that can cause mydriasis include: Stimulants (typically monoaminergics) such as amphetamines, cocaine, MDMA, and mephedrone. Anticholinergics such as diphenhydramine, atropine, hyoscyamine, and scopolamine antagonize the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in the eye. Blocking acetylcholine receptors reduces the pupillary muscles' ability to constrict and causes dilation (which is critical in eye surgery procedures such as cataract surgery which require uninterrupted access to the inner eye via the pupillary aperture, thus requiring that the eye be both paralyzed and anesthetized before the procedure can go ahead). The antimuscarinic, tropicamide, may be used as a mydriastic agent during surgery. Serotonergics such as LSD, psilocybin mushrooms, mescaline and 2C-B. These drugs are typically hallucinogens. Similarly, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors can cause mydriasis. Dissociatives such as dextromethorphan (an SSRI and sigma-1 agonist). Certain GABAergic drugs, such as phenibut and GHB. Adrenergic agonists, such as phenylephrine and cyclomydril. Adrenergic agonists may be used if strong mydriasis is needed in surgery. Norepinephrine is a hormone and neurotransmitter that regulates the involuntary muscles of the autonomic nervous system, including dilation of the pupil aperture via the muscles of the iris. Hence adrenergic agonists mimic the activity of norepinephrine, which is how they induce mydriasis. Natural release of the hormone oxytocin can cause mild to moderate mydriasis. Long term effects of drugs can also cause mydriasis, for example opioid withdrawal. Autonomic neuropathy Parasympathetic fibers travel with cranial nerve III, the oculomotor nerve, to innervate the circular layer of muscle of the eye (sphincter pupillae). Damage to this nerve typically manifests itself as mydriasis, because the sympathetic supply to the pupil, which causes mydriasis, remains unaffected, and therefore unopposed. Multiple central nervous system disorders e.g. epilepsy, stroke, and impending brain herniation are known to lead to temporal mydriasis as well. A brain catastrophe, or a rapidly increasing brain mass, can cause compression of the oculomotor nerve. Trauma In cases of head injury or orbit trauma (eye injury), the iris sphincter (the muscle responsible for closing the pupil) or the nerves controlling it can be damaged, reducing or eliminating the normal pupillary light reflex. 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207739	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperpower	Hyperpower	A hyperpower is a state that dominates all other states in every domain (i.e. military, culture, economy) and is considered to be a step higher than a superpower. Although the United States of America had exhibited the traits of a hyperpower, its global influence has begun to decline relative to other potential superpowers. More specifically, in recent times, the United States, as a global power, no longer dominates in every domain (i.e. military, culture, economy, technology, diplomatic) in every region of the world. According to the Asia Power Index 2020, the United States still takes the lead on the military capacity, cultural influence, resilience and defense networks, but falls behind China in four parameters of economic resources, future resources, economic relationships and diplomatic influence across eight measures. It should be noted, however, that this index ranks power and influence only across Indo-Pacific, and is therefore arguably not applicable to the global definition of a hyperpower. History The British journalist Peregrine Worsthorne coined the term in a Sunday Telegraph article published March 3, 1991. After the end of the Cold War with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, some political commentators felt that a new term was needed to describe the United States' position (Pax Americana) as the lone superpower. French foreign minister Hubert Védrine popularized the term in 1998, because from France's position, the United States looked like a hyperpower, although the validity of classifying the United States in this way was disputed. The term has also been applied retroactively to dominant states of the past. In her book Day of Empire, American professor Amy Chua suggests that the Achaemenid Empire, the Tang dynasty, the Roman Empire, the Mongol Empire, the Dutch Empire, and the British Empire were successful examples of historical hegemons; the Spanish Monarchy, Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, and Third Reich were counters; and she reflects on assertions that the United States is a modern hyperpower. In a historical context, it is usually understood to mean a power that greatly exceeds any others in its political environment along several axes; Rome did not dominate Persia, Ancient India or China, but did dominate the entire Mediterranean area militarily, culturally, and economically. 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207741	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outside%20flame%20ignitor	Outside flame ignitor	An outside flame ignitor was an early ignition device used in internal-combustion engines that used a flame outside the engine and a sliding port on the cylinder head. At the appropriate time in the compression cycle of the engine, the port would briefly be opened and closed allowing the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder to be ignited by the flame. They had many problems, including partial loss of compression through the port when it opened and many mechanical problems with the mechanism that operated the port. They were considered obsolete before 1911. 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207745	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny%20Clegg	Johnny Clegg	Jonathan Paul Clegg, OBE, OIS (7 June 195316 July 2019) was a South African musician, singer-songwriter, dancer, anthropologist and anti-apartheid activist, some of whose work was in musicology focused on the music of indigenous South African peoples. His band Juluka began as a duo with Sipho Mchunu, and was the first group in the South African apartheid-era with a white man and a black man. The pair performed and recorded, later with an expanded lineup. In 1986 Clegg founded the band Savuka, and also recorded as a solo act, occasionally reuniting with his earlier band partners. Sometimes called Le Zoulou Blanc (, for "The White Zulu"), he was an important figure in South African popular music and a prominent white figure in the resistance to apartheid, becoming for a period the subject of investigation by the security branch of the South African Police. His songs mixed English with Zulu lyrics, and also combined idioms of traditional African music with those of modern Western styles. Early life and career Clegg was born on 7 June 1953 in Bacup, Lancashire, to an English father of Scottish descent, Dennis Clegg, and a Rhodesian mother, Muriel (Braudo). Clegg's mother's family were Jewish immigrants from Lithuania, and Clegg had a secular Jewish upbringing, learning about the Ten Commandments but refusing to have a bar mitzvah or even associate with other Jewish children at school. His parents divorced when he was still an infant, and he moved with his mother to Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and then, at the age of six, to South Africa, also spending part of a year in Israel during his childhood. As an adolescent in Johannesburg's northern suburbs, he encountered the demi-monde of the city's Zulu migrant workers' music and dance. Under the tutelage of Charlie Mzila, a flat cleaner by day and musician by night, Clegg mastered both the Zulu language and the maskandi guitar and the isishameni dance styles of the migrants. Clegg's involvement with black musicians often led to arrests for trespassing on government property and for contravening the Group Areas Act. He was first arrested at the age of 15 for violating apartheid-era laws in South Africa banning people of different races from congregating together after curfew hours. At the age of 17, he met Sipho Mchunu, a Zulu migrant worker with whom he began performing music. The partnership, which they named Juluka, began in 1969, and was profiled in the 1970s television documentary Beats of the Heart: Rhythm of Resistance. After graduating with a BA(Hons) in Social Anthropology from the University of Witwatersrand, Clegg pursued an academic career for four years where he lectured and wrote several seminal scholarly papers on Zulu music and dance. In the early stages of his musical career, Clegg combined his music with the study of anthropology at Wits, where he was influenced by the work of David Webster, a social anthropologist who was later assassinated in 1989. He preceded each song with snippets of Zulu culture, information, commentary, humor and personal anecdotes relevant and unique to that song, occasionally also incorporating aspects of his Jewish roots in songs such as "Jericho", "Jarusalema" and "Warsaw 1943". Juluka Juluka was an unusual musical partnership for the time in South Africa, with a white man (Clegg) and a black man (Mchunu) performing together. The band, which grew to a six-member group (with three white musicians and three black musicians) by the time it released its first album Universal Men in 1979, faced harassment and censorship, with Clegg later remarking that it was "impossible" to perform in public in South Africa. The group tested the apartheid-era laws, touring and performing in private venues, including universities, churches, hostels, and even private homes in order to attract an audience, as national broadcasters would not play their music. Just as unusually, the band's music combined Zulu, Celtic, and rock elements, with both English and Zulu lyrics. Those lyrics often contained coded political messages and references to the battle against apartheid, although Clegg maintained that Juluka was not originally intended to be a political band. "Politics found us," he told The Baltimore Sun in 1996. In a 1989 interview with the Sunday Times, Clegg denied the label of "political activist." "For me a political activist is someone who has committed himself to a particular ideology. I don’t belong to any political party. I stand for human rights." Juluka's music was both implicitly and explicitly political; not only was the fact of the success of the band (which openly celebrated African culture in a bi-racial band) a thorn in the flesh of a political system based on racial separation, the band also produced some explicitly political songs. For example, the album Work for All (which includes a song with the same title) picked up on South African trade union slogans in the mid-1980s. As a result of their political messages and racial integration, Clegg and other band members were arrested several times and concerts routinely broken up. Despite being ignored and often harassed by the South African government at home, Juluka were able to tour internationally, playing in Europe, Canada, and the United States, and had two platinum and five gold albums, becoming an international success. The group was disbanded in 1985, when Mchunu retired from music and went back to his family farm to return to his people's traditional life of raising cattle. It was briefly reconstituted when Mchunu and Clegg reunited in the mid-1990s, releasing one final album in 1997 before breaking up for good. Savuka Together with the black musician and dancer Dudu Zulu, Clegg went on to form his second inter-racial band, Savuka, in 1986, continuing to blend African music with European influences. The group's first album, Third World Child, broke international sales records in several European countries, including France. The band went on to record several more albums, including Heat, Dust and Dreams, which received a Grammy Award nomination. Johnny Clegg and Savuka played both at home and abroad, even though Clegg's refusal to stop performing in apartheid-era South Africa created tensions with the international anti-apartheid movement. Despite his high-profile (and personally hazardous) opposition to the South African regime, this led to Clegg's expulsion from the British Musicians' Union, in what one writer has since called "a fit of pique". In one instance, the band drew such a large crowd in Lyon that Michael Jackson cancelled a concert there, complaining that Clegg and his group had "stole[n] all his fans". In 1993, the band dissolved after Dudu Zulu was shot and killed while attempting to mediate a taxi war. Juluka reunion and solo career Briefly reunited in the mid-1990s, Clegg and Mchunu reformed Juluka, released a new album, and toured throughout the world in 1996 with King Sunny Adé. In the following years, Clegg recorded several solo albums. During one concert in 1999, he was joined onstage by South African President Nelson Mandela, who danced as Johnny Clegg sang the protest song "Asimbonanga" that Savuka had dedicated to Mandela. Asimbonanga became an anthem of protest for the Mass Democratic Movement's umbrella organisation, the United Democratic Front. During Mandela's illness and death in 2013, the video of the concert attracted considerable media attention outside South Africa. His touring schedule was abbreviated in 2017 after he underwent surgery for pancreatic cancer, and Clegg performed his last concert in Harare, Zimbabwe in November 2018. In popular culture Clegg's song "Scatterlings of Africa" gave him his only entries in the UK Singles Chart, reaching No. 44 in February 1983 with Juluka and No. 75 in May 1987 as Johnny Clegg and Savuka. The following year the song was featured on the soundtrack to the 1988 Oscar-winning film Rain Man. His song "Life is a Magic Thing" was featured in FernGully: The Last Rainforest. Savuka's song "Dela" was featured on the soundtrack of the 1997 film George of the Jungle and its 2003 sequel, while "Great Heart" was the title song for the 1986 film Jock of the Bushveld and the end credits song for the 2000 film Whispers: An Elephant's Tale. "Cruel, Crazy, Beautiful World" was featured in the 1990 film Opportunity Knocks and 1991 film Career Opportunities. Jimmy Buffett recorded "Great Heart" for his 1988 album, Hot Water. Hong Kong singer Shirley Kwan covered "Dela" in Cantonese version released in 1993. Recognition 1991: awarded the Chevalier des Arts et Lettres (Knight of Arts and Letters) by the French Government. 2004: voted 23rd in the SABC3's Great South Africans. 2007: received an honorary doctorate in music from the University of the Witwatersrand. 2011: received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from City University of New York School of Law. 2012: received the Order of Ikhamanga, Silver as part of the National Orders ceremony. This award is the highest honour a citizen can receive in South Africa. It was presented by President Jacob Zuma. 2012: received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA. 2013: received an honorary Doctorate in Music from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. 2015: was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire. 2018: received an Honorary Doctorate of Philosophy Degree in Visual and Performing Arts from the Durban University of Technology alongside his Juluka bandmate, Sipho Mchunu. Illness and death Johnny Clegg was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in 2015, which ultimately led to his death on 16 July 2019. He died in his Johannesburg home surrounded by loved ones and was laid to rest the following day in Westpark Cemetery in Johannesburg. Clegg was survived by his wife, Jenny, and his two sons, Jesse (also a musician) and Jaron. Works Academic publications Autobiographical novels Discography Juluka 1979 Universal Men 1981 African Litany 1982 Ubuhle Bemvelo 1982 Scatterlings 1983 Work For All 1984 Stand Your Ground (Juluka album) 1984 Musa Ukungilandela 1984 The International Tracks 1986 Juluka Live: The Good Hope Concerts 1991 The Best of Juluka 1992 South Africa 9: Johnny Clegg & Sipho Mchunu (Duo Juluka) + Ladysmith Black Mambazo: Cologne Zulu Festival (recorded 1977 & 1981) 1996 Putumayo Presents A Johnny Clegg & Juluka Collection 1997 Crocodile Love (released in South Africa as Ya Vuka Inkunzi) Savuka 1987 Third World Child 1988 Shadow Man 1989 Cruel, Crazy Beautiful World 1993 Heat, Dust and Dreams 2001 Live and Rarities Solo 2002 New World Survivor 2003 A South African Story - Live at the Nelson Mandela Theatre 2006 One Life 2010 Human 2014 Best, Live & Unplugged: Clegg at the Baxter Theatre Cape Town 2017 King of Time DVD 2003 Johnny Clegg Live at the Nelson Mandela Theatre 2004 Live! and more... 2010 Johnny Clegg 30th Anniversary Concert at Emmarentia Dam Soundtracks 1992 The Power of One Contributions In 2012, Clegg played the mouthbow (umhubhe) on the song "Emaweni" by Andy Innes. References External links In My African Dream: the Johnny Clegg Discography inmyafricandream.free.fr Greg Kot: Worlds Apart: Johnny Clegg Has Been / Molded by South Africa Chicago Tribune 29 April 1990 A National Treasure Turns 21 talkingleaves.com 25 October 2000 Jeremy Cooper: The return of the white Zulu chico.mweb.co 15 December 2006 1953 births 2019 deaths Jewish South African anti-apartheid activists White South African anti-apartheid activists British emigrants to Rhodesia Rhodesian emigrants to South Africa Capitol Records artists Concertina players Jewish English musicians People from Bacup Officers of the Order of the British Empire Recipients of the Order of Ikhamanga South African anthropologists South African musicians South African Jews Secular Jews English emigrants to South Africa South African people of English-Jewish descent South African people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent South African people of Polish-Jewish descent South African people of Scottish descent South African people of Zimbabwean descent South African pop singers University of the Witwatersrand alumni Juluka members Savuka members Deaths from cancer in South Africa Deaths from pancreatic cancer English people of Polish-Jewish descent English people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent English people of Scottish descent English people of Zimbabwean descent Burials at Westpark Cemetery	[ -0.2623331844806671, 0.7972074747085571, -0.42174601554870605, -0.7112690806388855, -0.00004608631206792779, 0.656738817691803, 0.5119154453277588, 0.05803777277469635, -0.07800405472517014, 0.06833145022392273, -0.39253172278404236, 0.4643368124961853, -0.24597717821598053, 0.42047756910324097, 0.15539009869098663, 0.08237548172473907, 0.17359937727451324, -0.4676317870616913, 0.2793480455875397, -0.4112083315849304, -0.12838159501552582, -0.03558122739195824, -0.12278547137975693, 0.611736536026001, 0.06810656189918518, 0.18211761116981506, -0.27237194776535034, -0.03806688264012337, -0.08071870356798172, 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207746	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiaulax	Plagiaulax	Plagiaulax is a genus of mammal from the Lower Cretaceous of Europe. It was a member of the also extinct order Multituberculata, and shared the world with dinosaurs. It is of the suborder "Plagiaulacida" and family Plagiaulacidae. The genus was named by Hugh Falconer in 1857, and was the first described multituberculate species. Fossil remains of the species Plagiaulax becklesii are known from the Lulworth Formation of Durlston Bay in Dorset, England. They include at least one partial lower jaw with teeth, though there may well be further specimens. Some material has been reported from Galve, Spain. Another possible species, P. dawsoni, was provisionally named by Woodward in 1891. This came from the county of Sussex, which is further east along the English coast. It was subsequently damaged and there seems not to have been a scientific description. Its discoverer, Charles Dawson has been implicated in the Piltdown hoax and Pevensey tiles hoax. References Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Hurum J.H. (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals." Paleontology 44, p. 389-429. 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207747	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten-pin%20bowling	Ten-pin bowling	Ten-pin bowling is a type of bowling in which a bowler rolls a bowling ball down a wood or synthetic lane toward ten pins positioned evenly in four rows in an equilateral triangle at the far end of the lane. The objective is to knock down all ten pins on the first roll of the ball (a strike), or failing that, on the second roll (a spare). An approximately long approach area used by the bowler to impart speed and apply rotation to the ball ends in a foul line. The , lane is bordered along its length by gutters (channels) that collect errant balls. The lane's long and narrow shape limits straight-line ball paths to angles that are smaller than optimum angles for achieving strikes; accordingly, bowlers impart side rotation to hook (curve) the ball into the pins to increase the likelihood of striking. Oil is applied to approximately the first two-thirds of the lane's length to allow a "skid" area for the ball before it encounters friction and hooks. The oil is applied in different patterns to add complexity and regulate challenge in the sport. Especially when coupled with technological developments in ball design since the early 1990s, easier oil patterns, commonly called house shots or typical house patterns (THPs), enable many league bowlers to achieve scores rivaling those of professional bowlers who must bowl on more difficult patterns—a development that has caused substantial controversy. Ten-pin bowling arose in the early 1800s as an alternative to nine-pin bowling, with truly standardized regulations not being agreed on until nearly the end of that century. After the development of automated mechanical pinsetters, the sport enjoyed a "golden age" in the mid twentieth century. People approach modern ten-pin bowling as either a demanding precision sport or as a simple recreational pastime. Following substantial declines since the 1980s in both professional tournament television ratings and amateur league participation, bowling centers have increasingly expanded to become diverse entertainment centers. Ten-pin bowling is often simply referred to as bowling. Ten-pin, or less commonly big-ball, are prepended to distinguish it from other bowling types such as lawn, candlepin, duckpin and five-pin. Facilities and equipment Lanes Ten-pin bowling lanes are from the foul line to the center of the head pin (1-pin), with guide arrows (aiming targets) about from the foul line. The lane is wide and has 39 wooden boards, or is made of a synthetic material with the 39 "boards" simulated using marking lines. The approach has two sets of dots, respectively and behind the foul line, to help with foot placement. Modern bowling lanes have oil patterns designed not only to shield the lanes from damage from bowling ball impacts, but to provide bowlers with different levels of challenge in achieving strikes. As illustrated, a typical house pattern (or THS, typical house shot) has drier outside portions that give bowling balls more friction to hook (curve) into the pocket, but heavier oil concentrations surrounding the centerline so that balls slide directly toward the pocket with less hooking. In the more challenging sport patterns used in tournaments and professional-level matches, a "flat" oil pattern—one with oil distributed more evenly from side to side—provides little assistance in guiding the ball toward the pocket, and is less forgiving with regard to off-target shots. The ratio of centerline oil concentration to side oil concentration (the oil ratio) can exceed 10-to-1 for THSs but is restricted to 3-to-1 or less for sport shots. Lane oils, also called lane conditioners, are composed of about 98% mineral oil that, with numerous additives, are designed to minimize breakdown and carry-down that would change ball reaction after repeated ball rolls. Lane oils are characterized by different levels of viscosity, with oils of higher viscosity (thicker consistency) being more durable but causing balls to slow and hook earlier than lower-viscosity oils. Balls Rubber balls (introduced in 1905) were eventually supplanted by polyester ("plastic") balls (1959) and polyurethane ("urethane") balls (1980s). Coverstocks (surfaces) of bowling balls then evolved to increase the hook-enhancing friction between ball and lane: reactive resin balls arrived in the early 1990s, and particle-enhanced resin balls in the late 1990s. Meanwhile, the increasingly sophisticated technology of internal cores (also called weight blocks) has increased balls' dynamic imbalance, which, in conjunction with the coverstocks' increased friction, enhances hook (curving) potential to achieve the higher entry angles that have enabled dramatic increases in strike percentage and game scores. Hook potential has increased so much that dry lane conditions or spare shooting scenarios sometimes compel use of plastic or urethane balls, to purposely avoid the larger hook provided by reactive technology. The USBC regulates ball parameters including maximum diameter (), maximum circumference (), and maximum weight (16 pounds (7.26 kg)). Ball motion Because pin spacing is much larger than ball size, it is impossible for the ball to contact all pins. Therefore, a tactical shot is required, which would result in a chain reaction of pins hitting other pins (called pin scatter). In what is considered an ideal strike shot, the ball contacts only the 1, 3, 5 and 9 pins (right-handed deliveries). Most new players roll the ball straight, while more experienced bowlers may roll a hook that involves making the ball start out straight but then curve toward a target, to increase the likelihood of striking: USBC research has shown that shots most likely to strike enter the pocket at an angle of entry that is achievable only with a hook. A complex interaction of a variety of factors influences ball motion and its effect on scoring results. Such factors may be categorized as: The bowler's delivery (see Effect of delivery characteristics on ball motion) Characteristics of the ball's delivery that affect ball motion include the ball's speed going down the lane, its rotational speed (rev rate), the angle of the ball's axis of rotation in horizontal and vertical planes (axis rotation and axis tilt, respectively), and how far beyond the foul line that the ball first contacts the lane (loft). Bowling ball design (see Effect of coverstock, core and layout on ball motion). A 2005-2008 USBC Ball Motion Study found that the ball design factors that most contributed to ball motion were the microscopic spikes and pores on the ball's surface (present in balls with reactive resin coverstock), the respective coefficients of friction between ball and lane in the oiled and dry parts of the lane, and the ball's oil absorption rate, followed in dominance by certain characteristics of the ball's core (mainly radius of gyration and total differential). Friction-related factors may be categorized as chemical friction (degree of "stickiness" designed by manufacturers into the resin coverstock) and physical friction (which can be modified by sanding or polishing, or by including additives that physically increase lubrication). "Weak" (pin down) versus "strong" (pin up) layouts of the finger and thumb holes with respect to core orientation affect skid lengths and hook angularity. Lane conditions (see Effect of lane characteristics on ball motion). Lane conditions that affect ball motion include lane transition (including breakdown and carry-down), the oil absorption characteristics of previously-thrown balls and the paths they followed, wood versus synthetic composition of the lane (more generally: soft vs. hard lanes), imperfections in lane surface (topography), and oil viscosity (thick or thin consistency; innate viscosity being affected by temperature and humidity). Pins and pin carry Bowling pins (with a maximum thickness of at the waist) are "spotted" (placed) in four rows, forming an equilateral triangle with four pins on a side to form a tetractys. Neighboring pins are centered apart, leaving a space of between pins that can be bridged by a bowling ball of regulation diameter (). Pin carry—essentially, the probability of achieving a strike assuming the ball impacts in or near the pocket—varies with several factors. Even before a 2008 USBC pin carry study, it was known that entry angle and ball weight increase strike percentages. The 2008 study concluded that an impact with the ball centered at "board 17.5" causes pin scatter that maximizes likelihood of striking. The material of the pin deck and "kickback" (side) plates was also found to materially affect pin carry. Ball delivery Delivery style categories Three widely recognized categories are stroker, cranker and tweener. Strokers—using the most "classic" bowling form—tend to keep the shoulders square to the foul line and develop only a moderately high backswing, achieving modest ball rotation ("rev") rates and ball speeds, which thus limit hook potential and kinetic energy delivered to the pins. Strokers rely on accuracy and repeatability, and benefit from the high entry angles that reactive resin balls enable. Crankers tend to open (rotate) the shoulders and use strong wrist and arm action in concert with a high backswing, achieving higher rev rates and ball speeds, thus maximizing hook potential and kinetic energy. Crankers rely on speed and power, but may leave splits rarely left by strokers. Tweeners (derived from "in-between") have styles that fall between those of strokers and crankers, the term is considered by some to include power strokers. Alternative deliveries So-called two-handed bowling, first popularized late in the 2000s by Australian Jason Belmonte, involves not inserting the thumb into any thumbhole, with the opposite hand supporting and guiding the ball throughout almost the entire forward swing. This delivery style, involving more athletic ability, is increasingly popular with younger bowlers and technically still involves a one-handed release. It allows the inserted fingers to generate higher revolution rates and thus attain greater hook potential than with a thumb-in-hole approach. In contrast, in what is literally a two-handed delivery and release, children or physically challenged players use both hands to deliver the ball forward from between the legs or from the chest. No-thumb bowling involves only a single hand during the forward swing, without the thumb inserted. The spinner style, which is mainly popular in parts of Asia, has a "helicopter" or "UFO" release that involves rotating the wrist to impart a high (vertical) axis of rotation that causes the bowling ball to spin like a top while traveling straight down the lane. Usually involving a lighter (10-12 pound) ball, the spinner style takes advantage of the ball deflection from the head pin to then "walk down" the other visible pins and cause domino effects diagonally through the pins. In the backup (or reverse hook) release, the wrist rotates clockwise (for right hand releases) or counter-clockwise (for left hand releases), causing the ball to hook in a direction opposite to that of conventional releases. Grips A conventional grip, used on non-customized house balls and some custom-drilled balls, involves insertion of fingers to the second knuckle. A fingertip grip, involving insertion of fingers only to the first knuckle, enables greater revolution rates and resultant hook potential. A thumbless grip, often used by so-called "two-handed" bowlers, maximizes ball rotational speed ("rev rate"). Scoring Traditional scoring In traditional scoring, one point is scored for each pin that is knocked over, and when less than all ten pins are knocked down in two rolls in a frame (an open frame), the frame is scored with the total number of pins knocked down. However, when all ten pins are knocked down with either the first or second rolls of a frame (a mark), bonus pins are awarded as follows. Strike: When all ten pins are knocked down on the first roll (marked "X" on the scorescreen), the frame receives ten pins plus a bonus of pinfall on the next two rolls (not necessarily the next two frames). A strike in the tenth (final) frame receives two extra rolls for bonus pins. Spare: When a second roll of a frame is needed to knock down all ten pins (marked "/" on the scorescreen), the frame receives ten pins plus a bonus of pinfall in the next roll (not necessarily the next frame). A spare in the first two rolls in the tenth (final) frame receives a third roll for bonus pins. The maximum score is 300, achieved by getting twelve strikes in a row within the same game. World Bowling scoring The World Bowling scoring system—described as "current frame scoring"—awards pins as follows: A strike is 30 pins, regardless of ensuing rolls' results. A spare is 10 pins, plus the pinfall on first roll of the current frame. An open frame is the total pinfall of the current frame. The maximum score is 300, achieved with ten consecutive strikes (as opposed to twelve), but with no bonus pins received in the tenth frame. World Bowling scoring is thought to make bowling easier to follow than with traditional scoring, increase television viewership, and help bowling to become an Olympic sport. Variant of World Bowling scoring Another variant of scoring, a 12-frame system introduced at the November 2014 World Bowling Tour (WBT) finals, resembles golf's match play scoring in counting the greater number of frames won rather than measuring accumulated pinfall score. A frame may be won immediately by a higher pincount on the first roll of the frame, and a match may be won when one player is ahead by more frames than remain of the possible 12 frames. This variant reduces match length and scoring complexity for two-player matches. History Early history Modern American ten-pin bowling derives mainly from the German Kegelspiel, or kegeling, which used nine pins set in a diamond formation. Some sources refer to an 1841 Connecticut law that banned ninepin bowling because of its perceived association with gambling and crime, and people were said to circumvent the prohibition by adding a tenth pin; other sources call this story a mere fable while earlier sources (e.g., 1838, re Baltimore and 1842, Charles Dickens re New York) explicitly confirm the strategy. Even earlier, an 1834 Washington, D.C. ordinance had limited the time (before 8 p.m. and not on Sundays) and place (more than 100 yards from inhabited houses) of "nine pin and ten pins" or "any game in the likeness or imitation thereof ... played with any number of pins whatsoever". In any event, newspapers referred to "ten pin alleys" at least as early as 1820 (also later in the 1820s and in the 1830s ). An apparently outdoor version of ten-pin bowling was present in England at least as early as 1828. A painting thought to date from around 1810 shows British bowlers playing outdoors with a triangular formation of ten pins, which would predate the sport's asserted appearance in the United States. In any event, the enjoyment of kegeling by German peasants contrasted with the lawn bowling that was reserved for the upper classes, thus beginning bowling's enduring reputation as a common man's sport. In the mid 1800s, various alternatives to free-standing pins received U.S. patents to solve perceived problems in pinsetting and ball return, aiming to avoid the need for human pinsetters to perform these functions. One scheme (1851) involved pins with spherical bases that when hit by a ball merely fell over, in place, to be rotated back to a vertical position. A second arrangement (1853) involved resetting the pins via cords descending from respective pin bottoms to weights beneath the pin deck. Another design (1869) involved suspending the pins with overhead cords. In 1884, the Brunswick Corporation became the first American bowling ball manufacturer, and by 1909 introduced the Mineralite (hard rubber) ball that was considered so revolutionary that it was displayed at the Century of Progress Exposition in 1934. In 1886, Joe Thum—who would become known as the "father of bowling"—began opening bowling alleys and over decades strove to elevate the sport's image to compete with upper-class diversions such as theaters and opera houses. In 1875, delegates from New York City and Brooklyn bowling clubs formed the National Bowling Association (NBA) to standardize rules, but disagreements prevailed. In 1887 Albert G. Spalding wrote Standard Rules for Bowling in the United States, and in the mid-1890s the United Bowling Clubs (UBC) was organized with 120 members. The American Bowling Congress (ABC) was established in 1895, followed by the Women's International Bowling Congress (WIBC) in the 1910s, such organizations promoting standardized rules and striving to improve the sport's image. From 1920 to 1929, the number of ABC-sanctioned alleys grew from 450 to about 2,000, with Prohibition leading to the growth of family-appropriate "dry" alleys. The 1933 repeal of Prohibition allowed breweries to sponsor teams and bowlers, adding to bowling's reputation as a working-class sport. Though at the turn of the twentieth century most bowling alleys were small establishments, post-Prohibition bowling lanes shifted from side entertainment at fancy Victorian venues or seedier saloons to independent establishments that embraced the Art Deco style and fit the era's perceived "need for speed". 1940s to early 1960s Gottfried Schmidt invented the first mechanical pinsetter in his garage in 1936, one implementation of which was publicly exhibited in 1946 before AMF placed a production model into service in 1952. The 1940s through the 1970s became known as the "golden age of bowling", with ABC membership growing from 700,000 (1940), to 1.1 million (1947), to 2.3 million (1958), to 4.5 million (1963), Women's International Bowling Congress membership growing from 82,000 (1940) to 866,000 (1958), American Junior Bowling Congress membership growing from 8,000 (1940) to 175,000 (1958), and sanctioned individual lanes growing from 44,500 (1947) to 159,000 (1963). Bowling's growth was fueled by the deployment of automatic mechanical pinsetters by AMF (1952) and Brunswick (1955), television broadcasts (said to be "ubiquitous" in the 1950s), modernization and stylization of establishments with amenities to attract broader clientele, and formation of bowling leagues. Though President Truman had installed a bowling alley in the White House in 1947, a report of the American Society of Planning Officials in 1958 characterized bowling alleys as the "poor man's country club". ABC bylaws had included a "white-males-only" clause since its inception in the 1890s, but numerous lobbying efforts and legal actions after World War II by civil rights and labor organizations led to a reversal of this policy in 1950. Eddie Elias founded the Professional Bowlers Association (PBA) in 1958 with 33 members. The Pro Bowlers Tour TV program aired from 1962 through 1997. In the 1930s and 1940s, professional bowling was dominated by “beer leagues” with many of the best bowlers sponsored by beer companies, but by 1965 the PBA tour was televised nationally on ABC Sports with sponsors such as Coca-Cola and Ford. In parallel with professional bowling was "action bowling" or "pot bowling"—bowling matches based on monetary bets—historically associated with the New York underworld from the 1940s to the 1970s. Late 1960s to 1980 The first ten-pin lanes in Europe had been installed in Sweden in 1909, but attempts to popularize the sport in Europe were unsuccessful over the next several decades, though hundreds of lanes were installed on U.S. military bases in the U.K. during World War II. Various countries developed the sport to some extent, and the Fédération Internationale des Quilleurs (FIQ; now World Bowling) was formed in 1952 to coordinate international amateur competition. A firmer establishment of the sport began in the U.K. in 1960 in London (Stamford Hill) in January 1960, and the British Tenpin Bowling Association was formed the following year. The first British made tenpin was by H Massil and sons who received the permit no.1 from the British Tenpin Bowling Association (BTBA). Various other countries, including Australia, Mexico and Japan, adopted the trend over the ensuing decade. After initial faddish growth in the U.K., however, the sport did not thrive as it did in the U.S., and by the 1970s many British bowling alleys were converted to serve competing pastimes, such as bingo. The "Lane Master" automatic lane cleaning and conditioning machine was first deployed in the 1960s. In the 1960s and early 1970s, top bowling professionals made twice as much money as NFL football stars, received million-dollar endorsement contracts, and were treated as international celebrities. The $100,000 Firestone Tournament of Champions launched in 1965, in a decade that saw ABC membership peak at almost 4.6 million male bowlers. The number of sanctioned bowling alleys peaked at about 12,000 in the mid-1960s, mostly in blue-collar urban areas, and Women’s International Bowling Congress (WIBC) membership peaked at 4.2 million members in 1979. In the late 1960s, the participation sport of bowling found itself competing with spectator sports and outdoor recreational activities. The number of certified bowling centers was to eventually decline from its 1960s high of 12,000 to 6,542 in 1998 and 3,976 in 2013. The decline was noted acutely in waning league participation over the intervening decades. 1980 to 2000 Tournament prize funds in the 1980s included the PBA National Championship ($135,000, its largest) and the Firestone Tournament of Champions ($150,000), and PBA membership approached 2,500. Ten-pin bowling became an exhibition sport at the 1988 Summer Olympics (Seoul), has been a medal sport since its debut at the 1991 Pan American Games (Havana), and was included in the 1998 Commonwealth Games (Kuala Lumpur). Outside elite and professional bowling, participation in leagues—traditionally the more profitable end of the business—declined from a 1980 peak (8 million), compelling alleys to further diversify into entertainment amenities. As busier, two-earner households became more common in the 1980s to make league participation more difficult, the number of spectator sports and competing leisure time opportunities (jogging, tennis, skiing) grew. While league bowling decreased by 40 percent between 1980 and 1993, the total number of bowlers actually increased by 10 percent during that period, with nearly 80 million Americans going bowling at least once during 1993. In 1995, the National Bowling Stadium (Reno, Nevada) was constructed at a cost of $47.5 million, but the PBA Pro Bowlers Tour TV program was canceled in 1997 after a 35-year run. In 1991, equipment manufacturer DBA Products released "The Lane Walker"—the first computer-driven lane cleaning and oiling machine, programmable to clean up to 50 lanes. The early 1990s brought the development of reactive resin ("reactive") balls with chemically "tacky" surfaces that enhance traction to dramatically enhance hook and substantially increase the likelihood of striking, raising average scores even for less experienced bowlers. The Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association (SGMA) reported 1997 bowling product sales of $215 million, the SGMA president attributed an increase in popularity to bowling alley remodeling, technological innovations in balls and lanes, computerized scoring, and promotion by bowling organizations. 2000 to present From 1998 to 2013, the number of American bowling centers fell by one quarter. Similarly, in the two decades following 1997, the number of USBC-certified lanes—also indicative of business viability—declined by one-third. This business decline is often attributed to waning league participation: USBC membership—indicative of league participation that was the main source of revenue—declined by two-thirds in those two decades, and the portion of alley revenue attributable to leagues is estimated to have dropped from 70% to 40%. Political scientist Robert D. Putnam's book Bowling Alone (2000) asserts, with some controversy, that the retreat from league bowling epitomizes a broader societal decline in social, civic and community engagement in the U.S. As an indication of the decline, AMF Bowling, the largest operator of bowling centers in the world at the time, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2001, and again in 2012. By 2013, AMF Bowling had merged with New York-based Bowlmor (no relation to the defunct, 1940s-founded Bowl-Mor firm that invented the automatic pinsetter for candlepin bowling), the company becoming known as Bowlmor AMF. In 2000, three former tech industry executives bought a debt-laden PBA—which saw its 36-year television contract with ABC Sports end in 1997—and turned it from a non-profit league into a for-profit organization, and invested heavily in marketing. The January 2005 merger of four U.S. bowling organizations to form the USBC formed a "central brand" aiming to grow the sport. Beginning late in the decade of the 2000s, the two-handed approach became popularized, first by Australian Jason Belmonte, with some hoping that the controversial delivery style would boost popularity of the sport. In January 2013, the eight-team PBA League began competition, the strategy being that basing teams in specific geographic localities would generate viewer enthusiasm and corporate sponsorship in the same manner as teams in other professional sports. Still, continuing the reversal of bowling's peak popularity in the 1960s, in the 2012-2013 season the average yearly winnings of the ten highest-earning PBA competitors was less than US$155,000, and the average for the remaining 250 competitors was $6,500—all much less than a rookie NFL football player’s minimum base salary of $375,000. Estimates of the number of total (league and non-league) bowlers in the U.S. have varied, from 82 million (1997, International Bowling Museum) to 51.6 million (2007, research firm White Hutchinson) to 71 million (2009, USBC), the USBC stating in 2019 that bowling is still the #1 participation sport in the U.S. More broadly, the International Bowling Museum stated in 2016 that bowling is played by 95 million people in more than 90 countries. In an era of continual decline in league participation, bowling centers promoted "party bowling" and black-light-and-disco-ball "cosmic bowling" and experienced a shift from blue-collar participants to open-play (non-league) family-oriented clientele in combined bowling and entertainment centers, some offering laser tag, indoor playgrounds, go-karting, climbing walls, arcade games, skating rinks, gourmet restaurants, and nightclub-style bowling lounges. School sport programs expanded, the USBC stating that more than 5,000 high schools offered bowling as a competitive sport, with 50,000 student bowlers participating in 2009-2010. In 2011, the Bowling Proprietor's Association of America stated that more than 60% of U.S. bowlers were under age 34, that 46% were girls and women, and that children participated in bowling at a higher rate than any other population group. In contrast to the U.S., the 2000s and 2010s brought a bowling renaissance in the U.K., achieved by accommodating sophisticated modern tastes by providing (for example) retro style bowling alleys outfitted with 1950s Americana, "boutique bowling", "VIP lanes", and cameras for instant replays, and by rejuvenating bowling "alleys" into diverse-entertainment bowling "centres". The population of ten-pin bowling centres grew from a low of barely 50 (in the 1980s) to over 200 (2006), with almost a third of Britons going bowling in 2016 and league participation growing over 20% over two years (2015-2017). Though ten-pin bowling was a demonstration sport in the 1988 Summer Olympics (Seoul) and has been included in the Pan American Games since 1991, after making the short list for inclusion in the 2020 Summer Olympics (Tokyo), it was cut. One commentator noted that the sport's limited geographic popularity (the U.S., Australia and a few European and South American countries), and aging demographic of those who follow the sport, make it difficult to convince an Olympic Committee that wants to appeal to youth. Bowling organizations International World Bowling (WB) was formed in 2014 from component organizations of the Fédération Internationale des Quilleurs (FIQ, International Federation of Bowlers), which in 1952 developed from the International Bowling Association (IBA) which began operations in 1926. Since 1979 the International Olympic Committee has recognized the FIQ, and later, WB, as the sport's world governing body. WB establishes rules for the uniform practice of bowling throughout the world, and promotes bowling as an Olympic sport. The World Tenpin Bowling Association "membership discipline" (component organization) of WB serves the amateur sport of ten-pin bowling worldwide, adopting uniform playing rules and equipment specifications. United Kingdom The British Tenpin Bowling Association (BTBA, formed in 1961) is the official governing body recognized by World Bowling as the official sanctioning body in England, and as such "is responsible for the protection, integrity and development of the sport". Its stated vision is "to ensure that all people, irrespective of their age, disability, ethnic origin, marital status, sexual orientation or social status have a genuine and equal opportunity to participate in the sport at all levels and in all roles". The National Association of Youth Bowling Clubs (NAYBC) is a BTBA subcommittee serving youth bowlers and youth bowling clubs. The British Universities Tenpin Bowling Association (BUTBA, formed in 2008) organizes bowling events for present and former university and college students. The Tenpin Bowling Proprietors Association (TBPA, formed in 1961 as an umbrella organization) is a trade association for the British ten-pin bowling industry. United States The United States Bowling Congress (USBC) was formed as the governing body for the U.S. on January 1, 2005, by the merger of: the American Bowling Congress (ABC, an originally male-only organization founded in 1895), the Women's International Bowling Congress (WIBC, 1916), the Young American Bowling Alliance (YABA, 1982), which itself was formed from combining the American Junior Bowling Congress (AJBC, 1946), Youth Bowling Association (YBA, 1963–64), and ABC/WIBC Collegiate division (mid-1970s), and (Team) USA Bowling (1989). As the national governing body for bowling, its stated mission is to provide services, resources and the standards for the sport, its stated goals including growing the sport and promoting values of "credibility, dedication, excellence, heritage, inclusiveness, integrity, philanthropy and sportsmanship". Museums The International Bowling Museum and Hall of Fame is located on the International Bowling Campus in Arlington, Texas, U.S. Notable tournaments World Bowling oversees quadrennial World Championship tournaments, and international championships for various sectors, including for women, seniors, youth and junior bowlers. The QubicaAMF Bowling World Cup (begun in 1965) is recognized as bowling's largest event in terms of number of countries competing, according to the USBC in 2018. The Professional Bowlers Association (PBA) Tour includes dozens of events annually, mainly at U.S. locations. The PBA Tour includes "major" championship events: the U.S. Open, the USBC Masters, the PBA Tournament of Champions the PBA World Championship, and the PBA Players Championship. The United States Bowling Congress (USBC) has various tournaments for the PBA tour, PWBA, youth and seniors, including the USBC Masters and U.S. Open (both major tournaments on the PBA tour), and USBC Queens and U.S. Women's Open (both major tournaments on the PWBA tour), plus the USBC Team USA Trials/U.S. National Amateur Bowling Championships. Additionally, the USBC has regional tournaments and certifies local tournaments. The European Tenpin Bowling Federation (ETBF) owns the European Bowling Tour (organized in 2000), including its final tournament, the European Bowling Tour Masters (first edition: 2008). The Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Federation (CTBF), made up of World Bowling member federations within the Commonwealth of Nations, owns the Commonwealth Tenpin Bowling Championships, which has held tournaments at irregular intervals since 2002. The Weber Cup is an annual, three-day USA vs. Europe tournament, named after Dick Weber, that began in 2000 and has been held almost exclusively in the U.K. In the decade of the 2000s, the World Ranking Masters, owned by World Bowling, ranked standings in the Pan American Bowling Confederation (PABCON), Asian Bowling Federation (ABF), and European Tenpin Bowling Federation (ETBF). Though ten-pin bowling has not progressed beyond a demonstration sport at the Olympic Games, international games modeled after the Olympics (awarding medals) do include the sport, including the World Games (governed by the International World Games Association), the Asian Games (governed by the Olympic Council of Asia, OCA) and the Pan American Games (governed by the Pan American Sports Organization, PASO). The Maccabiah Games (governed by the Israeli Bowling Federation, IBF, with events played according to WTBA-ETBF rules) host ten-pin tournaments as medal events. Leagues Bowling leagues vary in format, including demographic specialization (male, female, mixed, senior, youth), number of bowlers per team (usually 3-5), number of games per series (usually 3), day and time of scheduled sessions, starting dates and duration of league seasons, scoring (scratch versus handicap), and systems for bestowing awards and prizes. Usually, each team is scheduled to oppose each of the other teams over the course of a season. Position rounds—in which the first place team opposes the second place team, third place opposes fourth place, and so on—are often inserted into the season schedule. Customarily, team position standings are computed after each series, awarding a first number of points for each game won and a second number of points for achieving the higher team score for that series, the particular numbers being specified in each league's rules. Further, in leagues having "match point" scoring, individual bowlers on one team are matched against respective members of the opposing team, the winners receiving points that supplement their team's game and series points. The number of league bowlers in the U.S. peaked at 8 million in 1980, declining to approximately 1.3 million in the ensuing 40 years. Notable professional achievements Titles and scores First perfect game on live national television: Jack Biondolillo (1967, Firestone Tournament of Champions) Most titles in a single PBA Tour season: Mark Roth (8 titles in 1978) First woman to win a PBA Tour event: Kelly Kulick (2010, PBA Tournament of Champions) Most PBA Tour titles (career): Walter Ray Williams Jr. (47 titles, reached in 2010) First to earn 100 combined titles in PBA Tour, PBA50 Tour and regional competition: Walter Ray Williams Jr. (2016) Most PBA Tour major titles (career): Jason Belmonte (14, reached in 2022) Only winners of "Super Slam" (all five PBA majors): Mike Aulby (1996) and Jason Belmonte (2020) Earnings and contracts First (in any sport) to receive $1,000,000 endorsement contract: Don Carter (1964, with Ebonite International) First to earn more than US$100,000 in a single season: Earl Anthony (1975) First to earn US$1 million in career earnings: Earl Anthony (1982) First to earn US$2 million in career earnings: Walter Ray Williams Jr. (1997). Most earnings in a single PBA season: Kyle Troup ($469,000 as of May 16, 2021) First to earn US$3 million in career earnings: Walter Ray Williams Jr. (2002–03) Highest first-place prize awarded in a single professional bowling tournament: $250,000 in the 2011 PBA Tournament of Champions (won by Mika Koivuniemi) and 2021 PBA Players Championship (won by Kyle Troup) Youngest Youngest to win a standard PBA Tour title: Norm Duke (1983, at age 18 years, 345 days) Youngest to earn cash in a PBA Tour event: Kamron Doyle (age 14, 2012 U.S. Open) Youngest to win a PBA Tour major tournament: Anthony Simonsen (2016 USBC Masters at age 19 years, 39 days) Youngest to win a standard PWBA Tour event: Jillian Martin (2021 PWBA BowlTV Classic at age 17 years, 16 days) Youngest to win a PWBA Tour major event: Wendy Macpherson (1986 U.S. Women's Open at age 18 years, 69 days) Oldest Oldest to win a standard PBA Tour title: John Handegard (1995, at age 57 years, 139 days) Oldest to win a PBA Tour major tournament: Pete Weber (2013 Barbasol Tournament of Champions at age 50 years, 222 days) Perfect (300) game history Ernest Fosberg (East Rockford, Ill.) bowled the first recognized 300 in 1902, before awards were given out. In 1908, A.C. Jellison and Homer Sanders (both of St. Louis) each bowled 300 games in the same season, the ABC awarding the gold medal for the highest score of the year to Jellison after a three-game tie-breaker match, without regard to the chronological order of their accomplishments. On January 7, 2006, Elliot John Crosby became the youngest British bowler to bowl a BTBA-sanctioned 300 game at the age of 12 years, 2 months and 10 days, breaking the 1994 record of Rhys Parfitt (age 13 years, 4 months). On November 17, 2013, Hannah Diem (Seminole, Florida) became the youngest American bowler to bowl a USBC-certified 300 game at the age of 9 years, 6 months and 19 days, breaking the 2006 record of Chaz Dennis (age 10) and the 2006 female record of Brandie Reamy (age 12). Jeremy Sonnenfeld (Sioux Falls, S.D.) rolled the first certified 900 series in 1997. A well-publicized court-contested 900 series by Glenn Allison in 1982, considered by many to be the first-ever 900 series, was denied certification due to non-conforming lane conditions. "Score inflation" controversy The 905 perfect games that were rolled during the 1968–69 season increased 38-fold to 34,470 in the 1998–99 season. Likewise, the number of perfect-game league bowlers increased from about one of 3150 (1900–1980) to about one of 27 (2007), a greater-than-hundredfold increase that many thought threatened to jeopardize the integrity of the sport. Specifically, the USBC Technical Director wrote that the "USBC is concerned that technology has overtaken player skill in determining success in the sport of bowling," announcing in 2007 the completion of a ball motion study undertaken "to strike a better balance between player skill and technology". Separately, a USBC pin carry study completed in about 2008 found that dramatically increased entry angles improve pin carry to result in higher scores—regardless of whether the bowlers supplied additional effort or improved their skill. Among the factors allowing higher scores were technological advances in coverstock and core design combined with improved lane surfaces and accommodative oil patterns. Specifically, the reactive resin balls and particle balls that came out in the 1990s increased frictional engagement with the lane to provide greater hook potential that made high entry angles easier to achieve. Moreover, changes in lane surface technology, as well as the introduction of voids into pins to make them lighter and more top-heavy, helped to raise average scores as early as the 1970s. Expanded choices in oil viscosity and electronically controlled lane oiling machines permitted alley owners to customize house oil patterns to optimize the advantages of the new ball technologies. Technological progress allowed some 1990s league scores to surpass those of professionals in the 1950s. Responding to such concerns, the USBC initiated "sport bowling" leagues and tournaments that provide "sport", "challenge" and "PBA Experience" oil patterns that are more challenging than the accommodative patterns of typical house shots. Still, the USBC has encountered enduring issues concerning how to maintain "average integrity" (fair handicapping) across leagues using oil patterns of differing difficulty. As a result of various USBC studies, including a bowling technology study published in February 2018, the USBC Equipment and Specifications Committee established new specifications focusing mainly on balls. The overall result of the new specifications was said to slightly limit hook potential, more specifically eliminating balance holes (as of the 2020-21 season) and setting a new specification for oil absorption. The USBC stated that the new specifications will slow oil pattern transition, cause bowlers to move less, and keep the same scoring pace with lower oil volume. In media Coverage of events Beginning in 1962, ABC's Pro Bowlers Tour was broadcast on Saturday afternoons to be viewed by millions, and—with various entertainment-oriented programs including Make That Spare, Celebrity Bowling and Bowling for Dollars—confirmed the sport's popularity. The Pro Bowlers Tour garnered excellent ratings in the 1960s and early 1970s, as a lead-in to ABC's Wide World of Sports. However, television ratings fell substantially, from 9.1 in the mid-1970s to 2.0 in 1997, the year in which Pro Bowlers Tour was canceled. The decline in bowling event coverage has been attributed to a variety of factors, including time demands burdening the schedules of two-income households, small purses (winnings) for professional tournaments, declining participation in league bowling, the perceived demographic of bowlers (old, or of low social class), waning popularity with the public, competing sports programming on cable television, lack of corporate sponsorship, lack of an inspiring bowling star (2004), and an aging audience for TV bowling. A 2006 PBA article describing the PBA bowlers in the documentary A League of Ordinary Gentlemen called bowling athletes "the Rodney Dangerfields of professional sports". The decline in coverage has also been attributed to the perception that bowling is less an athletic sport (not being in the Olympic Games) and more of a recreational pastime (such as for children's birthday parties). This perception is reinforced by the easy lane conditions provided to bowling leagues that enable seasoned league bowlers to achieve scores rivaling those of professionals who must bowl under more challenging lane conditions. Former PBA Commissioner Mark Gerberich said that ABC paid the PBA $200,000 per broadcast in 1991, but by 1997 "we were paying $150,000 to stay on TV." Said to be "near bankruptcy" in 2000, the PBA changed ownership to one that emphasized marketing with the goal of running the organization as a for-profit business. ESPN featured bowling from 2000 to 2018 on Sunday afternoons, with CBS Sports Network also airing a smaller number of bowling tournaments. In 2019, the PBA entered an agreement, expected to last four years, in which Fox Sports would sell advertising and sponsorships for the sport to establish the sport's presence on broadcast television, also providing cable, streaming, and social media programming. In September 2019, Bowlero Corporation purchased the PBA. Portrayal on television Particular television broadcasts include: 1950s: The Honeymooners (1952); Championship Bowling (1952). 1960s: Make That Spare; premier episode of The Flintstones (1960-1966); Jackpot Bowling (1959-1961). 1970s: Celebrity Bowling (beginning in 1971); All In the Family; Bowling for Dollars (through 1980); Laverne and Shirley (1976 debut); ESPN broadcasts five of six fall PBA Tour events in its debut year (1979). 1980s: The New Celebrity Bowling (beginning in 1987); Married With Children. 1990s: The Simpsons; The Drew Carey Show (annual contest); Nubeluz ("Los Palitroques Gigantes", one of the Peruvian show's signature games) 2000s: According to Jim; Let's Bowl! (on Comedy Central: bowling to settle court disputes). In print In J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Professor Albus Dumbledore is a fan of ten-pin bowling. Non-fiction films Strikes and Spares (1934) was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Novelty Short. Pin Gods (1996) presents the early challenges of three young bowlers breaking into professional bowling. The PBS Independent Lens documentary A League of Ordinary Gentlemen (2006) chronicles the stories of four PBA Tour bowlers at different stages of their careers, following the purchase of the PBA and appointment of former Nike executive Steve Miller as Director. Fiction films In the animated short cartoon The Bowling Alley-Cat (1942), cat and mouse Tom and Jerry do battle inside a bowling center. In Dreamer (1979), Tim Matheson plays a man aspiring to be a professional bowler who faces a challenger played by Dick Weber. In Greedy (1994), Michael J. Fox plays an "honest but luckless pro bowler with a bad wrist and a good woman." The Farrelly brothers' comedy Kingpin (1996) is a bowling comedy about which Randy Quaid said in an interview, "If we can't laugh at bowling, what can we laugh at?" In the Coen Brothers' The Big Lebowski (1998), "the Dude" (Jeff Bridges), a "slacker's slacker," hangs out with his buddies at a bowling alley, in which John Goodman's character pulls out a gun to threaten a competitor who stepped over the foul line and refused to accept the mandatory zero score for the shot. In the Disney Channel's Alley Cats Strike (2000), high school students engage in a bowling rivalry. Games See also Bowling video games. What is believed to be the first bowling video game was released in the 1977, a built-in provided with the RCA Studio II console. A pseudo-3D game was released in 1982 for the Emerson Arcadia 2001 console, and a multi-player game was released by SNK in 1991, almost a decade before convincing 3D graphics arrived. Wii Sports, which was released in 2006, includes a bowling game for the 3D-motion-controlled console, and mobile-device bowling games have since become increasingly popular. Several organizations—including the PBA and entertainment franchises such as Animaniacs, The Simpsons, Monsters, Inc., and The Flintstones—have granted licenses to use their names for video games. See also Glossary of bowling List of ten-pin bowlers List of world bowling champions Bowls Publications USBC, Equipment Specifications and Certifications Division. Study began in 2005. 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207748	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith%20Jarrett	Keith Jarrett	Keith Jarrett (born May 8, 1945) is an American jazz and classical music pianist and composer. Jarrett started his career with Art Blakey, moving on to play with Charles Lloyd and Miles Davis. Since the early 1970s he has also been a group leader and a solo performer in jazz, jazz fusion, and classical music. His improvisations draw from the traditions of jazz and other genres, especially Western classical music, gospel, blues, and ethnic folk music. In 2003, Jarrett received the Polar Music Prize, the first recipient of both the contemporary and classical musician prizes, and in 2004 he received the Léonie Sonning Music Prize. His album, The Köln Concert, released in 1975, became the best-selling piano recording in history. In 2008, he was inducted into the Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame in the magazine's 73rd Annual Readers' Poll. Jarrett has been unable to perform since suffering a stroke in February 2018. A second stroke, in May 2018, left him partially paralyzed and unable to play with his left hand. Early years Keith Jarrett was born on May 8, 1945, in Allentown, Pennsylvania. to a mother of Slovenian descent. Jarrett's grandmother was born in Segovci, near Apače in Slovenia. Jarrett's father was of mostly German descent. He grew up in suburban Allentown with significant early exposure to music. Jarrett possesses absolute pitch and displayed prodigious musical talents as a young child. He began piano lessons before his third birthday. At age five, he appeared on a television talent program hosted by the swing bandleader Paul Whiteman. He gave his first formal piano recital at the age of seven, playing works by composers such as Mozart, Bach, Beethoven, and Saint-Saëns, and ending with two of his own compositions. Encouraged by his mother, he took classical piano lessons with a series of teachers, including Eleanor Sokoloff of the Curtis Institute of Music. Jarrett attended Emmaus High School in Emmaus, Pennsylvania, where he learned jazz and became proficient in it. He developed a strong interest in contemporary jazz, and was inspired by a Dave Brubeck performance. He had an offer to study classical composition in Paris with Nadia Boulanger, but Jarrett, already leaning toward jazz, turned it down. After his graduation from Emmaus High School in 1963, Jarrett moved from Allentown to Boston to attend the Berklee College of Music and play cocktail piano in local Boston clubs. In 1964, he moved to New York City, where he played at the Village Vanguard in Greenwich Village. In New York City, Art Blakey hired Jarrett to play with the Jazz Messengers. Jarrett's appearance on the Messengers' live album Buttercorn Lady marked his commercial recording debut. However, there was friction between Blakey and Jarrett, and Jarrett left after four months of touring. During a show he was noticed by Jack DeJohnette, who recommended Jarrett to his band leader Charles Lloyd. The Charles Lloyd Quartet had formed not long before and were exploring open, improvised forms while building supple grooves, and they were moving into terrain that was also being explored, although from another stylistic background, by some of the psychedelic rock bands of the west coast. Their 1966 album Forest Flower was one of the most successful jazz recordings of the mid-1960s, and when they were invited to play The Fillmore in San Francisco, they won over the local hippie audience. The quartet's toured across America and Europe (including appearances in Leningrad and Moscow. A concert at London's Royal Albert Hall was attended by the Beatles), along with profiles of the band in Time and Harper's Magazine, made Jarrett a popular musician in rock and jazz. The tour also laid the foundation for a lasting musical bond with DeJohnette. Jarrett began to record his own tracks as a leader of small groups, at first in a trio with Charlie Haden and Paul Motian. Life Between the Exit Signs (1967), his first album as a leader, was released by Vortex, followed by Restoration Ruin (1968), which Thom Jurek of AllMusic called "a curiosity in his catalog". Not only does Jarrett barely touch the piano, but he plays all the other instruments on what is essentially a folk-rock album. Unusually, he also sings. Somewhere Before, another trio album with Haden and Motian, followed in 1968 for Atlantic Records. Miles Davis The Charles Lloyd Quartet with Jarrett, Ron McClure, and DeJohnette came to an end in 1968, after the recording of Soundtrack, because of disputes over money as well as artistic differences. Jarrett was asked to join the Miles Davis group after the trumpeter heard him in a New York City club. During his tenure with Davis, Jarrett played both electronic organ and Rhodes piano, alternating with Chick Corea. The two appear side by side on some 1970 recordings, including the Isle of Wight Festival performance of August 1970 in the film Miles Electric: A Different Kind of Blue and on Bitches Brew Live. After Corea left in 1970, Jarrett often played electric piano and organ simultaneously. Despite his growing dislike of amplified music and electric instruments within jazz, Jarrett continued with the group out of respect for Davis and because of his desire to work with DeJohnette. Jarrett has often cited Davis as a vital musical and personal influence on his own thinking about music and improvisation. Jarrett performs on several Davis albums, including Miles Davis at Fillmore (recorded June 17-20, 1970, at Fillmore East in New York City), The Cellar Door Sessions 1970 (recorded December 16–19, 1970, at the Cellar Door club in Washington, D.C.). His keyboard playing features prominently on Live-Evil and he plays electric organ on Get Up with It. Some other tracks from this period were released much later. DeJohnette left Davis' band in the middle of 1971, and Jarrett followed in December. Jarrett later reflected: "When Jack left I knew I was going to have to leave ... Nobody knew what Jack knew and could do what he could do simultaneously. That was the end of the flexibility of the band". 1970s quartets and Manfred Eicher In 1971, Jarrett, Haden, and Motian participated in a four-day session for Atlantic Records during which they recorded another trio album (The Mourning of a Star), along with two albums (El Juicio (The Judgement) and Birth) on which the trio was augmented by saxophonist Dewey Redman. Redman became an official member of the group, which later became known as the "American quartet". They would go on to record over a dozen albums over five years. The group was often supplemented by an extra percussionist, such as Danny Johnson, Guilherme Franco, or Airto Moreira, and occasionally by guitarist Sam Brown. Later in 1971, the quartet, with Brown and Moreira, recorded Expectations for Columbia Records, with string and brass arrangements by Jarrett. However, Columbia suddenly dropped Jarrett in favor of Herbie Hancock, and Jarrett's manager negotiated a contract with Impulse! Records, for whom the group would record eight albums. The quartet members played various instruments. Jarrett played soprano saxophone, recorder, banjo, percussion, and piano. Redman played musette, a Chinese double-reed instrument, and percussion, and Motian and Haden played a variety of percussion. Haden also produced a variety of unusual plucked and percussive sounds with his acoustic bass, running it through a wah-wah pedal for one track ("Mortgage on My Soul" on the album Birth). Byablue and Bop-Be, albums recorded for Impulse!, feature the compositions of Haden, Motian and Redman, as opposed to Jarrett's own, which dominated the previous albums. Jarrett's compositions and the musical identities of the group members gave this ensemble a distinctive sound. The quartet's music is an amalgam of free jazz, straight-ahead post-bop, gospel music, and exotic, Middle-Eastern-sounding improvisations. During this time, Jarrett received a letter from producer Manfred Eicher asking if he would like to record for the relatively new ECM label. Jarrett was impressed by the fact that Eicher was primarily concerned with musical quality, as opposed to financial gain. Jarrett's American quartet released two albums (The Survivors' Suite and Eyes of the Heart) on ECM, and the label also issued Ruta and Daitya, consisting of duo tracks featuring Jarrett and DeJohnette recorded in early 1971 and tracks with Miles Davis after Jarrett gave tapes of the session to Eicher. In 1972, Eicher proposed that Jarrett work with Norwegian saxophonist Jan Garbarek, whom Jarrett had met while in Europe with Charles Lloyd during the late 1960s. Their initial collaborations laid the groundwork for what would become known as the "European quartet," which also featured Palle Danielsson on bass and Jon Christensen on drums. The group recorded five albums for ECM, each played in a style similar to that of the American quartet but with many of the avant-garde and Americana elements replaced by the European folk and classical music influences that characterized the work of ECM artists at the time. Solo piano Jarrett recorded a few solo pieces live under the guidance of Miles Davis at the Cellar Door in Washington, D.C. in December 1970. These were done on electric pianos (Rhodes and Contempo). Most parts of these recorded sets were released in 2007 on The Cellar Door Sessions, featuring four improvisations by Jarrett. Jarrett's first album for ECM, Facing You was released in 1971. He has continued to record solo studio piano albums intermittently throughout his career, including Staircase (1976), Invocations/The Moth and the Flame (1981), and The Melody at Night, with You (1999). Book of Ways (1986) is a studio recording of clavichord solos. In 1973, Jarrett began playing totally improvised solo concerts, and it is the popularity of these concert recordings that made him one of the best-selling jazz artists in history. Albums released from these concerts were Solo Concerts: Bremen/Lausanne (1973), which Time magazine named "Jazz Album of the Year", The Köln Concert (1975), which became the best-selling piano recording in history, All About Jazz, and Sun Bear Concerts (1976), a 10-LP (and later 6-CD) box set. Another of Jarrett's solo concerts, Dark Intervals, was released in 1987. After a hiatus, Jarrett returned to extended solo improvised concert format with Paris Concert (1990), Vienna Concert (1991), and La Scala (1995). These later concerts tend to be more influenced by classical music than the earlier ones, reflecting his interest in composers such as Bach and Shostakovich. In the liner notes to Vienna Concert, Jarrett named the performance his greatest achievement and the fulfillment of everything he was aiming to accomplish. "I have courted the fire for a very long time, and many sparks have flown in the past, but the music on this recording speaks, finally, the language of the flame itself", he wrote. Jarrett has commented that his best performances have been when he has had only the slightest notion of what he was going to play at the next moment. He also said that most people don't know "what he does." which relates to what Miles Davis said to him expressing bewilderment as to how Jarrett could "play from nothing." Jarrett's 100th solo performance in Japan was captured on video at Suntory Hall, Tokyo, in April 1987, and released the same year as Solo Tribute. This is a set of almost all standard songs. Another video recording, Last Solo, was released in 1987 from a solo concert at Kan-i Hoken hall in Tokyo in January 1984. In the late 1990s, Jarrett was diagnosed with chronic fatigue syndrome and was unable to leave his home for long periods of time. During this period, he recorded The Melody at Night, with You, a solo piano effort consisting of jazz standards. The album had originally been a Christmas gift to his second wife, Rose Anne. By 2000, Jarrett had returned to touring, both solo and with the Standards Trio. Two 2002 solo concerts in Japan, Jarrett's first solo piano concerts following his illness, were released on the 2005 CD Radiance (a complete concert in Osaka and excerpts from one in Tokyo) and the 2006 DVD Tokyo Solo (the entire Tokyo performance). In contrast with previous concerts (which were generally a pair of continuous improvisations 30–40 minutes long), the 2002 concerts consist of a linked series of shorter improvisations (some as short as a minute and a half). In September 2005, at Carnegie Hall, Jarrett performed his first solo concert in North America in more than ten years, released a year later as a double-CD set, The Carnegie Hall Concert. In late 2008, he performed solo in the Salle Pleyel in Paris and at London's Royal Festival Hall, marking the first time Jarrett played solo in London in 17 years. Recordings of these concerts were released in October 2009 on the album Paris / London: Testament. The 2005 documentary The Art of Improvisation, broadcast on BBC Two on November 12, 2021 concluded with his trio performing a recognizable version of "Basin Street Blues." The Standards Trio In 1983, at the suggestion of ECM head Manfred Eicher, Jarrett asked bassist Gary Peacock and drummer Jack DeJohnette, with whom he had worked on Peacock's 1977 album Tales of Another, to record an album of jazz standards, simply titled Standards, Volume 1. Two more albums, Standards, Volume 2 and Changes, both recorded at the same session, followed soon after. The success of these albums and the group's ensuing tour, which came as traditional acoustic post-bop was enjoying an upswing in the early 1980s, led to this new standards trio becoming one of the premier working groups in jazz, and certainly one of the most enduring, continuing to record and tour for more than 25 years. The Trio went on to record numerous live and studio albums consisting primarily of jazz repertory material. The Jarrett-Peacock-DeJohnette trio also produced recordings that consist largely of challenging original material, including 1987's Changeless. Several of the standards albums contain an original track or two, some attributed to Jarrett, but most are improvisations on jazz standards. The live recordings Inside Out and Always Let Me Go (released in 2001 and 2002 respectively) marked a renewed interest by the trio in wholly improvised free jazz. By this point in their history, the musical communication among these three men had become nothing short of telepathic, and their group improvisations frequently take on a complexity that sounds almost composed. The standards trio undertook frequent world tours of recital halls (the only venues Jarrett, a notorious stickler for acoustics, will play) and was one of the few truly successful jazz groups to play both straight-ahead (as opposed to smooth) and free jazz. A related recording, At the Deer Head Inn (1992), is a live album of standards recorded with Paul Motian replacing DeJohnette, at the venue in Delaware Water Gap, Pennsylvania, 40 miles from Jarrett's hometown, where he had his first job as a jazz pianist. It was the first time Jarrett and Motian had played together since the demise of the American quartet sixteen years earlier. The Standard Trio disbanded in 2014 after more than 30 years. The final concert of Keith Jarrett's trio was on November 30, 2014 at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center, Newark, New Jersey. The last encore was Thelonious Monk's composition "Straight, No Chaser". Peacock died in September 2020. Classical music Since the early 1970s, Jarrett's success as a jazz musician has enabled him to maintain a parallel career as a classical composer and pianist, recording almost exclusively for ECM Records. In the Light, an album made in 1973, consists of short pieces for solo piano, strings, and various chamber ensembles, including a string quartet and a brass quintet, and a piece for cellos and trombones. This collection demonstrates a young composer's affinity for a variety of classical styles. Luminessence (1974) and Arbour Zena (1975) both combine composed pieces for strings with improvising jazz musicians, including Jan Garbarek and Charlie Haden. The strings here have a moody, contemplative feel that is characteristic of the "ECM sound" of the 1970s, and is also particularly well suited to Garbarek's keening saxophone improvisations. From an academic standpoint, these compositions are dismissed by many classical music aficionados as lightweight, but Jarrett appeared to be working more towards a synthesis between composed and improvised music at this time, rather than the production of formal classical works. From this point on, however, his classical work would adhere to more conventional disciplines. Ritual (1977) is a composed solo piano piece recorded by Dennis Russell Davies that is somewhat reminiscent of Jarrett's own solo piano recordings. The Celestial Hawk (1980) is a piece for orchestra, percussion, and piano that Jarrett performed and recorded with the Syracuse Symphony under Christopher Keene. This piece is the largest and longest of Jarrett's efforts as a classical composer. Bridge of Light (1993) is the last recording of classical compositions to appear under Jarrett's name. The album contains three pieces written for a soloist with orchestra, and one for violin and piano. The pieces date from 1984 and 1990. In 1988, New World Records released the CD Lou Harrison: Piano Concerto and Suite for Violin, Piano and Small Orchestra, featuring Jarrett on piano, with Naoto Otomo conducting the piano concerto with the New Japan Philharmonic. Robert Hughes conducted the Suite for Violin, Piano, and Small Orchestra. In 1992 came the release of Jarrett's performance of Peggy Glanville-Hicks's Etruscan Concerto, with Dennis Russell Davies conducting the Brooklyn Philharmonic. This was released on Music Masters Classics, with pieces by Lou Harrison and Terry Riley. In 1995 Music Masters Jazz released a CD on which one track featured Jarrett performing the solo piano part in Lousadzak, a 17-minute piano concerto by American composer Alan Hovhaness. The conductor again was Davies. Most of Jarrett's classical recordings are of older repertoire, but he may have been introduced to this modern work by his one-time manager George Avakian, who was a friend of the composer. Jarrett has also recorded classical works for ECM by composers such as Bach, Handel, Shostakovich, and Arvo Pärt. In 2004, Jarrett was awarded the Léonie Sonning Music Prize. Usually associated with classical musicians and composers, Miles Davis is the only other jazz performer to have won it. Other works Jarrett has also played harpsichord, clavichord, organ, soprano saxophone, and drums. He often played saxophone and various forms of percussion in the American quartet, though his recordings since the breakup of that group have rarely featured these instruments. On the majority of his recordings in the last 20 years, he has played acoustic piano only. He has spoken with some regret of his decision to give up playing the saxophone, in particular. On April 15, 1978, Jarrett was the musical guest on Saturday Night Live. His music has also been used on many television shows, including The Sopranos on HBO. The 2001 German film Bella Martha (English title: Mostly Martha), whose music consultant was ECM founder and head Manfred Eicher, features Jarrett's "Country", from the European quartet album My Song and "U Dance" from the album Tribute. Idiosyncrasies One of Jarrett's trademarks is his frequent, loud vocalizations. Jarrett is also physically active while playing jazz and improvised solo performances, but the vocalizations are generally absent whenever he plays classical repertory. Jarrett has noted his vocalizations are based on involvement, not content, and are more of an interaction than a reaction. Jarrett is highly intolerant of audience noise, especially during solo improvised performances. He feels extraneous noise affects his inspiration and distracts from the purity of the sound. Cough drops are routinely supplied to Jarrett's audiences in cold weather, and he has been known to stop playing and lead the crowd in a group cough. He has also complained onstage about audience members taking photographs, and has performed in the dark to prevent this. Jarrett is opposed to electronic instruments and equipment, which he has described as "toys". His liner notes for the 1973 album Solo Concerts: Bremen/Lausanne states: "I am, and have been, carrying on an anti-electric-music crusade of which this is an exhibit for the prosecution. Electricity goes through all of us and is not to be relegated to wires." He has largely eschewed electric or electronic instruments since his time with Miles Davis. However, in October 1972, he played electric piano and piano on Freddie Hubbard's Sky Dive. Lawsuit against Steely Dan Following the release of the album Gaucho in 1980 by the U.S. rock band Steely Dan, Jarrett sued the band for copyright infringement. Gaucho's title track, credited to Donald Fagen and Walter Becker, bore a resemblance to Jarrett's "Long As You Know You're Living Yours" from Jarrett's 1974 album Belonging. In an interview with Musician magazine, Becker and Fagen were asked about the similarity between the two pieces of music, and Becker told Musician that he loved the Jarrett composition, while Fagen said they had been influenced by it. After their comments were published, Jarrett sued, and Becker and Fagen were legally obliged to add his name to the credits and provide Jarrett with publishing royalties. Personal life Jarrett lives in an 18th-century farmhouse in Oxford Township, New Jersey, in rural Warren County in the Lehigh Valley, where he uses an adjacent barn as a recording and practice studio. Jarrett was a follower of the teachings of George Gurdjieff (1866–1949) for many years, and in 1980 recorded an album of Gurdjieff's compositions, called Sacred Hymns, for ECM. He is a Christian Scientist. In 1964, Jarrett married Margot Erney, his girlfriend from Emmaus High School with whom Jarrett reconnected in Boston. The couple had two sons, Gabriel and Noah, but divorced in 1979. He and his second wife Rose Anne (née Colavito) divorced in 2010 after a 30-year marriage. Jarrett has four younger brothers, two of whom are involved in music. Chris Jarrett is also a pianist and Scott Jarrett is a producer and songwriter. Of the two sons from his first marriage, Noah Jarrett, is a bassist and composer and Gabriel is a drummer based in Vermont. Jarrett's race has been a source of commentary by media and activists throughout his career, as he has reported being recurrently mistaken as a Black person. In a 2000 interview with Terry Gross, Jarrett relates an incident at the Heidelberg Jazz Festival in the Rhine-Neckar region of Germany when he was protested by Black musicians for something akin to cultural appropriation. He also tells of a separate moment in his career when black jazz musician Ornette Coleman approached him backstage, and "said something like 'Man, you've got to be black. You just have to be black.'" Jarrett replied "I know. I know. I'm working on it." In a September 11, 2000 interview with Terry Gross, Jarrett revealed that chronic fatigue syndrome required him to radically overhaul his piano to have less breakaway keypress resistance in order for him to keep playing. Interviewed by NPR's Rachel Martin for his 70th birthday in 2015, Jarrett explained the notable involuntary vocalizations made during his performances. "It's potential limitlessness that I'm feeling at that moment. If you think about it, it's often in a space between phrases, [when I'm thinking,] "How did I get to this point where I feel so full?" And if you felt full of some sort of emotion you would have to make a sound. So that's actually what it is — with the trio, without the trio, solo. Luckily for me, I don't do it with classical music," he said. Jarrett suffered two major strokes in February and May 2018. After the second, he was paralyzed and spent nearly two years in a rehabilitation facility. Although he regained a limited ability to walk with a cane and can play piano with his right hand, he remains partly paralyzed on his left side and is not expected to perform again. “I don’t know what my future is supposed to be. I don't feel right now like I'm a pianist," Jarrett told The New York Times in October 2020. Discography References Sources Carr, Ian. Keith Jarrett: The Man and His Music. 1992 Carr, Ian; Fairweather, Digby; Priestley, Brian. The Rough Guide to Jazz. 2003 External links Art of the States: Keith Jarrett performing Lousadzak, op. 48 (1944) by Alan Hovhaness Keith Jarrett on ECM Records. "Keith Jarrett Standards Trio Celebrates Its 25th Anniversary" by Ted Gioia Jazz.com Keith Jarrett on Marian McPartland's Piano Jazz (NPR) "Zen in the Art of Jazz" 1997 New York Times profile of Jarrett 1945 births 20th-century American composers 20th-century American pianists 20th-century classical composers 20th-century jazz composers 20th-century organists 20th-century saxophonists 21st-century American composers 21st-century American pianists 21st-century classical composers 21st-century jazz composers 21st-century organists 21st-century saxophonists American jazz composers American jazz organists American jazz percussionists American jazz saxophonists American male jazz composers American male organists American male pianists American male saxophonists American people of Hungarian descent American people of Scottish descent Atlantic Records artists Avant-garde jazz pianists Berklee College of Music alumni ECM Records artists Emmaus High School alumni Free improvisation pianists 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207749	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolodon	Bolodon	Bolodon is a genus of extinct mammal from the Lower Cretaceous of Europe and North America. It was a member of the extinct order of Multituberculata and belongs to the suborder Plagiaulacida and family Plagiaulacidae. Type species The type species, Bolodon crassidens, is known from fossils of the Lower Cretaceous of England from the Lulworth Formation in Durlston Bay, Dorset. The species Bolodon elongatus is possibly not referable to this genus: "?new genus to be erected for Bolodon elongatus," (Kielan-Jaworowska & Hurum, 2001, p. 414). Fossils of the species Bolodon minor (type species of the Plioprion) have been found in the Lower Cretaceous of Durlston Bay, Dorset. Plioprion (Cope, 1884) is probably synonymous with Bolodon. The species Bolodon osborni was named by Simpson G.G. in 1928. Fossils have been found in the Berriasian (Lower Cretaceous) of Durlston Bay, Dorset. Cifelli et al. (2014) erected B. hydei for remains from the Berriasian-Valanginian age Chilson Member of the Lakota Formation of South Dakota. References Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals. Paleontology 44, p. 389-429. This information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Plagiaulacidae, Albionbaataridae, Eobaataridae & Arginbaataridae, an Internet directory. Simpson (1928), A catalogue of the Mesozoic Mammalia in the Geological Department of the British Museum. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London, 215pp. Early Cretaceous mammals of Europe Early Cretaceous mammals of North America Multituberculates Taxa named by Richard Owen Fossil taxa described in 1871 Prehistoric mammal genera	[ -0.6378979682922363, 0.031205298379063606, -0.33556756377220154, -0.07087751477956772, -0.33096447587013245, 0.8636082410812378, 0.4336830973625183, 0.4354234039783478, -0.38741692900657654, 0.02782130241394043, 0.16257637739181519, 0.7171236276626587, -0.612350583076477, -0.07762323319911957, -0.23670394718647003, 0.206390842795372, 0.16479149460792542, -0.0376516692340374, 0.14164631068706512, -0.4430219233036041, 0.22712253034114838, -1.1828231811523438, 0.4380898177623749, -0.08825487643480301, -0.0945337638258934, -0.1551576554775238, 0.12456651777029037, 0.9045852422714233, 0.7832698225975037, 0.25853660702705383, 0.016927093267440796, 0.5422717332839966, 0.08760162442922592, -0.41038697957992554, -0.735769510269165, 0.11247466504573822, -0.886476457118988, -0.31143417954444885, 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207750	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Robinson	David Robinson	David Maurice Robinson (born August 6, 1965) is an American former professional basketball player who played for the San Antonio Spurs in the National Basketball Association (NBA) from 1989 to 2003, and minority owner of the San Antonio Spurs. Nicknamed "the Admiral" for his service with the U.S. Navy, Robinson was a 10-time NBA All-Star, the 1995 NBA MVP, a two-time NBA champion (1999 and 2003), a two-time Olympic Gold Medal winner (1992, 1996), a two-time Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductee (2009 for his individual career, 2010 as a member of the 1992 United States men's Olympic basketball team), and a two-time U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame inductee (2008 individually, 2009 as a member of the 1992 Olympic team). He was honored as one the league's all-time players by being named to the NBA 50th Anniversary (1996) and 75th Anniversary Teams (2021). He is widely considered one of the greatest centers in both college basketball and NBA history. Early life David Robinson was born in Key West, Florida, the second child of Ambrose and Freda Robinson. Since Robinson's father was in the U.S. Navy, the family moved frequently. After his father retired from the Navy, the family settled in Woodbridge, Virginia, where Robinson excelled in school and in most sports, except basketball. Robinson attended Osbourn Park High School in Manassas, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C., where Robinson's father was working as an engineer. Robinson was of average height for most of his childhood and teenage years, and stood only tall in his junior year of high school (age 16-17). But during his senior year (age 17-18) he experienced a large growth spurt and grew to . He had not played organized basketball or attended any basketball camps, but the school's basketball coach added him to the team, and Robinson earned all-area and all-district honors but generated little interest among college basketball coaches. Robinson graduated from Osbourn Park in 1983. He achieved a score of 1320 on the SAT, and chose to attend the United States Naval Academy, where he would major in mathematics and play on the basketball team. At the time the Naval Academy had a height restriction of for all midshipmen, and in the autumn when the new academic year began Robinson had grown to . Assuming that he was unlikely to grow much more, the academy's superintendent granted him a waiver. However Robinson continued growing, and by the start of his second year at the academy he had nearly reached his adult height of , which later prevented him from serving on any U.S. naval ships. College basketball career and military service Robinson is widely considered to be the best basketball player in Naval Academy history. He chose the jersey number 50 after his idol Ralph Sampson. He began college with no expectations of playing in the NBA, but in Robinson's final two years he was a consensus All-American and won college basketball's two most prestigious player awards, the Naismith and Wooden Awards, as a Naval Academy first classman (senior). In 1986, Robinson led Navy, a number seven seed, within a game of the Final Four before falling to Duke in the East Regional Final. Robinson played his first three years for the Midshipmen under Paul Evans (who left Navy to coach at Pitt) and his senior season under former University of Georgia interim Head Coach Pete Herrmann. Upon graduation, he became eligible for the 1987 NBA draft and was selected by the San Antonio Spurs with the first overall pick; however, the Spurs had to wait two years because he had to fulfill his active-duty obligation with the Navy. Robinson considered leaving the academy after his second year, before incurring an obligation to serve on active duty. He decided to stay after discussing with the Superintendent the likelihood that his height would prevent him from serving at sea as an unrestricted line officer, which would be detrimental to his naval career, and might make it impossible for him to receive a commission at all. As a compromise, Secretary of the Navy John Lehman allowed Robinson to train for and receive a commission as a staff officer in the Civil Engineer Corps. As a result, Robinson was commissioned in the Naval Reserve and was required to serve only an initial active-duty obligation of two years. After graduating from the Naval Academy, Robinson became a civil engineering officer at the Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay in Georgia. He was regularly featured in recruiting materials for the service. Despite the nickname "Admiral", Robinson's actual rank upon fulfilling his service commitment was Lieutenant (junior grade). Professional career San Antonio Spurs (1989–2003) Early years, MVP title, and playoff upsets (1989–1998) Since he had not signed a contract, NBA regulations stated that Robinson could have reentered the draft after his naval service. Although there was speculation that he might choose not to sign with the Spurs, Robinson agreed to move to San Antonio for the 1989–90 season, but the Spurs agreed to pay him as much as the average of the salaries of the two highest-paid players in the league each year, or release him to free agency. The Spurs had spent the second half of the 1980s as an also-ran, bottoming out in 1988–89 with a 21–61 record, the worst in franchise history at the time. While it was widely thought that the Spurs would become respectable again once Robinson arrived, no one expected what happened in his rookie season. Robinson led the Spurs to the greatest single-season turnaround in NBA history at the time (a record the Spurs themselves broke in 1997–98, after drafting Tim Duncan, which was then broken by the Boston Celtics in the 2007–08 NBA season). The Spurs leaped to a record of 56–26 for a remarkable 35 game improvement. They advanced to the second round of the Western Conference playoffs where they lost in seven games to the eventual conference champion Portland Trail Blazers. Following the 1989–90 season, he was unanimously named the NBA rookie of the year, and subsequently Sega produced a game featuring him entitled David Robinson's Supreme Court. The Spurs made the playoffs seven more seasons in a row. Robinson also made the 1992 US Olympic Dream Team that won the gold medal in Barcelona. During the 1993–94 season, he became locked in a duel for the NBA scoring title with Shaquille O'Neal, scoring 71 points (breaking George Gervin's single-game franchise record of 63) against the Los Angeles Clippers to win it. In that season, Robinson averaged a career-high 29.8 points per game, 10.7 rebounds per game, career-high 4.8 assists per game and 3.3 blocks per game. Robinson went on to win the MVP trophy in 1995, and in 1996 he was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History. Still, from 1991 to 1996, Robinson was thwarted in his quest to claim the one prize that had eluded him: an NBA title. During that span the Spurs were eliminated from the playoffs by the Warriors, Suns (twice), Jazz (twice), and Rockets. The loss against the Rockets was particularly painful for Robinson because it occurred in the Western Conference Finals with Robinson playing head-to-head against his chief rival, Hakeem Olajuwon. By his own admission, Robinson was outplayed by Olajuwon in the series, their only meetings in post-season play. Early in the 1997 season, Robinson's dreams of becoming a champion seemed to vanish when he hurt his back in the preseason. He finally returned in December, but six games later broke his foot in a home game against the Miami Heat, and ended up missing the rest of the regular season. As a result of the injury to Robinson and other key players (most notably Sean Elliott, who missed more than half the season), the Spurs finished the season with a dismal 20–62 record. However, his injury proved to be a blessing in disguise. Despite having only the third-worst record in the league, the Spurs won the NBA Draft Lottery—and with it, the first pick in the next year's NBA draft. They used that pick to select Tim Duncan out of Wake Forest University, who was, after a few years, the final key to Robinson's quest for an NBA title. Championship season (1998–1999) Before the start of the 1998–99 season, the NBA owners and NBA commissioner David Stern locked out the NBA Players' Association to force negotiations on a new Collective Bargaining Agreement. This lockout lasted for 202 days, well into the regular NBA season, before an agreement was finally reached. After playing a truncated 50-game season, the Spurs finished with an NBA-best record of 37–13, giving them the home-court advantage throughout the playoffs. The Spurs blitzed through the first three rounds of the NBA playoffs, beating the Minnesota Timberwolves, Los Angeles Lakers, and Portland Trail Blazers by a combined record of 11–1 to reach the NBA Finals for the first time ever. In the Finals, the combination of Robinson in the post and second-year power forward Tim Duncan proved overpowering, and the Spurs beat the New York Knicks in five games to become the first former American Basketball Association team to win an NBA title. Duncan was named Finals MVP. Robinson and Duncan were nicknamed "The Twin Towers". Twilight years and second championship (1999–2003) The later years of Robinson's career were plagued by back ailments. During the 1999–00 season, Robinson averaged 17.8 points per game, 10.0 rebounds per game and 2.3 blocks per game in 80 games. The Spurs made it to the playoffs as the fourth seed, but were defeated by the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the playoffs despite Robinson's 23.5 points, 13.8 rebounds, and 3 blocks per game. Robinson announced he would retire from basketball following the 2002–03 season. On June 15, 2003, in the finale of Robinson's career, the Spurs won another NBA title with an 88–77 victory over the New Jersey Nets in Game 6 of the 2003 NBA Finals. During this game, Robinson scored 13 points, as well as getting 17 rebounds, this was also the final game of his career and for the San Antonio Spurs. He and the year's regular season and NBA Finals MVP Tim Duncan shared Sports Illustrated magazine's 2003 Sportsmen of the Year award. Player profile Robinson possessed tremendous mobility in the post, speed, and ball-handling, especially for a center. With good hands on both offense and defense, Robinson was nearly unstoppable on both sides of the floor, throwing down dunks and blocking shots. He was also noted for his strong midrange jumpshot. Robinson averaged 21.1 points per game, 10.7 rebounds per game, 3 blocks per game, and 2.5 assists per game over 987 games in his NBA career. Also, he is one of only a very small group of players to have scored over 20,000 career points in the NBA, as well as being one of only four players to have recorded a quadruple-double (with 34 points, 10 rebounds, 10 assists, and 10 blocks against the Detroit Pistons on February 17, 1994). He is also one of only six players to record 70 or more points in a single game. Robinson scored 71 points against the Los Angeles Clippers on April 24, 1994. Only Elgin Baylor (71 points), Wilt Chamberlain (70, 72, 73 twice, 78, 100 points), David Thompson (73 points), Devin Booker (70 points), and Kobe Bryant (81 points) have scored 70 or more points in a single game. Robinson is also noteworthy for his harmonious relationship with Tim Duncan. Sportswriter Chris Sheridan noted that it was rare for someone like Robinson to have welcomed and mentored Duncan as willingly as he did and to have reduced his own role in the team's offense to accommodate a younger star. NBA career statistics Regular season \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1989–90 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| style="background:#cfecec;"\| 82* \|\| 81 \|\| 36.6 \|\| .531 \|\| .000 \|\| .732 \|\| 12.0 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 3.9 \|\| 24.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1990–91 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| style="background:#cfecec;"\| 82* \|\| 81 \|\| 37.7 \|\| .552 \|\| .143 \|\| .762 \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\| 13.0* \|\| 2.5 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 3.9 \|\| 25.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1991–92 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 68 \|\| 68 \|\| 37.7 \|\| .551 \|\| .125 \|\| .701 \|\| 12.2 \|\| 2.7 \|\| 2.3 \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\| 4.5* \|\| 23.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1992–93 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \|style="background:#cfecec;"\| 82* \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\| 82* \|\| 39.2 \|\| .501 \|\| .176 \|\| .732 \|\| 11.7 \|\| 3.7 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 3.2 \|\| 23.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1993–94 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 80 \|\| 80 \|\| 40.5 \|\| .507 \|\| .345 \|\| .749 \|\| 10.7 \|\| 4.8 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 3.3 \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\| 29.8* \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1994–95 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 81 \|\| 81 \|\| 38.0 \|\| .530 \|\| .300 \|\| .774 \|\| 10.8 \|\| 2.9 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 3.2 \|\| 27.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1995–96 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| style="background:#cfecec;"\| 82* \|\| style="background:#cfecec;"\| 82* \|\| 36.8 \|\| .516 \|\| .333 \|\| .761 \|\| 12.2 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 25.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1996–97 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 6 \|\| 6 \|\| 24.5 \|\| .500 \|\| .000 \|\| .654 \|\| 8.5 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 17.7 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1997–98 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 73 \|\| 73 \|\| 33.7 \|\| .511 \|\| .250 \|\| .735 \|\| 10.6 \|\| 2.7 \|\| .9 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 21.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\| † \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 49 \|\| 49 \|\| 31.7 \|\| .509 \|\| .000 \|\| .658 \|\| 10.0 \|\| 2.1 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 15.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1999–00 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 80 \|\| 80 \|\| 32.0 \|\| .512 \|\| .000 \|\| .726 \|\| 9.6 \|\| 1.8 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 17.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2000–01 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 80 \|\| 80 \|\| 29.6 \|\| .486 \|\| .000 \|\| .747 \|\| 8.6 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 14.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2001–02 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 78 \|\| 78 \|\| 29.5 \|\| .507 \|\| .000 \|\| .681 \|\| 8.3 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 1.8 \|\| 12.2 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\| † \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 64 \|\| 64 \|\| 26.2 \|\| .469 \|\| .000 \|\| .710 \|\| 7.9 \|\| 1.0 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 8.5 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan=2\| Career \| 987 \|\| 985 \|\| 34.7 \|\| .518 \|\| .250 \|\| .736 \|\| 10.6 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 1.4 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 21.1 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan=2\| All-Star \| 10 \|\| 3 \|\| 18.4 \|\| .588 \|\| .000 \|\| .695 \|\| 6.2 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 14.1 Playoffs \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1990 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 10 \|\| 10 \|\| 37.5 \|\| .533 \|\| .000 \|\| .677 \|\| 12.0 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 4.0 \|\| 24.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1991 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 4 \|\| 4 \|\| 41.5 \|\| .686 \|\| .000 \|\| .868 \|\| 13.5 \|\| 2.0 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 3.8 \|\| 25.8 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1993 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 10 \|\| 10 \|\| 42.1 \|\| .465 \|\| .000 \|\| .664 \|\| 12.6 \|\| 4.0 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 3.6 \|\| 23.1 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1994 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 4 \|\| 4 \|\| 36.5 \|\| .411 \|\| .000 \|\| .741 \|\| 10.0 \|\| 3.5 \|\| .8 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 20.0 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1995 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 15 \|\| 15 \|\| 41.5 \|\| .446 \|\| .200 \|\| .812 \|\| 12.1 \|\| 3.1 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 25.3 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1996 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 10 \|\| 10 \|\| 35.3 \|\| .516 \|\| .000 \|\| .667 \|\| 10.1 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 1.5 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 23.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 1998 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 9 \|\| 9 \|\| 39.2 \|\| .425 \|\| .000 \|\| .635 \|\| 14.1 \|\| 2.6 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 3.3 \|\| 19.4 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\| 1999† \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 17 \|\| 17 \|\| 35.3 \|\| .483 \|\| .000 \|\| .722 \|\| 9.9 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 1.6 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 15.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2000 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 4 \|\| 4 \|\| 38.8 \|\| .373 \|\| .000 \|\| .762 \|\| 13.8 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 1.8 \|\| 3.0 \|\| 23.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2001 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 13 \|\| 13 \|\| 31.5 \|\| .472 \|\| .000 \|\| .695 \|\| 11.8 \|\| 1.7 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 2.4 \|\| 16.6 \|- \| style="text-align:left;"\| 2002 \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 4 \|\| 4 \|\| 20.3 \|\| .474 \|\| .000 \|\| .000 \|\| 5.8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| .8 \|\| .8 \|\| 4.5 \|- \| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"\| 2003† \| style="text-align:left;"\| San Antonio \| 23 \|\| 23 \|\| 23.4 \|\| .542 \|\| .000 \|\| .667 \|\| 6.6 \|\| .9 \|\| .8 \|\| 1.3 \|\| 7.8 \|- class="sortbottom" \| style="text-align:center;" colspan=2\| Career \| 123 \|\| 123 \|\| 34.3 \|\| .479 \|\| .100 \|\| .708 \|\| 10.6 \|\| 2.3 \|\| 1.2 \|\| 2.5 \|\| 18.1 National team career David Robinson was a member of the United States national team at the 1986 FIBA World Championship, the 1987 Pan American Games, the 1988 Summer Olympics, 1992 Summer Olympics, and the 1996 Summer Olympics. He won the gold medal at all games except the 1987 Pan Am Games, where he won a silver medal, and the 1988 Summer Olympics, where he won a bronze medal. Personal life Robinson married Valerie Hoggatt in 1991. They have three sons, David Jr., Corey, and Justin. Corey attended Notre Dame and was a wide receiver on the football team before ending his playing career in 2016 on medical advice due to multiple concussions prior to what would have been his senior season. He was very active on campus in his final undergraduate year, having been elected student body president in February 2016 for the 2016–17 school year. Justin, a 6'8" (2.03 m) forward in basketball and a two-time all-state selection in Texas, begin attending Duke in August 2015. He was initially recruited to the Duke team as a "preferred walk-on" with the opportunity to eventually earn a scholarship, but was placed on scholarship before his arrival at Duke. On September 18, 2020, Mornar Bar of Erste Liga announced that they had signed Justin, signaling the start to his professional basketball career. Robinson became a Christian on June 8, 1991, after being encouraged to read the Bible. In 2001, Robinson founded and funded the $9 million Carver Academy in San Antonio, a non-profit private school named for George Washington Carver to provide more opportunities for inner-city children. In 2012, the school became a public charter school and its name changed to IDEA Carver. Robinson continues to be a very active participant in the school's day-to-day activities. In 2011, Robinson earned a Master of Arts in Administration (with concentration in organizational development) from the University of the Incarnate Word to better "understand how businesses work and how to build them." Beyond his founding of Carver Academy, Robinson is well known as a philanthropist. Robinson and business partner Daniel Bassichis donate 10 percent of their profits to charitable causes. The winner of the NBA Community Assist Award is presented with the David Robinson Plaque. Other ventures In 2008, Robinson partnered with Daniel Bassichis, formerly of Goldman Sachs and a board member of The Carver Academy, to form Admiral Capital Group. Admiral Capital Group is a private equity firm whose mission is to invest in opportunities that can provide both financial and social returns. Robinson's primary motivation in starting Admiral Capital was to create a source of additional financial support for The Carver Academy. Its portfolio is worth more than $100 million and includes nine upscale hotels and office buildings across the U.S. as well as Centerplate, one of the largest hospitality companies in the world. Admiral Capital Group also partnered with Living Cities to form the Admiral Center, a non-profit created to support other athletes and entertainers with their philanthropic initiatives. Robinson is also co-owner of a Jaguar Land Rover Dealership in San Juan, Texas. Awards and honors NBA Two-time NBA Champion 1995 NBA MVP 1992 NBA Defensive Player of the Year 1990 NBA Rookie of the Year 1990 NBA All-Rookie First Team Four-time All-NBA First Team Four-time All-Defensive First Team 10-time NBA All-Star One of 50 Greatest Players in NBA History 1994 NBA Scoring Champion Five-time IBM Award winner 2001 NBA Sportsmanship Award 2008 NBA Shooting Stars champion Number 50 retired by the San Antonio Spurs 2021 Elected to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team. USA Basketball Two-time Olympic Gold Medal winner Olympic Bronze Medal winner Gold Medal in 1986 FIBA World Championship. NCAA 2012 NCAA Silver Anniversary Award Coach Wooden "Keys to Life" Award (2004) Halls of Fame Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame class of 2009 – individual class of 2010 – as a member of the "Dream Team" U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame class of 2008 – individual class of 2009 – as a member of the "Dream Team" FIBA Hall of Fame class of 2013 - individual class of 2017 - as a member of the "Dream Team" Media 2003 Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year In the Classroom with David Robinson video made for distribution across American public schools in collaboration with public television producers Other Golden Plate Award, American Academy of Achievement (1987) Charitable efforts In addition to his lengthy NBA career, Robinson is also noted for his charitable work. In 1991, Robinson visited with fifth-graders at Gates Elementary School in San Antonio and challenged them to finish school and go to college. He offered a $2,000 scholarship to everyone who did. In 1998, proving even better than his word, Robinson awarded $8,000 to each of those students who had completed his challenge. In perhaps his greatest civic and charitable achievement, David and his wife, Valerie, founded the Carver Academy in San Antonio, which opened its doors in September 2001. To date, the Robinsons have donated more than $11 million to the school. In March 2003, in recognition of his outstanding contributions to charity, the NBA renamed its award for outstanding charitable efforts in honor of Robinson. Winners of the NBA's Community Assist Award receive the David Robinson Plaque, with the inscription "Following the standard set by NBA Legend David Robinson who improved the community piece by piece." The award is given out monthly by the league to recognize players for their charitable efforts. Robinson is also the recipient of the William E. Simon Prize for Philanthropic Leadership. In 2011, in recognition of his philanthropic efforts with the Carver Academy, Robinson received the Children's Champion Award from the charitable organization Children's Hunger Fund. In 2018, Robinson became a member of the V Foundation for Cancer Research's board of directors. See also NBA Quadruple-double List of National Basketball Association top rookie scoring averages List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders List of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders List of National Basketball Association annual scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders List of National Basketball Association season blocks leaders List of National Basketball Association players with most points in a game List of National Basketball Association players with most blocks in a game List of NBA players who have spent their entire career with one franchise College List of NCAA Division I men's basketball players with 13 or more blocks in a game List of NCAA Division I men's basketball players with 2000 points and 1000 rebounds List of NCAA Division I men's basketball season blocks leaders List of NCAA Division I men's basketball season rebounding leaders References External links David Robinson @ NBA.com/History 1987 Oscar Robertson Trophy Admiral Center 1965 births Living people 20th-century African-American sportspeople 21st-century African-American people 1986 FIBA World Championship players African-American basketball players African-American Christians All-American college men's basketball players American Christians American men's basketball players Basketball players from Florida Basketball players from San Antonio Basketball players from Virginia Basketball players at the 1987 Pan American Games Basketball players at the 1988 Summer Olympics Basketball players at the 1992 Summer Olympics Basketball players at the 1996 Summer Olympics Centers (basketball) Competitors at the 1986 Goodwill Games FIBA Hall of Fame inductees FIBA World Championship-winning players Medalists at the 1987 Pan American Games Medalists at the 1988 Summer Olympics Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees National Basketball Association All-Stars National Basketball Association players with retired numbers Navy Midshipmen men's basketball players Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in basketball Olympic gold medalists for the United States in basketball Osbourn Park High School alumni Pan American Games medalists in basketball Pan American Games silver medalists for the United States People from Key West, Florida People from Manassas, Virginia People from Woodbridge, Virginia San Antonio Spurs draft picks San Antonio Spurs players Sportspeople from Virginia Beach, Virginia United States men's national basketball team players United States Navy officers United States Navy reservists University of the Incarnate Word alumni	[ -0.36282554268836975, -0.09058424830436707, -0.2433037906885147, 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207752	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albionbaataridae	Albionbaataridae	Albionbaataridae is a family of small, extinct mammals within the order Multituberculata. Fossil remains are known from the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous of Europe and Asia. These herbivores lived their obscure lives during the Mesozoic, also known as the "age of the dinosaurs." They were among the more derived representatives of the informal suborder "Plagiaulacida". The taxon Albionbaataridae was named by Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Ensom P.C. in 1994. Members of Albionbaataridae were "Shrew-sized taxa that differ from all other multituberculates in having relatively flat, multi-cusped anterior upper premolars, with 10-14 cusps arranged in three rows, rather than 3-4, rarely up to nine high cusps in two rows, and in having lingual slope of all premolars covered by prominent, subparallel ridges...," (Kielan-Jaworowska & Hurum, 2001, p. 414). References Kielan-Jaworowska & Ensom (1994), Tiny plagiaulacoid multituberculate mammals from the Purbeck Limestone Formation of Dorset England. Paleontology, 37, p. 17-31. Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals. Paleontology 44, p. 389-429. Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Plagiaulacidae, Albionbaataridae, Eobaataridae & Arginbaataridae, an Internet directory. Multituberculates Late Jurassic first appearances Tithonian taxonomic families Berriasian taxonomic families Early Cretaceous extinctions Prehistoric mammal families	[ -0.01840377040207386, 0.61030113697052, -0.7544934749603271, -0.6965054869651794, -0.32837218046188354, 0.2466878443956375, 0.8303123712539673, 0.16345436871051788, 0.07610119134187698, 0.14097338914871216, 0.11410470306873322, -0.10566695034503937, -1.0088355541229248, -0.09328439086675644, 0.22176550328731537, 0.872873067855835, -0.6800206899642944, 0.42710331082344055, 0.12807852029800415, 0.5295635461807251, 0.35854265093803406, -0.40323612093925476, 0.8005214333534241, -0.5252566933631897, 0.5685787200927734, 0.04823572188615799, 1.3082120418548584, 1.3240461349487305, 0.3852340877056122, -0.9105918407440186, -0.5621216893196106, 0.38529911637306213, 0.1253310889005661, -0.30929771065711975, 0.19160068035125732, -0.1704489290714264, -0.6825386881828308, -0.33247220516204834, -0.20875254273414612, -1.00101637840271, 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207754	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatic%20cell	Somatic cell	A somatic cell (from Ancient Greek σῶμα sôma, meaning "body"), or vegetal cell, is any biological cell forming the body of a multicellular organism other than a gamete, germ cell, gametocyte or undifferentiated stem cell. The cell which takes part in composition of the body of an organism and divides through the process of binary fission and mitotic division is called somatic cell. In contrast, gametes are cells that fuse during sexual reproduction, germ cells are cells that give rise to gametes, and stem cells are cells that can divide through mitosis and differentiate into diverse specialized cell types. For example, in mammals, somatic cells make up all the internal organs, skin, bones, blood and connective tissue, while mammalian germ cells give rise to spermatozoa and ova which fuse during fertilization to produce a cell called a zygote, which divides and differentiates into the cells of an embryo. There are approximately 220 types of somatic cell in the human body. Theoretically, these cells are not germ cells (the source of gametes); they transmit their mutations, to their cellular descendants (if they have any), but not to the organism's descendants. However, in sponges, non-differentiated somatic cells form the germ line and, in Cnidaria, differentiated somatic cells are the source of the germline. Mitotic cell division is only seen in diploid somatic cells. Only some cells like germ cells take part in reproduction. Evolution As multicellularity evolved many times, so did sterile somatic cells. The evolution of an immortal germline producing specialized somatic cells involved the emergence of mortality, and can be viewed in its simplest version in volvocine algae. Those species with a separation between sterile somatic cells and a germline are called Weismannists. Weismannist development is relatively rare (e.g., vertebrates, arthropods, Volvox), as many species have the capacity for somatic embryogenesis (e.g., land plants, most algae, and numerous invertebrates). Genetics and chromosomes Like all cells, somatic cells contain DNA arranged in chromosomes. If a somatic cell contains chromosomes arranged in pairs, it is called diploid and the organism is called a diploid organism. The gametes of diploid organisms contain only single unpaired chromosomes and are called haploid. Each pair of chromosomes comprises one chromosome inherited from the father and one inherited from the mother. In humans, somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes organized into 23 pairs. By contrast, gametes of diploid organisms contain only half as many chromosomes. In humans, this is 23 unpaired chromosomes. When two gametes (i.e. a spermatozoon and an ovum) meet during conception, they fuse together, creating a zygote. Due to the fusion of the two gametes, a human zygote contains 46 chromosomes (i.e. 23 pairs). A large number of species have the chromosomes in their somatic cells arranged in fours ("tetraploid") or even sixes ("hexaploid"). Thus, they can have diploid or even triploid germline cells. An example of this is the modern cultivated species of wheat, Triticum aestivum L., a hexaploid species whose somatic cells contain six copies of every chromatid. The frequency of spontaneous mutations is significantly lower in advanced male germ cells than in somatic cell types from the same individual. Female germ cells also show a mutation frequency that is lower than that in corresponding somatic cells and similar to that in male germ cells. These findings appear to reflect employment of more effective mechanisms to limit the initial occurrence of spontaneous mutations in germ cells than in somatic cells. Such mechanisms likely include elevated levels of DNA repair enzymes that ameliorate most potentially mutagenic DNA damages. Cloning In recent years, the technique of cloning whole organisms has been developed in mammals, allowing almost identical genetic clones of an animal to be produced. One method of doing this is called "somatic cell nuclear transfer" and involves removing the nucleus from a somatic cell, usually a skin cell. This nucleus contains all of the genetic information needed to produce the organism it was removed from. This nucleus is then injected into an ovum of the same species which has had its own genetic material removed. The ovum now no longer needs to be fertilized, because it contains the correct amount of genetic material (a diploid number of chromosomes). In theory, the ovum can be implanted into the uterus of a same-species animal and allowed to develop. The resulting animal will be a nearly genetically identical clone to the animal from which the nucleus was taken. The only difference is caused by any mitochondrial DNA that is retained in the ovum, which is different from the cell that donated the nucleus. In practice, this technique has so far been problematic, although there have been a few high-profile successes, such as Dolly the Sheep and, more recently, Snuppy, the first cloned dog. Somatic cells have also been collected in the practice of cryoconservation of animal genetic resources as a means of conserving animal genetic material, including to clone livestock. Genetic modifications Development of biotechnology has allowed for the genetic manipulation of somatic cells, whether for the modelling of chronic disease or for the prevention of malaise conditions. Genetic engineering of somatic cells has resulted in some controversies, although the International Summit on Human Gene Editing has released a statement in support of genetic modification of somatic cells, as the modifications thereof are not passed on to offspring. See also Somatic cell count List of biological development disorders References Cloning Cells Developmental biology	[ 0.2858271896839142, -0.1526240110397339, -0.33516791462898254, 0.3075483441352844, 0.19098402559757233, -0.07826538383960724, 0.11013846099376678, 0.21421396732330322, -0.09883099794387817, -0.5329605937004089, -0.1927679181098938, -0.3433159291744232, -0.6628018617630005, 0.23463739454746246, -0.30879995226860046, -0.2891528308391571, 0.7802525162696838, 0.5499194860458374, 0.11647329479455948, 0.1536140888929367, -0.5444983243942261, 0.16308636963367462, 0.24196010828018188, 0.10371168702840805, 0.33803263306617737, -0.8275784254074097, -0.03981006145477295, -0.27002060413360596, 0.5638301968574524, -0.023748882114887238, -0.11022807657718658, 0.02730858512222767, 0.29274725914001465, -0.11966628581285477, 0.051683440804481506, -0.24205799400806427, -0.7975504994392395, -0.04612111672759056, -0.6400464177131653, -0.6028995513916016, -0.3018488883972168, 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207762	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yvonne%20Loriod	Yvonne Loriod	Yvonne Louise-Georgette Loriod-Messiaen (; 20 January 1924 – 17 May 2010) was a French pianist, teacher, and composer, and the second wife of composer Olivier Messiaen. Her sister was the Ondes Martenot player Jeanne Loriod. Biography Loriod was born in Houilles, Yvelines. She studied at the Paris Conservatoire and became one of Olivier Messiaen's most avid pupils. She also studied with Isidor Philipp, Lazare Lévy then Marcel Ciampi. She went on to become a nationally acclaimed recording artist and concert pianist and premiered most of Messiaen's works for the piano, starting in the 1940s. Messiaen said that he was able to indulge in "the greatest eccentricities" when writing for piano, knowing that they would be mastered by Loriod. Both she and her sister Jeanne often performed as the soloists in his Turangalîla-Symphonie. Loriod also orchestrated part of Messiaen's final orchestral work, Concert à quatre. Loriod gave the French premiere of Béla Bartók's Piano Concerto No. 2 in 1945, having learnt it in only eight days. In 1961, Loriod married Olivier Messiaen following the death of his long institutionalized first wife, Claire Delbos. She is generally considered to be the most important interpreter of Messiaen's piano works. In her later years, she and Messiaen acted as mentors to the pianist Pierre-Laurent Aimard, who has since become a great champion of the works of Messiaen. Olivier Messiaen died in April 1992 in Saint-Denis. She survived him by 18 years, dying on 17 May 2010 in Saint-Denis, Paris, aged 86. She was survived by her other sister, Jacqueline Loriod, and stepson Pascal Messiaen. Compositions Pièce sur la souffrance, for orchestra Mélopées africaines, for Ondes Martenot, piano and flute (1945) Grains de cendre, for soprano and chamber orchestra (1946) Publications Messiaen, Olivier. Traité de rythme, de couleur, et d’ornithologie (1949–1992) ("Treatise on rhythm, colour and ornithology"), completed by Yvonne Loriod. 7 parts bound in 8 volumes. Paris: Leduc, 1994–2002. Messiaen, Olivier. Analyses of the Piano Works of Maurice Ravel, edited by Yvonne Loriod, translated by Paul Griffiths. [Paris]: Durand, 2005. Selected recordings Olivier Messiaen: Vingt Regards sur l'enfant-Jésus Label: Erato, 4509-91705-2 3 August 1993 Olivier Messiaen: Turangalîla Symphonie Label: Deutsche Grammophon, 31781 12 May 1992 References External links [ Discography] at www.allmusic.com Yvonne Loriod-Messiaen profile and discography at www.oliviermessiaen.org Daily Telegraph: Obituary The Guardian: Obituary "Yvonne Loriod, Pianist and Messiaen Muse, Dies at 86" in The New York Times 18 May 2010 1924 births 2010 deaths Conservatoire de Paris alumni Contemporary classical music performers 20th-century French women classical pianists French composers People from Houilles Conservatoire de Paris faculty Piano pedagogues Pupils of Darius Milhaud Pupils of Isidor Philipp	[ -0.26091820001602173, 0.35867801308631897, -0.12076843529939651, -0.3581664562225342, -0.4005155563354492, 0.9619268774986267, 0.14248600602149963, -0.23680345714092255, -0.5958495140075684, -0.24065178632736206, -0.21583880484104156, 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207766	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardner%20Dozois	Gardner Dozois	Gardner Raymond Dozois ( ; July 23, 1947 – May 27, 2018) was an American science fiction author and editor. He was the founding editor of The Year's Best Science Fiction anthologies (1984–2018) and was editor of Asimov's Science Fiction magazine (1984–2004), garnering multiple Hugo and Locus Awards for those works almost every year. He also won the Nebula Award for Best Short Story twice. He was inducted to the Science Fiction Hall of Fame on June 25, 2011. Biography Dozois was born July 23, 1947, in Salem, Massachusetts. He graduated from Salem High School with the Class of 1965. From 1966 to 1969 he served in the Army as a journalist, after which he moved to New York City to work as an editor in the science fiction field. One of his stories had been published by Frederik Pohl in the September 1966 issue of If but his next four appeared in 1970, three in Damon Knight's anthology series Orbit. Dozois said that he turned to reading fiction partially as an escape from the provincialism of his home town. He was badly injured in a taxi accident after returning from a Philadelphia Phillies game in 2004 (causing him to miss Worldcon for the first time in many years) but made a full recovery. On July 6, 2007, Dozois had surgery for a planned quintuple bypass operation. A week later, he experienced complications which prompted additional surgery to implant a defibrillator. Dozois died on May 27, 2018, of a systemic infection at a hospital in Philadelphia at the age of 70. Fiction As a writer, Dozois mainly worked in shorter forms. He won the Nebula Award for Best Short Story twice: once for "The Peacemaker" in 1983, and again for "Morning Child" in 1984. His short fiction has been collected in The Visible Man (1977), Geodesic Dreams (a best-of collection), Slow Dancing through Time (1990, collaborations), Strange Days (2001, another best-of collection), Morning Child and Other Stories (2004) and When the Great Days Come (2011). As a novelist, Dozois's oeuvre is significantly smaller. He was the author of one solo novel, Strangers (1978), as well as a collaboration with George Alec Effinger, Nightmare Blue (1977), and a collaboration with George R. R. Martin and Daniel Abraham for Hunter's Run (2008). After becoming editor of Asimov's, Dozois's fiction output dwindled. His 2006 novelette "Counterfactual" won the Sidewise Award for best alternate-history short story. Dozois also wrote short fiction reviews for Locus. Michael Swanwick, one of his co-authors, completed a long interview with Dozois covering every published piece of his fiction. Being Gardner Dozois: An Interview by Michael Swanwick was published by Old Earth Books in 2001. It won the Locus Award for Non-Fiction and was a finalist for the Hugo Award for Best Related Book. Editorial work Dozois was known primarily as an editor, winning the Hugo Award for Best Professional Editor 15 times in 17 years from 1988 to his retirement from Asimov's in 2004. George R. R. Martin described him as the most important and influential editor in science fiction since John W. Campbell. In addition to his work with Asimov's (of which he was the first associate editor in 1976), he also worked in the 1970s with magazines such as Galaxy Science Fiction, If, Worlds of Fantasy, and Worlds of Tomorrow. Dozois was also a prolific short fiction anthologist. After resigning from his Asimov's position, he remained the editor of the anthology series The Year's Best Science Fiction, published annually since 1984. In three decades Locus readers have voted it the year's best anthology almost 20 times and the runner-up almost 10 times. And, with Jack Dann, he edited a long series of themed anthologies, each with a self-explanatory title such as Cats, Dinosaurs, Seaserpents, or Hackers. Stories selected by Gardner Dozois for the annual best-of-year volumes have won, as of December 2015, 44 Hugos, 41 Nebulas, 32 Locus, 10 World Fantasy and 18 Sturgeon Awards. That also includes the Dutton series (Dozois volumes only). Dozois consistently expressed a particular interest in adventure SF and space opera, which he collectively referred to as "center-core SF". Works as writer Fiction Novels Nightmare Blue (with George Alec Effinger) (1975, ) Strangers (1978, ) Hunter's Run (2008, ) (with George R. R. Martin and Daniel Abraham) City Under the Stars (2020, ) (with Michael Swanwick) Collections The Visible Man (1977, ) Slow Dancing Through Time (1990, ) Geodesic Dreams (1992, ) Strange Days: Fabulous Journeys with Gardner Dozois (2001, ) Morning Child and Other Stories (2004, ) When the Great Days Come (2011, ) Short stories "A Special Kind of Morning" (1971) "Chains of the Sea" (1971) "Machines of Loving Grace" (1972) "A Traveler in an Antique Land" (1983) "The Peacemaker" (1983) (Nebula Award winner) "Morning Child" (1984) (Nebula Award winner) "A Knight of Ghosts and Shadows" (1999) "The Hanging Curve" (The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, April 2002) "When the Great Days Came" (The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Dec 2005) "Shadow Twin" (2005) (with George R. R. Martin and Daniel Abraham) "Counterfactual" (The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, June 2006) "Neanderthals" (The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Jan/Feb 2018) Nonfiction The Fiction of James Tiptree, Jr. (1977, ) Writing Science Fiction & Fantasy (1993, ) (co-edited with Stanley Schmidt and Sheila Williams) Selected anthologies edited by Gardner Dozois A Day in the Life (1972, ) Future Power (1976, ASIN B000H75MWC) (co-edited with Jack Dann) Another World: Adventures in Otherness (1977, ) Ripper (1988, ) (co-edited with Susan Casper) Modern Classics of Science Fiction (1992, ) Future Earths: Under African Skies (1993, ) (co-edited with Mike Resnick) Future Earths: Under South American Skies (1993, ) (co-edited with Mike Resnick) Modern Classic Short Novels of Science Fiction (1994, ) Mammoth Book of Contemporary SF Masters (1994, ) Killing Me Softly (1995, ASIN B000OEN80G) Dying for It (1997, ASIN B000H40WZC) Modern Classics of Fantasy (1997, ) Roads Not Taken: Tales of Alternate History (1998, ) (co-edited with Stanley Schmidt) The Good Old Stuff: Adventure SF in the Grand Tradition (1998, ) The Good New Stuff: Adventure SF in the Grand Tradition (1999, ) Explorers: SF Adventures to Far Horizons (2000, ) The Furthest Horizon: SF Adventures to the Far Future (2000, ) Worldmakers: SF Adventures in Terraforming (2001, ) Supermen: Tales of the Posthuman Future (2002, ) Galileo's Children: Tales of Science vs. Superstition (2005, ) One Million A.D. (2005, ) Nebula Awards Showcase 2006 (2006, ) Escape From Earth: New Adventures in Space (2006, ) (co-edited with Jack Dann) Wizards: Magical Tales from the Masters of Modern Fantasy (2007, ) (co-edited with Jack Dann) The New Space Opera (2007, ) (co-edited with Jonathan Strahan) Galactic Empires (2007) The New Space Opera 2 (2009, ) (co-edited with Jonathan Strahan) The Book of Swords (2017) The Book of Magic (2018) Cross-genre anthologies co-edited by Dozois and Martin Songs of the Dying Earth, a tribute anthology to Jack Vance's seminal Dying Earth series, published by Subterranean Press (co-edited with George R. R. Martin) (2009) Warriors, a cross-genre anthology featuring stories about war and warriors (co-edited with George R. R. Martin) (2010); Locus Award Songs of Love and Death, a cross-genre anthology featuring stories of romance in fantasy and science fiction settings (co-edited with George R. R. Martin) (2010) Down These Strange Streets, a cross-genre anthology featuring stories of private-eye detectives in fantasy and science fiction settings (co-edited with George R. R. Martin) (November 2011) Old Mars, an anthology featuring new stories about Mars in retro-SF vein (co-edited with George R. R. Martin) (2013); Locus Award Dangerous Women, a cross-genre anthology featuring stories about women warriors (co-edited with George R. R. Martin) (2013) Rogues, a cross-genre anthology featuring stories about assorted rogues (co-edited with George R. R. Martin) (2014) Old Venus, an anthology featuring new stories about Venus in retro-SF vein (co-edited with George R. R. Martin) (2015) Themed anthology series co-edited by Dozois and Dann Formerly known as "Magic Tales Anthology Series" until 1995; most released under the Ace imprint. Aliens! (April 1980, Pocket Books, ) Unicorns! (May 1982, ) Magicats! (June 1984, ) Bestiary! (October 1985, ) Mermaids! (January 1986, ) Sorcerers! (October 1986, ) Demons! (July 1987, ) Dogtales! (September 1988, ) Seaserpents! (December 1989, ) Dinosaurs! (June 1990, ) Little People! (March 1991, ) Magicats II (December 1991, ) Unicorns II (November 1992, ) Dragons! (August 1993, ) Invaders! (December 1993, ) Horses! (May 1994, ) Angels! (June 1995, ) Dinosaurs II (December 1995, ) Hackers (October 1996, ) Timegates (March 1997, ) Clones (April 1998, ) Immortals (July 1998, ) Nanotech (December 1998, ) Future War (August 1999, ) Armageddons (November 1999, ) Aliens Among Us (June 2000, ) Genometry (January 2001, ) Space Soldiers (April 2001, ) Future Sports (June 2002, ) Beyond Flesh (December 2002, ) Future Crimes (December 2003, ) A.I.s (December 2004, ) Robots (August 2005, ) Beyond Singularity (December 2005, ) Escape from Earth (August 2006, Science Fiction Book Club, ) Futures Past (November 2006, ) Dangerous Games (April 2007, ) Wizards (May 2007, ) The Dragon Book (November 2009, ) "Isaac Asimov's" series Transcendental Tales from Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine (1989, ) Time Travelers from Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine (1989, ) Isaac Asimov's Robots (1991, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Aliens (1991, ) Isaac Asimov's Mars (1991, ) Isaac Asimov's Earth (1992, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's War (1993, ) Isaac Asimov's SF Lite (1993, ) Isaac Asimov's Cyberdreams (1994, ) Isaac Asimov's Skin Deep (1995, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Ghosts (1995, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Vampires (1996, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Moons (1997, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Christmas (1997, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Detectives (1998, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Camelot (1998, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Solar System (1999, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Werewolves (1999, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Valentines (1999, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Halloween (1999, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Utopias (2000, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Mother's Day (2000, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) Isaac Asimov's Father's Day (2001, ) (co-edited with Sheila Williams) The Year's Best Science Fiction series The Year's Best Science Fiction: First Annual Collection (1984) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Second Annual Collection (1985) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Third Annual Collection (1986) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Fourth Annual Collection (1987) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Fifth Annual Collection (1988) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Sixth Annual Collection (1989) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Seventh Annual Collection (1990) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Eighth Annual Collection (1991) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Ninth Annual Collection (1992) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Tenth Annual Collection (1993) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Eleventh Annual Collection (1994) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twelfth Annual Collection (1995) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Thirteenth Annual Collection (1996) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Fourteenth Annual Collection (1997) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Fifteenth Annual Collection (1998) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Sixteenth Annual Collection (1999) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Seventeenth Annual Collection (2000) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Eighteenth Annual Collection (2001) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Nineteenth Annual Collection (2002) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twentieth Annual Collection (2003) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twenty-First Annual Collection (2004) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twenty-Second Annual Collection (2005) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twenty-Third Annual Collection (2006) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twenty-Fourth Annual Collection (2007) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twenty-Fifth Annual Collection (2008) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twenty-Sixth Annual Collection (2009) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twenty-Seventh Annual Collection (2010) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twenty-Eighth Annual Collection (2011) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twenty-Ninth Annual Collection (2012) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Thirtieth Annual Collection (2013) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Thirty-First Annual Collection (2014) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Thirty-Second Annual Collection (2015) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Thirty-Third Annual Collection (2016) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Thirty-Fourth Annual Collection (2017) The Year's Best Science Fiction: Thirty-Fifth Annual Collection (2018) Best of the Best: 20 Years of the Year's Best Science Fiction (2005) (Anthology from previous Year's Best Science Fiction editions) Best of the Best Volume 2: 20 Years of the Year's Best Short Science Fiction Novels (2007) (Anthology from previous Year's Best Science Fiction editions) Dozois also edited volumes six through ten of the Best Science Fiction Stories of the Year series after Lester del Rey edited the first five volumes. That series ended in 1981. See also References External links Interviews The SF Site: A Conversation with Gardner Dozois Locus Online: Gardner Dozois Interview (excerpt) Other Profile of Gardner Dozois, Philcon 97 Program Book, copy at Michael Swanwick Online Gardner Dozois at Asimovs.com , SFWA Recommended Reading Lists, no date – "devised to direct younger readers to older stuff" Gardner Dozois at Library of Congress Authorities – with 96 catalog records 1947 births 2018 deaths Writers from Salem, Massachusetts Military personnel from Massachusetts 20th-century American novelists 21st-century American novelists American male novelists American science fiction writers Science fiction editors Hugo Award-winning editors Nebula Award winners Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees Sidewise Award winners American male short story writers 20th-century American short story writers 21st-century American short story writers American speculative fiction editors 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American 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207769	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Haldeman	Joe Haldeman	Joe William Haldeman (born June 9, 1943) is an American science fiction author. He is best known for his novel The Forever War (1974). That novel and other works, including The Hemingway Hoax (1991) and Forever Peace (1997), have won science fiction awards, including the Hugo Award and Nebula Award. He was awarded the SFWA Grand Master for career achievements. In 2012 he was inducted as a member of the Science Fiction Hall of Fame. Many of Haldeman's works, including his debut novel War Year and his second novel The Forever War, were inspired by his experiences in the Vietnam War. Wounded in combat, he struggled to adjust to civilian life after returning home. From 1983 to 2014, he was a professor teaching writing at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Life Haldeman was born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. His family traveled and he lived in Puerto Rico, New Orleans, Washington, D.C., Bethesda (Maryland) and Anchorage (Alaska) as a child. He had to repeatedly start classes as a new kid in local schools. In 1965, Haldeman married Mary Gay Potter, known as Gay Haldeman. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Physics and Astronomy from the University of Maryland in 1967. He was immediately drafted into the United States Army, where he served as a combat engineer in the Vietnam War. He was wounded in combat and received a Purple Heart. His wartime experience inspired his first novel War Year. In his later books such as The Hemingway Hoax and Old Twentieth, he continued to explore through fiction the experience of combat soldiers in Vietnam and other wars, during the wars and after return home. In 1975, he received a Master of Fine Arts degree in Creative Writing from the University of Iowa Writers' Workshop. Haldeman has resided alternately in Gainesville, Florida and Cambridge, Massachusetts. From 1983 until his retirement in 2014, he has been an adjunct professor of writing at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). MIT serves as the setting for his 2007 novel, The Accidental Time Machine. Haldeman is also a painter. In 2009 and 2010, Haldeman was hospitalized for pancreatitis. Work Haldeman's first book was a 122-page novel, War Year, published by Holt, Rinehart and Winston in May 1972. The novel was sold with the help of fellow writer Ben Bova. It was based on his letters home from Vietnam and was marketed as mainstream and Young Adult. His most famous novel is his second, The Forever War (St. Martin's Press, 1974), which was inspired by his Vietnam experiences and originated as his MFA thesis for the Iowa Writers' Workshop. It won the year's "Best Novel" Hugo, Nebula and Locus Awards. He later wrote sequels. In 1975, two Attar novels were published as Pocket Books paperback originals under the pen name Robert Graham. Haldeman also wrote two of the earliest original novels based on the 1960s Star Trek television series universe, Planet of Judgment (August 1977) and World Without End (February 1979). In a college creative writing class in 1967, Haldeman wrote the first two SF stories which he (later) sold. "Out of Phase" was published in the September 1969 Galaxy magazine, and "the other worked its way down to a penny-a-word market, Amazing Stories and netted me all of $15 – but then years later it was adapted for The Twilight Zone, for fifty times as much. Not bad for a story banged out overnight to meet a class deadline." Haldeman has written at least one produced Hollywood movie script. The film, a low-budget science fiction film called Robot Jox, was released in 1990. He was not entirely happy with the product, saying "to me it's as if I'd had a child who started out well and then sustained brain damage". In a 2016 interview, Haldeman said, "Jack of all trades, master of none I think. It's a way to go. Not all writers go that way, but many of them do. On a day-to-day basis I wake up in the morning and I can do anything I feel like doing. I don't say, uh oh, I've gotta get back to that damn novel again. I can always write a poem or something. ... " Major awards The Science Fiction Writers of America officers and past presidents selected Haldeman as the 27th SFWA Grand Master in 2009, and he received the corresponding Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award for lifetime achievement as a writer during Nebula Awards weekend in 2010. The Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted him in June 2012. He has also won numerous annual awards for particular works. He is a lifetime member of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA), and past-president. His filk song "The Ballad of Stan Long (a sexist epic)" received a Pegasus Award in 2005. Hugo Award "Hero" (1972) – novella The Forever War (1976) – novel "Tricentennial" (1977) – short story The Hemingway Hoax (1991) – novella None So Blind (1995) – short story Forever Peace (1998) – novel "Four Short Novels" (2003) – short story John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel Forever Peace (1998) Nebula Award The Forever War (1975) – novel The Hemingway Hoax (1990) – novella "Graves" (1993) – short story Forever Peace (1998) – novel Camouflage (2004) – novel Locus Award The Forever War (1976) – SF novel Rhysling Award "Saul's Death" (1984) – long poem "Eighteen Years Old, October Eleventh" (1991) – short poem "January Fires" (2001) – long poem World Fantasy Award "Graves" (1993) – Short Fiction James Tiptree, Jr. Award Camouflage (2004) Pegasus Award "The Ballad of Stan Long (a sexist epic)" (2005) – Best Space Opera Song Bibliography Non-series War Year (1972) – nongenre Vietnam War novel, hardcover and paperback endings differ Mindbridge (1976) – Hugo nominee, placed second in annual Locus Poll All My Sins Remembered (1977) There is No Darkness (1983) – cowritten with Jack C. Haldeman II Tool of the Trade (1987) Buying Time (1989) – published in the UK as The Long Habit of Living The Hemingway Hoax (1990) 1968 (1994) (novel) – Vietnam War novel The Coming (2000) – Locus SF nominee, 2001 Guardian (2002) Camouflage (2004) – Nebula Award winner, 2005 Old Twentieth (2005) The Accidental Time Machine (2007) – Nebula Award nominee, 2007; placed fifth in annual Locus Poll Work Done For Hire (2014) Forever War series The Forever War (1974) (Nebula Award winner, 1975; Hugo and Locus SF Awards winner, 1976) "A Separate War" (1999, short story; appeared first in 1999 in the anthology Far Horizons; collected in 2006 in War Stories and A Separate War and Other Stories) (The story of Marygay Potter after she parts with William Mandella in The Forever War) Forever Free (1999) (a direct sequel to the first novel) Attar (the Merman) series Attar's Revenge (1975) (published under the pseudonym Robert Graham) War of Nerves (1975) (published under the pseudonym Robert Graham) Star Trek novels Planet of Judgment (1977) World Without End (1979) Worlds series Worlds (1981) Worlds Apart (1983) Worlds Enough and Time (1992) Forever Peace series Forever Peace (1997) (Nebula Award winner, 1998; John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel winner, 1998; Hugo Awards winner, 1998) (while thematically linked to Haldeman's The Forever War series, Forever Peace is not set in the same universe) "Forever Bound" (2010, short story; appears in the anthology Warriors) (a prequel to Forever Peace, it tells the story of Julian Class being drafted and trained as a soldierboy while falling in love with Carolyn) Marsbound trilogy Marsbound (2008) (also serialized in Analog Science Fiction and Fact) – placed fifth in annual Locus Poll) Starbound (2010) Earthbound (2011) Short fiction collection Infinite Dreams (1978) Dealing in Futures (1985) Vietnam and Other Alien Worlds (1993) None So Blind (1996) A Separate War and Other Stories (2006) The Best of Joe Haldeman (2013) Anthologies edited Cosmic Laughter (1974) Study War No More (1977) Nebula Award Stories Seventeen (1983) Body Armor: 2000 (1986) (with Charles G. Waugh and Martin H. Greenberg) Supertanks (1987) (with Charles G. Waugh and Martin H. Greenberg) Space-Fighters (1988) (with Charles G. Waugh and Martin H. Greenberg) Future Weapons of War (2007) (with Martin H. Greenberg) Comics The Forever War drawn by Mark van Oppen (better known as Marvano) (original edition La Guerre éternelle (1988–1989)) Forever Free drawn Marvano (original edition Libre à jamais (2002)) Dallas Barr drawn by Marvano based on Buying Time (1996–2005) Poetry Saul's Death and Other Poems (1997) See also References External links "Autobiographical Ramble", 16,600 words Daily diary on sff.net Blog on LiveJournal at the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame (archived 2013-05-10) Complete list of sci-fi award wins and nominations by novel Review of War Stories Joe Haldeman at Fantastic Fiction Robert Graham at LC Authorities (no records) Interviews as part of the Authors@Google series (2007) Interview conducted by Roger Deforest (2006) The Craft of Science Fiction hosted by MIT Communications Forum (2006) All of Joe Haldeman's audio interviews on the podcast The Future And You (in which he describes his expectations of the future) 1943 births Living people 20th-century American novelists 21st-century American novelists American male novelists United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War American science fiction writers Asimov's Science Fiction people Bethesda-Chevy Chase High School alumni Filkers Hugo Award-winning writers Iowa Writers' Workshop alumni MIT School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences faculty Military science fiction writers Nebula Award winners Rhysling Award for Best Long Poem winners Rhysling Award for Best Short Poem winners Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees SFWA Grand Masters University of Maryland, College Park alumni World Fantasy Award-winning writers Writers from Gainesville, Florida Writers from Oklahoma City Novelists from Massachusetts Novelists from Florida Novelists from Oklahoma United States Army soldiers 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American male writers	[ -0.13043875992298126, 0.5969429612159729, -0.7970861196517944, 0.05818852409720421, 0.30140337347984314, 0.5430585145950317, 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207770	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo%20II%20Accord	Oslo II Accord	The Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip commonly known as Oslo II or Oslo 2, was a key and complex agreement in the Israeli–Palestinian peace process. Because Oslo II was signed in Taba, it is sometimes called the Taba Agreement. The Oslo Accords envisioned the establishment of a Palestinian interim self-government in the Palestinian territories but did not promise an independent Palestinian state. Oslo II created the Areas A, B and C in the West Bank. The Palestinian Authority was given some limited powers and responsibilities in the Areas A and B and a prospect of negotiations on a final settlement based on Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338. The Accord was officially signed on 28 September 1995. Historical context The Oslo II Accord was first signed in Taba (in the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt) by Israel and the PLO on 24 September 1995 and then four days later on 28 September 1995 by Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat and witnessed by US President Bill Clinton as well as by representatives of Russia, Egypt, Jordan, Norway, and the European Union in Washington, D.C. The agreement is built on the foundations of the initial Oslo I Accord, formally called the Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements, which had been formally signed on 13 September 1993 by Israel and the PLO, with Prime Minister Rabin and Chairman Arafat in Washington, D.C. shaking hands, and officially witnessed by the United States and Russia. It supersedes three earlier agreements: the Gaza–Jericho Agreement or Cairo Agreement of 4 May 1994 the Agreement on Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities Between Israel and the PLO of 29 August 1994 the Protocol on Further Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities of 27 August 1995 The Oslo II Accord is called an interim agreement because it was supposed to be the basis for subsequent negotiations and the preliminary of an eventual comprehensive peace agreement. Several additional agreements were concluded following Oslo II, but negotiations did not produce a final peace agreement. The 2002 Road map for peace abandoned the Oslo Accords and envisioned a rather loose scheme of withdrawal. Aim of the agreement The preamble of the agreement speaks of peaceful coexistence, mutual dignity, and security, while recognizing the mutual legitimate and political rights of the parties. The aim of the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations is, among other things, to establish a Palestinian Interim Self-Government Authority for the Palestinian people in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, for a transitional period not exceeding five years, leading to a permanent settlement based on Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338. As soon as possible but not later than 4 May 1996, negotiations on the permanent status would be started, leading to the implementation of Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338, and settling all the main issues. The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs declared the main object of the Interim Agreement Content of the agreement The Interim Agreement comprises over 300 pages containing 5 "chapters" with 31 "articles", plus 7 "annexes" and 9 attached "maps". The agreement has a "preamble" acknowledging its roots in earlier diplomatic efforts of UN Security Council Resolution 242 (1967) and UN Security Council Resolution 338 (1973) the Madrid Conference of 1991 and the other prior agreements that came before it. Most significantly the agreement recognizes the establishment of a "Palestinian Interim Self-Government Authority," that is an elected Council, called "the Council" or "the Palestinian Council". Chapter 1: The Palestinian Council Consisting of Articles I–IX: The role and powers of a governing Palestinian "council" and committee dealing with civil affairs and the transfer of power from Israel to the Palestinian Council. The holding of elections, the structure of the Palestinian Council, and that it should contain 82 representatives, the executive authority of the Council, various other committees, that meetings of the council should be open to the public, and outlining the powers and responsibilities of the Council. Chapter 2: Redeployment and security arrangements Consisting of Articles X–XVI: Phases of the redeployment of the Israel Defense Forces, roles of the Israeli Security Forces and the Israeli police, perspectives on the land of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, definition of the Areas A, B and C dividing the West Bank, arrangements for security and public order, prevention of hostile acts, confidence-building measures, and the role of the Palestinian police: Chapter 3: Legal affairs Consisting of Articles XVII–XXI: The scope of the Palestinian Council's authority and jurisdiction and the resolution of conflicts, the legislative powers of the Council, that "Israel and the Council shall exercise their powers and responsibilities ... with due regard to internationally-accepted norms and principles of human rights and the rule of law", the various rights, liabilities and obligations with the transfer of powers and responsibilities from the Israeli military government and its civil administration to the Palestinian Council, dealing with financial claims, and the settlement of differences and disputes. Chapter 4: Cooperation Consisting of Articles XXII–XXVIII: Relations between Israel and the Council: The rules for economic relations as set out in the Protocol on Economic Relations, signed in Paris on April 29, 1994, cooperation programs that will hopefully be developed, the role and functioning of the Joint Israeli-Palestinian Liaison Committee set up as part of the Declaration of Principles (Oslo Accords 1993 and the setting up of a Monitoring and Steering Committee, liaison and cooperation with Jordan and Egypt, and locating and returning missing persons and soldiers missing in action. Chapter 5: Miscellaneous provisions Consisting of Articles XXIX–XXXI: Arrangements for safe passage of persons and transportation between the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, coordination between Israel and the Council regarding passage to and from Egypt and Jordan as well as any other agreed international crossings, and then the final clauses dealing with the signing of the agreement, its implementation, that the Gaza–Jericho Agreement (May 1994), the Preparatory Transfer Agreement (August 1994), and the Further Transfer Protocol (August 1995) will be superseded by this agreement, the need and timing of permanent status negotiations, and that: Discussion about the release of Palestinian prisoners, agreement about the attached annexes and maps, and commencement of Israel's redeployment. See also Protocol on Economic Relations (Paris Protocol) Taxation in the Palestinian territories Oslo Accords (1993) 2000 Camp David Summit Israeli–Palestinian peace process The Environmental Provisions of Oslo II Accords References External links jewishvirtuallibrary.org Full text of The Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip jewishvirtuallibrary.org Texts of the Annexes to the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement Text at unhcr Presentation of the Accord in the Knesset by Rabin. MFA, 5 October 1995 Speeches by President Clinton and others at Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement at AmericanRhetoric.com Analysis of Interim Agreement – Reut Institute Israeli–Palestinian peace process Israel–United States relations 1995 in Israel Treaties of Israel Treaties of the State of Palestine Treaties concluded in 1995 Taxation in the State of Palestine State of Palestine–United States relations 1995 in the Palestinian territories 1995 in Egypt	[ -0.11969228088855743, -0.11195025593042374, -0.2828578054904938, -0.3923465609550476, -0.29711276292800903, -0.28809916973114014, -0.15170972049236298, -0.2607173025608063, 0.15516361594200134, -0.4472671449184418, -0.9858995079994202, -0.012504753656685352, -0.48809805512428284, 0.049371443688869476, -0.2762112319469452, 0.33446159958839417, 0.5881718397140503, 0.22449761629104614, -0.19504310190677643, -0.2452431619167328, 0.37643396854400635, 0.5907658338546753, 0.1021493449807167, 0.04940280318260193, -0.022075725719332695, 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207772	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Harrison%20%28writer%29	Harry Harrison (writer)	Harry Max Harrison (born Henry Maxwell Dempsey; March 12, 1925 – August 15, 2012) was an American science fiction author, known mostly for his character The Stainless Steel Rat and for his novel Make Room! Make Room! (1966). The latter was the rough basis for the motion picture Soylent Green (1973). Long resident in both Ireland and the United Kingdom, Harrison was involved in the foundation of the Irish Science Fiction Association, and was, with Brian Aldiss, co-president of the Birmingham Science Fiction Group. Aldiss called him "a constant peer and great family friend". His friend Michael Carroll said of Harrison's work: "Imagine Pirates of the Caribbean or Raiders of the Lost Ark, and picture them as science-fiction novels. They're rip-roaring adventures, but they're stories with a lot of heart." Novelist Christopher Priest wrote in an obituary, Career Before becoming an editor and writer, Harrison started in the science fiction field as an illustrator, notably with EC Comics' two science fiction comic book series, Weird Fantasy and Weird Science. In these and other comic book stories, he most often worked with Wally Wood. Wood usually inked over Harrison's layouts, and the two freelanced for several publishers and genres, including westerns and horror comics. He and Wood split up their partnership in 1950 and went their separate ways. Harrison used house pen names such as Wade Kaempfert and Philip St. John to edit magazines and published other fiction under the pen names Felix Boyd and Hank Dempsey (see Personal Life below). Harrison ghostwrote Vendetta for the Saint, one of the long-running series of novels featuring Leslie Charteris' character The Saint. Harrison also wrote for syndicated comic strips, writing several stories for the character Rick Random. His first short story, "Rock Diver", was published in the February 1951 issue of Worlds Beyond, edited by Damon Knight; the magazine had previously published his illustrations. While in New York, he socialized at the Hydra Club, an organization of New York's science fiction writers, including Isaac Asimov, whose work he parodied in Bill, the Galactic Hero and its sequels. In the early 1950s, the Hydra Club included writers such as Alfred Bester, James Blish, Anthony Boucher, Avram Davidson, Judith Merril, and Theodore Sturgeon. Harrison has become much better known for his later writing, particularly for his humorous and satirical science fiction, such as the Stainless Steel Rat series and his novel Bill, the Galactic Hero — which satirized Robert A. Heinlein's novel Starship Troopers. Priest wrote: Adi Robertson agreed: "His books toed the line between science fiction adventure, humor, and satire, often with a strong anti-military bent informed by his time in the US Army Air Corps." During the 1950s and 1960s, he was the main writer of the Flash Gordon newspaper strip. One of his Flash Gordon scripts was serialized in Comics Revue magazine. Harrison drew sketches to help the artist be more scientifically accurate, which the artist largely ignored. Not all of Harrison's writing was comic, though. He wrote many stories on serious themes, of which by far the best known is the novel about overpopulation and consumption of the world's resources, Make Room! Make Room! (1966), which was used as a basis for the 1973 science fiction film Soylent Green (though the film changed the plot and theme). For a time Harrison was closely associated with Brian Aldiss. They collaborated on a series of anthology projects and did much in the 1970s to raise the standards of criticism in the field, including institution of the John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel. Priest wrote, "In 1965 Harrison and Aldiss published the first issue (of two) of the world's first serious journal of SF criticism, SF Horizons. Together they edited many anthologies of short stories, each one illustrating the major themes of SF, and although not intended as critical apparatus the books were a way of delineating the unique material of the fantastic. As committed internationalists, the two men created World SF, an organisation of professionals intended to encourage and enhance the writing of non-anglophone SF." In particular, the two edited nine volumes of The Year's Best Science Fiction anthology series as well as three volumes of the Decade series, collecting science fiction of the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s respectively. In 1990, Harrison was the professional Guest of Honor at ConFiction, the 48th World SF Convention, in The Hague, Netherlands, together with Joe Haldeman and Wolfgang Jeschke. Harrison was a writer of fairly liberal worldview. Harrison's work often juxtaposes the thinking man with the man of force, although the "Thinking Man" often needs ultimately to employ force himself. Harrison did not win a major genre award for any specific work of fiction. The Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted Harrison in 2004 and the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America named him its 26th SFWA Grand Master in 2008 (presentation of the Damon Knight Award following in 2009). He became a cult hero in Russia, where he won the 2008 Golden Roscon award for lifetime achievement in science fiction. Personal life Early life Harrison was born March 12, 1925, as Henry Maxwell Dempsey in Stamford, Connecticut. His father, Henry Leo Dempsey, a printer who was three-fourths of Irish descent, changed his name to Harrison soon after Harry was born. Harry did not know this himself until he was 30 years old, at which point he changed his name to Harry Max Harrison in court. His mother, Ria H. (Kirjassoff), was Russian Jewish. She had been born in Riga, Latvia, and grew up in St. Petersburg, Russia. Her brother, Max David Kirjassoff (1888-1923), had been an American consul in Japan, but he died along with his wife Alice during the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake in 1923. After finishing Forest Hills High School in 1943, Harrison was drafted into the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II as a gunsight technician and as a gunnery instructor. Priest adds that he became a sharpshooter, a military policeman, and a specialist in the prototypes of computer-aided bomb-sights and gun turrets. "But overall the army experience vested in him a hatred of the military that was to serve him well as a writer later on." In 1946 he enrolled in Hunter College in New York City and later ran a studio selling illustrations to comics and science fiction magazines. Marriages Harrison married Evelyn Harrison, whom he included in a cartoon he drew of the Hydra Club in 1950. They divorced in 1951, and Evelyn married the science fiction writer Lester del Rey shortly afterwards. Harrison married Joan Merkler Harrison in 1954. Their marriage lasted until her death of cancer in 2002. They had two children, Todd (born in 1955) and Moira (born in 1959), to whom he dedicated his novel Make Room! Make Room!. Esperanto In his middle years, Harrison became an advocate of Esperanto, claiming to "write and speak it with an automatic ease I have never been able to capture in any language other than my native English"; he learned it, according to Christopher Priest, out of boredom during military service. The language often appears in his novels, particularly in his Stainless Steel Rat and Deathworld series. He was the honorary president of the Esperanto Association of Ireland, where he had moved in the 1970s, living with his family for a number of years in a then-state-of-the-art home he built in the Vale of Avoca in County Wicklow. He also held memberships in other Esperanto organizations such as Esperanto-USA (formerly the "Esperanto League for North America"), of which he was an honorary member, and the Universala Esperanto-Asocio (World Esperanto Association), of whose Honorary Patrons' Committee he was a member. Residences Harrison resided in many parts of the world including Mexico, England, Italy, Denmark, and Ireland. Priest writes that Harrison made many household moves abroad: After many years of moving around and raising children, he spent most of his later years residing in Ireland. Because Harrison had an Irish grandparent, he was able to assume citizenship, and by taking advantage of the Irish tax exemption for artists, he enjoyed tax-free status. Harrison also kept an apartment in London for many years, and later in Brighton, these being used for his frequent visits to England, and when Joan died in 2002, his British home became permanent. Harrison's official website, launched at the Irish national convention a few years earlier, announced his death on August 15, 2012 at his apartment in Brighton, England. On learning of his death on August 15, 2012, Harlan Ellison said, "It's a day without stars in it." Bibliography Novels Novellas The Man from P.I.G. and The Man from R.O.B.O.T. (1974): These two linked novellas, featuring interstellar intelligence agents, were comedy-drama take-offs on The Man from U.N.C.L.E. The first tells of an agent of the Porcine Interstellar Guard, who performs his missions with the help of several pigs. The second tells of Henry Venn, an agent for "Robot Obtrusion Battalion—Omega Three", who poses as an interplanetary robot salesman while searching for a missing Galactic Census official on a planet populated by paranoid colonists. They were originally published as novelettes, in Analog, July 1967 and July 1969, respectively. Planet Story (1978), published as a large format book with colour illustrations by Jim Burns Short story collections See List of short stories by Harry Harrison Two Tales and Eight Tomorrows (1965) War with the Robots (1967) Prime Number (1970) One Step from Earth (1970) The Best of Harry Harrison (1976) Stainless Steel Visions (1992) Galactic Dreams (1994) 50 In 50 (2001) Omnibus volumes The Deathworld Trilogy (1974): Omnibus of Deathworld, Deathworld 2 & Deathworld 3) (vt. The Deathworld Omnibus, 1999) (the BenBella [2005] edition adds the short story `The Mothballed Spaceship' from Astounding: The John W. Campbell Memorial Anthology (1973)) The Adventures of the Stainless Steel Rat (1978) - omnibus collection of The Stainless Steel Rat, The Stainless Steel Rat's Revenge and The Stainless Steel Rat Saves the World To the Stars (1991) - omnibus collection of the three "To The Stars" novels Warriors of the Way (1995), with "John Holm", a pseudonym of Tom Shippey: Omnibus of The Hammer and the Cross and One King's Way A Stainless Steel Trio (2002) - omnibus collection of A Stainless Steel Rat is Born, The Stainless Steel Rat Gets Drafted and The Stainless Steel Rat Sings the Blues Comics Rick Random with artist Ron Turner (trade paperback: October 2008, ) Flash Gordon (1958–1964), reprinted in Comics Revue. The Stainless Steel Rat (1979–1985) was adapted into a comic strip in the magazine 2000 AD by Kelvin Gosnell, with artist Carlos Ezquerra (trade paperback: July 2010, ) Harry Harrison's Bill, The Galactic Hero Comics; 3 issues Miscellanea You Can Be The Stainless Steel Rat: An Interactive Game Book 1988 - choose your own adventure style interactive novel Short story: The Return of the Stainless Steel Rat 1981 - published in Ares Magazine #10 by Simulations Publications Incorporated. The magazine issue included a solitaire paragraph game designed by Greg Costikyan Non-fiction books Ahead of Time, with Theodore J. Gordon (Doubleday, 1972) SF Horizons, with Brian W. Aldiss (Arno Press, 1975), . A photographic reprint of the two issues of a critical magazine published in 1964 and 1965. Hell's Cartographers: Some Personal Histories of Science Fiction Writers, with Brian Aldiss (Harper & Row, 1976) . Great Balls of Fire! A History of Sex in Science Fiction Illustration (Pierrot Publishing, ; Grosset & Dunlap, ; both 1977) Mechanismo: An Illustrated Manual of Science Fiction Hardware (Reed Books, 1978) — technical illustrations by Brian Lewis Spacecraft in Fact and Fiction, with Malcolm Edwards (Exeter Books, 1979) Harry Harrison! Harry Harrison!: A Memoir, (Tor, 2014) Anthologies (as editor) John W. Campbell: Collected Editorials from Analog (1966) Nebula Award Stories Two (1967) (with Brian Aldiss) (vt, Nebula Award Stories 1967) Apeman, Spaceman (1968) (with Leon Stover) Best SF: 1967 (1968) (vt, The Year's Best Science Fiction) (with Brian Aldiss) Farewell Fantastic Venus (1968) (abr as vt, All About Venus, 1968) SF: Author's Choice (1968) (vt, A Backdrop of Stars) Best SF: 1968 (1969) (rev vt, The Year's Best Science Fiction No. 2) (with Brian Aldiss) Blast Off: SF for Boys (1969) Four for the Future (1969) Worlds of Wonder (1969) Best SF: 1969 (1970) (vt, The Year's Best Science Fiction No. 3) (with Brian Aldiss) Nova 1 (1970) (rev edition 1976, UK hc) SF: Author's Choice 2 (1970) The Year 2000 (1970) Best SF: 1970 (1971) (vt, The Year's Best Science Fiction No. 4) (with Brian Aldiss) The Light Fantastic (1971) SF: Author's Choice 3 (1971) The Astounding-Analog Reader, Volume One (1972) (with Brian Aldiss) (later split into two paperbacks: The Astounding-Analog Reader, Book 1 & The Astounding-Analog Reader, Book 2) Ahead of Time (1972) Best SF: 1971 (1972) (vt, The Year's Best Science Fiction No. 5) (with Brian Aldiss) Nova 2 (1972) The Astounding-Analog Reader, Volume Two (1973) (with Brian Aldiss) (only one edition; NOT the same book as The Astounding-Analog Reader, Book 2 above) Astounding: John W. Campbell Memorial Anthology (1973) (vt, The John W. Campbell Memorial Anthology) Best SF: 1972 (1973) (vt, The Year's Best S.F. 1972) (with Brian Aldiss) Nova 3 (1973) (vt, The Outdated Man) A Science Fiction Reader (1973) (with Carol Pugner) Best SF: 1973 (1974) (abr vt, The Year's Best Science Fiction No. 7) (with Brian Aldiss) Nova 4 (1974) SF: Author's Choice 4 (1974) Best SF: 1974 (1975) (abr vt, The Year's Best Science Fiction No. 8) (with Brian Aldiss) Decade: The 1940s (1975) (with Brian Aldiss) Hell's Cartographers: Some Personal Histories of Science Fiction Writers (1975) (with Brian Aldiss) (memoirs by SF writers) Science Fiction Novellas (1975) (with Willis E. McNelly) Best SF: 1975, The Ninth Annual (1976) (vt, The Year's Best Science Fiction No. 9) (with Brian Aldiss) Decade: The 1950s (1976) (with Brian Aldiss) Decade: The 1960s (1977) (with Brian Aldiss) There Won't Be War (1991) (with Bruce McAllister) See also Societics References External links Harry Harrison News Blog – About: "maintained by Paul Tomlinson and Michael Carroll, who also maintain Harry's official website at www.harryharrison.com" "Worlds Beside Worlds" (Harry Harrison describes how "Tunnel through the Deeps" was written) 6 July 1997, Dublin, Ireland Samples of works published as e-books Biography and criticism Stover, Leon. Harry Harrison. Boston: Twayne, 1990. Bibliography and works Harry Harrison Papers at the University of South Florida American alternate history writers American science fiction writers American male novelists American speculative fiction editors Science fiction editors Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees SFWA Grand Masters United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II Writers from Stamford, Connecticut 1925 births 2012 deaths Comedy fiction writers American Esperantists Environmental fiction writers American people of Irish descent American people of Russian-Jewish descent Jewish American novelists United States Army Air Forces soldiers 20th-century American novelists 21st-century American novelists Irish fantasy writers Irish science fiction writers Irish speculative fiction editors 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American male writers Novelists from Connecticut EC Comics American comics writers American comics artists American military police officers 21st-century American Jews	[ 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207774	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith%20Laumer	Keith Laumer	John Keith Laumer ( – ) was an American science fiction author. Prior to becoming a full-time writer, he was an officer in the United States Air Force and a diplomat in the United States Foreign Service. His older brother March Laumer was also a writer, known for his adult reinterpretations of the Land of Oz (also mentioned in Laumer's The Other Side of Time). Frank Laumer, their youngest brother, is a historian and writer. Early life Keith Laumer was born in 1925 in Syracuse, New York. He attended Indiana University, 1943-44, and then served in the United States Army Air Forces in the Second World War in Europe. He later attended Stockholm University, 1948-49, and then received a bachelor's degree in architecture in 1950 from the University of Illinois. He served twice in the US Air Force, 1953-56 and 1960-65, attaining the rank of captain in the latter tour. In between the two terms in the military, Laumer was a member of the US Foreign Service in Burma. In the late 1950s, Mr. Laumer returned to Florida and purchased a small two-acre island on a lake in Hernando County near Weeki Wachee. He would reside there for the rest of his life. Around this time he turned his attention to writing, specifically science fiction; his first work, a short story, was published in April 1959. Writing career Keith Laumer is best known for his Bolo and Retief stories. Stories from the former chronicle the evolution of super tanks that eventually become self-aware through the constant improvement resulting from centuries of intermittent warfare against various alien races. The latter deals with the adventures of a cynical spacefaring diplomat who constantly has to overcome the red-tape-infused failures of people with names like Ambassador Grossblunder. The Retief stories were greatly influenced by Laumer's earlier career in the US Foreign Service. In an interview with Paul Walker of Luna Monthly, Laumer stated, "I had no shortage of iniquitous memories of the Foreign Service." Laumer's other adventures often included the subjects of time travel and alternate worlds, such as found in his The Other Side of Time, A Trace of Memory, Dinosaur Beach and the Imperium series. Four of his shorter works received Hugo or Nebula Award nominations ("In the Queue", was nominated for both), and A Plague of Demons (1965) received a nomination for the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1966. During his peak years of 1959–1971, Laumer was a prolific science fiction writer. His novels and stories tend to follow one of three patterns: fast-paced, straight adventures in time and space, with an emphasis on lone-wolf, latent superhuman protagonists, self-sacrifice, and transcendence broad, sometimes over-the-top, comedies experimental work verging on New Wave science fiction In 1971, Laumer suffered a stroke while working on the novel The Ultimax Man. As a result, he was unable to write for a few years. As he explained in an interview with Charles Platt published in Dream Makers Volume II (1983), he refused to accept the doctors' diagnosis. He came up with an alternative explanation and developed an alternative (and very painful) treatment program. Although he was unable to write in the early 1970s, he had a number of books published that had been unpublished at the time of the stroke. In the mid-1970s, Laumer partially recovered from the stroke and resumed writing. However, the quality of his work suffered, and his career declined. In later years, Laumer also re-used scenarios and characters from earlier works to create new books, which one critic felt limited their appeal: His Bolo creations were popular enough that other authors have written standalone science fiction about them. An anthology "Created by Keith Laumer", Dangerous Vegetables, appeared in 1998. Actually edited by Martin H. Greenberg and Charles G. Waugh, the book's introduction (by Ben Bova) said the book was Laumer's idea, but that he had died without completing it. Model airplane designer Laumer was also a model airplane enthusiast, and published two dozen designs between 1956 and 1962 in the U.S. magazines Air Trails, Model Airplane News and Flying Models, as well as the British Aeromodeller. He published one book on the subject, How to Design and Build Flying Models in 1960. His later designs were mostly gas-powered, free-flight planes, and had a whimsical charm with names to match, like the "Twin Lizzie" and the "Lulla-Bi". His designs are still being revisited, reinvented and built today. Bibliography Bolo Books concerning the Bolo self-aware tanks. Works by other writers can be found in Bolo universe. Bolo: Annals of the Dinochrome Brigade (1976) Rogue Bolo (1986) The Stars Must Wait (1990) The Compleat Bolo (1990) (includes Bolo and Rogue Bolo) Retief Satirical adventures of Retief, the galactic diplomat. Most are collections; novels are shown as (n). Envoy to New Worlds (1963) (see Retief Unbound (1979)) later expanded as Retief: Envoy to New Worlds (1987) Galactic Diplomat (1965) Retief's War (1966) (n) Retief and the Warlords (1968) (n) Retief: ambassador to space; seven incidents of the Corps diplomatique terrestrienne (1969) Retief of the CDT (1971) Retief's Ransom (1971) (n) Retief: Emissary to the Stars (1975) Retief at Large (1978) Retief Unbound (1979) (inc Retief's Ransom and five of the six stories from Envoy to New Worlds) (see Retief: Envoy to New Worlds (1987)) Retief: Diplomat at Arms (1982) (revised version of Galactic Diplomat) Retief to the Rescue (1983) (n) The Return of Retief (1984) (n) Retief in the Ruins (1986) (three stories, two original including the title story) Retief and the Pangalactic Pageant of Pulchritude (1986) (including Retief's Ransom and the original title story) Retief: Envoy to New Worlds (1987) (Envoy to New Worlds plus one story) (see also Retief Unbound) Reward for Retief (1989) (n) Retief and the Rascals (1993) (n) Retief! (posthumous, ed. Eric Flint) (2002) (Envoy to New Worlds, Galactic Diplomat, Retief's War, plus the first Retief story, "Diplomat-at-Arms" (1960)) Imperium Books set in the Imperium mythos: a continuum of parallel worlds policed by the Imperium, a government based in an alternate Stockholm. In the science fiction novel Worlds of the Imperium, the Imperium is formed in an alternate history where the American Revolution did not occur, and the British Empire and Germany merged into a unified empire in 1900. The protagonist, American diplomat Brion Bayard, is kidnapped by the Imperium because the Brion Bayard in a third parallel Earth is apparently waging war against the Imperium. Further adventures follow after Bayard decides to remain in the service of the Imperium. Worlds of the Imperium (1962) The Other Side of Time (1965) Assignment in Nowhere (1968) Beyond the Imperium (omnibus edition of The Other Side of Time and Assignment in Nowhere) (1981) Zone Yellow (1990) Imperium (omnibus edition of Worlds of the Imperium, Assignment in Nowhere and The Other Side of Time, ed. Eric Flint) (2005) Time Trap Time Trap (1970) Back to the Time Trap (1992) Lafayette O'Leary A comic equivalent of the Imperium mythos, in which the hero has the ability to travel to feudal/magical alternate Earths. The Time Bender (1966) The World Shuffler (1970) The Shape Changer (1972) The Galaxy Builder (1984) The Universe Twister (2008) (reprint of The Time Bender, The World Shuffler, and The Shape Changer, edited by Eric Flint) The Avengers (based on the TV series) #5: The Afrit Afair (1968) #6: The Drowned Queen (1968) #7: The Gold Bomb (1968) The Invaders (original novels based on the TV series) The Invaders (UK title The Meteor Men: A Story of Invaders published as by Anthony LeBaron) (1967) Enemies From Beyond (1967) Army of the Undead by-lined Rafe Bernard (1967) is often mistakenly attributed to Laumer because it is the third entry in the Pyramid Books Invaders novel series as published in the US, but in fact "Bernard" (a pseudonym for Reginald Alec Martin) was one of the two British authors commissioned by Corgi Books in the UK to pen original novels based on the TV show (the other was Peter Leslie). The book appeared as the third title in Corgi's UK line as The Halo Highway. Evidence seems to indicate a reciprocal reprint deal Pyramid worked out with Corgi for use of a single title, since only the Bernard book, but not the Peter Leslie ones, saw print in the United States; while only Laumer's first Invaders title, but not his second, saw print in the United Kingdom. (Verification can be found in Kurt Peer's book TV Tie-Ins (1967, Neptune Publishing and, later, TV Books). Standalone books A Trace of Memory (1963) The Great Time Machine Hoax (1964) A Plague of Demons (1965) Catastrophe Planet (1966) Earthblood (with Rosel George Brown) (1966) The Monitors (filmed in 1969) (1966) Galactic Odyssey (1967) Planet Run (with Gordon R. Dickson) (1967) The Long Twilight (1969) The House in November (1970, expanded from the If serial The Seeds of Gonyl) The Star Treasure (1971) Dinosaur Beach (1971) (originally serialized as The Time Sweepers in 1969) The Infinite Cage (1972) Night of Delusions (1972) The Glory Game (1973) The Ultimax Man (1978) Star Colony (1982) End as a Hero (1985) Judson's Eden (1991) Beenie in Oz (with March Laumer, Tyler Jones, Michael J. Michanczyk) (1997) Collections Nine by Laumer (1967) The Day Before Forever and Thunderhead (two short novels) (1969) Greylorn (1968) It's a Mad, Mad, Mad Galaxy (1968) Five Fates (1970) (Laumer is lead writer on a concept five authors wrote about) Once There Was a Giant (title story appeared as a "short novel" in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction in November 1968) (1971) The Big Show (1972) Timetracks (1972) The Undefeated (1974) The Best of Keith Laumer (1976) The Breaking Earth (1981) (Catastrophe Planet plus a pair of essays) Knight of Delusions (Night of Delusions plus two short stories) (1982) Chrestomathy (1984) (collection including many excerpts) Once There Was a Giant (1984) (collection of two novellas plus an appreciation by Sandra Miesel; not related to the 1971 collection of the same name) The Other Sky and The House in November (collection of two novellas) (1985) The Star Treasure (1986) (the 1971 novel plus three short stories) Alien Minds (1991) Odyssey (posthumous omnibus, ed. Eric Flint) (2002) (includes Galactic Odyssey and Dinosaur Beach and five short stories) Keith Laumer: The Lighter Side (posthumous omnibus, ed. Eric Flint) (2002) (includes Time Trap and The Great Time Machine Hoax and eight short stories, including the 1966 short story "The Body Builders" A Plague of Demons and Other Stories (2003) (posthumous omnibus, ed. Eric Flint; A Plague of Demons and seven short stories) Future Imperfect (2003) (posthumous omnibus, ed. Eric Flint; includes Catastrophe Planet and six short stories) Legions of Space (2004) (posthumous omnibus, ed. Eric Flint; includes A Trace of Memory and Planet Run and three short stories) The Long Twilight and Other Stories (2007) (posthumous omnibus, ed. Eric Flint; includes The Long Twilight and Night of Delusions and four short stories) Earthblood and Other Stories (2008) (posthumous omnibus, ed. Eric Flint; includes Earthblood (with Rosel George Brown), three Laumer stories, and six of Brown's stories) Keith Laumer's Retief: The Worlds of IF Collection (2020) (ed. Christopher Broschell), includes Diplomat-At-Arms, The Frozen Planet, Gambler's World, The Yillian Way, The Madman From Earth, Retief of the Red-Tape Mountain, Aide Memoire, Cultural Exchange, The Desert and the Stars, Saline Solution, Mightiest Qorn, The Governor of Glave, The City That Grew in the Sea, The Prince and the Pirate, The Castle of Light and Retief, God-Speaker. Short stories "Doorstep". Galaxy, February 1961. "The King of the City". Galaxy, August 1961. "Gambler's World". If, November 1961. "End as a Hero". Galaxy, June 1963. "A Bad Day for Vermin". Galaxy, February 1964. "War Against the Yukks". Galaxy, April 1965. "The Body Builders". Galaxy, August 1966. "Thunderhead". Galaxy, April 1967. "The Big Show". Galaxy, February 1968. "Test to Destruction". Dangerous Visions, 1967. Non-genre How to Design and Build Flying Models (non-fiction) (1960, revised in 1970) Embassy (1965) Deadfall (alternative title Fat Chance, filmed as Peeper in 1975) (1971) Comics Mad Dog Graphics: Keith Laumer's Retief Policy (1987) Sealed Orders (1987) Protest Note (1987) Saline Solution (1987) Ultimatum (1988) The Forest in the Sky (1988) Adventure Comics: Keith Laumer's Retief The Peace Makers (1989) Ballots and Bandits (1990) Mechanical Advantage (1990) Aide Memoire (1990) Wicker Wonderland (1990) Adventure Comics: Retief and the Warlords Four issues (1991) Adventure Comics: Retief: Diplomatic Immunity The Forbidden City (1991) The Castle of Light (1991) Adventure Comics: Retief the Giant Killer The Giant Killer (1991) Adventure Comics: Retief: Grime & Punishment Grime & Punishment (1991) Adventure Comics 1 Paperback References Interview with Charles Platt. Dream Makers Volume II: The Uncommon Men and Women Who Write Science Fiction. By Charles Platt. New York: Berkley Books, 1983. pp. 113–122. Interview with Keith Laumer. Speaking of Science Fiction. By Paul Walker, Oradell, New Jersey: Luna Publications, 1978. pp. 101–106. External links The Keith Laumer Website (unofficial), with biography and forum Keith Laumer books at the Baen Free Library A Bolo Web page (@archive.org) , including summaries of his work Some of Laumer's model airplane designs Keith Laumer: SF Author (fansite) with biography, bibliography, and fun stuff 1925 births 1993 deaths 20th-century American novelists American diplomats American science fiction writers United States Air Force officers Novelists from Missouri American male novelists Place of death missing 20th-century American male writers United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II	[ -0.1455373764038086, 0.6423125267028809, -0.803724467754364, -0.19530047476291656, -0.20408210158348083, 0.1649359166622162, 0.19552651047706604, 0.18818673491477966, -0.1239214539527893, -0.08671142905950546, -0.06238703802227974, 0.4967266917228699, 0.023621579632163048, 0.14174628257751465, -0.09696314483880997, 0.10657063871622086, -0.2979026138782501, 0.027166398242115974, 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207775	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Barenboim	Daniel Barenboim	Daniel Barenboim (; in , born 15 November 1942) is a pianist and conductor who is a citizen of Argentina, Israel, Palestine, and Spain. The current general music director of the Berlin State Opera and the Staatskapelle Berlin, Barenboim previously served as Music Director of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, the Orchestre de Paris and La Scala in Milan. Barenboim is known for his work with the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra, a Seville-based orchestra of young Arab and Israeli musicians, and as a resolute critic of the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories. Barenboim has received many awards and prizes, including seven Grammy awards, an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire, France's Légion d'honneur both as a Commander and Grand Officier, and the German Großes Bundesverdienstkreuz mit Stern und Schulterband. In 2002, along with Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said, he was given Spain's Prince of Asturias Concord Award. Barenboim is a polyglot, fluent in Spanish, Hebrew, English, French, Italian, and German. A self-described Spinozist, he is significantly influenced by Spinoza's life and thought. Biography Daniel Barenboim was born on 15 November 1942 in Buenos Aires, Argentina, to Jewish parents Aida (née Schuster) and Enrique Barenboim, both professional pianists. He started piano lessons at the age of five with his mother, continuing to study with his father, who remained his only teacher. On 19 August 1950, at the age of seven, he gave his first formal concert, in Buenos Aires. In 1952, Barenboim's family moved to Israel. Two years later, in the summer of 1954, his parents took him to Salzburg to take part in Igor Markevitch's conducting classes. During that summer he also met and played for Wilhelm Furtwängler, who has remained a central musical influence and ideal for Barenboim. Furtwängler called the young Barenboim a "phenomenon" and invited him to perform the Beethoven First Piano Concerto with the Berlin Philharmonic, but Barenboim's father considered it too soon after the Second World War for a Jewish boy to go to Germany. In 1955 Barenboim studied harmony and composition with Nadia Boulanger in Paris. On 15 June 1967, Barenboim and British cellist Jacqueline du Pré were married in Jerusalem at a Western Wall ceremony, du Pré having converted to Judaism. Acting as one of the witnesses was the conductor Zubin Mehta, a long-time friend of Barenboim. Since "I was not Jewish I had to temporarily be renamed Moshe Cohen, which made me a 'kosher witness'", Mehta recalled. Du Pré retired from music in 1973, after being diagnosed with multiple sclerosis (MS). The marriage lasted until du Pré's death in 1987. In the early 1980s, Barenboim and Russian pianist Elena Bashkirova started a relationship. Together they had two sons, both born in Paris before du Pré's death: David Arthur, born 1983, and Michael, born 1985. Barenboim worked to keep his relationship with Bashkirova hidden from du Pré, and believed he had succeeded. He and Bashkirova married in 1988. Both sons are part of the music world: David is a manager-writer for the German hip-hop band Level 8, and Michael Barenboim is a classical violinist. Citizenship Barenboim holds citizenship in Argentina, Israel, Palestine, and Spain, and was the first person to hold Palestinian and Israeli citizenship simultaneously. He lives in Berlin. Career After performing in Buenos Aires, Barenboim made his international debut as a pianist at the age of 10 in 1952 in Vienna and Rome. In 1955 he performed in Paris, in 1956 in London, and in 1957 in New York under the baton of Leopold Stokowski. Regular concert tours of Europe, the United States, South America, Australia and the Far East followed thereafter. In June 1967, Barenboim and his then-fiancée Jacqueline du Pré gave concerts in Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Haifa and Beersheba before and during the Six-Day War. His friendship with musicians Itzhak Perlman, Zubin Mehta, and Pinchas Zukerman, and marriage to du Pré led to the 1969 film by Christopher Nupen of their performance of the Schubert "Trout" Quintet. Following his debut as a conductor with the English Chamber Orchestra in Abbey Road Studios, London, in 1966, Barenboim was invited to conduct by many European and American symphony orchestras. Between 1975 and 1989, he was music director of the Orchestre de Paris, where he conducted much contemporary music. Barenboim made his opera conducting debut in 1973 with a performance of Mozart's Don Giovanni at the Edinburgh Festival. He made his debut at Bayreuth in 1981, conducting there regularly until 1999. In 1988, he was appointed artistic and musical director of the Opéra Bastille in Paris, scheduled to open in 1990, but was fired in January 1989 by the opera's chairman Pierre Bergé. Barenboim was named music director designate of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra in 1989 and succeeded Sir Georg Solti as its music director in 1991, a post he held until 17 June 2006. He expressed frustration with the need for fund-raising duties in the United States as part of being a music director of an American orchestra. Since 1992, Barenboim has been music director of the Berlin State Opera and the Staatskapelle Berlin, succeeding in maintaining the independent status of the State Opera. He has tried to maintain the orchestra's traditional sound and style. In autumn 2000 he was made conductor for life of the Staatskapelle Berlin. On 15 May 2006, Barenboim was named principal guest conductor of La Scala opera house, in Milan, after Riccardo Muti's resignation. He subsequently became music director of La Scala in 2011. In 2006, Barenboim presented the BBC Reith Lectures, presenting a series of five lectures titled In the Beginning was Sound. The lectures on music were recorded in a range of cities, including London, Chicago, Berlin, and two in Jerusalem. In the autumn of 2006, Barenboim gave the Charles Eliot Norton Lectures at Harvard University, entitling his talk Sound and Thought. In November 2006, Lorin Maazel submitted Barenboim's name as his nominee to succeed him as the New York Philharmonic's music director. Barenboim said he was flattered but "nothing could be further from my thoughts at the moment than the possibility of returning to the United States for a permanent position", repeating in April 2007 his lack of interest in the New York Philharmonic's music directorship or its newly created principal conductor position. Barenboim made his conducting debut on 28 November 2008 at the Metropolitan Opera in New York for the House's 450th performance of Wagner's Tristan und Isolde. In 2009, Barenboim conducted the Vienna New Year's Concert of the Vienna Philharmonic for the first time. In his New Year message, he expressed the hope that 2009 would be a year for peace and for human justice in the Middle East. He returned to conduct the 2014 Vienna New Year's Concert, and also conducted the 2022 Concert. In 2014, construction began on the Barenboim–Said Academy in Berlin. A joint project Barenboim developed with Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said, the academy was planned as a site for young music students from the Arab world and Israel to study music and humanities in Berlin. It opened its doors on 8 December 2016. In 2017, the Pierre Boulez Saal opened as the public face of the academy. The elliptical shaped concert hall was designed by Frank Gehry. Acoustician Yasuhisa Toyota created the hall’s sound profile. In 2015, Barenboim unveiled a new concert grand piano. Designed by Chris Maene with support from Steinway & Sons, the piano features straight parallel strings instead of the conventional diagonally-crossed strings of a modern Steinway. In 2020, Barenboim curated the digital festival of new music “Distance / Intimacy” with flautist Emmanuel Pahud in the Pierre Boulez Saal. At their invitation ten contemporary composers, among them Jörg Widmann, Olga Neuwirth and Matthias Pintscher, contributed new works engaging artistically with the COVID-19 pandemic. All participating composers and musicians waived their fees, inviting listeners to financially support arts and culture. Musical style Barenboim has rejected musical fashions based on current musicological research, such as the authentic performance movement. His recording of Beethoven's symphonies shows his preference for some conventional practices, rather than fully adhering to Bärenreiter's new edition (edited by Jonathan Del Mar). Barenboim has opposed the practice of choosing the tempo of a piece based on historical evidence, such as the composer's metronome marks. He argues instead for finding the tempo from within the music, especially from its harmony and harmonic rhythm. He has reflected this in the general tempi chosen in his recording of Beethoven's symphonies, usually adhering to early-twentieth-century practices. He has not been influenced by the faster tempos chosen by other conductors such as David Zinman and authentic movement advocate Roger Norrington. In his recording of The Well-Tempered Clavier, Barenboim makes frequent use of the right-foot sustaining pedal, a device absent from the keyboard instruments of Bach's time (although the harpsichord was highly resonant), producing a sonority very different from the "dry" and often staccato sound favoured by Glenn Gould. Moreover, in the fugues, he often plays one voice considerably louder than the others, a practice impossible on a harpsichord. According to some scholarship, this practice began in Beethoven's time (see, for example, Matthew Dirst's book Engaging Bach). When justifying his interpretation of Bach, Barenboim claims that he is interested in the long tradition of playing Bach that has existed for two and a half centuries, rather than in the exact style of performance in Bach's time: The study of old instruments and historic performance practice has taught us a great deal, but the main point, the impact of harmony, has been ignored. This is proved by the fact that tempo is described as an independent phenomenon. It is claimed that one of Bach's gavottes must be played fast and another one slowly. But tempo is not independent! ... I think that concerning oneself purely with historic performance practice and the attempt to reproduce the sound of older styles of music-making is limiting and no indication of progress. Mendelssohn and Schumann tried to introduce Bach into their own period, as did Liszt with his transcriptions and Busoni with his arrangements. In America Leopold Stokowski also tried to do it with his arrangements for orchestra. This was always the result of "progressive" efforts to bring Bach closer to the particular period. I have no philosophical problem with someone playing Bach and making it sound like Boulez. My problem is more with someone who tries to imitate the sound of that time ... Recordings In the beginning of his career, Barenboim concentrated on music of the classical era, as well as some romantic composers. He made his first recording in 1954. Notable classical recordings include the complete cycles of Mozart, Beethoven and Schubert's piano sonatas, Beethoven's piano concertos (with the New Philharmonia Orchestra and Otto Klemperer), and Mozart's piano concertos (conducting the English Chamber Orchestra from the piano). Romantic recordings include Brahms's piano concertos (with John Barbirolli), Mendelssohn's Songs Without Words, and Chopin's Nocturnes. Barenboim also recorded many chamber works, especially in collaboration with his first wife, Jacqueline du Pré, the violinist Itzhak Perlman, and the violinist and violist Pinchas Zukerman. Noted performances include: the complete Mozart violin sonatas (with Perlman), Brahms's violin sonatas (live concert with Perlman, previously in the studio with Zukerman), Beethoven's and Brahms's cello sonatas (with du Pré), Beethoven's and Tchaikovsky's piano trios (with du Pré and Zukerman), and Schubert's Trout Quintet (with du Pré, Perlman, Zukerman, and Zubin Mehta). Notable recordings as a conductor include the complete symphonies of Beethoven, Brahms, Bruckner, Schubert, and Schumann; the Da Ponte operas of Mozart; numerous operas by Wagner, including the complete Ring Cycle; and various concertos. Barenboim has written about his changing attitude to the music of Mahler; he has recorded Mahler's Fifth, Seventh, and Ninth symphonies and Das Lied von der Erde. He has also performed and recorded the Concierto de Aranjuez by Rodrigo and Villa-Lobos guitar concerto with John Williams as the guitar soloist. By the late 1990s, Barenboim had widened his concert repertoire, performing works by baroque as well as twentieth-century classical composers. Examples include: J. S. Bach's The Well-Tempered Clavier (which he has played since childhood) and Goldberg Variations, Albeniz's Iberia, and Debussy's Préludes. In addition, he turned to other musical genres, such as jazz, and the folk music of his birthplace, Argentina. He conducted the 2006 New Year's Eve concert in Buenos Aires, in which tangos were played. Barenboim has continued to perform and record chamber music, sometimes with members of the orchestras he has led. Some examples include the Quartet for the End of Time by Messiaen with members of the Orchestre de Paris during his tenure there, Richard Strauss with members of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, and Mozart's Clarinet Trio with members of the Berlin Staatskapelle. To mark Barenboim's 75th birthday, Deutsche Grammophon released a box set of 39 CDs of his solo recordings, and Sony Classical issued a box set of Barenboim's orchestral recordings on 43 CDs and three DVDs in 2017, Daniel Barenboim – A Retrospective. Conducting Wagner in Israel The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra (then Palestine Orchestra) had performed Richard Wagner's music in Mandatory Palestine even during the early days of the Nazi era. But after the Kristallnacht, Jewish musicians avoided playing Wagner's music in Israel because of the use Nazi Germany made of the composer and because of Wagner's own anti-Semitic writings, initiating an unofficial boycott. This informal ban continued when Israel was founded in 1948, but from time to time unsuccessful efforts were made to end it. In 1974 and again in 1981 Zubin Mehta planned to (but did not) lead the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra in works of Wagner. During the latter occasion, fist fights broke out in the audience. Barenboim, who had been selected to head the production of Wagner's operas at the 1988 Bayreuth Festival, had since at least 1989 publicly opposed the Israeli ban. In that year, he had the Israel Philharmonic "rehearse" two of Wagner's works. In a conversation with Edward Said, Barenboim said that "Wagner, the person, is absolutely appalling, despicable, and, in a way, very difficult to put together with the music he wrote, which so often has exactly the opposite kind of feelings ... noble, generous, etc." He called Wagner's anti-Semitism obviously "monstrous", and feels it must be faced, but argues that "Wagner did not cause the Holocaust." In 1990, Barenboim conducted the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra in its first appearance in Israel, but he excluded Wagner's works. "Although Wagner died in 1883, he is not played [in Israel] because his music is too inextricably linked with Nazism, and so is too painful for those who suffered", Barenboim told a reporter. "Why play what hurts people?" Not long afterwards, it was announced that Barenboim would lead the Israel Philharmonic in two Wagner overtures, which took place on 27 December "before a carefully screened audience". In 2000, the Israel Supreme Court upheld the right of the Rishon LeZion Orchestra to perform Wagner's Siegfried Idyll. At the Israel Festival in Jerusalem in July 2001, Barenboim had scheduled to perform the first act of Die Walküre with three singers, including tenor Plácido Domingo. However, strong protests by some Holocaust survivors, as well as the Israeli government, led the festival authorities to ask for an alternative program. (The Israel Festival's Public Advisory board, which included some Holocaust survivors, had originally approved the program.) The controversy appeared to end in May, after the Israel Festival announced that a selection by Wagner would not be included at the 7 July concert. Barenboim agreed to substitute music by Schumann and Stravinsky. However, at the end of the concert with the Berlin Staatskapelle, Barenboim announced that he would like to play Wagner as a second encore and invited those who objected to leave, saying, "Despite what the Israel Festival believes, there are people sitting in the audience for whom Wagner does not spark Nazi associations. I respect those for whom these associations are oppressive. It will be democratic to play a Wagner encore for those who wish to hear it. I am turning to you now and asking whether I can play Wagner." A half-hour debate ensued, with some audience members calling Barenboim a "fascist". In the end, a small number of attendees walked out and the overwhelming majority remained, applauding loudly after the performance of the Tristan und Isolde Prelude. In September 2001, a public relations associate for the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, where Barenboim was the Music Director, revealed that season ticket-holders were about evenly divided about the wisdom of Barenboim's decision to play Wagner in Jerusalem. Barenboim regarded the performance of Wagner at the 7 July concert as a political statement. He said he had decided to defy the ban on Wagner after having a news conference he held the previous week interrupted by the ringing of a mobile phone to the tune of Wagner's "Ride of the Valkyries". "I thought if it can be heard on the ring of a telephone, why can't it be played in a concert hall?" he said. A Knesset committee subsequently called for Barenboim to be declared a persona non-grata in Israel until he apologized for conducting Wagner's music. The move was condemned by the musical director of the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra Zubin Mehta and members of Knesset. Prior to receiving the $100,000 Wolf Prize, awarded annually in Israel, Barenboim said, "If people were really hurt, of course I regret this, because I don't want to harm anyone". In 2005, Barenboim gave the inaugural Edward Said Memorial Lecture at Columbia University, entitled "Wagner, Israel and Palestine". In the speech, according to the Financial Times, Barenboim "called on Israel to accept the Palestinian 'narrative even though they may not agree with it'", and said, "The state of Israel was supposed to provide the instrument for the end of anti-Semitism ... This inability to accept a new narrative has led to a new anti-Semitism that is very different from the European anti-Semitism of the 19th century." According to The New York Times, Barenboim said it was the "fear, this conviction of being yet again the victim, that does not allow the Israeli public to accept Wagner's anti-Semitism ... It is the same cell in the collective brain that does not allow them to make progress in their understanding of the needs of the Palestinian people", and also said that suicide bombings in Israel "had to be seen in the context of the historical development at which we have arrived". The speech caused controversy; the Jewish Telegraphic Agency wrote that Barenboim had "compared Herzl's ideas to Wagner's; criticized Palestinian terrorist attacks but also justified them; and said Israeli actions contributed to the rise of international anti-Semitism". In March 2007, Barenboim said: "The whole subject of Wagner in Israel has been politicized and is a symptom of a malaise that goes very deep in Israeli society..." In 2010, before conducting Wagner's Die Walküre for the gala premiere of La Scala's season in Milan, he said that the perception of Wagner was unjustly influenced by the fact that he was Hitler's favourite composer: "I think a bit of the problem with Wagner isn't what we all know in Israel, anti-Semitism, etc ... It is how the Nazis and Hitler saw Wagner as his own prophet ... This perception of Hitler colors for many people the perception of Wagner ... We need one day to liberate Wagner of all this weight". In a 2012 interview with Der Spiegel, Barenboim said, "It saddens me that official Israel so doggedly refuses to allow Wagner to be performed – as was the case, once again, at the University of Tel Aviv two weeks ago – because I see it as a symptom of a disease. The words I'm about to use are harsh, but I choose them deliberately: There is a politicization of the remembrance of the Holocaust in Israel, and that's terrible." He also argued that after the trial of Adolf Eichmann and the Six-Day War, "a misunderstanding also arose ... namely that the Holocaust, from which the Jews' ultimate claim to Israel was derived, and the Palestinian problem had something to do with each other." He also said, that since the Six-Day War, Israeli politicians have repeatedly established a connection between European anti-Semitism and the fact that the Palestinians don't accept the founding of the State of Israel. But that's absurd! The Palestinians weren't primarily anti-Semitic. They just didn't accept their expulsion. But European anti-Semitism goes much further back than to the partition of Palestine and the establishment of Israel in 1948. In response to a question from the interviewer, he said he conducted Wagner with the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra because, "The musicians wanted it. I said: Sure, but we have to talk about it. It's a tricky decision." When the interviewer asked if the initiative came from Arab musicians in the orchestra, he replied, "On the contrary. It was the Israelis. The Israeli brass players." Over the years, observers of the Wagner battle have weighed in on both sides of the issue. Political views Barenboim, a supporter of human rights, including Palestinian rights, is an outspoken critic of Israel's conservative governments and the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories. In an interview with the British music critic Norman Lebrecht in 2003, Barenboim accused Israel of behaving in a manner that was "morally abhorrent and strategically wrong" and "putting in danger the very existence of the state of Israel". In 1967, at the start of the Six-Day War, Barenboim and du Pré had performed for the Israeli troops on the front lines, as well as during the Yom Kippur War in 1973. During the Gulf War, he and an orchestra performed in Israel in gas masks. Barenboim has argued publicly for a two-state solution for Israelis and Palestinians. In a November 2014 opinion piece in The Guardian, he wrote that the "ongoing security of the state of Israel ... is only possible in the long term if the future of the Palestinian people, too, is secured in its own sovereign state. If this does not happen, the wars and history of that region will be constantly repeated and the unbearable stalemate will continue." West–Eastern Divan In 1999, Barenboim and Palestinian-American intellectual Edward Said jointly founded the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra. This initiative brings together, every summer, a group of young classical musicians from Israel, the Palestinian territories and Arab countries to study, perform and to promote mutual reflection and understanding. Barenboim and Said jointly received the 2002 Prince of Asturias Awards for their work in "improving understanding between nations". Together they wrote the book Parallels and Paradoxes, based on a series of public discussions held at New York's Carnegie Hall. In September 2005, presenting the book written with Said, Barenboim refused to be interviewed by uniformed Israel Defense Forces Radio reporter Dafna Arad, considering the wearing of the uniform insensitive for the occasion. In response, Israeli Education Minister Limor Livnat of the Likud party called him "a real Jew hater" and "a real anti-Semite". After being invited for the fourth time to the Doha Festival for Music and Dialogue in Qatar with the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra in 2012, Barenboim's invitation was cancelled by the authorities because of "sensitivity to the developments in the Arab world". There had been a campaign against him in the Arab media, accusing him of "being a Zionist". In July 2012, Barenboim and the orchestra played a pivotal role at the BBC Proms, performing a cycle of Beethoven's nine symphonies, with the Ninth timed to coincide with the opening of the London 2012 Olympic Games. In addition, he was an Olympic flag carrier at the opening ceremony of the Games. Wolf Prize In May 2004, Barenboim was awarded the Wolf Prize at a ceremony at the Israeli Knesset. Education Minister Livnat held up the nomination until Barenboim apologized for his performance of Wagner in Israel. Barenboim called Livnat's demand "politically motivated", adding "I don't see what I need to apologize about. If I ever hurt a person privately or in public, I am sorry, because I have no intention of hurting people...", which was good enough for Livnat. The ceremony was boycotted by Knesset Speaker Reuven Rivlin, also a member of the Likud party. In his acceptance speech, Barenboim expressed his opinion on the political situation, referring to the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948: I am asking today with deep sorrow: Can we, despite all our achievements, ignore the intolerable gap between what the Declaration of Independence promised and what was fulfilled, the gap between the idea and the realities of Israel? Does the condition of occupation and domination over another people fit the Declaration of Independence? Is there any sense in the independence of one at the expense of the fundamental rights of the other? Can the Jewish people whose history is a record of continued suffering and relentless persecution, allow themselves to be indifferent to the rights and suffering of a neighboring people? Can the State of Israel allow itself an unrealistic dream of an ideological end to the conflict instead of pursuing a pragmatic, humanitarian one based on social justice? Israel's President Moshe Katsav and Education Minister Livnat criticized Barenboim for his speech. Livnat accused him of attacking the state of Israel, to which Barenboim replied that he had not done so, but that he instead had cited the text of the Israeli Declaration of Independence. Performing in the West Bank and Gaza Strip Barenboim has performed several times in the West Bank: at Bir Zeit University in 1999 and several times in Ramallah. In December 2007, Barenboim and 20 musicians from Britain, the United States, France and Germany, and one Palestinian were scheduled to play a baroque music concert in Gaza. Although they had received authorization from Israeli authorities, the Palestinian was stopped at the Israel–Gaza border and told that he needed individual permission to enter. The group waited seven hours at the border, and then canceled the concert in solidarity. Barenboim commented: "A baroque music concert in a Roman Catholic church in Gaza – as we all know – has nothing to do with security and would bring so much joy to people who live there in great difficulty." In January 2008, after performing in Ramallah, Barenboim accepted honorary Palestinian citizenship, becoming the first Jewish Israeli citizen to be offered the status. Barenboim said he hoped it would serve as a public gesture of peace. Some Israelis criticized Barenboim's decision to accept Palestinian citizenship. The parliamentary faction chairman of the Shas party demanded that Barenboim be stripped of his Israeli citizenship, but the Interior Minister told the media that "the matter is not even up for discussion". In January 2009, Barenboim cancelled two concerts of the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra in Qatar and Cairo "due to the escalating violence in Gaza and the resulting concerns for the musicians' safety". In May 2011, Barenboim conducted the "Orchestra for Gaza" composed of volunteers from the Berlin Philharmonic, the Berlin Staatskapelle, the Orchestra of La Scala in Milan, the Vienna Philharmonic and the Orchestre de Paris, at al-Mathaf Cultural House. The concert, held in Gaza City, was co-ordinated in secret with the United Nations. The orchestra flew from Berlin to Vienna and from there to El Arish on a plane chartered by Barenboim, entering the Gaza Strip at the Egyptian Rafah Border Crossing. The musicians were escorted by a convoy of United Nations vehicles. The concert, the first performance by an international classical ensemble in the Strip, was attended by an invited audience of several hundred schoolchildren and NGO workers, who greeted Barenboim with applause. The orchestra played Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik and Symphony No. 40, also familiar to an Arab audience as the basis of one of the songs of the famous Arab singer Fairuz. In his speech, Barenboim said: "Everyone has to understand that the Palestinian cause is a just cause therefore it can be only given justice if it is achieved without violence. Violence can only weaken the righteousness of the Palestinian cause". Awards and recognition Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany, 2002 Prince of Asturias Awards, 2002 (jointly with Edward Said) Toleranzpreis der Evangelischen Akademie Tutzing, 2002 Wilhelm Furtwängler Prize, 2003 (with Staatskapelle Berlin) Buber-Rosenzweig-Medal, 2004 Wolf Prize in Arts, 2004 (According to the documentary "Knowledge Is the Beginning", Barenboim donated all the proceeds to music education for Israeli and Palestinian youth) Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2005; Ernst von Siemens Music Prize, 2006 Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, 2007 Commander of the Legion of Honour, 2007 Goethe Medal, 2007 Praemium Imperiale, 2007 Nominated "Honorary Guide" by UFO religion Raëlian Movement, 2008 International Service Award for the Global Defence of Human Rights, 2008 Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medal, 2008 Istanbul International Music Festival Lifetime Achievement Award, 2009; In 2009 Konex Foundation from Argentina granted him the Diamond Konex Award for Classical Music as the most important musician in the last decade in his country. Léonie Sonning Music Prize, 2009 Westphalian Peace Prize (Westfälischer Friedenspreis), in 2010, for his striving for dialog in the Near East; Otto Hahn Peace Medal (Otto-Hahn-Friedensmedaille) of the United Nations Association of Germany (DGVN), Berlin-Brandenburg, for his efforts in promoting peace, humanity and international understanding, 2010; Grand Officier of the Légion d'honneur, 2011 Edison Award for Lifetime Achievement 2011, the most prestigious music award of The Netherlands Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE), 2011 Dresden Peace Prize, 2011 International Willy-Brandt Prize, 2011 In 2012, he was voted into the Gramophone Hall of Fame. Honorary Member of the Berliner Philharmoniker Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts, 2015 Elgar Medal, 2015 Minor planet 7163 Barenboim is named after him. Honorary degrees Doctor of Philosophy, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1996 Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 2003 Doctor of Music, University of Oxford, 2007 Doctor of Music, SOAS, University of London, 2008 Doctor of Music, Royal Academy of Music, 2010 Doctor of Philosophy, Weizmann Institute of Science, 2013 University of Florence, 2020 Grammy Awards Barenboim received 6 Grammy Awards. Grammy Award for Best Opera Recording: Christoph Classen (producer), Eberhard Sengpiel, Tobias Lehmann (engineers), Daniel Barenboim (conductor), Jane Eaglen, Thomas Hampson, Waltraud Meier, René Pape, Peter Seiffert, the Chor der Deutschen Staatsoper Berlin & the Staatskapelle Berlin for Wagner: Tannhäuser (2003) Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance: Daniel Barenboim, Dale Clevenger, Larry Combs, Daniele Damiano, Hansjörg Schellenberger & the Berlin Philharmonic for Beethoven/Mozart: Quintets (Chicago-Berlin) (1995) Daniel Barenboim & Itzhak Perlman for Brahms: The Three Violin Sonatas (1991) Grammy Award for Best Orchestral Performance: Daniel Barenboim (conductor) & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for Corigliano: Symphony No. 1 (1992) Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Soloist(s) Performance (with orchestra): Martin Fouqué (producer), Eberhard Sengpiel (engineer), Daniel Barenboim (conductor / piano), Dale Clevenger, Larry Combs, Alex Klein, David McGill & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for Richard Strauss Wind Concertos (Horn Concerto; Oboe Concerto, etc.) (2002) Daniel Barenboim (conductor), Itzhak Perlman & the Chicago Symphony Orchestra for Elgar: Violin Concerto in B Minor (1983) Daniel Barenboim (conductor), Arthur Rubinstein & the London Philharmonic Orchestra for Beethoven: The Five Piano Concertos (1977) (also awarded Grammy Award for Best Classical Album) Straight-strung piano In 2017, Barenboim unveiled a piano that has straight-strung bass strings, as opposed to the crossed-stringed modern instrument. He was inspired by Liszt's Erard piano, which has straight strings. Barenboim appreciates the clarity of tone and a greater control over the tonal quality (or color) his new instrument gives. This piano was developed with the help of Chris Maene at Maene Piano, who also built it. In 2019, Barenboim used this instrument to perform at Berliner Philhamoniker. See also List of peace activists References External links Barenboim Revealed on CNN.com Parallels and Paradoxes, NPR interview with Barenboim and Edward Said, 28 December 2002 "In harmony", The Guardian feature on Barenboim and Said, 5 April 2003 In the Beginning was Sound, 2006 BBC Radio 4 Reith Lectures. BBC Radio 3 interviews, November 1991 Discography at SonyBMG Masterworks Elgar Cello Concerto in E minor, opus 85 Jacqueline Du Pré with Daniel Barenboim and The New Philharmonia Orchestra on YouTube Review: Fidelio played by Daniel Barenboim and the West–Eastern Divan Orchestra Westphalian Peace Prize Barenboim's outstanding Beethoven, on the symphony cycle at classicstoday.com Daniel Barenboim and Arab Anti-Israel Sentiment: A Classic Example of Political Naivety Mutual Appreciation Is Essential Interview with Daniel Barenboim Two interviews with Daniel Barenboim by Bruce Duffie, 2 November 1985 & 11 September 1993 1942 births Living people 20th-century Argentine musicians 20th-century classical pianists 20th-century male musicians 21st-century Argentine musicians 21st-century classical pianists 21st-century male musicians Accademia Musicale Chigiana alumni Argentine classical pianists Argentine conductors (music) Argentine emigrants to Israel Argentine Jews Argentine people of Russian-Jewish descent Child classical musicians Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur Conductors (music) awarded knighthoods Deutsche Grammophon artists Edison Classical Music Awards Oeuvreprijs winners EMI Classics and Virgin Classics artists Erato Records artists Ernst von Siemens Music Prize winners Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Grammy Award winners Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur Herbert von Karajan Music Prize winners Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music Illustrious Citizens of Buenos Aires Israeli classical pianists Israeli conductors (music) Israeli expatriates in Germany Israeli expatriates in Italy Israeli Jews Israeli people of Argentine-Jewish descent Israeli people of Russian-Jewish descent Israeli–Palestinian peace process Jewish Argentine musicians Jewish classical pianists Jews in the State of Palestine Male classical pianists Male conductors (music) Music directors of the Berlin State Opera Musicians awarded knighthoods Musicians from Buenos Aires Recipients of the Léonie Sonning Music Prize Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Recipients of the Praemium Imperiale Royal Philharmonic Society Gold Medallists Spinozists United Nations Messengers of Peace Wolf Prize in Arts laureates Naturalized citizens of the State of Palestine	[ -0.47463563084602356, 0.8214245438575745, -0.26221945881843567, -0.5778422355651855, -0.2846495509147644, 0.4795758128166199, 0.20091283321380615, 0.14356088638305664, -0.2318166345357895, -0.2205551415681839, -0.3709341883659363, -0.1695801317691803, 0.018370751291513443, 0.5439401865005493, 0.11181871592998505, 0.5136797428131104, 0.35215920209884644, -0.20340628921985626, -0.9181492328643799, -0.5493316054344177, -0.08886927366256714, -0.14659477770328522, 0.5556316375732422, 0.1966802030801773, -0.657655656337738, 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207776	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Dearborn%20Independent	The Dearborn Independent	The Dearborn Independent, also known as The Ford International Weekly, was a weekly newspaper established in 1901, and published by Henry Ford from 1919 through 1927. The paper reached a circulation of 900,000 by 1925, second only to the New York Daily News, largely due to a quota system for promotion imposed on Ford dealers. Lawsuits regarding antisemitic material published in the paper caused Ford to close it, and the last issue was published in December 1927. The publication's title was derived from the Detroit suburb of Dearborn, Michigan. Acquisition by Ford In 1918, Ford's closest aide and private secretary, Ernest G. Liebold, purchased the Independent from Marcus Woodruff, who had been running it at a loss. The initial staff of the newspaper included E. G. Pipp, previously managing editor of the Detroit News, writers William J. Cameron (also formerly of the News) and Marcus Woodruff, and Fred Black as business manager. The paper was printed on a used press purchased by Ford and installed in Ford's tractor plant in The Rouge. Publication under Ford was inaugurated in January 1919. The paper initially attracted notoriety in June 1919 with coverage of the libel lawsuit between Henry Ford and the Chicago Tribune, when stories written by Pipp and Cameron were picked up nationally. Ford's motivations Henry Ford, a pacifist who opposed World War I, believed that Jews were responsible for starting wars in order to profit from them: "International financiers are behind all war. They are what is called the international Jew: German Jews, French Jews, English Jews, American Jews. I believe that in all those countries except our own the Jewish financier is supreme ... here the Jew is a threat". Ford felt that Jews, in their role as financiers, contributed nothing of value to society. He believed that Jewish businesses focused solely on price, and cheapened their products. Ford once bit into a candy bar and, finding it not as good as it once had been, said "The Jews have taken hold of it. They've cheapened it to make more money". In 1915, Ford blamed Jews for instigating World War I, saying "I know who caused the war: German-Jewish bankers." In 1925, Ford said "What I oppose most is the international Jewish money power that is met in every war. That is what I oppose – a power that has no country and that can order the young men of all countries out to death." Ford ensured that everyone who worked for any of his companies accepted his views, and made sure not to hire a single Jew in office jobs, although he hired them for physical labor. So began the articles with themes of a worldwide conspiracy by Jewish super-capitalists, that the Jews invented the stock market and gold standard just to corrupt the world and other peoples. Antisemitic articles Pipp left the Independent in April 1920 in disgust with the planned antisemitic articles, which began in May. Ford did not write the articles. He expressed his opinions verbally to his executive secretary, Ernest Liebold, and to William J. Cameron, who replaced Pipp as editor. Cameron had the main responsibility for expanding these opinions into article form. Liebold was responsible for collecting more material to support the articles. One of the articles, "Jewish Power and America's Money Famine", asserted that the power exercised by Jews over the nation's supply of money was insidious, depriving farmers and others outside the banking coterie of money when they needed it most. The article asked the question: "Where is the American gold supply? ... It may be in the United States but it does not belong to the United States." It concluded that Jews controlled the gold supply and, hence, American money. Another article, "Jewish Idea Molded Federal Reserve System", was a reflection of Ford's distrust of the Federal Reserve System and its proponent, Paul Warburg. Ford believed the Federal Reserve system was secretive and insidious. These articles gave rise to claims of antisemitism against Ford, and in 1929 he signed a statement apologizing for the articles. The Protocols of the Elders of Zion Many issues of the Independent comment extensively upon The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. The first mention of the Protocols appears in the issue of July 10, 1920, the seventh installment of its "International Jew" series. Also, in 1920–21 the Independent carried a series of articles expanding on the themes of financial control by Jews, entitled: Jewish Idea in American Monetary Affairs: The remarkable story of Paul Warburg, who began work on the United States monetary system after three weeks residence in this country Jewish Idea Molded Federal Reserve System: What Baruch was in War Material, Paul Warburg was in War Finances; Some Curious revelations of money and politics. Jewish Idea of a Central Bank for America: The evolution of Paul M. Warburg's idea of Federal Reserve System without government management. How Jewish International Finance Functions: The Warburg family and firm divided the world between them and did amazing things which non-Jews could not do Jewish Power and America's Money Famine: The Warburg Federal Reserve sucks money to New York, leaving productive sections of the country in disastrous need. The Economic Plan of International Jews: An outline of the Protocolists' monetary policy, with notes on the parallel found in Jewish financial practice. The newspaper published The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which was discredited by The Times of London as a forgery during the Independents publishing run. The American Jewish Historical Society described the ideas presented in the magazine as "anti-immigrant, anti-labor, anti-liquor, and antisemitic". In February 1921, the New York World published an interview with Ford in which he said: "The only statement I care to make about the Protocols is that they fit in with what is going on." During this period, Ford emerged as "a respected spokesman for right-wing extremism and religious prejudice", reaching around 700,000 readers through his newspaper. Republication in Germany During the Weimar Republic in the early 1920s, the Protocols was reprinted and published in Germany, along with anti-Jewish articles first published by The Dearborn Independent and reprinted in translation in Germany as a set of four bound volumes, cumulatively titled The International Jew, the World's Foremost Problem. Steven Watts wrote that Adolf Hitler "revered" Ford. He quotes Hitler as saying, "I shall do my best to put his theories into practice in Germany", and says that Hitler modeled the Volkswagen, the people's car, on the Model T. Several themes from the Dearborn Independent articles appear in Mein Kampf. Hitler even quoted the Dearborn Independent in Mein Kampf and Henry Ford was the only American that Hitler specifically named: "Every year they [the Jews] manage to become increasingly the controlling masters of the labor power of a people of 120,000,000 souls; one great man, Ford, to their exasperation still holds out independently there even now." On February 1, 1924, Ford received Kurt Ludecke, a representative of Hitler, at his home. Ludecke was introduced to Ford by Siegfried Wagner (son of the famous composer Richard Wagner) and his wife Winifred, both Nazi sympathizers and antisemites. Ludecke asked Ford for a contribution to the Nazi cause, though this is denied by the Ford Motor Company. In July 1938, prior to the outbreak of war, the German consul at Cleveland gave Ford, on his 75th birthday, the award of the Grand Cross of the German Eagle, the highest medal Nazi Germany could bestow on a foreigner. James D. Mooney, vice-president of overseas operations for General Motors, received a similar medal, the Merit Cross of the German Eagle, First Class. Reaction to the Dearborn Independent There was much negative press about the Dearborn Independent within Jewish communities, but there was non-Jewish negative press as well. Jewish reaction There are many accounts of Jewish organizations coming together to fight the Dearborn Independent. The first major antisemitic article about Jews was published on June 19, 1920. There were major repetitions on August 28, then again in February, March, and November 1921. The essay "Anti-Semitism- Will it Appear in the U.S.?" quoted Louis Brandeis, a Justice of the Supreme Court, who advocated for Jewish civil rights and said, "Organize, organize, organize, until every Jew must stand up and be counted." Louis Marshall noticed that The Cause of World Unrest was advertised on the back of one issue of the Independent, so he wrote a personal letter to the publisher, Major George Haven Putnam, condemning him for his intolerance. Marshall said that Putnam was using Jews as his scapegoat. Eventually Putnam apologized for his advertisement and for publishing the book. Non-Jewish reaction The Federal Council of Churches of Christ in America published a resolution condemning Ford's propaganda and beliefs. In January 1921, a statement titled "The Peril of Racial Prejudice" denounced antisemitism as un-American and condemned the Independent for its antisemitic campaign. It was signed by more than one hundred prominent citizens of "Gentile birth and Christian faith", including President Woodrow Wilson, former president William Howard Taft, William Jennings Bryan, Clarence Darrow, Nicholas Murray Butler, Robert Frost, Samuel Seabury, Ida Tarbell, Paul Cravath and the presidents of Williams, Oberlin, and Dartmouth colleges as well as Princeton, Cornell, and Syracuse universities. However, this did not stop the Dearborn Independent from their negative press regarding Jews. Libel lawsuit While they explicitly condemned pogroms and violence against Jews, Ford's articles blamed the Jews for provoking incidents of mass violence. San Francisco lawyer and Jewish farm cooperative organizer Aaron Sapiro filed a libel lawsuit in response. During the trial, the editor of Ford's "Own Page", William Cameron, testified that Ford had nothing to do with the editorials even though they were under his byline. Cameron testified that he never discussed the content of the pages with Ford, or sent them to Ford for his approval. Friends and business associates said they warned Ford about the contents of the Independent and that Ford probably never read the articles (he claimed he only read the headlines.) Further court testimony alleged that Ford knew about the contents of the Independent in advance of publication. Investigative journalist Max Wallace noted that "whatever credibility this absurd claim [Cameron's denial] may have had was soon undermined when James M. Miller, a former Dearborn Independent employee, swore under oath that Ford had told him he intended to expose Sapiro." Michael Barkun observed: Action by the Anti-Defamation League The trial prompted the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) to begin a concerted effort to oppose the Independent. An ADL-led coalition of Jewish groups led the charge, and raised objections to Ford's writings in the Detroit press. The ADL also organized a boycott of Ford products, which was supported not only by Jews, but also by several liberal Christian groups. In December 1927, Ford gave in and abolished the paper. News reports at the time quoted him as saying he was shocked by the paper's content and unaware of its nature. Ford also wrote a public letter to ADL president Sigmund Livingston recanting his antisemitic views. Ford's 1927 apology was generally well-received: "Four-Fifths of the hundreds of letters addressed to Ford in July 1927 were from Jews, and almost without exception they praised the Industrialist." While most of the major national Jewish and non-Jewish newspapers accepted Ford's apology, many local Jewish papers rejected it. In January 1937, a Ford statement to The Detroit Jewish Chronicle disavowed "any connection whatsoever with the publication in Germany of a book known as The International Jew." According to Pool and Pool (1978), Ford's retraction and apology (which were written by others) were not signed by him (rather, his signature was forged by Harry Bennett), and Ford never privately recanted his antisemitic views, stating in 1940: "I hope to republish The International Jew again some time." See also The International Jew References Sources Ford R. Bryan: Henry's Lieutenants. Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press, 1993. Albert Lee: Henry Ford and the Jews. New York: Stein and Day, 1980. Max Wallace: The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh and the Rise of the Third Reich. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2003. External links Dearborn independent. 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207778	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghent%E2%80%93Terneuzen%20Canal	Ghent–Terneuzen Canal	The Ghent–Terneuzen Canal (Dutch: Kanaal van Gent naar Terneuzen), also known as the "Sea Canal" (Zeekanaal) is a canal linking Ghent in Belgium to the port of Terneuzen on the Westerschelde (Scheldt) Estuary in the Netherlands, thereby providing the former with better access to the sea. History The canal was constructed between 1823 and 1827 on the initiative of the Dutch King: Belgium (as it subsequently became) and the Netherlands had become a united country under the terms agreed at the Congress of Vienna. After Belgium broke away in 1830, traffic to and from Belgium was blocked by the Dutch until 1841. Between 1870 and 1885, the canal was enlarged to a depth of six and a half metres at its centre, and to a width of 17 metres at its base and 68 metres at the surface level: bridges being rebuilt accordingly along the Belgian sector. The famous Cluysen - Ter Donck Regatta was organised here for many decades (1888-1954) and during the 1913 Expo of Ghent the European Rowing Championships took place on the canal. Further development and major enlargement took place during the subsequent century, most notably during the early 1960s. In February 2015, Flanders and the Netherlands signed a treaty for the construction of a new lock at Terneuzen, scheduled for completion in 2021 and costing €920M. The new lock is about the same size as those of the contemporaneous expansion project of the Panama Canal. Today Today the Ghent-Terneuzen canal is 200 metres wide and long, capable of accommodating ships of up to 125 000 gross tonnage. The largest permitted vessel size has increased, correspondingly, to 265 metres long x 34 metres wide, with a draught of up to 12.5 metres. References External links Portaal van Vlaanderen International canals Canals in the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta Canals opened in 1827 Canals in Flanders Canals in East Flanders Canals in Zeeland Zeelandic Flanders Geography of Ghent Terneuzen 1827 establishments in the Netherlands	[ 0.27658966183662415, -0.34452712535858154, 0.6458908319473267, -0.1500931829214096, 0.5374944806098938, 0.5225902795791626, 0.017699917778372765, 0.09724316000938416, -0.8266478776931763, -0.3984374403953552, 0.12980669736862183, 0.7184336185455322, 0.03690632805228233, 0.6102216839790344, -0.2137095332145691, 0.3916347920894623, 0.5191529393196106, 0.16105107963085175, 0.42667654156684875, -0.7658077478408813, 0.03445377200841904, 0.1565711349248886, 0.7780552506446838, 0.41557419300079346, 0.09884225577116013, -0.27686217427253723, 0.1421579271554947, 0.8291212320327759, 0.11004821956157684, -0.4926377832889557, 0.24191555380821228, 0.12294158339500427, 0.15005633234977722, -0.31644612550735474, 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207780	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albionbaatar	Albionbaatar	Albionbaatar is an extinct mammal from the Lower Cretaceous Lulworth Formation of England. It was a member of the also extinct order Multituberculata and shared the world with the much larger dinosaurs. It is in the suborder "Plagiaulacida", family Albionbaataridae. The genus Albionbaatar was named by Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Ensom P.C. in 1994 based on a single species. "Albion" refers to England, while, "baatar" is Mongolian, meaning "hero". This is due to a recent nomenclatural tradition among specialists who study this group. Many multituberculates are called "something"-baatar, regardless of where they come from. This is in part because the best preserved remains of multis tend to come from the Upper Cretaceous of the Gobi desert. The primary species, Albionbaatar denisae, also named by Kielan-Jaworowska and Ensom, was found in Berriasian (Lower Cretaceous) strata of Durlston Bay, in Dorset. It is a miniature multituberculate from the Isle of Purbeck. References Kielan-Jaworowska & Ensom (1994), "Tiny plagiaulacoid multituberculate mammals from the Purbeck Limestone Formation of Dorset, England". Paleontology 37, p. 17-31. Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429. Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Plagiaulacidae, Albionbaataridae, Eobaataridae & Arginbaataridae, an Internet directory. 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207781	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veronica%20%28search%20engine%29	Veronica (search engine)	Veronica was a search engine system for the Gopher protocol, released in November 1992 by Steven Foster and Fred Barrie at the University of Nevada, Reno. During its existence, Veronica was a constantly updated database of the names of almost every menu item on thousands of Gopher servers. The Veronica database could be searched from most major Gopher menus. Although the original Veronica database is no longer accessible, various local Veronica installations and at least one complete rewrite ("Veronica-2") still exist. Naming The search engine was named after the character Veronica Lodge from Archie Comics, an intentional analogy with the naming of the Archie search engine, a search engine for FTP servers. A backronym for Veronica is "Very Easy Rodent-Oriented Net-wide Index to Computer Archives". See also Archie – a search engine for finding FTP files. Jughead – an alternative search engine system for the Gopher protocol. WAIS – another client-server text searching system of the same era. References External links local-veronica source Search Veronica-2 an actively indexed re-implementation of Veronica. Note: This link uses the Gopher protocol so it may not work in most modern browsers. 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207782	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proalbionbaatar	Proalbionbaatar	Proalbionbaatar is a small mammal from the Upper Jurassic of Guimarota, Portugal. It's the most derived member of the order Multituberculata known from that locality, and shared the world with the much larger dinosaurs. It lies within the suborder "Plagiaulacida" and family Albionbaataridae. The genus Proalbionbaatar was named by Hahn G. and Hahn R. in 1998, based on a single species. The name refers to it being both earlier and more basal than Albionbaatar, a broadly similar form known from the Lower Cretaceous of Dorset, England. The species Proalbionbaatar plagiocyrtus was named by Hahn G. and Hahn R. in 1998. Fossil remains are known from the Kimmeridgian (Upper Jurassic)-age strata of Guimarota, Portugal. Remains are presently restricted to two isolated upper molars, which are smaller than the corresponding teeth of paulchoffatiids (Paulchoffatiidae is the best represented multi group from Guimarota). These teeth also have more cusps, which are arranged in two rows. (Hahn & Hahn 2000, p. 106). References Hahn & Hahn (1998), Neue Beobachtungen an Plagiaulacoidea (Multituberculata) des Ober-Juras 4. Ein Vertreter der Albionbaartaridae im Lusitanien Portugals. Berliner geowissenschaftliche Abhandlungen E 28, p. 85-89. (New observations of Plagiaulacoidea (Multituberculata) from the Upper Jurassic. 4. A representative of Albiobaataridae in the Lusitanien of Portugals.) Hahn G & Hahn R (2000), Multituberculates from the Guimarota mine, p. 97-107 in Martin T & Krebs B (eds), Guimarota - A Jurassic Ecosystem, Verlag Dr Friedrich Pfeil, München. Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429. With much thanks to David Marjanovic for some information. Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Plagiaulacidae, Albionbaataridae, Eobaataridae & Arginbaataridae, an Internet directory. 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207784	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie%20Jones	Freddie Jones	Frederick Charles Jones (12 September 1927 – 9 July 2019) was an English actor who had an extensive career in television, theatre and cinema productions for almost sixty years. In theatre, he was best known for originating the role of Sir in The Dresser; in film, he was best known for his role as the showman Bytes in The Elephant Man (1980); and in television, he was best known for playing Sandy Thomas in the ITV soap opera Emmerdale from 2005 to 2018. Early life Jones was born on 12 September 1927 in Dresden, a suburb of the town of Longton, Stoke-on-Trent, the son of Ida Elizabeth (née Goodwin) and Charles Edward Jones. Charles was a porcelain thrower, Ida a clerk and pub pianist. He worked briefly at Creda, the consumer electrical goods vendors, in Longton before he joined the British Ceramic Research Association in Penkhull, where he worked for ten years. His girlfriend at the time suggested he join a drama course, after which he joined repertory theatre in Shelton, Staffordshire, and other local theatre groups. Career Jones won a scholarship to the Rose Bruford Training College of Speech and Drama—where he shed his Midlands accent. He spent time in Lincoln rep before making his London debut in 1962 with the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC), performing at the Arts Theatre in Afore Night Come. According to the theatre critic Michael Coveney, Jones was "immediately one of the ... [RSC's] most distinctive character actors". In 1963 he played Stanley in the Harold Pinter-directed revival of The Birthday Party in 1963, followed by Maxim Gorky's play Lower Depths at the Aldwych Theatre in 1964. In 1964 he appeared as Cucurucu in the Peter Brook-directed production of Marat/Sade in a production that included Glenda Jackson, Ian Richardson and Patrick Magee. He reprised his role for the Broadway production, and again for the film version (1967). He became more widely known to British audiences in 1968, after his appearance in the six-episode television series The Caesars, in which he played Claudius. For this role, he won the award for the "World's Best Television Actor of the Year" at the 1969 Monte-Carlo Television Festival. In 1970 he took the eponymous role in Charles Wood's television film The Emergence Of Anthony Purdy Esquire Farmer's Labourer, directed by Patrick Dromgoole for Harlech TV. Other television work included the 1968 BBC three-part adaptation of Cold Comfort Farm (he also appeared in the 1995 film adaptation), the 1978 series Pennies from Heaven and the ITV children's programme The Ghosts of Motley Hall (1976–1978). His cinema career developed, with support roles in the Cold War thriller Firefox playing an MI6 spy chief, and in the director David Lynch's films The Elephant Man (1980), Dune (1984) and Wild at Heart (1990). In the 1980s series, The District Nurse, he played the senior partner in a father-and-son medical practice in 1930s Wales, with the unrelated Nicholas Jones as his son. In 1980 he appeared as Sir in Ronald Harwood's play The Dresser, first in Manchester, then transferring to the London stage; he later reprised the role on BBC Radio 4's The Monday Play in 1993. Coveney said of Jones in the role: "No subsequent performance in The Dresser – not Albert Finney in the 1983 film, nor Anthony Hopkins on television in 2015, nor Ken Stott in the West End in 2016 – matched the rumbling thunder of Jones". Apart from a brief spell in 2001, Jones retired from stage work in the early 1990s. Jones played the character Sandy Thomas in ITV's Emmerdale from 2005 to 2018, when he left the programme. He said he had been offered a contract extension but he declined as he felt it was the right time to move on. Jones also performed extensively in radio drama, including: "Mr. Pickwick" in the 1977 adaptation of Charles Dickens' The Pickwick Papers, "The Player" in the 1978 adaptation of Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead "The Waiter" in the 1971 adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's You Never Can Tell "Albert Edward, Prince of Wales" in Lydia Ragosin's Bertie "Rodin" in Jonathan Smith's Abandoned "The Scribe" in the 1992 adaptation of Bruce Bedford's The Gibson "Charlie" in A. L. Kennedy's Like An Angel "Sir Morton Makepeace" in Martyn Read's The Folly "The Artist" in the adaptations of the Gormenghast novels by Mervyn Peake. Personal life Jones married actress Jennifer Heslewood in 1965. They had three sons, actor Toby Jones, Rupert, a director, and Casper, an actor. Jones was a Stoke City fan. Jones died on 9 July 2019 at the age of 91 in Bicester, Oxfordshire, after a short illness. Following his death several of the cast members from Emmerdale paid tribute to Jones. On 11 July both episodes of a double-bill of the soap were dedicated to Jones. Filmography Film Television Notes and references Notes References External links 1927 births 2019 deaths English male film actors English male soap opera actors English male stage actors 20th-century English male actors 21st-century English male actors Actors from Staffordshire Alumni of Rose Bruford College People from Dresden, Staffordshire	[ 0.41332921385765076, -0.09293340146541595, -0.3603106141090393, -0.4082421064376831, 0.5326607823371887, 0.7666968107223511, 0.3591988980770111, -0.04190652072429657, -0.3375525176525116, 0.10344752669334412, -0.08757320791482925, 0.7238218784332275, -0.34739160537719727, 0.09379293769598007, 0.05063165724277496, 0.43877241015434265, 0.16812413930892944, 0.02931457944214344, 0.29310017824172974, -0.9142420291900635, -0.5954864621162415, 0.3875460922718048, -0.010680891573429108, 0.10690237581729889, -0.8191017508506775, 0.5408051013946533, -0.568873405456543, 0.11917071044445038, 0.11211526393890381, 0.29930147528648376, 0.08123624324798584, 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207785	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilton%20Doiley	Dilton Doiley	Dilton Doiley is a fictional character in the Archie Comics universe. He is considered the smartest teenager in Riverdale High School. History Characters resembling Dilton (in appearance and personality) appeared quite early in Archie stories. One can be seen, unnamed, in Archie Comics #1 (Winter 1942). The Pep Comics #27 (May 1942) featured a Dilton prototype named Theodosious, and a character named Dilbert was in Archie Comics #34 (September–October 1948). On 16 February 1948, Dilton Doiley officially made his first appearance in the Archie newspaper comic strip, yet his surname was spelled without today's "e". The name Dilton was first used in Pep Comics #78 (Mar 1950). Character background Dilton has all the stereotypical nerdy teen attributes. He is highly educated, interested in all academic subjects, especially science, speaks high flown language, wears glasses, and is shorter than his friends. It is also stated that he has an IQ of 198 when Archie and the gang all take part in a class IQ test. While he is not particularly interested in dating, he is widely admired by Archie and the gang. Dilton uses his garage as a science laboratory. He is a skilled amateur inventor, but many of his creations do not work out as planned. His intelligence has also won him numerous science awards. His teachers, particularly Professor Flutesnoot, are very proud of his achievements. Though Dilton often spends much of his time in his lab, he has a secret ambition to be a Riverdale High athlete. Coach Kleats rarely has confidence in him, so Dilton more commonly shows his school spirit by wearing the team mascot costume. However, he has been shown to be able to use his mathematical ability to pitch baseballs like a professional. Even when he is relegated to being Riverdale High's baseball team scorekeeper, he is still a valuable asset even though he once disappointed a girl interested in him who thought he was a regular player. This happened when he noticed that a team winning against Riverdale had committed a batting out of turn error, told Coach Kleats. They then informed the umpire as required in the rules for a judgment, and the umpire declared the offending player was out, which allowed Riverdale to win with the opportunity Dilton made possible. Writer Alex de Campi was excited to include the character when she wrote the 2015 limited series Archie vs. Predator, because she felt he was often overlooked in the regular Archie books. Family and friends Dilton's parents appear occasionally, but almost never play a significant role. Both are typically depicted as dark haired and bespectacled like their son. His mother who is both proud of and perplexed at her son's inventiveness, appears more often than his father. Like the teenaged characters, many of Dilton's relatives were simply created for one particular story and were never seen again. In one story in the 1970s, it was revealed that Mr. Doiley is actually Dilton's stepfather. None of Dilton's friends know this except for Chuck Clayton. Dilton, not feeling that he could deal with the shock after it being kept a secret all this time, almost ran away from home. However, after confiding in Chuck about his problem, Chuck made Dilton realize that Mr. Doiley cares about Dilton like a real father and that he would be heartbroken if Dilton ran away from home. Moose Mason is Dilton's closest friend. Despite their completely different personalities, their closeness stems from a mutual understanding of how well they complement each other. Moose considers Dilton his "little buddy" and will do anything to protect him. In current stories, this relationship is increasingly being portrayed as symbiotic, with Dilton standing up in favour of Moose—in one story, he even pounces on Reggie Mantle in defense of Moose, when the latter was insulting Moose. Dilton's other close friends include Archie Andrews, Betty Cooper and Jughead Jones. He has helped the gang many times with his various inventions or with his vast knowledge when they are faced with a problem. He is also willing to help his friends if they have difficulty in school. These are just some of the ways that Dilton manages to fit in with the gang. Series Starting May 1989 and ending May 1990, Dilton briefly became the star of his own magazine named Dilton's Strange Science. The magazine featured Dilton and Danni Malloy, a red-haired girl and amateur inventor, who shared his intellect and interests and served as his best friend and love interest. They shared a number of humorous science fiction stories, involving their inventions. Dilton features in a recurring one-page gag in the comics called "Open the Door, Dilton". There are three gags on a page, each covering two panels. On the first panel, Dilton approaches a door with a label saying what is inside. However, the words have a double entendre. On the second panel, looking into the room, he finds that the words do not refer to their usual meaning, which is what he was really looking for. For example: Behind a door marked "Hand Bags", someone is selling bags shaped like hands. Behind a door marked "General Trucking", army generals are dancing. Behind a door marked "Flea Collar", someone is putting tiny collars on fleas' necks. Dilton also appears in other spin-offs with the rest of the gang, serving as the "brains" of the group as he does in the main series. He was a member of Archie's racing team in "Archie R/C Racers", and featured in "Explorers of the Unknown" as team inventor Gizmo. He rarely appears in "Archie I" or "Archie 3000", but in the former, he makes prehistoric discoveries, while in the latter, he makes use of the highly advanced technology. In other media Television Animated Dilton appeared in The Archie Show, a 1968 cartoon series produced by Filmation voiced by Howard Morris. Dilton was promoted to one of the main characters in Archie's Weird Mysteries, voiced by Ben Beck. Appearing in a majority of the episodes, his scientific knowledge and inventions are often used to solve the titular mysteries, although sometimes they might be the cause of such problems. Unlike most incarnations, this version spends most of his time working in the school lab, as opposed to his own garage. Live-action Dilton was planned to appear in the 1990 TV film Archie: To Riverdale and Back Again, but his parts were written out due to a combination of time constraints and his actor getting sick during production. Dilton appears in Riverdale, a drama series for The CW portrayed by Daniel Yang in the pilot and by Major Curda onwards. References External links Comics characters introduced in 1950 Archie Comics characters Fictional inventors Fictional scientists Male characters in animation Male characters in comics Male characters in television Teenage characters in comics Teenage characters in television Characters created by Bob Montana	[ -0.16411899030208588, 0.26553910970687866, -0.5311883687973022, 0.05153375491499901, -0.05611088126897812, 0.22099970281124115, 0.5748258233070374, 0.2147359997034073, -0.03289808705449104, 0.1398809552192688, -0.5143879055976868, 0.253556489944458, -0.712431013584137, 0.2861565053462982, 0.19633153080940247, 0.25731945037841797, -0.2750179171562195, 0.7569271326065063, 0.15079709887504578, -0.22935985028743744, -0.2002802938222885, -0.4232119023799896, -0.3829072117805481, -0.4836711585521698, 0.271136999130249, 0.36996862292289734, -0.04004768282175064, -0.4516317546367645, 0.21379877626895905, 0.18024981021881104, 0.4828507602214813, 0.3512217402458191, 0.6898070573806763, 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207786	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moose%20Mason	Moose Mason	Marmaduke "Moose" Mason (often referred to as Big Moose) is a fictional character in the Archie Comics universe. He attends Riverdale High School where he is typically depicted as the best athlete but the poorest student. His difficulties with school were later attributed to dyslexia. Mason is a Russian-American. The live action version of Moose is portrayed by Cody Kearsley in Riverdale. Character's background Moose is blessed with great strength. In one sequence, he slides under a car and, from his supine position, lifts it off the ground. As a result, people often have high expectations of him regarding athletics. He has helped Riverdale High School win many matches in basketball, baseball, football, ice hockey, and various other sports, though he seems to have a preference for football. Moose was originally created to serve as the personification and stereotype of the jock—all brawn and no brains. In the Spanish version of the comic, Moose is called Gorilón ("Big Gorilla"). Moose's given real name is Marmaduke Mason. Other names given for Moose through the early years were Francis "Moose" McGonagal, Merton Matowski and Moose McGee in his very first appearance. His various tendencies may be inherited from one of his first ancestors to immigrate to the United States. In one story, a Russian named Laslo Kharandashikov befriends Archie Andrews's Scottish ancestor Andy Andrews when they meet on the same ship immigrating to the US. Laslo protects Andy from another man who wants to thrash Andy. Andy shows gratitude by finding Laslo's immigration money for him after Laslo nearly loses it. Laslo's difficulty in speaking English leads him to give his name as "Mason" to the immigration officials who let him into the country. In some stories one of the gang, usually Archie, asks for Moose's help with a problem that can only be solved by means of the big guy's strength or intimidating presence. In "Guardian Devil," Archie and Betty meet a runaway child whose hospitalized mother left the boy in her brother's care, but the uncle locked the boy in his room and had wild parties in the house—until Archie brought Moose over to straighten things out; after manhandling the uncle, the intimidating Moose sends the partygoers running with the simple exclamation "Scat!". In another story, Archie had tracked down two thugs who robbed the Chok'lit Shoppe, using a description given by Jughead, whom the cops had found in the store and initially accused. The thugs had just started beating Archie when Moose showed up; he picked the thugs up effortlessly and took them to the police station. While Moose is easily angered and will threaten to hurt those who upset him, he is very kind, loyal, and compassionate. He is always willing to help somebody in need, and he constantly protects his friends from bullies (often without using punches). He also cares for the well being of animals and small children. In one story, two young children vandalize a classroom in Riverdale High School but Moose takes the blame for them. Moose is friends with Archie Andrews who is his teammate in sports and very loyal to him, Jughead Jones, Dilton Doiley and Betty Cooper. Family Moose is the son of Jerry and Marilyn Mason. Like most characters, Moose has a sibling who is only featured a few times. Marsha Mason, Moose's freshman sister, is featured in Betty and Veronica Double Digest #20 in "Moose's Sister" (Parts 1 & 2). Marsha starts school at Riverdale High School, and Reggie Mantle began dating her. After two weeks of dating, Moose finds out and beats up Reggie for dating his sister. Marsha has been seen before as a cameo in comics. In the New Riverdale era, Moose has 5 siblings that appeared in Reggie and Me miniseries and Big Moose one shot comic. In one story, Moose's great-grandfather is revealed as Lazlo Kharandashikov. At Ellis Island, afraid of being turned away because of his long name, he gives it as Lazlo Mannson, after a passing ice cream wagon. The official changes this further to Leslie Mason. He departs Ellis Island for Chicago. In one story Moose is shown to have two large, shaggy hounds as pets. Relationships Moose is extremely possessive of Midge Klump, his steady girlfriend, and has time and again flattened anybody (Reggie Mantle is his most frequent victim) who seeks her affection. This possessiveness is at times taken to extremes. He's wary of any male even speaking to her, and has at times assaulted even his best friends, inflicting injuries that should, by all rights, be life-altering. There are times when Midge cannot stand Moose's jealousy and ends up scolding him, but every time he just wants to give Midge some space, she decides that she prefers the old Moose. He has threatened Archie before for various things, but since he knows that Archie is not anywhere near interested in Midge as a girlfriend, this allows Moose to be more tolerant of Archie. At one time, a computer matched Archie and Midge, to Moose's fury, but Archie and Midge both stated that they weren't interested in each other, except as friends, which allowed Moose to cool off. At one point, Archie outright asks permission to date Midge, and Moose declined the request, but it showed, that at least Archie has the courtesy to ask him, whereas Reggie will stoop to dating her on the sly-which often results in Moose pounding up Reggie-as a running gag. Archie was once able to use Moose's devotion and genuine concern for Midge to help him defeat a gang of robbers who were stealing office electronics from the school. The robbers managed to bind and gag Archie and Jughead and appeared to be getting away, until Archie spotted Moose playing handball on the school grounds through a window. Archie managed to slip a note out the window to Moose saying Midge was the one being held. An angry Moose quickly subdued the gang and freed Archie and Jughead. Rather than being angry over the deception, Moose showed relief that Midge was not in any danger and joked that stopping the crooks was more exciting than playing handball was. Moose has a mean streak in many comics, and spends a lot of time hiding behind park benches inhabited by his girlfriend, Midge. He does this so that whenever somebody comes along to talk to her, he can jump out and beat him up. Often, these are false alarms; someone just happens to be in the wrong place at the wrong time. Also, in earlier days, whenever Moose talked he would start off with a "D-uh", decades before it became a synonym for something so obvious that everyone should know it. When Moose says it, he is not being sarcastic. Intelligence It is often said that he consistently scores straight F's (which, at one point, he thought meant Fantastic). Moose's learning difficulties were later revealed to be dyslexia, which made it harder for him to understand what his teachers, such as Miss Grundy, were writing on the chalkboard. However, Moose's friends never want to see him fail and are always willing to help him study. Moose has done better at school when he needs to, and is able to understand complex subjects like algebra if people explain them to him enough—something which nearly drove Reggie Mantle crazy when he acted as Moose's math tutor. A theme used in many stories is based on the Riverdale High rules that failing students are not allowed to participate in extracurricular activities. At such times, Moose has to pass a makeup test, and proves to have difficulty studying. Coach Kleats and Moose's teammates depend on Moose to help them win most of their games. Moose can always depend on a friend to tutor him, and he almost always passes the makeup test. However, sometimes their efforts backfire, and they do not win the game even if he did pass. In today's Archie world, Moose isn't as dumb as he appears. He was offered a full football scholarship to a university. When he found out that they wanted to place him into "joke classes" so he would get good grades, he turned down the offer. When asked about it, he replied "I may be dumb, but there's no reason for me to stay dumb." He also briefly dropped out of high school, but returned upon realizing he would need a college education to get the jobs he would like to try. Despite his limited intelligence, Moose has a deeply sensitive side, which many people do not see. The first person he opens up to is Dilton Doiley. Moose has a deep admiration of Dilton because of his intelligence; Moose calls him his "little buddy" and will go to any length to help the diminutive genius. When Moose feels discouraged by other people's opinions of him, Dilton is the first to stick up for him. In one story, walking through the snow, the two discuss Moose's thoughts and feelings. At this point, Dilton finds that despite what people think of him, Moose has a poetic and philosophical view of certain things. Appearance Moose is a large fellow with a muscular build and blond hair. In early stories, he wears his hair in a crew cut. The more modern version of him sports a shaggier hairstyle Alternate versions In Afterlife with Archie, Moose attends the Halloween school dance when the zombie apocalypse starts. When a zombified Jughead attacks the school dance, he and the others escape to Veronica Lodge's home. They decide to go swimming to take their mind off of things. In private, Midge confides in Moose that she got a cut on her hand during the confusion at the school dance, although she doesn't know from whom. Moose tries to convince her to tell the others but she disinfects the wound and reassures him that she won't turn by saying it would've already happened by now. She curls up with Moose and tells him that she loves him. When next they are seen, Midge and Moose have both turned into zombies and attack their friends who are in the pool. Smithers activates the aluminum pool cover, trapping the two zombified lovers in there. In other media Television Animated Moose appeared in The Archie Show, a 1968 cartoon series produced by Filmation. He also appeared in the various spin-offs Archie's TV Funnies, The U.S. of Archie and The New Archie and Sabrina Hour produced in the same format. He was voiced by Howard Morris. Moose appeared in The New Archies, a 1987 re-imagining of Archie and the gang. Moose was portrayed as a pre-teen in junior high. He was voiced by Victor Erdos. Moose appeared in Archie's Weird Mysteries, voiced by Jerry Longe. Live-action Moose appears in the TV movie Archie: To Riverdale and Back Again, portrayed by Jeff Hochendoner. He and Midge are married with a son and a successful chiropractic business. Moose appears in Riverdale, a drama series for The CW, portrayed by Cody Kearsley. In this series, Moose is a bisexual teenager who has a sexual relationship with Kevin Keller and later dates Midge Klump who is supportive of Moose's sexuality. Cameos Moose has appeared briefly in one episode of The Simpsons, along with Archie, Reggie and Jughead, where they drive up to the Simpsons' house and dump Homer unceremoniously onto the front lawn. Moose then warns Homer to "Stay out of Riverdale!" Later, Homer, while reading an Archie comic, calls them all "stuck-up Riverdale punks." Moose shows up in Robot Chicken in an Archie spoof of Final Destination, where he fails to save Miss Grundy from a falling car and is tried for and put to death for her alleged murder. 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207787	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20prime%20ministers%20of%20Greece	List of prime ministers of Greece	This is a list of the heads of government of the modern Greek state, from its establishment during the Greek Revolution to the present day. Although various official and semi-official appellations were used during the early decades of independent statehood, the title of prime minister has been the formal designation of the office at least since 1843. On dates, Greece officially adopted the Gregorian calendar on 16 February 1923 (which became 1 March). All dates prior to that, unless specifically denoted, are Old Style. Color key First Hellenic Republic (1822–1833) The heads of government of the provisional Greek state during the Greek War of Independence, and the subsequent Hellenic State. Kingdom of Greece – Wittelsbach dynasty (1833–1862) The heads of government during the period of the Wittelsbach dynasty. Kingdom of Greece – Glücksburg dynasty (1863–1924) The heads of government during the first period of the Glücksburg dynasty. Second Hellenic Republic (1924–1935) Kingdom of Greece – Glücksburg dynasty restored (1935–1974) The heads of government during the second period of the Glücksburg dynasty, including the rival governments during the Second World War and the Civil War, as well as the 1967–74 military regime. Third Hellenic Republic (1974–present) Living former prime ministers See also List of heads of state of Greece Politics of Greece List of rulers of Greece Lists of office-holders References External links Official website of the Prime Minister of Greece List of Greek heads of state and government Greece, List of Prime Ministers of Prime Ministers of Greece Prime Ministers	[ 0.21466578543186188, 0.5094476938247681, -0.3215309977531433, 0.19787192344665527, -0.2336989790201187, 0.3024722635746002, 0.04147662594914436, 0.4084019064903259, -0.30532899498939514, -0.21454744040966034, -0.3365895450115204, 0.4527527689933777, -0.18520762026309967, 0.46915575861930847, -0.4197119474411011, -0.009363214485347271, 0.12489201128482819, 1.034934401512146, -0.2951389253139496, -0.4479960799217224, 0.15236884355545044, 0.7256274819374084, 0.19273589551448822, -0.367587149143219, -0.2464485615491867, 0.0614798404276371, 0.41492629051208496, -0.2917134463787079, -0.29839760065078735, 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207790	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%20numbering	Gödel numbering	In mathematical logic, a Gödel numbering is a function that assigns to each symbol and well-formed formula of some formal language a unique natural number, called its Gödel number. The concept was developed by Kurt Gödel for the proof of his incompleteness theorems. () A Gödel numbering can be interpreted as an encoding in which a number is assigned to each symbol of a mathematical notation, after which a sequence of natural numbers can then represent a sequence of symbols. These sequences of natural numbers can again be represented by single natural numbers, facilitating their manipulation in formal theories of arithmetic. Since the publishing of Gödel's paper in 1931, the term "Gödel numbering" or "Gödel code" has been used to refer to more general assignments of natural numbers to mathematical objects. Simplified overview Gödel noted that each statement within a system can be represented by a natural number (its Gödel number). The significance of this was that properties of a statement – such as its truth or falsehood – would be equivalent to determining whether its Gödel number had certain properties. The numbers involved might be very large indeed, but this is not a barrier; all that matters is that such numbers can be constructed. In simple terms, he devised a method by which every formula or statement that can be formulated in the system gets a unique number, in such a way that formulas and Gödel numbers can be mechanically converted back and forth. Clearly there are many ways this can be done. A simple example is the way in which English is stored as a sequence of numbers in computers using ASCII. Since ASCII codes are in the range 0 to 127, it is sufficient to pad them to 3 decimal digits and then to concatenate them: The word is represented by . The logical formula is represented by . Gödel's encoding Gödel used a system based on prime factorization. He first assigned a unique natural number to each basic symbol in the formal language of arithmetic with which he was dealing. To encode an entire formula, which is a sequence of symbols, Gödel used the following system. Given a sequence of positive integers, the Gödel encoding of the sequence is the product of the first n primes raised to their corresponding values in the sequence: According to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, any number (and, in particular, a number obtained in this way) can be uniquely factored into prime factors, so it is possible to recover the original sequence from its Gödel number (for any given number n of symbols to be encoded). Gödel specifically used this scheme at two levels: first, to encode sequences of symbols representing formulas, and second, to encode sequences of formulas representing proofs. This allowed him to show a correspondence between statements about natural numbers and statements about the provability of theorems about natural numbers, the key observation of the proof. () There are more sophisticated (and more concise) ways to construct a Gödel numbering for sequences. Example In the specific Gödel numbering used by Nagel and Newman, the Gödel number for the symbol "0" is 6 and the Gödel number for the symbol "=" is 5. Thus, in their system, the Gödel number of the formula "0 = 0" is 26 × 35 × 56 = 243,000,000. Lack of uniqueness Infinitely many different Gödel numberings are possible. For example, supposing there are K basic symbols, an alternative Gödel numbering could be constructed by invertibly mapping this set of symbols (through, say, an invertible function h) to the set of digits of a bijective base-K numeral system. A formula consisting of a string of n symbols would then be mapped to the number In other words, by placing the set of K basic symbols in some fixed order, such that the -th symbol corresponds uniquely to the -th digit of a bijective base-K numeral system, each formula may serve just as the very numeral of its own Gödel number. For example, the numbering described here has K=1000. Application to formal arithmetic Recursion One may use Gödel numbering to show how functions defined by course-of-values recursion are in fact primitive recursive functions. Expressing statements and proofs by numbers Once a Gödel numbering for a formal theory is established, each inference rule of the theory can be expressed as a function on the natural numbers. If f is the Gödel mapping and r is an inference rule, then there should be some arithmetical function gr of natural numbers such that if formula C is derived from formulas A and B through an inference rule r, i.e. then This is true for the numbering Gödel used, and for any other numbering where the encoded formula can be arithmetically recovered from its Gödel number. Thus, in a formal theory such as Peano arithmetic in which one can make statements about numbers and their arithmetical relationships to each other, one can use a Gödel numbering to indirectly make statements about the theory itself. This technique allowed Gödel to prove results about the consistency and completeness properties of formal systems. Generalizations In computability theory, the term "Gödel numbering" is used in settings more general than the one described above. It can refer to: Any assignment of the elements of a formal language to natural numbers in such a way that the numbers can be manipulated by an algorithm to simulate manipulation of elements of the formal language. More generally, an assignment of elements from a countable mathematical object, such as a countable group, to natural numbers to allow algorithmic manipulation of the mathematical object. Also, the term Gödel numbering is sometimes used when the assigned "numbers" are actually strings, which is necessary when considering models of computation such as Turing machines that manipulate strings rather than numbers. Gödel sets Gödel sets are sometimes used in set theory to encode formulas, and are similar to Gödel numbers, except that one uses sets rather than numbers to do the encoding. In simple cases when one uses a hereditarily finite set to encode formulas this is essentially equivalent to the use of Gödel numbers, but somewhat easier to define because the tree structure of formulas can be modeled by the tree structure of sets. Gödel sets can also be used to encode formulas in infinitary languages. See also Church encoding Description number Gödel numbering for sequences Gödel's incompleteness theorems Chaitin's incompleteness theorem References . Gödel's Proof by Ernest Nagel and James R. Newman (1959). This book provides a good introduction and summary of the proof, with a large section dedicated to Gödel's numbering. Further reading Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid, by Douglas Hofstadter. This book defines and uses an alternative Gödel numbering. I Am a Strange Loop by Douglas Hofstadter. This is a newer book by Hofstadter that includes the history of Gödel's numbering. Visualizing the Turing Tarpit by Jason Hemann and Eric Holk. Uses Gödel numbering to encode programs. 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207792	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riga%20District	Riga District	Riga District () was an administrative division of Latvia, located in Semigallia and Vidzeme regions, in the centre of the country. The district had the two cities of Riga and Jūrmala with the Gulf of Riga to the north. Beginning from the west and counterclockwise to the east, Riga District had Tukums, Jelgava, Bauska, Ogre, Cēsis and Limbaži former districts as neighbours. The area of the district was 3,058 km² with a population of 159,247. Riga District was one of the largest regions of Latvia, it was strategically important and also had some of the most developed infrastructure in Latvia. It was a cross-point of 10 major motorways and a junction of 6 important railroad lines. Districts were eliminated during the administrative-territorial reform in 2009. Nature The larger part of the former region lies in the sand-soil plains of Riga that are covered by pinewoods, low links, marshlands and level countryside that is typical for littoral lowlands. In the northern part, there are ridges of links and many lakes have formed in hollows between them. There are 132 lakes in the Riga Region and the biggest of them is the Babīte Lake, Lielais Baltezers, Mazais Baltezers, Dūņu Lake and Lilaste Lake. The former district is also crossed by three major rivers in Latvia – Daugava, Lielupe and Gauja Rivers. The north-eastern part of former Riga District is covered by the largest deciduous forests in Latvia. The Gauja National Park is part of these forests and has more than 900 kinds of plants, 48 species of mammals and 149 species of birds. History One of the first ancient settlements was situated in this district and dates from the 9th century BC. Across time localities of the Riga District had their resurgence and downturns caused by wars and unrest. This land been occupied by German crusaders and Swedish, Polish–Lithuanian, Saxonian, German and Russian armies. More than 300 monuments of cultural and historical significance that are on the list of cultural heritage protection tell us about the most important events of local history. The reasons for the rapid development of Riga District can be found in its geographic position, human and natural resources, and rich heritage of culture and history. For the same reasons this region is valuable for tourism, recreation and business travel. External links Photos of Riga and district References Riga District	[ -0.039818570017814636, -0.08601769804954529, -0.09355921298265457, 0.36549296975135803, -0.3879559636116028, 0.415571928024292, 0.4658578634262085, 0.032420456409454346, -0.29858261346817017, -0.2905673384666443, 0.11446128785610199, -0.3041716516017914, -0.7489399313926697, 0.6364012360572815, -0.7671743035316467, 0.8685782551765442, 0.24433813989162445, 0.038968201726675034, -0.027859700843691826, -0.32083868980407715, -0.012977330014109612, 0.26164767146110535, 0.5032477974891663, 0.4614354968070984, -0.25098544359207153, -0.018871549516916275, 0.7286384105682373, 0.9009989500045776, 0.09830044955015182, 0.4266778230667114, -0.27222147583961487, 0.7556053400039673, -0.3991250693798065, 0.35853153467178345, 0.0726153627038002, 0.28742992877960205, -0.18266677856445312, -0.5548439025878906, -0.3965882658958435, -0.8150902390480042, 0.4911130964756012, 0.24741867184638977, -0.7446917295455933, 0.23552489280700684, 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207793	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Archies	The Archies	The Archies is a fictional American band that features in media produced by, and related to, Archie Comics. They are best remembered for their appearance in the animated TV series The Archie Show. In the context of the series, the band was founded by vocalist/guitarist Archie Andrews, bassist Reggie Mantle, drummer Forsythe "Jughead" Jones, vocalist/keyboardist Veronica Lodge and vocalist/percussionist Betty Cooper. In the cartoons, Veronica is shown playing a large keyboard instrument styled after the X-66, a then-current top-of-the-line organ made by the Hammond Organ Company. The music featured in the series was recorded by session musicians, including Ron Dante on lead vocals and Toni Wine on duet and backing vocals. The recordings were released as a series of singles and albums that achieved worldwide chart success. Their most successful song, "Sugar, Sugar", became one of the biggest hits of the bubblegum pop genre that flourished from 1968 to 1973. In 2020, a new version of the band was introduced in the television series Riverdale, with Kevin Keller replacing Reggie Mantle. However, the band continues to appear with the five original members in the comic books published by Archie Comics. History The Archies first appeared in a comic book, Life with Archie #60 (April 1967). The fictional band was inspired by the success of the 1966 TV series The Monkees; in particular, Don Kirshner, who had managed the initially-fictional band, wanted a musical act that he could fully control: as The Monkees were fictional but still used the real musicians' names, the musicians themselves became increasingly irritated at being micromanaged, leading to a dispute that culminated in Kirshner being fired. To avoid a repeat of the Monkees fiasco while still allowing himself full control, Kirshner commissioned a band based on cartoon characters—if the session musicians tried to rebel or leave, they could be replaced seamlessly. The early stories copied the TV show's fast cuts and action: "there were pages that had no panel-to-panel continuity at all, just pure strings of nonsense, fantasy, fourth-wall breaking, and exasperated commentary from Betty and Veronica." The feature ended in issue #66. Fictional line-up The Archies play a variety of contemporary popular music, consistent with the era in which the comic is drawn. Every member sings vocals, with Jughead handling the bass voice on a few tracks. Though their singing voices were soft and appropriate for pop vocals, their speaking voices are much different. The roles the teens played in the fictional band were: Archie Andrews – guitars, vocals Reggie Mantle – bass Forsythe "Jughead" Jones – drums Betty Cooper – vocals, percussion Veronica Lodge – keyboards, vocals Kevin Keller – bass (Riverdale) One distribution mode for the Archies' music was embossing cardboard records directly onto the back of cereal boxes, which were cut out and played on a turntable (although their music was also available on standard issue LPs and 45s). Though the group no longer appears in animation, they are still frequently used in stories published by Archie Comics. In 2020, the group made its second live action appearance on Riverdale, with Kevin Keller replacing Reggie Mantle as the new bassist of the band. Production A set of studio musicians was assembled by Don Kirshner in 1968 to perform various songs. The most famous is "Sugar, Sugar", written by Jeff Barry and Andy Kim, which went to number one on the pop chart in 1969, sold over six million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. In the Billboard Hot 100, it was ranked as the No. 1 song of that year, the only time a fictional band has ever claimed Billboards annual Hot 100 top spot. Other Top 40 songs recorded by the Archies include "Who's Your Baby?" (U.S. No. 40), "Bang-Shang-A-Lang" (U.S. No. 22), and "Jingle Jangle" (U.S. No. 10). "Jingle Jangle" also sold over one million copies, garnering a second gold disc award. Male vocals for the fictional Archies group were provided by The Cuff Links' lead singer Ron Dante and female duet vocals were provided by Toni Wine. Wine, who was only paid for the recording session and quit the group when the song became a huge hit, was succeeded in 1970 by Donna Marie, who in turn was replaced on the final recordings by Merle Miller. The only Archies song not to feature Ron Dante on lead was 1971's "Love Is Living In You", sung by Bob Levine (co-author of the song) and produced by Ritchie Adams. The last single, released 1972, was "Strangers in the Morning"; its B-side song was "Plum Crazy". Jeff Barry, Andy Kim, Ellie Greenwich, Susan Morse, Ritchie Adams, Maeretha Stewart, Bobby Bloom and Lesley Miller, contributed background vocals at various times, with Barry contributing his trademark bass voice (portrayed as being sung by Jughead in the cartoon) on cuts such as "Jingle Jangle", "Rock 'n' Roll Music", "A Summer Prayer For Peace" (which hit number one in South Africa and Scandinavia in 1971), and "You Little Angel, You". Musicians on Archies' records included guitarists Hugh McCracken and Dave Appell, bassists Chuck Rainey and Joey Macho, keyboard player Ron Frangipane, and drummers Buddy Saltzman and Gary Chester. The Archies' records were initially released on the Calendar Records label, but the name was shortly thereafter changed to Kirshner Records. The sound engineer was Fred Weinberg, who was Jeff Barry's and Andy Kim's favorite, and who also recorded Barry's other hits "Be My Baby", "Baby, I Love You", and Kim's "Rock Me Gently". Fred Weinberg is a composer and producer in his own right. However, the music for The U.S. of Archie which aired in 1974, was produced by Jackie Mills, a Hollywood producer, who also produced Bobby Sherman and the Brady Kids. The vocalist for these shows was Tom McKenzie, who also sang on some Groovie Goolies segments, and was a regular member of the popular singing group, Doodletown Pipers. Legendary animator Don Bluth worked on the show, providing layouts for the series. Some of the group songs have appeared on episodes of The CW televisions series Riverdale. The group made its debut in Riverdale, in the musical episode "Chapter Seventy-Four: Wicked Little Town", for only the second time in an live action adaptation after the television film Archie: To Riverdale and Back Again in 1990. It includes KJ Apa as Archie, Cole Sprouse as Jughead, Lili Reinhart as Betty, Camila Mendes as Veronica and Casey Cott as Kevin Keller. For the first time, Kevin Keller is part of the group, replacing Reggie Mantle (played by Charles Melton) as the bassist. The song "Midnight Radio" is appeared in the series' musical episode soundtrack released by WaterTower Music, on April 15, 2020. Netflix announced the Indian feature film adaptation of The Archies. The film will be produced by Tiger Baby Films and Graphic India with Zoya Akhtar as director. Discography The Archies (1968) Everything's Archie (1969) Jingle Jangle (1969) Sunshine (1970) This Is Love (1971) The Archies Christmas Album (2008) References External links The Archies Ron Dante Online Animated musical groups Archie Comics characters Fictional musical groups Musical groups established in 1968 Musical groups disestablished in 1973 Musical groups reestablished in 2008 Musical groups reestablished in 2020 Bubblegum pop groups	[ 0.3269405961036682, 0.16588576138019562, -0.9458734393119812, -0.12517942488193512, 0.18902526795864105, -0.10109999775886536, 0.46792784333229065, 0.3180212080478668, -0.6361382603645325, -0.01356172002851963, -0.40059366822242737, 0.6965072751045227, -0.52382892370224, 0.035291269421577454, -0.3341566026210785, 0.3910803198814392, -0.22134801745414734, 0.36452630162239075, -0.037852488458156586, -0.29952701926231384, -0.6641855835914612, 0.030501242727041245, 0.2453513741493225, -0.29944124817848206, -0.16158005595207214, 0.22622719407081604, 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207795	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkady%20and%20Boris%20Strugatsky	Arkady and Boris Strugatsky	The brothers Arkady Natanovich Strugatsky (; 28 August 1925 – 12 October 1991) and Boris Natanovich Strugatsky (; 14 April 1933 – 19 November 2012) were Soviet-Russian science-fiction authors who collaborated through most of their careers. Life and work The Strugatsky brothers ( or simply ) were born to Natan Strugatsky, an art critic, and his wife, a teacher. Their father was Jewish and their mother was Russian Orthodox. Their early work was influenced by Ivan Yefremov and Stanisław Lem. Later they went on to develop their own, unique style of science fiction writing that emerged from the period of Soviet rationalism in Soviet literature and evolved into novels interpreted as works of social criticism. Their best-known novel, Piknik na obochine, has been translated into English as Roadside Picnic. Andrei Tarkovsky adapted the novel for the screen as Stalker (1979). Algis Budrys compared their "An Emergency Case" and Arkady's "Wanderers and Travellers" to the work of Eando Binder. Several other of their fiction works were translated into English, German, French, and Italian, but did not receive the same magnitude of critical acclaim as that granted by their Russian audiences. The Strugatsky brothers, however, were and still are popular in many countries, including Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, the former republics of Yugoslavia, and Germany, where most of their works were available in both East and West Germany. They are well-known Russian science fiction writers with a well-developed fan base. The Strugatsky brothers were Guests of Honour at Conspiracy '87, the 1987 World Science Fiction Convention, held in Brighton, England. In 1991, Text Publishers brought out the collected works by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky. Arkady Arkady Strugatsky was born 25 August 1925 in Batumi; the family later moved to Leningrad. In January 1942, Arkady and his father were evacuated from the Siege of Leningrad, but Arkady was the only survivor in his train car; his father died upon reaching Vologda. Arkady was drafted into the Soviet army in 1943. He trained first at the artillery school in Aktyubinsk and later at the Military Institute of Foreign Languages in Moscow, from which he graduated in 1949 as an interpreter of English and Japanese. He worked as a teacher and interpreter for the military until 1955. In 1955, he began working as an editor and writer. In 1958, he began collaborating with his brother Boris, a collaboration that lasted until Arkady's death on 12 October 1991. Arkady Strugatsky became a member of the Union of Soviet Writers in 1964. In addition to his own writing, he translated Japanese short stories and novels, as well as some English works with his brother. Boris Born 14 April 1933, Boris Strugatsky remained in Leningrad with his mother during the siege of the city during World War II. He graduated from high school in 1950 and applied to the physics department at Leningrad State University, but studied astronomy instead. After graduating in 1955, he worked as an astronomer and computer engineer at the Pulkovo Observatory. In 1960 he participated in a geodetic and astronomical expedition in the Caucasus. Boris Strugatsky became a member of the writers' union of the USSR in 1964. In 1966, he became a full-time writer. From 1972 he acted as the head of the Leningrad seminar of young speculative fiction writers, which subsequently became known as the "Boris Strugatsky Seminar". He established the "Bronze Snail" literary prize. He was an agnostic. After the death of his brother, he published two more novels under a pseudonym. Boris Strugatsky died in Saint Petersburg on 19 November 2012. Noon Universe Several of the Strugatsky brothers' books take place in the World of Noon, also known unofficially as the Wanderers Universe. The name is derived from the title of one of their texts, Noon: 22nd Century. The main characteristics of the Noon Universe are: a very high level of social, scientific, and technological development; creativity of the general population; and the very significant level of societal maturity compared to the modern world. For instance, this world knows no monetary stimulation (indeed, money does not exist), and every person is engaged in a profession that interests him or her. The Earth of the Noon Universe is governed by a global meritocratic council composed of the world's leading scientists and philosophers. That Noon World has been clearly named as "World of Communism" in their novels, which was handy for publishing their novels in the USSR, where the Communist Party decided whether a book would be printed and approved for mass circulation. The Noon Universe was described by the authors as the world in which they would like to live and work. It became highly influential for at least a generation of Soviet people, e.g., a person could quote the Strugatsky books and be sure of being understood. At first the authors thought the Noon Universe would become reality "by itself", but then they realized that the only way to achieve it was by inventing the High Theory of Upbringing, making the upbringing of each person a unique deed. One of the important story arcs of those books addresses how the advanced human civilization covertly steers the development of those considered less advanced. Agents of humans are known as Progressors. At the same time, some humans suspect that a very advanced spacefaring race called Wanderers exists and is "progressing" humanity itself. Works Novels {\| class="sortable wikitable" \|- ! style="width:35%;"\|English title ! style="width:28%;"\|Russian title ! style="width:13%;"\|Published in Russian ! style="width:11%;"\|Published in English ! style="width:14%;"\|Type of work \|- \| From Beyond \| Извне \| 1958 \| 1982 \| novella \|- \| The Land of Crimson Clouds \| Страна багровых туч \| 1959 \| N/A \| novel \|- \| The Way to Amalthea (also known as Destination: Amaltheia) \| Путь на Амальтею \| 1960 \| 1963 \| novella \|- \| Noon: 22nd Century \| Полдень, XXII век \| 1962 \| 1978 \| novel / collection of linked stories \|- \| Space Apprentice (also known as Probationers, includes "The Gigantic Fluctuation" short story) \| Стажеры \| 1962 \| 1981 \| novel \|- \| Escape Attempt \| Попытка к бегству \| 1962 \| 1982 \| novella \|- \| Far Rainbow \| Далёкая Радуга \| 1963 \| 1979 \| novella \|- \| Hard to Be a God \| Трудно быть богом \| 1964 \| 1973; 2014 \| novel \|- \| Monday Begins on Saturday \| Понедельник начинается в субботу \| 1965 \| 1977; 2017 \| novel \|- \| The Final Circle of Paradise \|\| Хищные вещи века \| 1965 \| 1976 \| novel \|- \| Disquiet (initial variant of Snail on the Slope) \| Беспокойство \| 1990 (written 1965) \| N/A \| novella \|- \| Snail on the Slope \| Улитка на склоне \| 1966–68 (written 1965) \| 1980; 2018 \| novel \|- \| Ugly Swans (re-translated in English in 2020 and published as a nested novel with Lame Fate) \| Гадкие лебеди (also known as Время дождя) \| 1972 (written 1966–67) \| 1972; 2020 \| novel; nested novel \|- \| The Second Invasion from Mars (also known as The Second Martian Invasion) \| Второе нашествие марсиан \| 1967 \| 1970 \| novella \|- \| Tale of the Troika \| Сказка о Тройке \| 1968 \| 1977 \| novella \|- \| Prisoners of Power (published in English as The Inhabited Island) \| Обитаемый остров \| 1969 \| 1977; 2020 \| novel \|- \| Dead Mountaineer's Hotel (also known as Inspector Glebsky's Puzzle) \| Отель «У Погибшего Альпиниста» \| 1970 \| 1982, 2015 \| novel \|- \| Space Mowgli \| Малыш \| 1971 \| 1982 \| novel \|- \| Roadside Picnic \| Пикник на обочине \| 1972 \| 1977; 2012 \| novel \|- \| The Kid from Hell \| Парень из преисподней \| 1974 \| 1982 \| novella \|- \| One Billion Years to the End of the World (originally published in English under the title Definitely Maybe') \| За миллиард лет до конца света\| 1977 \| 1978; 2014; 2020 \| novella \|- \| Tale of Friendship and Non-friendship\| Повесть о дружбе и недружбе\| 1980 \| 1988 \| novelette \|- \| Beetle in the Anthill\| Жук в муравейнике\| 1980 \| 1980 \| novel \|- \| Lame Fate (translated into English in 2020 and published as a nested novel with Ugly Swans) \| Хромая судьба\| 1986 \| 2020 \| novel; nested novel \|- \| The Time Wanderers\| Волны гасят ветер\| 1986 \| 1987 \| novel \|- \| Overburdened with Evil\| Отягощённые злом\| 1988 \| N/A \| novel \|- \| The Doomed City\| Град обреченный\| 1988–89 (written 1970–75)\| 2016 \| novel \|- \|} Short stories Short story collections Short stories originally published in Six Matches: Short stories originally published as part of the novel Noon: 22nd Century: Plays Solo works The following titles were published by Arkady Strugatsky under the pseudonym S. Yaroslavtsev (C. Ярославцев): The following titles were published by Boris Strugatsky under the pseudonym S. Vititsky (С. Витицкий): Adaptations The Strugatsky's books were often adapted for screen, stage, comics, and video games. Some of the adaptations are very loose, like Tarkovsky's Stalker, some are not adaptations but rather new scripts written by the Brothers themselves, like The Sorcerers. Stalker (1979) by Andrey Tarkovsky, based on the Strugatsky's script, inspired by The Roadside Picnic Dead Mountaineer's Hotel (1979) by Grigori Kromanov, based on the novel of the same name The Sorcerers (1982), by Konstantin Bromberg, based on the Strugatsky's script inspired by Monday Begins on Saturday Days of Eclipse (1988) by Alexander Sokurov, inspired by One billion years before the end of the world Hard to be a God (1989) by Peter Fleischmann, based on the novel of the same name Искушение Б. (Iskushenie B.) (1991) by Arkadi Sirenko, based on the play Five Spoons of Elixir (ru) Nesmluvená setkání (1995 Czech TV movie, English: Unexpected Encounters) by Irena Pavlásková, based on the novel Space Mowgli The Ugly Swans (2006) by Konstantin Lopushansky, based on the novel of the same name Обитаемый остров (2008) is a two-part Russian science fiction film directed by Fyodor Bondarchuk, based on the 1969 novel published in English as Prisoners of Power Hard to be a God (2013) by Alexei German, based on the novel of the same name Legacy Several writers have to a varying degree paid their tribute to the works of Strugatsky brothers: Sergey Lukyanenko in his duology The Stars Are Cold Toys has the main character visit a world that is in many aspects strikingly similar to Earth from the Noon Universe but in truth is revealed to be fundamentally different and oppressive. On his website, Lukyanenko commented that he disagreed with the Strugatskys' views on education and upbringing and conceived his duology partly as a polemic criticism of it. The plot of Kir Bulychov's novella from the Alisa Selezneva series, Vacations in Space, or the Planet Five-Four, is based on finding a secret base of mysterious "Wanderers" (Странники), an extinct highly advanced civilization. He also depicted his own Zone in the story Save Galya! In late 1990s, a three-volume collection of fiction by notable contemporary Russian science fiction authors, titled The Time of the Apprentices (Время учеников), was published with the endorsement of Boris Strugatsky. Each piece in the collection was a sequel to one of the Strugatskys' books. The asteroid 3054 Strugatskia, discovered by Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh in 1977, was named after the Strugatsky brothers. The fictional moon Pandora depicted in the movie Avatar by James Cameron contains some similarities with the Noon Universe series, where a planet is also called Pandora. Both are filled with jungle, where weird animals and a humanoid race live. Also, the girlfriend of the biologist Sidorov in the Strugatskys' novel is called "Nava" (as compared with "Na'vi" as the name of the humanoid race in the film). However, Boris Strugatsky rejected the idea that his works had been plagiarized, despite the similarities. In 2014 a square in Saint Petersburg was named after the Strugatsky brothers. A memorial museum is being opened in the same city. The brothers are credited with saving humanity from mysterious "visitors" through technology retrieved from a "visitation zone" in the 2016 game The Final Station. The Polish video game developer Acid Wizard Studio cited the Strugatskys as an influence on their 2017 game Darkwood. The designers of the 2019 video game Disco Elysium'' cited the Strugatskys' writing as an influence on the game's design and writing. The video game series S.T.A.L.K.E.R. owes much of its background to the mix of the Strugatsky's writing and the Chernobyl disasters' zone of exclusion. See also List of heroic fictional scientists Planets in science fiction References External links Includes the complete works in Russian and selected translations Arkady and Boris Strugatsky. The Complete Works Stalkers of Russian Science Fiction – the Strugatsky Brothers Boris Strugatsky on Avatar at BVI Strugatsky Brothers Universe Russian fan site Boris Strugatsky on Avatar – English translation by a fan Brothers Strugatsky at Russian Sci-Fi (rusf.ru) – includes free library, bibliography of works in translation, much more S. 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207797	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck%20Clayton	Chuck Clayton	Charles Clayton is a teenage fictional character published by Archie Comics. Chuck lives in the fictional town of Riverdale, and is the friend of Archie Andrews, Betty Cooper, Jughead Jones, and other students at Riverdale High School. Chuck first appeared in Life With Archie #110 in 1971. Chuck was created as a means of adding diversity to the cast of Archie characters, although Valerie (of Josie and the Pussycats) predates him by several years. Jordan Calloway portrayed the character on Riverdale. History Chuck is African American and the son of Floyd Clayton, who works at Riverdale High School as the school's coach, and Alice Clayton, a housewife. In earlier stories, including his recurring appearances in Archie at Riverdale High, Chuck was usually shown as one of Riverdale High's top athletes. Chuck was also depicted as a close friend of Archie, often spending time together or engaging in various adventures. By the early 1990s, Chuck's interest in cartooning was added to round out his character, and also serves to promote the comics he appears in. In modern stories, Chuck is depicted primarily as a cartoonist, whose greatest ambition is to someday become a professional comic book and comic strip illustrator. Despite the long hours he spends practicing his craft, he attempts to be a well-rounded individual by engaging in other pursuits; such as participating in sports, studying his bloodlines, and spending time with his girlfriend, Nancy Woods. While Chuck is a minor character in most stories, one story showed him as a major character where he competed against Veronica on a game show which was a clear takeoff of Win, Lose or Draw. Chuck recruits two men who own the local comic book store to be on his team, while Veronica has two professional artists on hers. Veronica loses when her drawings are not deduced while Chuck's are deciphered. (It is then revealed that Veronica unknowingly hired abstract artists). Chuck spends his winnings at the store owned by his two teammates; buying as many comic books in order to further research professional illustrators. Relationships Chuck's steady girlfriend is Nancy Woods, one of the series' few steady couples. While Nancy shares some of Chuck's interests in art, she often berates him for sometimes focusing more on his art than their relationship. In other media Animation Chuck appeared in 1974's animated Archie series The U.S. of Archie and 1977's The New Archie and Sabrina Hour voiced by Dal McKennon. Chuck also was shown in an Archie parody in an episode of Robot Chicken, where he was derisively called a "token" African-American character. Chuck is a minor character in Archie's Weird Mysteries; he is often seen alongside Nancy Woods, although their exact relationship is unclear. Both of them only spoke in the episode, "Driven to Distraction", before being relegated to silent cameos throughout the rest of the series. Live action Chuck appears in the TV series Riverdale and is portrayed by Jordan Calloway. He takes on a more antagonistic role as a womanizer rather than the considerate and sweet-natured personality of his previous portrayals. Late in the second season, he expressed a desire to reform and demonstrated his artistic side by joining the school play, where his professional, hard-working, and above all, respectful demeanor gained the forgiveness of the other students, and brought him closer to his traditional portrayal. Like his counterpart in the comics, Chuck's ambition is to become an artist and illustrate children's books. References Fictional African-American people Fictional artists Fictional cartoonists Comics characters introduced in 1971 Fictional players of American football Fictional basketball players Archie Comics characters Male characters in animation Male characters in comics Male characters in television Teenage characters in comics Teenage characters in television	[ 0.04904923960566521, 0.7362529039382935, -0.5177419185638428, 0.18331679701805115, 0.27224040031433105, 0.24311281740665436, 0.3532458543777466, 0.5009175539016724, -0.01522704679518938, 0.11778698861598969, -0.13439828157424927, 0.06580037623643875, -0.3955794870853424, 0.2935256063938141, 0.31892073154449463, 0.29187679290771484, -0.018130699172616005, 0.625890851020813, -0.13068342208862305, -0.3516567647457123, -0.3805021643638611, -0.8111651539802551, 0.28184330463409424, -0.6176724433898926, 0.4858725666999817, 0.016235247254371643, 0.505558967590332, -0.0029502948746085167, 0.2176203429698944, -0.03896584361791611, 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207798	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ropa%C5%BEi	Ropaži	Ropaži () is a village in Latvia, the administrative centre of Ropaži Municipality. The village located approximately 36 km from the capital Riga. References Ropaži Municipality Towns and villages in Latvia Kreis Riga	[ 0.10114685446023941, 0.23223727941513062, -0.6691925525665283, -0.1439918726682663, 0.17852471768856049, 0.8943947553634644, 0.6497185230255127, -0.0885058343410492, -0.2609099745750427, -0.5534950494766235, -0.01470228936523199, -0.24668776988983154, -0.9921171069145203, 0.27026501297950745, -0.7239169478416443, 0.5895033478736877, -0.06422683596611023, 0.03197765350341797, 0.6302343010902405, -0.599758505821228, 0.20336541533470154, 0.028874380514025688, 0.14636947214603424, 0.994358479976654, -0.3088293671607971, 0.06725078076124191, 0.22645018994808197, 0.9241040945053101, 0.5819221138954163, 0.27295032143592834, -0.6878191232681274, 1.1258643865585327, 0.15127845108509064, -0.0260979812592268, 0.6025056838989258, 0.5515981316566467, 0.2761436998844147, -0.24469426274299622, 0.10039913654327393, -0.3595922887325287, 0.43835729360580444, 0.2534271478652954, -0.7098718881607056, -0.0969337671995163, 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207802	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archy%20and%20Mehitabel	Archy and Mehitabel	Archy and Mehitabel (styled as archy and mehitabel) are the names of two fictional characters created in 1916, by Don Marquis, a columnist for The Evening Sun newspaper in New York City. Archy, a cockroach, and Mehitabel, an alley cat, appeared in hundreds of humorous verses and short stories in Marquis’ daily column, "The Sun Dial". Their exploits were first collected in the 1927 book archy and mehitabel, which remains in print today, and in two later volumes, archys life of mehitabel (1933) and archy does his part (1935). Many editions are recognized by their iconic illustrations by George Herriman, the creator of Krazy Kat. History Marquis introduced Archy into his daily newspaper column at New York's Evening Sun. Archy — whose name was always written in lower case in the book titles, but was upper case when Marquis would write about him in narrative form — was a cockroach who had been a free verse poet in a previous life, and took to writing stories and poems on an old typewriter at the newspaper office when everyone in the building had left. Archy would climb up onto the typewriter and hurl himself at the keys, laboriously typing out stories of the daily challenges and travails of a cockroach. Archy's best friend was Mehitabel, an alley cat. The two of them shared a series of day-to-day adventures that made satiric commentary on daily life in the city during the 1910s and 1920s. Because he was a cockroach, Archy was unable to operate the shift key on the typewriter (he jumped on each key to type; since using shift requires two keys to be pressed simultaneously, he physically could not use capitals), and so all of his verse was written without capitalization or punctuation. (Writing in his own persona, though, Marquis always used correct capitalization and punctuation. As E. B. White wrote in his introduction to The Lives and Times of Archy and Mehitabel, it would be incorrect to conclude that, "because Don Marquis's cockroach was incapable of operating the shift key of a typewriter, nobody else could operate it.") There was at least one point in which Archy happened to jump onto the shift lock key — a chapter titled "CAPITALS AT LAST". Pete the Pup is another of Marquis' characters. Pete is a Boston Terrier with a passion for life and devotion to his "master". Like Marquis' other animal characters, Pete types his poetry at night on the author's typewriter (seldom capitalizing or using punctuation). Unlike many of the other characters' contributions, Pete writes about his uncomplicated life without strong political or social references. Publications Collections of the "Archy" stories have been published and re-printed numerous times over the years, usually with all-lowercase titles. Titles in the series include: archy and mehitabel (1927) archy's life of mehitabel (1933) archy does his part (1935) the lives and times of archy and mehitabel (1940) (introduction by E. B. White) Archyology (1996) Archyology II (1998) The Annotated Archy and Mehitabel (2006) Archyology and Archyology II were compiled and published for the first time in the late 1990s. The Annotated Archy and Mehitabel was released in July 2006, edited by Michael Sims. Adaptations in other media A musical version of the Archy and Mehitabel materials was recorded July 7, 1953, and April 9, 1954, entitled archy and mehitabel with Carol Channing as Mehitabel and Eddie Bracken as Archy, and narrated by David Wayne, with Percival Dove as Bill, the fierce tomcat. It was followed by echoes of archy, narrated by David Wayne, recorded August 31, 1954. The credits read: Words - Joe Darion, Music - George Kleinsinger. It was originally released as Columbia Masterworks ML 4963 in 1955, and was re-released on CD, combined with the unrelated work Carnival of the Animals, featuring Noël Coward reading the Ogden Nash poems, as part of the Columbia Masterworks series. The music and lyrics from the album were the basis of a short-lived 1957 loud and brassy Broadway musical titled Shinbone Alley, starring Eddie Bracken as Archy and Eartha Kitt as Mehitabel. It was based on the columns and on the Columbia Masterworks album, but with additional music by Kleinsinger and dialog by Mel Brooks. On May 16, 1960, an abridged version of the musical was broadcast under the original title archy & mehitabel as part of the syndicated TV anthology series Play of the Week presented by David Susskind. The cast included Bracken, Tammy Grimes, and Jules Munshin. Some of the songs from the album were used in 1971 in an animated film, also called Shinbone Alley. Directed by John Wilson, produced by Preston M. Fleet (the creator of Fotomat and Omnimax), written by Mel Brooks, and starring Eddie Bracken and Carol Channing. It was not a commercial success. Actor Jeff Culbert toured a solo show to fringe festivals across North America during 2009 to 2011. The show, archy and mehitabel, was based on Archy's writings and involved Culbert playing the characters of Archy and Mehitabel. American actor, singer, and clown Gale McNeeley traveled the United States in 2016 with his Archy and Mehitabel 100th Anniversary Tour. McNeeley's show featured in the introduction to editor Michael Sim's The Annotated Archy and Mehitabel by Penguin Classics. Lisa Dunseth, Program Manager of Book Arts & Special Collections at San Francisco's Main Library said of McNeeley, "His 100th Anniversary Tour is the perfect opportunity to become a fan, if you aren't already, and enjoy the still-funny and sometimes wicked humor of Don Marquis's famous cockroach and infamous cat." Composer Gabriel Lubell wrote a work for baritone, clarinet, cello, and piano called Archy Speaks (2009). The work sets four of the original poems to music. In popular culture In the 3 August 2007 issue of the academic journal Science, an editorial was run claiming to be written by Mehitabel commenting on a recent paper about the domestication of cats. American singer-songwriter Jolie Holland included a song titled “Mehitabel’s Blues” on her 2006 album Springtime Can Kill You. Montreal indie rock band Parlovr features a song titled "Archy and Mehitabel" on its eponymous 2008 album. Archy and Mehitabel make an appearance of sorts in the Preston & Child novel Verses for the Dead featuring Agent Pendergast, released 31 December 2018. In the fantasy TV series Once Upon a Time, Storybrooke character Jiminy Cricket is the town psychologist (as in the conscience), and his name is Archie Hopper, both a tribute to this Archy and that he's a cricket. In the 2004 novel "The Grim Grotto" by Lemony Snicket, Archy and Mehitabel are mentioned as parts of a set of submarines named after writers and literary characters. In Dafydd ad Hugh and Brad Linaweaver's 1995 novelization of the video game Doom, the main character Fly quoted Mehitabel as having said to Archie "wotthehell, wotthehell". The American poet Marge Piercy refers to the characters in her poem "Mehitabel & me". References External links Archy and Mehitabel at DonMarquis.com archy and mehitabel at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on April 4, 2012. 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207803	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grevelingen	Grevelingen	Grevelingen or Grevelingenmeer (Lake Grevelingen) is a closed off part of the Rhine-Meuse estuary on the border of the Dutch provinces of South Holland and Zeeland. It is situated between the islands of Goeree-Overflakkee (South Holland) and Schouwen-Duiveland (Zeeland) and was closed off as part of the Delta Works, a huge engineering project designed to protect the southwestern part of the Netherlands from flooding. The Brouwersdam, a dike connecting the two islands on the west, closes off the Grevelingen from the North Sea. The Grevelingendam, the dike on the east, blocks the inflow of Rhine and Meuse water. Since its closure in 1971 the saltwater of the Grevelingen slowly started to become brackish due to rainwater and excess polderwater from the islands, but the Dutch changed their mind and decided that they wanted to preserve the saline biotope. Therefore, in 1978 a sluice was created under the Brouwersdam, partially restoring and maintaining the saline character of the Grevelingen. Nevertheless, the water body life remains affected by the changes in water salinity, in the transport of sediments, and by a deficit in oxygen in deep water, caused by the levee since 1971. Benthic life (mussels, oysters and many fixed organisms) is rich in the shallow waters in the photic zone, but the deep sediments are less conducive to marine life, and fishes in open water are rarely observed during diving. The Brouwerssluis is open all year round except during storm floods. Brouwerssluis is the home of a seal colony subsisting on fishes transported by the seawater stream entering the water body during high tide. Connexxion bus service 104 crosses the Brouwersdam, bus service 133 (and others) the Grevelingendam. The Grevelingenmeer is the largest saltwater water body in Europe and is a popular place for holidays and water sports (sailing, surfing, diving). Trivia Professional freestyle windsurfer Steven Van Broeckhoven refers to the Grevelingenmeer as his homespot. References External links Map of area Lakes of the Netherlands Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta Landforms of South Holland Landforms of Zeeland Ramsar sites in the Netherlands Natura 2000 in the Netherlands Goeree-Overflakkee Schouwen-Duiveland	[ -0.6615833044052124, -0.24043035507202148, 1.095132827758789, -0.38656848669052124, 0.2795794904232025, 0.5402103066444397, 0.24174553155899048, -0.02274816669523716, -0.4916183352470398, -0.32500988245010376, 0.41243043541908264, 0.029349908232688904, 0.4908304512500763, 0.30846402049064636, -0.3007713556289673, 0.4613763391971588, 0.5985291600227356, 0.018608901649713516, 0.41878485679626465, -0.5785389542579651, -0.20232939720153809, -0.14483508467674255, 0.1682557314634323, 0.5086183547973633, 0.16295599937438965, -0.30708545446395874, 0.548026442527771, 0.49095064401626587, 0.7237616777420044, 0.21938802301883698, 0.20363157987594604, 0.21168795228004456, -0.24309583008289337, -0.2547977566719055, 0.06830190122127533, 0.16176556050777435, 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207804	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Charles%20Wilson	Robert Charles Wilson	Robert Charles Wilson (born December 15, 1953) is an American-Canadian science fiction author. Career Wilson was born in the United States in California, but grew up near Toronto, Ontario. Apart from another short period in the early 1970s spent in Whittier, California, he has lived most of his life in Canada, and in 2007 he became a Canadian citizen. He resided for a while in Nanaimo, British Columbia, and briefly in Vancouver. Currently he lives with his wife Sharry in Concord, a neighbourhood of Vaughan, Ontario located north of Toronto. He has two sons, Paul and Devon. His work has won the Hugo Award for Best Novel (for Spin), the John W. Campbell Memorial Award (for the novel The Chronoliths), the Theodore Sturgeon Memorial Award (for the novelette "The Cartesian Theater"), three Prix Aurora Awards (for the novels Blind Lake and Darwinia, and the short work "The Perseids"), and the Philip K. Dick Award (for the novel Mysterium). Julian Comstock: A Story of 22nd-Century America was a 2010 Hugo Award nominee in the Best Novel category. In addition to the novels listed below, he is the author of the short-story collection The Perseids and Other Stories, set in Toronto. His first publication appeared in the February 1975 issue of Analog Science Fiction, under the name Bob Chuck Wilson. Author Stephen King has called Wilson "probably the finest science-fiction author now writing". Wilson's literary agent is Shawna McCarthy, and his most recent books (including Blind Lake, Spin, and Axis) have been edited by Teresa Nielsen Hayden of Tor Books. Spin is the first book of a trilogy that continues in Axis and finishes with Vortex. Spin won the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 2006. His novella Julian: A Christmas Story (2006) was published by PS Publishing in 2007 and was a finalist for the Hugo Award. A novel-length expansion, Julian Comstock: A Story of 22nd-Century America was published by Tor in 2009. Wilson's latest novel, Last Year, was published December 6, 2016. Bibliography Fiction A Hidden Place (1986) Nominated for the Philip K. Dick Award for Best novel, 1986 Memory Wire (1987) Gypsies (1988) The Divide (1990) A Bridge of Years (1991) Nominated for the Philip K. Dick Award for Best novel, 1991. The Harvest (1992) Mysterium (1994) Winner of the Philip K. Dick Award for Best novel, 1994. Darwinia (1998) Nominated for the Hugo and Locus SF Awards for Best novel, 1999. Divided by Infinity (1998) Bios (1999) The Chronoliths (2001) Winner of the Campbell Award, nominated for the Hugo and Locus SF Awards for Best novel, 2001. Blind Lake (2003) Nominated for the Hugo Award for Best novel, 2004. Spin series Spin (2005) Winner of the Hugo Award for Best Novel, Nominated for Campbell and Locus SF Awards, 2006. On 2006-10-12 won the Geffen Award as the Best Translated SF Novel in Israel for 2006 In 2007 won the Kurd-Laßwitz-Preis as the Best Foreign Fiction of the year for 2006, In 2009 won the Seiun Award as the Best Foreign Language Novel of the Year in Japan for 2008 Axis (2007) Nominated for the John W. Campbell Award, 2008. Vortex (2011) A Spin and Axis sequel published on July 5, 2011 Julian Comstock: A Story of 22nd-Century America (2009) Nominated for the Hugo Award for Best novel, 2010. Burning Paradise (2013) The Affinities (2015) Last Year (2016) Critical studies, reviews and biography References Further reading External links 1953 births Living people American emigrants to Canada Canadian science fiction writers Hugo Award-winning writers Canadian male novelists	[ 0.02507897838950157, 0.49383285641670227, -0.7152742147445679, -0.26866963505744934, 0.37048622965812683, 0.5659493803977966, 0.04735580459237099, 0.09433180093765259, -0.23813898861408234, 0.05752470716834068, -0.3903188407421112, 0.48226144909858704, -0.1169392317533493, 0.13112880289554596, 0.07186473906040192, 0.33317553997039795, -0.41961774230003357, -0.21348392963409424, -0.31767624616622925, -0.15942783653736115, -0.531387448310852, -0.2750086486339569, 0.36979222297668457, 0.46683740615844727, -0.3633095920085907, 0.5984089374542236, 0.2727620005607605, -0.08712469041347504, -0.16406448185443878, 0.024346357211470604, -0.07740626484155655, 0.22755883634090424, 0.544910728931427, 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207810	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacqueline%20du%20Pr%C3%A9	Jacqueline du Pré	Jacqueline Mary du Pré (26 January 1945 – 19 October 1987) was a British cellist. At a young age, she achieved enduring mainstream popularity. Despite her short career, she is regarded as one of the greatest cellists of all time. Her career was cut short by multiple sclerosis, which forced her to stop performing at the age of 28; she died 14 years later at the age of 42. She was the subject of the 1998 biographical film Hilary and Jackie, which attracted criticism for perceived inaccuracy and sensationalism. Early years, education Du Pré was born in Oxford, England, the second child of Iris Greep and Derek du Pré. Derek was born in Jersey, where his family had lived for generations. After working as an accountant at Lloyds Bank in St Helier and London, he became assistant editor and later editor of The Accountant. Iris was a talented concert pianist who had studied at the Royal Academy of Music. At the age of four du Pré is said to have heard the sound of the cello on the radio and asked her mother for "one of those". She began with lessons from her mother, who composed little pieces accompanied by illustrations, before enrolling at the London Violoncello School at age five, studying with Alison Dalrymple. For her general education, du Pré was enrolled first at Commonweal Lodge, a former independent school for girls in Purley, and then at the age of eight, transferred to Croydon High School, an independent day school for girls in South Croydon. In 1956, at the age of 11, she won the Guilhermina Suggia Award, and was granted renewal of the award each year until 1961. The Suggia award paid for du Pré's tuition at the Guildhall School of Music in London, and for private lessons with the celebrated cellist William Pleeth. In late 1958, the family moved to London, where Derek du Pré took the job of Secretary of the Institute of Cost and Works Accounting. In January 1959, du Pré was enrolled in Queen's College, where she fell behind in her schoolwork, and in December du Pré's parents withdrew her from the school. This ended du Pré's general education; she never took the GCE. From an early age, du Pré was entering and winning local music competitions alongside her sister, flautist Hilary du Pré. In 1959 she began appearing at children's and young musicians' concerts, including with fellow students at the Guildhall end-of-term concert in March, followed by an appearance on BBC Television, playing the Lalo Cello Concerto. In May she repeated the Lalo concerto with the BBC Welsh Orchestra in Cardiff, with an additional recording of the Haydn Cello Concerto at the BBC Lime Grove Studios with the Royal Philharmonic. In 1960 du Pré won the Gold Medal of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama and the same year participated in a Pablo Casals masterclass in Zermatt, Switzerland. Pleeth entered her in the Queen's Prize competition for outstanding musicians under 30. The panel, chaired by Yehudi Menuhin, unanimously awarded du Pré the prize, and Menuhin subsequently invited her to play trios with him and his sister. Career In March 1961, at the age of 16, du Pré made her formal début at Wigmore Hall, London. She was accompanied by Ernest Lush, and played sonatas by Handel, Brahms, Debussy and Falla, and a solo cello suite by Bach. She made her concerto début on 21 March 1962 at the Royal Festival Hall playing the Elgar Cello Concerto with the BBC Symphony Orchestra under Rudolf Schwarz; repeating the Elgar at The Proms with the same orchestra on 14 August of the same year, under Sir Malcolm Sargent. In September 1962, du Pré débuted at the Edinburgh Festival with Brahms' Second Cello Sonata, followed by débuts in Berlin in September and Paris in October, playing the Schumann Cello Concerto. After the Paris début, du Pré enrolled at the Conservatoire de Paris to study for six months with Paul Tortelier, the tuition paid by her final Suggia Award stipend, although she continued to refer to Pleeth as her primary teacher. In 1963, du Pré performed at The Proms, playing the Elgar Concerto with Sir Malcolm Sargent. Her performance of the concerto proved so popular that she returned three years in succession to perform the work. At her 3 September 1964 Prom Concert, she performed the Elgar concerto as well as the world premiere of Priaulx Rainier's Cello Concerto. Du Pré became a favourite at the Proms, returning every year until 1969. In 1965, at age 20, du Pré recorded the Elgar Concerto for EMI with the London Symphony Orchestra and Sir John Barbirolli, which brought her international recognition. This recording has become a benchmark for the work, and one which has never been out of the catalogue since its release. Du Pré also performed the Elgar with the BBC Symphony Orchestra under Antal Doráti for her United States début, at Carnegie Hall on 14 May 1965. In 1966 du Pré studied in Russia with Mstislav Rostropovich, who was so impressed with his pupil that at the end of his tutorship he declared her "the only cellist of the younger generation that could equal and overtake [his] own achievement." In 1968, at the suggestion of Ian Hunter, a composition was created by Alexander Goehr specifically for du Pré, Romanza for cello and orchestra, op.24, which she premiered at the Brighton Music Festival, with Daniel Barenboim conducting the New Philharmonia Orchestra. In addition to those already mentioned, Du Pré performed with numerous orchestras throughout the world, including the London Philharmonic, Cleveland Orchestra, New Philharmonia Orchestra, BBC Symphony Orchestra, New York Philharmonic, Philadelphia Orchestra, Chicago Symphony, Israel Philharmonic, and the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra. She made her debut with the Berliner Philharmoniker in 1968 playing Dvořák's Cello Concerto in B minor with Zubin Mehta. She regularly performed with conductors such as Barbirolli, Sargent, Sir Adrian Boult, Daniel Barenboim, and Leonard Bernstein. Du Pré primarily played on two Stradivarius cellos, one from 1673 and the Davidov Stradivarius of 1712. Both instruments were gifts from her godmother, Isména Holland, the wife of composer Theodore Holland. She performed with the 1673 Stradivarius from 1961 until 1964, when she acquired the Davidov. Many of her most famous recordings were made on this instrument, including the Elgar Concerto with Barbirolli, the Robert Schumann Cello Concerto with Barenboim and the two Brahms cello sonatas. From 1969 to 1970 she (like Casals before her) played on a Francesco Goffriller cello, and in 1970 acquired a modern instrument from the Philadelphia violin maker Sergio Peresson. It was the Peresson cello that du Pré played for the remainder of her career until 1973, using it for a second, live, recording of the Elgar Concerto, and her last studio recording, of Frédéric Chopin's Cello Sonata in G minor and César Franck's Violin Sonata in A arranged for cello, in December 1971. Her friendship with musicians Yehudi Menuhin, Itzhak Perlman, Zubin Mehta and Pinchas Zukerman, and marriage to Daniel Barenboim led to many memorable chamber-music performances. In a book review for two biographies about the cellist, Eugenia Zukerman, the flautist and former wife of Pinchas Zukerman, judged du Pré "one of the most stunningly gifted musicians of our time". The 1969 performance at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London of the Schubert Piano Quintet in A major, "The Trout", was the basis of a film, The Trout, by Christopher Nupen. Nupen made other films featuring du Pré, including Jacqueline du Pré and the Elgar Cello Concerto, a documentary featuring a live performance of the Elgar; and The Ghost, with Barenboim and Zukerman in a performance of the "Ghost" Piano Trio in D major, by Beethoven. Personal life Du Pré met pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim in London on Christmas Eve 1966. Shortly before the Six-Day War of 1967, she cancelled all of her current engagements and flew to Jerusalem with Barenboim. There, she converted to Judaism and they married at the Western Wall on 15 June 1967 after giving concerts around Israel for its troops and citizens. Barenboim and du Pré were highly regarded as a "golden couple" in the music industry during the late 1960s and early 1970s, with their extensive performing and recording collaborations being ranked as some of the finest of their time. The posthumous memoir A Genius in the Family (later renamed Hilary and Jackie) by Jacqueline's siblings Hilary du Pré and Piers, published well after her death, alleges that she had an extramarital affair with Christopher Finzi, her brother-in-law, from 1971 to 1972 when she was visiting Hilary's family. Multiple sclerosis In 1971, du Pré's playing declined as she began to lose sensitivity in her fingers and other parts of her body. She was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in October 1973. Her last recording, of sonatas by Chopin and Franck (the latter originally for violin), was made in December 1971. She went on sabbatical from 1971 to 1972, and performed only rarely. She started performing again in 1973, but by then her condition had become severe. For her January tour of North America, some of the less-than-complimentary reviews were an indication that her condition had worsened except for brief moments when her playing was without noticeable problems. Her last London concerts were in February 1973, including the Elgar Concerto with Zubin Mehta and the New Philharmonia Orchestra on 8 February. Her last public concerts took place in New York in February 1973: four performances of the Brahms Double Concerto with Pinchas Zukerman and Leonard Bernstein conducting the New York Philharmonic were scheduled. Du Pré recalled that she had problems judging the weight of the bow, and just opening the cello case had become difficult. As she had lost sensation in her fingers, she had to coordinate her fingering visually. She played only three of the four concerts, cancelling the last, in which Isaac Stern took her place on the programme with Felix Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto. Whilst definitive diagnosis of du Pré's MS type is not available, some speculate that it was relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS). Use of corticosteroids may have had adverse effects, including Cushing's syndrome. Death Du Pré died in London on 19 October 1987 at age 42, and is buried in Golders Green Jewish Cemetery. The Vuitton Foundation purchased her Davidov Stradivarius for just over £1 million and made it available on loan to Yo-Yo Ma. After being owned by the Norwegian cellist Øyvind Gimse, the 1673 Stradivarius, named by Lynn Harrell the Du Pré Stradivarius in tribute, is now on extended loan to Hungarian cellist István Várdai. Du Pré's 1970 Peresson cello is currently on loan to cellist Kyril Zlotnikov of the Jerusalem Quartet. There is a blue plaque celebrating her memory at her former home, 27 Upper Montagu Street, Marylebone. In 2021, actress Miriam Margolyes claimed in her memoir This Much is True that Du Pré died in an assisted suicide. She stated that her therapist, Margaret Branch, told her that she assisted the suicide via lethal injection. Du Pré's former husband, Daniel Barenboim, called the claim "unverifiable" and said it had "absolutely nothing to do with the reality of Jackie's passing". Cultural depictions Book and film The posthumous memoir A Genius in the Family by Hilary and Piers du Pré was written at the same time as the 1998 film Hilary and Jackie, directed by Anand Tucker, which was based partially on interviews with Hilary and Piers. The film's release promoted the popularity of the memoir. Both the book and the film have been criticised for sensationalising Jacqueline du Pré's personal life, although the general claim of an affair was supported by others. The memoir's content in general remains factually unsupported and disputed, and contains significant omissions. The memoir's actual description of events is ambiguous, and describes Jacqueline's sudden request for sexual "therapy sessions" as occurring within a period of extreme mental depression. The unusual depression (deemed an early symptom of multiple sclerosis) also coincided with a long period in which Finzi took the initiative in verbally comforting Jacqueline. Hilary claims that she was helping her sister through her depression. She also argues, however, that she was victimised by her sister's demands, and concludes that her sister had a desire for her husband. The memoir's account of the affair with Finzi was contested by Hilary's daughter, Clare Finzi, who suggested that her father was a serial adulterer who had seduced her emotionally vulnerable aunt in a time of great need to gratify his own ego. The posthumous allegation of an affair, combined with Hilary's claim to be victimised, inevitably generated a controversy over Jacqueline du Pré's personal life. The film Hilary and Jackie differs from the memoir on several key factual points, and has been criticised by some for imposing a scandal on Jacqueline's personal life. Clare Finzi, Hilary's daughter, charged that the film was a "gross misinterpretation which I cannot let go unchallenged." It portrays Jacqueline from Hilary's point of view before moving to a portrayal of events as imagined from Jacqueline's own perspective. The film contains factually disputed elements, portraying Jacqueline as being predatory and actively planning to seduce her sister's husband. The director, Anand Tucker, defends the film's portrayal of an affair by arguing that extant alternatives amount to canonisation or hagiography, and that he was "deeply moved [by] Hilary's sacrifice". The film and book were also defended for their emotional power and broad authenticity, despite fictional content regarding aspects of Jacqueline's personality and the specifics of events. Writing in The Guardian, however, Hilary defended the film's depiction of events and her sister's personality, arguing that it accurately portrayed her darker side, the "MS side"; and in The New Yorker she argued that detractors simply "want to look only at the pieces of Jackie's life they [are ready to] accept". According to Hilary, "[t]he ravages of MS changed Jackie's personality. The Jackie I knew and loved died years before her actual death in 1987, but to be truthful I had to show the MS side of her". Others, such as Christopher Nupen, took a different view, holding that Jacqueline's struggle with multiple sclerosis was more complex, with sustained periods of normality even to the very end. Ballet Choreographer Cathy Marston choreographed a one-act ballet titled The Cellist, based on du Pré's life, for The Royal Ballet. The ballet premiered in 2020 at the Royal Opera House, with Lauren Cuthbertson as "The Cellist", Matthew Ball as "The Conductor" and Marcelino Sambé as "The Instrument". Opera Jacqueline, by Luna Pearl Woolf (music) and Royce Vavrek (libretto) had its world premiere at Canada's National Ballet School's Betty Oliphant Theatre in Toronto, in a production by Tapestry Opera, on 19 February 2020. Honours and awards Du Pré received several fellowships from music academies and honorary doctorate degrees universities for her outstanding contributions to music in general and her instrument in particular. In 1956, at the age of 11, she was the second recipient (after Rohan de Saram in 1955) of the prestigious Guilhermina Suggia Award, and remains the youngest recipient. In 1960, she won the Gold Medal of the Guildhall School of Music in London and the Queen's Prize for British musicians. She was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1976 New Year Honours. At the 1977 BRIT Awards, she won the award for the best classical soloist album of the past 25 years for Elgar's Cello Concerto. After her death, a rose cultivar named after her received the Award of Garden Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society. She was made an honorary fellow of St Hilda's College, Oxford, whose music building bears her name. In 2012, she was voted into the first Gramophone Hall of Fame. Discography On DVD Remembering Jacqueline du Pré (1994), directed by Christopher Nupen Jacqueline du Pré in Portrait (2004), directed by Christopher Nupen The Trout (1970 documentary released on DVD in 2005), directed by Christopher Nupen Jacqueline du Pré: A Celebration of Her Unique and Enduring Gift (2007), directed by Christopher Nupen Hilary and Jackie (1998), dramatised portrait directed by Anand Tucker References Sources External links Biography on "Cellist.nl" Database 1945 births 1987 deaths 20th-century classical musicians 20th-century English musicians Alumni of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama Burials at Golders Green Jewish Cemetery Converts to Judaism Neurological disease deaths in England Deaths from multiple sclerosis EMI Classics and Virgin Classics artists English classical cellists English Jews English people with disabilities Jewish classical musicians Officers of the Order of the British Empire People educated at Croydon High School People from Oxford 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39772929	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga-kundalini%20Upanishad	Yoga-kundalini Upanishad	The Yoga-kundalini Upanishad (Sanskrit: योगकुण्डलिनी उपनिषत् IAST: ), also called Yogakundali Upanishad (Sanskrit: योगकुण्डल्युपनिषत्, IAST: Yogakuṇḍalī Upaniṣad), is a minor Upanishad of Hinduism. The Sanskrit text is one of the 20 Yoga Upanishads, and is one of 32 Upanishads attached to the Krishna Yajurveda. In the Muktika canon, narrated by Rama to Hanuman, it is listed at number 86 in the anthology of 108 Upanishads. It is a highly significant text related to the exposition of the Kundalini Yoga, describes Hatha and Lambika yoga, and the last chapter is primarily about the quest of self-knowledge, Atman, Brahman (the Non-dual Brahman) and living liberation. It is an important text in Tantra, to the Shakti tradition of Hinduism, and considered one of the most important texts on Kundalini Yoga. According to the Yoga-Kundalini Upanishad, "even as fire in logs of wood will not rise without churning, so also without the practice of Yoga, the light of knowledge cannot be lit". Chitta, or mind, is explained in the text as a source for Samskaras and Vasanas (behavioural tendencies), as well as an effect of Prana. Yoga techniques to become aware of and to control Prana are elaborated in the Upanishad. These techniques include Mitahara (moderate, balanced nutrition), Asana (posture exercises), and shakti-chalana (awakening inner force) are asserted to be the means to arousing a yogin's Kundalini. Etymology Yoga (from the root ) means "to add", "to join", "to unite", or "to attach" in its most common literal sense. According to Dasgupta, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate). Kundalini, states James Lochtefeld, refers to "the latent spiritual power that exists in every person". It is a fundamental concept in tantra, and symbolizes an aspect of Shakti that is typically dormant in every person, and its awakening is a goal in tantra. The root of the word is kundala (coiled rope). The title "Yoga-kundalini Upanishad" literally means "the secret doctrine of Kundalini yoga". Chronology The Yoga-Kundalini Upanishad is a common era text, composed sometime after Yogasutras. Banerjea states that the Yoga-Kundalini text, like many late Yoga Upanishads, deals with yogic concepts and methods taught by Siddha Yogi teachers such as Gorakhnath, an 11th-century yogi. Structure The text is set in verse, structured into three chapters, with a total of 171 verses. The first chapter has 87 verses, and discusses yoga practice. The second chapter with 49 verses discusses Khecari (Sanskrit: खेचरि) knowledge. The last chapter consists of 35 verses and discusses soul, Brahman, meditation and living liberation. The contents of Yoga-Kundalini Upanishad were influenced by Hatha yoga and Mantra yoga, with the first two chapters structured in verses of Kundalini tantra, the third chapter structured in a chant genre (Mantra yoga). Contents Chapter 1: The practice The first chapter opens with the statement that human mind is influenced by memories and Prana (vital breath, inner life-force). First and foremost, states the text, a yogin should begin by mastering Prana. The verse 1,2 of the Upanishad assert that this can be achieved by Mitahara, Asana and "rousing of inner power (Kundalini)" (Shakti-chalan). Mitahara (Sanskrit: मिताहार, Mitāhāra) means moderation in food (light, sweet and nutritious food), and in the Yoga tradition, it is the concept of integrated awareness about food, drink, balanced diet and consumption habits and its effect on one's body and mind. It is one of the ten Yamas in ancient Indian texts. Mitahara is neither eating too much nor eating too little quantity of food, and self-restraint from either eating too much or too little of certain qualities of food. Verse 1.3 and 1.4 of the Yoga-kundalini Upanishad state that one must eat nourishing and sapient food. The Upanishad in verses 1.4 to 1.6 describes Asanas (postures) as a part of practice for the yogi and yogini. Asana () means "to sit down". The text lists just two asanas in these verses – Padmasana (lotus posture) and Vajrasana (diamond or kneeling posture). Verses 1.7 to 1.18 of the text summarize the practice of Kundalini-arousing. The two steps include Arousing the Saraswati Nadi, and breath control (Pranayama and Kumbhaka).; the Kumbhakas cause total restraint of the Prana. The text in verses 1.18–1.39 details the breath control practice in several ways including Surya-Kumbhaka, Ujjayi-Kumbhaka, Sitali-Kumbhaka and Bhastra-Kumbhaka. Three types of Bandha are summarized in verses 1.40 to 1.53 – Mula Bandha, Uddiyana bandha and Jalandhara Bandha. The text states that the Kumbhaka and Bandha practice arouses various Nadi (blood vessels through which subtle and causal energies flow). Obstacles The Yogakundali Upanishad, in verses 1.54 to 1.66 recommends the progress steps and number of times yoga should be attempted, and obstacles to one's progress. In verses 1.56–1.61, it states that those who are ill or injured should not do this yoga, and those who are suffering from excretory obstructions should refrain as well. The text lists as obstacles to progress in a yogin as following: self doubts, confusion, indifference, abnormal sleep, habit of giving up, delusions, being caught up in worldly drama, failure to comprehend descriptions, suspicions regarding the truth of yoga. Chakras The verses 1.65 to 1.76 describe the process of progress and experience, with the text stating that the Chakra with sixteen petals called Anahata is awakened, linking vital fluids of the human body symbolically to moon and sun, that is arousing the awareness of cold and hot essence within respectively. The text lists six chakras as the Ajna is in the head (between the two eyebrows), Vishuddhi (root of the neck), Anahata (heart), Manipuraka (navel), Svadhishthana (near genital organ) and Muladhara (base of spinal cord). These, states the text, are centers of Shakti (power, energy, subtle force). Goal The Yogakundali Upanishad, in verses 1.77 to 1.87, outlines the destination for the journey of Kundali-yoga practice to be the knowledge of Brahman (eternal, changeless reality), Atman (soul, self), and inner liberation. In verses 1.77 to 1.81, it cautions the yogin against having "absurd and impossible notions" such as rope serpent, delusions such as men and women expecting "silver in the shell of the pearl oyster" through yoga. The text states that the goal is for the yogin as: Inner self-awareness, from the body in lotus Asana, in a mind absorbed in the Kumbhaka, state the last verses of the first chapter, breaks through inner knots of Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra, then through six lotuses, unleashing the Kundalini Shakti in the thousand petalled lotus, delighting in the company of Shiva. It is then, asserts the text, that the yogin pierces through the phenomenal world of differences and reaches oneness, the cause of the manifestation of bliss. Chapter 2: The Khecari Vidya The Chapter 2 opens with a praise and wonders of Khechari knowledge, with the assertion that "one who has mastered this, is devoid of aging and mortality" and free from the suffering from diseases. The word Khechari means "transversing the ethereal regions", and the text dedicates first 16 verses of the chapter stating how difficult it is, how wonderful and miraculous it is, how even experts fail in it, how secret this knowledge is, how even a hundred rebirths are insufficient for mastering Khechari-Vidya. But those who do, attain the state of Shiva, claims the text, and they are liberated from all attachments to the world. The verses 2.17 to 2.20 use a cryptic code to explain how to extract Khechari-Vidya bija (seed). These are then constituted into a Khechari-mantra in verse 2.20, as "Hrīṃ, Bham, Saṃ,Shaṃ, Phaṃ, Saṃ and Kshaṃ". The text, in verses 2.21–2.27 returns to praising the mantra, and then describes that the muttering the mantra and a variety of austere khechari-yoga practices over twelve years in verses 2.28 to 2.49. Success would be achieved, states the text in the closing verses of chapter 2, when the yogin sees in his body, the entire universe. Chapter 3: The Jivanmukta The third chapter of the Upanishad discusses the state of Samadhi and that is Jivanmukta (living liberation). It defines Samadhi as that state of Atman and pure consciousness in which "all is known as one" and the existence in the nectar of oneness. The verses 3.1 to 3.11 assert, translates Ayyangar, that this state is "assuming the attitude of I am the Brahman and giving up that also", eliminating all bondages of the mind, and awakening the Ishvara (god) within, through one's energized Kundalini and the six Chakras. This state is one of entering bliss, asserts the Upanishad. According to verses 3.14 to 3.16, Yoga is essential for the light of knowledge to be lit, and the Atman (soul) is the lamp inside one's body. The precepts and guidance of a Guru (teacher) is essential for mastering Kundalini yoga and to cross the ocean of worldly existence, state verses 3.17 to 3.18. Right knowledge leads to an existence of a tranquil and sublime state, where there is neither darkness nor radiance, it is indescribable asserts the Yogakundali Upanishad. A Yogin, deluded by Maya and exhausted, states the text in verses 3.25 to 3.32, questions "Who am I? How has the worldly existence been brought about? Where do I go when I sleep? Who functions when I am awake? Who functions when I dream in sleep?" This is a knowledge lost over one's rebirths. Meditation and Kundalini yoga helps one to realize the answers within, lit a light that shines within, reach the saintly state of Jivanmukta, who remains in eternal Brahman alone, states the Upanishad. See also Kundalini yoga Yoga (philosophy) Yoga Vasistha Yogatattva Upanishad Yogi References Bibliography Upanishads	[ 0.4025793969631195, 0.5703138113021851, -0.5969153642654419, -0.43589717149734497, -0.5454614162445068, 0.35375547409057617, 0.8865176439285278, -0.4601912200450897, -0.0981297567486763, -0.07474132627248764, 0.09891132265329361, 0.40625694394111633, -0.44271522760391235, -0.09625368565320969, -0.19765865802764893, 0.10881351679563522, 1.2134720087051392, 0.21803784370422363, 0.23649239540100098, -0.2425592541694641, -0.3679351508617401, 0.5005736351013184, 0.2628854215145111, -0.022703995928168297, 0.29910895228385925, 0.4951029121875763, 0.2970048189163208, 0.03435621038079262, -0.6866725087165833, -0.2412542998790741, -0.16790848970413208, 0.6479827165603638, -0.14696237444877625, -0.22299440205097198, 0.24294309318065643, 0.1998927891254425, 0.0643794983625412, -0.44965261220932007, 0.027907399460673332, -0.22425270080566406, 0.20335018634796143, 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207816	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20national%20parks%20of%20Thailand	List of national parks of Thailand	National parks in Thailand () are defined as an area that contains natural resources of ecological importance or unique beauty, or flora and fauna of special importance. Thailand's protected areas included 156 national parks, 58 wildlife sanctuaries, 67 non-hunting areas, and 120 forest parks. They cover almost 31 percent of the kingdom's territory. The parks are administered by the National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department (DNP), of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (MNRE). The department was created in 2002, and took over the national parks from the Royal Forest Department of the Ministry of Agriculture. The first national park was Khao Yai in 1961, when the National Park Act B.E. 2504 was passed. The first marine park was Khao Sam Roi Yot, established in 1966. In 1993 the administration of the national parks was split into two divisions, one for the terrestrial and one for the Marine National Park Division (MNPD). Controversies about Thailand's national parks include complaints over excessive development and allotment of private concessions. Ko Samet, and other island-based national parks, are particularly impacted by the activities of private concessions, often in the form of excessive bungalow developments. Many of the northern parks are greatly impacted by illegal swidden farming and poaching. Thai highlands (Part 1: 19 national parks) Not yet published in the Government Gazette (9 national parks) Thai highlands (Part 2: 31 national parks) Not yet published in the Government Gazette (6 national parks) Northeast (21 national parks) Not yet published in the Government Gazette (2 national parks) Central-East (27 national parks) Not yet published in the Government Gazette (1 national park) South (east coast: 15 national parks) Marine parks Not yet published in the Government Gazette (4 national parks) South (west coast: 20 national parks) Marine parks Not yet published in the Government Gazette (1 national park) Changed names of national parks Notes Area: the area of the national park according to the last publication in the Government Gazette. Order N.P.: according to first to last publication in the Government Gazette. DNP: more information and a map of the specific national park. Gazette date: the date of the last publication in the Government Gazette. Gazette source: the webpage with the pdf document of the publication in the Government Gazette. PARO: management of Thailand's national parks since 2002 in 16 regions with 5 branches. Visitors: visitor numbers to Thailand's national parks are for the 2019 fiscal year, which runs from October 1, 2018 to September 30, 2019. See also List of forest parks of Thailand List of protected areas of Thailand List of Ramsar wetlands of Thailand List of Protected Areas Regional Offices of Thailand References External links National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department The former National Park Division of the Forest Department The former Marine National Park Division of the Forest Department List of Thailand National parks Birdwatching sites in Thailand Thailand Parks in Thailand National Parks Environment of Thailand National parks	[ 0.4369218945503235, 0.28599414229393005, -0.5009615421295166, -0.19224268198013306, 0.14208726584911346, -0.19393187761306763, 0.9580377340316772, 0.6029697060585022, -0.980496883392334, 0.449168860912323, -0.7398988008499146, -0.2193273901939392, -0.44761332869529724, 0.10204152762889862, -0.6543046832084656, 0.8314701914787292, 0.5913887023925781, 0.5849255919456482, 0.5264370441436768, -0.3334963023662567, -0.16654080152511597, -0.6610568761825562, 0.21622784435749054, 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207820	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact%20star	Compact star	In astronomy, the term compact star (or compact object) refers collectively to white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes. It would grow to include exotic stars if such hypothetical, dense bodies are confirmed to exist. All compact objects have a high mass relative to their radius, giving them a very high density, compared to ordinary atomic matter. Compact stars are often the endpoints of stellar evolution, and are in this respect also called stellar remnants. The state and type of a stellar remnant depends primarily on the mass of the star that it formed from. The ambiguous term compact star is often used when the exact nature of the star is not known, but evidence suggests that it has a very small radius compared to ordinary stars. A compact star that is not a black hole may be called a degenerate star. In June 2020 astronomers reported narrowing down the source of Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs), which may now plausibly include "compact-object mergers and magnetars arising from normal core collapse supernovae". Formation The usual endpoint of stellar evolution is the formation of a compact star. All active stars will eventually come to a point in their evolution when the outward radiation pressure from the nuclear fusions in its interior can no longer resist the ever-present gravitational forces. When this happens, the star collapses under its own weight and undergoes the process of stellar death. For most stars, this will result in the formation of a very dense and compact stellar remnant, also known as a compact star. Compact stars have no internal energy production, but will—with the exception of black holes—usually radiate for millions of years with excess heat left from the collapse itself. According to the most recent understanding, compact stars could also form during the phase separations of the early Universe following the Big Bang. Primordial origins of known compact objects have not been determined with certainty. Lifetime Although compact stars may radiate, and thus cool off and lose energy, they do not depend on high temperatures to maintain their structure, as ordinary stars do. Barring external disturbances and proton decay, they can persist virtually forever. Black holes are however generally believed to finally evaporate from Hawking radiation after trillions of years. According to our current standard models of physical cosmology, all stars will eventually evolve into cool and dark compact stars, by the time the Universe enters the so-called degenerate era in a very distant future. The somewhat wider definition of compact objects often includes smaller solid objects such as planets, asteroids, and comets. There are a remarkable variety of stars and other clumps of hot matter, but all matter in the Universe must eventually end as some form of compact stellar or substellar object, according to current theoretical interpretations of thermodynamics. White dwarfs The stars called white or degenerate dwarfs are made up mainly of degenerate matter; typically carbon and oxygen nuclei in a sea of degenerate electrons. White dwarfs arise from the cores of main-sequence stars and are therefore very hot when they are formed. As they cool they will redden and dim until they eventually become dark black dwarfs. White dwarfs were observed in the 19th century, but the extremely high densities and pressures they contain were not explained until the 1920s. The equation of state for degenerate matter is "soft", meaning that adding more mass will result in a smaller object. Continuing to add mass to what begins as a white dwarf, the object shrinks and the central density becomes even greater, with higher degenerate-electron energies. After the degenerate star's mass has grown sufficiently that its radius has shrunk to only a few thousand kilometers, the mass will be approaching the Chandrasekhar limit – the theoretical upper limit of the mass of a white dwarf, about 1.4 times the mass of the Sun (). If matter were removed from the center of a white dwarf and slowly compressed, electrons would first be forced to combine with nuclei, changing their protons to neutrons by inverse beta decay. The equilibrium would shift towards heavier, neutron-richer nuclei that are not stable at everyday densities. As the density increases, these nuclei become still larger and less well-bound. At a critical density of about 4 kg/m3 – called the “neutron drip line” – the atomic nucleus would tend to dissolve into unbound protons and neutrons. If further compressed, eventually it would reach a point where the matter is on the order of the density of an atomic nucleus – about 2 kg/m3. At that density the matter would be chiefly free neutrons, with a light scattering of protons and electrons. Neutron stars In certain binary stars containing a white dwarf, mass is transferred from the companion star onto the white dwarf, eventually pushing it over the Chandrasekhar limit. Electrons react with protons to form neutrons and thus no longer supply the necessary pressure to resist gravity, causing the star to collapse. If the center of the star is composed mostly of carbon and oxygen then such a gravitational collapse will ignite runaway fusion of the carbon and oxygen, resulting in a Type Ia supernova that entirely blows apart the star before the collapse can become irreversible. If the center is composed mostly of magnesium or heavier elements, the collapse continues. As the density further increases, the remaining electrons react with the protons to form more neutrons. The collapse continues until (at higher density) the neutrons become degenerate. A new equilibrium is possible after the star shrinks by three orders of magnitude, to a radius between 10 and 20 km. This is a neutron star. Although the first neutron star was not observed until 1967 when the first radio pulsar was discovered, neutron stars were proposed by Baade and Zwicky in 1933, only one year after the neutron was discovered in 1932. They realized that because neutron stars are so dense, the collapse of an ordinary star to a neutron star would liberate a large amount of gravitational potential energy, providing a possible explanation for supernovae. This is the explanation for supernovae of types Ib, Ic, and II. Such supernovae occur when the iron core of a massive star exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit and collapses to a neutron star. Like electrons, neutrons are fermions. They therefore provide neutron degeneracy pressure to support a neutron star against collapse. In addition, repulsive neutron-neutron interactions provide additional pressure. Like the Chandrasekhar limit for white dwarfs, there is a limiting mass for neutron stars: the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, where these forces are no longer sufficient to hold up the star. As the forces in dense hadronic matter are not well understood, this limit is not known exactly but is thought to be between 2 and . If more mass accretes onto a neutron star, eventually this mass limit will be reached. What happens next is not completely clear. Black holes As more mass is accumulated, equilibrium against gravitational collapse exceeds its breaking point. Once the star's pressure is insufficient to counterbalance gravity, a catastrophic gravitational collapse occurs within milliseconds. The escape velocity at the surface, already at least light speed, quickly reaches the velocity of light. At that point no energy or matter can escape and a black hole has formed. Because all light and matter is trapped within an event horizon, a black hole appears truly black, except for the possibility of very faint Hawking radiation. It is presumed that the collapse will continue inside the event horizon. In the classical theory of general relativity, a gravitational singularity occupying no more than a point will form. There may be a new halt of the catastrophic gravitational collapse at a size comparable to the Planck length, but at these lengths there is no known theory of gravity to predict what will happen. Adding any extra mass to the black hole will cause the radius of the event horizon to increase linearly with the mass of the central singularity. This will induce certain changes in the properties of the black hole, such as reducing the tidal stress near the event horizon, and reducing the gravitational field strength at the horizon. However, there will not be any further qualitative changes in the structure associated with any mass increase. Alternative black hole models Fuzzball Gravastar Dark energy star Black star Magnetospheric eternally collapsing object Dark star Primordial black holes Exotic stars An exotic star is a hypothetical compact star composed of something other than electrons, protons, and neutrons balanced against gravitational collapse by degeneracy pressure or other quantum properties. These include strange stars (composed of strange matter) and the more speculative preon stars (composed of preons). Exotic stars are hypothetical, but observations released by the Chandra X-Ray Observatory on April 10, 2002 detected two candidate strange stars, designated RX J1856.5-3754 and 3C58, which had previously been thought to be neutron stars. Based on the known laws of physics, the former appeared much smaller and the latter much colder than they should, suggesting that they are composed of material denser than neutronium. However, these observations are met with skepticism by researchers who say the results were not conclusive. Quark stars and strange stars If neutrons are squeezed enough at a high temperature, they will decompose into their component quarks, forming what is known as a quark matter. In this case, the star will shrink further and become denser, but instead of a total collapse into a black hole, it is possible that the star may stabilize itself and survive in this state indefinitely, so long as no more mass is added. It has, to an extent, become a very large nucleon. A star in this hypothetical state is called a "quark star" or more specifically a "strange star". The pulsar 3C58 has been suggested as a possible quark star. Most neutron stars are thought to hold a core of quark matter but this has proven difficult to determine observationally. Preon stars A preon star is a proposed type of compact star made of preons, a group of hypothetical subatomic particles. Preon stars would be expected to have huge densities, exceeding 1023 kilogram per cubic meter – intermediate between quark stars and black holes. Preon stars could originate from supernova explosions or the Big Bang; however, current observations from particle accelerators speak against the existence of preons. Q stars Q stars are hypothetical compact, heavier neutron stars with an exotic state of matter where particle numbers are preserved with radii less than 1.5 times the corresponding Schwarzschild radius. Q stars are also called "gray holes". Electroweak stars An electroweak star is a theoretical type of exotic star, whereby the gravitational collapse of the star is prevented by radiation pressure resulting from electroweak burning, that is, the energy released by conversion of quarks to leptons through the electroweak force. This process occurs in a volume at the star's core approximately the size of an apple, containing about two Earth masses. Boson star A boson star is a hypothetical astronomical object that is formed out of particles called bosons (conventional stars are formed out of fermions). For this type of star to exist, there must be a stable type of boson with repulsive self-interaction. As of 2016 there is no significant evidence that such a star exists. However, it may become possible to detect them by the gravitational radiation emitted by a pair of co-orbiting boson stars. Compact relativistic objects and the generalized uncertainty principle Based on the generalized uncertainty principle (GUP), proposed by some approaches to quantum gravity such as string theory and doubly special relativity, the effect of GUP on the thermodynamic properties of compact stars with two different components has been studied, recently. Tawfik et al. noted that the existence of quantum gravity correction tends to resist the collapse of stars if the GUP parameter is taking values between Planck scale and electroweak scale. Comparing with other approaches, it was found that the radii of compact stars should be smaller and increasing energy decreases the radii of the compact stars. 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207829	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISYS	ISYS	ISYS may refer to: An interactive tool for in situ identification of fish and plankton in the ocean ISYS Search Software, a desktop and enterprise search product Isys, a suite of CRM software	[ 0.1561112105846405, -0.1264796406030655, -0.137876957654953, 0.5202221870422363, 0.3853502869606018, -0.15741881728172302, -0.4132421314716339, 0.11505606025457382, -0.3666338622570038, -0.6731416583061218, -0.4665064513683319, 0.020514870062470436, -0.16012126207351685, 0.08621829748153687, 0.1904398798942566, 0.1712976098060608, 0.2572714388370514, 0.5591339468955994, 0.053195033222436905, 0.06935590505599976, -0.7636273503303528, -0.1371702253818512, 0.00034007171052508056, -0.8596825003623962, 0.38853591680526733, 0.30128347873687744, -0.1336997002363205, 0.40151748061180115, 0.03882483020424843, -0.04719683900475502, 0.4495113492012024, 0.14168435335159302, -0.3206624984741211, 0.08238394558429718, -0.500124454498291, -0.5158195495605469, 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207830	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interliner	Interliner	Interliner is an express bus system in the Netherlands. In this country the backbone of medium and long distance public transport is the railroad system. Long distance buses are used complementarily. While most bus lines have many stops or only span small distances (e.g. within cities), Interliner buses travel longer distances with fewer stops, to cover itineraries not served by train, either because the destination is not on the railroad system, or because travel by train would require a considerable detour. The Interliner was introduced in 1994 and many different Dutch public companies used this name for express buses. As of 2009, uniformity has been abandoned with part of the system being renamed Q-Liner (Arriva) and a distinction between grey and green interliner. Only Connexxion still uses the name Interliner. Other variations of the name have been introduced like Hanzeliner (Connexxion) and Brabantliner (Veolia Transport). For example they connect: North Holland to the northeast using the Afsluitdijk Rotterdam to three islands (Zeeland) in the southwest using a tunnel, two dams and a bridge Drachten (which is not connected by a railroad) Lelystad to the north through the Noordoostpolder to Groningen and to Zwolle Groningen to Emmen. References External links Bus companies of the Netherlands	[ 0.0245222095400095, -0.6153935194015503, -0.09978757053613663, 0.2239774912595749, 0.32295843958854675, 0.2767930328845978, 0.4027789533138275, 0.6234709620475769, -0.21671973168849945, -0.5536845326423645, 0.09834939241409302, 0.2525390386581421, -0.1309419870376587, 0.28059297800064087, 0.06318960338830948, -0.2786538898944855, 0.43264779448509216, 0.43547746539115906, -0.5080819129943848, -0.9526702761650085, 0.00341349677182734, 0.16563212871551514, 0.7381743788719177, -0.524998664855957, -0.04423963651061058, -0.30565324425697327, -0.2550961673259735, 0.5759816765785217, -0.026266319677233696, -0.26166728138923645, 0.4960941672325134, 0.3280656039714813, -0.2724665403366089, -0.03576838970184326, -0.2034938484430313, -0.3014385402202606, 0.2617928683757782, -0.7105739712715149, -0.310686320066452, -0.16656531393527985, 0.20338894426822662, -0.05084137246012688, -0.4589054584503174, -0.1861051321029663, 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207832	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20sea%20bass	Black sea bass	The black sea bass (Centropristis striata) is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a sea bass from the subfamily Serraninae which is part of the family Serranidae, which also includes the groupers and anthias. It is found in the western Atlantic Ocean where it is an important species for commercial and recreational fisheries. Description The black sea bass has an oblong, laterally compressed body. It has a large mouth, armed with bands of teeth on the jaw and with a triangular patch of teeth in the front part roof of the mouth and more teeth along the sides of that area, the mouth extending as far as below the middle of the eye. The preopercle has fine serrations on its margin and is evenly rounded, while the gill cover bears three flat spines. The dorsal fin has ten spines, the front spines being longer than the rearmost, and 11 soft rays. The membranes between the spines of the dorsal fin are deeply notched. The anal fin has three spines and seven soft rays. The caudal fin has three lobes created by the long and pointed upper, middle and lower rays. The colour pattern is normally smoky grey, dusky brown or blue-black on the back and upper body fading towards the underside. In the middle of each scale there is a is pale blue to white spot and these form longitudinal stripes along the back and flanks. The dorsal fin has a series of white spots and bands along its length. The flanks can frequently appear mottled or have dark and light vertical barring. In the breeding season the males develop bright fluorescent blue and green around the eyes and nape and a hump on the head contrasting with the paler and duller females which are brownish or blue-grey in colour. The juveniles are found in four colour phases; the first is an overall light grey phase which has small dark spots, there is a dark phase which has pale white spots, a striped phase with a longitudinal dark stripe and a barred phase which has six vertical bars. This species attains a maximum total length of , however they are ore normally found at a total length of around , and a maximum published weight of . Distribution The black sea bass is found in the western Atlantic Ocean from Nova Scotia south along the eastern coast of North America as far as the Florida Keys and into the Gulf of Mexico as far as Louisiana where the western limit is just to the west of the Mississippi Delta. Habitat and biology The black sea bass is commonly found in the vicinity rock jetties and over rocky substrates in shallow water, although they have also been recorded in deeper, offshore waters to depths of . They spend most of their time near the bottom where they frequently aggregate around features on the bottom such as piles of rocks, wrecks and man-made structures. It is often encountered resting in either a head-down or head-up position. Normally the dorsal fin is folded down but will be raised and spread out as an aggressive signal to other members of its own species. The juveniles remain in the protected estuarine waters where they are found around man-made structures, wrecks and over shell substrates. This species is a slow growing fish and they reach sexual maturity at between one and three years old. They are protogynous hermaphrodites, the majority of them begin life as females and then change to males. The stimulus for the change is not known but it is thought that the largest females change sex in response to a shortage of males within a spawning group. These fishes spawn from January to July with the smaller females producing as few as 30,000 eggs while the larger females can produce 500,000 eggs. Their eggs are pelagic and have a diameter of 0.9-1.0mm. They hatch 75 hours after laying, in water temperatures of . The larvae are pelagic until they grow to around in length when they change to a demersal or estuarine habit. They are a predatory species with a rather catholic diet which includes crabs, shrimps, barnacles, worms, tunicates, small fish and bivalves. They are also preyed on by larger fish and their known predators include monkfish (Lophius americanus), spotted hake (Urophycis regia), summer flounder (Paralichthys dentatus), striped bass (Morone saxatilis), bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), weakfish (Cynoscion regalis), little skate (Leucoraja erinacea), spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias), bignose shark (Carcharhinus altimus) and dusky shark (Carcharhinus obscurus). Females live to around 8 years of age while males can live to 12 years old. Taxonomy The black sea bass was first formally described as Labrus striatus by Carolus Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae published in 1758, Linnaeus gave the type locality as America. When the French anatomist and zoologist Georges Cuvier created the genus Centropristis he used Bloch and Schneider's 1801 Coryphaenus nigrescens as the type species for the new genus, this is a synonym of Linnaeus's Labrus striatus so the black sea bass is the type species of the genus Centropristis. The generic name is a compound of the Greek words kentron meaning "a saw" and pristis which means "sting". Utilisation Black sea bass are highly sought after by recreational and commercial fisherman, There are two populations identified for fisheries management. NOAA Fisheries, the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council, and the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission cooperate in the management of the black sea bass fishery in the seas north of Cape Hatteras in North Carolina while NOAA Fisheries and the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council manage the fishery south of Cape Hatteras. Management includes catch limits, permits and a close season. This species has lean, white flesh which has a relatively firm texture, breaks into small flakes and has a delicate flavour. These small size of most of the fish available means that they are often cooked whole. Thare are caught using otter trawls, hook and line and in pots or traps. They have shown some promise in aquaculture but have not been farmed commercially yet. References McClane, A. J. (1978). McClane's Field Guide to Saltwater Fishes of North America. External links Black Sea Bass – South Carolina Department of Natural Resources Black Sea Bass – North Carolina Division of Marine Fisheries Black Sea Bass – South Atlantic Fishery Management Council Black Sea Bass – Chefs of Carolina Black Sea Bass – Chefs Resources Black Sea Bass – Food Choice black sea bass Commercial fish Fauna of the Southeastern United States Fish of the Eastern United States black sea bass black sea bass	[ 0.0907730907201767, -0.27373936772346497, -0.5323747396469116, -0.16786929965019226, 0.1917881816625595, 0.6648046970367432, -0.012606964446604252, 0.22382961213588715, -0.6835042238235474, 0.17502422630786896, 0.09316012263298035, 0.4106341600418091, -0.8270328044891357, 0.6002603769302368, -0.007722234819084406, 1.0757523775100708, 1.0084643363952637, 0.17712867259979248, -0.32618770003318787, -0.4607895612716675, -0.10202883183956146, -0.3752388656139374, 0.8703886270523071, -0.010921965353190899, 0.16458792984485626, 0.19009031355381012, 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207833	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial%20velocity	Radial velocity	The radial velocity of an object with respect to a given point is the rate of change of the distance between the object and the point. That is, the radial velocity is the component of the object's velocity that points in the direction of the radius connecting the point and the object. In astronomy, the point is usually taken to be the observer on Earth, so the radial velocity then denotes the speed with which the object moves away from the Earth (or approaches it, for a negative radial velocity). In astronomy, radial velocity is often measured to the first order of approximation by Doppler spectroscopy. The quantity obtained by this method may be called the barycentric radial-velocity measure or spectroscopic radial velocity. However, due to relativistic and cosmological effects over the great distances that light typically travels to reach the observer from an astronomical object, this measure cannot be accurately transformed to a geometric radial velocity without additional assumptions about the object and the space between it and the observer. By contrast, astrometric radial velocity is determined by astrometric observations (for example, a secular change in the annual parallax). Spectroscopic radial velocity Light from an object with a substantial relative radial velocity at emission will be subject to the Doppler effect, so the frequency of the light decreases for objects that were receding (redshift) and increases for objects that were approaching (blueshift). The radial velocity of a star or other luminous distant objects can be measured accurately by taking a high-resolution spectrum and comparing the measured wavelengths of known spectral lines to wavelengths from laboratory measurements. A positive radial velocity indicates the distance between the objects is or was increasing; a negative radial velocity indicates the distance between the source and observer is or was decreasing. William Huggins ventured in 1868 to estimate the radial velocity of Sirius with respect to the Sun, based on observed redshift of the star's light. In many binary stars, the orbital motion usually causes radial velocity variations of several kilometres per second (km/s). As the spectra of these stars vary due to the Doppler effect, they are called spectroscopic binaries. Radial velocity can be used to estimate the ratio of the masses of the stars, and some orbital elements, such as eccentricity and semimajor axis. The same method has also been used to detect planets around stars, in the way that the movement's measurement determines the planet's orbital period, while the resulting radial-velocity amplitude allows the calculation of the lower bound on a planet's mass using the binary mass function. Radial velocity methods alone may only reveal a lower bound, since a large planet orbiting at a very high angle to the line of sight will perturb its star radially as much as a much smaller planet with an orbital plane on the line of sight. It has been suggested that planets with high eccentricities calculated by this method may in fact be two-planet systems of circular or near-circular resonant orbit. Detection of exoplanets The radial velocity method to detect exoplanets is based on the detection of variations in the velocity of the central star, due to the changing direction of the gravitational pull from an (unseen) exoplanet as it orbits the star. When the star moves towards us, its spectrum is blueshifted, while it is redshifted when it moves away from us. By regularly looking at the spectrum of a star—and so, measuring its velocity—it can be determined if it moves periodically due to the influence of an exoplanet companion. Data reduction From the instrumental perspective, velocities are measured relative to the telescope's motion. So an important first step of the data reduction is to remove the contributions of the Earth's elliptic motion around the sun at approximately ± 30 km/s, a monthly rotation of ± 13 m/s of the Earth around the center of gravity of the Earth-Moon system, the daily rotation of the telescope with the Earth crust around the Earth axis, which is up to ±460 m/s at the equator and proportional to the cosine of the telescope's geographic latitude, small contributions from the Earth polar motion at the level of mm/s, contributions of 230 km/s from the motion around the Galactic center and associated proper motions. in the case of spectroscopic measurements corrections of the order of ±20 cm/s with respect to aberration. Sin i degeneracy is the impact caused by not being in the plane of the motion. See also Proper motion Peculiar velocity Relative velocity Space velocity (astronomy) References The Radial Velocity Equation in the Search for Exoplanets ( The Doppler Spectroscopy or Wobble Method ) Astrometry Concepts in astronomy	[ -0.3003525733947754, -0.05600837990641594, 0.7093358635902405, 0.08425568789243698, -0.5180226564407349, 0.3025647699832916, 0.19591686129570007, 0.34889018535614014, -0.5056424140930176, -0.7362062931060791, -0.11445929110050201, 0.6069632172584534, -0.39123138785362244, 0.6075226664543152, 0.6738149523735046, 0.6977954506874084, 0.18760952353477478, 0.10528497397899628, -0.3822140395641327, 0.03269842267036438, 0.08513632416725159, 0.2354559451341629, 0.41085192561149597, -0.44542044401168823, -0.002709053223952651, -0.36857739090919495, -0.26936769485473633, 0.20598633587360382, -0.5290684103965759, 0.38492223620414734, -0.4111174941062927, 0.9224098324775696, -0.3033245801925659, 0.0005744537920691073, 0.12089389562606812, -0.31117549538612366, 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207834	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberodon	Iberodon	Iberodon is a small, extinct mammal of the Lower Cretaceous from Portugal. It was a member of the also extinct order Multituberculata, and led its obscure and plant-eating existence in the company of dinosaurs. It lies within the suborder "Plagiaulacida" and family Pinheirodontidae. The genus Iberodon was named by Hahn G. and Hahn R. in 1999 based on a single species. The species, known as Iberodon quadrituberculatus, is known from teeth found in Berriasian (Lower Cretaceous)-age strata of Portugal. References Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska, Richard L. Cifelli, and Zhe-Xi Luo (2005). "Mammals from the age of dinosaurs : origins, evolution, and structure" pp. 314. Hahn & Hahn (1999), "Pinheirodontidae n. fam. (Multituberculata) (Mammalia) aus der tiefen Unter-Kreide Portugals". Palaeontographica Abt. A Vol. 253, pp. 77–222. (Pinheirodontidae n. fam. (Multituberculata) (Mammalia) from the deepest Lower Cretaceous of Portugal). Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429. Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: Basal Multituberculata, an Internet directory. 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207835	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VG	VG	VG, vg or v.g. may refer to: Arts and media VG Cats, a webcomic VG-lista, the official Norwegian singles chart Vanguard: Saga of Heroes, an MMORPG computer game released in 2007 Variable Geo, a series of hentai fighter arcade games Verdens Gang, a Norwegian newspaper Victory Gundam, short for Kidou Senshi Victory Gundam, a 1993 anime series Video game Világgazdaság, a Hungarian economic daily Businesses and organizations VG (shop), a now-defunct chain of retail stores in the United Kingdom VG Airlines, a defunct Belgian airline Victoria Gardens (Rancho Cucamonga), an open-air retail center in Rancho Cucamonga, California, USA VLM Airlines (IATA code VG) Vonage (NYSE stock symbol GV) Air Siam (IATA code VG) Military Volksgrenadier, the designation of some German infantry units in World War II VG (nerve agent), the NATO designation for a chemical weapon agent, a.k.a. Amiton Religion Vicar general, the principal deputy of a Christian bishop Virgin (Vg), following the name of a Christian saint Places ISO 3166-2:VG, the ISO 3166-2 country code for the British Virgin Islands Science and technology .vg, the country code top-level domain for the British Virgin Islands Nissan VG engine, a car engine built by Nissan Variable geometry, a wing/aircraft configuration Vegetable glycerine, otherwise known as glycerol Vein of Galen (disambiguation), two blood vessels in the cerebrum Vestigial wings, a gene in Drosophila melanogaster genetics Viral Genome, a unit used indicate concentration of Viral vector in Gene Therapy, usually a ratio to weight Voice grade category 3 cable Volume group, an administrative unit of storage volumes in logical volume manager (LVM) in Linux computer operating system Vortex generator, an aerodynamic surface used to create vortexes and delay flow separation Other uses Verbi gratia, Latin expression meaning "for example" "Very good", 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207838	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadir%20%28disambiguation%29	Nadir (disambiguation)	The nadir is a low or downward point of reference. Nadir may also refer to: Nadir (horse) (1955–1978), an American Thoroughbred racehorse Nadir (name), a surname and given name Nadir (topography), a point of lowest local elevation Nadir (web portal), a German web portal Nadir, U.S. Virgin Islands, a settlement Nadirs (autobiography), by Herta Müller The Nadir, a fictional tribe in the novel Legend and other works by David Gemmell "Nadir", a song by Byzantine from Oblivion Beckons "Nadir", a song by Sadist from Above the Light Network Anomaly Detection and Intrusion Reporter, an intrusion detection system See also Nadir of American race relations, a term for the period from the end of Reconstruction to the 1920s	[ -0.37590551376342773, 0.1268371194601059, -0.008960907347500324, -0.002184686716645956, -0.3377690613269806, -0.09157025068998337, 0.4033559262752533, -0.2069987952709198, -0.06923122704029083, -0.6064155101776123, -0.3364785611629486, 0.4928542971611023, -0.22294943034648895, 0.7302237749099731, 0.4506240487098694, 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207840	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donella%20Meadows	Donella Meadows	Donella Hager "Dana" Meadows (March 13, 1941 – February 20, 2001) was an American environmental scientist, educator, and writer. She is best known as lead author of the books The Limits to Growth and Thinking In Systems: A Primer. Early life and education Born in Elgin, Illinois, Meadows was educated in science, receiving a B.A. in chemistry from Carleton College in 1963 and a Ph.D. in biophysics from Harvard in 1968. After a yearlong trip from England to Sri Lanka and back, she became a research fellow at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a member of a team in the department created by Jay Forrester, the inventor of system dynamics as well as the principle of magnetic data storage for computers. Career She taught at Dartmouth College for 29 years, beginning in 1972. Meadows was honored both as a Pew Scholar in Conservation and Environment (1991) and as a MacArthur Fellow (1994). She received the Walter C. Paine Science Education Award in 1990. Posthumously, she received the John H. Chafee Excellence in Environmental Affairs Award for 2001, presented by the Conservation Law Foundation. Meadows wrote "The Global Citizen," a weekly column on world events from a systems point of view. Many of these columns were compiled and published as a book by the same name. Her work is recognized as a formative influence on hundreds of other academic studies, government policy initiatives, and international agreements. Meadows was a longtime member of the United States Association for the Club of Rome, which instituted an award in her memory, the US Association for the Club of Rome Donella Meadows Award in Sustainable Global Actions. The award is given to an outstanding individual who has created actions in a global framework toward the sustainability goals Meadows expressed in her writings. Work The Limits to Growth In 1972, Meadows was on the MIT team that produced the global computer model "World3" for the Club of Rome, providing the basis for The Limits to Growth. The book reported a study of long-term global trends in population, economics, and the environment. The book made headlines around the world and began a debate about the limits of Earth's capacity to support human economic expansion—a debate that continues to this day. Meadows was the book's lead author, and it had three coauthors: her husband Dennis Meadows, Jørgen Randers, and William W. Behrens III. The Balaton Group In 1982, Donella and Dennis Meadows created an international "network of networks" for leading researchers on resource use, environmental conservation, systems modeling, and sustainability. Since its foundation, the members have met at Lake Balaton, Hungary, every autumn. While the formal name for the network was the International Network of Resource Information Centres (INRIC), it became more popularly known as the Balaton Group, after the location of its meetings. The Academy for Systems Change Meadows founded the Sustainability Institute in 1996, which combined research in global systems with practical demonstrations of sustainable living, including the development of a cohousing (or ecovillage) and organic farm at Cobb Hill in Hartland, Vermont. In 2011, the Sustainability Institute, originally adjacent to Cobb Hill, was renamed the Donella Meadows Institute and moved to Norwich, Vermont. Additional organizations that sprang from the Sustainability Institute include Sustainable Food Lab, Climate Interactive, and Sustainability Leaders Network. In 2016, the Donella Meadows Institute was renamed for a second time, and now operates as the Academy for Systems Change: https://www.academyforchange.org State of the Village report In 1990, Meadows published the State of the Village report under the title, "Who lives in the 'Global Village'?" which likened the world to a village of 1,000 people. Since then, "If the world were a village of 100 people", derived from her work but further reducing the numbers to those of a village of 100 people, has been published by others in English, Spanish, and Japanese. Twelve leverage points Meadows published Leverage Points: Places to Intervene in a System, one of her best-known essays, in 1999. It describes the most and least effective types of interventions in a system (of any kind). Personal life She died of cerebral meningitis in 2001 at the age of 59. Selected publications Donella H. Meadows, et al. Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind, New American Library, 1977, paperback, ; Universe Books, paperback, 1972, 0–87663–165–0 (scarce); ISBN Universe Books, hardcover, 1972, (scarce); digital edition of 1972 printing, produced by the Dartmouth College Library. Dennis L. Meadows, Donella H. Meadows, Eds. Toward Global Equilibrium: Collected Papers, Pegasus Communications, 1973, hardcover Donella H. Meadows, John M. Richardson and Gerhart Bruckmann, Groping in the Dark: The First Decade of Global Modelling, John Wiley & Sons, 1982, paperback, Donella H. Meadows and J. M. Robinson, The Electronic Oracle: Computer Models and Social Decisions, John Wiley & Sons, 1985, hardcover, 462 pages, Michael J. Caduto, foreword by Donella H. Meadows, illustrated by Joan Thomson, Pond and Brook: A Guide to Nature in Freshwater Environments, University Press of New England, 1990, paperback, 288 pages, Donella H. Meadows, Global Citizen, Island Press, 1991, paperback 197 pages, Donella H. Meadows et al. Beyond the limits : global collapse or a sustainable future, Earthscan Publications, 1992, Dennis L. Meadows, Donella H. Meadows and Jorgen Randers, Beyond the Limits: Confronting Global Collapse, Envisioning a Sustainable Future, Chelsea Green Publishing, 1993, paperback, 320 pages, edited by Sandi Brockway, foreword by Marilyn Ferguson, introduction by Denis Hayes, preface by Donella H. Meadows, Macrocosm U. S. A.: Possibilities for a New Progressive Era..., Macrocosm, 1993, paperback, 464 pages, Donella H. Meadows, Jorgen Randers and Dennis L. Meadows Limits to Growth-The 30 year Update, 2004, hardcover Donella H. Meadows (2008) Thinking in Systems: A Primer, Chelsea Green Publishing . See also Amory Lovins Cobb Hill Dennis Meadows System dynamics DYNAMO (programming language) Academy for Systems Change References Further reading Ikeda Kayoko, C. Douglas Lummis, Si El Mundo Fuera Una Aldea De 100 Personas/if The World Were A Village Of 100 People, Paperback, 64 pages, . Japanese/English version: External links Donella Meadows Project Guide to the Papers of Donella H. Meadows, 1941-2007, in the Dartmouth College Library The Global Citizen, bi-weekly column by Meadows Another link for Global Citizen The website of the Balaton Group (International Network of Resource Information Centers) Cobb Hill website A copy of her original Global Village report (based on 1000 people) The Miniature Earth project based on Donella Meadows text 1941 births 2001 deaths American environmentalists American women environmentalists Carleton College alumni Dartmouth College faculty Ecological economists Environmental scientists People associated with criticism of economic growth Harvard University alumni MacArthur Fellows American non-fiction environmental writers American systems scientists Vermont culture Sustainability advocates Women systems scientists 20th-century American women scientists 20th-century American scientists People from Elgin, Illinois People from Hanover, New Hampshire People from Plainfield, New Hampshire People from Hartland, Vermont American women 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207843	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline%20Herschel	Caroline Herschel	Caroline Lucretia Herschel (; 16 March 1750 – 9 January 1848) was a German astronomer, whose most significant contributions to astronomy were the discoveries of several comets, including the periodic comet 35P/Herschel–Rigollet, which bears her name. She was the younger sister of astronomer William Herschel, with whom she worked throughout her career. She was the first woman to receive a salary as a scientist. She was the first woman in England to hold a government position. She was the first woman to publish scientific findings in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, to be awarded a Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1828), and to be named an Honorary Member of the Royal Astronomical Society (1835, with Mary Somerville). She was also named an honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy (1838). The King of Prussia presented her with a Gold Medal for Science on the occasion of her 96th birthday (1846). Early life Caroline Lucretia Herschel was born in the town of Hanover on 16 March 1750. She was the eighth child and fourth daughter of Issak Herschel, a self-taught oboist, and his wife, Anna Ilse Moritzen. The Herschel family originated from Pirna in Saxony near Dresden. Issak became a bandmaster in the Hanoverian Foot Guards, whom he first joined in 1731, and was away with his regiment for substantial periods. He became ill after the Battle of Dettingen (part of the War of the Austrian Succession) in 1743 and never recovered fully; he suffered a weak constitution, chronic pain, and asthma for the remainder of his life. The oldest of their daughters, Sophia, was sixteen years older, and the only surviving girl besides Caroline. She married when Caroline was five, meaning that the younger girl was tasked with much of the household drudgery. Caroline and the other children received a cursory education, learning to read and write and little more. Her father attempted to educate her at home, but his efforts were mostly successful with the boys. At the age of ten, Caroline was struck with typhus, which stunted her growth, such that she never grew taller than . She suffered vision loss in her left eye as a result of her illness. Her family assumed that she would never marry and her mother felt it was best for her to train to be a house servant rather than becoming educated in accordance with her father's wishes. Her father sometimes took advantage of her mother's absence by tutoring her individually, or including her in her brother's lessons, such as violin. Caroline was briefly allowed to learn dress-making. Though she learned to do needlework from a neighbour, her efforts were stymied by long hours of household chores. To prevent her from becoming a governess and earning her independence that way, she was forbidden to learn French or more advanced needlework than what she could pick up from neighbours. Following her father's death, her brothers William and Alexander proposed that she join them in Bath, England to have a trial period as a singer for musician brother William's church performances. Caroline eventually left Hanover on 16 August 1772 after her brother's intervention with their recalcitrant mother. On the journey to England, she was first introduced to astronomy by way of the constellations and opticians' shops. In Bath, she took on the responsibilities of running William's household, and began learning to sing. William had established himself as an organist and music teacher at 19 New King Street, Bath (now the Herschel Museum of Astronomy). He was also the choirmaster of the Octagon Chapel. William was busy with his musical career and became fairly busy organising public concerts. Caroline did not blend in with the local society and made few friends, but was finally able to indulge her desire to learn, and took regular singing, English, and arithmetic lessons from her brother, and dance lessons from a local teacher. She also learned to play the harpsichord, and eventually became an integral part in William's musical performances at small gatherings. She became the principal singer at his oratorio concerts, and acquired such a reputation as a vocalist that she was offered an engagement for the Birmingham festival after a performance of Handel's Messiah in April 1778, where she was the first soloist. She declined to sing for any conductor but William, and after that performance, her career as a singer began to decline. Caroline was subsequently replaced as a performer by distinguished soloists from outside the area because William wished to spend less time in rehearsals to focus on astronomy. Transition to astronomy When William became increasingly interested in astronomy, transforming himself from a musician to an astronomer, Caroline again supported his efforts. She said somewhat bitterly, in her Memoir, "I did nothing for my brother but what a well-trained puppy dog would have done, that is to say, I did what he commanded me." Ultimately, though, she became interested in astronomy and enjoyed her work. In the 1770s, as William became more interested in astronomy, he started to build his own telescopes from lenses he had ground, unhappy with the quality of lenses he was able to purchase. Caroline would feed him and read to him as he worked, despite her desire to burnish her career as a professional singer. She became a significant astronomer in her own right as a result of her collaboration with him. The Herschels moved to a new house in March 1781 after their millinery business failed, and Caroline was guarding the leftover stock on 13 March, the night that William discovered the planet Uranus. Though he mistook it for a comet, his discovery proved the superiority of his new telescope. Caroline and William gave their last musical performance in 1782, when her brother accepted the private office of court astronomer to King George III; the last few months of their musical career had been a shambles and were critically panned. Astronomical career First discoveries and catalogue William's interest in astronomy started as a hobby to pass time at night. At breakfast the next day he would give an impromptu lecture on what he had learned the night before. Caroline became as interested as William, stating that she was "much hindered in my practice by my help being continually wanted in the execution of the various astronomical contrivances." William became known for his work on high performance telescopes, and Caroline found herself supporting his efforts. Caroline spent many hours polishing mirrors and mounting telescopes in order to maximize the amount of light captured. She learned to copy astronomical catalogues and other publications that William had borrowed. She also learned to record, reduce, and organize her brother's astronomical observations. She recognized that this work demanded speed, precision and accuracy. Caroline was asked to move from the high culture of Bath to the relative backwater of Datchet in 1782, a small town near Windsor Castle where William would be on hand to entertain royal guests. He presumed that Caroline would become his assistant, a role she did not initially accept. She was unhappy with the accommodations they had taken; the house they rented for three years had a leaky ceiling and Caroline described it as "the ruins of a place". She was also aghast at the prices in the city and the fact that their domestic servant was imprisoned for theft at the time of her arrival. While William worked on a catalogue of 3,000 stars, studied double stars, and attempted to discover the cause of Mira's and Algol's variability, Caroline was asked to "sweep" the sky, meticulously moving through the sky in strips to search for interesting objects. She was unhappy with this task at the beginning of her work, longing for the culture of Bath and feeling isolated and lonely, but gradually developed a love for the work. On 28 August 1782 Caroline initiated her first record book. She inscribed the first three opening pages: "This is what I call the Bills & Rec.ds of my Comets", "Comets and Letters", and "Books of Observations". This, along with two subsequent books, currently belong to the Herschel trove at the Royal Astronomical Society in London. On 26 February 1783, Caroline made her first discovery: she had found a nebula that was not included in the Messier catalogue. That same night, she independently discovered Messier 110 (NGC 205), the second companion of the Andromeda Galaxy. William then began to search himself for nebulae, sensing that there were many discoveries to be made. Caroline was relegated to a ladder on William's 20-foot reflector, attempting impossible measurements of double stars. William quickly realized his method of searching for nebulae was inefficient and he required an assistant to keep records. Naturally, he turned to Caroline. In the summer of 1783, William finished building a comet-searching telescope for Caroline, which she began to use immediately. Beginning in October 1783, the Herschels used a 20-foot reflecting telescope to search for nebulae. Initially, William attempted to both observe and record objects, but this too was inefficient and he again turned to Caroline. She sat by a window inside, William shouted his observations, and Caroline recorded. This was not a simple clerical task, however, because she would have to use John Flamsteed's catalogue to identify the star William used as a reference point for the nebulae. Because Flamsteed's catalogue was organized by constellation, it was less useful to the Herschels, so Caroline created her own catalogue organized by north polar distance. The following morning, Caroline would go over her notes and write up formal observations, which she called "minding the heavens." Comets During 1786–97 she discovered eight comets, the first on 1 August 1786 while her brother was away and she was using his telescope. She had unquestioned priority as discoverer of five of the comets and rediscovered Comet Encke in 1795. Five of her comets were published in Philosophical Transactions. A packet of paper bearing the superscription, "This is what I call the Bills and Receipts of my Comets" contains some data connected with the discovery of each of these objects. William was summoned to Windsor Castle to demonstrate Caroline's comet to the royal family. William recorded this phenomenon, himself, terming it "My Sister's Comet." Caroline Herschel is often credited as the first woman to discover a comet; however, Maria Kirch discovered a comet in the early 1700s, but is often overlooked because at the time, the discovery was attributed to her husband, Gottfried Kirch. She wrote a letter to the Astronomer Royal to announce the discovery of her second comet. The third comet was discovered on 7 January 1790, and the fourth one on 17 April 1790. She announced both of these to Sir Joseph Banks, and all were discovered with her 1783 telescope. In 1791, Caroline began to use a 9-inch telescope for her comet-searching, and discovered three more comets with this instrument. Her fifth comet was discovered on 15 December 1791 and the sixth on 7 October 1795. Caroline wrote in her journal during this time "My brother wrote an account of it to Sir J. Banks, Dr. Maskelyne, and to several astronomical correspondents" for the discovery of her fifth comet. Two years later, her eighth and last comet was discovered on 6 August 1797, the only comet she discovered without optical aid. She announced this discovery by sending a letter to Banks. In 1787, she was granted an annual salary of £50 (equivalent to £ in ) by George III for her work as William's assistant. Caroline's appointment made her the first woman in England honored with an official government position, and the first woman to be paid for her work in astronomy. In 1797 William's observations had shown that there were a great many discrepancies in the star catalogue published by John Flamsteed, which was difficult to use because it had been published as two volumes, the catalogue proper and a volume of original observations, and contained many errors. William realised that he needed a proper cross-index to properly explore these differences but was reluctant to devote time to it at the expense of his more interesting astronomical activities. He therefore recommended to Caroline that she undertake the task, which ultimately took 20 months. The resulting Catalogue of Stars, Taken from Mr. Flamsteed's Observations Contained in the Second Volume of the Historia Coelestis, and Not Inserted in the British Catalogue was published by the Royal Society in 1798 and contained an index of every observation of every star made by Flamsteed, a list of errata, and a list of more than 560 stars that had not been included. In 1825, Caroline donated the works of Flamsteed to the Royal Academy of Göttingen. Relationship with William Throughout her writings, she repeatedly made it clear that she desired to earn an independent wage and be able to support herself. When the crown began paying her for her assistance to her brother in 1787, she became the first woman—at a time when even men rarely received wages for scientific enterprises—to receive a salary for services to science. Her pension was £50 a year, and it was the first money that Caroline had ever earned in her own right. When William married a rich widow, Mary Pitt (née Baldwin) in 1788, the union caused tension in the brother-sister relationship. Caroline has been referred to as a bitter, jealous woman who worshipped her brother and resented those who invaded their domestic lives. In his book The Age of Wonder, Richard Holmes is more sympathetic to Caroline's position, noting that the change was in many respects negative for Caroline. With the arrival of William's wife, Caroline lost her managerial and social responsibilities in the household and accompanying status. She also moved from the house to external lodgings, returning daily to work with her brother. She no longer held the keys to the observatory and workroom, where she had done much of her own work. Because she destroyed her journals from 1788 to 1798, her feelings about the period are not entirely known. In August 1799, Caroline was independently recognized for her work, when she spent a week in Greenwich as a guest of the royal family. Barthélemy Faujas de Saint-Fond indicated she and her brother continued working well during this period. When her brother and his family were away from home, she often returned there to take care of it for them. In later life, she and Lady Herschel exchanged affectionate letters, and she became deeply attached to her nephew, astronomer John Herschel. William's marriage likely led to Caroline becoming more independent of her brother and more a figure in her own right. Caroline made many discoveries independently of William and continued to work solo on many of the astronomical projects which contributed to her rise to fame. New General Catalogue In 1802, the Royal Society published Caroline's catalogue in its Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A under William's name. This listed around 500 new nebulae and clusters to the already known 2,000. Toward the end of Caroline's life, she arranged two-and-a-half thousand nebulae and star clusters into zones of similar polar distances so that her nephew, John Herschel, could re-examine them systematically. The list was eventually enlarged and renamed the New General Catalogue. Many non-stellar objects are still identified by their NGC number. Later life and legacy After her brother died in 1822, Caroline was grief-stricken and moved back to Hanover, Germany, continuing her astronomical studies to verify and confirm William's findings and producing a catalogue of nebulae to assist her nephew John Herschel in his work. However, her observations were hampered by the architecture in Hanover, and she spent most of her time working on the catalogue. In 1828 the Royal Astronomical Society presented her with their Gold Medal for this work—no woman would be awarded it again until Vera Rubin in 1996. Upon William's death, her nephew, John Herschel, took over observing at Slough. Caroline had given him his first introduction into astronomy, when she showed him the constellations in Flamsteed's Atlas. Caroline added her final entry to her observing book on 31 January 1824 about the Great Comet of 1823, which had already been discovered on 29 December 1823. Throughout the twilight of her life, Caroline remained physically active and healthy, and regularly socialized with other scientific luminaries. She spent her last years writing her memoirs and lamenting her body's limitations, which kept her from making any more original discoveries. Caroline Herschel died peacefully in Hanover on 9 January 1848. She is buried at 35 Marienstrasse in Hanover at the cemetery of the Gartengemeinde, next to her parents and with a lock of William's hair. Her tombstone inscription reads, "The eyes of her who is glorified here below turned to the starry heavens." With her brother, she discovered over 2,400 astronomical objects over twenty years. The asteroid 281 Lucretia (discovered 1888) was named after Caroline's second given name, and the crater C. Herschel on the Moon is named after her. Adrienne Rich's 1968 poem "Planetarium" celebrates Caroline Herschel's life and scientific achievements. The artwork The Dinner Party, which celebrates historical women who have made extraordinary contributions, features a place setting for Caroline Herschel. Google honoured her with a Google Doodle on her 266th birthday (16 March 2016). Honours Herschel was honoured by the King of Prussia and the Royal Astronomical Society. The gold medal from the Astronomical Society was awarded to her in 1828 "for her recent reduction, to January, 1800, of the [2,500] Nebulæ discovered by her illustrious brother, which may be considered as the completion of a series of exertions probably unparalleled either in magnitude or importance in the annals of astronomical labour." She completed this work after her brother's death and her move to Hanover. The Royal Astronomical Society elected her an Honorary Member in 1835, along with Mary Somerville; they were the first women members. She was also elected as an honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin in 1838. In 1846, at the age of 96, she was awarded a Gold Medal for Science by the King of Prussia, conveyed to her by Alexander von Humboldt, "in recognition of the valuable services rendered to Astronomy by you, as the fellow-worker of your immortal brother, Sir William Herschel, by discoveries, observations, and laborious calculations". Asteroid 281 Lucretia is named in her honor. The open clusters NGC 2360 (Caroline's Cluster) and NGC 7789 (Caroline's Rose) are named in her honor. On 6 November 2020, a satellite named after her (ÑuSat 10 or "Caroline", COSPAR 2020-079B) was launched into space. See also Timeline of women in science References Footnotes Citations Sources Further reading External links Caroline Lucretia Herschel biography at fembio.org Caroline Herschel Biography, SEDS Caroline Herschel's Deepsky Objects, SEDS About the Herschel Museum of Astronomy Obituary of Miss Caroline Lucretia Herschel. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 8, p. 64 (1847). Bibliography from the Astronomical Society of the Pacific Digitised papers relating to Caroline Herschel and her work, including letters from her, in the Board of Longitude archive in Cambridge Digital Library Catalogue of Stars (London, 1798) 1750 births 1848 deaths 18th-century British astronomers 18th-century women scientists 19th-century German astronomers 19th-century British women scientists Discoverers of comets 18th-century German astronomers 19th-century British astronomers German emigrants to the Kingdom of Great Britain Caroline Scientists from Hanover Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society Women astronomers Planetary scientists Women planetary scientists	[ -0.21878650784492493, 0.39375045895576477, -0.6399040818214417, 0.4777468740940094, -0.20525822043418884, 0.9949262142181396, 0.45789483189582825, -0.12947602570056915, -0.771010160446167, -0.04076830670237541, 0.022486483678221703, -0.1907847374677658, 0.021254809573292732, 0.6570038199424744, 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207845	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier%20marathon	Messier marathon	A Messier marathon is an attempt, usually organized by amateur astronomers, to find as many Messier objects as possible during one night. The Messier catalogue was compiled by French astronomer Charles Messier during the late 18th century and consists of 110 relatively bright deep-sky objects (galaxies, nebulae, and star clusters). When and where a marathon is possible The number of Messier objects visible in any one night varies depending on a few factors, including the location of the observer, the duration of daylight and nighttime, and the season (the positions of the Messier objects relative to the Sun varies with the season). Location Because Messier compiled his catalog from a northern latitude, not all of the Messier objects are visible from the southern hemisphere. In particular, M81, M82, M52, and M103 make southern-hemisphere Messier marathons difficult, because they are all located at a declination of 60° north or greater. Although a Messier marathon can be attempted from any northern latitude, low northern latitudes are best. In particular, a latitude of around 25° north lends the best possibility to complete a Messier marathon at the right time of year. Season At low northern latitudes, particularly around latitude 25° north, it is possible to observe all Messier objects in one night during a window of a few weeks from mid-March to early April. In that period the dark nights around the time of the new moon are best for a Messier marathon. Other times of year Less complete Messier marathons can be undertaken at other times of the year, with the actual percentage of Messier objects seen depending upon season and location. In particular, there is a short period around the autumnal equinox when most of the objects can be seen. The marathon The Messier Marathon was invented independently by American astronomers Tom Hoffelder, Donald Machholz, and Tom Reiland in the 1970s. Typically an observer attempting a Messier marathon begins observing at sundown and will observe through the night until sunrise in order to see all 110 objects. An observer starts with objects low in the western sky at sunset, hoping to view them before they dip out of view, then works eastward across the sky. By sunrise, the successful observer will be observing the last few objects low on the eastern horizon, hoping to see them before the sky becomes too bright due to the rising sun. The evening can be a test of stamina and willpower depending on weather conditions and the physical fitness of the observer. Particularly crowded regions of the sky (namely, the Virgo Cluster and the Milky Way's galactic center) can prove to be challenging to an observer as well, and a Messier marathon will generally budget time for these regions accordingly. Organized marathons Marathons are typically organized by a local astronomy organization or astronomical society as a special type of star party. These are usually attempted at least once every year. Some clubs issue certificates/awards either for participation or for achieving a set number of objects. See also List of Messier objects References External links Messier Marathon History Interactive Messier Catalog Greenhawk Observatory The Messier Marathon, SEDS http://www.astras-stargate.com/holdm.htm Peoria Astronomical Society's tips for participating in a Messier Marathon. Includes tips for preparations as well as for difficult portions of the marathon. Clickable table of Messier objects Short biography of Charles Messier and history of the Messier Object Catalog Messier biography and history of the Messier Catalog, SEDS Marathon Amateur astronomy Observational astronomy	[ 0.45851314067840576, 0.36028262972831726, 0.08839172124862671, 0.43433594703674316, -0.30713802576065063, -0.32953962683677673, 0.382010817527771, 0.2180866152048111, -0.4935438334941864, -0.4986959993839264, -0.7339895963668823, -0.025574209168553352, -0.2777393162250519, 0.2776489555835724, 0.28220492601394653, -0.012757660821080208, 0.3431950807571411, 0.14265362918376923, -0.5072964429855347, -0.14746853709220886, -0.030726555734872818, 0.11214682459831238, -0.030210912227630615, -0.681533932685852, -0.47232556343078613, -0.015883564949035645, -0.08569273352622986, 0.3485731780529022, -0.20602062344551086, -0.019697923213243484, 0.2546997368335724, 0.3562897741794586, 0.2975728511810303, -0.4286338686943054, 0.3071712255477905, 0.09516183286905289, 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207846	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Swedish%20scientists	List of Swedish scientists	This is a list of Swedish scientists. Archaeology Lili Kaelas (1919–2007), Stone and Bronze Age archaeologist Biology and environmental science Albertina Carlsson (1848–1930), zoologist Jonas C. Dryander (1748–1810), botanist Eva Ekeblad (1724–1786), agronomist Erik Leonard Ekman (1883–1931), botanist Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878), botanist Pehr Kalm (1716–1779), botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), botanist, "father of taxonomy" René Malaise (1892–1978), entomologist Lisbeth Olsson (1963–), professor in industrial biotechnology Johan Rockström (1965–), professor in environmental science and executive director of the Stockholm Resilience Centre Olaus Rudbeckius, junior (1660–1740), botanist Daniel Solander (1733–1782), botanist Peter Gustaf Tengmalm (1754–1803), naturalist Chemistry Johan August Arfwedson (1792–1841), chemist Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927), chemist and physicist Karin Aurivillius (1920–1982), chemist and crystallographer Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848), chemist Lars Ernster (1920–1998), biochemistry, member of the Board of the Nobel Foundation Christina Lampe-Önnerud (1967-), chemist Alfred Nobel (1833–1896), chemist and founder of the Nobel Prizes Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742–1786), chemist Theodor Svedberg (1884–1971), chemist Computer science and numerical analysis Björn Engquist (1945–), numerical analysis Johan Håstad (1960–), theoretical computer science Laila Ohlgren (1937–2014), telecommunications Engineering Nils Alwall (1904-86), inventor and engineer Arne Asplund (1903–1993), inventor and engineer Karl Johan Åström (1934–), engineer, control theorist Nils Bohlin (1920–2002), inventor and engineer Ingrid Bruce (1940–2012), engineer and trade unionist Gustaf Dalén (1869–1937), inventor and engineer Rune Elmqvist (1906–1996), inventor and engineer John Ericsson (1803–1889), inventor and engineer Lars Magnus Ericsson (1846–1926), inventor and engineer Carl Edvard Johansson (1864–1943), inventor and engineer Johan Petter Johansson (1864–1943), inventor and engineer Håkan Lans (1947–), inventor and engineer Gustaf de Laval (1845–1913), inventor and engineer Frans Wilhelm Lindqvist (1862–1931), inventor and engineer Carl Rickard Nyberg (1858–1939), inventor and engineer Gustaf Erik Pasch (1788–1862), inventor and engineer Baltzar von Platen (1898–1984), inventor and engineer Erik Wallenberg (1915–1999), inventor and engineer Waloddi Weibull (1887–1979), material scientist Jonas Wenström (1855–1893), inventor and engineer Sven Wingquist (1876–1953), inventor and engineer Geology and geography Arne Bjerhammar (1917–2011), geodesy Torsten Hägerstrand (1916–2004), geography Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld (1832–1901), geology, Arctic explorer Otto Nordenskiöld (6 December 1869–1928), geology, explorer Mathematics Albert Victor Bäcklund (1845–1922) Arne Beurling (1905–1986), analysis Lennart Carleson (1928–), analysis Per Enflo (1944–), analysis Sture Eskilsson (1930–2016), economist Erik Ivar Fredholm (1866–1927), analysis Olle Häggström (1967–), mathematical statistics Lars Hörmander (1931–2012), analysis Helge von Koch (1870–1924), analysis Sonja Kovalevskaya (1850–1891), analysis, partial differential equations Anders Martin-Löf (1940–), analysis and mathematical physics Per Martin-Löf (1942–), logic, statistics, and computer science Gösta Mittag-Leffler (1846–1927), analysis Medicine Arvid Carlsson (1923–2018), neuroscientist Ulf von Euler (1905–1983), physiologist and pharmacologist Björn Folkow (1921–2012), physiologist Allvar Gullstrand (1862–1930), medicine Olaus Rudbeckius (1630–1702), medicine Ellen Sandelin (1862–1907) practicing physician in Stockholm, who received her medical license in 1897 Hugo Theorell (1903–1982), medicine Physics and astronomy Hannes Alfvén (1908–1995), physicist Anders Jonas Ångström (1814–1874), physicist Oskar Backlund (1846–1916), astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), astronomer Bengt Edlén (1906–1993), physicist V. Walfrid Ekman (1874–1954), physical oceanographer Oskar Klein (1894–1977), physicist Per-Olov Löwdin (1916–2000), physicist Knut Lundmark (1889–1958), astronomer Lise Meitner (1878–1968), nuclear physicist Christopher Polhem (1661–1751), physicist Carl-Gustaf Rossby (1898–1957), meteorologist Janne Rydberg (1854–1919), physicist Manne Siegbahn (1886–1978), physicist Kai Siegbahn (1918–2007), physicist Rolf Maximilian Sievert (1896-1966), medical physicist Karin Öberg (1982–), astrochemist Social sciences Pär-Erik Back (1920–1988), social scientist Alvar Ellegård (1919–2008), linguistics, confessional beliefs Orvar Löfgren (1943–), ethnologist Margareta Wahlström (born 1950), senior UN official Statistics and data science Harald Cramér (1893–1985), mathematical statistics Ulf Grenander (1923–2016), stochastic processes and pattern recognition Karl Gustav Jöreskog (1935–), multivariate analysis Olav Kallenberg (1939–), probability Gunnar Kulldorff (1927–2015), estimation and survey sampling Herman Wold (1908–1992), econometrics and time series analysis See also Nobel Prize Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Swedish Scientists	[ -0.06718304753303528, 0.719430148601532, -0.2922592759132385, -0.05317806825041771, -0.5318343043327332, 0.4154110550880432, 1.1265041828155518, 0.7456563115119934, -1.193454384803772, -0.12456489354372025, -0.2572069466114044, -0.2949894666671753, 0.1324680894613266, 0.8347721099853516, 0.17661339044570923, 0.049763813614845276, -0.05611295998096466, 0.8243944644927979, -0.3173668682575226, 0.2507803440093994, 0.13083603978157043, -0.05452151224017143, 0.723763644695282, -0.5969040393829346, -0.0442461296916008, -0.04608221352100372, -0.10019617527723312, -0.28060874342918396, -0.23897957801818848, -0.4088728725910187, -0.18444523215293884, 0.49469685554504395, 0.14140203595161438, 0.4064668118953705, -0.269763708114624, -0.6616772413253784, 0.21942085027694702, 0.048500001430511475, 0.6367489099502563, -0.0975879356265068, 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207847	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Swedish-language%20writers	List of Swedish-language writers	This is a list of Swedish-language novelists, poets and other writers. A Emmy Abrahamson (born 1976) Alf Ahlberg (1892–1979) Lars Ahlin (1915–1997) Astrid Ahnfelt (1876–1962) John Ajvide Lindqvist (born 1968) Gallie Åkerhielm (1907–1968) Sonja Åkesson (1926–1977) Hans Alfredson (1931–2017) Karin Alfredsson (born 1953) Carl Jonas Love Almqvist (1793–1866) Einar Askestad (born 1964) Per Daniel Amadeus Atterbom (1790–1855) Dan Andersson (1888–1920) Anders Annerfalk (born 1959) Britt Arenander (born 1941) Werner Aspenström (1918–1997) Majgull Axelsson (born 1947) B Carl Michael Bellman (1740–1795) Victoria Benedictsson (1850–1888) Frans G. Bengtsson (1894–1954) Bo Bergman (1869–1967) Hjalmar Bergman (1883–1931) Elsa Beskow (1874–1953) Elisabeth Bergstrand-Poulsen (1887–1955) Eva Billow (1902–1993) Marcus Birro (born 1972) Elsa Björkman-Goldschmidt (1888–1982) August Blanche (1811–1868) August Bondeson (1854–1906) Karin Boye (1900–1941) Fredrika Bremer (1801–1865) Annika Bryn (born 1945) C Bo Carpelan (1926–2011) Camilla Ceder (born 1976) Siv Cedering (1939–2007) Stig Claesson (1928–2008) D Stig Dagerman (1923–1954) Olof von Dalin (1708–1763) Tage Danielsson (1928–1985) Sven Delblanc (1931–1992) Walter Dickson (1916–1990) Ernst Didring (1868–1931) Elmer Diktonius (1896–1961) E Inger Edelfeldt (born 1956) Johannes Edfelt (1904–1997) Åke Edwardson (born 1953) Lena Einhorn (born 1954) Vilhelm Ekelund (1880–1949) Gunnar Ekelöf (1907–1968) Kerstin Ekman (born 1933) Sigrid Elmblad (1860–1926), journalist, poet and translator. Per Olov Enquist (1934–2020) Helena Eriksson (born 1962) Maria Ernestam (born 1959) F Nils Ferlin (1898–1961), poet Torbjörn Flygt (born 1964) Per Anders Fogelström (1917–1998) Lars Forssell (1928–2007) Tua Forsström (born 1947) Marianne Fredriksson (1927–2007) Gustaf Fröding (1860–1911), poet G Jonas Gardell (born 1963) Anders Abraham Grafström (1790–1870) Elsa Grave (1918–2003) Maria Gripe (1923–2007) Jan Guillou (born 1944), journalist, novelist Hjalmar Gullberg (1898–1961) Lars Gyllensten (1921–2006) H Carl August Hagberg (1810–1864) Stefan Hammarén Bob Hansson (born 1970) Verner von Heidenstam (1859–1940) Alf Henrikson (1905–1995) Marie Hermanson (born 1956) Rut Hillarp (1914–2003) Sverre Holmsen (1906–1992) J Tove Jansson (1914–2001) P.C. Jersild (born 1935) Eyvind Johnson (1900–1976) Harry Järv (1921–2009) K Mons Kallentoft (born 1968) Theodor Kallifatides (born 1938) Mare Kandre (1962–2005) Erik Axel Karlfeldt (1864–1931) Martin Koch (1882–1940) Sara Kristoffersson (born 1972) Niklas Krog (born 1965) Agnes von Krusenstjerna (1894–1940) Elisabeth Kuylenstierna-Wenster (1869–1933) Willy Kyrklund (1921–2009) L Camilla Läckberg (born 1974) Ann-Helén Laestadius (born 1971), Sami journalist and children's novelist Olof Lagercrantz (1911–2002) Pär Lagerkvist (1891–1974) Selma Lagerlöf (1858–1940) Dagmar Lange (Maria Lang) (1914–1991) Viveca Lärn (born 1944) Stieg Larsson (1954–2004) Stig Larsson (born 1955) Anna Maria Lenngren (1754–1817) Oscar Levertin (1862–1906) Li Li (born 1961) Sara Lidman (1923–2004) Elsa Lindberg-Dovlette (1874–1944) Astrid Lindgren (1907–2002) Barbro Lindgren (born 1937) Torgny Lindgren (1938–2017) Herman Lindqvist (born 1943) John Ajvide Lindqvist (born 1968) Sven Lindqvist (1932–2019) Fredrik Lindström (born 1963) Jonas Carl Linnerhielm (1758–1829) Ivar Lo-Johansson (1901–1990) Lasse Lucidor (1638–1674) Kristina Lugn (born 1948) Artur Lundkvist (1906–1991) M Bertil Malmberg (1889–1958) Bodil Malmsten (born 1944) Henning Mankell (1948–2015) Gerda Marcus (1880–1952), journalist Liza Marklund (born 1962) Harry Martinson (1904–1978) Moa Martinson(1890–1964) Erik Mesterton (1903–2004) Vilhelm Moberg (1898–1973) Lukas Moodysson (born 1969), published poetry before becoming a film director Jan Myrdal (1927–2020) N Håkan Nesser (born 1950) Mikael Niemi (born 1959) Peter Nilson (1937–1998) Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht (1718–1763) Sven Nordqvist (born 1946) Adolf Noreen (1854–1925) Julia Nyberg (1784–1854) O Albert Olsson (1904–1994) Jan Olof Olsson (1920–1974), pen name Jolo Vladimir Oravsky (born 1947) Johan Gabriel Oxenstierna (1750–1818) Bruno K. Öijer (born 1951), poet Klas Östergren (born 1955) P Malte Persson (born 1976) Agneta Pleijel (born 1940) Peter Pohl (born 1940) R Povel Ramel (1922–2007) Björn Ranelid (born 1949) Märta Helena Reenstierna (1753–1841) Ann Rosman (born 1973) Johan Ludvig Runeberg (1804–1877) Viktor Rydberg (1828–1895) S Shamm Shamayi Salih (born 2000), writer Irmelin Sandman Lilius (born 1936) Eugen Semitjov (1923–1987), writer, journalist and artist Malla Silfverstolpe (1782–1861), diarist Maj Sjöwall (1935–2020) Erik Johan Stagnelius (1793–1823), Romantic poet Georg Stiernhielm (1598–1672) Jan Stocklassa (born 1965) August Strindberg (1849–1912) Eva Ström (born 1947) Fredrik Ström (1880–1948) Per Olof Sundman (1922–1992) Maria Sveland (born 1974) Hjalmar Söderberg (1869–1941) Edith Södergran (1892–1923) T Evert Taube (1890–1976) Esaias Tegnér (1782–1846), poet Kerstin Thorvall (1925–2010) Carl L. Thunberg (born 1963) Zacharias Topelius (1818–1898), poet and writer Tomas Tranströmer (1931–2015), poet Stieg Trenter (1914–1967) Birgitta Trotzig (1929–2011) Göran Tunström (1937–2000) Helene Tursten (born 1954) V Gunnel Vallquist (1918–2016) Carl-Johan Vallgren (born 1964) W Per Wahlöö (1926–1975) Elin Wägner (1882–1949) Eva Waldemarsson (1908–1986) Per Wästberg (born 1933) Adéle Weman (1844–1936), wrote under the names Parus Ater, Inga Storm and Zakarias Einar af Wirsén (1875–1946) Z Joakim Zander (born 1975) References See also List of Finnish women writers List of Swedish poets List of Swedish women writers List of Swedes Lists of authors Svenska Vitterhetssamfundet Swedish language Writers Swedish	[ 0.018605144694447517, 0.5284775495529175, -0.4292144477367401, -0.17251528799533844, -0.6053141951560974, 0.4376164972782135, 1.086872935295105, 0.8621426820755005, -1.0893815755844116, -0.24750320613384247, -0.2583952248096466, 0.08005557954311371, -0.14931122958660126, 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207848	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutelary%20deity	Tutelary deity	A tutelary () (also tutelar) is a deity or a spirit who is a guardian, patron, or protector of a particular place, geographic feature, person, lineage, nation, culture, or occupation. The etymology of "tutelary" expresses the concept of safety and thus of guardianship. In late Greek and Roman religion, one type of tutelary deity, the genius, functions as the personal deity or daimon of an individual from birth to death. Another form of personal tutelary spirit is the familiar spirit of European folklore. Ancient Greece Socrates spoke of hearing the voice of his personal spirit or daimonion: The Greeks also thought deities guarded specific places: for instance, Athena was the patron goddess of the city of Athens. Ancient Rome Tutelary deities who guard and preserve a place or a person are fundamental to ancient Roman religion. The tutelary deity of a man was his Genius, that of a woman her Juno. In the Imperial era, the Genius of the Emperor was a focus of Imperial cult. An emperor might also adopt a major deity as his personal patron or tutelary, as Augustus did Apollo. Precedents for claiming the personal protection of a deity were established in the Republican era, when for instance the Roman dictator Sulla advertised the goddess Victory as his tutelary by holding public games (ludi) in her honor. Each town or city had one or more tutelary deities, whose protection was considered particularly vital in time of war and siege. Rome itself was protected by a goddess whose name was to be kept ritually secret on pain of death (for a supposed case, see Quintus Valerius Soranus). The Capitoline Triad of Juno, Jupiter, and Minerva were also tutelaries of Rome. The Italic towns had their own tutelary deities. Juno often had this function, as at the Latin town of Lanuvium and the Etruscan city of Veii, and was often housed in an especially grand temple on the arx (citadel) or other prominent or central location. The tutelary deity of Praeneste was Fortuna, whose oracle was renowned. The Roman ritual of evocatio was premised on the belief that a town could be made vulnerable to military defeat if the power of its tutelary deity were diverted outside the city, perhaps by the offer of superior cult at Rome. The depiction of some goddesses such as the Magna Mater (Great Mother, or Cybele) as "tower-crowned" represents their capacity to preserve the city. A town in the provinces might adopt a deity from within the Roman religious sphere to serve as its guardian, or syncretize its own tutelary with such; for instance, a community within the civitas of the Remi in Gaul adopted Apollo as its tutelary, and at the capital of the Remi (present-day Rheims), the tutelary was Mars Camulus. Tutelary deities were also attached to sites of a much smaller scale, such as storerooms, crossroads, and granaries. Each Roman home had a set of protective deities: the Lar or Lares of the household or familia, whose shrine was a lararium; the Penates who guarded the storeroom (penus) of the innermost part of the house; Vesta, whose sacred site in each house was the hearth; and the Genius of the paterfamilias, the head of household. The poet Martial lists the tutelary deities who watch over various aspects of his farm. The architecture of a granary (horreum) featured niches for images of the tutelary deities, who might include the genius loci or guardian spirit of the site, Hercules, Silvanus, Fortuna Conservatrix ("Fortuna the Preserver") and in the Greek East Aphrodite and Agathe Tyche. The Lares Compitales were the tutelary gods of a neighborhood (vicus), each of which had a compitum (shrine) devoted to these. During the Republic, the cult of local or neighborhood tutelaries sometimes became rallying points for political and social unrest. Austronesian Atua Hanitu Hyang Kaitiaki Kawas (mythology) Tiki Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism has Yidam as a tutelary deity. Dakini is the patron of those who seek knowledge. Chinese folk religion Chinese folk religion, both past and present, includes a myriad of tutelary deities. Exceptional individuals, highly cultivated sages and prominent ancestors will be deified and honored after passing away. Lord Guan is the patron of military personnel and police, while Mazu is the patron of fishermen and sailors. Tu Di Gong (Earth Deity) is the tutelary deity of an individual locality and each locality has its own Earth Deity. Cheng Huang Gong (City God) is the guardian deity of individual city, and are worship by local officials and locals since imperial times. Christianity A similar concept in Christianity would be the patron saint example of archangels "Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, etc." or to a lesser extent, the guardian angel. Germanic Fylgja Hamingja Landdisir Landvættir Hinduism In Hinduism, tutelary deities are known as ishta-devata and Kuldevi or Kuldevta. Gramadevata are guardian deities of villages. Devas can also be seen as tutelary. Shiva is patron of yogis and renunciants. City goddesses include: Mumbadevi (Mumbai) Sachchika (Osian) Kuladevis include: Ambika (Porwad) Mahalakshmi Korean shamanism In Korean shamanism, jangseung and sotdae were placed at the edge of villages to frighten off demons. They were also worshiped as deities. Seonangshin is the patron deity of the village in Korean tradition and was believed to embody the Seonangdang. Native American Tonás, tutelary animal spirit among the Zapotec. Totems, familial or clan spirits among the Ojibwe, can be animals. Indigenous Philippine folk religion In Philippine animism, Diwata or Lambana are deities or spirits that inhabit sacred places like mountains and mounds and serve as guardians. Maria Makiling is the deity who guards Mt. Makiling. Maria Cacao and Maria Sinukuan. Shinto In Shinto, the spirits, or kami, which give life to human bodies come from nature and return to it after death. Ancestors are therefore themselves tutelaries to be worshiped. Slavic Europe Some tutelary deities are known to exist in Slavic Europe, a more prominent example being that of the Leshy. Thai religion Thai provincial capitals have tutelary city pillars and palladiums. The guardian spirit of a house is known as Chao Thi (เจ้าที่) or Phra Phum (พระภูมิ). Almost every traditional household in Thailand has a miniature shrine housing this tutelary deity, known as a spirit house. See also Dvarapala Eudaemon (mythology) Guardian angel Hiisi Liminal deity Nagual National god Neoshamanism Patron saint Uay References Deities by association	[ 0.4638687074184418, 0.3744121491909027, -0.17992834746837616, 0.1854093372821808, -0.17825938761234283, 0.13524000346660614, 0.9867572784423828, 0.02311922423541546, -0.1931566596031189, -0.4860271215438843, -0.851212203502655, 0.17746186256408691, -0.2582511305809021, 0.4756458103656769, -0.5132021903991699, 0.3535526394844055, 0.6616058349609375, 0.5393186211585999, -0.5307694673538208, -0.044160548597574234, -0.8462496399879456, -0.32956168055534363, 0.024075407534837723, -0.128849595785141, -0.016197476536035538, 0.3400166928768158, 0.3818035423755646, -0.14252161979675293, -0.2825582027435303, 0.13636305928230286, 0.31979042291641235, 0.5118743181228638, -0.20219337940216064, -0.3991524279117584, -0.15976782143115997, 0.20787663757801056, 0.3647920787334442, -0.47582918405532837, -0.2310428023338318, -0.6311842799186707, 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207853	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Independence	USS Independence	USS Independence may refer to: Independence (1776 brigantine) was a brigantine built at Kingston, Massachusetts in mid-1776. The brig served in the Massachusetts State Navy and cruised off New England until captured by the Royal Navy in early 1777. was a 10-gun sloop commissioned in September 1776 and wrecked in 1778. was the first ship of the line in the Navy, launched 22 June 1814 and finally used as a receiving ship until being decommissioned 1912. was a steamer commissioned 16 November 1918 and decommissioned 20 March 1919. She was later renamed Neville and used in World War II. , was a light aircraft carrier, launched 22 August 1942; decommissioned 28 August 1946 and sunk during weapon testing 29 January 1951. , was an aircraft carrier commissioned in 1959 and decommissioned in 1998. is a littoral combat ship commissioned in 2010 and decommissioned in 2021. 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207856	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20German%20Cinema	New German Cinema	New German Cinema () is a period in German cinema which lasted from 1962 to 1982, in which a new generation of directors emerged who, working with low budgets, and influenced by the French New Wave, gained notice by producing a number of "small" motion pictures that caught the attention of art house audiences. These filmmakers included Harun Farocki, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Peter Fleischmann, Werner Herzog, Alexander Kluge, Ulli Lommel, Wolfgang Petersen, Volker Schlöndorff, Helma Sanders-Brahms, Werner Schroeter, Hans-Jürgen Syberberg, Margarethe von Trotta and Wim Wenders. Rosa von Praunheim, who formed the German lesbian and gay movement with his film It Is Not the Homosexual Who Is Perverse, But the Society in Which He Lives (1971), also plays an important role. As a result of the attention they garnered, they were able (particularly in the case of Wenders, Petersen, and Schlöndorff) to create better-financed productions which were backed by the big US studios. However, most of these larger films were commercial failures and the movement was heavily dependent on subsidies. By 1977, 80% of a budget for a typical German film was ensured by a subsidy. Most of the directors of the New German Cinema movement were members of their self-owned Filmverlag der Autoren association founded in 1971, which funded and distributed most of their films, and the history of New German Cinema from the 1970s onwards was largely synonymous with it. History As a reaction to the artistic and economic stagnation of German cinema, a group of young filmmakers issued the Oberhausen Manifesto on 28 February 1962. This call to arms, which included Alexander Kluge, Edgar Reitz, Peter Schamoni, Haro Senft and Franz-Josef Spieker among its signatories, provocatively declared "Der alte Film ist tot. Wir glauben an den neuen" ("The old cinema is dead. We believe in the new cinema"). Other younger filmmakers allied themselves to this Oberhausen group, among them Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Herzog, Jean-Marie Straub, Wim Wenders, Hans-Jürgen Syberberg and Rainer Werner Fassbinder in their rejection of the existing German film industry and their determination to build a new industry founded on artistic excellence rather than commercial dictates. Despite the foundation of the Kuratorium Junger Deutscher Film (Young German Film Committee) in 1965, set up under the auspices of the Federal Ministry of the Interior to support new German films financially, the directors of this New German Cinema, who rejected co-operation with the existing film industry, were consequently often dependent on money from television. Young filmmakers had the opportunity to test their mettle in such programmes as the stand-alone drama and documentary series Das kleine Fernsehspiel\|de (The Little TV Play) or the television films of the crime series Tatort. However, the broadcasters sought TV premieres for the films which they had supported financially, with theatrical showings only occurring later. As a consequence, such films tended to be unsuccessful at the cinema box-office. This situation changed after 1974 when the Film-Fernseh-Abkommen (Film and Television Accord) was agreed between the Federal Republic's main broadcasters, ARD and ZDF, and the German Federal Film Board (a government body created in 1968 to support film-making in Germany). This accord, which has been repeatedly extended up to the present day, provides for the television companies to make available an annual sum to support the production of films which are suitable for both theatrical distribution and television presentation. (The amount of money provided by the public broadcasters has varied between €4.5 and 12.94 million per year). Under the terms of the accord, films produced using these funds can only be screened on television 24 months after their theatrical release. They may appear on video or DVD no sooner than six months after cinema release. As a result of the funds provided by the Film-Fernseh-Abkommen, German films, particularly those of the New German Cinema, gained a much greater opportunity to enjoy box-office success before they played on television. The artistically ambitious and socially critical films of the New German Cinema strove to delineate themselves from what had gone before and the works of auteur filmmakers such as Kluge and Fassbinder are examples of this, although Fassbinder in his use of stars from German cinema history also sought a reconciliation between the new cinema and the old. In addition, a distinction is sometimes drawn between the avantgarde "Young German Cinema" of the 1960s and the more accessible "New German Cinema" of the 1970s. For their influences the new generation of filmmakers looked to Italian Neorealism, the French Nouvelle Vague and the British New Wave but combined this eclectically with references to the well-established genres of Hollywood cinema. The new movement saw German cinema return to international critical significance for the first time since the end of the Weimar Republic. Films such as Kluge's Abschied von gestern (Yesterday Girl, 1966), Herzog's Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972), Fassbinder's Fear Eats the Soul (1974) and The Marriage of Maria Braun (1979), and Wenders' Paris, Texas (1984) found international acclaim and critical approval. Often the work of these auteurs was first recognised abroad rather than in Germany itself. The work of post-war Germany's leading novelists Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass provided source material for the adaptations The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum (1975) (by Schlöndorff and Margarethe von Trotta) and The Tin Drum (1979) (by Schlöndorff alone) respectively, the latter becoming the first German film to win the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Although overlooked in early scholarship on New German Cinema, female directors were an important part of it, which encompassed the works of directors such as Danièle Huillet, Helma Sanders-Brahms, Helke Sander, and von Trotta. List of New German movies Machorka-Muff (1963) Yesterday Girl (1966) Young Törless (1966) Artists Under the Big Top: Perplexed (1968) Hunting Scenes from Bavaria (1969) It Is Not the Homosexual Who Is Perverse, But the Society in Which He Lives (1971) Aguirre, the Wrath of God (1972) World on a Wire (1973) Ali: Fear Eats the Soul (1974) Alice in the Cities (1974) Fox and His Friends (1975) The Lost Honour of Katharina Blum (1975) Under the Pavement Lies the Strand (1975) Kings of the Road (1976) The American Friend (1977) Germany in Autumn (1977) Die Konsequenz (1977) The Second Awakening of Christa Klages (1978) The Tin Drum (1979) Nosferatu the Vampyre (1979) The Marriage of Maria Braun (1979) Berlin Alexanderplatz (1980) Lola (1981) Marianne and Juliane (1981) Veronika Voss (1982) Fitzcarraldo (1982) Paris, Texas'' (1984) References Further reading Section of a larger work by Fussell. 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207857	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear%20artillery	Nuclear artillery	Nuclear artillery is a subset of limited-yield tactical nuclear weapons, in particular those weapons that are launched from the ground at battlefield targets. Nuclear artillery is commonly associated with shells delivered by a cannon, but in a technical sense short-range artillery rockets or tactical ballistic missiles are also included. The development of nuclear artillery was part of a broad push by nuclear weapons countries to develop nuclear weapons which could be used tactically against enemy armies in the field (as opposed to strategic uses against cities, military bases, and heavy industry). Nuclear artillery was both developed and deployed by a small group of states, including the United States, the Soviet Union, and France. The United Kingdom planned and partially developed such weapon systems (the Blue Water missile and the Yellow Anvil artillery shell) but did not put them into production. A second group of states has derivative association with nuclear artillery. These nations fielded artillery units trained and equipped to use nuclear weapons, but did not control the devices themselves. Instead, the devices were held by embedded custodial units of the developing countries. These custodial units retained control of the nuclear weapons until they were released for use in a crisis. This second group has included such North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) countries as Belgium, Canada, West Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. Today, nuclear artillery has been almost entirely replaced with mobile tactical ballistic missile launchers, carrying missiles with nuclear warheads. United States United States developments resulted in nuclear weapons for various artillery systems. After the short-lived M65 Atomic Cannon, standard howitzers were used. Delivery systems include, in approximate order of development: MGR-1 Honest John free flight rocket delivering W7 and later W31 nuclear weapons, 1953–1985. M65 Atomic Cannon delivering 280mm W9 and W19 nuclear shells, 1953–1963. MGM-5 Corporal missile delivering W7 nuclear weapon, 1955–1964. 16"/50 caliber Mark 7 gun on the Iowa-class battleship delivering 406 mm W23 nuclear shells, 1956–1962. PGM-11 Redstone missile delivering the W39 nuclear weapon, 1958-1964 M110 howitzer and M115 howitzer delivering 203mm W33 nuclear shell, 1957–1992. M-28/M-29 Davy Crockett (nuclear device) M-388 warhead derived from W54, 1961–1971. MGR-3 Little John free flight rocket delivering W45 nuclear weapon, 1961–1969. MGM-18 Lacrosse missile with nuclear warhead, 1959–1964. M109 self-propelled, M114 towed howitzers and M198 towed howitzers delivering 155mm W48, 1963–1992. MGM-29 Sergeant missile delivering W52 nuclear weapon, 1962–1979. MGM-31 Pershing missile delivering W50 nuclear weapon, 1962–1969 for Pershing 1, 1969–1991 for Pershing 1a. MGM-52 Lance missile delivering W70 nuclear weapon, 1972–1992. M110 howitzer and M115 howitzer delivering 203mm W79 nuclear shell, 1976–1992. Pershing II missile delivering W85 nuclear weapon, 1983–1991. 155mm W82 nuclear artillery shell, cancelled. Likely would have been delivered by M109 self-propelled, M114 towed howitzers and M198 towed howitzers. The first artillery test was on May 25, 1953 at the Nevada Test Site. Fired as part of Operation Upshot–Knothole and codenamed Shot GRABLE, a 280 mm (11 inch) shell with a gun-type fission warhead was fired 10,000 m (6.2 miles) and detonated 160 m (525 ft) above the ground with an estimated yield of 15 kilotons. This was the only nuclear artillery shell ever actually fired in the U.S. nuclear weapons test program. The shell was 1384 mm (4.5 ft) long and weighed 365 kg (805 lb). It was fired from a special, very large artillery piece, nicknamed "Atomic Annie", built by the Artillery Test Unit of Fort Sill, Oklahoma. About 3,200 soldiers and civilians were present. The warhead was designated the W9 nuclear warhead and 80 were produced in 1952 to 1953 for the T-124 shell. It was retired in 1957. Development work continued and resulted in the W19, a 280 mm shell, a longer version of the W9. Only 80 warheads were produced and the system was retired in 1963 coinciding with the introduction of the W48 warhead. The W48 was 846 mm long and weighed 58 kg; it was in a 155 mm M-45 AFAP (artillery fired atomic projectile) for firing from standard 155 mm howitzer. The fission warhead was a linear implosion type, consisting of a long cylinder of subcritical fissile material which is compressed and shaped by explosive into a supercritical sphere. The W48 yielded an explosive force of just 100 tons of TNT. The W48 went into production beginning in 1963, and 135 Mod 0 version projectiles were produced by 1968 when it was replaced by the Mod 1. The Mod 1 was manufactured from 1965 through 1969. 925 of these were produced. Only one type of artillery round other than the W48 was produced in large numbers. It was the W33 nuclear warhead for use in an artillery shell. About 2,000 of these warheads were produced from 1957 to 1965. Each XM422 projectile was 940 mm long, it had a projectile weight of 243 pounds. XM422 were fitted with a triple-deck mechanical time-base fuze. They were to be fired from a standard eight-inch howitzer, if the use of this weapon had ever been called for. The W33's four explosive yields were all greater than that of the W48. M422 projectiles were hand-assembled in the field to provide the required yield, three yielding 5 to 10 kilotons and one with 40 kilotons. There was also a ballistically matched spotting round (HES M424) and a special white bag charge system, M80, composed of charges one through three. The M423 ordnance training rounds and their associated "bird cages" can be seen at the National Atomic Museum in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Efforts were made to update the warheads: the 155 mm W74 and 203 mm W75 were developed from about 1970, and they were intended to have a yield of 100 tons or more. These versions were canceled in 1973. A further development program began in the 1980s: the W82, for the XM-785 (a 155 mm shell), was intended to yield up to two kilotons with an enhanced radiation capability. Its development was halted in 1983. A W82-1 fission-only type was designed but was canceled in 1990. Other developments also continued. In 1958 a fusion warhead was developed and tested, the UCRL Swift. It was 622 mm long, 127 mm diameter, and weighed 43.5 kg. At its test it yielded only 190 tons; it failed to achieve fusion and only the initial fission explosion worked correctly. There are unconfirmed reports that work on similar concepts continued into the 1970s and resulted in a one-kiloton warhead design for 5-inch (127 mm) naval gun rounds; these, however, were never deployed as operational weapons. In 1991 the US unilaterally withdrew its nuclear artillery shells from service, and Russia responded in kind in 1992. The US removed around 1,300 nuclear shells from Europe and reportedly dismantled its last shells by 2004. Focus has since moved to development of nuclear bunker buster munitions. Soviet Union The Soviet Union's nuclear artillery was operated by the rocket troops and artillery branch of the Soviet ground forces. Delivery units were organic to tank and motor rifle divisions and higher echelons. The control and custody of nuclear weapons was the responsibility of the 12th Main Directorate of the Ministry of Defense and its special units. The Soviet Union developed and eventually deployed both rocket- and projectile-type nuclear artillery systems. The first system developed was the SM-54 (2А3) 406 mm gun, nicknamed "Kondensator" (Russian: Конденсатор, "Capacitor"); this was released in 1956. A 420 mm breech-loading smoothbore self-propelled mortar, 2B1 Oka or "Transformator" (Russian: Трансформатор; "Transformer") was produced in 1957. Testing revealed critical operational defects in both systems and they were not put into full production. The purpose-built weapons suffered from the same deficiencies of the American M-65 Nuclear Cannon to which they are analogous; large, unwieldy, and quickly obsolete. Meanwhile, rocket- and missile-based delivery systems were concurrently developed. The original systems (the T7 "Scud", the FROG-1 and successors) were first introduced in the late 1950s. Development continued on missile based systems: T5 Luna (NATO FROG family) free flight rocket T7 (NATO SS-1 Scud) missile TR-1 Temp (NATO SS-12 Scaleboard) missile OTR-21 Tochka (NATO SS-21 Scarab) missile OTR-23 Oka (NATO SS-23 Spider) missile After the abortive effort with purpose-built artillery pieces, the Soviet approach to nuclear artillery was that nuclear munitions should be fired by standard guns and howitzers (without modification) in normal artillery units. The first nuclear weapon for use from standard 152 mm artillery, called 3BV3, was finally accepted in 1965. Subsequent weapon designs followed using existing and new technology: 152 mm projectile 3BV3 for self-propelled guns 2S19 Msta-S, 2S3 Akatsiya, 2S5 Giatsint-S, towed gun D-20, 2A36 Giatsint-B, and 2A65 Msta-B. The yield was 1 kiloton, maximum range 17.4 km. The nuclear weapon was designated RFYAC-VNIITF and designed by Academician E. I. Zababakhin in Snezhinsk. 180 mm projectile 3BV1 for S-23, MK-3-180 (originally a coast artillery piece), maximum range 45 km. 203 mm projectile 3BV2 for self-propelled gun 2S7 Pion, and towed howitzer B-4M, range from 18 km to 30 km. 240 mm projectile 3BV4 for mortar M-240 and self-propelled 2S4 Tyulpan. Normal maximum range 9.5 km, and 18 km with rocket assistance. At the end of the Cold War, Russia followed the United States lead and deactivated its nuclear artillery units in 1993. By 2000, Russia reported that nearly all nuclear artillery shells and missile warheads had been destroyed. France France's nuclear artillery was provided by Artillery Regiments equipped with the Pluton missile system from 1975 to 1993 and with its successor, the longer-ranged Hadès missile, from 1991 to 1996. NATO Belgium, Canada, Germany, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Turkey, and the United Kingdom provided artillery units trained in the correct handling and operation of nuclear weapons and in some cases specialist logistic and security units. Their allocated nuclear weapons were in the custody of US Army Artillery Groups (USAAG) with subordinate US Army Field Artillery Detachments (USAFAD) assigned to the national artillery units. The Groups were part of the 59th Ordnance Brigade. At various times these artillery units operated: MGR-1 Honest John free flight rocket MGM-5 Corporal missile MGM-29 Sergeant missile MGM-52 Lance missile 8-inch (203 mm) howitzer M1, M15, M110, M110A1, M110A2 firing the W33 nuclear artillery shell 155 mm howitzer M109, M109A1, M109A2 and M109G firing the W48 nuclear artillery shell Pershing 1 and Pershing 1a missiles were operated by the German Air Force Italy Nuclear artillery was provided by Artillery Groups equipped with the MGR-1 Honest John free flight rockets, MGM-52 Lance missiles and 8-inch (203 mm) howitzers. The Italian units were (links in Italian): 3ª Brigata Missili "Aquileia": 3° Gr.Msl. Gruppo Missili "Volturno" 1° Gr.A.Pe. Gruppo Artiglieria Pesante "Adige" 9° Gr.A.Pe. Gruppo Artiglieria Pesante "Rovigo" 27° Gr.A.Pe.Smv. Gruppo Artiglieria Pesante Semovente "Marche" Netherlands Nuclear artillery was provided by two Artillery Groups. The Dutch units were: 19 Afdva (existed from 1960–89, equipped with MGR-1 Honest John (1960–65) and M110 howitzer (1965–89) 129 Afdva (equipped with MGM-52 Lance missiles) References External links Video clip of Grable nuclear artillery experiment . 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207858	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden%20Finns	Sweden Finns	Sweden Finns (; ) are a Finnish-speaking national minority in Sweden. People with Finnish heritage comprise a relatively large share of the population of Sweden. In addition to a smaller part of Sweden Finns historically residing in Sweden, there were about 426,000 people in Sweden (4.46% of the total population in 2012) who were either born in Finland or had at least one parent who was born in Finland. Like the Swedish language, the Finnish language has been spoken on both sides of the Gulf of Bothnia since the late middle ages. Following military campaigns in Finland by Sweden in the 13th century, Finland gradually came under Swedish rule and made Finns in Finland and Sweden were subjugates of Sweden. Already in the 1400s, a sizeable population of Stockholm spoke Finnish, and around 4% in the 1700s. Finland remained a part of Sweden until 1809 when the peace after the Finnish War handed Finland to the Russian Empire, though leaving Finnish populations on the Swedish side of the Torne river. In the 1940s, 70,000 young Finnish children were evacuated from Finland. Most of them came to Sweden during the Winter War and the Continuation War, and around 20% remained after the war. Helped by the Nordic Passport Union, Finnish immigration to Sweden was considerable during the 1950s and 1960s. In 2015, Finnish immigrants to Sweden made out 156 045 persons (or 1.58% of the Swedish population) Not all of them, however, were Finnish speakers. The national minority of Sweden Finns usually does not include immigrated Swedish-speaking Finns, and the national minority of Sweden Finns is protected by Swedish laws that grant specific rights to speakers of the Finnish language. English somewhat lacks the distinction between Finns in Sweden (), which emphases nationality rather than linguistic or ethnic belonging and thereby includes all Finnish heritage regardless of language, and Sweden Finns () which emphases linguistic and ethnic belonging rather than nationality and usually excludes Swedish-speaking Finns. Such distinctions are, however, blurred by the dynamics of migration, bilingualism, and national identities in the two countries. Note that speakers of Meänkieli are singled out as a separate linguistic minority by Swedish authorities. History Communities of Finns in Sweden can be traced back to the Reformation when the Finnish Church in Stockholm was founded in 1533, although earlier migration, and migration to other cities in present-day Sweden, remain undisputed. (Strictly speaking this was not a case of emigration/immigration but of "internal migration" within pre-1809 Sweden.) In the 16th and the 17th century large groups of Savonians moved from Finland to Dalecarlia, Bergslagen and other provinces where their slash and burn cultivation was suitable. This was part of an effort of the Swedish king Gustav Vasa, and his successors, to expand agriculture to these uninhabited parts of the country which were later on known as finnskogar ("Forests of the Finns"). In the 1600s, there were plans to set up a new region Järle län that would have contained most of the Forest Finns. In Sweden at this time, all legislation and official journals were also published in Finnish. Bank-notes were issued in Swedish and Finnish etc. After 1809, and the loss of the eastern part of Sweden (Finland) to Russia, the Swedish church planned a Finnish-speaking bishopric with Filipstad as seat. However, after the mid-1800s cultural imperialism and nationalism led to new policies of assimilation and Swedification of the Finnish-speaking population. These efforts peaked from the end of the 1800s and until the 1950s. Finnish speakers remain only along the border with Finland in the far North, and as domestic migrants due to unemployment in the North. Depending on definition they are reported to number to 30,000–90,000 — that is up to 1% of Sweden's population, but the proportion of active Finnish-speakers among them has declined drastically in the last generations, and Finnish is hardly spoken among the youngsters today. Since the 1970s largely unsuccessful efforts have been made to reverse some of the effects of Swedification, notably education and public broadcasts in Finnish, to raise the status of Finnish. As a result, a written standard of the local dialect Meänkieli has been established and taught, which has given reason to critical remarks from Finland, along the line that standard Finnish would be of more use for the students. The Finnish immigrants who moved to Sweden in the 1950s and 1960s were sometimes despised as being a very "low-class" people, as portrayed in the Swedish book and movie Svinalängorna. Distribution of Sweden Finns The city of Eskilstuna, Södermanland, is one of the most heavily populated Sweden Finnish cities of Sweden, due to migration from Finland, during the 1950s until the 1970s, due to Eskilstuna's large number of industries. In Eskilstuna, the Finnish-speaking minority have both a private school (the only one in the city of Eskilstuna, there is no public school or teachers in Finnish at the public schools. Only the lower level is in Finnish, upper level is in Swedish) and only one magazine in Finnish. Some of the municipal administration is also available in Finnish. In the Finnish mindset, the term "Sweden Finns" (ruotsinsuomalaiset) is first and foremost directed at these immigrants and their offspring, who at the end of the 20th century numbered almost 200,000 first-generation immigrants, and about 250,000 second-generation immigrants. Of these some 250,000 are estimated to use Finnish in their daily lives, and 100,000 remain citizens of Finland. This usage isn't quite embraced in Sweden. According to the latest research by Radio Sweden (Sveriges Radio), there are almost 470,000 people who speak or understand Finnish or Meänkieli, which was about 5.2% of the population of Sweden. In the Swedish mindset, the term "Sweden Finns" historically denominated primarily the (previously) un-assimilated indigenous minority of ethnic Finns who ended up on the Swedish side of the border when Sweden was partitioned in 1809, after the Finnish War, and the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland was created. These Finnish-speakers are chiefly categorized as either Tornedalians originating at the Finnish–Swedish border in the far north, or Forest Finns (skogsfinnar) along the Norwegian–Swedish border in Central Sweden. Today Today Finnish is an official minority language of Sweden. The benefits of being a "minority language" are however limited to Finnish-speakers being able to use Finnish for some communication with local and regional authorities in a small number of communities (Borås, Borlänge, Botkyrka, Degerfors, Enköping, Eskilstuna, Fagersta, Finspång, Gällivare, Gävle, Göteborg, Gislaved, Hällefors, Håbo, Hallstahammar, Haninge, Haparanda, Hofors, Huddinge, Järfälla, Köping, Kalix, Karlskoga, Kiruna, Lindesberg, Ludvika, Luleå, Malmö, Mariestad, Motala, Norrköping, Nykvarn, Olofström, Oxelösund, Pajala, Söderhamn, Södertälje, Sandviken, Sigtuna, Skövde, Skellefteå, Skinnskatteberg, Smedjebacken, Solna, Stockholm, Sundbyberg, Sundsvall, Surahammar, Tierp, Trelleborg, Trollhättan, Trosa, Uddevalla, Umeå, Upplands-Väsby, Uppsala, Västerås, Norrtälje, Upplands-Bro, Älvkarleby, Örebro, Örnsköldsvik, Österåker, Östhammar, Övertorneå) where Finnish immigrants make up a considerable share of the population, but not in the rest of Sweden. Notable Sweden Finns Sebastian Aho (ice hockey, born 1996), hockey player Anneli Alhanko, actress Hasse Aro, television host Miriam Bryant, singer Mikael Damberg, politician Markus Fagervall, singer and winner of Swedish Idol 2006 Mika Hannula, former ice hockey player Elsa Hosk, professional model Peter Hultqvist, politician Jan Huokko, former ice hockey player Richard Jomshof, politician Markus Krunegård, singer Markoolio, singer and comedian Markus Mustonen, musician Mikael Niemi, author Martin Ponsiluoma, biathlete Timo Räisänen, musician Sebastian Rajalakso, footballer Mattias Ritola, ice hockey player Elize Ryd, singer Max Salminen, sailor Rami Shaaban, former footballer Daniel Ståhl, athlete Sami Sirviö, musician Puma Swede, adult model Hans Tikkanen, chess player Ola Toivonen, football player Fredrik Virtanen, journalist Mika Zibanejad, ice hockey player See also Sweden Finns' Day Languages of Sweden Sami Karelians Tornedalians Ingrians Forest Finns Finland-Swedes Kvens 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207860	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth%20Farnese	Elisabeth Farnese	Elisabeth Farnese (Italian: Elisabetta Farnese, Spanish: Isabel Farnesio; 25 October 169211 July 1766) was Queen of Spain by marriage to King Philip V. She exerted great influence over Spain's foreign policy and was the de facto ruler of Spain from 1714 until 1746. From 1759 until 1760, she governed as regent. Parma Elisabeth was born at the Palazzo della Pilotta in Parma, the daughter of Odoardo Farnese and Dorothea Sophie of Neuburg. Her mother later married her uncle Francesco Farnese, Duke of Parma. Elisabeth was raised in seclusion in an apartment in the Palace in Parma. She had a difficult relationship with her mother, but was reportedly deeply devoted to her uncle-stepfather. She could speak and write Latin, French, and German and was schooled in rhetoric, philosophy, geography and history, but, reportedly, she found no interest in her studies and lacked intellectual interests. She was a better student within dance, studied painting under Pietro Antonio Avanzini and enjoyed music and embroidery. She survived a virulent attack of smallpox. Because of the lack of male heirs of her father, her uncle-stepfather, and her youngest uncle, who all succeeded one another, preparations were made for the succession of the Duchy of Parma through the female line (her). She consequently received many marriage proposals. Victor Amadeus, Prince of Piedmont and Francesco d'Este, Hereditary Prince of Modena both asked for her hand but negotiations eventually failed, as well as Prince Pio della Mirandola. The Duchy of Parma would later be inherited by her first son, Infante Carlos. After his accession to the Spanish throne, the title passed on to her third son, Infante Felipe. It was he who founded the modern day House of Bourbon-Parma. Marriage On 16 September 1714 she was married by proxy at Parma to Philip V of Spain. The marriage was arranged by the ambassador of Parma, Cardinal Alberoni, with the concurrence of the Princesse des Ursins, the Camarera mayor de Palacio of the King of Spain. She had stipulated to Philip that the marriage would not be consummated until she was decked with the jewels of her choosing. Her request delayed sailing of a fleet of 12 vessels commanded by Captain General Don Antonio de Echeverz y Zubiza and Captain Don Juan Esteban de Ubilla, which was already scheduled to bring the accumulated wealth of three years from the New World to Spain. On July 30, 1715, a hurricane struck the treasure fleet which led to 11 ships hitting the deadly reefs and sinking near present-day Vero Beach, Florida. The marriage was arranged because of the sexual need of Philip V, as his religious scruples prevented him from having a sexual life outside of marriage and he had insisted upon his conjugal rights almost until the last days of his previous consort's life. Elisabeth was a natural choice for Philip V because of the traditional Spanish interests in Italian provinces, and she was the heir of the Parmesan throne. The Parmese ambassador convinced the all-powerful Princess des Ursins to give her crucial consent to the marriage by convincing her that Elisabeth was a simple-minded person, accustomed to nothing but needlework and embroidery and easy to control and dominate as a replacement for the previous, cooperative queen consort. In parallel, Alberoni informed Elisabeth that the king "wishes to be governed" by others and that she would be an unhappy queen unless she swiftly took control, and that she would also be liked by the Spaniards if she removed the influence of the French party headed by the princess des Ursins. Elisabeth left Parma in September and traveled to Spain by land in a retinue led by Marquis Schotta and Ippolita Ludovisi, Princess de Piombino. Originally intended to travel by sea, she became ill in Genova, and the plans were therefore altered. On her way to Spain, she met the Prince of Monaco and the French ambassador, who forwarded her gifts from the King of France. Elisabeth spent several days in Bayonne in November as guest of her maternal aunt, the Queen Dowager Maria Anna of Spain. At the Franco-Spanish border, she was met by Alberoni, who spent several days warning her against des Ursins. Upon entrance to Spain, she refused to part with her Italian retinue in exchange for a Spanish one, as had originally been planned. On 23 December at Jadraque, Elisabeth met the Princesse des Ursins, who as her newly appointed Mistress of the Robes wished to present herself before Elisabeth met Philip V at Guadalajara. The princess had sent out spies who reported that Elisabeth was in fact not at all a timid person who would be easy to control. Elisabeth received des Ursins and asked to speak with her privately. Shortly after, the party could hear the sounds of a violent argument, after which des Ursins was arrested, fired, and immediately escorted over the border to France. There have been many different versions of this incident, and different suggestions as to how it occurred. Alberoni informed the king that Elisabeth had acted with his best interests at hand, and when Philip met Elisabeth at Guadalajara 24 December, he quickly fell in love with her at first sight, just as he had with his former spouse. Queen of Spain Elisabeth enjoyed hunting and wore male riding attire while doing so. She was described as an excellent shot and rider, and often hunted with the king. Early on, she became overweight because of her great appetite. She spent extravagantly, on both herself and her confidants. Her circle of confidants consisted, except her nurse Laura Pescatori, of her Italian doctor Cervi and Marquis Scotti, who were also a part of her Italian retinue. Her favorites among her ladies-in-waiting was first her Flemish attendant La Pellegrina, who acted as the go-between for her and minister Patino, and the Duchess of Saint-Pierre; after the former had married and the latter departed for France in 1727, she favored the Marchioness Las Nieves, who had the task to act as the queen's informant and who by 1736 was said to be the one who should be courted for supplicants to the queen. She respected her chief lady-in-waiting, Countess de Altamira, who managed her ladies-in-waiting very strictly. Initially, Queen Elisabeth was popular because her dismissal of des Ursins made her seem as the savior of Spain from French dominance, but her complete dominance of the monarch soon made her as unpopular as des Ursins. Elisabeth was also unpopular among the Spanish nobility for the decline of formal Spanish etiquette court life, and pamphlets of the "Spanish party" typically accused her of keeping the king in slavery, benefiting foreigners and trying to murder her step-sons. Political influence With the advice of Alberoni and cardinal del Giudice, Elisabeth became the confidante of Philip and proceed to eliminate the French party at court and replacing it with her own followers through a network of clients and supporters, created with the help of among others her Italian nurse Laura Pescatori. Her chief adviser was Alberoni, who guided her as how to protect the interests of herself and Parma, while he himself, as a foreigner, had only her to rely on for his power. Queen Elisabeth quickly obtained complete influence over Philip, who himself wished to be dominated. Reportedly she had physical charm and purposefulness, she was intelligent and could converse, be happy, jovial and charming, but also ambitions for glory, approval and popularity. According to the French ambassador the Duke of Saint-Aignan, she got the king to believe that what she willed was what he wanted, and she shared his tastes and eccentricities; he was also strongly sexually dependent on her, because of his scruples against sex outside of marriage. The bipolar depressions of Philip V periodically left him paralyzed and unable to handle government affairs, during which she handled them: such periods occurred in 1717, 1722, 1728, 1731, 1732–33 and 1737. In contrast to what was normal for a Spanish monarch, Philip preferred to share the queen's apartments rather than to have his own separate ones, and it was in the queen's apartments he met with his ministers. Elisabeth was thereby present at all government meetings from the start, and while she initially sat by the side embroidering, she soon participated more and more and eventually speaking for her spouse while he sat quiet. The king did not live in his own apartments but in the queen's, where he spent the whole night. When he awoke, he discussed the government business with the queen, after which the couple, still in their dressing gowns, conferred with their ministers in the queen's bedroom while the government business was spread over the queen's bed by her ladies-in-waiting. From 1729, they seldom emerged from the queen's quarter before two in the afternoon, after which they very swiftly performed their official functions. Philip did not like ceremonial court life or representation at all, and preferred to live in the smaller hunting palaces such as Pardo or Aranjuez, where ceremonial court life could not properly occur, than in Madrid, and their absence from physical presence in court life and public visibility became so marked that they were criticized for it, especially Elisabeth. After the dismissal of Alberoni in 1719 she was effectively the sole ruler in Spain. In 1724, entreaties failed to prevent the abdication of Philip, who gave up the throne in favour of his firstborn (Louis I) heir from his first marriage. Phillip then retired to the palace of La Granja. Also in 1724, she acquired the San Ildefonso Group for him from the Odescalchi family. During the reign of Louis, however, Elisabeth kept her hold of power. Seven months later, however, the death of the young king recalled Philip to the throne. It was Elisabeth who, with the aide of the ministers, the papal nuncio, theologians and all her net of contacts pressured him to retake the crown. Foreign policy Queen Elisabeth was uninterested in domestic policy and preferred foreign policy, where her goal was to enforce the Spanish presence in the Italian states, combined with her ambition for her own sons, who were initially not expected to succeed in Spain because of the existence of her step-sons. Elisabeth's influence was exerted altogether in support of Alberoni's policy, one chief aim of which was to recover the ancient Italian possessions of Spain, and which actually resulted in the seizure of Sardinia and Sicily. So vigorously did she enter into this policy that when the French forces advanced to the Pyrenees, she placed herself at the head of one division of the Spanish army. In April 1719, the queen accompanied the king on his campaign to the front upon the French invasion; dressed in a habit of blue and silver, she continuously reviewed and encouraged her troops on horseback. Her ambition, however, was grievously disappointed. The Triple Alliance thwarted her plans when British troops raided Vigo, and by 1720 the allies made the banishment of Alberoni a condition of peace. Sicily also had to be evacuated. During the later years of Philip V, when he was nearly senile, Elisabeth directed the whole policy of Spain so as to secure thrones in Italy for her sons. In 1731 she had the satisfaction of seeing her favored scheme realized with the recognition by the powers in the Treaty of Vienna of her son Don Carlos (afterwards Charles III of Spain) as the Duke of Parma, and after the 1738 Treaty of Vienna his accession to the throne of the Two Sicilies. Her second son, Philip, became Duke of Parma in 1748. Queen Dowager On 9 July 1746, the reign of Elisabeth ended with the death of Philip V and the succession of her stepson Ferdinand. As Ferdinand, like his father, left the government business to his spouse, Maria Barbara, the French ambassador remarked that: "it is rather Barbara who succeeds Elisabeth than Ferdinand succeeding Philip." As queen dowager, Elisabeth initially did not agree to surrender the reins of power. She settled with a court of supporters in a rented mansion in Madrid, and demanded to be kept informed of government policy and openly criticized the new monarchs. By mid 1747, Queen Barbara was encouraged to deal with her by Portugal and José de Carvajal y Lancáster, and on 23 July 1747, Elisabeth was exiled with her court to the palace of La Granja, where she spent the rest of her step-son's reign exiled from the royal court and any influence on politics. She hosted grand receptions where she welcomed foreign diplomats and encouraged the criticism of the opposition toward her step-son. The last time Elisabeth Farnese was involved in politics was after the death of her step-son Ferdinand VI in 1759. After his death, the Spanish throne went to her own son, then absent as the king of Naples. Elisabeth was then made interim regent of Spain from the death of Ferdinand VI in 1759 until the arrival of her son Charles III in 1760. In the time between her husband's death in 1746 and her own in 1766, she witnessed many events: the accession to the Spanish throne of her stepson, Ferdinand VI and Barbara of Portugal, whom she hated; and the accession to the throne of Parma of her beloved second son, Philip. In 1752 she built Riofrio Palace as her dowager residence. She later spent much of her time at the palaces of La Granja and Aranjuez. It was there that she died in 1766 at the age of 73. She was buried next to her husband in the Colegiata of San Ildefonso. Issue Charles III of Spain (20 January 171614 December 1788), spouse of Maria Amalia of Saxony. Mariana Victoria (31 March 171815 January 1781), Queen of Portugal by marriage to King Joseph. Philip (15 March 172018 July 1765), Duke of Parma and founder of the line of House of Bourbon-Parma, spouse of Louise Élisabeth of France. Maria Theresa Rafaela (11 June 172622 July 1746), spouse of Louis, Dauphin of France. Luis (25 July 17277 August 1785), known as the Cardinal-Infante. Was Archbishop of Toledo, Primate of Spain and Cardinal since 1735. In 1754, renounced his ecclesiastical titles and became Count of Chinchón. In 1776, he married morganatically María Teresa de Vallabriga and had issue, but without royal titles. Maria Antonietta Ferdinanda (17 November 172919 September 1785), spouse of Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia. Ancestry References Sources Petrie, Charles: King Charles III of Spain New York, John Day Company, 1971 Harcourt-Smith, Simon: Cardinal of Spain: the Life and Strange Career of Giulio Alberoni New York, Knopf, 1955 Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire d'Espagne sous le régne de Philippe V by the Marquis de St Philippe, translated by Maudave (Paris, 1756) Memoirs of Elizabeth Farnese (London, 1746) The Spanish original of the Comentarios del marqués de San Felipe was published in the Biblioteca de Autores Españoles External links 1692 births 1766 deaths Elizabeth Elisabeth Elisabeth Spanish royal consorts Queen mothers Regents of Spain Nobility from Parma 18th-century women rulers 18th-century Italian women 18th-century Spanish women	[ -0.7107495069503784, -0.3510495126247406, 0.9594335556030273, 0.07713336497545242, 0.015980780124664307, 0.3929901719093323, 0.3381572365760803, 0.002475026296451688, -0.5608263611793518, -0.3657171130180359, 0.01586911454796791, -0.06270954012870789, 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207863	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creature%20Comforts	Creature Comforts	Creature Comforts is a British stop-motion comedy mockumentary franchise originating in a 1989 British humorous animated short film of the same name. The film matched animated zoo animals with a soundtrack of people talking about their homes, making it appear as if the animals were being interviewed about their living conditions. It was created by Nick Park and Aardman Animations. The film later became the basis of a series of television advertisements for the electricity boards in the United Kingdom, and in 2003, a television series in the same style was released. An American version of the series was also made. The original film The original Creature Comforts short film was five minutes and a few seconds long and was conceived and directed by Nick Park and produced by Aardman Animations, featuring the voices of British non-actors in the same vein as the "man on the street" Vox Pop interviews. It was produced as part of a series called Lip Synch for Channel 4. The film won Nick Park the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film in 1990. The film shows various animals in a zoo being interviewed about their living conditions. These include Tracey, a depressed gorilla, a Brazilian puma, a mother opossum, and a young hippopotamus who complain about the cold weather, the poor quality of their enclosures and the lack of space and freedom. By contrast, a tarsier, Alex, a former circus chicken, a turtle, and an armadillo praise their enclosures for the comfort and security they bring, and a family of polar bears, particularly one named Andrew, talk about both the advantages and disadvantages of zoos for the welfare of animals. Rather than the subject being one-sided or biased towards one viewpoint, there is a strong balance of opinions in the film, with some interviewees who are happy with their living situation, some who are not, and some who have a neutral opinion. The voices of each character were performed by residents of both a housing estate and an old people's home. Stop motion animation was then used to animate each character, and the answers given in the interviews were put in the context of zoo animals. The polar bears were voiced by a family who owned a local shop, while the Puma was voiced by a Brazilian student who was living in the United Kingdom, but missed his home country. The advertisements In 1990, Nick Park worked with Phil Rylance and Paul Cardwell to develop a series of British television advertisements for the electricity boards' "Heat Electric" campaign. The creative team of advertising agency GGK had seen the original Creature Comforts film and were hugely impressed by it. They were convinced that a series of short films modeled on the original film would be ideally suited to television advertising – as long as the advertising was handled with sufficient sensitivity to preserve the integrity and charm of Park's work. The initial result of their collaboration was three thirty-seconds Creature Comforts advertisements, made in the same style as the original film. This led to a series. Although there had been a tradition of vox pop advertisements going back to the soap powder adverts of the 1960s, the Creature Comforts series was distinctive in its juxtaposition of real-life dialogue and animated creatures. The series featured a variety of endearing plasticine animals, including a tortoise, a cat, a family of penguins and a Brazilian parrot. The characters were seen in their own domestic settings, chatting to an unseen interviewer behind a large microphone. The characters' dialogue was obtained by taking tape recordings of everyday people talking about the comfort and benefits of the electrical appliances in their homes and then using extracts of these – complete with pauses, false starts, repetitions, hesitations and unscripted use of language (such as "easily turn off and on able"). The selected interviewees spoke in a range of down-to-earth regional accents, and the overall effect was of natural conversation. The adverts' warm and cosy tone reflected the warmth and homeliness of central heating. There was a certain charm about the animations, with their quirky humour and sharpness of observation – such as in the antics of the non-speaking characters and in the odd little things happening in the background. The animations had an unusual expressiveness, with the wit often coming from tiny nuances – such as a dog scratching his ear at a particular moment. The characterisation was strengthened by having each voice carefully matched to a suitable animal in a combination that would produce a memorable impact. These features were rounded off by a gentle closing voiceover spoken by Johnny Morris. Morris appealed especially to older audiences, who would remember him and his animal conversations on the television programme Animal Magic. The campaign was a great success and its run was extended over three years. The advertisements received critical acclaim within the advertising industry – with Park, Rylance and Cardwell picking up many top creative awards in Europe and America, including "Best Commercial of the Year" in the 1991 British Television Advertising Awards and "Most Outstanding European Campaign" in the 1991 D&AD Europe Awards. In fact, Creature Comforts was subsequently voted by media professionals (in leading trade outlets Marketing and Brand Republic) as one of the top television advertisements of the last fifty years. As well as attaining a very high level of viewer recall, the advertisements were much loved – particularly the ones involving Frank (the tortoise), Carol (the cat) and Pablo (the parrot). In awarding them a place in The 100 best British ads of the century, the United Kingdom's leading advertising journal Campaign commented "The power of a campaign which can make consumers feel warm towards a utility cannot be underestimated". The many popular awards won by the Creature Comforts advertisements included being voted fourth in the all time 100 Greatest TV Ads by readers of The Sunday Times and viewers of Channel 4 in April 2000. Their position among the classic advertisements of British television was confirmed when Creature Comforts was voted fourth in ITV’s Best Ever Adverts by viewers of ITV in 2005. Finally, in a YouGov survey during 2006, Creature Comforts topped the list of the United Kingdom's alltime favourite animated or puppet characters used in adverts. The Creature Comforts advertisements have now attained a place in popular culture, and are probably better remembered than the original film that spawned them. However, it is claimed that many members of the public mistakenly remember the commercials as advertising gas heating, the main competitor to electricity. Influences The Creature Comforts advertisements were produced in the period 1990 to 1992 and in some ways they were indicative of the shape of things to come in British television advertising. Many commentators believe that there was a fundamental shift in television advertising from the unbridled consumerism and egoism of the 1980s to what is sometimes termed a more "caring" approach in the 1990s. The Creature Comforts advertisements are cited as an early example of this phenomenon. The format of the Creature Comforts advertisements was so successful that it was replicated in other campaigns in the following decades. In later years, however, members of the public became increasingly conscious of the potential uses of their vox pop interviews. This made it difficult to recapture the spontaneity and innocence of the early Creature Comforts advertisements. Although lookalike animations became relatively commonplace in television advertisements, they were usually scripted and rarely possessed the painstaking attention to detail of the original advertisements. Credits Director: Nick Park Creative Director: Nick Fordham Art Directors: Phil Rylance, Newy Brothwell Writers: Paul Cardwell, Kim Durdant-Hollamby The series In 2003, a series of Creature Comforts films directed by Richard Goleszowski was made for the British television network ITV by Aardman Animations. The series has since aired as repeats on Comedy Central, usually late at night. Starting in 2005, it has also aired in Australia on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, in The Netherlands on Veronica, on pay television channel US TV, and on the Internet, as well as on the Aardman Animations YouTube Channel. A thirty-minute special in which the regular characters attempt to perform and interpret the Christmas carol "The Twelve Days of Christmas" was first aired on 25 December 2005. The special was broadcast in Canada on the CBC on 26 December 2005. Humour pervades all aspects of the series, for example: A highly philosophical speech given by an amoeba. An alligator praising her neighbourhood, the sewer. Animals being scared of their own habitat (aquaphobic sharks and walruses, birds afraid of heights, etc.) Background details such as: Insects swarming into a gap in the paving stones when a slug mimics a bird call. Grey aliens blinking in unison. A lab mouse being interviewed while another mouse with a human ear on his back walks by. The series gently mocks the constructed performance sometimes given by members of the general public when being interviewed for television vox pops and documentaries. This includes the attempts to present a cogent but simple conclusive answer to a general question, a sound bite, and the attempts to present a cheery spin on a complex issue while the subject attempts to hide their personal issues and problems with the issue. The series is currently repeated on Gold. Regular characters The following characters are among those who make regular appearances throughout the series. These animals are always portrayed by the same interviewees to maintain consistency throughout the series. Introduced in Series 1 Fluffy – a cynical, cage bound hamster from Catford. Pickles (voiced by Sarah Williams ) – an optimistic Labrador who works as a guide dog for a blind man. She is often seen sitting by her owner's side, but the man's face is never shown on screen. Clement – an old bloodhound who talks about his past life experiences. Sapphire – a teenage dolphin who lives in an aquarium. Trixie and Captain Cuddlepuss – Trixie is a dog and Captain Cuddlepuss is a cat. They sit on a red sofa and frequently argue about trivial things. They are the most recurring regular characters in the series. Anthony – a mysophobic pig. Chappie – an old horse. Sue and Lorraine – two walruses who sit on an iceberg. Gary and Nigel – two garden slugs who mostly talk about plants and gardening. One of them is accompanied by his young daughter in one episode. Dave – a laid-back earthworm who lives with his mother. Stan and Ted – two baby birds who live in a nest. Sid and Nancy – two rats who live in a garden shed. Frank – an elderly tortoise who originally appeared in the Heat Electric television adverts. Dennis – a dung beetle who pushes a ball of dung while walking backwards. Brian – an amoeba seen through a microscope. Despite being an extremely primitive life form, Brian has a highly philosophical view on life and talks about complex science. Unlike other characters in the series, Brian is a CGI animated character. Muzulu and Toto – two monkeys. In the first series, Muzulu and Toto are shown as performing monkeys sitting in a cage and wearing matching pink and blue outfits, but in the second series they are shown without their outfits and living in a forest with other wild monkeys. Megan and Gladys – two Welsh seagulls who stand on a landfill site. Spanner and Trousers – two stray dogs who sit in a skip. The Rudges – a family of sea anemones voiced by the same family as the polar bears in the original Creature Comforts short. Introduced in Series 2 Victor – a mouse who speaks in a thick Geordie accent and lives in a doll house. Derek – An elderly Shar Pei with a Welsh accent. He sits next to a small Shar Pei puppy who does not speak. Brian and Keith – two Bull Terriers who are brothers. Muriel and Catherine – a pair of elderly bats who roost in a belfry. Behzad – a Middle-Eastern-accented Arabian horse who has several different jobs, including a police horse, a member of the Queen's Guard at Buckingham Palace, and a faux Christmas reindeer. Rocky – a black rooster who speaks before it is ready to crow and wake up the farm. Black – a black pig with a yellow RFID tag on her left ear Audrey and Seymour – Dachshunds Fifi and Apollo – House Poodles Miscellaneous A special short was aired in the United Kingdom as part of Red Nose Day 2007. American version Starting in June 2007, CBS planned to broadcast seven episodes of an Americanized version of the show, featuring ordinary American people providing the voices, in the same vein as the British original. The series was titled Creature Comforts and was seen Monday nights at 8PM ET/PT from 4 to 18 June 2007 (only three episodes were broadcast due to low ratings, and was replaced with reruns of The New Adventures of Old Christine); the series was also simulcast in Canada on the CH system. It was the first adult animated series produced for CBS since Where's Huddles? and Fish Police. CBS also created a web presence with the help of the Creature Comforts staff. A behind-the-scenes collaborative account/blog of each episode was posted, in conjunction with the three short-lived airings. The American version was co-produced by Aardman Animations and The Gotham Group. Seven episodes of this series were produced. However, the series ran for only three episodes, before being cancelled by CBS due to low ratings. Its remaining episodes were later premiered on Animal Planet in 2008 (see below). A standard DVD of the show's seven episodes was released on 9 October 2007 by Sony, now entitled Creature Comforts America. Currently, there is no Blu-ray version, even though the show was mastered in 1080 HD with a 16:9 aspect ratio. On 8 February 2008, the show won an Annie Award for "Best Animated Television Production" of 2007. In Australia, public broadcaster ABC Television began airing the American season in Australia on 18 February 2008, having aired the original British version since its inception on both ABC1 and the digital only ABC2. On 24 April 2008, Animal Planet picked up the first season of the American version. It was broadcast in both SD letterbox and native HD formats. Episodes 1&2 premiered on 24 April, Episodes 3&4 premiered on 1 May, and Episodes 5&6 premiered on 9 May. Creature Comforts was nominated for an Emmy Award for "Outstanding Animated Program (For Programming Less Than One Hour)" but on 13 September 2008, it lost out to The Simpsons. Teresa Drilling, one of the show's many animators, won an individual Emmy Award for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation". American version staff Executive Producers: Kit Boss, Miles Bullough, Peter McHugh, David Sproxton, Peter Lord, Nick Park Producers: Kenny Micka, Gareth Owen Story Editors: Chad Carter, June Raphael, Casey Wilson Writers: Kit Boss, Chad Carter, Michael Dougan, Ben Stout, June Raphael, Casey Wilson Directors: David Osmand, Merlin Crossingham Creature Discomforts A series of four adverts highlighting disability and featuring the voices of disabled people telling of their experiences premiered on ITV on Christmas Day 2007. Four more ads featuring new characters debuted in Summer 2008. A new advert, created by Born Free Foundation, highlighted the experiences of animals in lockdown during the COVID-19 pandemic. DVD releases The television series (United Kingdom) is now available to watch on the official Aardman YouTube channel. () See also List of Creature Comforts episodes References External links Creature Comforts Official website Creature Comforts (episodes) "Watch the original Oscar winning Creature Comforts online" at AtomFilms Article about CBS winning TV rights 1989 films 1989 animated films 1980s animated short films Films directed by Nick Park 2000s British adult animated television series 2003 British television series debuts 2007 British television series endings Aardman Animations short films Advertising campaigns Best Animated Short Academy Award winners British adult animated comedy television series British films CBS original programming Clay animation films Clay animation television series ITV (TV network) original programming Films with screenplays by Nick Park British television commercials Animated television series about animals Television series by Aardman Animations 1980s stop-motion animated films 1989 short films Channel 4 television films 1989 television films Annie Award winners	[ 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207870	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynden%20Pindling	Lynden Pindling	Sir Lynden Oscar Pindling, NH, KCMG, PC, JP (22 March 193026 August 2000) was a Bahamian politician who is regarded as the "Father of the Nation" of the Bahamas, having led it to majority rule on 10 January 1967 and to independence on 10 July 1973. He served as the first black premier of the Colony of the Bahama Islands from 1967 to 1969 and as Prime Minister of the Bahamas from 1969 to 1992. He was leader of the Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) from 1956 to 1997 when he resigned from public life under scandal. Pindling won an unbroken string of general elections until 1992, when the PLP lost to the Free National Movement (FNM) led by Hubert Alexander Ingraham. He conceded defeat with the words: "the people of this great little democracy have spoken in a most dignified and eloquent manner (and) the voice of the people, is the voice of God". Pindling was sworn in as a member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council (PC) in 1976, and he was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (KCMG) in 1982. In 2018, he was posthumously awarded the Bahamian Order of National Hero (NH). Early life and family Pindling was born on 22 March 1930 to Arnold and Viola Pindling in his grandfather's home in Mason's Addition, Nassau, Bahamas. Pindling's father was a native of Jamaica who had earlier immigrated to The Bahamas to join the Royal Bahamas Police Force as a constable. His father was also a shopkeeper, occasional farmer, raiser of racehorses and a businessman. Pindling's mother Viola Pindling whose maiden name was Bain was also not from New Providence but hailed from the family island Acklins which she left as a child. Sir Lynden Pindling was an only child. As a young boy Pindling worked for his father's small grocery store which was attached to their sizeable home in East Street, New Providence. He became chief delivery boy using the handlebars of his bike to make drop-offs in neighbouring areas. Earlier, this post had belonged to his then neighbour Sidney Poitier, later Bahamian actor, award winner, film director, author, and diplomat. Education Pindling's parents wanted the best possible education available to him that they could afford. This led to Pindling transferring schools frequently in his earlier years. His primary school education he attained first at Eastern Primary School then located on School Lane, between Shirley and Dowdeswell Street. He also spent some time at a Seventh-day Adventist Primary school at his mother behest. Then between the ages seven and nine, Pindling attended all three of the government's junior schools. He spent approximately one year in each. They were Eastern Junior on Bay Street, Southern Junior on Wulff Road and Western Junior on the corner of Meeting Street and Hospital Lane. He also got his BTE(Been to England) He then spent three years at Western Senior School from 1940–43. While there the head teacher was musician and composer of the Bahamian National anthem, Timothy Gibson whom Pindling also later took piano lessons from. Pindling also participated in sports like track and field and softball. In the summer of 1943, Pindling along with hundreds of children from all over The Bahamas took examinations for enrolment in then prestigious Government High School (GHS). He was one of twenty who won a place. He graduated from GHS in '46. Pindling went on to study at King's College, University of London (1948–52), from which he received a law degree. He was admitted to the Middle Temple on 12 October 1948 and was Called to the Bar on 10 February 1953. Political career By the end of 1953, Pindling had joined the newly formed Progressive Liberal Party (PLP) as its legal advisor. In 1956, he became Parliamentary Leader when the PLP Chairman and de facto leader, Henry Taylor (later Sir Henry Taylor), was defeated in the 1956 general election. Pindling was elected the party's Parliamentary Leader over the dynamic and popular labour leader Randol Fawkes (later Sir Randol). On 5 May 1956, Pindling married Marguerite McKenzie, of Long Bay Cays in Andros, at St Ann's Parish on Fox Hill Road in Nassau. The following month, he successfully contested Nassau's Southern District constituency in the 1956 General Election. Thereafter, he would win successive elections to the House of Assembly in 1962, 1967, 1972, 1977, 1982, 1987, 1992 and 1997. On 27 April 1965 (a day known in Bahamian history as "Black Tuesday") Pindling delivered a speech in the House of Assembly. In a dramatic turn of events, Pindling ended his speech by taking the Speaker's Mace and in a dramatic power-to-the-people gesture throwing it out of a window onto the street. He was elected prime minister in 1967 on a platform that included hostility to gambling, corruption and the Bay Street Boys' mob connections. On 10 January 1967, the PLP and the governing United Bahamian Party (led by Sir Roland Symonette) each won 18 seats in the Assembly. Randol Fawkes (the lone Labour MP) voted to sit with the PLP, and Sir Alvin Braynen, an independent MP, agreed to become Speaker, enabling Pindling to form the first black government in Bahamian history. Pindling went on to lead Bahamians to independence from Great Britain on 10 July 1973 amid controversy. He introduced social security measures in the form of the National Insurance Scheme, and the formation of the College of The Bahamas, the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, among many others. Pindling held the additional portfolio of Minister of Finance from 1984 to 1990. Corruption claims In 1966–67, on the urging of concerned Bahamians, the British government sent a Royal Commission of Inquiry to Nassau to investigate charges of widespread corruption in the Bahamian political system. The four-man commission was headed by Sir Ranulph Bacon, who had recently retired as deputy commander of Scotland Yard. The commission reported that the United Bahamian Party, previously in government, had been a front for mob-affiliated American casino interests, and that the former Premier, Sir Roland Symonette, and the influential Tourism Minister, Sir Stafford Sands, and some others, all received large payments from the casino and resort businesses they had permitted to operate. The commission also found, however, that Lynden Pindling, during his campaign, had been funded and aided by U.S. casino operator Michael McLaney in the expectation that Pindling would permit McLaney to operate in the islands. Because of the report, Pindling broke his link with McLaney, but was not himself prosecuted. Certain prominent mob figures, including Dino Cellini, were exiled from Bahamas, but the casino operations continued. Pindling told the commission that U.S. interests had first approached him with evidence to implicate the UBP in corruption, which led to the royal commission. In 1973, during a U.S. Senate subcommittee investigation of corrupt offshore finances, Mob elements accused Mike McLaney and his associate Elliott Roosevelt of having offered a contract to kill Pindling for reneging on the deal. This plot was discredited, but new elements of the control of the Miami Beach-based, Meyer Lansky-led syndicate over Bahamian business and politics emerged, as well as details of Mr. McLaney's dealings with Pindling, which included cash, aircraft, boats, and a campaign headquarters on Bay Street. In 1983, a report entitled The Bahamas: A Nation For Sale by investigative television journalist Brian Ross was aired on NBC in the United States. The report claimed Pindling and his government accepted bribes from Colombian drug smugglers, particularly the notorious Carlos Lehder, co-founder of the Medellín Cartel, in exchange for allowing the smugglers to use the Bahamas as a transshipment point to smuggle Colombian cocaine into the US. Through murder and extortion, Lehder had gained complete control over the Norman's Cay in Exuma, which became the chief base for smuggling cocaine into the United States. Lehder boasted to the Colombian media about his involvement in drug trafficking at Norman's Cay and about giving hundreds of thousands of dollars in payoffs to the ruling Progressive Liberal Party, but Pindling vigorously denied the accusations, and made a testy appearance on NBC to rebut them. However, the public outcry led to the creation in 1983 of the Royal Commission of Inquiry into Drug Trafficking and Government Corruption in the Bahamas. A review of Pindling's personal finances by the Commission found that he had spent eight times his reported total earnings from 1977 to 1984. According to the Inquiry: "The prime minister and Lady Pindling have received at least $57.3 million in cash. Explanations for some of these deposits were given... but could not be verified." The New York Times is quoted saying "Sir Lynden spent much of his time working to improve the reputation of his country, but became vulnerable to charges of corruption in 1984, when an official commission set up to investigate drug trafficking in the Bahamas found wide evidence of official corruption in his cabinet and the Bahamian police. The commission eventually cleared Sir Lynden of any wrongdoing, but said that he and his wife had at least $3.5 million in bank deposits that could not be accounted for. At the 1987 trial of Carlos Lehder, a founder of the Medellin cocaine cartel in Colombia, prosecutors charged that Mr. Lehder and other drug traffickers had paid at least $5 million to Sir Lynden for permission to use the Bahamas as a shipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for the United States." It is an indication of the level of Pindling's popularity in the Bahamas at the time that, despite the scandalous claims made against him in the US media, he never felt the need to resign or call an early election. Even with the commission's report fresh in voters' minds, he led his party to another election victory in 1987. However, in 1992 the opposition Free National Movement (formed by anti-Pindling factions in 1970) bested the PLP in the General Election, even though Pindling retained his South Andros seat. The FNM was formed in 1971 by a union of the so-called "Free-PLP" and the United Bahamian Party. The Free-PLP were a breakaway group of eight MPs from the then governing Progressive Liberal Party. This group, which was known as the "Dissident Eight," led by the popular Sir Cecil Wallace-Whitfield. After Pindling's defeat in the August 1992 elections, new Prime Minister Hubert Ingraham "strongly rejected the idea that Sir Lynden or any member of his Government should be extradited to the United States to face possible charges. Witnesses in the trials of both Carlos Lehder, a founder of the Medellin drug cartel in Colombia, and Gen. Manuel Antonio Noriega, the deposed Panamanian dictator, testified to payoffs to Sir Lynden, and some United States officials have long recommended that he be indicted on drug-trafficking charges." The FNM won a second landslide victory in 1997, and Pindling retired from politics shortly afterward. He was succeeded by Perry Christie. Death In early 1996, Pindling began showing signs of occasional tiredness and other symptoms. His diagnosis was early stages of prostate cancer. He then underwent a ten-week course of radiation treatment at Johns Hopkins Hospital Johns Hopkins Oncology Center in Baltimore. Pindling was later given a clean bill of health by his doctors and returned to his post-Prime Minister work as lawyer. On his final visit to Johns Hopkins in early July 2000, Pindling's prognosis was fatal, and the cancer had spread to his bones. There was nothing further the doctors could do but offer medication to assist in suppressing the pain. At his home on Skyline Drive, New Providence, on a Friday evening, Pindling, surrounded by ministers and family, was in his final hours. Before he slipped into a coma his last words were the recitation of the 23rd Psalm to his wife. Shortly after midnight, he went into cardiac arrest, and he was pronounced dead at 12:20 am on Saturday, 26 August 2000, at age 70. Following his death, 10 days of official mourning were declared nationwide. On 29 August, Parliament met, and then Prime Minister Hubert Ingraham and others paid public tribute. Two days later, all members of The Bahamas Bar did the same in a special session of the Supreme Court. Pindling's body was displayed in the House of Assembly on Rawson Square, for public viewing for four days, beginning early in the morning on Thursday, 31 August. On 4 September, a full state funeral was held at the Church of God of Prophecy led by a long procession, with the Royal Bahamas Police Force Band at its front and the Royal Bahamas Defence Force Royal Bahamas Defense Force Band at its rear. His body was finally laid to rest at St Agnes Cemetery on Nassau Street in a mausoleum. His widow, Dame Marguerite Pindling, was until June 2019 the Governor-General of The Bahamas. Personal life Pindling and Dame Marguerite Pindling were married from 1956 until Pindling's death in 2000. They had four children together. Legacy In 2006, Nassau International Airport was renamed Lynden Pindling International Airport in his honour. He is also depicted on the one dollar note. References External links Progressive Liberal Party web page Tony Thorndike, "Obituary", The Guardian (London), 28 August 2000. Jayson Blair, "Lynden Pindling, 70, Who Led the Bahamas to Independence", The New York Times, 28 August 2000. \|- \|- 1930 births 2000 deaths Deaths from prostate cancer Bahamian Seventh-day Adventists Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Finance ministers of the Bahamas Prime Ministers of the Bahamas Alumni of King's College London Progressive Liberal Party politicians People from Nassau, Bahamas Bahamian people of Jamaican descent Deaths from cancer in the Bahamas 20th-century Bahamian politicians	[ -0.42618677020072937, -0.030253468081355095, 0.3217083811759949, -0.2522672414779663, 0.12100138515233994, -0.036471281200647354, 0.25876525044441223, 0.12957198917865753, -0.5073202848434448, 0.1240825355052948, -0.3137011229991913, 0.0940677747130394, -0.3554050028324127, 0.8144000172615051, -0.07459292560815811, 0.38473668694496155, -0.19571341574192047, -0.03116961009800434, -0.5130699872970581, 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207874	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm%20behaviour	Swarm behaviour	Swarm behaviour, or swarming, is a collective behaviour exhibited by entities, particularly animals, of similar size which aggregate together, perhaps milling about the same spot or perhaps moving en masse or migrating in some direction. It is a highly interdisciplinary topic. As a term, swarming is applied particularly to insects, but can also be applied to any other entity or animal that exhibits swarm behaviour. The term flocking or murmuration can refer specifically to swarm behaviour in birds, herding to refer to swarm behaviour in tetrapods, and shoaling or schooling to refer to swarm behaviour in fish. Phytoplankton also gather in huge swarms called blooms, although these organisms are algae and are not self-propelled the way animals are. By extension, the term "swarm" is applied also to inanimate entities which exhibit parallel behaviours, as in a robot swarm, an earthquake swarm, or a swarm of stars. From a more abstract point of view, swarm behaviour is the collective motion of a large number of self-propelled entities. From the perspective of the mathematical modeller, it is an emergent behaviour arising from simple rules that are followed by individuals and does not involve any central coordination. Swarm behaviour is also studied by active matter physicists as a phenomenon which is not in thermodynamic equilibrium, and as such requires the development of tools beyond those available from the statistical physics of systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. In this regard, swarming has been compared to the mathematics of superfluids, specifically in the context of starling flocks (murmuration). Swarm behaviour was first simulated on a computer in 1986 with the simulation program boids. This program simulates simple agents (boids) that are allowed to move according to a set of basic rules. The model was originally designed to mimic the flocking behaviour of birds, but it can be applied also to schooling fish and other swarming entities. Models In recent decades, scientists have turned to modeling swarm behaviour to gain a deeper understanding of the behaviour. Mathematical models Early studies of swarm behaviour employed mathematical models to simulate and understand the behaviour. The simplest mathematical models of animal swarms generally represent individual animals as following three rules: Move in the same direction as their neighbours Remain close to their neighbours Avoid collisions with their neighbours The boids computer program, created by Craig Reynolds in 1986, simulates swarm behaviour following the above rules. Many subsequent and current models use variations on these rules, often implementing them by means of concentric "zones" around each animal. In the "zone of repulsion", very close to the animal, the focal animal will seek to distance itself from its neighbours to avoid collision. Slightly further away, in the "zone of alignment", the focal animal will seek to align its direction of motion with its neighbours. In the outermost "zone of attraction", which extends as far away from the focal animal as it is able to sense, the focal animal will seek to move towards a neighbour. The shape of these zones will necessarily be affected by the sensory capabilities of a given animal. For example, the visual field of a bird does not extend behind its body. Fish rely on both vision and on hydrodynamic perceptions relayed through their lateral lines, while Antarctic krill rely both on vision and hydrodynamic signals relayed through antennae. However recent studies of starling flocks have shown that each bird modifies its position, relative to the six or seven animals directly surrounding it, no matter how close or how far away those animals are. Interactions between flocking starlings are thus based on a topological, rather than a metric, rule. It remains to be seen whether this applies to other animals. Another recent study, based on an analysis of high-speed camera footage of flocks above Rome and assuming minimal behavioural rules, has convincingly simulated a number of aspects of flock behaviour. Evolutionary models In order to gain insight into why animals evolve swarming behaviours, scientists have turned to evolutionary models that simulate populations of evolving animals. Typically these studies use a genetic algorithm to simulate evolution over many generations. These studies have investigated a number of hypotheses attempting to explain why animals evolve swarming behaviours, such as the selfish herd theory the predator confusion effect, the dilution effect, and the many eyes theory. Agents Self-organization Emergence The concept of emergence—that the properties and functions found at a hierarchical level are not present and are irrelevant at the lower levels–is often a basic principle behind self-organizing systems. An example of self-organization in biology leading to emergence in the natural world occurs in ant colonies. The queen does not give direct orders and does not tell the ants what to do. Instead, each ant reacts to stimuli in the form of chemical scents from larvae, other ants, intruders, food and buildup of waste, and leaves behind a chemical trail, which, in turn, provides a stimulus to other ants. Here each ant is an autonomous unit that reacts depending only on its local environment and the genetically encoded rules for its variety. Despite the lack of centralized decision making, ant colonies exhibit complex behaviours and have even been able to demonstrate the ability to solve geometric problems. For example, colonies routinely find the maximum distance from all colony entrances to dispose of dead bodies. Stigmergy A further key concept in the field of swarm intelligence is stigmergy. Stigmergy is a mechanism of indirect coordination between agents or actions. The principle is that the trace left in the environment by an action stimulates the performance of a next action, by the same or a different agent. In that way, subsequent actions tend to reinforce and build on each other, leading to the spontaneous emergence of coherent, apparently systematic activity. Stigmergy is a form of self-organization. It produces complex, seemingly intelligent structures, without need for any planning, control, or even direct communication between the agents. As such it supports efficient collaboration between extremely simple agents, who lack any memory, intelligence or even awareness of each other. Swarm intelligence Swarm intelligence is the collective behaviour of decentralized, self-organized systems, natural or artificial. The concept is employed in work on artificial intelligence. The expression was introduced by Gerardo Beni and Jing Wang in 1989, in the context of cellular robotic systems. Swarm intelligence systems are typically made up of a population of simple agents such as boids interacting locally with one another and with their environment. The agents follow very simple rules, and although there is no centralized control structure dictating how individual agents should behave, local, and to a certain degree random, interactions between such agents lead to the emergence of intelligent global behaviour, unknown to the individual agents. Swarm intelligence research is multidisciplinary. It can be divided into natural swarm research studying biological systems and artificial swarm research studying human artefacts. There is also a scientific stream attempting to model the swarm systems themselves and understand their underlying mechanisms, and an engineering stream focused on applying the insights developed by the scientific stream to solve practical problems in other areas. Algorithms Swarm algorithms follow a Lagrangian approach or an Eulerian approach. The Eulerian approach views the swarm as a field, working with the density of the swarm and deriving mean field properties. It is a hydrodynamic approach, and can be useful for modelling the overall dynamics of large swarms.<ref>Toner J and Tu Y (1995) "Long-range order in a two-dimensional xy model: how birds fly together" Physical Revue Letters, '75 (23)(1995), 4326–4329.</ref> However, most models work with the Lagrangian approach, which is an agent-based model following the individual agents (points or particles) that make up the swarm. Individual particle models can follow information on heading and spacing that is lost in the Eulerian approach. Ant colony optimization Ant colony optimization is a widely used algorithm which was inspired by the behaviours of ants, and has been effective solving discrete optimization problems related to swarming. The algorithm was initially proposed by Marco Dorigo in 1992,M. Dorigo, Optimization, Learning and Natural Algorithms, PhD thesis, Politecnico di Milano, Italie, 1992. and has since been diversified to solve a wider class of numerical problems. Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site, a process akin to swarming in honeybees. Ants are behaviourally unsophisticated; collectively they perform complex tasks. Ants have highly developed sophisticated sign-based communication. Ants communicate using pheromones; trails are laid that can be followed by other ants. Routing problem ants drop different pheromones used to compute the "shortest" path from source to destination(s). Self-propelled particles The concept of self-propelled particles (SPP) was introduced in 1995 by Tamás Vicsek et al. as a special case of the boids model introduced in 1986 by Reynolds. An SPP swarm is modelled by a collection of particles that move with a constant speed and respond to random perturbations by adopting at each time increment the average direction of motion of the other particles in their local neighbourhood. Simulations demonstrate that a suitable "nearest neighbour rule" eventually results in all the particles swarming together, or moving in the same direction. This emerges, even though there is no centralized coordination, and even though the neighbours for each particle constantly change over time. SPP models predict that swarming animals share certain properties at the group level, regardless of the type of animals in the swarm. Swarming systems give rise to emergent behaviours which occur at many different scales, some of which are both universal and robust. It has become a challenge in theoretical physics to find minimal statistical models that capture these behaviours. Particle swarm optimization Particle swarm optimization is another algorithm widely used to solve problems related to swarms. It was developed in 1995 by Kennedy and Eberhart and was first aimed at simulating the social behaviour and choreography of bird flocks and fish schools. The algorithm was simplified and it was observed to be performing optimization. The system initially seeds a population with random solutions. It then searches in the problem space through successive generations using stochastic optimization to find the best solutions. The solutions it finds are called particles. Each particle stores its position as well as the best solution it has achieved so far. The particle swarm optimizer tracks the best local value obtained so far by any particle in the local neighbourhood. The remaining particles then move through the problem space following the lead of the optimum particles. At each time iteration, the particle swarm optimiser accelerates each particle toward its optimum locations according to simple mathematical rules. Particle swarm optimization has been applied in many areas. It has few parameters to adjust, and a version that works well for a specific applications can also work well with minor modifications across a range of related applications. A book by Kennedy and Eberhart describes some philosophical aspects of particle swarm optimization applications and swarm intelligence. An extensive survey of applications is made by Poli. Altruism Researchers in Switzerland have developed an algorithm based on Hamilton's rule of kin selection. The algorithm shows how altruism in a swarm of entities can, over time, evolve and result in more effective swarm behaviour. Biological swarming The earliest evidence of swarm behaviour in animals dates back about 480 million years. Fossils of the trilobite Ampyx priscus have been recently described as clustered in lines along the ocean floor. The animals were all mature adults, and were all facing the same direction as though they had formed a conga line or a peloton. It has been suggested they line up in this manner to migrate, much as spiny lobsters migrate in single-file queues. Or perhaps they are getting together for mating, as with the fly Leptoconops torrens. The findings suggest animal collective behaviour has very early evolutionary origins. Examples of biological swarming are found in bird flocks, fish schools, insect swarms, bacteria swarms, molds, molecular motors, quadruped herds and people. Swarm Theory National Geographic. Feature article, July 2007. Beekman M, Sword GA and Simpson SK (2008) Biological Foundations of Swarm Intelligence. In Swarm intelligence: introduction and applications, Eds Blum C and Merkle D. シュプリンガー・ジャパン株式会社, Page 3–43. Spawning Reproductive synchrony External fertilization Social Insects The behaviour of social insects (insects that live in colonies, such as ants, bees, wasps and termites) has always been a source of fascination for children, naturalists and artists. Individual insects seem to do their own thing without any central control, yet the colony as a whole behaves in a highly coordinated manner. Researchers have found that cooperation at the colony level is largely self-organized. The group coordination that emerges is often just a consequence of the way individuals in the colony interact. These interactions can be remarkably simple, such as one ant merely following the trail left by another ant. Yet put together, the cumulative effect of such behaviours can solve highly complex problems, such as locating the shortest route in a network of possible paths to a food source. The organised behaviour that emerges in this way is sometimes called swarm intelligence, a form of biological emergence. Ants Individual ants do not exhibit complex behaviours, yet a colony of ants collectively achieves complex tasks such as constructing nests, taking care of their young, building bridges and foraging for food. A colony of ants can collectively select (i.e. send most workers towards) the best, or closest, food source from several in the vicinity. Such collective decisions are achieved using positive feedback mechanisms. Selection of the best food source is achieved by ants following two simple rules. First, ants which find food return to the nest depositing a pheromone chemical. More pheromone is laid for higher quality food sources. Thus, if two equidistant food sources of different qualities are found simultaneously, the pheromone trail to the better one will be stronger. Ants in the nest follow another simple rule, to favor stronger trails, on average. More ants then follow the stronger trail, so more ants arrive at the high quality food source, and a positive feedback cycle ensures, resulting in a collective decision for the best food source. If there are two paths from the ant nest to a food source, then the colony usually selects the shorter path. This is because the ants that first return to the nest from the food source are more likely to be those that took the shorter path. More ants then retrace the shorter path, reinforcing the pheromone trail. Army ants, unlike most ant species, do not construct permanent nests; an army ant colony moves almost incessantly over the time it exists, remaining in an essentially perpetual state of swarming. Several lineages have independently evolved the same basic behavioural and ecological syndrome, often referred to as "legionary behaviour", and may be an example of convergent evolution. The successful techniques used by ant colonies have been studied in computer science and robotics to produce distributed and fault-tolerant systems for solving problems. This area of biomimetics has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines that make use of "foraging trails", fault-tolerant storage and networking algorithms. Honey bees In temperate climates, honey bees usually form swarms in late spring. A swarm typically contains about half the workers together with the old queen, while the new queen stays back with the remaining workers in the original hive. When honey bees emerge from a hive to form a swarm, they may gather on a branch of a tree or on a bush only a few meters from the hive. The bees cluster about the queen and send out 20–50 scouts to find suitable new nest locations. The scouts are the most experienced foragers in the cluster. If a scout finds a suitable location, she returns to the cluster and promotes it by dancing a version of the waggle dance. This dance conveys information about the quality, direction, and distance of the new site. The more excited she is about her findings, the more vigorously she dances. If she can convince others they may take off and check the site she found. If they approve they may promote it as well. In this decision-making process, scouts check several sites, often abandoning their own original site to promote the superior site of another scout. Several different sites may be promoted by different scouts at first. After some hours and sometimes days, a preferred location eventually emerges from this decision-making process. When all scouts agree on the final location, the whole cluster takes off and swarms to it. Sometimes, if no decision is reached, the swarm will separate, some bees going in one direction; others, going in another. This usually results in failure, with both groups dying. A new location is typically a kilometre or more from the original hive, though some species, e.g., Apis dorsata, may establish new colonies within as little as 500 meters from the natal nest. This collective decision making process is remarkably successful in identifying the most suitable new nest site and keeping the swarm intact. A good hive site has to be large enough to accommodate the swarm (about 15 litres in volume), has to be well-protected from the elements, receive an optimal amount of sunshine, be some height above the ground, have a small entrance and be capable of resisting ant infestation - that is why tree cavities are often selected.Bee Swarms Follow High-speed 'Streaker' Bees To Find A New Nest; ScienceDaily (Nov. 24, 2008) Non-social insects Unlike social insects, swarms of non-social insects that have been studied primarily seem to function in contexts such as mating, feeding, predator avoidance, and migration. Moths Moths may exhibit synchronized mating, during which pheromones released by females initiate searching and swarming behavior in males. Males sense pheromones with sensitive antennae and may track females as far as several kilometers away. Swarm mating involves female choice and male competition. Only one male in the swarm—typically the first—will successfully copulate. Females maximize fitness benefits and minimize cost by governing the onset and magnitude of pheromone deployed. Whereas too little pheromone won't attract a mate, too much allows less fit males to sense the signal. After copulation, females lay the eggs on a host plant. Quality of host plant may be a factor influencing the location of swarming and egg-laying. In one case, researchers observed pink-striped oakworm moths (Anisota virginiensis) swarming at a carrion site, where decomposition likely increased soil nutrient levels and host plant quality. Flies Midges, such as Tokunagayusurika akamusi, form swarms, dancing in the air. Swarming serves multiple purposes, including the facilitation of mating by attracting females to approach the swarm, a phenomenon known as lek mating. Such cloud-like swarms often form in early evening when the sun is getting low, at the tip of a bush, on a hilltop, over a pool of water, or even sometimes above a person. The forming of such swarms is not out of instinct, but an adaptive behavior – a "consensus" – between the individuals within the swarms. It is also suggested that swarming is a ritual, because there is rarely any male midge by itself and not in a swarm. This could have formed due to the benefit of lowering inbreeding by having males of various genes gathering in one spot. The genus Culicoides, also known as biting midges, have displayed swarming behavior which are believed to cause confusion in predators. Cockroaches Cockroaches leave chemical trails in their feces as well as emitting airborne pheromones for mating. Other cockroaches will follow these trails to discover sources of food and water, and also discover where other cockroaches are hiding. Thus, groups of cockroaches can exhibit emergent behaviour, in which group or swarm behaviour emerges from a simple set of individual interactions. Cockroaches are mainly nocturnal and will run away when exposed to light. A study tested the hypothesis that cockroaches use just two pieces of information to decide where to go under those conditions: how dark it is and how many other cockroaches there are. The study conducted by José Halloy and colleagues at the Free University of Brussels and other European institutions created a set of tiny robots that appear to the roaches as other roaches and can thus alter the roaches' perception of critical mass. The robots were also specially scented so that they would be accepted by the real roaches. Locusts Locusts are the swarming phase of the short-horned grasshoppers of the family Acrididae. Some species can breed rapidly under suitable conditions and subsequently become gregarious and migratory. They form bands as nymphs and swarms as adults—both of which can travel great distances, rapidly stripping fields and greatly damaging crops. The largest swarms can cover hundreds of square miles and contain billions of locusts. A locust can eat its own weight (about 2 grams) in plants every day. That means one million locusts can eat more than one tonne of food each day, and the largest swarms can consume over 100,000 tonnes each day. Swarming in locusts has been found to be associated with increased levels of serotonin which causes the locust to change colour, eat much more, become mutually attracted, and breed much more easily. Researchers propose that swarming behaviour is a response to overcrowding and studies have shown that increased tactile stimulation of the hind legs or, in some species, simply encountering other individuals causes an increase in levels of serotonin. The transformation of the locust to the swarming variety can be induced by several contacts per minute over a four-hour period.Blocking 'happiness' chemical may prevent locust plagues, New Scientist, 2009-01-29, accessed 2009-01-31 Notably, an innate predisposition to aggregate has been found in hatchlings of the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria, independent of their parental phase. An individual locust's response to a loss of alignment in the group appears to increase the randomness of its motion, until an aligned state is again achieved. This noise-induced alignment appears to be an intrinsic characteristic of collective coherent motion. Migratory behavior Insect migration is the seasonal movement of insects, particularly those by species of dragonflies, beetles, butterflies, and moths. The distance can vary from species to species, but in most cases these movements involve large numbers of individuals. In some cases the individuals that migrate in one direction may not return and the next generation may instead migrate in the opposite direction. This is a significant difference from bird migration. Monarch butterflies are especially noted for their lengthy annual migration. In North America they make massive southward migrations starting in August until the first frost. A northward migration takes place in the spring. The monarch is the only butterfly that migrates both north and south as the birds do on a regular basis. But no single individual makes the entire round trip. Female monarchs deposit eggs for the next generation during these migrations. The length of these journeys exceeds the normal lifespan of most monarchs, which is less than two months for butterflies born in early summer. The last generation of the summer enters into a non-reproductive phase known as diapause and may live seven months or more. During diapause, butterflies fly to one of many overwintering sites. The generation that overwinters generally does not reproduce until it leaves the overwintering site sometime in February and March. It is the second, third and fourth generations that return to their northern locations in the United States and Canada in the spring. How the species manages to return to the same overwintering spots over a gap of several generations is still a subject of research; the flight patterns appear to be inherited, based on a combination of the position of the sun in the sky and a time-compensated Sun compass that depends upon a circadian clock that is based in their antennae. Birds Supplementary pdf Bird migration Approximately 1800 of the world's 10,000 bird species are long-distance migrants. The primary motivation for migration appears to be food; for example, some hummingbirds choose not to migrate if fed through the winter. Also, the longer days of the northern summer provide extended time for breeding birds to feed their young. This helps diurnal birds to produce larger clutches than related non-migratory species that remain in the tropics. As the days shorten in autumn, the birds return to warmer regions where the available food supply varies little with the season. These advantages offset the high stress, physical exertion costs, and other risks of the migration such as predation. Many birds migrate in flocks. For larger birds, it is assumed that flying in flocks reduces energy costs. The V formation is often supposed to boost the efficiency and range of flying birds, particularly over long migratory routes. All the birds except the first fly in the upwash from one of the wingtip vortices of the bird ahead. The upwash assists each bird in supporting its own weight in flight, in the same way a glider can climb or maintain height indefinitely in rising air. Geese flying in a V formation save energy by flying in the updraft of the wingtip vortex generated by the previous animal in the formation. Thus, the birds flying behind do not need to work as hard to achieve lift. Studies show that birds in a V formation place themselves roughly at the optimum distance predicted by simple aerodynamic theory. Geese in a V-formation may conserve 12–20% of the energy they would need to fly alone. Red knots and dunlins were found in radar studies to fly 5 km per hour faster in flocks than when they were flying alone. The birds flying at the tips and at the front are rotated in a timely cyclical fashion to spread flight fatigue equally among the flock members. The formation also makes communication easier and allows the birds to maintain visual contact with each other. Other animals may use similar drafting techniques when migrating. Lobsters, for example, migrate in close single-file formation "lobster trains", sometimes for hundreds of miles. The Mediterranean and other seas present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which must cross at the narrowest points. Massive numbers of large raptors and storks pass through areas such as Gibraltar, Falsterbo, and the Bosphorus at migration times. More common species, such as the European honey buzzard, can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn. Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can also cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants. This is a notable factor in the Central American migratory bottleneck. This concentration of birds during migration can put species at risk. Some spectacular migrants have already gone extinct, the most notable being the passenger pigeon. During migration the flocks were a mile (1.6 km) wide and 300 miles (500 km) long, taking several days to pass and containing up to a billion birds. Marine life Fish The term "shoal" can be used to describe any group of fish, including mixed-species groups, while "school" is used for more closely knit groups of the same species swimming in a highly synchronised and polarised manner. Fish derive many benefits from shoaling behaviour including defence against predators (through better predator detection and by diluting the chance of capture), enhanced foraging success, and higher success in finding a mate. It is also likely that fish benefit from shoal membership through increased hydrodynamic efficiency. Fish use many traits to choose shoalmates. Generally they prefer larger shoals, shoalmates of their own species, shoalmates similar in size and appearance to themselves, healthy fish, and kin (when recognised). The "oddity effect" posits that any shoal member that stands out in appearance will be preferentially targeted by predators. This may explain why fish prefer to shoal with individuals that resemble them. The oddity effect would thus tend to homogenise shoals. One puzzling aspect of shoal selection is how a fish can choose to join a shoal of animals similar to themselves, given that it cannot know its own appearance. Experiments with zebrafish have shown that shoal preference is a learned ability, not innate. A zebrafish tends to associate with shoals that resemble shoals in which it was reared, a form of imprinting. Other open questions of shoaling behaviour include identifying which individuals are responsible for the direction of shoal movement. In the case of migratory movement, most members of a shoal seem to know where they are going. In the case of foraging behaviour, captive shoals of golden shiner (a kind of minnow) are led by a small number of experienced individuals who knew when and where food was available. Radakov estimated herring schools in the North Atlantic can occupy up to 4.8 cubic kilometres with fish densities between 0.5 and 1.0 fish/cubic metre. That's several billion fish in one school. Partridge BL (1982) "The structure and function of fish schools" Scientific American, June:114–123. Fish migration Between May and July huge numbers of sardines spawn in the cool waters of the Agulhas Bank and then follow a current of cold water northward along the east coast of South Africa. This great migration, called the sardine run, creates spectacular feeding frenzies along the coastline as marine predators, such as dolphins, sharks and gannets attack the schools. Krill Most krill, small shrimp-like crustaceans, form large swarms, sometimes reaching densities of 10,000–60,000 individual animals per cubic metre. Swarming is a defensive mechanism, confusing smaller predators that would like to pick out single individuals. The largest swarms are visible from space and can be tracked by satellite. One swarm was observed to cover an area of 450 square kilometres (175 square miles) of ocean, to a depth of 200 meters (650 feet) and was estimated to contain over 2 million tons of krill. Recent research suggests that krill do not simply drift passively in these currents but actually modify them. Krill typically follow a diurnal vertical migration. By moving vertically through the ocean on a 12-hour cycle, the swarms play a major part in mixing deeper, nutrient-rich water with nutrient-poor water at the surface. Until recently it has been assumed that they spend the day at greater depths and rise during the night toward the surface. It has been found that the deeper they go, the more they reduce their activity, apparently to reduce encounters with predators and to conserve energy. Later work suggested that swimming activity in krill varied with stomach fullness. Satiated animals that had been feeding at the surface swim less actively and therefore sink below the mixed layer. As they sink they produce faeces which may mean that they have an important role to play in the Antarctic carbon cycle. Krill with empty stomachs were found to swim more actively and thus head towards the surface. This implies that vertical migration may be a bi- or tri-daily occurrence. Some species form surface swarms during the day for feeding and reproductive purposes even though such behaviour is dangerous because it makes them extremely vulnerable to predators. Dense swarms may elicit a feeding frenzy among fish, birds and mammal predators, especially near the surface. When disturbed, a swarm scatters, and some individuals have even been observed to moult instantaneously, leaving the exuvia behind as a decoy. In 2012, Gandomi and Alavi presented what appears to be a successful stochastic algorithm for modelling the behaviour of krill swarms. The algorithm is based on three main factors: " (i) movement induced by the presence of other individuals (ii) foraging activity, and (iii) random diffusion." Copepods Copepods are a group of tiny crustaceans found in the sea and lakes. Many species are planktonic (drifting in sea waters), and others are benthic (living on the ocean floor). Copepods are typically long, with a teardrop shaped body and large antennae. Although like other crustaceans they have an armoured exoskeleton, they are so small that in most species this thin armour, and the entire body, is almost totally transparent. Copepods have a compound, median single eye, usually bright red, in the centre of the transparent head. Copepods also swarm. For example, monospecific swarms have been observed regularly around coral reefs and sea grass, and in lakes. Swarms densities were about one million copepods per cubic metre. Typical swarms were one or two metres in diameter, but some exceeded 30 cubic metres. Copepods need visual contact to keep together, and they disperse at night. Spring produces blooms of swarming phytoplankton which provide food for copepods. Planktonic copepods are usually the dominant members of the zooplankton, and are in turn major food organisms for many other marine animals. In particular, copepods are prey to forage fish and jellyfish, both of which can assemble in vast, million-strong swarms. Some copepods have extremely fast escape responses when a predator is sensed and can jump with high speed over a few millimetres (see animated image below). Planktonic copepods are important to the carbon cycle. Some scientists say they form the largest animal biomass on earth. They compete for this title with Antarctic krill. Because of their smaller size and relatively faster growth rates, however, and because they are more evenly distributed throughout more of the world's oceans, copepods almost certainly contribute far more to the secondary productivity of the world's oceans, and to the global ocean carbon sink than krill, and perhaps more than all other groups of organisms together. The surface layers of the oceans are currently believed to be the world's largest carbon sink, absorbing about 2 billion tonnes of carbon a year, the equivalent to perhaps a third of human carbon emissions, thus reducing their impact. Many planktonic copepods feed near the surface at night, then sink into deeper water during the day to avoid visual predators. Their moulted exoskeletons, faecal pellets and respiration at depth all bring carbon to the deep sea. Algal blooms Many single-celled organisms called phytoplankton live in oceans and lakes. When certain conditions are present, such as high nutrient or light levels, these organisms reproduce explosively. The resulting dense swarm of phytoplankton is called an algal bloom. Blooms can cover hundreds of square kilometres and are easily seen in satellite images. Individual phytoplankton rarely live more than a few days, but blooms can last weeks.Harmful algal blooms in the Great Lakes 2009, NOAA, Center of Excellence for Great Lakes and Human Health. Plants Scientists have attributed swarm behavior to plants for hundreds of years. In his 1800 book, Phytologia: or, The philosophy of agriculture and gardening, Erasmus Darwin wrote that plant growth resembled swarms observed elsewhere in nature. While he was referring to more broad observations of plant morphology, and was focused on both root and shoot behavior, recent research has supported this claim. Roots, in particular, display observable swarm behavior, growing in patterns that exceed the statistical threshold for random probability, and indicate the presence of communication between individual root apexes. The primary function of plant roots is the uptake of soil nutrients, and it is this purpose which drives swarm behavior. Plants growing in close proximity have adapted their growth to assure optimal nutrient availability. This is accomplished by growing in a direction that optimizes the distance between nearby roots, thereby increasing their chance of exploiting untapped nutrient reserves. The action of this behavior takes two forms: maximization of distance from, and repulsion by, neighboring root apexes. The transition zone of a root tip is largely responsible for monitoring for the presence of soil-borne hormones, signaling responsive growth patterns as appropriate. Plant responses are often complex, integrating multiple inputs to inform an autonomous response. Additional inputs that inform swarm growth includes light and gravity, both of which are also monitored in the transition zone of a root's apex. These forces act to inform any number of growing "main" roots, which exhibit their own independent releases of inhibitory chemicals to establish appropriate spacing, thereby contributing to a swarm behavior pattern. Horizontal growth of roots, whether in response to high mineral content in soil or due to stolon growth, produces branched growth that establish to also form their own, independent root swarms. Bacteria Swarming also describes groupings of some kinds of predatory bacteria such as myxobacteria. Myxobacteria swarm together in "wolf packs", actively moving using a process known as bacterial gliding and keeping together with the help of intercellular molecular signals. Mammals People A collection of people can also exhibit swarm behaviour, such as pedestrians or soldiers swarming the parapets. In Cologne, Germany, two biologists from the University of Leeds demonstrated flock like behaviour in humans. The group of people exhibited similar behavioural pattern to a flock, where if five percent of the flock changed direction the others would follow. If one person was designated as a predator and everyone else was to avoid him, the flock behaved very much like a school of fish. Understanding how humans interact in crowds is important if crowd management is to effectively avoid casualties at football grounds, music concerts and subway stations. The mathematical modelling of flocking behaviour is a common technology, and has found uses in animation. Flocking simulations have been used in many films to generate crowds which move realistically. Tim Burton's Batman Returns was the first movie to make use of swarm technology for rendering, realistically depicting the movements of a group of bats using the boids system. The Lord of the Rings film trilogy made use of similar technology, known as Massive, during battle scenes. Swarm technology is particularly attractive because it is cheap, robust, and simple. An ant-based computer simulation using only six interaction rules has also been used to evaluate aircraft boarding behaviour. Airlines have also used ant-based routing in assigning aircraft arrivals to airport gates. An airline system developed by Douglas A. Lawson uses swarm theory, or swarm intelligence—the idea that a colony of ants works better than one alone. Each pilot acts like an ant searching for the best airport gate. "The pilot learns from his experience what's the best for him, and it turns out that that's the best solution for the airline," Lawson explains. As a result, the "colony" of pilots always go to gates they can arrive and depart quickly. The program can even alert a pilot of plane back-ups before they happen. "We can anticipate that it's going to happen, so we'll have a gate available," says Lawson. Swarm behaviour occurs also in traffic flow dynamics, such as the traffic wave. Bidirectional traffic can be observed in ant trails. In recent years this behaviour has been researched for insight into pedestrian and traffic models.Are we nearly there yet? Motorists could learn a thing or two from ants The Economist, 10 July 2009. Simulations based on pedestrian models have also been applied to crowds which stampede because of panic. Herd behaviour in marketing has been used to explain the dependencies of customers' mutual behaviour. The Economist reported a recent conference in Rome on the subject of the simulation of adaptive human behaviour. It shared mechanisms to increase impulse buying and get people "to buy more by playing on the herd instinct." The basic idea is that people will buy more of products that are seen to be popular, and several feedback mechanisms to get product popularity information to consumers are mentioned, including smart card technology and the use of Radio Frequency Identification Tag technology. A "swarm-moves" model was introduced by a Florida Institute of Technology researcher, which is appealing to supermarkets because it can "increase sales without the need to give people discounts." Robotics The application of swarm principles to robots is called swarm robotics, while swarm intelligence refers to the more general set of algorithms. Partially inspired by colonies of insects such as ants and bees, researchers are modelling the behaviour of swarms of thousands of tiny robots which together perform a useful task, such as finding something hidden, cleaning, or spying. Each robot is quite simple, but the emergent behaviour of the swarm is more complex. The whole set of robots can be considered as one single distributed system, in the same way an ant colony can be considered a superorganism, exhibiting swarm intelligence. The largest swarms so far created is the 1024 robot Kilobot swarm. Other large swarms include the iRobot swarm, the SRI International/ActivMedia Robotics Centibots project, and the Open-source Micro-robotic Project swarm, which are being used to research collective behaviours. Swarms are also more resistant to failure. Whereas one large robot may fail and ruin a mission, a swarm can continue even if several robots fail. This could make them attractive for space exploration missions, where failure is normally extremely costly. In addition to ground vehicles, swarm robotics includes also research of swarms of aerial robots and heterogeneous teams of ground and aerial vehicles. In contrast macroscopic robots, colloidal particles at microscale can also be adopted as agents to perform collective behaviors to conduct tasks using mechanical and physical approaches, such as reconfigurable tornado-like microswarm mimicking schooling fish, hierarchical particle species mimicking predating behavior of mammals, micro-object manipulation using a transformable microswarm. The fabrication of such colloidal particles is usually based on chemical synthesis. Military Military swarming is a behaviour where autonomous or partially autonomous units of action attack an enemy from several different directions and then regroup. Pulsing, where the units shift the point of attack, is also a part of military swarming. Military swarming involves the use of a decentralized force against an opponent, in a manner that emphasizes mobility, communication, unit autonomy and coordination or synchronization. Historically military forces used principles of swarming without really examining them explicitly, but now active research consciously examines military doctrines that draw ideas from swarming. Merely because multiple units converge on a target, they are not necessarily swarming. Siege operations do not involve swarming, because there is no manoeuvre; there is convergence but on the besieged fortification. Nor do guerrilla ambushes constitute swarms, because they are "hit-and-run". Even though the ambush may have several points of attack on the enemy, the guerillas withdraw when they either have inflicted adequate damage, or when they are endangered. In 2014 the U. S. Office of Naval Research released a video showing tests of a swarm of small autonomous drone attack boats that can steer and take coordinated offensive action as a group. Gallery Myths There is a popular myth that lemmings commit mass suicide by swarming off cliffs when they migrate. Driven by strong biological urges, some species of lemmings may migrate in large groups when population density becomes too great. Lemmings can swim and may choose to cross a body of water in search of a new habitat. In such cases, many may drown if the body of water is so wide as to stretch their physical capability to the limit. This fact combined with some unexplained fluctuations in the population of Norwegian lemmings gave rise to the myth. Piranha have a reputation as fearless fish that swarm in ferocious and predatory packs. However, recent research, which started "with the premise that they school as a means of cooperative hunting", discovered that they were in fact rather fearful fish, like other fish, who schooled for protection from their predators, such as cormorants, caimans and dolphins. A researcher described them as "basically like regular fish with large teeth". See also Swirlonic state – recently (2020) recognised new state of self propelled particles References Sources Blum C and Merkle D (2008) Swarm intelligence: introduction and applications Springer. . Camazine S, Deneubourg JL, Franks NR, Sneyd J, Theraulaz G and Bonabeau E (2003) Self-Organization in Biological Systems Princeton University Press. . Fisher L (2009) The perfect swarm: the science of complexity in everyday life Basic Books. . Kennedy JF, Kennedy J, Eberhart RC and Shi Y (2001) Swarm intelligence Morgan Kaufmann. . Krause, J (2005) Living in Groups Oxford University Press. Lim CP, Jain LC and Dehuri S (2009) Innovations in Swarm Intelligence Springer. . Miller, Peter (2010) The Smart Swarm: How understanding flocks, schools, and colonies can make us better at communicating, decision making, and getting things done Penguin, Nedjah N and Mourelle LdM (2006) Swarm intelligent systems Springer. . Sumpter, David JT (2010) Collective Animal Behavior Princeton University Press. . External links New York Times article on investigations into swarming From the Wolfram Demonstrations Project'' – requires CDF player (free): Model of a Firefly Swarm. 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207880	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln%27s%20Inn	Lincoln's Inn	The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn is one of the four Inns of Court in London to which barristers of England and Wales belong and where they are called to the Bar. (The other three are Middle Temple, Inner Temple and Gray's Inn.) Lincoln's Inn, along with the three other Inns of Court, is recognised as being one of the world's most prestigious professional bodies of judges and lawyers. Lincoln's Inn is situated in Holborn, in the London Borough of Camden, just on the border with the City of London and the City of Westminster, and across the road from London School of Economics and Political Science, Royal Courts of Justice and King's College London's Maughan Library. The nearest tube station is Holborn tube station or Chancery Lane. Lincoln's Inn is the largest Inn, covering . It is believed to be named after Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln. History During the 12th and early 13th centuries, the law was taught in the City of London, primarily by the clergy. Then two events happened which ended this form of legal education: firstly, a papal bull in 1218 that prohibited the clergy from teaching the common law, rather than canon law; and secondly, a decree by Henry III of England on 2 December 1234 that no institutes of legal education could exist in the City of London. The secular lawyers migrated to the hamlet of Holborn, near to the law courts at Westminster Hall and outside the City. As with the other Inns of Court, the precise date of founding of Lincoln's Inn is unknown. The Inn can claim the oldest records – its "black books" documenting the minutes of the governing council go back to 1422, and the earliest entries show that the inn was at that point an organised and disciplined body. The third Earl of Lincoln had encouraged lawyers to move to Holborn, and they moved to Thavie's Inn, one of the Inns of Chancery, later expanding into Furnival's Inn as well. It is felt that Lincoln's Inn became a formally organised inn of court soon after the earl's death in 1310. At some point before 1422, the greater part of "Lincoln's Inn", as they had become known, after the Earl, moved to the estate of Ralph Neville, the Bishop of Chichester, near Chancery Lane. They retained Thavie's and Furnival's Inn, using them as "training houses" for young lawyers, and fully purchased the properties in 1550 and 1547 respectively. In 1537, the land Lincoln's Inn sat on was sold by Bishop Richard Sampson to a Bencher named William Suliard, and his son sold the land to Lincoln's Inn in 1580. The Inn became formally organised as a place of legal education thanks to a decree in 1464, which required a Reader to give lectures to the law students there. During the 15th century, the Inn was not a particularly prosperous one, and the Benchers, particularly John Fortescue, are credited with fixing this situation. Structure and governance Lincoln's Inn had no constitution or fundamental form of governance, and legislation was divided into two types; statutes, passed by the Governors (see below) and ordinances issued by the Society (all the Fellows of the Inn). A third method used was to have individual Fellows promise to fulfill a certain duty; the first known example is from 1435, and starts "Here folowen certaynes covenantes and promyses made to the felloweshippe of Lyncoll' Yne". The increase of the size of the Inn led to a loss of its partially democratic nature, first in 1494 when it was decided that only Benchers and Governors should have a voice in calling people to the Bar and, by the end of the sixteenth century, Benchers were almost entirely in control. Admissions were recorded in the black books and divided into two categories: Clerks (Clerici) who were admitted to Clerks' Commons; and Fellows Socii who were admitted to Fellows' Commons. All entrants swore the same oath regardless of category, and some Fellows were permitted to dine in Clerks' Commons as it cost less, making it difficult for academics to sometimes distinguish between the two – Walker, the editor of the Black Books, maintains that the two categories were one and the same. During the 15th century, the Fellows began to be called Masters, and the gap between Masters and Clerks gradually grew, with an order in 1505 that no Master was to be found in Clerks' Commons unless studying a point of law there. By 1466, the Fellows were divided into Benchers, those "at the Bar" (ad barram, also known as "utter barristers" or simply "barristers"), and those "not at the Bar" (extra barram). By 1502, the extra barram Fellows were being referred to as "inner barristers", in contrast to the "utter" or "outer" barristers. In Lord Mansfield's time, there was no formal legal education, and the only requirement for a person to be called to the Bar was for him to have eaten five dinners a term at Lincoln's Inn, and to have read the first sentence of a paper prepared for him by the steward. Benchers A Bencher, Benchsitter or (formally) Master of the Bench is a member of the Council, the governing body of the Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn. The term originally referred to one who sat on the benches in the main hall of the Inn, which were used for dining and during moots, and the term originally had no significance. In Lincoln's Inn, the idea of a Bencher was believed to have begun far earlier than elsewhere; there are records of four Benchers being sworn in 1440. William Holdsworth and the editor of the Black Books both concluded that Benchers were, from the earliest times, the governors of the Inn, unlike other Inns who started with Readers. A. W. B. Simpson, writing at a later date, decided based on the Black Books that the Benchers were not the original governing body, and that the Inn was instead ruled by Governors (or gubernatores), sometimes called Rulers, who led the Inn. The Governors were elected to serve a year-long term, with between four and six sitting at any one time. The first record of Benchers comes from 1478, when John Glynne was expelled from the Society for using "presumptious and unsuitable words" in front of the governors and "other fellows of the Bench", and a piece of legislation passed in 1489 was "ordained by the governors and other the worshipfuls of the Bench". By the late 15th century, the ruling group were the Governors (who were always Benchers) with assistance and advice from the other "masters of the Bench", and occasional votes from the entire Society. The Benchers were still subordinate to the Governors, however; a note from 1505 shows the admission of two Benchers "to aid and advice for the good governing of the Inn, but not to vote". The practice of using Governors died out in 1572 and, from 1584, the term was applied to Benchers, with the power of a Governor and a new Bencher being synonymous. There are approximately 296 Benchers as of November 2013, with the body consisting of those members of the Inn elected to high judicial office, those who have sat as Queen's Counsel for six or seven years and some of the more distinguished "junior" barristers (those barristers who are not Queen's Counsel). There are also "additional benchers"—members of the Inn who have been successful in a profession other than the law, who have the rights of a normal bencher except that they cannot hold an office, such as Treasurer. In addition there are "honorary benchers", who hold all the rights of a Bencher except the right to vote and the right to hold an office. These are people of "sufficient distinction" who have been elected by the Inn, and includes people such as Margaret Thatcher, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. In common with the other Inns, Lincoln's Inn also has a "Royal Bencher"—a member or members of the Royal Family who have been elected Benchers. The present Royal Bencher is Duke of Kent who was elected after the death of the previous incumbent Princess Margaret. In 1943, when she was elected as Royal Bencher, Queen Mary became the first female Bencher in any Inn. His Royal Highness Prince Andrew Duke of York was elected a Royal Bencher in December 2012. Buildings and architectural points of note The Inn is situated between Chancery Lane and Lincoln's Inn Fields, north of Inner and Middle Temples and south of Gray's Inn. Lincoln's Inn is surrounded by a brick wall separating it from the neighbourhood; this was first erected in 1562, and it is said that Ben Jonson did some of the brickwork. The only surviving part is that on the western side between the North Lawn and the Fields. As well as the major buildings discussed below, the Inn consists of: Old Square, Old Buildings, Stone Buildings and Hardwicke buildings. First built in 1683, New Square, sometimes known as Serle Court, finished in about 1697. New Square was originally named Serle's Court because it was built as a compromise between the Inn and Henry Serle over ownership of the land. A compromise was made in 1682, and Serle built 11 brick sets of chambers on three sides of the square between 1682 and 1693. Alterations were made in 1843, when the open area in the middle was replaced by gardens and lawns. Because of its difficult history of ownership, some parts of the Square are still freehold, with individuals owning floors or sections of floors within the buildings. The Lincoln's Inn Act 1860 was passed directly to allow the Inn to charge the various freeholders in the Square fees. Stone Buildings was built between 1775 and 1780 using the designs of Robert Taylor, with the exception of No. 7, which was completed the range in the same style in 1845. The design was originally meant to be part of a massive rebuilding of the entire Inn, but this was never completed. Stone Buildings were seriously damaged during The Blitz, but their external appearance remains much the same. From "within" it appears as a cul de sac rather than a square, the two ranges closed to the north with a third which originally contained the library. The eastern side along Chancery Lane and the western backing onto the North Lawn. These provide the standard layout of "staircases" of working chambers. From the North Lawn there is no access but the west range provides a fine institutional range of some distinction. No. 10 was originally provided by the Inn to strengthen its ties with Chancery (which used to be held in the Old Hall) as the office of the Six Clerks of the Court of Chancery, with the Inn taking it back when the Clerks were abolished and the Court moved to the Royal Courts of Justice in 1882. It is currently used as the headquarters of the Inns of Court & City Yeomanry, part of the Territorial Army. The Officers Mess facilities make use of the principal rooms. Lincoln's Inn has maintained a corps of volunteers in times of war since 1585, when 95 members of the Inn made a pledge to protect Queen Elizabeth against Spain. George III gave the then-temporary unit the epithet "The Devil's Own", which remains attached to the Regiment to this day. There is a large War Memorial between New Square and the North lawn containing the names of the members of the Inn killed in the First World War and World War 2. Old Square and Old Buildings were built between 1525 and 1609, initially running between numbers 1 and 26. Although 1 exists near the Gatehouse, the others now only run from 16 to 24, with some buildings having been merged to the point where the entrances for 25 and 26 now frame windows, not doorways. Hardwicke Buildings was built in the 1960s, was originally named "Hale Court", between the east range of New Square name changed in the 1990s. The buildings of Lincoln's Inn in Old Square, New Square and Stone Buildings are normally divided into four or five floors of barristers' chambers, with residential flats on the top floor. The buildings are used both by barristers and solicitors and other professional bodies. Old Hall The Old Hall dates from at least 1489, when it replaced the smaller "bishops hall". The Old Hall is 71 feet long and 32 feet wide, although little remains of the original size and shape; it was significantly altered in 1625, 1652, 1706 and 1819. A former librarian reported that it was "extensively remodelled" by Francis Bernasconi in 1800. This remodelling led to the covering of the oak beams with a curved plaster ceiling, "a most barbarous innovation". The weight of the plaster created the risk that the roof would collapse, and between 1924 and 1927 Sir John Simpson dismantled the entire hall, straightening warped timbers, removing the plaster, replacing any unserviceable sections and then putting the entire hall back together. It was reopened on 22 November 1928 by Queen Mary. As well as its use for revels, moots and feasts, the Old Hall was also used as a court. The Master of the Rolls sat there between 1717 and 1724 while the Rolls Court was being rebuilt, and Lord Talbot used it as a court in 1733. From 1737 onward it was used to house the Court of Chancery, a practice that ended with the opening of the Royal Courts of Justice. The Hall's most famous use as a court is in the start of Charles Dickens' Bleak House, which opens with "London. Michaelmas Term lately over, and the Lord Chancellor sitting in Lincoln's Inn Hall". It is now used for examinations, lectures, social functions and can be hired for private events. In 2010 the Hall was refurbished and its Crypt was improved and made more accessible by the installation of a stairs from the outside. Chapel The first mention of a chapel in Lincoln's Inn comes from 1428. By the 17th century, this had become too small, and discussions started about building a new one in 1608. The current chapel was built between 1620 and 1623 by Inigo Jones, and was extensively rebuilt in 1797 and again in 1883. Other repairs took place in 1685, after the consultation of Christopher Wren, and again in 1915. The chapel is built on a fan-vaulted, open undercroft and has acted (sometimes simultaneously) as a crypt, meeting place and place of recreation. For many years only Benchers were allowed to be buried in the Crypt, with the last one being interred on 15 May 1852. Before that, however, it was open to any member or servant of the society; in 1829 a former Preacher was interred, and in 1780 William Turner, described as "Hatch-keeper and Washpot to this Honble. Society", was buried. The chapel has a bell said to date from 1596, although this is not considered likely. Traditionally, the bell would chime a curfew at 9 pm, with a stroke for each year of the current Treasurer's age. The bell would also chime between 12:30 and 1:00 pm when a Bencher had died. Inside the chapel are six stained glass windows, three on each side, designed by the Van Linge family. The chapel's first pipe organ was a Flight & Robson model installed in 1820. A substantial William Hill organ replaced it in 1856; a model designed at the peak of his skill, with thick lead and tin pipes, a set of pedals, and three manuals. During its service years it was rebuilt nine times, the final overhaul carried out in 1969. In the 2000s the organ, increasingly unreliable, was seen to have little unaltered initial material, with little hope of returning it to original condition, and it was replaced with a Kenneth Tickell model, the new organ installed during 2009–2010. The chapel is used for concerts throughout the year. Great Hall The Great Hall, or New Hall, was constructed during the 19th century. The Inn's membership had grown to the point where the Old Hall was too small for meetings, and so the Benchers decided to construct a new hall, also containing sizable rooms for their use, and a library. The new building was designed by Philip Hardwick, with the foundation stone laid on 20 April 1843 by James Lewis Knight-Bruce, the Treasurer. The building was completed by 1845, and opened by Queen Victoria on 30 October. The Hall is long, wide, and high, much larger than the Old Hall. The Great Hall is used for the call to the Bar, as a dining place and for concerts arranged through the Bar Musical Society. The lower ground floor was divided by a mezzanine in 2007 and the upper part became the Members Common Room for informal dining and with a lounge. It replaced the Junior Common Room, Barristers Members Room and Benchers Room as a social facility. In effect it is a club providing bar and restaurant facilities for all "entitled" persons, meaning members of the Inn and its bona fide tenants. Library The Library was first mentioned in 1471, and originally existed in a building next to the Old Hall before being moved to a set of chambers at No. 2 Stone Buildings in 1787. A bequest by John Nethersale in 1497 is recorded as an early acquisition. The current Library was built as part of the complex containing the Great Hall, to the designs of Hardwick and was finished in 1845 being formally opened by Queen Victoria. At this point it was 80 feet long, 40 feet wide and 44 feet high. It was extended, almost doubled, in 1872 by George Gilbert Scott in the same style. The ground floor contained a Court room which became part of the Library facilities when the Court of Chancery moved out of the Inn in the 1880s. It has since 2010 been utilised as a lecture room and during the developments of 2016 to 2018 became the 'interim' Members Common Room. The Library contains a large collection of rare books, including the Hale Manuscripts, the complete collection of Sir Matthew Hale, which he left to the Inn on his death in 1676. The Library also contains over 1,000 other rare manuscripts, and approximately 2,000 pamphlets. The total collection of the Library, including textbooks and practitioners works, is approximately 150,000 volumes. The collection also includes a complete set of Parliamentary records. The Library is open to all students and barristers of Lincoln's Inn, as well as outside scholars and solicitors by application. The Library is primarily a reference library, so borrowing is restricted. The only other lending service available is offered by Middle Temple Library, which permits barristers and students of any Inn, on production of suitable ID, to borrow current editions of textbooks that are not loose-leaf – but not any other material – half an hour before closing for return by half an hour after opening the following day. Gatehouse The Gatehouse from Chancery Lane is the oldest existing part of the Inn, and was built between 1518 and 1521. The Gatehouse was mainly built thanks to the efforts of Sir Thomas Lovell, the Treasurer at the time, who provided at least a third of the funds and oversaw the construction itself—as a result, his coat of arms hang on the gate, along with those of the Earl of Lincoln and Henry VIII (the king at the time). The Gatehouse is a large tower four stories high and features diagonal rows of darker bricks, along with a set of oak gates that date from 1564. The Gatehouse was restored in 1695 and again between 1967 and 1969—the arms of the Treasurers for those years (Lord Upjohn, John Hawles and Princess Margaret) were added to the inwards side of the Gatehouse itself. Minor repairs also took place in 1815, when the three Coats of Arms were repaired and cleaned. New Square Lawn The New Square Lawn is surrounded by the block of New Square. It is bordered by the Lincoln Inn chambers, and is visible from the western Gatehouse. Centred on the New Square Lawn is Jubilee Fountain. After the original fountain from 1970 was removed, William Pye installed the new Jubilee fountain in 2003, to celebrate Queen Elizabeth's Golden Jubilee. The construction of the fountain was funded by David Shirley. The Jubilee fountain is a two tier fountain centered in New Square. The top level of the fountain creates arches in the air with the water, and the lower level has complementary tiny fountains. A photo of the fountain can be found on the designer's website East Terrace Underground development, New Library and New Teaching Facilities The Inn has self-funded a major improvement and extension of its facilities from 2016 to 2018. The Inn being a conservation area and consisting of listed buildings could not simply add modern structures within the precincts without considerable difficulty of their impact on the current layout and planning objections by interest groups, as well indeed from members of the Inn. The improvement requirements for the Library and teaching activities were partly addressed by demolition of the Under Treasurer's House on the north side of the Library, which was a post-WW2 building, replacing it with an extension to the Reading Rooms and Book Stack. The solution of providing a 150-seat Lecture Theatre and Tutorial Rooms was to exploit the space under the large east terrace of the Great Hall. The Inn decided to name the new education suite the Ashworth Centre after Mercy Ashworth, one of the first women to be called to the bar from Lincoln's Inn. On 13 December 2018, The Queen along with the Duke of York (Royal Bencher of the Inn) officially opened the Ashworth Centre and re-opened the Great Hall after its renovation (originally opened by Queen Victoria in 1845). Coat of arms For many years, the Inn used the arms of the 3rd Earl of Lincoln as their own; in blazon, a "lion rampant purpure in a field or", which is a purple lion on a gold field. Around 1699, Sir Richard Holford discovered the Inn's own coat of arms on a manuscript, granted to them in 1516. The arms are "azure seme de fer moline or, on a dexter canton or a lion rampant purpure". Following validation using some heraldry books, the arms were placed first in the council chamber and then in the library. Since then, they have been used continuously in Lincoln's Inn. Notable members Muhammad Ali Jinnah, (1876) founder and first Governor General of Pakistan; Sir Muhammad Iqbal, (1877) Muslim poet, philosopher and politician and National poet of Pakistan; H. H. Asquith, (1852) Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith; Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, former President and the Prime Minister of Pakistan; William Ewart Gladstone, (1809) four times Prime Minister of the United Kingdom; Chaim Herzog, (1918) sixth President of Israel; William Pitt the Younger, twice Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1759); Gnanendramohan Tagore, first Asian to be called at the bar; Shankar Dayal Sharma, (1918) 9th President of the Republic of India; Azlan Shah of Perak, former Lord President of Malaysia, Sultan of Perak Darul Ridzuan; Tony Blair, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Lincoln Inn Barrister Ijaz Hussain Batalvi who served as a bridge of justice in the judicial history of Pakistan and played a vital role to make a landmark judicial precedents of Pakistan and set a tower milestone to follow. Preachers of Lincoln's Inn The office of Preacher of Lincoln's Inn or Preacher to Lincoln's Inn is a clerical office in the Church of England. Past incumbents include: John Donne (1616–1622) Reginald Heber (1822–?) Edward Maltby (1824–1833) William Van Mildert (1812–1819) Henry Wace William Warburton (1746–?) Derek Watson Hastings Rashdall Other organisations based in the Inn The volunteer militia, later formalised (1908) within the Territorial Army, and today forming the headquarters of 68 Signal Squadron. 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207881	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelve%20leverage%20points	Twelve leverage points	The twelve leverage points to intervene in a system were proposed by Donella Meadows, a scientist and system analyst who studied environmental limits to economic growth. History The leverage points, first published in 1997, were inspired by Meadows' attendance at a North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) meeting in the early 1990s, where she realized a very large new system was being proposed but the mechanisms to manage it were ineffective. Meadows, who worked in the field of systems analysis, proposed a scale of places to intervene in a system. Awareness and manipulation of these levers is an aspect of self-organization and can lead to collective intelligence. Her observations are often cited in energy economics, green economics and human development theory. Meadows started with the observation that there are levers, or places within a complex system (such as a firm, a city, an economy, a living being, an ecosystem, an ecoregion) where a "small shift in one thing can produce big changes in everything" (compare: constraint in the sense of the theory of constraints). She claimed we need to know about these shifts, where they are, and how to use them. She said most people know where these points are instinctively, but tend to adjust them in the wrong direction. A greater understanding would help solve global problems such as unemployment, hunger, economic stagnation, pollution, resources depletion, and conservation issues. Meadows started with a nine-point list of such places, and expanded it to a list of twelve leverage points with explanations and examples, for systems in general. She describes a system as being in a certain state, consisting of a stock and flow, with inflows (amounts entering the system) and outflows (amounts leaving the system). At a given time, the system is in a certain perceived state. There may also be a goal for the system to be in a certain state. The difference between the current state and the goal is the discrepancy. Leverage points to intervene in a system The following are in increasing order of effectiveness. 12. Constants, parameters, numbers Parameters are points of lowest leverage effects. Though they are the most clearly perceived among all leverages, they rarely change behaviors and therefore have little long-term effect. 11. The size of buffers and other stabilizing stocks, relative to their flows A buffer's ability to stabilize a system is important when the stock amount is much higher than the potential amount of inflows or outflows. In the lake, the water is the buffer: if there's a lot more of it than inflow/outflow, the system stays stable. Buffers can improve a system, but they are often physical entities whose size is critical and can't be changed easily. 10. Structure of material stocks and flows (such as transport network, population age structures) A system's structure may have enormous effect on operations, but may be difficult or prohibitively expensive to change. Fluctuations, limitations, and bottlenecks may be easier to address. 9. Length of delays, relative to the rate of system changes Information received too quickly or too late can cause over- or underreaction, even oscillations. 8. Strength of negative feedback loops, relative to the effect they are trying to correct against A negative feedback loop slows down a process, tending to promote stability. The loop will keep the stock near the goal, thanks to parameters, accuracy and speed of information feedback, and size of correcting flows. 7. Gain around driving positive feedback loops A positive feedback loop speeds up a process. Meadows indicates that in most cases, it is preferable to slow down a positive loop, rather than speeding up a negative one. 6. Structure of information flow (who does and does not have access to what kinds of information) Information flow is neither a parameter, nor a reinforcing or slowing loop, but a loop that delivers new information. It is cheaper and easier to change information flows than it is to change structure. 5. Rules of the system (such as incentives, punishment, constraints) Pay attention to rules, and to who makes them. 4. Power to add, change, evolve, or self-organize system structure Self-organization describes a system's ability to change itself by creating new structures, adding new negative and positive feedback loops, promoting new information flows, or making new rules. 3. Goal of the system Changing goals changes every item listed above: parameters, feedback loops, information and self-organization. 2. Mindset or paradigm that the system — its goals, structure, rules, delays, parameters — arises from A societal paradigm is an idea, a shared unstated assumption, or a system of thought that is the foundation of complex social structures. Paradigms are very hard to change, but there are no limits to paradigm change. Meadows indicates paradigms might be changed by repeatedly and consistently pointing out anomalies and failures in the current paradigm to those with open minds. A current paradigm is "Nature is a stock of resources to be converted to human purpose". What might happen to the lake were this collective idea changed ? 1. Power to transcend paradigms Transcending paradigms may go beyond challenging fundamental assumptions, into the realm of changing the values and priorities that lead to the assumptions, and being able to choose among value sets at will. See also Complexity, Problem Solving, and Sustainable Societies — Joseph Tainter Earth's atmosphere Focused improvement Leverage Point Modeling Nature Stock and flow Systemantics — John Gall Theory of Constraints References "Leverage Points: Places to Intervene in a System," Reproduced original work, archived at the Donella Meadows Institute "Places to Intervene in a System," by Donella Meadows, published in a software development context Meadows, Donella H. 2008. Thinking in Systems : A Primer, Chelsea Green Publishing, Vermont, pages 145–165. Futures studies Systems theory Theory of constraints	[ -0.46883663535118103, -0.045542486011981964, -0.4769813120365143, 0.4000440239906311, 0.03012598305940628, 0.5999419093132019, 0.02411489747464657, -0.2067415714263916, 0.07555798441171646, -0.12507060170173645, 0.18480199575424194, 0.8376453518867493, -0.03629450500011444, 0.15355531871318817, -0.08557754009962082, 0.1137506514787674, 0.1263059377670288, 0.018128853291273117, 0.17851340770721436, -0.014539740979671478, -0.11268189549446106, 0.10456136614084244, 0.5161198973655701, -0.15979216992855072, -0.05433403328061104, -0.2917431890964508, 0.2550896108150482, 0.16747353971004486, 0.3906113803386688, 0.42567020654678345, 0.2351660132408142, 1.567964792251587, -0.6656559705734253, -0.5078617334365845, 0.1767204850912094, 0.006648652255535126, 0.09242216497659683, -0.3541964590549469, -0.0320175364613533, -0.7195705771446228, 0.05117415264248848, -0.25537049770355225, 0.16596651077270508, 0.26069629192352295, 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207883	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Metcalf%20%28writer%29	John Metcalf (writer)	John Wesley Metcalf, CM (born 12 November 1938) is an English-born Canadian writer, editor and critic. Biographical Metcalf was born in Carlisle, England on 12 November 1938. His father, Thomas Metcalf, was a clergyman and his mother, Gladys Moore Metcalf, was a teacher. Metcalf immigrated to Canada in 1962. It was in Canada that he began to write. In 1975 he married Myrna Teitelbaum and now lives with her in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. He has made extensive contributions to Canadian literature through editing, teaching various educational levels across Canada, critiquing other writers, compiling anthologies and publishing and promoting Canadian writers. He is a "storyteller, editor, novelist, essayist, critic", and is known for his satires of Canadian life and academia. His writing is rich in intense emotion invoking imagery, which he draws from his experiences as an educator in Canada. Many in his field view Metcalf as an authority in writing and criticism. Education Metcalf gained an Honours Bachelor of Arts and a Certificate in Education from the University of Bristol, prior to his immigration to Canada. Writing career His first attempt at writing fiction came when he entered the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's Short Story Essay Contest which was followed by eight of his short stories being accepted by the Vancouver-based magazine Prism International. He supplemented his writing career with teaching jobs. New Canadian Writing 1969 included Metcalf's first published stories. They followed a common theme of young people coming of age. Metcalf used the coming-of-age theme, and the events that shape it, extensively throughout his works. His first novella, The Lady Who Stole Furniture, was published in 1970, shortly after New Canadian Writing 1969. The narrator deals with the morality and integrity of his intimate relationship with an older woman. This novella first showcased Metcalf's "skill with dialogue, the idiom and rhythms of speech", which is seen in most of his work. Many of his works follow characters modeled after himself, many are young English teachers who have immigrated to Canada and are displeased with the state of the educational system. His first novel Going Down Slow follows a young teacher as described above as he deals with morality in the workplace, and his second novel, General Ludd, describes a similar character, fighting the implementation of communications technology in his workplace. The Teeth of My Father is a collection of short stories with the common theme of artists' relationships with society and their artwork and personal life. This theme was followed by, and extended in Metcalf's Adult Entertainment. Girl in Gingham is a collection of two novellas. The first, Private Parts, chronicles one narrator's "sexual and spiritual childhood and adolescence". The second, Girl in Gingham, follows another narrator's search for the perfect mate via an online dating service, with the undertone being his realization of people trying to invent themselves to fit what others want, or the ideals of their culture. Short story and Novella forms are Metcalf's preferred form of writing. Metcalf describes that when writing these forms "you got to get it dead right. A beat or two off and it's ruined." Metcalf is a long-time critic of Canadian "cultural and educational inadequacies", and published Kicking Against the Pricks in 1982 to showcase this frustration. It was a collection of 8 essays and included an interview with himself. To encourage debate on this theme within the literary community, he published The Bumper Book in 1986 and followed it with Carry On Bumping in 1988. Both collections consisted of contentious essays focussing on problems with Canadian literature. In an interview with Geoff Hancock, Metcalf asserted that "the quality of the education has declined everywhere over the last 50 years as the number to be educated has risen". He is in "conflict with the dominant nature of North American society" and the influence it has on education. Awards Forde Abroad won the 1996 Gold Medal for Fiction at the National Magazine Awards. The Estuary won University of Western Ontario's President's Medal for the Best Story of 1969. Metcalf was appointed as a Member of the Order of Canada in 2004. Selected works The Lady Who Sold Furniture, 1970 Going Down Slow, 1972 The Teeth of My Father, 1975 Girl in Gingham, 1978 General Ludd, 1981 Kicking Against the Pricks, 1982 Selected Stories, 1982 Adult Entertainment, 1986 What is a Canadian Literature?, 1988 Shooting the Stars, 1992 Freedom from Culture, 1993 An Aesthetic Underground: A Literary Memoir, 2003 Forde Abroad, 2003 Standing Stones, 2004 Shut Up He Explained: A Literary Memoir Volume II, 2007 The Museum at the End of the World, 2016 Sources Further reading Reingard M. Nischik: The English Short Story in Canada: From the Dawn of Modernism to the 2013 Nobel Prize. McFarland, 2017 (ch. 12, pp 176 sequ.; and passim) External links John Metcalf's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia 1938 births Canadian male short story writers Canadian literary critics Living people Canadian male novelists Members of the Order of Canada 20th-century Canadian short story writers 21st-century Canadian short story writers 20th-century Canadian novelists 21st-century Canadian novelists 20th-century Canadian male writers 21st-century Canadian male writers Canadian male non-fiction writers	[ 0.031791917979717255, 0.8373827934265137, -0.6151546239852905, -0.42539912462234497, -0.016787558794021606, 0.6209529638290405, 0.3704678416252136, 0.19602146744728088, 0.11101476103067398, -0.07095780223608017, -0.21740126609802246, 0.6084229350090027, -0.10954374819993973, -0.12863504886627197, 0.29965612292289734, 0.3005582094192505, -0.43273159861564636, -0.09309077262878418, -0.6387290358543396, -0.36484161019325256, -0.292842298746109, -0.3959242105484009, 0.15077441930770874, 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207885	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner%20Temple	Inner Temple	The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple, commonly known as the Inner Temple, is one of the four Inns of Court (professional associations for barristers and judges) in London. To be called to the Bar and practise as a barrister in England and Wales, a person must belong to one of these Inns. It is located in the wider Temple area of the capital, near the Royal Courts of Justice, and within the City of London. The Inn is a professional body that provides legal training, selection, and regulation for members. It is ruled by a governing council called "Parliament", made up of the Masters of the Bench (or "Benchers"), and led by the Treasurer, who is elected to serve a one-year term. The Temple takes its name from the Knights Templar, who originally (until their abolition in 1312) leased the land to the Temple's inhabitants (Templars). The Inner Temple was a distinct society from at least 1388, although as with all the Inns of Court its precise date of founding is not known. After a disrupted early period (during which the Temple was almost entirely destroyed in the Peasants' Revolt) it flourished, becoming the second-largest Inn during the Elizabethan period (after Gray's Inn). The Inner Temple expanded during the reigns of James I and Charles I, with 1,700 students admitted between 1600 and 1640. The First English Civil War's outbreak led to a complete suspension of legal education, with the Inns close to being shut down for almost four years. Following the English Restoration the Inner Templars welcomed Charles II back to London personally with a lavish banquet. After a period of slow decline in the 18th century, the following 100 years saw a restoration of the Temple's fortunes, with buildings constructed or restored, such as the Hall and the Library. Much of this work was destroyed during The Blitz, when the Hall, Temple, Temple Church, and many sets of barristers' chambers were devastated. Rebuilding was completed in 1959, and today the Temple is a flourishing and active Inn of Court, with over 8,000 members. Role The Inner Temple is one of the four Inns of Court, along with Gray's Inn, Lincoln's Inn, and the Middle Temple. The Inns are responsible for training, regulating, and selecting barristers within England and Wales, and are the only bodies allowed to call a barrister to the Bar and allow him or her to practice. The Inner Temple is an independent, unincorporated organisation, and works as a trust. It has approximately 8,000 members and around 450 apply to join per year. Although the Inn was previously a disciplinary and teaching body, these functions are now shared between the four Inns, with the Bar Standards Board (a division of the General Council of the Bar) acting as a disciplinary body and the Inns of Court and Bar Educational Trust providing education. History The Knights Templar and the founding of the Inner Temple The history of the Inner Temple begins in the early years of the reign of Henry II (1154–1189), when the contingent of Knights Templar in London moved from the Old Temple in Holborn to a new location on the banks of the River Thames, stretching from Fleet Street to what is now Essex House. The original Temple covered much of what is now the northern part of Chancery Lane (originally New Street), which the Knights created to provide access to their new buildings. The old Temple eventually became the London palace of the Bishop of Lincoln. After the Reformation it became the home of the Earl of Southampton, and the location is now named Southampton Buildings. The first group of lawyers came to live here during the 13th century, although as legal advisers to the Knights rather than as a society. The Knights fell out of favour, and the order was dissolved in 1312, with the land seized by the king and granted to the Knights Hospitaller. The Hospitallers probably did not live on the property, but rather used it as a source of revenue through rent. During the 12th and 13th centuries the law was taught in the City of London, primarily by the clergy. During the 13th century two events happened that ended this form of legal education; first, a papal bull of 1207 that prohibited the clergy from teaching the common law, rather than canon law, and second, a decree by King Henry III on 2 December 1234 that no institutes of legal education could exist in the City of London. As a result, the Church ceased to have a role in legal education in London. The secular, common law lawyers migrated to the hamlet of Holborn, as it was easy to get to the law courts at Westminster Hall and was just outside the City. Two groups occupied the Hospitaller land, and became known as the "inner inn" (occupying the consecrated buildings near the centre of the Temple) and the "middle inn" (occupying the unconsecrated buildings between the "inner inn" and the Outer Temple). These became the Inner Temple and the Middle Temple, and were distinct societies by 1388, when they are mentioned in a year book. The Hospitallers leased the land to the Inner Temple for £10 a year, with students coming from Thavie's Inn to study there. Early years There are few records of the Inner Temple from the 14th and 15th centuries—indeed, from all the societies, although Lincoln's Inn's records stretch back to 1422. The Temple was sacked by Wat Tyler and his rebels during the Peasants' Revolt in 1381, with buildings pulled down and records destroyed. John Stow wrote that, after breaking into Fleet Prison, the rebels: went to the Temple to destroy it, and plucked down the houses, tooke off the tyles of the other buildings left; went to the churche, tooke out all the bookes and remembrances that were m the hatches of the prentices of the law, carried them into the high street, and there burnt them. This house they spoyled for wrathe they bare to the prior of St. John's, unto whom it belonged, and, after a number of them had sacked this Temple, what with labour and what with wine being overcome, they lay down under the walls and housing,, and were slain like swyne, one of them killing another for old grudge and hatred, and others also made quick dispatch of them. A number of them that burnt the Temple went from thence to the Savoy, destroying in their way all the houses that belonged to the Hospital of St. John. John Baker thinks that the inhabitants took the opportunity to rebuild much of the Temple, and that this was when the Temple's Hall was built, since it contained 14th century roofing that would not have been available to the Knights Templar. The Inns of Court were similarly attacked in Jack Cade's rebellion, although there are no specific records showing damage to the Inner Temple. With the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1539, the Hospitallers' properties were confiscated by the king, who leased them to the Inner and Middle Temples until 1573. Following a Scotsman's request to purchase the land, the Inner and Middle Temples appealed to James I, who granted the land to a group of noted lawyers and Benchers, including Henry Montague and Sir Julius Caesar, and to "their heirs and assignees for ever" on the condition that the Inner and Middle Temples each paid him £10 a year. Elizabethan age The Elizabethan age saw a large amount of rebuilding and beautification within the Temple, and with over 100 sets of chambers it was the second largest Inn (after Gray's Inn), with 155 residential students reported in 1574. In winter 1561, the Inner Temple was the scene of an extraordinary set of revels that celebrated the raising of Robert Dudley as the Temple's "Christmas Prince", a role he was granted in gratitude for his intervention in a dispute with the Middle Temple over Lyon's Inn, one of the Inns of Chancery that had historically been tied to the Inner Temple. Dudley's influence swayed Elizabeth into asking Nicholas Bacon to rule in favour of the Inner Temple, and in gratitude the Parliament and Governors swore never to take a case against Dudley and to offer him their legal services whenever required. This pledge was always honoured, and in 1576 the Inner Temple Parliament referred to Dudley as the "chief governor of this House". The play was partially documented by Gerard Legh in his Accedens of Armory, a book of heraldry woodcuts, which described Dudley's role as Prince Pallaphilos, the lieutenant of Athena and Patron of the Order of the Pegasus. Seventeenth century The Inner Temple continued to expand during the reigns of James I and Charles I, with 1,700 students admitted to the Inn between 1600 and 1640. The outbreak of the First English Civil War led to a complete suspension of legal education, with the Inns almost shut down for nearly four years; the Inns "suffered a mortal collapse". Nothing was done to adapt the old system of legal education, which was declining anyway, to the new climate of internal war. After the end of the Civil War, the old system was not restored; Readers refused to read and both barristers and Benchers refused to follow the internal regulations. The last reading at Inner Temple was made in 1678. Following the English Restoration, the Inner Temple welcomed Charles II back to London with a lavish banquet on 15 August 1661. The banquet was hosted by Sir Heneage Finch, the Speaker of the House of Commons and was attended by the King, four Dukes including the Duke of York, fourteen Earls of England, Scotland and Ireland, 6 Lords and the Chief Justice of the Common Pleas. The group proceeded from Whitehall on the King's barge, landed at the Temple and walked through the Temple Garden surrounded by all the Benchers, barristers and servants of the Temple, fifty of whom brought a lavish feast for the revellers. At the start of the next legal term, two Dukes including the Duke of York, two Earls and two Lords were admitted as members, and the Duke of York was called to the Bar and made an honorary Bencher. During the rule of the House of Stuart, much was done by the Court of Star Chamber to enforce religious edicts against Catholicism within the Inner Temple. An order was sent directly to the Benchers proclaiming that no "pson eyther convented or suspected for papistrye shulde be called eyther to the benche or to the barre", and at the same time Benchers were selected specifically because of their Protestant beliefs, with popular and successful Catholics held back. This period also features an example of the independent standing of the Temple; in 1668 the Lord Mayor of London attempted to enter the Temple with his sword, something that was his right in the City but not permitted within the Temple. The students took his sword and forced him to spend the night in a set of chambers; when he escaped and tried to return, they called the Trained Bands. The Mayor complained to the King, who heard the case on 7 April 1669 and decided to allow it to be determined by law rather than by his royal privilege; the lawyers returned to the principle that the Temple could set its own internal rules on the right to carry swords. Much of the Inn was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666, and extensive damage was done in other fires in 1677 and 1678. One of these fires destroyed Caeser's Buildings, on Middle Temple Lane where Lamb Buildings now stand, and the site was purchased by Middle Temple from Inner Temple, which needed the proceeds to repair or rebuild other buildings. Eighteenth century to the present The 18th century was a period of relative stability, with an element of decline. The Benchers of the time were described as "opposed to all modern fashions, including new-fangled comforts", with the Inn's buildings deteriorating. Much of the Temple was rebuilt during the 19th century, most noticeably the Hall and Library, although fever and disease continued as a result of the Inn's outdated systems; the same water was used both for drinking and for flushing the toilet, for example. In 1922 the Temple called Ivy Williams to the bar, making her the first female barrister in England and Wales. The Temple suffered massively during The Blitz in the Second World War, including attacks on 19 September and 26 September 1940, which destroyed the Library clocktower and the Hall respectively; on 10–11 May 1941 the Inn was hit by a series of incendiaries which destroyed the inside of Temple Church, the Hall, the Library and many sets of chambers. Fires continued to burn for another day, despite the assistance of the Fire Brigade and several barristers and employees. It was decided not to start rebuilding until after the cessation of hostilities, and plans began in 1944, when the Temple contacted the War Damage Commission to provide the £1.5 million to cover the damage. £1.4 million was provided, with the rest found elsewhere. There was a further delay due to the Temple's choice of architect, Hubert Worthington, who was so slow that the Benchers ended up replacing him with his junior associate, T.W. Sutcliffe, and eventually Sir Edward Maufe. The chambers were the priority, with parts of King's Bench Walk finished in 1949, and the final building (the Library) was opened on 21 April 1958. In 2001 the Inner Temple bought the neighbouring 1–2 Serjeant's Inn, which can be accessed directly from the Inner Temple, with the intention of converting it to barristers' chambers. However, instead, the premises has been let on a 99-year lease to Apex Hotels. No. 3 Serjeant's Inn has been a barristers' chambers, occupying commercial premises, since 1986. Mitre Court, which connects the Inner Temple area, Serjeant's Inn and Fleet Street, is occupied as barristers' chambers, residential flats and more recently, solicitors. Structure and governance The Inner Temple is governed by the Parliament, an executive council made up of the elected Benchers. The Parliament is led by the Treasurer, who is elected annually to serve a one-year term; the Treasurer for 2020 and 2021 was Guy Fetherstonhaugh QC. The Inner Temple also has a Reader, who traditionally holds the position for a year before being appointed as Treasurer; the Reader for 2020 and 2021 was Judge Deborah Taylor. The Inner Temple was historically governed by a Treasurer and three Governors. Members were divided into two categories; Clerks (Clerici) admitted to Clerks' Commons and Fellows (Socii) admitted to Fellows' Commons. The Governors held Parliament with a small group of senior barristers; in 1508, for example, Parliament was held with three Governors and four senior barristers. The last Governor was elected in 1566, and Benchers took over later that century. Benchers, or Masters of the Bench, are elected members of the Parliament responsible for overseeing the estates, the Inn's finances and setting internal policy. Today there are approximately 350 Governing Benchers (barristers and members of the judiciary) and honorary, academic and Royal Benchers appointed, as well as those practising in other jurisdictions. Coat of arms The coat of arms of the Inner Temple is, in blazon, "Azure a pegasus salient argent", or a Pegasus. Gerard Legh is normally given the credit for having suggested the Pegasus as a coat of arms, having given an account of Robert Dudley playing the part of Prince Pallaphilos, a patron of the Honorable Order of Pegasus in the 1561 Christmas revels. It may alternately have come about because of the tiles in Temple Church, which show a knight on horseback with a shield and sword raised. From this point onwards, the arms were considered the Temple's property, and they were confirmed by the College of Arms in 1967. Liberty Inner Temple (together with the neighbouring Middle Temple) is also one of the few remaining liberties, an old name for a type of administrative division. It is an independent extra-parochial area, historically not governed by the City of London Corporation (and is today regarded as a local authority for most purposes) and equally outside the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishop of London. The Inner Temple's functions as a local council are set out in the Temples Order 1971. It geographically falls within the boundaries and liberties of the City, but can be thought of as an independent enclave. Plate The Inner Temple is noted for its collection of silver and pewter plate, described in the early 20th century as similar in value to that of Oxford or Cambridge University. The first reference to plate is in 1534, with a silver cup left to the Temple as part of the estate of a Master Sutton. Further pieces were added over the next century, with Robert Bowes giving a silver gilt cup to Sir John Baker on 16 May 1563. The cup, which was shaped like a melon with feet formed from the "tendrils" of the melon, is a prized possession of the Temple. Nicholas Hare left three silver salt cellars for the use of the Benchers in 1597. Two silver candlesticks were bought in 1606, another salt cellar in 1610 and six silver spoons in 1619. A large part of the "house plate" was stolen in 1643, and it is unknown whether it was recovered, although money was spent in prosecuting the offender. Two silver cups were bought in 1699, and records from 1 January 1703 show that the Temple owned one gilt cup (the "melon" cup) five salt cellars, ten large cups, twelve little cups, and twenty-three spoons. Twelve more spoons were bought in 1707, along with another silver cup, and at some point in this period the Temple purchased or was given a nef. A dozen teaspoons were bought in 1750, a coffee pot in 1788 and an "argyle" or gravy holder in 1790. Buildings The Inner Temple contains many buildings, some modern and some ancient, although only Temple Church dates back to the time of the Knights Templars who originally inhabited the site. Chambers The Inn contains several buildings and sets of buildings used to house barristers' chambers, with those rooms above the second floor generally being residential in nature. The sets are Crown Office Row, Dr Johnson's Buildings, Farrar's Building, Francis Taylor Building, Harcourt Buildings, Hare Court, King's Bench Walk, Littleton Building, Mitre Court Buildings, Paper Buildings and the eastern side of Temple Gardens. Crown Office Row was named after the Crown Office, which used to sit on the site and was removed in 1621. The first building (described by Charles Dugdale as "the Great Brick Building over against the Garden") was constructed in 1628, and completely replaced in 1737. The current buildings were designed and built by Sir Edward Maufe. Charles Lamb was born in No. 2 Crown Office Row, which was destroyed during the Second World War, and Thomas Coventry maintained a set of chambers there. Harcourt Buildings were first built in 1703 by John Banks and named after Simon Harcourt, the Treasurer of the time. There were three buildings, 50 feet wide, 27 feet deep and 3 storeys high. Replacements were constructed between 1832 and 1833, and were not particularly attractive—Hugh Bellot said that they "could scarcely be more unsightly". These replacements were destroyed in 1941, and new buildings were built based on a design by Hubert Worthington. Hare Court was named after Nicholas Hare, who built the first set in 1567. The west and south sides were destroyed in the fire of 1678. On 31 May 1679 orders were given to replace the west side with four new buildings three storeys high, which were funded by the Treasurer (Thomas Hanmer) and the tenants at the time, including Judge Jeffreys. The Court features a pump, the water of which was noted in the 19th century for its purity. King's Bench Walk has contained buildings since at least 1543, although these were burnt down in the Great Fire of London in 1666 and their replacements destroyed in another fire in 1677. The buildings take their name from the Office of the King's Bench, which was situated in the row and destroyed in the 1677 fire. Buildings were reconstructed in 1678 and 1684, and a noted inhabitant of these early constructs was Lord Mansfield. The current buildings date from the first, 1678 construction to, most recently, chambers built in 1948. Mitre Court Buildings are on the site of Fuller's Rents, constructed in 1562 by John Fuller, the Temple's Treasurer. Noted residents of chambers here included Sir Edward Coke. Mitre Court was erected on the site in 1830, and based on a design by Robert Smirke. While constructing it the labourers found a hoard of 67 guineas dated from the reigns of monarchs from Charles II to George II, which were confiscated by the Clerk of the Works. Paper Buildings are on the site of Heyward's Buildings, constructed in 1610. The "paper" part of the name comes from the fact that they were built from timber, lath and plaster, a construction method known as "paperwork". A fire in 1838 destroyed three of the buildings, which were immediately replaced with a design by Robert Smirke, with Sydney Smirke later adding two more buildings. A famous resident of (at the time) Heyward's Buildings was John Selden, who was one of the original tenants and shared a set of chambers with Heyward himself. Gardens and Gateway Inner Temple Gardens were laid out around 1601, with a set of decorated railings added in 1618 with the Temple's pegasus and the griffin of Gray's Inn, a sign of the strong relationship between the two; the design was included in the new iron gates made in 1730, which are still present. The gardens contain various landmarks, including a sundial from 1707 by Edward Strong the Elder, a pair of cisterns dated from 1730 and a lead statute of a blackmoor by John Nost, which was transferred from Clifford's Inn when Clifford's was destroyed. A rookery was established during the 18th century by Edward Northey, who brought a colony of crows from his estates in Epsom to fill it. The gardens were previously noted for their roses, and William Shakespeare claimed that the Wars of the Roses started in the Inner Temple Garden. The gardens have recently been the subject of substantial restoration under the auspices of the Master of the Garden, Oliver Sells QC. The Gateway, at the top of Inner Temple Lane on Fleet Street, is thought to have existed in the same location since the founding of the Temples by the Knights Templar. It was rebuilt in 1610 by John Bennett, the King's Serjeant-at-Arms, and again rebuilt in 1748. The building above it (which is not owned by the Inn) is reputed to have been the council chambers of Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales and Charles, Prince of Wales, later Charles I. Hall The original Inner Temple Hall is the Hall or refectory of the original Knights Templar building on the site, and has been dated to the 8th century. It was extensively repaired in 1606 and 1629, but was still in poor condition in 1816. Despite this, little was done at that time but replacing the timbers which had gone rotten and patching the crumbling walls with brick. As a result of the poor condition and the increasing numbers of barristers, it was demolished in 1868. Its replacement was a larger hall in the Gothic style, designed by Sydney Smirke, which was opened on 14 May 1870 by Princess Louise. The new Hall was 94 feet long, 41 feet wide and 40 feet high, with glass windows featuring the coats of arms of noted Treasurers from 1506 onwards running around the room. There were two doors, one to the south and one to the north, which are said by William Dugdale to be the remnants of a "great carved screen" erected in 1574. The Hall was destroyed during the Second World War, and the foundation stone for the new hall was laid by Queen Elizabeth in 1952. The building was designed by Hubert Worthington and opened in 1955 as part of a complex involving the Hall, Library and Benchers' Chambers. Library The original Library existed from at least 1506, and consisted of a single room. This was not a dedicated library, as it was also used for dining when there were too many barristers for the hall, and later for moots. By 1607 a second room had been added, and Edward Coke donated a copy of his Reports for the library a year later. The Library of the Inner Temple was far superior to those of the other Inns of Court, and "placed the House far in advance of the other societies". The Library refused to accept John Selden's manuscripts in 1654, most likely because the size of the collection would necessitate a new building, but it has been described as "the greatest loss which the Library of the Inner Temple ever sustained". The Library was entirely destroyed in the Great Fire of London, but a replacement was built in 1668. A second, smaller fire in 1679 necessitated the destruction of one library building to act as a firebreak and save the hall. In 1707 the Inner Temple was offered the Petyt Manuscripts and a sum of £150 to build a new Library, which was completed in 1709 and consisted of three rooms. A Librarian was appointed immediately, and the practice continues to this day. Modifications were made in 1867, 1872 and 1882 which extended the Library to eight rooms A new Library was built on the site of the old one in the 19th century, with the north wing being completed in 1882, and contained 26,000 law volumes, as well as 36,000 historical and architectural texts. This building was destroyed during the Second World War, and although some of the rarest manuscripts had been moved off site, 45,000 books were lost. A replacement Library was built in 1958, and currently contains approximately 70,000 books. Temple Church Temple Church has been described as "the finest of the four round churches still existing in London". The original Round was constructed in 1185 by the Knights Templar and consecrated by the Patriarch of Jerusalem on 10 February. The church was highly regarded during this period, with William the Marshal buried there and Henry III initially making plans before changing to Westminster Abbey. After the fall of the Templars the church, along with the rest of the Temple, fell into the hands of the Knights Hospitaller, and from there passed to Henry VIII, who appointed a priest, known as the Master of the Temple. The Royal Charter granted by James I that guaranteed the independence of the Inner and Middle Temples did so on the condition that the Temples maintain the church, a requirement which has been followed to this day. Both societies also own the Master's House next to the church, a Georgian townhouse built in 1764. During the reign of Charles II the elegant columns which had dominated the church were covered with oak wainscotting. Repairs to the east end of the church took place in 1707, and the exterior of the north and east sides was repaired in 1737. Some further repairs took place in 1811, but the main restoration happened in 1837, when Robert Smirke restored the south side and removed most of the wainscotting. This was followed with more repairs in 1845, which lowered the floor to its original height, removed ugly whitewash which had been added a century earlier and led to the discovery of a marble piscina at the east end. All of this work was destroyed on 10 May 1941 during the Second World War when firebombs gutted the church. Over the next decade the church was restored, and it was reconsecrated in 1954 by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Notable members Significant members of the judiciary include Sir Edward Coke, Lady Justice Butler-Sloss, and Lord Justice Birkett. Justice S.M.A. Belgore, GCON, a former Chief Justice of Nigeria. Several barrister members have gone on to be highly important, including Edward Marshall-Hall, and legal academics have also been members, such as Sir John Baker. The first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru; the Indian independence activist, Mahatma Gandhi; The first Prime Minister of Pakistan Liaqat Ali Khan was called to Bar in 1922 by one of his English law professor. Prime Ministers Clement Attlee and George Grenville have both been members; as was the first Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tunku Abdul Rahman; the fifth President of India, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed; the fourth Prime Minister of Ceylon, S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike ; the Chief Minister of West Bengal, Siddhartha Shankar Ray, Pt Ram Chandra Kukreti, one of the first barristers of Dehradun, India, was also its member. Outside of the law and politics, members have included the poet Arthur Brooke, Admiral Francis Drake, dramatist W. S. Gilbert, the economist John Maynard Keynes, King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck of Bhutan, Burma's first recorded archaeologist Taw Sein Ko, Herbert Broom legal scholar, and diplomat and Righteous among the Nations Prince Constantin Karadja. See also Thomas Joshua Platt References Bibliography External links Official Website Inns of Court Professional education in London Education in the City of London Politics of the City of London Organisations based in the City of London Districts of the City of London English law Bar of England and Wales Knights Templar Buildings and structures in the United Kingdom destroyed during World War II Rebuilt buildings and structures in the United Kingdom Grade I listed buildings in the City of London Grade I listed law buildings Liberties of London Local authorities in London Local precepting authorities in England	[ 0.13971038162708282, 0.401603102684021, -0.039695125073194504, -0.9567247629165649, 0.11247038841247559, 0.8209577798843384, 0.9510181546211243, 0.31493839621543884, -0.43505704402923584, -0.7655030488967896, -0.3073323369026184, 0.3821321427822113, -0.08372173458337784, -0.2905357778072357, -0.3089366853237152, -0.006399486679583788, 0.8170345425605774, -0.3244574964046478, 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207886	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray%27s%20Inn	Gray's Inn	The Honourable Society of Gray's Inn, commonly known as Gray's Inn, is one of the four Inns of Court (professional associations for barristers and judges) in London. To be called to the bar in order to practise as a barrister in England and Wales, an individual must belong to one of these inns. Located at the intersection of High Holborn and Gray's Inn Road in Central London, the Inn is a professional body and provides office and some residential accommodation for barristers. It is ruled by a governing council called "Pension," made up of the Masters of the Bench (or "benchers,") and led by the Treasurer, who is elected to serve a one-year term. The Inn is known for its gardens (the “Walks,”) which have existed since at least 1597. Gray's Inn does not claim a specific foundation date; none of the Inns of Court claims to be any older than the others. Law clerks and their apprentices have been established on the present site since at latest 1370, with records dating from 1381. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the Inn grew in size peaking during the reign of Elizabeth I. The Inn was home to many important barristers and politicians, including Francis Bacon. Queen Elizabeth herself was a patron. As a result of the efforts of prominent members such as William Cecil and Gilbert Gerard, Gray's Inn became the largest of the four Inns by number, with over 200 barristers recorded as members. During this period, the Inn mounted masques and revels. William Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors is believed first to have been performed in Gray’s Inn Hall. The Inn continued to prosper during the reign of James I (1603–1625) and the beginning of that of Charles I, when over 100 students per year were recorded as joining. The outbreak of the First English Civil War in 1642 during the reign of Charles I disrupted the systems of legal education and governance at the Inns of Court, shutting down all calls to the bar and new admissions, and Gray's Inn never fully recovered. Fortunes continued to decline after the English Restoration, which saw the end of the then-traditional method of legal education. Now more prosperous, Gray's Inn is today the smallest of the Inns of Court. Role Gray's Inn and the other three Inns of Court remain the only bodies legally allowed to call a barrister to the Bar, allowing him or her to practise in England and Wales. Although the Inn was previously a disciplinary and teaching body, these functions are now shared between the four Inns, with the Bar Standards Board (a division of the General Council of the Bar) acting as a disciplinary body and the Inns of Court and Bar Educational Trust providing education. The Inn remains a collegiate self-governing, unincorporated association of its members, providing within its precincts library, dining, residential and office accommodation (barristers' chambers), along with a chapel. Members of the Bar from other Inns may use these facilities to some extent. History During the 12th and early 13th centuries, the law was taught in the City of London, primarily by the clergy. Then two events happened which ended the Church's role in legal education: firstly, a papal bull that prohibited the clergy from teaching the common law, rather than canon law; and secondly, a decree by Henry III of England on 2 December 1234 that no institutes of legal education could exist in the City of London. The common law began to be practised and taught by laymen instead of clerics, and these lawyers migrated to the hamlet of Holborn, just outside the City and near to the law courts at Westminster Hall. Founding and early years The early records of all four Inns of Court have been lost, and it is not known precisely when each was founded. The records of Gray's Inn itself are lost until 1569, and the precise date of founding cannot therefore be verified. Lincoln's Inn has the earliest surviving records. Gray's Inn dates from at least 1370, and takes its name from Baron Grey of Wilton, as the Inn was originally Wilton's family townhouse (or inn) within the Manor of Portpoole. A lease was taken for various parts of the inn by practising lawyers as both residential and working accommodation, and their apprentices were housed with them. From this the tradition of dining in "commons", probably by using the inn's main hall, followed as the most convenient arrangement for the members. Outside records from 1437 show that Gray's Inn was occupied by socii, or members of a society, at that date. In 1456 Reginald de Gray, the owner of the Manor itself, sold the land to a group including Thomas Bryan. A few months later, the other members signed deeds of release, granting the property solely to Thomas Bryan. Bryan acted as either a feoffee or an owner representing the governing body of the Inn (there are some records suggesting he may have been a Bencher at this point) but in 1493 he transferred the ownership by charter to a group including Sir Robert Brudenell and Thomas Wodeward, reverting the ownership of the Inn partially back to the Gray family. In 1506 the Inn was sold by the Gray family to Hugh Denys and a group of his feoffees including Roger Lupton. This was not a purchase on behalf of the society and after a five-year delay, it was transferred under the will of Denys in 1516 to the Carthusian House of Jesus of Bethlehem (Sheen Priory), which remained the Society's landlord until 1539, when the Second Act of Dissolution led to the Dissolution of the Monasteries and passed ownership of the Inn to the Crown. Elizabethan golden age During the reign of Elizabeth I, Gray's Inn rose in prominence, and that period is considered the "golden age" of the Inn, with Elizabeth serving as the Patron Lady. This can be traced to the actions of Nicholas Bacon, William Cecil and Gilbert Gerard, all prominent members of the Inn and confidantes of Elizabeth. Cecil and Bacon in particular took pains to find the most promising young men and get them to join the Inn. In 1574 it was the largest of all the Inns of Court by number, with 120 barristers, and by 1619 it had a membership of more than 200 barristers. Gray's Inn, as well as the other Inns of Court, became noted for the parties and festivals it hosted. Students performed masques and plays in court weddings, in front of Queen Elizabeth herself, and hosted regular festivals and banquets at Candlemas, All Hallows Eve and Easter. At Christmas the students ruled the Inn for the day, appointing a Lord of Misrule called the Prince of Purpoole, and organising a masque entirely on their own, with the Benchers and other senior members away for the holiday. The Gray's Inn masque in 1588 with its centrepiece, The Misfortunes of Arthur by Thomas Hughes, is considered by A.W. Ward to be the most impressive masque thrown at any of the Inns. William Shakespeare performed at the Inn at least once, as his patron, Lord Southampton, was a member. For the Christmas of 1594, his play The Comedy of Errors was performed by the Lord Chamberlain's Men before a riotous assembly of notables in such disorder that the affair became known as the Night of Errors and a mock trial was held to arraign the culprit. Central to Gray's was the system shared across the Inns of Court of progress towards a call to the Bar, which lasted approximately 12 to 14 years. A student would first study at either Oxford or Cambridge University, or at one of the Inns of Chancery, which were dedicated legal training institutions. If he studied at Oxford or Cambridge he would spend three years working towards a degree, and be admitted to one of the Inns of Court after graduation. If he studied at one of the Inns of Chancery he would do so for one year before seeking admission to the Inn of Court to which his Inn of Chancery was tied—in the case of Gray's Inn, the attached Inns of Chancery were Staple Inn and Barnard's Inn. The student was then considered an "inner barrister", and would study in private, take part in the moots and listen to the readings and other lectures. After serving from six to nine years as an "inner barrister," the student was called to the Bar, assuming he had fulfilled the requirements of having argued twice at moots in one of the Inns of Chancery, twice in the Hall of his Inn of Court and twice in the Inn Library. The new "utter barrister" was then expected to supervise bolts ("arguments" over a single point of law between students and barristers) and moots at his Inn of Court, attend lectures at the Inns of Court and Chancery and teach students. After five years as an "utter" barrister he was allowed to practice in court—after 10 years he was made an Ancient. The period saw the establishment of a regular system of legal education. In the early days of the Inn, the quality of legal education had been poor—readings were given infrequently, and the standards for call to the Bar were weak and varied. During the Elizabethan age readings were given regularly, moots took place daily and barristers who were called to the Bar were expected to play a part in teaching students, resulting in skilled and knowledgeable graduates from the Inn. Many noted barristers, judges and politicians were members of the Inn during this period, including Gilbert Gerard, Master of the Rolls, Edmund Pelham, Lord Chief Justice of Ireland, and Francis Bacon, who served as Treasurer for eight years, supervising significant changes to the facilities of the Inn and the first proper construction of the gardens and walks for which the Inn is noted. Caroline period and the English Civil War At the start of the Caroline era, when Charles I came to the throne, the Inn continued to prosper. Over 100 students were admitted to the Inn each year, and except during the plague of 1636 the legal education of students continued. Masques continued to be held, including one in 1634 organised by all four Inns that cost £21,000—approximately £ in terms. Before 1685 the Inn counted as members five dukes, three marquises, twenty-nine earls, five viscounts and thirty-nine barons, and during that period "none can exhibit a more illustrious list of great men". Many academics, including William Holdsworth, a man considered to be one of the best legal academics in history, maintain that this period saw a decline in the standard of teaching at all the Inns. From 1640 onwards no readings were held, and barristers such as Sir Edward Coke remarked at the time that the quality of education at the Inns of Court had decreased. Holdsworth put this down to three things—the introduction of printed books, the disinclination of students to attend moots and readings and the disinclination of the Benchers and Readers to enforce attendance. With the introduction of printing, written legal texts became more available, reducing the need for students to attend readings and lectures. However, this meant that the students denied themselves the opportunity to query what they had learnt or discuss it in greater detail. Eventually, as students now had a way to learn without attending lectures, they began to excuse themselves from lectures, meetings and moots altogether; in the early 17th century they developed a way of deputising other students to do their moots for them. The Benchers and Readers did little to arrest the decline of the practice of lecturers and readings, first because many probably believed (as the students did) that books were an adequate substitute, and secondly because many were keen to avoid the work of preparing a reading, which cut into their time as practising barristers. These problems were endemic to all the Inns, not just Gray's Inn. The outbreak of the First English Civil War led to a complete suspension of legal education, and from November 1642 until July 1644 no Pension meetings were held. Only 43 students were admitted during the four years of the war, and none were called to the Bar. Meetings of Pension resumed after the Battle of Marston Moor but the education system remained dormant. Although Readers were appointed, none read, and no moots were held. In 1646, after the end of the war, there was an attempt to restore the old system of readings and moots, and in 1647 an order was made that students were required to moot at least once a day. This failed to work, with Readers refusing to read, and the old system of legal education completely died out. The Caroline period saw a decline in prosperity for Gray's Inn. Although there were many notable members of the Inn, both legal (Sir Dudley Digges, Thomas Bedingfield and Francis Bacon, for example) and non-legal (including William Juxon, the Archbishop of Canterbury), the list could not compare to that of the Elizabethan period. Following the English Restoration, admissions fell to an average of 57 a year. English Restoration to present The fortunes of Gray's Inn continued to decline after the English Restoration, and by 1719 only 22 students were joining the Inn a year. This fall in numbers was partly because the landed gentry were no longer sending sons who had no intention of becoming barristers to study at the Inn. In 1615, 13 students joined the Inn for every student called to the Bar, but by 1713 the ratio had become 2.3 new members to every 1 call. Over a 50-year period, the Civil War and high taxation under William III economically crippled many members of the gentry, meaning that they could not afford to allow their sons to study at the Inns. David Lemmings considers it to have been more serious than that, for two reasons; firstly, Inner Temple and Middle Temple had actually shown an increase in membership following the Restoration, and secondly because Gray's Inn had previously had far more "common" members than the other Inns. The decrease in the number of gentry at the Inn could therefore not completely explain the large drop in members. Gray's Inn was the venue for an early cricket match in July 1730 between London and Kent. The original source reports "a cricket-match between the Kentish men and the Londoners for £50, and won by the former", giving the precise location as "a field near the lower end of Gray's Inn Lane, London". In 1733 the requirements for a call to the Bar were significantly revised in a joint meeting between the Benchers of Inner Temple and Gray's Inn, revisions accepted by Lincoln's Inn and Middle Temple, although they were not represented. It is not recorded what these changes were, but after a further discussion in 1762 the Inns adopted a rule that any student with a Master of Arts or Bachelor of Laws degree from the universities of Oxford or Cambridge could be called to the Bar after three years as a student, and any other student could be called after five years. An attempt was made to increase the quality of legal education at Gray's Inn; in 1753 a barrister, Danby Pickering, was employed to lecture there, although this agreement ended in 1761 when he was called to the Bar. The 18th century was not a particularly prosperous time for the Inn or its members, and few notable barristers were members during this period. Some noted members include Sir Thomas Clarke, the Master of the Rolls, Sir James Eyre, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas and Samuel Romilly, a noted law reformer. In 1780 the Inn was involved in the case of R v the Benchers of Gray's Inn, a test of the role of the Inns of Court as the sole authority to call students to the Bar. The case was brought to the Court of King's Bench by William Hart, a student at the Inn, who asked the court (under Lord Mansfield) to order the Inn to call him to the Bar. Mansfield ruled that the Inns of Court were indeed the only organisations able to call students to the Bar, and refused to order the Inns to call Hart. During the 19th century, the Inns began to stagnate; little had been changed since the 17th century in terms of legal education or practice, except that students were no longer bound to take the Anglican sacrament before their call to the Bar. In 1852 the Council of Legal Education was established by the Inns, and in 1872 a formal examination for the call to the Bar was introduced. Gray's Inn itself suffered more than most; as in the 18th century, the fortunes of its members declined, and many barristers who had been called to the Bar at the Inn transferred to others. Gray's Inn was the smallest of the Inns during the early 20th century, and was noted for its connection to the Northern Circuit. During the Second World War, the Inn was badly damaged during the Blitz in 1941, with the Hall, the Chapel, the Library and many other buildings hit and almost destroyed. The rebuilding of much of the Inn took until 1960 by the architect Sir Edward Maufe. In 2008 Gray's Inn became the first Inn to appoint "fellows"—elected businesspeople, legal academics and others—with the intent of giving them a wider perspective and education than the other Inns would offer. Structure and governance Gray's Inn's internal records date from 1569, at which point there were four types of member; those who had not yet been called to the Bar, Utter Barristers, Ancients and Readers. Utter Barristers were those who had been called to the Bar but were still studying, Ancients were those who were called to the Bar and were allowed to practise and Readers were those who had been called to the Bar, were allowed to practise and now played a part in educating law students at the Inns of Chancery and at Gray's Inn itself. At the time Gray's Inn was the odd one out amongst the Inns; the others did not recognise Ancients as a degree of barrister and had Benchers roughly corresponding to the Readers used at Gray's Inn (although the positions were not identical). The Inn is run by Pension, its ultimate governing body. The name is peculiar to Gray's Inn—at Lincoln's Inn the governing body is called the Council, and at the Inner and Middle Temples it is called the Parliament. The name was used for the governing bodies of three of the Inns of Chancery—Barnard's Inn, Clement's Inn and New Inn. In Gray's Inn the Readers, when they existed, were required to attend Pension meetings, and other barristers were at one point welcome to, although only the Readers would be allowed to speak. Pension at Gray's Inn is made up of the Masters of the Bench, and the Inn as a whole is headed by the Treasurer, a senior Bencher. The Treasurer has always been elected, and since 1744 the office has rotated between individuals, with a term of one year. Readers A Reader was a person literally elected to read—he would be elected to the Pension (council) of Gray's Inn, and would take his place by giving a "reading", or lecture, on a particular legal topic. Two readers would be elected annually by Pension to serve a one-year term. Initially (before the rise of the Benchers) the Readers were the governing body of Gray's Inn, and formed Pension. The earliest certain records of Readers are from the 16th century—although the Inn's records only start at 1569 William Dugdale (himself a member) published a list in his Origines Juridiciales dating from 1514. S.E. Thorne published a list dating from 1430, but this is entirely conjectural and not based on any official records, only reports of "readings" that took place at Gray's Inn. By 1569 there had certainly been Readers for more than a century. The English Civil War marked the end of legal education at the Inns, and the class of Readers went into decline. The last Readers were appointed in 1677, and the position of the Readers as heads of the Inn and members of Pension was taken by the Benchers. Benchers A Bencher, Benchsitter or (formally) Master of the Bench, is a member of Pension, the governing body of the Honourable Society of Gray's Inn. The term originally referred to one who sat on the benches in the main hall of the Inn which were used for dining and during moots, and the term originally had no significance. The position of Bencher developed during the 16th century when the Readers, for unknown reasons, decided that some barristers who were not Readers should be afforded the same rights and privileges as those who were, although without a voice in Pension. This was a rare practice and occurred a total of seven times within the 16th century, the first being Robert Flynt in 1549. The next was Nicholas Bacon in 1550, then Edward Stanhope in 1580, who was afforded the privilege because, although a skilled attorney, an illness meant he could never fulfil the duties of a Reader. The practice became more common during the 17th century—11 people were made Benchers between 1600 and 1630—and in 1614 one of the Benchers appointed was explicitly allowed to be a member of Pension. This became more common, creating a two-rank system in which both Readers and Benchers were members of Pension. However far more Readers were appointed than Benchers—50 between 1600 and 1630—and it appeared that Readers would remain the higher rank despite this change. The English Civil War marked the end of legal education at the Inns, although the government attempted to persuade Readers to continue by threatening them with fines. The class of Readers went into decline and Benchers were called as members of Pension instead. In 1679 there was the first mass-call of Benchers (22 on one occasion, and 15 on another), with the Benchers paying a fine of 100 marks because they refused to read, and modern Benchers pay a "fine" in a continuation of this tradition. Noted Benchers of Gray's Inn include Lord Birkenhead and Francis Bacon. Honorary Benchers can also be appointed, although they have no role in Pension, such as Lord Denning, who was appointed in 1979, and Winston Churchill. Today there are over 300 Benchers in Gray's Inn, mostly senior barristers and members of the judiciary. Badge Gray's Inn does not possess a coat of arms as such, but instead uses a badge, often displayed on a shield, blazoned either "Azure an Indian Griffin proper segreant" or, more currently, "Sable a griffin segreant or", i.e., a gold griffin on a black background. The Inn originally used a form of the coat of arms of the de Grey family, but this was changed at some time around 1600 to the griffin. There is no record of why this was done, but it is possible that the new device was adapted from the arms of the Treasurer Richard Aungier (d. 1597). The motto around the badge, the date of adoption of which is unknown, is Integra Lex Aequi Custos Rectique Magistra Non Habet Affectus Sed Causas Gubernat, or "Impartial justice, guardian of equity, mistress of the law, without fear or favour rules men's causes aright". Buildings and gardens The Inn is located at the intersection of High Holborn and Gray's Inn Road. It started as a single manor house with a hall and chapel, although an additional wing had been added by the date of the "Woodcut" map of London, drawn probably in the early 1560s. Expansion continued over the following decades, and by 1586 the Pension had added another two wings around the central court. Around these were several sets of barristers' chambers erected by members of the Inn under a leasehold agreement whereby ownership of the buildings would revert to the Inn at the end of the lease. As the Inn grew it became necessary (for safety purposes) to wall off the land owned by the Inn, which had previously been open to everyone. In 1591 the "back field" was walled off, but little more was done until 1608, when under the supervision of Francis Bacon, the Treasurer, more construction work was undertaken, particularly in walling off and improving the gardens and walks. In 1629 it was ordered that an architect supervise any construction and ensure that the new buildings were architecturally similar to the old ones, and the strict enforcement of this rule during the 18th century is given as a reason for the uniformity of the buildings at Gray's Inn. During the late 17th century many buildings were demolished, either because of poor repair or to standardise and modernise the buildings at the Inn. Many more were built over the open land surrounding the Inn, although this was controversial at the time; in November 1672 the Privy Council and Charles II himself were petitioned to order that nothing should be built on the open land, and a similar request was sent to the Lord Chancellor in May 1673. From 1672 to 1674 additional buildings were constructed in the Red Lyon Fields by Nicholas Barebone, and members of the Inn attempted to sue him to prevent this. After the lawsuits failed members of the Inn were seen to fight with Barebones' workmen, "wherein several were shrewdly hurt". In February 1679 a fire broke out on the west side of Coney Court, necessitating the rebuilding of the entire row. Another fire broke out in January 1684 in Coney Court, destroying several buildings including the Library. A third fire in 1687 destroyed a large part of Holborn Court, and when the buildings were rebuilt after these fires they were constructed of brick to be more resistant to fire than the wood and plaster previously used in construction. As a result, the domestic Tudor style architecture which had dominated much of the Inn was replaced with more modern styles. Records show that prior to the rebuilding in 1687, the Inn had been "so incommodious" that the "ancients" were forced to work two to a chamber. More of the Inn was rebuilt during that period, and between 1669 and 1774 all of the Inn apart from parts of the Hall and Chapel had been rebuilt. More buildings were constructed during the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1941 the Inn suffered under The Blitz, which damaged or destroyed much of the Inn, necessitating the repair of many buildings and the construction of more. Today many buildings are let as professional offices for barristers and solicitors with between and of office space available. There are also approximately 60 residential apartments, rented out to barristers who are members of the Inn. The Inn also contains the Inns of Court School of Law, a joint educational venture between all four Inns of Court where the vocational training for barristers and solicitors is undertaken. The current Inn layout consists of two squares—South Square and Gray's Inn Square—with the remaining buildings arranged around the Walks. Hall The Hall was part of the original Manor of Portpoole, although it was significantly rebuilt during the reign of Mary I, and again during the reign of Elizabeth, with the rebuilding being finished on 10 November 1559. The rebuilt Hall measured in length, in width and in height, and remains about the same size today. It has a hammerbeam roof and a raised dais at one end with a grand table on it, where the Benchers and other notables would originally have sat. The hall also contains a large carved screen at one end covering the entrance to the Vestibule. Legend says that the screen was given to the Inn by Elizabeth I while she was the Inn's patron, and is carved out of the wood of a Spanish galleon captured from the Spanish Armada. The Hall was lit with the aid of massive windows filled with the Coats of Arms of those members who became Treasurers. The Benchers' table is also said to have been a gift from Elizabeth, and as a result the only public toast in the Inn until the late 19th century was "to the glorious, pious and immortal memory of Queen Elizabeth". The walls of the Hall are decorated with paintings of noted patrons or members of the Inn, including Nicholas Bacon and Elizabeth I. During the Second World War the Hall was one of those buildings badly damaged during the Blitz. The Treasurers' Arms and paintings had been moved to a place of safety and were not damaged; during the rebuilding after the War they were put back in the Hall, where they remain. The rebuilt hall was designed by Edward Maufe, and was formally opened in 1951 by the Duke of Gloucester. Chapel The Chapel existed in the original manor house used by the Inn, and dates from 1315. In 1625 it was enlarged under the supervision of Eubule Thelwall, but by 1698 it was "very ruinous", and had to be rebuilt. Little is known of the changes, except that the barristers' chambers above the Chapel were removed. The building was again rebuilt in 1893, and remained that way until its destruction during The Blitz in 1941. The Chapel was finally rebuilt in 1960, and the original stained glass windows (which had been removed and taken to a safe location) were restored. The rebuilt Chapel contains "simple furnishings" made of Canadian maple donated by the Canadian Bar Association. The Inn has had a Chaplain since at least 1400, where a court case is recorded as being brought by the "Chaplain of Greyes Inn". During the 16th century the Inn began hiring full-time preachers to staff the Chapel—the first, John Cherke, was appointed in 1576. A radical Puritan in a time of religious conflict, Cherke held his post for only a short time before being replaced by a Thomas Crooke in 1580. After Crooke's death in 1598 Roger Fenton served as preacher, until his replacement by Richard Sibbes, later Master of Catherine Hall, Cambridge, in 1616. Gray's Inn still employs a Preacher; Michael Doe, former Bishop of Swindon and more recently General Secretary of the United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, was appointed in 2011. Walks The Walks are the gardens within Gray's Inn, and have existed since at least 1597, when records show that Francis Bacon was to be paid £7 for "planting of trees in the walkes". Prior to this the area (known as Green Court) was used as a place to dump waste and rubble, since at the time the Inn was open to any Londoner. In 1587 four Benchers were ordered by the Pension to "consider what charge a brick wall in the fields will draw unto And where the said wall shalbe fittest to be builded", and work on such a wall was completed in 1598, which helped keep out the citizens of London. In 1599 additional trees were planted in the Walks, and stairs up to the Walks were also added. When Francis Bacon became treasurer in 1608 more improvements were made, since he no longer had to seek the approval of the Pension to make changes. In September 1608 a gate was installed on the southern wall, and various gardeners were employed to maintain the Walks. The gardens became commonly used as a place of relaxation, and James Howell wrote in 1621 that "I hold [Gray's Inn Walks] to be the pleasantest place about London, and that there you have the choicest society". The Walks were well-maintained during the reign of William III, although the Inn's lack of prosperity made more improvements impossible. In 1711 the gardener was ordered not to admit "any women or children into the Walkes", and in 1718 was given permission to physically remove those he found. At the end of the 18th century Charles Lamb said that the Walks were "the best gardens of any of the Inns of Court, their aspect being altogether reverend and law-abiding". In 1720 the old gate was replaced by "a pair of handsome iron gates with peers and other proper imbellishments". The 19th and 20th centuries saw few major changes, apart from the introduction of plane trees into the Walks. The Walks are listed Grade II* on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. Library The Library of Gray's Inn has existed since at least 1555, when the first mention of it was made in the will of Robert Chaloner, who left some money to buy law books for the Library. The Library was neither a big collection nor a dedicated one; in 1568 it was being housed in a single room in the chambers of Nicholas Bacon, a room that was also used for mooting and to store the deed chest. The collection grew larger over the years as individual Benchers such as Sir John Finch and Sir John Bankes left books or money to buy books in their wills, and the first Librarian was appointed in 1646 after members of the Inn had been found stealing books. In 1669 books were bought by the Inn as an organisation for the first time, and a proper catalogue was drawn up to prevent theft. In 1684 a fire that broke out in Coney Court, where the Library was situated, and destroyed much of the collection. While some books were saved, most of the records prior to 1684 were lost. A "handsome room" was then built to house the Library. The Library became more important during the 18th century; prior to that it had been a small, little-used collection of books. In 1725 it was proposed by the Pension that "a publick Library be sett up and kept open for ye use of ye society", and that more books be purchased. The first order of new books was on 27 June 1729 and consisted of "a collection of Lord Bacon's works". In 1750 the Under-Steward of the Inn made a new catalogue of the books, and in 1789 the Library was moved to a new room between the Hall and the Chapel. In 1840 another two rooms were erected in which to store books, and in 1883 a new Library was constructed with space to store approximately 11,000 books. This was rapidly found to be inadequate, and in 1929 a new Library, known as the Holker Library after the benefactor, Sir John Holker, was opened. The library, although impressive looking, was not particularly useful. Francis Cowper wrote that: Though impressive to look at, the new building was something less than a success as a library. The air of spaciousness was produced at the expense of shelf room, and though in the octagon [at the north end] the decorative effect of row upon row of books soaring upwards towards the cornice was considerable, the loftiest were totally inaccessible save to those who could scale the longest and dizziest ladders. Further, the appointments were of such surpassing magnificence that no ink-pots were allowed in the room for fear of accidents. The building did not last very long—damage to the Inn during the Blitz completely destroyed the Library and a large part of its collection, although the rare manuscripts, which had been moved elsewhere, survived. After the destruction of much of the Inn's collection, George VI donated replacements for many lost texts. A prefabricated building in the Walks was used to hold the surviving books while a new Library was constructed, and the new building (designed by Sir Edward Maufe) was opened in 1958. It is similar in size to the old Holker Library, but is more workmanlike and designed to allow for easy access to the books. Notable members Having existed for over 600 years, Gray's Inn has a long list of notable members and honorary members. Names of many members can be found in the List of members of Gray's Inn. Even as the smallest of the Inns of Court it has had members who have been particularly noted lawyers and judges, such as Francis Bacon, The 1st Earl of Birkenhead, Baron Slynn, Lord Bingham of Cornhill, Lord Hoffmann and Baroness Hale of Richmond, the first female Justice of the Supreme Court. Outside the Bar and judiciary of England and Wales, members have included the clergy (including five Archbishops of Canterbury), industrialists like John Wynne, astronomers such as John Lee, media figures, like Huw Thomas, and members of the Bar, judiciary and Government of other nations, such as Sir Ti-liang Yang (former Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Hong Kong), B. R. Ambedkar (principal architect of the Constitution of India), Leslie Goonewardene (founder of Sri Lanka's first political party, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party) and also former presidents of Cyprus Spyros Kyprianou, Tassos Papadopoulos, and Glafcos Clerides. References Bibliography External links Banqueting website Bar of England and Wales Buildings and structures in Holborn Buildings and structures in the United Kingdom destroyed during World War II Cricket grounds in Middlesex Cricket in Middlesex Defunct cricket grounds in England Defunct sports venues in London English cricket venues in the 18th century English law Grade I listed buildings in the London Borough of Camden Grade I listed law buildings Grade II* listed parks and gardens in London History of Middlesex Inns of Court Legal buildings in London Middlesex Professional education in London Rebuilt buildings and structures in the United Kingdom Sport in London Sports venues completed in 1730 Sports venues in London	[ 0.2708868086338043, 0.7821527123451233, 0.0903853178024292, -0.8087835311889648, 0.19168050587177277, 0.5369620323181152, 0.7425729632377625, -0.033262815326452255, -0.324283629655838, -0.6188892126083374, -0.37171924114227295, 0.3910147547721863, 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207888	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20herring	Atlantic herring	Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) is a herring in the family Clupeidae. It is one of the most abundant fish species in the world. Atlantic herrings can be found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, congregating in large schools. They can grow up to in length and weigh up to . They feed on copepods, krill and small fish, while their natural predators are seals, whales, cod and other larger fish. The Atlantic herring fishery has long been an important part of the economy of New England and the Canadian Atlantic provinces. This is because the fish congregate relatively near to the coast in massive schools, notably in the cold waters of the semi-enclosed Gulf of Maine and Gulf of St. Lawrence. North Atlantic herring schools have been measured up to in size, containing an estimated 4 billion fish. Description Atlantic herring have a fusiform body. Gill rakers in their mouths filter incoming water, trapping any zooplankton and phytoplankton. Atlantic herring are in general fragile. They have large and delicate gill surfaces, and contact with foreign matter can strip away their large scales. They have retreated from many estuaries worldwide due to excess water pollution although in some estuaries that have been cleaned up, herring have returned. The presence of their larvae indicates cleaner and more–oxygenated waters. Range and habitat Atlantic herring can be found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. They range, shoaling and schooling across North Atlantic waters such as the Gulf of Maine, the Gulf of St Lawrence, the Bay of Fundy, the Labrador Sea, the Davis Straits, the Beaufort Sea, the Denmark Strait, the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea, the Skagerrak, the English Channel, the Celtic Sea, the Irish Sea, the Bay of Biscay and Sea of the Hebrides. Although Atlantic herring are found in the northern waters surrounding the Arctic, they are not considered to be an Arctic species. Baltic herring The small-sized herring in the inner parts of the Baltic Sea, which is also less fatty than the true Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus harengus), is considered a distinct subspecies, "Baltic herring" (Clupea harengus membras), despite the lack of a distinctive genome. The Baltic herring has a specific name in many local languages (Swedish strömming, Finnish silakka, Estonian räim, silk, Livonian siļk, Russian салака, Polish śledź bałtycki, Latvian reņģes, Lithuanian strimelė) and is popularly and in cuisine considered distinct from herring. For example, the Swedish dish surströmming is made from Baltic herring. Fisheries for Baltic herring have been at unsustainable levels since the Middle Ages. Around this time, the primary Baltic herring catch consisted of an autumn-spawning population. Cooling in the mid-16th century related to the Little Ice Age, combined with this overfishing, led to a dramatic loss of productivity in the population of autumn-spawning herring that rendered it nearly extinct. Due to this, the autumn-spawning herring were largely replaced by a spring-spawning population, which has since comprised most of the Baltic herring fisheries; this population is also at risk of overfishing. Life cycle Herrings reach sexual maturity when they are 3 to 5 years old. The life expectancy once mature is 12 to 16 years. Atlantic herring may have different spawning components within a single stock which spawn during different seasons. They spawn in estuaries, coastal waters or in offshore banks. Fertilization is external like with most other fish, the female releases between 20,000 and 40,000 eggs and the males simultaneously release masses of milt so that they mix freely in the sea. Once fertilized the 1 to 1.4 mm diameter eggs sinks to the sea bed where its sticky surface adheres to gravel or weed and will mature in 1–3 weeks, in 14-19 °C water it takes 6–8 days, in 7,5 °C it takes 17 days. It will only mature if its temperature stays below 19 °C. The hatched larvae are 3 to 4 mm long and transparent except for the eyes which have some pigmentation. Population Herrings are most seen in the North Atlantic Ocean, from the coast of South Carolina until Greenland, and from the Baltic Sea until Novaya Zemlya. In the North Sea people can distinguish four different main populations. The different herring families are spawning in different periods: The Buchan-Shetland-herrings spawns in August and September near the Scottish and Shetland coasts. On the Dogger Bank spawns the herrings from August until October. The more south population will spawn later, from November until January. These are the herrings from the Southern Bight of Downs. The Soused herring spawns every spring in the Baltic Sea, and travels via Skagerrak to the North Sea. These four populations lives outside of the spawn season interchangeably. In their spawn season, each population gathers together on their own spawn grounds. In the past, there was another fifth distinct population, the Zuiderzee herring who spawned in the formerly Zuiderzee. This population disappeared when the Zuiderzee was drained by the Dutch as part of the larger Zuiderzee Works. Ecology Herring-like fish are the most important fish group on the planet. They are also the most populous fish. They are the dominant converter of zooplankton into fish, consuming copepods, arrow worms chaetognatha, pelagic amphipods hyperiidae, mysids and krill in the pelagic zone. Conversely, they are a central prey item or forage fish for higher trophic levels. The reasons for this success is still enigmatic; one speculation attributes their dominance to the huge, extremely fast cruising schools they inhabit. Orca, cod, dolphins, porpoises, sharks, rockfish, seabirds, whales, squid, sea lions, seals, tuna, salmon, and fishermen are among the predators of these fishes. Herring's pelagic–prey includes copepods (e.g. Centropagidae, Calanus spp., Acartia spp., Temora spp.), amphipods like Hyperia spp., larval snails, diatoms by larvae below , peridinians, molluscan larvae, fish eggs, krill like Meganyctiphanes norvegica, mysids, small fishes, menhaden larvae, pteropods, annelids, tintinnids by larvae below , Haplosphaera, Pseudocalanus. Schooling Atlantic herring can school in immense numbers. Radakov estimated herring schools in the North Atlantic can occupy up to 4.8 cubic kilometres with fish densities between 0.5 and 1.0 fish/cubic metre, equivalent to several billion fish in one school. Herring are amongst the most spectacular schoolers ("obligate schoolers" under older terminology). They aggregate in groups that consist of thousands to hundreds of thousands or even millions of individuals. The schools traverse the open oceans. Schools have a very precise spatial arrangement that allows the school to maintain a relatively constant cruising speed. Schools from an individual stock generally travel in a triangular pattern between their spawning grounds, e.g. Southern Norway, their feeding grounds (Iceland) and their nursery grounds (Northern Norway). Such wide triangular journeys are probably important because feeding herrings cannot distinguish their own offspring. They have excellent hearing, and a school can react very quickly to evade predators. Herring schools keep a certain distance from a moving scuba diver or a cruising predator like a killer whale, forming a vacuole which looks like a doughnut from a spotter plane. The phenomenon of schooling is far from understood, especially the implications on swimming and feeding-energetics. Many hypotheses have been put forward to explain the function of schooling, such as predator confusion, reduced risk of being found, better orientation, and synchronized hunting. However, schooling has disadvantages such as: oxygen- and food-depletion and excretion buildup in the breathing media. The school-array probably gives advantages in energy saving although this is a highly controversial and much debated field. Schools of herring can on calm days sometimes be detected at the surface from more than a mile away by the little waves they form, or from a few meters at night when they trigger bioluminescence in surrounding plankton ("firing"). All underwater recordings show herring constantly cruising reaching speeds up to per second, and much higher escape speeds. Relationship with humans Fisheries The Atlantic herring fishery is managed by multiple organizations that work together on the rules and regulations applying to herring. As of 2010 the species was not threatened by overfishing. They are an important bait fish for recreational fishermen. Aquariums Because of their feeding habits, cruising desire, collective behavior and fragility they survive in very few aquaria worldwide despite their abundance in the ocean. Even the best facilities leave them slim and slow compared to healthy wild schools. Notes Other references Kils, U., The ecoSCOPE and dynIMAGE: Microscale Tools for in situ Studies of Predator Prey Interactions . Arch Hydrobiol Beih 36:83-96;1992 Atlantic herring NOAA FishWatch. Retrieved 7 November 2012. Further reading Bigelow, H.B., M.G. Bradbury, J.R. Dymond, J.R. Greeley, S.F. Hildebrand, G.W. Mead, R.R. Miller, L.R. Rivas, W.L. Schroeder, R.D. Suttkus and V.D. Vladykov (1963) Fishes of the western North Atlantic. Part three New Haven, Sears Found. Mar. Res., Yale Univ. Eschmeyer, William N., ed. 1998 Catalog of Fishes Special Publication of the Center for Biodiversity Research and Information, no. 1, vol 1–3. California Academy of Sciences. San Francisco, California, USA. 2905. . Fish, M.P. and W.H. Mowbray (1970) Sounds of Western North Atlantic fishes. A reference file of biological underwater sounds The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore. Flower, S.S. (1935) Further notes on the duration of life in animals. I. Fishes: as determined by otolith and scale-readings and direct observations on living individuals Proc. Zool. Soc. London 2:265-304. Food and Agriculture Organization (1992). FAO yearbook 1990. Fishery statistics. Catches and landings FAO Fish. Ser. (38). FAO Stat. Ser. 70:(105):647 p. Joensen, J.S. and Å. Vedel Tåning (1970) Marine and freshwater fishes. Zoology of the Faroes LXII - LXIII, 241 p. Reprinted from, Jonsson, G. (1992). Islenskir fiskar. Fiolvi, Reykjavik, 568 pp. Kinzer, J. (1983) Aquarium Kiel: Beschreibungen zur Biologie der ausgestellten Tierarten. Institut für Meereskunde an der Universität Kiel. pag. var. Koli, L. (1990) Suomen kalat. [Fishes of Finland] Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö. Helsinki. 357 p. (in Finnish). Laffaille, P., E. Feunteun and J.C. Lefeuvre (2000) Composition of fish communities in a European macrotidal salt marsh (the Mont Saint-Michel Bay, France) Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 51(4):429-438. Landbrugs -og Fiskeriministeriet. (1995). Fiskeriårbogen 1996 Årbog for den danske fiskerflåde Fiskeriårbogens Forlag ved Iver C. Weilbach & Co A/S, Toldbodgade 35, Postbox 1560, DK-1253 København K, Denmark. p 333–338, 388, 389 (in Danish). Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae secundum Classes, Ordinus, Genera, Species cum Characteribus, Differentiis Synonymis, Locis 10th ed., Vol. 1. Holmiae Salvii. 824 p. Munroe, Thomas, A. / Collette, Bruce B., and Grace Klein-MacPhee, eds. 2002 Herrings: Family Clupeidae. Bigelow and Schroeder's Fishes of the Gulf of Maine, Third Edition. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, DC, USA. 111–160. . Murdy, Edward O., Ray S. Birdsong, and John A. Musick 1997 Fishes of Chesapeake Bay Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington, DC, USA. xi + 324. . Muus, B., F. Salomonsen and C. Vibe (1990) Grønlands fauna (Fisk, Fugle, Pattedyr) Gyldendalske Boghandel, Nordisk Forlag A/S København, 464 p. (in Danish). Muus, B.J. and J.G. Nielsen (1999) Sea fish. Scandinavian Fishing Year Book Hedehusene, Denmark. 340 p. Muus, B.J. and P. Dahlström (1974) Collins guide to the sea fishes of Britain and North-Western Europe Collins, London, UK. 244 p. Reid RN, Cargnelli LM, Griesbach SJ, Packer DB, Johnson DL, Zetlin CA, Morse WW and Berrien PL (1999) Atlantic Herring, Clupea harengus, Life History and Habitat Characteristics NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-NE-126, NOAA. Robins, Richard C., Reeve M. Bailey, Carl E. Bond, James R. Brooker, Ernest A. Lachner, et al. 1991 Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada, Fifth Edition. American Fisheries Society Special Publication, no. 20. American Fisheries Society. Bethesda, Maryland, USA. 183. . Robins, Richard C., Reeve M. Bailey, Carl E. Bond, James R. Brooker, Ernest A. Lachner, et al. 1991 Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada, Fifth Edition. American Fisheries Society Special Publication, no. 20. American Fisheries Society. Bethesda, Maryland, USA. 183. . Whitehead, Peter J. P. 1985. Clupeoid Fishes of the World (Suborder Clupeoidei): An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of the Herrings, Sardines, Pilchards, Sprats, Shads, Anchovies and Wolf-herrings: Part 1 - Chirocentridae, Clupeidae and Pristigasteridae FAO Fisheries Synopsis, no. 125, vol. 7, pt. 1. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, Italy. x + 303. . External links Information on Fishbase Information on clupea.de Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) pages on Gulf of Maine Research Institute Atlantic herrin Fish of the North Atlantic Fish of Europe Fauna of Atlantic Canada Fauna of the Northeastern United States Commercial fish Atlantic herrin Atlantic herrin	[ -0.20707285404205322, -0.30831509828567505, -0.37015682458877563, -0.21867972612380981, 0.49947816133499146, 0.4959412217140198, -0.13180293142795563, 0.4382593035697937, -0.9467854499816895, -0.07929075509309769, 0.22869780659675598, 0.0785910040140152, -0.5583860278129578, 0.13551363348960876, 0.026029804721474648, 0.5955142378807068, 0.3199446201324463, 0.0647406131029129, 0.37088504433631897, -0.3213860094547272, -0.5312023758888245, -0.348550021648407, 0.20279563963413239, -0.20448753237724304, 0.3658803105354309, 0.07262782007455826, 0.1512640118598938, 0.4390910267829895, 0.021057194098830223, 0.1251586228609085, -0.06114724278450012, 1.1192811727523804, 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207897	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window%20%28computing%29	Window (computing)	In computing, a window is a graphical control element. It consists of a visual area containing some of the graphical user interface of the program it belongs to and is framed by a window decoration. It usually has a rectangular shape that can overlap with the area of other windows. It displays the output of and may allow input to one or more processes. Windows are primarily associated with graphical displays, where they can be manipulated with a pointer by employing some kind of pointing device. Text-only displays can also support windowing, as a way to maintain multiple independent display areas, such as multiple buffers in Emacs. Text windows are usually controlled by keyboard, though some also respond to the mouse. A graphical user interface (GUI) using windows as one of its main "metaphors" is called a windowing system, whose main components are the display server and the window manager. History The idea was developed at the Stanford Research Institute (led by Douglas Engelbart). Their earliest systems supported multiple windows, but there was no obvious way to indicate boundaries between them (such as window borders, title bars, etc.). Research continued at Xerox Corporation's Palo Alto Research Center / PARC (led by Alan Kay). They used overlapping windows. During the 1980s the term "WIMP", which stands for window, icon, menu, pointer, was coined at PARC. Apple had worked with PARC briefly at that time. Apple developed an interface based on PARC's interface. It was first used on Apple's Lisa and later Macintosh computers. Microsoft was developing Office applications for the Mac at that time. Some speculate that this gave them access to Apple's OS before it was released and thus influenced the design of the windowing system in what would eventually be called Microsoft Windows. Properties Windows are two dimensional objects arranged on a plane called the desktop metaphor. In a modern full-featured windowing system they can be resized, moved, hidden, restored or closed. Windows usually include other graphical objects, possibly including a menu-bar, toolbars, controls, icons and often a working area. In the working area, the document, image, folder contents or other main object is displayed. Around the working area, within the bounding window, there may be other smaller window areas, sometimes called panes or panels, showing relevant information or options. The working area of a single document interface holds only one main object. "Child windows" in multiple document interfaces, and tabs for example in many web browsers, can make several similar documents or main objects available within a single main application window. Some windows in Mac OS X have a feature called a drawer, which is a pane that slides out the side of the window and to show extra options. Applications that can run either under a graphical user interface or in a text user interface may use different terminology. GNU Emacs uses the term 'window' to refer to an area within its display while a traditional window, such as controlled by an X11 window manager, is called a 'frame'. Any window can be split into the window decoration and the window's content, although some systems purposely eschew window decoration as a form of minimalism. Window decoration The window decoration is a part of a window in most windowing systems. A windows decoration typically consists of a title bar, usually along the top of each window and a minimal border around the other three sides. On Microsoft Windows this is called "non-client area". In the predominant layout for modern window decorations, the top bar contains the title of that window and buttons which perform windowing-related actions such as: Close Maximize Minimize Resize Roll-up The border exists primarily to allow the user to resize the window, but also to create a visual separation between the window's contents and the rest of the desktop environment. Window decorations are considered important for the design of the look and feel of an operating system and some systems allow for customization of the colors, styles and animation effects used. Window border Window border is a window decoration component provided by some window managers, that appears around the active window. Some window managers may also display a border around background windows. Typically window borders can be used to provide window motion enabling the window to be moved or resized by using a drag action. Some window managers provide useless borders which are purely for decorative purposes and offer no window motion facility. These window managers do not allow windows to be resized by using a drag action on the border. Title bar Title bar is a graphical control element and part of the window decoration. provided by some window managers. As a convention it is located at the top of the window as a horizontal bar. The title bar is typically used to display the name of the application, or the name of the open document, and may provide title bar buttons for minimizing, maximizing, closing or rolling up of application windows. Typically titlebars can be used to provide window motion enabling the window to be moved around the screen by using a drag action. Some window managers provide titlebars which are purely for decorative purposes and offer no window motion facility. These window managers do not allow windows to be moved around the screen by using a drag action on the titlebar. Default title-bar text often incorporates the name of the application and/or of its developer. The name of the host running the application also appears frequently. Various methods (menu-selections, escape sequences, setup parameters, command-line options – depending on the computing environment) may exist to give the end-user some control of title-bar text. Document-oriented applications like a text editor may display the filename or path of the document being edited. Most web browsers will render the contents of the HTML element title in their title bar, sometimes pre- or postfixed by the application name. Google Chrome and some versions of Mozilla Firefox place their tabs in the title bar. This makes it unnecessary to use the main window for the tabs, but usually results in the title becoming truncated. An asterisk at its beginning may be used to signify unsaved changes. The title bar often contains widgets for system commands relating to the window, such as a maximize, minimize, rollup and close buttons; and may include other content such as an application icon, a clock, etc. In many graphical user interfaces, including the Mac OS and Microsoft Windows interfaces, the user may move a window by grabbing the title bar and dragging. Titlebar buttons Some window managers provide titlebar buttons which provide the facility to minimize, maximize, roll-up or close application windows. Some window managers may display the titlebar buttons in the taskbar or taskpanel, rather than in the titlebars. The following buttons may appear in the titlebar: Close Maximize Minimize Resize Roll-up (or WindowShade) Note that a context menu may be available from some titlebar buttons or by right-clicking. Titlebar icon Some window managers display a small icon in the titlebar that may vary according to the application on which it appears. The titlebar icon may behave like a menu button, or may provide a context menu facility. OS X applications commonly have a proxy icon next to the window title that functions the same as the document's icon in the file manager. Document status icon Some window managers display an icon or symbol to indicate that the contents of the window have not been saved or confirmed in some way: Mac OS X displays a dot in the center of its close button; RISC OS appends an asterisk to the title. Tiling window managers Some tiling window managers provide title bars which are purely for informative purposes and offer no controls or menus. These window managers do not allow windows to be moved around the screen by using a drag action on the titlebar and may also serve the purpose of a status line from stacking window managers. 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207900	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eobaataridae	Eobaataridae	Eobaataridae is a family of fossil mammals within the order Multituberculata. Remains are known from the Lower Cretaceous of Europe and Asia. They are among the most derived representatives of the informal suborder "Plagiaulacida", and closely related to Cimolodonta. Most eobaatarids are only known from isolated teeth, though several reasonably complete members are known, including Sinobaatar and Jeholbaatar. The body of Sinobaatar is generalised, while Jeholbaatar displays clear adaptations for scansoriality (climbing) due to its elongated digits. Due to the morphology of the cheek teeth, Eobaatar and Jeholbaatar are inferred to be omnivorous, likely feeding on plants and invertebrates. Indobaatar from the Early Jurassic Kota Formation has been suggested to be the earliest known multituberculate, let alone the earliest eobaatarid, and may stretch the eobaatarid-cimolodontan group much earlier than previously thought. However its referral to the family has been considered questionable by other scholars. Fossils of Jeholbaatar kielanae seem to show that multituberculates independently acquired a middle ear from other mammal groups. Etymology The name "Eobaatar" (from ancient Greek "ἠώς"= dawn and Mongolian "baatar"= hero) means "dawn hero". Notes References Kielan-Jaworowska, Dashzeveg & Trofimov (1987), "Early Cretaceous multituberculates from Mongolia and a comparison with Late Jurassic forms". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 32, p. 3-47. External links Most of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: Plagiaulacidae, Albionbaataridae, Eobaataridae & Arginbaataridae Multituberculates Early Cretaceous extinctions Early Cretaceous taxonomic families Prehistoric mammal families	[ -0.2951645255088806, 0.4167858362197876, -0.5555354952812195, -0.1608952283859253, -0.48055246472358704, 0.6594212055206299, 0.8171828389167786, 0.08368019759654999, -0.17971250414848328, -0.09542937576770782, 0.4458629786968231, 0.5675436854362488, -0.9176512360572815, -0.024398302659392357, -0.10089384019374847, 0.40722861886024475, -0.43717098236083984, 0.662420928478241, 0.4909340441226959, -0.15775153040885925, 0.00922098383307457, -0.5121254920959473, 0.7718482613563538, -0.6328434348106384, 0.22495073080062866, 0.17197678983211517, 0.4581834673881531, 0.8694455623626709, 0.43473151326179504, -0.6921338438987732, -0.34048983454704285, 0.8417788147926331, 0.014242465607821941, -0.5342919230461121, 0.19462814927101135, 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207903	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bong%20Load%20Records	Bong Load Records	Bong Load Records is an independent record label originally based in Los Angeles which was founded by producers Tom Rothrock and Rob Schnapf and partner Bradshaw Lambert. Much of the Bong Load Records catalog is released in small quantities. Several bands have very rare releases that are much sought after and command high prices at auctions. Bong Load Records relaunched on its 25th anniversary in 2016 with limited edition vinyl releases. Tom Rothrock sums up the label "Our core philosophy of the indie label was always about making high quality music with artists who have dedicated their lives to their craft – artists who otherwise might not have been heard." History One of Bong Load Records' biggest signings was Beck in 1991. Beck's "Loser" single became the first number one, non-major label single since FM radio became mainstream. In 1998, Beck recorded the album Mutations intended for release on Bong Load Records but it was eventually released on the Geffen label. There were a series of lawsuits between Beck, Bong Load and Geffen, settled in 1999, which led to Beck's renegotiation with Geffen. Beck released multiple titles on Bong Load including Loser, Mellow Gold, Odelay, Mutations and Midnite Vultures. Other notable bands from the original Bong Load Custom Records include Wool, Kyuss, The Obsessed, Fatso Jetson, Elliott Smith, The Eels, L7, R.L. Burnside and Lutefisk. Stoner rock band Fu Manchu released their first two albums via Bong Load Records. In 2007, Rothrock briefly relaunched the label with a series of releases, including his own instrumental album Resonator. In July 2016, Bong Load Records announced a relaunch of the label, now based in Las Vegas, with 7 limited edition vinyl releases: The Killers (Sam’s Town - 10th Anniversary reissue), Mark Stoermer (Dark Arts), Masters of Reality (Deep In The Hole - 15th Anniversary reissue - features Chris Goss and guests Mark Lanegan, Josh Homme and members of Queens of the Stone Age and Kyuss) Elliott Smith (Figure 8, XO) and Beck (Odelay (20th Anniversary reissue), Mellow Gold). Discography 2016 The Killers Sam's Town (10 Year Anniversary 2LP) Mark Storemer Dark Arts Masters of Reality Deep In The Hole (15 Year Anniversary LP) Elliott Smith Figure 8 (2016 reissue) Elliott Smith XO (2016 reissue) Beck Mellow Gold (2016 reissue) Beck Odelay (20 Year Anniversary LP) 2007 Tom Rothrock Resonator Roman Carter Never Slow Down 2001 Phil Tagliere Slow Richard Thompson Action Packed Various Acid Blues Remix 30 Daz Various Random Hostile Takeover Project K Testing Underway 2000 Beck Midnite Vultures Elliott Smith Figure 8 Eels Daisies of the Galaxy Dieselhed Chico and the Flute 1999 Various Stoned Again: A Bong Long Records Collection Richard Thompson Mock Tudor L7 Slap Happy Fireball Ministry Ou est la Rock? Poolside Indyglow Dieselhed Elephant Rest Home Jon Brown 70 Years Coming (Acid Blues Label) Mountain Con MC Stands for Revolution (Acid Blues Label) Slo-Mo Novelty (Acid Blues Label) 1998 Beck Mutations Fatso Jetson Toasted Famous Monsters In The Night Elliott Smith XO Sexy Death Soda California Police State Sexy Death Soda Janitor Strike R.L. Burnside Roolin' & Tumblin' Plastilina Mosh Aquamosh 1996 Beck Odelay Lutefisk Burn in Hell Fuckers Andy Kaulkin Six Foot Seven & Rising Lutefisk Tin Man's Cue Kyuss/Wool Split 7" Shine/Short Term Memory Loss Crutch Sold By Weight Vitamade Everything You Need 1995 Thrush Hermit Take Another Drag Quinine Regrets Only Lutefisk Deliver from Porcelain: Themes & Variations The Obsessed Altamont Nation Fu Manchu Daredevil Vitamade Vitamade Lutefisk Aerosol 1994 Crutch Disgrunted Employee Beck Mellow Gold Beck Steve Threw Up Fu Manchu No One Rides For Free Wool Box Set LP w/7" 1993 Wool Kill the Crow My Favorite Martian When The Anger's Too Strong Carnival of Souls Late Bloomer 1992 Muzza Chunka Loaded Beck Loser Wool Mayday Further Filling Station Grimace Quagmire 1991 Muzza Chunka This is a Chicken Lamp See also List of record labels References External links Official Bong Load Records Site Alternative rock record labels American independent record labels Indie rock record labels Record 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207906	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinamou	Tinamou	Tinamous () form an order of birds called Tinamiformes (), comprising a single family called Tinamidae (), divided into two distinct subfamilies, containing 46 species found in Mexico, Central America, and South America. The word "tinamou" comes from the Galibi term for these birds, tinamu. Tinamous have traditionally been regarded as the sister group of the flightless ratites, but recent work places them well within the ratite radiation, implying basal ratites could fly. Tinamous first appear in the fossil record in the Miocene epoch. They are generally sedentary, ground-dwelling and, though not flightless, when possible avoid flight in favour of hiding or running away from danger. They are found in a variety of habitats, ranging from semi-arid alpine grasslands to tropical rainforests. The two subfamilies are broadly divided by habitat, with the Nothurinae referred to as steppe or open country tinamous, and the Tinaminae known as forest tinamous. Although some species are quite common, tinamous are shy and secretive birds. They are active during the day, retiring to roosts at night. They generally have cryptic plumage, with males and females similar in appearance, though the females are usually larger. They are opportunistic and omnivorous feeders, consuming a wide variety of plant and animal food from fruits and seeds to worms, insects and small vertebrates. They will dust-bathe as well as wash themselves by standing in heavy rain. They are heard more often than seen, communicating with each other by a variety of frequently given, characteristic calls, especially during the breeding season. With occasional exceptions, a male tinamou maintains a territory and a nesting site during the breeding season which a succession of females will visit, laying their eggs in the same nest. Females will wander through several territories mating with, and laying eggs in the nests of, the resident males. Nests are always on the ground, concealed in vegetation or among rocks. Eggs are relatively large and glossy, often brightly colored when laid, and are incubated by the males for a period of 2–3 weeks. The chicks can run soon after hatching and are largely self-sufficient at three weeks old. Tinamous and their eggs have many natural predators, from falcons and vampire bats to jaguars. They have also been extensively hunted by humans and sometimes persecuted as agricultural pests. However, the main threat to their populations is from habitat destruction through land clearing and agricultural development. Seven species are listed as vulnerable and another seven as near-threatened. They feature in the mythology of the indigenous peoples of their range. Often translocated and easily bred in captivity, they have never been successfully domesticated. Taxonomy and systematics The tinamou family consists of 46 extant species in nine genera. The two subfamilies are the Nothurinae (also known as the Rhyncotinae), the steppe tinamous, and the Tinaminae, the forest tinamous. "Tinamidae" was defined as by Gauthier and de Queiroz (2001): "Tinamidae refers to the crown clade stemming from the most recent common ancestor of Tetrao [Tinamus] major Gmelin 1789 and all extant birds sharing a more recent ancestor with that species than with Struthio camelus Linnaeus 1758 and Vultur gryphus Linnaeus 1758." Their similarity to other ground-dwelling birds such as partridges and megapodes is a result of convergence and symplesiomorphy rather than shared evolutionary innovations. Of Gondwanan origin, tinamous are allied to the flightless ratites, together comprising the Palaeognathae ("old jaws"), while all other living birds are members of Neognathae ("new jaws"). Unlike other palaeognaths, tinamous do have a keeled sternum, but like the other palaeognaths, they have a distinctive palate. It was formerly believed that the Tinamiformes separated from the ratites early on due to their retention of a keeled sternum. The tinamous' possession of powder-down feathers and preen glands, which the other ratites lack, was another source of confusion in evaluating their taxonomy. The tinamou family has been shown to be monophyletic. Phylogenomic studies have placed it as the sister group to extant Australasian and Oceanian ratites (i.e. the cassowaries, emus, and kiwis), thus putting it well within the ratite phylogenetic tree, with the South American rheas and African ostriches as successive outgroups. Research published starting in 2010 has found that tinamous are closest to the extinct moa of New Zealand; moa are more distantly related to the geographically proximate kiwis, emus and cassowaries than had been previously supposed. These findings imply that flightlessness evolved independently multiple times in ratite evolution. Flight may have been maintained in the tinamou family due to the rhea colonizing South America before ancestral tinamous arrived. The ecological niche for large, flightless herbivores was thus already occupied, forcing tinamous to retain smaller-bodied, omnivorous, and volant lifestyles. Fossil record Flight-capable lithornithids from the Paleocene and Eocene epochs appear to have been structurally the most similar precursors to the tinamous, and may have been ancestral to them as well as to the ratites, though their precise relationships are unclear. The earliest unequivocally Tinamiforme fossil material dates from the Miocene, but flightless ratite-like taxa from the Paleocene may belong to this group. Several tinamou fossils have been found in the 16–17 Mya Early-Middle Miocene Santa Cruz Formation and the contemporary, or slightly older, Pinturas Formation, in Santa Cruz Province of Argentinian Patagonia, including a tinaminid, Crypturellus reai. Associated fossils indicate that the local palaeoenvironment at the beginning of this period was characterised by a humid, subtropical climate, with forest vegetation, becoming drier and more open with time. Some of the tinamou fossil material appears to be intermediate between the two subfamilies, suggesting that the period coincides with the origins of the radiation of the Nothurinae into the expanding open-country habitats. Nothurine fossils referrable to Eudromia and Nothura have been found in the Late Miocene Cerro Azul Formation from the Pampean region of central-southern Argentina. Tinamous described from Pliocene material include Eudromia olsoni Tambussi & Tonni, 1985, Nothura parvulus Rovereto, 1914, and Nothura padulosa Mercerat, 1897. The Pliocene fossil genera Cayetornis Brodkorb and Tinamisornis Rovereto have been synonymized with Nothura and Eudromia respectively. Fossils having affinities with several extant genera have been found in Pleistocene deposits. Generic relationships Cladogram of tinamou genera based on a combination of morphological and molecular data analysed by Bertelli & Porzecanski (2004) Species in taxonomic order Conservation status key: VU – vulnerable NT – near threatened LC – least concern Order Tinamiformes Huxley 1872 [Crypturi Goodchild 1891; Dromaeomorphae Huxley 1867] Family Tinamidae Genus †Querandiornis Rusconi 1958 †Querandiornis romani Rusconi 1958 Subfamily Tinaminae Genus Crypturellus †Crypturellus reai Chandler 2012 Barred tinamou, Crypturellus casiquiare – LC Bartlett's tinamou, Crypturellus bartletti – LC Berlepsch's tinamou, Crypturellus berlepschi – LC Black-capped tinamou, Crypturellus atrocapillus – NT Brazilian tinamou, Crypturellus strigulosus – LC Brown tinamou, Crypturellus obsoletus – LC Choco tinamou, Crypturellus kerriae – VU Cinereous tinamou, Crypturellus cinereus – LC Grey-legged tinamou, Crypturellus duidae – NT Little tinamou, Crypturellus soui – LC Pale-browed tinamou, Crypturellus transfasciatus – NT Red-legged tinamou, Crypturellus erythropus – LC Colombian tinamou, C. (e.) columbianus (taxonomic status presently unclear) SACC in 2006 did not approve the split, BLI followed suit. Magdalena tinamou, C. (e.) saltuarius (taxonomic status presently unclear) SACC in 2006 did not approve the split, BLI followed suit. Santa Marta tinamou, C. (e.) idoneus (taxonomic status presently unclear) SACC in 2006 did not approve the split, BLI followed suit. Rusty tinamou, Crypturellus brevirostris, also known as short-billed tinamou – LC Slaty-breasted tinamou, Crypturellus boucardi, also known as Boucard's tinamou – LC Small-billed tinamou, Crypturellus parvirostris – LC Tataupa tinamou, Crypturellus tataupa – LC Tepui tinamou, Crypturellus ptaritepui – LC Thicket tinamou, Crypturellus cinnamomeus – LC Undulated tinamou, Crypturellus undulatus – LC Variegated tinamou, Crypturellus variegatus – LC Yellow-legged tinamou, Crypturellus noctivagus – NT Genus Nothocercus Highland tinamou, Nothocercus bonapartei – LC Hooded tinamou, Nothocercus nigrocapillus – VU Tawny-breasted tinamou, Nothocercus julius – LC Genus Tinamus Black tinamou, Tinamus osgoodi – VU Great tinamou, Tinamus major – NT Grey tinamou, Tinamus tao – VU Solitary tinamou, Tinamus solitarius – NT White-throated tinamou, Tinamus guttatus – NTSubfamily Nothurinae Genus Eudromia †Eudromia intermedia (Rovereto 1914) [Tinamisornis intermedius Rovereto 1914 non Dabbene & Lillo 1913; Roveretornis intermedius (Rovereto 1914) Brodkorb 1961] †Eudromia olsoni Tambussi & Tonni 1985 [Tinamisornis intermedius Dabbene & Lillo 1913 non Rovereto 1914; Eudromia elegans intermedia (Dabbene & Lillo 1913)] Elegant crested tinamou, Eudromia elegans – LC Quebracho crested tinamou, Eudromia formosa – LC Genus Nothoprocta Andean tinamou, Nothoprocta pentlandii – LC Brushland tinamou, Nothoprocta cinerascens – LC Chilean tinamou, Nothoprocta perdicaria – LC Curve-billed tinamou, Nothoprocta curvirostris – LC Ornate tinamou, Nothoprocta ornata – LC Taczanowski's tinamou, Nothoprocta taczanowskii – VU Genus Nothura Chaco nothura, Nothura chacoensis – LC Darwin's nothura, Nothura darwinii – LC Lesser nothura, Nothura minor – VU †Nothura paludosa Mercerat 1897 †Nothura parvula (Rovereto) Tambussi 1989 [Tinamisornis parvulus Rovereto; Cayetanornis parvulus (Rovereto) Brodkorb 1963] Spotted nothura, Nothura maculosa – LC White-bellied nothura, Nothura boraquira – LC Genus Rhynchotus Huayco tinamou, Rhynchotus maculicollis – LC Red-winged tinamou, Rhynchotus rufescens – LC Genus Taoniscus Dwarf tinamou, Taoniscus nanus, also known as least tinamou – VU Genus Tinamotis Patagonian tinamou, Tinamotis ingoufi, also known as Ingouf's tinamou – LC Puna tinamou, Tinamotis pentlandii, also known as Pentland's tinamou' – LC Description Tinamous are plump, compact birds with slender necks, small heads and, usually, short, decurved bills, though a few have long bills. Females are usually larger than the males. The smallest species, the dwarf tinamou, weighs about with a length of . Females of the largest, the grey tinamou, weigh up to with a length of up to . Their feet have three forward-facing toes; a hind toe is either higher and retrogressed, or absent. The back of the tarsus is covered with scales, the color of which may aid in identification. Tinamous have a pneumaticized skeleton with a sternal keel, 16–18 cervical vertebrae, and fused thoracic vertebrae. They have poor circulation, evidenced by a greenish tint to the skin. They also have relatively the smallest hearts and lungs of all birds, comprising only 1.6–3.1% of their body weight, whereas the equivalent in a domestic chicken is 12%. Despite their poor flying ability, the percentage of their body mass that is muscle is 28.6–40%, which is similar to that of hummingbirds. The preen gland is small and tufted. The male has a corkscrew shaped penis, similar to those of the other ratites and to the hemipenis of some reptiles. The female has a small phallic organ in the cloaca which becomes larger during the breeding season. Plumage The plumage of the family is cryptic, as is usual with ground birds, with typical colors ranging through dark brown, rufous, buff, yellow and grey. Plumage does not usually differ between sexes, but in a few species females are brighter. The forest dwellers tend to be darker and more uniform, whereas the steppe species are paler with more barring, speckling, or streaking. Tinamous have well-developed powder down feathers; these grow continuously and disintegrate at the tips into a powder that is spread through the rest of the feathers by preening. This gives the plumage a glossy appearance as well as waterproofing it. Their tails are short, sometimes hidden behind the coverts, and possibly indicative of an ability to sacrifice feathers to a predator in order to escape when grasped. Some tinamous have crests. Members of Eudromia have the most developed crests and, when excited, will direct them forward. Voice Tinamous are rarely seen but often heard within their range and have a wide variety of calls. They are among the most characteristic bird vocalizations of South America and Central America, often resembling sounds made by a flute or a whistle. Some calls are uniform and monotone, while others have multiple phrases. They vary in intensity and can often be heard from afar. Trying to locate a bird by its call is not easy. Plains-dwelling tinamous have higher-pitched, more delicate voices. They can also be less melodic, sometimes resembling the chirps of crickets. Forest species tend to have deep, loud calls, suitable for penetrating the vegetation. The male highland tinamou can be heard several kilometres distant through dense forest. When calling, a tinamou extends its neck vertically, tilts its head at an angle, and opens its bill wide. A bird, when flushed, will utter a sharp trill. Identification of tinamous is not an easy task; utilizing their calls as a tool is integral. Each species has its own unique call or calls. The solitary tinamou has 11 different vocalizations. In most species both sexes call; some have different calls for males and females. Females tend to have deeper voices. Some species, in particular members of Crypturellus, have regional dialects. Male slaty-breasted tinamous have calls unique enough to be individually recognized by humans. Calls are typically heard more frequently during the breeding season. However, the time of day can differ amongst species, as some are more vocal in the morning, others in the evening, and some are more vocal during the heat of midday. Some will call at night from their roosts. Frequency can vary between species and between individuals. One male brushland tinamou called every few minutes from dawn until dusk (over 500 calls daily). Some, in particular Crypturellus species, use regular call sites. Only a few possess an alarm call. Distribution and habitat Range Tinamous are exclusively neotropical and all 47 species live in South America, Mexico, and Central America. The range of the northernmost species extends to Mexico but not much further north than the Tropic of Cancer. Chilean tinamous have been introduced to Easter Island. The greatest concentration of species is in the tropics, and in particular the Amazon Basin. In the north, they tend to be forest or woodland birds, while in the south they prefer open habitats. Tinamous form the dominant group of terrestrial birds in South America, where they largely replace the Galliformes ecologically, with no other bird family there having comparable diversity, distribution, or suite of habitat adaptations. Rheas are only found in open country, curassows and guans are generally limited to forests, and the pheasant family is only represented by a few species in the north of the region. They occur in a wide range of habitats. Members of the genera Tinamus, Nothocercus, and Crypturellus live in dense forests, with Nothocercus preferring high altitude, and members of most other genera in grassland, puna, montane forest, and savanna. Tinamotis and Nothoprocta prefer high altitude habitats, up to , whereas the other steppe tinamous have a wide altitude range. Tinamous inhabit most parts of South and Central America, as well as the tropical regions of Mexico, with the exception of aquatic, snow-covered, and true desert habitats, and the southernmost tip of Patagonia. Ecology Behavioral and ecological separation of tinamou species is evident where their ranges overlap through the utilization of different food sources and occupation of limited micro-habitats. These micro-habitats are not always easy to identify, and are highly vulnerable to environmental changes. Some species, such as the red-winged tinamou, utilize multiple habitats such as the open savannas of Amazonia and the dry valleys of the Andes. Similarly, brown tinamous occur in both the Amazon basin and the humid montane forests on the Andean slope. Panama provides examples of ecological separation. The highland tinamou occupies the highlands throughout the country. The great tinamou prefers the rainforests on the slopes. The Choco tinamou also likes the rainforest, but is limited to the south-east of the country. Finally, the little tinamou is found in dense secondary forest on either the Pacific or Atlantic slope above . Size difference allows the red-winged tinamou and the spotted nothura to coexist, as they both occupy the same habitat of Brazil, the tropical savanna. The former prefers long grass pastures, while the latter prefers short grass. Further examples of such diversity are found in the Andes, where a small subspecies of Darwin's nothura, Nothura darwinii boliviana, occurs in grassland at about above sea level. Here also are the red-winged tinamou which prefers open ground with some scrub, and the Andean tinamou which prefers dense vegetation beside streams. Their habitat extends upslope through the Polylepis woodlands into puna grassland. In the puna is another subspecies of Darwin's nothura, Nothura darwinii agassizii, which prefers tussock grassland. Also in the puna is the ornate tinamou which frequents the rocky slopes and cliffs of tola heath. Higher in the puna is the puna tinamou, living just below the snowline at as well as in the semi-deserts of the southern Altiplano. Movements Tinamous are largely sedentary birds. Forest-dwelling tinamous will move short distances if climatic conditions, such as intense rain, flooding or drought force them to. Most Amazonian species will move between the varzea forests and dry land depending on water levels. The puna tinamou occupies high ridges in the Andes but, in bad weather, will move down to the valley floors. Forest species, such as the slaty-breasted tinamou, maintain large home ranges through which they move in apparently random patterns. The male brushland tinamou maintains a home territory of , but will occasionally wander outside it into those of his neighbors. Females will wander throughout multiple males' territories. The ornate tinamou lives mainly upslope in hilly puna grassland but will move each morning to the bottom of the slopes to feed and drink. Granivorous species will move daily into grain fields with some, such as Darwin's nothura, remaining in the fields until there is no food left. Open country and southern species maintain territories only during the breeding season and at other times seem to wander at random. Behavior Tinamous form one of the most terrestrial groups of flying birds, spending virtually all of their time on the ground. They walk silently, pausing frequently in mid-stride. When a potential threat is detected, a tinamou will typically freeze in one of two positions, either crouched or with its neck extended upwards. As far as possible, they will avoid resorting to flight by stealthy walking or running away from danger as well as by concealment in dense vegetation. They may then pause to observe the cause of their alarm from cover. They also hide in burrows. Their cryptic behavior has allowed them to survive or even thrive in areas where guans have been extirpated. Flight Unlike the related ratites, tinamous can fly, though poorly and reluctantly, preferring to walk or run. When forced to take to the air, they do so only for short distances at high speed. Their small wings give them a high wing loading. They take off with rapid and noisy wing beats, until they have gained sufficient altitude, then glide while slipping sideways, with an occasional further burst of flapping. Due to their near lack of a tail to serve as rudder or counterweight, tinamous are notoriously poor at steering. They regularly crash into objects on attempting to take off, sometimes with fatal consequences. They rarely fly more than and typically do so downslope where the terrain allows. They land in an upright position with upstretched neck. Some species will land running. The brushland tinamou will perform a sharp 90° turn immediately before touching down. Roosting Although tinamous are diurnal, many species become less active in the middle of the day. They rest or feed during this period, while during the night they will cease all activity. They are wary of the dark; they roost at night and have been known to roost during solar eclipses. Roosting of the larger forest species, such as those in Tinamus, occurs in trees. They prefer horizontal branches approximately off the ground, choosing sites with good views and clear exits. In order to minimize the effort involved in ascending to their roosts, in hilly terrain they will access them from uphill and, when threatened, will fly downhill to gain more distance from the threat. Tinamous prefer thick branches on which to roost as they do not clutch the branch with their toes, but rest on it with folded legs. They will reuse the same locations and avoid defecating nearby to avoid advertising the roost site to predators. The smaller forest species, along with the steppe tinamous, will roost on the ground, sometimes in the shelter of a bush. They will also use the same location repeatedly; known examples are the elegant crested and ornate tinamous. Sociality Tinamous, depending on the species, may be solitary or social and gather in groups. Gregariousness also varies by season. Forest species tend to be solitary and may only approach other birds during the breeding season. Some live as mated pairs throughout the year. Steppe or grassland species tend to live in groups, though with little obvious group interaction apart from an occasional contact call. Group size may vary by season; in winter, aggregations of elegant crested tinamous may approach 100 birds. Both steppe and forest species are territorial, though territoriality varies between species from being characteristic only during the breeding season, to being territorial throughout the year. When defending their territories from conspecifics, tinamous are highly vocal, creating a cacophony of sound. When an intruder is noticed, birds of the same sex will confront it. This may lead to conflict, with feet and wings being used in attack. Both males and females will defend their territories; however, in each species only one sex is fiercely territorial. Breeding In most tinamou species, the males practice simultaneous polygyny and the females sequential polyandry. This is not invariable; ornate tinamous form stable pairs, and spotted nothuras are monogamous when young and polygamous when older. There are larger numbers of females than males; for example, the variegated tinamou has a female to male ratio of 4:1. The breeding season varies from species to species; those that live in tropical forests, where there is little seasonal change, may breed at any time, though there is usually a preferred period. In areas with a marked seasonal fluctuation, tinamous generally breed when food is most abundant, which is usually summer. Studies have shown that it is not day length that determines the onset of breeding, but the amount of light, through cloud cover. Courtship The courtship process starts with the male vocally advertising his abilities with continuous calling. He will try to attract multiple females. In Tinamus species the male will lower his chest to the ground, stretch his neck forward, and fluff up his back to appear larger than normal. When observed head on, all of the bird's back is in view while the under-tail coverts are exposed, a pose similar to that used by the rhea. The female will scratch her feet on the ground as part of the ritual. Nesting Tinamous always nest on the ground; in open areas, near a bush; in scrub, in a dense patch of grass; in forest, at the base of a tree trunk between the buttresses. The highland tinamou is unique in that it sites its nest in a cavity or under an overhanging rock on a steep slope. Many species do not build a nest, choosing to lay their eggs on a thin bed of leaves. Other species do construct nests and are meticulous in doing so. The nest of the ornate tinamou is circular and made of grass on a turf surface. The male brushland tinamou starts to scrape out a nest once copulation has occurred; several may be constructed though only one is used. Egg-laying A tinamou female lays several eggs which the male incubates while the female departs to seek another mate. Large species will lay one egg every 3–4 days, while the smaller ones lay on consecutive days. The females lay eggs in multiple nests throughout the nesting season. There may be as many as 16 eggs in a clutch, a consequence of several females laying in the same nest. The more mature male will attract more females and may have the eggs of up to four females under him. The variegated and ornate tinamous have single-female nests, and consequently only one or two eggs per nest. This may result from food shortage in their ranges and the consequent ability to care for only one or two chicks. The eggs are fairly deeply colored, usually in a single color, and have a hard porcelain-like gloss. Colors vary with species, ranging through green, purple, violet, turquoise, steel grey, chocolate and lemon-yellow. White is rare, but does occur. Though the eggs are bright and colorful when laid, over time they fade and become duller. For example, the egg of the red-winged tinamou dulls from purple to leaden. Most tinamou eggs are solid colored, without spots or speckling; however, the eggs of Tinamotis species may exhibit small white speckles. The benefit of laying brightly colored eggs is unknown, but is not detrimental as most tinamou predators hunt at night. Eggs are relatively large compared to the mass of the female, though even the largest birds produce eggs very similar in size to the smallest of species. Their shapes are either spherical or elliptical; the two ends are similar in shape, and difficult to distinguish. The shells are thin enough to see the embryos within. Incubation Incubation takes about 16 days in Crypturellus, which contains the smallest species, and 19–20 days in Tinamus and Eudromia. During this period the male is typically silent; if he does call, he does so away from the nest. As he incubates, he will leave the nest to feed, and he may be gone from 45 minutes to five hours, covering the eggs when he leaves. While incubating, he is mainly motionless and reluctant to move, even from potential danger. It is possible for a human observer to approach and touch the incubating male without eliciting an overt response. Some species will flatten themselves against the ground, stretch out their necks, and raise their backs to the air. This posture causes them to resemble a plant; however, if it is overdone, the eggs become visible from behind. If the male becomes alarmed enough to leave the nest, he will attempt a distraction display. This usually involves a fake injury display, similar to that of the killdeer. To do this, he will hop on one leg and attempt to fly, always falling down. He will perform this display if the eggs have not hatched or the chicks are still too young to fly. It is generally believed that tinamous are not as effective at distraction displays as other birds. Chicks Chicks hatch synchronously with a dense downy coat. The coloring is white, grey or yellow, with dark spots to aid in camouflage. The young are precocial, and can run almost as soon as they hatch. Soon after hatching the eggs, the male will leave the nest and call the chicks to him with a soft contact call. If threatened, he will freeze and attempt to hide the chicks under his wings or belly. There have been documented cases of females caring for the young; it is thought that this occurs when the male has been killed. Young chicks can feed themselves within the first few days, but the male will bring the food and drop it on the ground in front of them. The chicks have a high initial mortality rate. However, within a few days they are chasing insects on their own and, at 1–3 weeks, they can fly to branches a metre from the ground. They are self-sufficient within 20 days. By 20 days, the young slaty-breasted tinamou has gained adult size, though not adult weight. The spotted nothura will go from 10% of adult weight to 90% within 85 days, and the red-winged tinamou will do so in 108 days. Sexual maturity comes at the age of one year, although some species may be physiologically mature by 57 days. However, some behavior may need to be learned before the birds can breed successfully. Once done with the brood the male, if still within the breeding season, will seek out another female and initiate the cycle again. Studies have shown that 54–62% of breeding female spotted nothura are first-year birds. Feeding Foods Tinamous are opportunistic feeders and eat a wide range of foods, though each species varies in proportional dietary makeup. Tinamou genera can be roughly divided into three groups based on the vegetable component of their diets. Tinamus, Nothocercus and Crypturellus focus on fleshy fruit. Nothura, Nothoprocta and Eudromia, comprising open country birds, eat mainly seeds and other soft vegetative matter. High-altitude genera living in harsh environments, such as Tinamotis, will eat most of the plant, not just the succulent parts. Most species eat a mixture of plant and animal products, though some are mainly herbivorous and others predominantly insectivorous or carnivorous. Diet may also vary seasonally; red-winged tinamous eat mostly animal food in the summer and plant matter in the winter. Chicks eat more insects than their parents, probably for their growth needs. Consumed plant material includes fruit (either fallen or on the tree), seeds, green shoots, tender leavers, buds, flowers, tender stems, roots, and tubers. Much of the animal food consists of insects, including ants, termites, beetles, grasshoppers, hemiptera, and lepidopteran larvae, as well as gastropods, mollusks, worms, and small vertebrates, such as amphibians and reptiles. Larger species will eat small mammals. Feeding methods Food is taken mainly off the ground but also off the vine. The birds may jump for fruit or, as with the Crypturellus species, jump up to a metre in height for insects. The main foraging technique is a slow walk with head down, pecking at the ground and looking up occasionally. Small animals are eaten whole, larger ones are beaten against the ground or pecked. Bills rather than feet are used to probe leaf litter and sift through soil deep. The most frequent diggers are Rhynchotus, Nothura and Nothoprocta species, which are open country birds. They have their nostrils positioned at the base of the bills, a feature thought to be an adaptation to their digging. As with most birds, they swallow grit to aid their gizzards in digestion. Some species follow army ants, eating from the disturbance created. Others feed in the company of antbirds, formicariids, and ovenbirds. Nothura species, in particular, will follow livestock and eat the ticks that fall off them as well as the insects knocked off bushes as they pass. Drinking Water is required by most tinamou species, with some needing a good source within their home territory. Solitary tinamous can withstand an extended period without water by eating more succulent plants. However, species that live in arid or semi-arid climates rarely need any water additional to that ingested with their diet. When tinamous drink, unlike most other birds, they do so by sucking and swallowing, instead of lifting their heads and letting gravity do the work. Health and mortality Hygiene Tinamous are avid bathers. During heavy rain they may stand erect with their bill pointing skyward allowing the rain to wash over them. They will dust-bathe at regular intervals, and have been known to dust-bathe often enough to tint themselves the same color as the soil. They also sunbathe, and will do so while resting on one leg with an outstretched wing. Defecation for a tinamou is a slightly involved task as it must move aside the dense plumage that surrounds the cloaca to avoid soiling itself. Captive tinamous defecate once daily. Parasites There are over 240 species of bird lice that infest tinamous, with one individual bird recorded as hosting nine species. Blood parasites include louse flies, leeches, nematodes, cestodes, armadillo ticks, mites, and trematodes. Darwin's nothura may carry a malarial plasmodium. Predators Tinamou predators include cats, foxes, raccoons, skunks, weasels, tayras, rats, peccaries, and opossums. Legend speaks of jaguars that imitate the call to trick and catch them. Nests are vulnerable to snakes, monkeys and opossums. Giant anteaters have been seen on Marajo Island breaking tinamou eggs. Forest falcons and orange-breasted falcons have been seen hunting them, and vampire bats lap their blood. Relationship with humans Mythology Tinamous have established themselves in the folklore and histories of the indigenous people of South America and Central America. Forest tribes of Brazil and Colombia believe the jaguar imitates the call of the great tinamou in order to track and eat it. A tale from the Guahibo Indians tells of a young man traveling by canoe who tried to locate a calling tinamou. As he approached the bank he became suspicious at the harshness of the call and backed away just as a jaguar burst out of the vegetation. Panamanian tradition states that after the "Great Flood", the great tinamou grew frightened of the bright colors in the rainbow. He flew away from the rainbow, the ark, and the rest of the animals, heading for the darkest part of the forest, where he has remained ever since. A Brazilian legend explains of the separation of the red-winged tinamou and the undulated tinamou. The story starts off with how inseparable the two birds were, as they did everything together. One day they got into an argument and split up. The undulated tinamou went into the deepest dark of the forest, and the red-winged tinamou wanting to be different went to the grassy plains. One day, the undulated tinamou was feeling sad and lonely, went to the forest's edge and called his old friend. "Shall we make up?" he cries. The red-winged tinamou responds with "What me, never again". This story is meant to show that they are often heard but seldom seen. Introduction and translocation During the 20th century there were numerous attempts to introduce or reintroduce tinamous to various parts of the world. The red-winged tinamou has been reintroduced to the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where its wild population was hunted to extermination at the turn of the 20th century. France, Germany, and Hungary have all, unsuccessfully, attempted to introduce them into their countryside. There have been several unsuccessful attempts to introduce tinamous to the United States. In Oregon, between 1966 and 1974, 473 ornate tinamous and 110 red-winged tinamou were brought in. In 1966 and 1971, Florida introduced 128 spotted nothura. In 1969, 47 and 136 spotted nothura were introduced to Alabama and Texas. 1970 saw Colorado and Oklahoma introducing 164 and 100 Darwin's nothura respectively. In 1971, Nebraska brought 256 elegant crested tinamou, and California introduced 217 in 1969, and 1200 between 1971 and 1977. The 1885 introduction of Chilean tinamou to Easter Island was successful, though the population has not prospered since Chimango caracaras were introduced in 1928. Domestication and aviculture No tinamou species has been successfully domesticated so far, despite their ability to breed well in captivity. The red-winged tinamou has been bred on farms in France, Great Britain, Belgium, and Denmark. They, along with some of the Crypturellus species, are being bred in Rio Grande do Sul to boost numbers for hunting. Hybridization can occur. Many South American zoos hold tinamous, as do some private estates. Examples of captive breeding are small-billed tinamou in Minas Gerais and red-winged tinamou in Rio Grande do Sul. The small-billed tinamou has looked promising for domestication as the birds can raise 3–4 broods per year and are resistant to diseases that affect domestic chickens. Pests Several species have adapted to agricultural systems and will enter grain fields after the harvest to glean the ground; they will also enter the fields during the growing season, to the dismay of the farmers. Some, in particular the ornate and Andean tinamous, will dig up tubers such as potatoes, while red-winged tinamous create similar problems in peanut plantations. However, some members of Nothoprocta'' will prey on insect pests without damaging the crops. Spotted nothuras have been documented eating weeds and, of the 28 animals they were recorded as eating, 26 were considered to be pests. Research The Tinamiformes are one of the least studied orders of birds despite tinamous exhibiting rare and little understood behavioral patterns. They have male parental care which is not always associated with polyandry or sex-role reversal. Their varied mating systems and diverse habitats have the potential, through comparative studies, to explain how ecological differences affect mating strategies. In some species, females cooperate in assembling clutches of eggs for different males. However, methodological difficulties have hampered behavioral research, especially on the forest dwelling species, because their secretive behavior and cryptic coloration make them difficult to follow for continuous observation. It was not until 2003 that the first scientific symposium on tinamous was organized at the VIIth Neotropical Ornithological Congress, held at Termas de Puyehue, Chile. Status and conservation The status of the family is not easy to determine as many species live in the Amazon Basin or the far reaches of the Andes and attract little attention, even from ornithologists. Moreover, their cryptic coloration and behavior means that their presence often remains unnoticed. A large proportion of the species are Amazonian, with the majority of these decreasing in range. Most, however, are surviving well enough so far to avoid being classified as threatened. Major threats are habitat fragmentation and destruction. Although they are hunted throughout their range, it generally has little or only localized impact on the populations of the more widespread and common species. Pesticides are a problem throughout the grasslands and farmlands. The International Union for Conservation of Nature classifies seven tinamou species as vulnerable and seven as near threatened. The solitary tinamou is listed under Appendix I of CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). Land clearance The major threat for the forest tinamous is deforestation. Neotropical forests are badly affected, with large tracts being clearcut for cropping, pasture or timber plantations. Much of this land is poor in nutrients, so is abandoned after a few years for newly cleared land. Forest species are consequently forced to adapt, relocate, or die out. As well as the forests, most types of habitat in Middle and South America, apart from the high Andes and Patagonia, are under threat. There is controversy over the vegetative history with speculation that what is now high-altitude grassland in the Andes was once elfin forest. The dwarf tinamou is a resident of the open plains of eastern Brazil, though there are fewer than 10,000 birds left. It appears to have disappeared from its former range on the grasslands of Argentina and Paraguay. In the cerrado grasslands of Brazil the population of the lesser nothura has also decreased to fewer than 10,000 individuals because of agricultural and economic development. The practice of burning the fields is particularly detrimental to grassland tinamous. For example, the dwarf tinamou becomes intoxicated with the smoke and vulnerable to predators. Moreover, if the burning occurs during the nesting season, the eggs or chicks are roasted. The solitary tinamou, limited to the Atlantic forests of Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina, is threatened by habitat destruction and hunting. In the cloud forests of northern South America, there are fewer than 10,000 black tinamous left. The tepui tinamou's range is limited to the tops of a handful of plateaus in the cloud forests of Venezuela, making it highly vulnerable to any threat. Hunting Tinamous have been popular game birds for many years in South America and Central America, so much so that some species' numbers have dropped. The steppe birds are more popular to hunt because they can be flushed into flight, rather than the forest birds that run to cover and hide. In the late 19th and early 20th century hunting was responsible for mass killing within the family, with the elegant crested tinamou and spotted nothura popular targets. In 1921, Argentina urged the control of commercial hunting of several bird species, including tinamou. Between 1890 and 1899, in Buenos Aires alone, 18 million tinamou were sold in meat markets. They were also marketed in North America as "South American partridge". One shipment alone comprised 360,000 birds. Frank Chapman of the American Museum of Natural History helped raise awareness about the rate of exploitation and its potential impact on the populations of the species. Eventually, the USA banned the importation of the birds. Hunting pressures remain, though at a reduced level. For example, 25,000–40,000 spotted nothura are killed annually through legal hunting, not counting poaching. Although some grassland species have increased in both range and numbers, they remain vulnerable to hunting with the use of dogs to flush them. Native peoples also are involved in the killing tinamou for meat, catching them in nooses or traps after imitating their calls. A family of seven in Ceará will consume 60 nothura per year. Tinamou species are among the most commonly harvested birds by subsistence hunting in the Americas. Some species are highly vulnerable to illegal hunting, or poaching. In Brazil, illegal hunts take place at night by torchlight. The use of flutes to imitate the calls during the breeding season to lure the birds into the open can result in local extermination. Overall, there is a lack of adequate controls in place to ensure sustainable hunting, as well as insufficient resources and determination to enforce existing regulations. 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207908	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Nova%20Scotia	Coat of arms of Nova Scotia	The coat of arms of Nova Scotia is the heraldic symbol representing the Canadian province of Nova Scotia. It is the oldest provincial achievement of arms in Canada, and the oldest British coat of arms in use outside Great Britain. It is blazoned as follows: Argent, a saltire azure charged with an escutcheon of the Royal Arms of Scotland. The arms were originally granted in 1625 by King Charles I for the first Scottish colony on the Canadian mainland. The arms are also borne as a heraldic badge by the Baronets of Nova Scotia, a chivalric order of Great Britain. They fell out of use when Nova Scotia joined the Confederation in 1867, but were restored in 1929 by royal warrant of King George V. History The arms were originally granted in 1625 by King Charles I as part of a Scottish settlement attempt in Nova Scotia led by Sir William Alexander. These remained in use until the mid 19th century, appearing on the great seal of the province used prior to Confederation in 1867, after which all the provincial great seals were replaced with new ones delivered in 1868. That for Nova Scotia had a new coat of arms comprising a salmon on a blue band between three thistles, on a gold field. The provincial government disliked this and wanted to continue using the old seal, but the federal government did not initially take the necessary steps to facilitate this. Pressure to restore it grew, and it was reassumed in 1929, with the newer arms being abandoned. The original coat of arms was augmented with a compartment upon the issue of the new royal warrant in 1929. The 1867–1929 shield was blazoned Or, on a fess wavy azure between three thistles proper a salmon naiant argent. Symbolism Crest Two hands, one naked and the other clad in armour, holding a thistle, representing Scotland, and laurel, representing peace. Shield The shield, a blue saltire on a white field, is a simple reversal of the Scottish flag (a white saltire, Saint Andrew's cross, on a blue field). It is also charged with an escutcheon bearing the Royal arms of Scotland; a gold shield with a red rampant lion in a double border decorated with fleurs de lis. Compartment The compartment includes thistles as well as the trailing arbutus or mayflower, the floral emblem of Nova Scotia, added when the arms were reassumed in 1929. Supporters The supporters are the unicorn from the royal arms of Scotland which is now borne by the British monarchy, and a member of the Mi'kmaq First Nation indigenous to Nova Scotia, who in the heraldic language of the 17th century was blazoned a "savage." When the grant of arms was registered with the Canadian Heraldic Authority in 2007, the description was updated to "Dexter a unicorn Argent armed crined and unguled Or, crowned with the Royal Crown of Scotland proper, and gorged with a coronet composed of crosses patté and fleurs-de-lis a chain affixed thereto and reflexed Or, sinister a 17th-century representation of an Aboriginal holding in the sinister hand an arrow proper, both standing on a grassy mound Vert set with thistles and mayflowers slipped and leaved proper." Motto Munit haec et altera vincit ("One [hand] defends and the other conquers"), placed above the shield in the Scottish tradition. See also Symbols of Nova Scotia Flag of Nova Scotia Canadian heraldry National symbols of Canada List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols Heraldry References External links Coat of Arms (Armorial Achievement) – Government of Nova Scotia Arms and flag of Nova Scotia in the online Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges Warrant granting Armorial Bearings for the Provinces of Ontario, Qubec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and a Great Seal for the Dominion of Canada Canada Gazette, volume 3, number 22, 27 November 1869, page 36 Royal Warrant Assigning Armorial Ensigns to the Province of Nova Scotia Canada Gazette, volume 63, number 22, 30 November 1929, page 1984 Provincial symbols of Nova Scotia Nova Scotia Nova Scotia Nova Scotia Nova Scotia Nova Scotia Nova Scotia Nova Scotia Nova Scotia	[ -0.042402468621730804, 0.2696218490600586, -0.08331778645515442, -0.1770198941230774, -0.008812354877591133, 0.48868387937545776, 0.3943521976470947, 0.6154505014419556, -0.4585508406162262, 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207910	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Independence%20%281814%29	USS Independence (1814)	USS Independence was a wooden-hulled, three-masted ship, originally a ship of the line and the first to be commissioned by the United States Navy. Originally a 90-gun ship, in 1836 she was cut down by one deck and re-rated as a 54-gun frigate. Service history Mediterranean Fleet, 1814–1822 Launched on 22 June 1814 in the Boston Navy Yard, she immediately took on guns and was stationed with frigate in Boston. Both could not cruise until the end of the War of 1812 as they were blockaded in port by a squadron consisting of a number of 74-gun ships and the 98-gun HMS Boyne. Flying the broad pennant of Commodore William Bainbridge, and under command of Captain William M. Crane, she led her squadron from Boston on 3 July 1815 to deal with piratical acts of the Barbary States against American merchant commerce. Peace had been enforced by a squadron under Stephen Decatur by the time Independence arrived in the Mediterranean. But she led an impressive show of American naval might before Barbary ports that encouraged them to keep the peace treaties concluded. Having served adequate notice of rising U.S. seapower and added to the prestige of the Navy and the Nation, Independence returned to Newport, Rhode Island on 15 November 1815. She continued to wear the pennant of Commodore Bainbridge at Boston until 29 November 1819, then was flagship of Commodore John Shaw until placed in ordinary in 1822. Refit 1836 Independence remained in ordinary at Boston until 1836 when she was razeed (cut down to one covered fighting deck with poop and forecastle). She was rated down to 54 guns as her configuration gave way to that of a very large frigate. She proved to be one of the fastest and most powerful "frigates" of the Navy. Russia, South America, Home Squadron, 1837–1845 Independence recommissioned on 26 March 1837 and sailed from Boston on 20 May 1837 as flagship of Commodore John B. Nicholson. On board for her record passage across the Atlantic Ocean to England was the Honorable George Dallas, Minister to Russia. She arrived at Portsmouth, England, 13 June, called at Copenhagen; then proceeded into Kronstadt 29 July 1837 to receive a visit from the Emperor Nicholas I of Russia. Two days later a steam boat arrived to transport Mr. Dallas and his family to St. Petersburg. Having received marked social courtesies from the Russian government, Independence departed Kronstadt on 13 August 1837 for Rio de Janeiro, where she became flagship of the Brazil Squadron to guard American commerce along the eastern seaboard of South America. This duty continued into the spring of 1839 when Commodore Nicholson attempted mediation to end the war between France and Argentina. He reported 22 April 1839 that: Independence returned north to New York on 30 March 1840. She was laid up in ordinary until 14 May 1842 when she became flagship of Commodore Charles Stewart in the Home Squadron. Based at Boston and New York, she continued as his flagship until laid up in ordinary on 3 December 1845. Mexican War, 1846–1849 She recommissioned on 4 August 1846, and the nation was already at war with Mexico as she departed Boston 29 August 1846 for the coast of California. She entered Monterey Bay on 22 January 1847 and became the flagship of Commodore William Shubrick, commanding the Pacific Squadron. Independence assisted in the blockade of the Mexican coast, capturing Mexican ship Correo and a launch on 16 May 1847. She was present to support the capture of Guaymas on 19 October and landed sailors and Marines to occupy Mazatlán on 11 November 1847. She later cruised as far as Hawaii, arriving Hilo on 12 August 1848, arriving Lahaina on 30 August 1848 and Honolulu 4 September 1848. Independence returned to the East Coast at Norfolk, Virginia on 23 May 1849 and decommissioned there on 30 May. Mediterranean, Pacific, 1849–1912 Recommissioned on 7 July 1849, Independence departed Norfolk on 26 July under Captain Thomas Conover to serve as flagship of the Mediterranean Squadron under Commodore Charles Morgan. She was the first U.S. man-of-war to show the flag at Spezia, Italy, arriving on 23 May 1850 to an enthusiastic welcome. She returned to Norfolk on 25 June 1852 and was placed in ordinary at New York on 3 July 1852. Independence was recommissioned in September 1854 and departed New York on 10 October to serve as flagship of the Pacific Squadron under Commodore William Mervine. She arrived Valparaíso, Chile, on 2 February 1855. Her cruising grounds ranged northward to San Francisco and west to Hawaii. Proceeding from Panama Bay, she entered the Mare Island Navy Yard on 2 October 1857. She served as receiving ship there until decommissioned on 3 November 1912. Her name was struck from the Navy List on 3 September 1913. Decommissioning and fate Independence did not leave the Mare Island Navy Yard until 28 November 1914. Sold to John H. Rinder, she was towed to the Union Iron Works, San Francisco. On 5 March 1915 she shifted to Hunters Point, and remained for a week. Some repairs were made and a plan formulated to use her as a restaurant for the Panama–Pacific International Exposition. But this plan was not executed though a permit was granted by Exposition authorities. Pig iron and ballast were removed from her hold and valuable hard wood salvaged from her orlop deck knees. On the night of 20 September 1915, Independence was burned on the Hunter's Point mud flats to recover her metal fittings. References Howard Chapelle, The History of the American Sailing Navy: the Ships and their Development (New York: Norton, 1949), plan 27 (Independence as a razee) External links USS Independence Collection (#1128), East Carolina Manuscript Collection, J. Y. Joyner Library, East Carolina University Copy of 1912 newspaper article about Independence Ships of the line of the United States Navy Barbary Wars American ships Mexican–American War ships of the United States Ships built in Boston 1814 ships	[ -0.5957008004188538, -0.09090500324964523, -0.341757208108902, 0.332294762134552, 0.4126805365085602, 0.3095642328262329, 0.18260915577411652, -0.1861248016357422, -0.6295719146728516, 0.18907831609249115, 0.22215904295444489, -0.04822824150323868, -0.6134944558143616, 0.6022993326187134, -0.3184088468551636, 0.2741265892982483, 0.2950294613838196, 0.09693139791488647, 0.09438685327768326, -0.48837414383888245, -0.42239391803741455, -0.006801027338951826, 0.3700324296951294, 0.144712433218956, 0.4193679988384247, -0.003821090329438448, 0.5582693815231323, -0.2667534351348877, 0.13339205086231232, 0.3354552388191223, 0.3066604733467102, 0.3087212145328522, 0.11740096658468246, 0.2619433104991913, -0.25764772295951843, -0.11255224794149399, 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207914	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaine%20Benes	Elaine Benes	Elaine Marie Benes is a fictional character on the American television sitcom Seinfeld, played by Julia Louis-Dreyfus. Elaine's best friend in the sitcom is her ex-boyfriend Jerry Seinfeld, and she is also good friends with George Costanza and Cosmo Kramer. Louis-Dreyfus received critical acclaim for her performance as Elaine, winning an Emmy, a Golden Globe and five SAG Awards. She reprised the role during season 41 of Saturday Night Live in 2016. Elaine's debut Unlike her three close friends, Elaine is absent from the pilot episode. Previously the female role was supposed to be Claire, the waitress at Pete's Luncheonette played by Lee Garlington, but Monk's Cafe replaced the luncheonette and Garlington was dropped from the role. Elaine first appears in "The Stake Out," but in production order she appears in a final scene eating M&Ms in "Male Unbonding." NBC executives felt the show was too male-centric, and demanded that Jerry Seinfeld and Larry David add a woman to the cast as a condition for commissioning the show, as revealed in the commentary on the Season 1 and 2 DVD. In addition to the first episode, Elaine doesn't appear in "The Trip" (the actress having been in the late stages of pregnancy at the time of filming) and therefore appears in fewer episodes than George and Jerry. Real-life inspiration After it was discovered that Jerry Seinfeld once dated writer and comedian Carol Leifer, speculation grew that Elaine was based on Leifer, though that was later largely denied. Leifer, who wrote or cowrote a number of episodes for the show, has said only some elements of the backstory of the character — that she and Seinfeld had dated and have remained good friends since the relationship ended — relate to her. She says some elements of the character of Elaine, especially her assertiveness, intelligence and sense of humor, are drawn from the off-screen personality of Julia Louis-Dreyfus herself. According to Seinfeld's biography (written by Jerry Oppenheimer), Elaine was based in part on Susan McNabb (who was dating Seinfeld when the character was created), though eventually named after friend and fellow comic Elayne Boosler. The character was also partially based on Monica Yates (daughter of novelist Richard Yates), whom Larry David once dated; they remained good friends after they broke up. Background and education Unlike George, Jerry and Kramer, Elaine is not a native of New York City, having grown up in the affluent Baltimore suburb of Towson, and is shown to be a fan of the Baltimore Orioles. She attended finishing school and completed her undergraduate education at Tufts University, revealed to be her safety school in "The Puerto Rican Day", as a French literature major. In "The Dog", she tells George she moved to New York in 1986, which, by coincidence, is the year Jerry moved into his apartment across the hall from Kramer. She started dating Jerry later that year. In "The Doodle" it is stated by George that Elaine takes a drawing class at The New School with his girlfriend Paula. Elaine's religious beliefs are never confirmed, and she appears to have no interest in religion. She expresses shock when Puddy is revealed as a devout Christian. She views saying "God bless you" as a "silly superstition" in "The Good Samaritan". On the other hand, she is seen making the sign of the cross before entering Jerry's apartment to retrieve a manuscript while the apartment is being fumigated in "The Doodle", and crosses herself again in "The Betrayal" after turning her back on a Hindu altar. This might suggest that Elaine was raised Catholic (or Episcopalian). Also notable was Elaine's celebration of Christmas as we see her apartment-holiday decor skills on full display (including a grand Xmas tree) in "The Race". In multiple episodes, including "The Strong Box" and "The Wizard", she can be seen wearing a crucifix. In "The Pick", Elaine is horrified when she realizes she sent a Christmas card which features her nipple to "Sister Mary Catherine" and "Father Chelios". In "The Postponement" and "The Fatigues", Elaine states that she is not Jewish. Family Though her ethnicity is never made clear, the name Beneš is a common Czech surname. Her ethnicity is assumed to be Hispanic in "The Wizard". In "The Wink", her cousin Holly repeatedly mentions a "Grandma Memma" who apparently shared a mutual dislike with Elaine's side of the family. Elaine claims to have an IQ of 145 (although her scores range from 85 to 150). Elaine's father, a gruff novelist named Alton Benes (Lawrence Tierney), was featured in "The Jacket". In "The Wait Out", Elaine reveals to David Lookner that Alton left her and the rest of her family when she was nine years old. Elaine has a sister, Gail, and a nephew; they are first mentioned in "The Pick". In "The Airport", it is revealed that Gail lives in St. Louis. Elaine has a cousin, Holly, who appears in "The Wink", where reference is made to Elaine's grandmother Mema, from whom Holly inherited a set of cloth napkins. It is not revealed if Mema is her maternal or paternal grandmother. In "The Stock Tip", Elaine mentions she has an Uncle Pete. In "The Secret Code", she mentions an uncle who worked in the Texas School Book Depository with Lee Harvey Oswald. Whether the two uncles are the same person is not revealed. Employment During Seasons 2 to 5, Elaine works at Pendant Publishing under her boss Mr. Lippman, where she served as a copy editor. She loses her job at the end of Season 5 when the company goes bankrupt and a misunderstanding resulting from her penchant for chewy, speech-impairing Jujyfruit candies thwarts a merger that might have saved the company. ("The Opposite"). Elaine later becomes a personal assistant to the eccentric, demanding Justin Pitt, starting in "The Chaperone", but later is fired when Mr. Pitt thinks she and Jerry are conspiring to kill him in "The Diplomat's Club". Elaine meets J. Peterman on the street ("The Understudy") and becomes an editor at his J. Peterman Catalog, where she remains employed for the rest of the series. Starting in "The Foundation", she takes charge of the catalog when Peterman suffers a nervous breakdown and flees to Burma. Once Peterman returns to find an ineffective reshuffling of employees in "The Money" she is demoted back to her former position. Peterman also fires her twice: first when her penchant for poppy seed muffins causes her to fail a drug test in "The Shower Head" and later in "The English Patient" when she expresses her hatred for the movie The English Patient. She is able to recover her job by agreeing to live temporarily in a remote cave in the desert of Tunisia. Personality In "The Sponge", Elaine is desperate to buy a cache of discontinued contraceptive sponges before existing stock is exhausted. She coins the word "spongeworthy" debating her then-boyfriend's prospects of intimacy at the expense of her inventory. In "The Stall", Elaine is dating Tony, a very good-looking athletic type. After a rock climbing accident mangles Tony's face, Elaine admits to Jerry that she cannot date somebody who is unattractive and wonders how long she is obligated to stay with him post-accident. Elaine has a particular affection for A Streetcar Named Desire. In "The Pen", Elaine shows her love for the movie when she becomes unintentionally high on muscle relaxers and repeatedly screams "Stella" at a fancy awards dinner for Morty Seinfeld in Florida. In "The Boyfriend", Elaine reveals her disgust for smokers, which leads to a breakup with Keith Hernandez. Her dislike of smoking also leads to an argument with a fortune-teller in "The Suicide". However, in "The Calzone" and "The Foundation" she is seen smoking a Cuban cigar. Jerry revealed in the episode, The Pilot, that Elaine's favorite film is Shaft. Elaine is a breathtakingly poor dancer. Her performance at a J. Peterman company party, the central plot theme of "The Little Kicks", causes George to describe it as "a full-bodied dry heave set to music." The moves are repeated in her bedroom in a short scene of "The Slicer". Both clips appear in "The Clip Show, Pt. 1". Insecurities In "The Andrea Doria", Elaine dates Alan, a "bad breaker-upper", who makes her feel insecure about having a big head. In the episode she describes herself as a "walking candy apple" after a bird runs into her "giant, freak head." In "The Smelly Car", Elaine repulses her boyfriend Carl when her hair smells of body odor from riding in Jerry's car. She goes to extreme lengths to get the smell out but nothing works, and he continues to be grossed out. In "The Postponement", Elaine confides in a rabbi that she is jealous of George's engagement to Susan Ross because George would be getting married before her and she considers George a loser. The Rabbi proceeds to tell everybody in Elaine's apartment complex and later on his cable TV show about her insecurity. Influence/effect on others In "The Chinese Woman", Jerry describes how Elaine has had a destructive effect on her relationship with her friend Noreen. It is revealed that over the course of their friendship, Elaine has convinced Noreen to join the Army, then go AWOL, dump her "high-talker" boyfriend and then her "long-talker" boyfriend. Eventually, Kramer steps in and forbids Elaine to have any more contact with Noreen. In "The Muffin Tops", Elaine convinces her ex-boss Mr. Lippman to start his own business selling just "muffin tops". However, they soon run into problems when no one will take the leftover stumps, and only by calling in "The Cleaner" (who turns out to be Newman) can they get rid of them. In "The Non-Fat Yogurt", Elaine suggests to Lloyd Braun, an advisor to Mayor David Dinkins, that everybody in the city should wear name tags. Lloyd Braun suggests this idea to the mayor, who likes it so much that he adds it to his campaign, subsequently leading to his loss in the mayoral elections. In "The Gum", it's revealed that Lloyd Braun also loses his job and later has a nervous breakdown. Romantic relationships Jerry Seinfeld Jerry and Elaine dated for a while before the show started. They started dating in 1986 (as revealed in "The Truth") and dated until 1990. In "The Deal", Elaine states they only had sex 37 times; in the same episode, however, Jerry states that they had sex 25 times. In "The Stakeout", Jerry tells his parents that the reason for the break-up had to do with fighting too much and "physical chemistry". In "The Deal", Jerry and Elaine create a set of rules whereby they can be sexually intimate but remain only friends. However, their theory is ruined when Elaine is furious over Jerry giving her $182 as a birthday gift. In "The Mango", Jerry is shocked to discover that Elaine had feigned her orgasms while they were together. In "The Serenity Now", Jerry's uninhibited, exaggerated emotional state causes him to ask Elaine to marry him. Shocked, she makes an excuse and leaves. She returns later to accept his proposal, but Jerry has by that time settled to his usual stable emotional state and says "I don't see it happening." In "The Finale", when they think their airplane is about to crash, Elaine says "I've always loved y...", but the pilot is able to steady the airplane. Elaine later explained in court that she was going to say "I've always loved United Airlines." During her interview on Inside The Actor's Studio, Julia Louis-Dreyfus said she believed Jerry and Elaine were soul mates but would never end up together because they were both too "insane and messed up." In the reunion episode featured in Season 7 of Curb Your Enthusiasm, it is revealed in the years since the finale Jerry has donated sperm to Elaine that results in her having a daughter, who's taken to calling Jerry "Uncle Jerry", but by the episode's end, it is said she now refers to him as "daddy" to Jerry and Elaine's clear discomfort. David Puddy Elaine's longest relationship, besides that with Jerry, is with Puddy (Patrick Warburton), an auto mechanic turned car salesman. Elaine begins dating David in the latter half of Season 6, and later for the majority of Season 9. Puddy has a casual approach to their relationship as seen in "The Voice" when Puddy claims he just likes her for the sex. In the same episode, when Elaine tells him that they're back together, he answers "Oh, no". In "The Finale", when Elaine is about to be taken away to prison, she emotionally tells Puddy to "not wait for her". Puddy answers back with a simple, casual, "Alright." Other notable boyfriends Elaine dates baseball player (and Kramer and Newman's nemesis) Keith Hernandez in "The Boyfriend". Over several episodes in Season 4, she dates Joe Davola, who is--unbeknownst to Elaine--simultaneously stalking Jerry. In "The Masseuse", she dates a man named Joel Rifkin, who shares the same name as a notorious serial killer. In "The Sniffing Accountant" she dates Jake Jarmel, an up-and-coming writer and star client of Pendant Publishing. She dumps him because of his reluctance to use exclamation points. In "The Bizarro Jerry", she dates Kevin, the nice, kind antithesis of Jerry whose friends Gene, Feldman and Vargas are polar opposites of George, Kramer and Newman, respectively, each described as coming from the backwards Bizarro World of Superman comics. In "The Stall", her boyfriend Tony, dubbed a male bimbo or "mimbo" by Jerry, becomes George's new idol. In "The Checks", her boyfriend Brett is so obsessed with the song "Desperado" that she feels ignored whenever it comes on. She tries to find a song that they can share and comes up with "Witchy Woman", but it does not work. Both songs are by the Eagles. In "The Wizard", Elaine is not sure if her new boyfriend Darryl is black or not and gets mixed signals when she tries to find out. It turns out he is white and he thought Elaine was Hispanic. In "The Non-Fat Yogurt", Elaine dates Lloyd Braun. Since Lloyd works for the mayor, she tells him that the city would be a better place if everybody wore name tags. He mentions this to the mayor, who eventually loses re-election as a result. In "The Maestro", Elaine starts dating Bob Cobb, a conductor who insists on being called "Maestro". They eventually go to Tuscany together. In "The Junk Mail", Elaine dates Jack, the TV pitchman for The Wiz. Conflicts In "The Betrayal", Elaine is so unhappy at receiving an "unvitation" (a deliberately last-minute invitation) to Sue Ellen Mischke's wedding that she travels all the way to India just to attend. At the wedding, George reveals that Elaine had once dated the groom, leading Sue Ellen to rip out Elaine's nose-ring. In "The Cigar Store Indian", Elaine angers Frank Costanza by taking his TV Guide without asking and then spilling her gyro on it. Then, in "The Little Kicks", she and Frank come to blows after George is arrested along with Elaine's coworker Anna. Elaine says to Frank, "I could drop you like a bag of dirt." Frank replies, "You want a piece of me? You got it." Later, when Jerry chides her for fighting with an old man, she says, "Hey, he wrote the check. I cashed it." Elaine's abortion argument with restaurateur Poppie gets him so angry that he loses control of his bladder in "The Couch" and again in "The Doorman". In "The Soup Nazi", Elaine refuses to abide by the rules of a strict soup stand owner nicknamed "The Soup Nazi" and therefore becomes the subject of his ire. When she finds his secret recipes that he accidentally left in an armoire, she hints that she will drive him out of business, gloating that he's "through." In "The Summer of George", Elaine makes enemies out of her coworker Sam (Molly Shannon). First, when Elaine criticizes Sam's way of walking ("It's like she's carrying invisible suitcases"), Sam gets furious and threatens revenge. Then, Raquel Welch (who was recently fired from a musical for dancing without swinging her arms), sees Elaine describing the walk to the police and thinks that Elaine is making fun of her and attacks her. In "The Understudy", after she thinks her Korean manicurists are making fun of her, she angers them by bringing in Frank Costanza, who is fluent in Korean, to eavesdrop on them. In "The Fire", Elaine reveals her hate for her overly energetic, always-happy colleague Toby. Then, when Toby loses her pinky toe in an accident (caused by Jerry), an outpouring of office sympathy leads Toby to a major promotion instead of the more qualified Elaine. In "The Visa" she and Jerry anger Pakistani immigrant Babu Bhatt after she fails to notice Babu's visa application in Jerry's mail that she is picking up for him. In "The Susie", co-worker Peggy tells Elaine--who she thinks is a woman named Susie--that Elaine is a "dolt" and "disaster". Later, in "The Apology", Peggy thinks Elaine has germs, and in retaliation Elaine intentionally coughs on Peggy's doorknob, rubs her stapler in her armpit, and rubs her keyboard on her backside. In "The Package", it is revealed that Elaine's medical charts characterize her as a "difficult" patient to such a degree that she cannot receive treatment for a rash because one doctor after another refuses to treat her. 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207917	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eobaatar	Eobaatar	Eobaatar is a genus of extinct mammal from the Lower Cretaceous of Mongolia, Spain and England. A member of the also extinct order Multituberculata, it lies within the suborder Plagiaulacida and family Eobaataridae. The genus Eobaatar was named by Kielan-Jaworowska Z., Dashzeveg D. and Trofimov B.A. in 1987. Its name was made from Greek "eos" = "dawn" and Mongolian "baatar" = "hero"", "warrior". Species Eobaatar hispanicus This species was named by Hahn G. and Hahn R. in 1992. Remains consisting of a single tooth were found in Hauterivian - Barremian (Lower Cretaceous)-age strata of the Camarillas Formation, Spain. Eobaatar magnus This species was named by Kielan-Jaworowska Z., Dashzeveg D. and Trofimov B.A. in 1987. It is based on a fragment of lower jaw with teeth found in Aptian or Albian (Lower Cretaceous) strata of the Dzunbain Formation in Guchin Us County, Mongolia, and had a cranial length of about 3 cm. Eobaatar minor This species was also named by Kielan-Jaworowska Z., Dashzeveg D. and Trofimov B.A. in 1987. Remains were found in Lower Cretaceous Dzunbain Formation of Mongolia. Going by the species name, it was probably relatively small; his skull was 2 cm in length indeed. Eobaatar pajaronensis This species was named by Hahn G. and Hahn R. in 2001. Remains were discovered in Barremian (Lower Cretaceous) strata of the Camarillas Formation in Spain. Eobaatar clemensi This species was named by Steven Sweetman in 2009. Remains were found in the Barremian (lower Cretaceous) of the Wessex formation, England. Sources Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska, Richard L. Cifelli, and Zhe-Xi Luo (2004). "Mammals from the age of dinosaurs : origins, evolution, and structure" pp. 260–342. Hahn & Hahn (2001), "Multituberculaten-zähne aus der Unter-Kreide (Barremium) von Ple Pajaron (Prov. Cuenca, Spanien)". Paläontologische Zeitschrift 74 (4), p. 587-589. Kielan-Jaworowska et al. (1987), "Early Cretaceous multituberculates from Mongolia and a comparison with Late Jurassic form". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 32, p. 3-47. Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429. Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: Plagiaulacidae, Albionbaataridae, Eobaataridae & Arginbaataridae S. C. Sweetman. 2009. A new species of the plagiaulacoid multituberculate mammal Eobaatar from the Early Cretaceous of southern Britain. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 54(3):373-384 Multituberculates Early Cretaceous mammals of Europe Early Cretaceous mammals of Asia Barremian genus first appearances Aptian genus extinctions Cretaceous Spain Cretaceous Mongolia Cretaceous England Fossils of Spain Fossils of Mongolia Fossils of England Camarillas Formation La Huérguina Formation Prehistoric mammal genera	[ -0.6930388808250427, 0.4837898313999176, -0.6722738742828369, -0.38336309790611267, -0.49465009570121765, 0.9962590336799622, 0.8357828259468079, 0.4457014501094818, 0.23747491836547852, -0.06287112087011337, -0.12151189893484116, 0.2251068353652954, -0.6527222394943237, -0.1806538999080658, -0.09368737041950226, 0.21998411417007446, -0.3220537602901459, 0.62758868932724, -0.16481630504131317, -0.4405079782009125, 0.5200721025466919, -0.6724267601966858, 0.5633086562156677, -0.39761611819267273, 0.29390016198158264, -0.1671827733516693, 0.5456620454788208, 0.7031520009040833, 0.19286824762821198, -0.2271556407213211, 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207923	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ari%20Fleischer	Ari Fleischer	Lawrence Ari Fleischer (born October 13, 1960) is an American media consultant and political aide who served as the 23rd White House Press Secretary, for President George W. Bush, from January 2001 to July 2003. Since leaving the White House, he has worked as a media consultant and commentator. He joined Fox News as a contributor in July 2017. Early life Fleischer was born in 1960 in New York City, the son of Martha and Alan A. Fleischer. His mother was a database coordinator and his father was owner of an executive recruiting company. His parents were Jewish; his mother is a Hungarian immigrant who lost much of her family in the Holocaust. Both parents were Democrats who were "horrified" when Fleischer became a Republican, he told an interviewer in 2003: "While I lived at home and when I started college, I was a liberal Democrat. In a sense, it was President Carter who drove me out of the Democratic Party and it was President Reagan who welcomed me into the Republican Party." He graduated from Fox Lane High School in Bedford, New York, in 1978, and graduated from Middlebury College in Vermont in 1982. Congressional staffer Upon his graduation from Middlebury, Fleischer worked as press secretary for Jon S. Fossel, a Republican candidate for a New York congressional seat. Later Fleischer worked as press secretary for Norman Lent. From 1985 to 1988, he was field director for the National Republican Congressional Committee. He went back to being a press secretary in 1988, working for congressman Joseph DioGuardi. Fleischer served as U.S. Senator Pete Domenici's press secretary from 1989 to 1994 and as spokesman for the House of Representatives Ways and Means Committee for five years. He worked as deputy communications director for George H. W. Bush's 1992 reelection campaign. White House press secretary Although Fleischer served as communications director for Elizabeth Dole during her presidential run in the 2000 election campaign, he joined George W. Bush's presidential campaign after Dole dropped out of the race. When Bush became the President in 2001, he tapped Fleischer to become the first press secretary of his administration. Fleischer is credited with having been the first to introduce the phrase "homicide bombing" to describe what has also been called suicide bombing, in April 2002, to emphasize the terrorist connotations of the tactic: On May 19, 2003, he announced that he would resign during the summer, citing a desire to spend more time with his wife and to work in the private sector. He was replaced by deputy press secretary Scott McClellan on July 15, 2003. Iraq War As press secretary in the Bush administration, Fleischer was a prominent advocate for the Invasion of Iraq. He made numerous exaggerated and misleading claims about Iraq in the lead-up to the Iraq War, in particular about Iraq's purported WMD program (it did not have one) and the Saddam Hussein regime's purported relationship with al-Qaeda (they did not have an operational relationship). In January 2003, after UN weapons inspectors said they had "not found any smoking gun" evidence of an active WMD program, Fleischer said, "The problem with guns that are hidden is you can't see their smoke... We know for a fact that there are weapons there." (there were not) On the issue of whether the Saddam Hussein regime had sought to obtain uranium from Niger, Fleischer said that it was "an issue that very well may be true. We don’t know if it’s true—but nobody, but nobody, can say it is wrong." In his press conferences, he repeatedly insisted that the burden of proof for the non-existence of the Hussein regime's WMD program fell on Saddam Hussein, not on the Bush administration to prove that he did have an active WMD program. On one occasion Fleischer said that Hussein "has to indicate whether or not he has weapons. . . . If he declares he has none, then we will know that Saddam Hussein is once again misleading the world. . . . If Saddam Hussein indicates that he has weapons of mass destruction and that he is violating United Nations resolutions, then we will know that Saddam Hussein again deceived the world." In 2019, Fleischer said, "It’s a myth that Bush lied" about Iraq. Fleischer claimed that he and Bush "faithfully and accurately reported" the assessments of the Intelligence community. "Operation Avarice", a covert CIA operation to buy up WMD's in Iraq, did secure over 400 missiles and rockets containing chemical weapons, mostly Sarin nerve-gas, between 2005 and 2006. In some cases the missile's toxicity was over 25%, much higher than expected. Some details of the classified operation were revealed by the NY Times in 2015. Additionally, hundreds and possibly thousands of US troops were exposed to various chemical weapons during cleanup operations when about 5,000 chemical warheads, shells or aviation bombs were located and demolished in Iraq. Some of the cases of exposure were hushed up at the time, as the military did not want to reveal that there were chemical agents around lest they be used by terrorists in conjunction with IEDs. Torture In 2003, Fleischer said, "The standard for any type of interrogation of somebody in American custody is to be humane and to follow all international laws and accords dealing with this type subject. That is precisely what has been happening and exactly what will happen." The administration used waterboarding, sleep deprivation and forced nudity against suspected combatants and suspected terrorists. In 2009, when the Department of Justice of the Obama administration launched a probe into alleged CIA interrogation abuses, Fleischer described the decision as "disgusting." Fleischer said if he were subpoenaed in an investigation of alleged interrogation abuses, "I'll be proud to testify... I'm proud of what we did to protect this country." Alleged role in Plame affair Fleischer became an important figure in the CIA leak case; he testified that Scooter Libby, Vice President Dick Cheney's former chief of staff, told him that Valerie Plame was a covert agent weeks before Libby had claimed to have been informed of Plame's status by a reporter. On July 7, 2003, at The James S. Brady Briefing Room, Fleischer was asked about Joseph Wilson, a former U.S. ambassador who had recently written an editorial for The New York Times criticizing the intelligence information the Bush administration had relied upon to make its case for invading the nation of Iraq. Specifically, Fleischer was asked to respond to Mr. Wilson's assertion that he had been sent to Niger to investigate claims that Saddam Hussein had sought yellowcake uranium and found no evidence that such events had ever occurred. Fleischer testified in open court on January 29, 2007, that Libby told him on July 7, 2003, at lunch, about Plame, who is Wilson's wife. MSNBC correspondent David Shuster summarized Fleisher's testimony on Hardball with Chris Matthews: Fleischer also testified to the fact that Dan Bartlett, the president's communications adviser, told him the same thing on Air Force One days later on the way to Niger with President Bush. Fleischer had then relayed this information to Time correspondent John Dickerson and NBC's David Gregory in Uganda during the African trip. Dickerson denied that such a conversation ever took place. Fleischer gave his final "Press Briefing" on July 14, 2003. On July 18, 2005, Bloomberg reported that in his sworn testimony before the grand jury investigating the leak, Fleischer denied having seen a memo circulating in Air Force One on July 7, 2003, which named Plame in connection to Wilson's mission and which identified her as a "CIA" covert agent. However, a former Bush Administration official also on the plane testified to having seen Fleischer perusing the document. Columnist Robert Novak, who published Plame's name on July 14, 2003, made a call to Fleischer on July 7, 2003, before Fleischer's trip to Africa with President Bush. It is unclear whether Fleischer returned Novak's call. However, Fleischer is mentioned in Special Prosecutor Patrick Fitzgerald's indictment of Libby. The indictment states that Libby told Fleischer (referred to as the White House press secretary in the indictment) that Plame worked for the "CIA" and that this fact was not well known. After receiving an immunity agreement, Fleischer testified that he had revealed Plame's identity to reporters after learning it from Libby. However, in the end it was discovered that Richard Armitage first leaked Plame's identity, not Libby or Cheney. Consultancy firm Today he works as a media consultant for various corporations and sports organizations and players through his company, Ari Fleischer Communications. He has consulted for former Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper, Mark McGwire, the Washington Redskins, Tiger Woods and the Green Bay Packers. Memoir Fleischer published a memoir, Taking Heat: The President, the Press and My Years in the White House, in 2005. Michiko Kakutani wrote in The New York Times, "[T]his book does not provide any new insights into the workings of the current White House. It does not present compelling portraits of cabinet members or members of the White House supporting cast. And it does not shed new light on the president or his methods of governance." She found the book "insular, defensive and wholly predictable." In Salon.com, Eric Boehlert declared that despite "a few curious nuggets," the book is "long on praise for his boss and criticism of the 'liberal' media, and short on revelations." Personal life In November 2002, Fleischer married Rebecca Elizabeth Davis, an employee in the Office of Management and Budget, in an interfaith ceremony. Rabbi Harold S. White officiated the ceremony, with the participation of Rev. Michael J. Kelley, a Roman Catholic priest. They reside in New York with their son and daughter. They have been raising their children Jewish and are members of a synagogue in Westchester, New York. Fleischer's brother, Michael, worked for the Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq. He is on the board of the Republican Jewish Coalition. He enjoys playing baseball and is a member of the two-time President's Cup champion Ridgefield Rockers. In other media Fleischer is portrayed by Rob Corddry in Oliver Stone's W., a biographical movie about George W. Bush. See also Notes References Further reading Hitchens, Christopher. "Fear Factor: How did we survive Ari Fleischer's reign of terror?" Slate. Monday September 11, 2006. Klickstein, Mathew. "How to Speak for the President" "Baltimore Jewish Times". Wednesday December 14, 2016 External links Transcripts of all White House press briefings since 2001 Ari Fleischer Communications 1960 births American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent George W. Bush administration personnel Jewish American government officials Living people Middlebury College alumni New York (state) Republicans People associated with the Plame affair People from Pound Ridge, New York People from Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. 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207924	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%20Bush	President Bush	President Bush may refer to: George H. W. Bush (1924–2018), 41st president of the United States (1989–1993) and father of George W. Bush George W. Bush (born 1946), 43rd president of the United States (2001–2009) and son of George H. W. Bush See also Presidency of George Bush (disambiguation) George Bush (disambiguation) Bush (disambiguation)	[ -0.33528515696525574, 0.44024038314819336, -0.7294169068336487, 0.4215177595615387, -0.2828603684902191, 0.1385902315378189, 0.029618337750434875, -0.048205744475126266, -0.6518204212188721, -0.2910018563270569, -0.22256013751029968, -0.2023753672838211, -0.5727818012237549, 0.5440635681152344, 0.07538667321205139, 0.2587689161300659, -0.24261964857578278, 0.5580135583877563, -0.21261142194271088, -0.3653388023376465, 0.18535295128822327, 0.17341262102127075, 0.0064279199577867985, -0.883425235748291, 0.48910629749298096, 0.027960343286395073, 0.13091719150543213, -0.9998016357421875, -0.0973290205001831, 0.1677747368812561, 0.026299521327018738, -0.12176419794559479, 0.1920311599969864, 0.014682495966553688, -0.28366634249687195, -0.12020421773195267, 0.43807920813560486, 0.03699403256177902, 0.6557672023773193, -0.6884992122650146, 0.24734877049922943, 0.02889215759932995, 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207925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel%20Muggs	Ethel Muggs	Ethel Muggs is a character frequently featured in Archie Comics. She is a student of Riverdale High School, sometimes known to her schoolmates by the nickname Big Ethel, though this nickname has largely fallen out of use since the 1980s. She was first drawn by cartoonist Samm Schwartz, probably modeled after a prototype designed by Bill Vigoda for a 1948 Archie Comics story. She has been voiced by Jane Webb, Jazzmin Lausanne, and Michele Phillips. Cindy Ambuehl played Ethel in the television film Archie: To Riverdale and Back Again, and Shannon Purser portrays the character in a recurring capacity on The CW's Riverdale. History and character Ethel Muggs (originally Ethel Dinklehof) was portrayed in the early era as a tall, gangly, plain-faced, somewhat boy-crazy young woman that had a huge infatuation with Jughead Jones. This was explained in her first appearance in Archie's Pal, Jughead #84 as the result of Dilton Doiley's "Electronic Mate Selector" selecting Jughead as "the perfect mate" for her. She usually resorted to devious means to get Jughead in her clutches, and would typically end up running after him. Ethel has also pursued Jughead by appealing to his appetite; the Betty and Veronica comic title often featured real recipes that Ethel used to make her way to Jughead's heart through his stomach. Earlier issues featuring Big Ethel show her bearing a strong resemblance to Jughead, also, with her prominent nose, dark hair, and angular build. In the late 1980s, Ethel was occasionally drawn with braces on her buck teeth. Although Ethel is usually portrayed as drab-looking and gawky, one story involving a makeover by Betty Cooper and Veronica Lodge in an attempt to attract Jughead's attention revealed her to be quite curvy and pretty (albeit still with buck teeth).<ref>Archie's Girls Betty & Veronica #95</ref> Despite her new look, Jughead was as uninterested as ever. In the later era, she has been portrayed as an average, decent-looking, somewhat likeable teen girl, whose infatuation for Jughead has been considerably toned down. She now has other interests that keep her mind from Jughead, including Dilton and Archie Andrews, to keep her company. This actually tends to make Jughead a bit jealous. She and Dilton share mutual sympathy due to their few successes with romantic relationships, which is one of the reasons that they occasionally date. She has even been on one memorable date with Archie in one story. That date showed another side of Ethel, where she was funny, smart and attractive. The same story also introduces Hank, a friend of Ethel's who works at a local club Archie and Ethel visit on their date. It is later revealed that Hank was originally a pen pal of Ethel's, and she sent him a picture of Veronica instead of herself because of her low self-esteem. When Hank met Veronica standing in as Ethel, he dumped her because of her vanity. He soon ran into the real Ethel, and told her she was the most exciting girl he has ever met, and that Veronica could not hold a candle to her. When she questions his sincerity, he replies that he does mean it, and she is even more beautiful than Veronica. In another story, a merman (temporarily transformed into a teenage human boy) finds her enchanting due to her inner beauty, giving her self-esteem a huge boost. Although Jughead drives Ethel away when her affections are too obvious, he can often stand being around her when she keeps her calm. In a storyline that ran in Jughead in the early 1990s, Ethel told Jughead she is tired of chasing him, and begins a romantic relationship with Jeffrey, a blind boy. During this time, Jughead also had a semi-romantic relationship with Anita, a paraplegic African-American teen. Both Jughead and Ethel displayed jealousy at the others' relationship, but the storyline was eventually dropped. Various stories depict Ethel as a fan of science fiction, art, and trains. She also has a talent for making doll-house furniture, and often works as a babysitter. She is also a fine cook, which is one of the reasons Jughead occasionally submits to being around her. She is fond of dogs, and sometimes uses her attractive female poodle, Clementine, as bait to lure Jughead and Hot Dog. Other versions Afterlife with Archie In the second issue of the 2013 Archie Horror series Afterlife with Archie, Ethel attends the Halloween dance dressed as Snow White and after an attempted flirtation, a zombified Jughead bites and infects her. When the reanimated Ethel goes after Betty, Veronica blasts and hits the zombie with a fire extinguisher. When she doesn't stay down, the kids realize that a zombie apocalypse is upon them. Archie's R/C Racers In the Archie's R/C Racers series (which takes place outside the regular Archie continuity), Ethel was a member of Archie's team who was traveling across the United States racing radio-controlled cars. She was given her own subplot in the series when she chose to leave Archie's team and join Babette and her henchmen, one of whom had a crush on Ethel and whose feelings were returned. They promised to help Ethel's aspiring country music career. Gradually, she became a starlet, known as "Ethel Sue". Ethel eventually learned the truth about the trio when Babette convinced her to pose for some publicity photos. Standing in front of a large metal target, Ethel suddenly became strapped to the target and Babette prepared to shoot her with a ray gun, which Ethel believed was a camera. Babette explained that the ray gun was a device that can give the recipient mental powers and she planned on using it on herself after testing it on Ethel. Before she could be zapped, Archie's team saved her. Babette instead zapped a tour guide, who became a villain in the series. Ethel left Babette and returned to Archie's team. Life with Archie: The Married Life Ethel Muggs appears in Life with Archie: The Married Life. Prototypes An early unnamed prototype for the Big Ethel character drawn by Bill Vigoda appeared in Archie Comics #30 (1948). In the story "Patch as Catch Can", Riverdale had a "patch hop"; the girl who could sew her patch on a boy's clothes is his date for the dance. Archie was trying to avoid Betty. While running from her, he found a boy on a tandem, and jumps aboard. He soon realized the boy was actually a very unattractive girl, whom Archie referred to as a "Zombie". Except for her freckles she looks exactly like Ethel with black hair in pigtails, a buck toothed smile, and a tall skinny figure. Archie jumped off the bike, and continued to dodge Betty throughout the story. In the end, he ended up strung from rope tied to a flagpole, and the "Zombie" returned and sewed a patch on Archie's underwear. The story ended with Archie lying on the railroad tracks, saying "It's no use, Jug. This is a much easier way out." There was also a later character similar to Ethel named Ophelia Glutenschnable. Ophelia was also tall, skinny and dark, but her hair was styled differently, her nose was much bigger, and she usually had no buck teeth. She relentlessly pursued Jughead and all the other boys. In contrast to later stories, Jughead willingly went on dates with Ophelia. In one gag, Archie asks Jughead why he asked Ophelia to the dance, and Jughead replies that she was different: "She's the only one who'll go with me!" Eventually, Ophelia was replaced by Big Ethel. A separate and unrelated character named "Big Ethel" appeared in Archie's Girls Betty and Veronica #95 (November 1963). This character is a plump, disheveled redhead who chased Jughead. Betty and Veronica gave her a makeover (secured by waist-slimming shapewear) that turned her into a voluptuous beauty; however, her makeover was undone after a sneeze caused the foundation garment to break and her hair and clothing to become a mess. In later reprint stories, the character is renamed "Esmeralda". Titles Ethel has never had her own series, but has been a supporting character mainly in the various Jughead series, as well as some of the Betty series, as she has a close friendship with Betty Cooper. She also has solo stories in the various Archie anthology titles. In 1982, she co-starred in the Spire Christian Comics title Archie and Big Ethel. In October 2021, a series created by Keryl Brown Ahmed and Siobhan was published on Webtoon under the name Archie Comics: Big Ethel Energy, in which Ethel is the main character of a future Riverdale where everyone has graduated since long. In other media Television Animated Ethel made her television debut in the early Filmation Archie cartoons, most notably in the "How to Catch a Man" segments on Archie's Funhouse, where she is voiced by Jane Webb. Webb went on to voice the character, among several others, in numerous Archie-based television projects from 1968 to 1977. Ethel appears in The New Archies, voiced by Jazzmin Lausanne. Ethel appears sporadically in Archie's Weird Mysteries voiced by Michele Phillips. This incarnation is visually based on older versions of the character, but like in the newer comics, she also has other interests, such as beekeeping and magic. Live-action Ethel appears in the 1990 television film Archie: To Riverdale and Back Again, where she is portrayed as an adult by Cindy Ambuehl. Ethel is now a gorgeous fashion model, having been a late bloomer, and still has a crush on Jughead Jones. By the end of the movie, Jughead and his son decide to stay in Riverdale so that he can pursue a relationship with Ethel. Ethel is portrayed by Shannon Purser in The CW television series Riverdale'', which debuted in 2017. In the series, Ethel is not shown to be obsessed with Jughead and is actually good friends with his girlfriend, Betty Cooper, and later Veronica Lodge after their shared experiences with harassment by Chuck Clayton. However, in season 3, it is revealed that Ethel is infatuated with Jughead and even convinces him to kiss her while playing a game of Gryphons and Gargoyles. References Comics characters introduced in 1962 Characters created by Samm Schwartz Archie Comics characters Fictional chefs Fictional singers Animated human characters Female characters in animation Female characters in comics Female characters in television Teenage characters in comics Teenage characters in television	[ -0.046257179230451584, 0.5233669281005859, -0.4694054126739502, -0.10356656461954117, -0.19422702491283417, 0.2720247507095337, 0.47817543148994446, 0.4879612624645233, -0.7408411502838135, 0.16420593857765198, 0.1055774837732315, 0.15940429270267487, -0.5593867897987366, 0.2745560109615326, -0.20365577936172485, 0.3277572989463806, -0.3954547047615051, 1.3165236711502075, -0.014989015646278858, -0.4028053283691406, 0.3800767958164215, -0.6173979640007019, 0.3157128393650055, -0.8518667817115784, 0.1068909540772438, 0.2541528344154358, 0.6919484734535217, -0.09727514535188675, 0.13393208384513855, 0.44597354531288147, 0.10671712458133698, 0.7891276478767395, 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207926	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrone%20G.%20Martin	Tyrone G. Martin	Tyrone Gabriel Martin (born June 5, 1930) is a retired United States Navy commander, and a naval historian, most notable as an authority on ("Old Ironsides"), of which he was the 58th commanding officer. Martin was born in Greenwich, Connecticut on 5 June 1930 and commissioned an officer through the NROTC in 1952. During his twenty-six years of navy service he commanded two destroyers on tours of duty off Korea and Vietnam finally becoming the commanding officer (captain) of Constitution on 6 August 1974. In July 1976, during the United States Bicentennial celebrations, Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, arrived for their state visit and privately toured the ship for approximately thirty minutes with Commander Martin and Secretary of the Navy J. William Middendorf. During the 1980s, he was a Senior Naval Science Instructor (SNSI) for the NJROTC program at Boston Technical High School. During Martin's tenure as Commanding Officer, several traditions were instituted that are still observed by the crew of Constitution such as the wearing of 1812 era uniforms and the practice of firing morning and sunset guns. Constitution received her first Meritorious Unit Commendation during his tour and Martin was the first Captain to be decorated for service since Charles Stewart. Martin turned over command of the ship to Commander Robert Leo Gillen on 30 June 1978. Now retired, Martin has written several books about "Old Ironsides", as well as numerous articles on various aspects of the ship and her times, plus the "Salty Talk" column in the journal Naval History. In 2019, the Naval Historical Foundation awarded Martin the Commodore Dudley W. Knox Naval History Lifetime Achievement Award. Works References American naval historians American male non-fiction writers United States Navy officers Living people 1930 births	[ -0.33959510922431946, 0.5845219492912292, -0.5654028058052063, -0.3017374873161316, 0.5083013772964478, 0.2792632579803467, 0.2583763897418976, -0.1416296362876892, -0.36663612723350525, 0.042549826204776764, -0.861293613910675, 0.874151349067688, -0.028242463245987892, 0.3097265660762787, 0.17153127491474152, 0.8594377636909485, 0.17676548659801483, -0.15351669490337372, -0.48650798201560974, -0.21931526064872742, -0.14498499035835266, -0.14427489042282104, 0.5400093793869019, 0.1272950917482376, -0.20614634454250336, 0.49759072065353394, 0.24409590661525726, -0.6133536696434021, -0.10962244868278503, 0.36107203364372253, -0.14535215497016907, -0.05745745822787285, -0.14621642231941223, -0.5116277933120728, -0.6380565166473389, -0.022192254662513733, -0.62166428565979, -0.3425580561161041, -0.006630722898989916, 0.5116081833839417, -0.13468638062477112, 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207928	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20700/7000%20series	IBM 700/7000 series	The IBM 700/7000 series is a series of large-scale (mainframe) computer systems that were made by IBM through the 1950s and early 1960s. The series includes several different, incompatible processor architectures. The 700s use vacuum-tube logic and were made obsolete by the introduction of the transistorized 7000s. The 7000s, in turn, were eventually replaced with System/360, which was announced in 1964. However the 360/65, the first 360 powerful enough to replace 7000s, did not become available until November 1965. Early problems with OS/360 and the high cost of converting software kept many 7000s in service for years afterward. Architectures The IBM 700/7000 series has six completely different ways of storing data and instructions: First scientific (36/18-bit words): 701 (Defense Calculator) Later scientific (36-bit words, hardware floating-point): 704, 709, 7040, 7044, 7090, 7094 Commercial (variable-length character strings): 702, 705, 7080 1400 series (variable-length character strings): 7010 Decimal (10-digit words): 7070, 7072, 7074 Supercomputer (64-bit words): 7030 "Stretch" The 700 class use vacuum tubes, the 7000 class is transistorized. All machines (like most other computers of the time) use magnetic core memory; except for early 701 and 702 models, which initially used Williams tube CRT memory and were later converted to magnetic core memory. Software compatibility issues Early computers were sold without software. As operating systems began to emerge, having four different mainframe architectures plus the 1400 midline architectures became a major problem for IBM since it meant at least four different programming efforts were required. The System/360 combines the best features of the 7000 and 1400 series architectures into a single design both for commercial computing and for scientific and engineering computing. However, its architecture is not compatible with those of the 7000 and 1400 series, so some 360 models have optional features that allow them to emulate the 1400 and 7000 instruction sets in microcode. One of the selling points of the System/370, the successor of the 360 introduced in mid-1970, was improved 1400/7000 series emulation, which could be done under operating system control rather than shutting down and restarting in emulation mode as was required for emulation of 7040/44, 7070/72/74, 7080 and 7090/94 on most of the 360s. Peripherals While the architectures differ, the machines in the same class use the same electronics technologies and generally use the same peripherals. Tape drives generally use 7-track format, with the IBM 727 for vacuum tube machines and the 729 for transistor machines. Both the vacuum tube and most transistor models use the same card readers, card punches, and line printers that were introduced with the 701. These units, the IBM 711, 721, and 716, are based on IBM accounting machine technology and even include plugboard control panels. They are relatively slow and it was common for 7000 series installations to include an IBM 1401, with its much faster peripherals, to do card-to-tape and tape-to-line-printer operations off-line. Three later machines, the 7010, the 7040 and the 7044, adopted peripherals from the midline IBM 1400 series. Some of the technology for the 7030 was used in data channels and peripheral devices on other 7000 series computers, e.g., 7340 Hypertape. First scientific architecture (701) Known as the Defense Calculator while in development in the IBM Poughkeepsie Laboratory, this machine was formally unveiled April 7, 1953 as the IBM 701 Electronic Data Processing Machine. Data formats Numbers are either 36 bits or 18 bits long, only fixed point. Fixed-point numbers are stored in binary sign/magnitude format. Instruction format Instructions are 18 bits long, single address. Sign (1 bit) – Whole-word (-) or Half-word (+) operand address Opcode (5 bits) – 32 instructions Address (12 bits) – 4096 Half-word addresses To expand the memory from 2048 to 4096 words, a 33rd instruction was added that uses the most-significant bit of its address field to select the bank. (This instruction was probably created using the "No OP" instruction, which appears to have been the only instruction with unused bits, as it originally ignored its address field. However, documentation on this new instruction is not currently available.) Registers Processor registers consisted of: AC – 38-bit Accumulator MQ – 36-bit Multiplier-Quotient Memory 2,048 or 4,096 – 36-bit binary words with six-bit characters Later scientific architecture (704/709/7090/7094) IBM's 36-bit scientific architecture was used for a variety of computation-intensive applications. First machines were the vacuum-tube 704 and 709, followed by the transistorized 7090, 7094, 7094-II, and the lower-cost 7040 and 7044. The ultimate model was the Direct Coupled System (DCS) consisting of a 7094 linked to a 7044 that handled input and output operations. Data formats Numbers are 36 bits long, both fixed point and floating point. Fixed-point numbers are stored in binary sign/magnitude format. Single-precision floating-point numbers have a magnitude sign, an 8-bit excess-128 exponent and a 27-bit magnitude Double-precision floating-point numbers, introduced on the 7094, have a magnitude sign, a 17-bit excess-65536 exponent, and a 54-bit magnitude Alphameric characters are 6-bit BCD, packed six to a word. Instruction format The basic instruction format is a three-bit prefix, fifteen-bit decrement, three-bit tag, and fifteen-bit address. The prefix field specifies the class of instruction. The decrement field often contains an immediate operand to modify the results of the operation, or is used to further define the instruction type. The three bits of the tag specify three (seven in the 7094) index registers, the contents of which are subtracted from the address to produce an effective address. The address field either contains an address or an immediate operand. Registers Processor registers consisted of: AC – 38-bit Accumulator MQ – 36-bit Multiplier-Quotient XR – 15-bit Index Registers (three or seven) SI – 36-bit Sense Indicator The accumulator (and multiplier-quotient) registers operate in sign/magnitude format. The Index registers operate using two's complement format and when used to modify an instruction address are subtracted from the address in the instruction. On machines with three index registers, if the tag has two or three bits set (i.e. selected multiple registers) then their values are ORed together before being subtracted. The IBM 7094, with seven index registers has a "compatibility" mode to permit programs from earlier machines that used this trick to continue to be used. The Sense Indicators permit interaction with the operator via panel switches and lights. Memory 704: 4,096 or 8,192 or 32,768 – 36-bit binary words with six-bit characters 709, 7090, 7094, 7094 II, 7040, 7044: 32,768 – 36-bit binary words with six-bit characters Input/output The 709/7090 series use Data Synchronizer Channels for high speed input/output, such as tape and disk. The basic 7-bit DSCs, e.g., 7607, execute their own simple programs from the computer memory that controls the transfer of data between memory and the I/O devices; the more advanced 9-bit 7909 supports more sophisticated channel programs. Because the unit record equipment on the 709x was so slow, Punched card I/O and high-speed printing were often performed by transferring magnetic tapes to and from an off-line IBM 1401. Later, the data channels were used to connect a 7090 to a 7040 or a 7094 to a 7044 to form the IBM 7094/7044 Direct Coupled System (DCS). In that configuration, the 7044, which could use faster 1400 series peripherals, primarily handled I/O. FORTRAN assembly program The FORTRAN Assembly Program (FAP) is an assembler for the 709, 7090, and 7094 under IBM's makeshift FMS (Fortran Monitor System) and IBSYS operating systems. An earlier assembler was SCAT (SHARE Compiler-Assembler-Translator). Macros were added to FAP by Bell Laboratories (BE-FAP), and the final 7090/7094 assembler was IBMAP, under IBSYS/IBJOB. Its pseudo-operation BSS, used to reserve memory, is the origin of the common name of the "BSS section", still used in many assembly languages today for designating reserved memory address ranges of the type not having to be saved in the executable image. Commercial architecture (702/705/7080) The IBM 702 and IBM 705 are similar, and the 705 can run many 702 programs without modification, but they are not completely compatible. The IBM 7080 is a transistorized version of the 705, with various improvements. For backward compatibility it can be run in 705 I mode, 705 II mode, 705 III mode, or full 7080 mode. Data format Data is represented by a variable-length string of characters terminated by a Record mark. Instruction format Five characters: one character opcode and four character address – OAAAA Registers 702 two Accumulators (A & B) – 512 characters 705 one Accumulator – 256 characters 14 auxiliary storage units – 16 characters one auxiliary storage unit – 32 characters 7080 one Accumulator – 256 characters 30 auxiliary storage units – 512 characters 32 communication storage units – 8 characters Memory 702 2,000 to 10,000 characters in Williams tubes (in increments of 2,000 characters) Character cycle rate – 23 microseconds 705 (models I, II, or III) 20,000 or 40,000 or 80,000 characters of core memory Character cycle rate – 17 microseconds or 9.8 microseconds 7080 80,000 or 160,000 characters of Core memory Character cycle rate – 2.18 microseconds Input/output The 705 and the basic 7080 use channels with a 7-bit interface. The 7080 can be equipped with 7908 data channels to attach faster devices using a 9-bit interface. 1400 series architecture (7010) The 700/7000 commercial architecture inspired the very successful IBM 1400 series of mid-sized business computers. In turn, IBM later introduced a mainframe version of the IBM 1410 called the IBM 7010. Data format Data is represented by a variable length string of characters terminated by a word mark. Instruction format Variable length: 1, 2, 6, 7, 11, or 12 characters. Registers None, all instructions operated on memory. However, fifteen five-character fields in fixed locations in low memory can be treated as index registers, whose values can be added to the address specified in an instruction. Also, certain internal registers that would today be invisible, such as the addresses of the characters being currently processed, are exposed to the programmer. Memory 100,000 characters Decimal architecture (7070/7072/7074) The IBM 7070, IBM 7072, and IBM 7074 are decimal, fixed-word-length machines. They use a ten-digit word like the smaller and older IBM 650, but are not instruction set compatible with the 650. Data format Word length – 10 decimal digits plus sign Digit encoding – two-out-of-five code Floating point – optional, with a two-digit exponent Three signs for each word – Plus, Minus, and Alpha Plus and Minus indicate 10-digit numeric values Alpha indicates five characters of text coded by pairs of digits. 61 = A, 91 = 1. Instruction format All instructions use one word Two-digit opcode (including sign, Plus or Minus only) Two-digit index register Two-digit field control – allows selecting sets of digits, shifting left or right Four-digit address Registers All registers use one word and can also be addressed as memory. Accumulators – three (addresses 9991, 9992, and 9993 – standard; 99991, 99992, and 99993 – extended 7074) Program register – one (address 9995 – standard; 99995 – extended 7074) Addressable from console only. Stores current instruction. Instruction counter – one (address 9999 – standard; 99999 – extended 7074) Addressable from console only Index registers – 99 (addresses 0001-0099) Memory 5000 to 9990 words (standard) 15000 to 30000 words (extended 7074) Access time – 6 microseconds (7070/7072), 4 microseconds (7074) Add time – 72 microseconds (7070), 12 microseconds (7072), 10 microseconds (7074) Input/output The 707x uses channels with a 7-bit interface. The 7070 and 7074 can be equipped with 7907 data channels to attach faster devices using a 9-bit interface. Timeline An IBM 7074 was used by the U.S. Internal Revenue Service in 1962. The IBM 7700 Data Acquisition System is not a member of the IBM 7000 series, despite its number and its announcement date of December 2, 1963. Performance All of the 700 and 7000 series machines predate standard performance measurement tools such as the Whetstone (1972), Dhrystone (1984), LINPACK (1979), or Livermore loops (1986) benchmarks. In the table below, the Gibson and Knight measurements report speed, where higher numbers are better; the TRIDIA measurement reports time, where lower numbers are better. See also IBM 650 Notes References External links IBM Mainframe family tree The Architecture of IBM's Early Computers (PDF) C Gordon Bell, Computer Structures: Readings and Examples, McGraw-Hill, 1971; part 6, section 1, "The IBM 701-7094 II Sequence, a Family by Evolution", IBM 705 IBM 7030 Stretch IBM 7070 IBM 7094 IBM 7090/94 Architecture Jack Harper's FAP page Birth of an Unwanted IBM Computer, by Bob Bemer Series Series	[ -0.16905130445957184, 0.14343510568141937, 0.2613547742366791, 0.06286253035068512, 0.1625054031610489, 0.639818549156189, -0.2397606521844864, 0.5571631789207458, -0.08079426735639572, -0.253091424703598, -0.07434913516044617, 0.07134515792131424, -0.07169100642204285, 0.11006473004817963, -0.1363065540790558, -0.011287624947726727, 0.551158607006073, 0.2665114104747772, -0.1603357046842575, -0.43160271644592285, -0.15833856165409088, -0.006000662688165903, 0.28765031695365906, -0.13806599378585815, -0.6391505002975464, -0.14178873598575592, 0.32237619161605835, 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207929	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheryl%20Blossom	Cheryl Blossom	Cheryl Marjorie Blossom is a fictional character of the Archie Comics universe. She is a wealthy teenage girl, the privileged daughter of a businessman. The live action version of Cheryl is portrayed by Madelaine Petsch in Riverdale. History and character Cheryl Blossom was introduced in 1982 in Betty and Veronica #320 as a third love interest for Archie Andrews, but she and her twin brother Jason disappeared two years later. In the 1980s, when a number of alternate universe series were published, Cheryl was a minor recurring character in the short-lived title Archie's Explorers of the Unknown. She appeared as Blaze Blossom and would brief the Explorers on their missions. The character was reintroduced into the main continuity and Archie Andrews' life during the "Love Showdown" four-part series in 1994. During the series, Archie receives a letter from Cheryl which states she will be returning to Riverdale. Archie, infatuated with girls as always, decides to keep Cheryl's return a secret from Betty Cooper and Veronica Lodge. He merely acts in a typical Archie girl crush maneuver (looking dreamy, uttering nonsense). Unknown to Archie is that Betty and Veronica both think the other person did this to Archie, and they declare war on each other to win back Archie once and for all. Super Soakers, dirty dancing, and fraud are just some of the tactics that the girls use on each other. Cheryl returns to Riverdale, leaving readers wondering whom Archie will choose in the end. Cheryl has appeared in several comic book stories over the years, including her own series. In one story, it was revealed that an ancestor of Archie once fell in love with an ancestor of Cheryl's back in Scotland. In another story, she decides to join a band titled "The Sugar Girls", (a spoof of the popular band "The Spice Girls") because Ginger Sugar had quit the group. In most stories, Cheryl behaves in a way that reflects her wealth and upbringing. She is very proud of her wealth and occasionally squabbles with Veronica over who leads the more extravagant lifestyle. She can be selfish and manipulative, sometimes plotting to lure Archie away from Betty and Veronica. There are stories where Cheryl is rude and condescending to the Riverdale "townies," and sometimes only appearing as an antagonist to Betty and Veronica. Other times, particularly in the stories in her eponymous series, Cheryl can be kind and caring. She cares for her dog, a Pomeranian named Sugar, and rescues animals in need. In stories featuring Betty, Veronica, and Cheryl, Cheryl is usually the most adventurous. Cheryl is popular within her Pembrooke crowd and popular with the boys in Riverdale, but loathed by the girls for her flirtatious nature, her manipulations and her attractiveness. A boy named Paris soon after fell in love with her and they got married later on. Then they had five kids and a three dogs named Carlota, Penta and Finn. Cheryl Blossom was ranked 92nd in Comics Buyer's Guides "100 Sexiest Women in Comics" list. Friends and family Cheryl has a twin brother, Jason, an arrogant rival of Archie. Jason is smitten with Polly Cooper, despite claiming that he only dates rich girls. Cheryl has never complained about his choice of girls. She often shows full support towards her brother, although sometimes, she warns Polly about Jason's womanizing behavior. At one point, in the story "Undercover Blossom", Cheryl decided that she would try to get into Riverdale High under false pretenses. She chose the moniker, "Shirley Merriwether" and at first, nobody thought anything amiss, until she decides to cause trouble, (i.e., sending fake love letters; and stealing a couple of term papers) and then she'd frame Archie for it, almost turning his friends against him. She had almost succeeded in destroying their friendship forever, but was thwarted when Mr. Weatherbee discovered her fraudulent enrollment papers. At a dance, the following evening, Cheryl's parents, who had been informed of her deceit by Mr. Weatherbee, exposed the entire scam to Cheryl's embarrassment. Her punishment was that she would attend Riverdale High. Her parents thought that since she got in by less than honest means, she would stay there and finish out her school year there. Betty became Cheryl's best friend in the three-part story and loved her dearly. "Friendly Fire" in an issue of Cheryl's title series after Veronica humiliated Cheryl on Betty and Veronica's local public-access television cable TV show, which alienated Betty from Veronica. Veronica, for no other reason than missing Betty's friendship, eventually very publicly apologized to Cheryl, winning back Betty's friendship in the process. Cheryl was shown to still be friends with Betty in a later issue, inviting Betty over to her house. It is unclear how much Archie writers other than Holly Golightly (the writer of "Friendly Fire") portrayed Betty and Cheryl as friends, but a story in Archie & Friends in early 2006 involves Betty suggesting that she, Veronica, and Cheryl go to Pop Tate's Chock'lit Shoppe and hang out. Veronica and Cheryl accept and walk off with Betty, indicating that Betty and Cheryl are still friends. In the late 1990s, Cheryl began dating Dilton Doiley. They were paired together online, without knowing each other's true identity, fell in love, met in real life, and decided to continue their romantic relationship, though this was largely ignored in later stories. At one point, Reggie and Cheryl started dating because they both had devilish minds and were very alike. Their relationship was unsuccessful, so Cheryl appeared on a dating show. In a reader-poll event, Archie Comics finally gave Cheryl a new boyfriend, with readers voting on the potential boyfriends featured on the show: blond-haired fitness-guru Austin, dark-complected computer genius Brandon, and shaved-headed gourmet chef George. The winner of the 'contest' was Brandon. Raj Patel's younger sister Tina Patel, who was introduced to Archie Comics in 2007, has been written into the CW television series Riverdale, which is described as a subversive take on the Archie comics and the characters. Tina Patel is cast as one of Cheryl Blossom's best friends. Pembrooke Cheryl and Jason lived in the neighboring, upscale community of Pembrooke during her second stay in the comic books, which lasted until the quiet cancellation of her title series and her subsequent move to Paris. However, Cheryl was soon brought back by popular demand from her fans. Cheryl now lives in Riverdale, and no longer attends Pembrooke, although in some stories she and her brother return to visit friends there. (After her family almost lost all their wealth in one story, the Blossom family decide to make their son and daughter attend Riverdale High for the same reasons that the Lodge family make Veronica attend public school instead of private school). Pembrooke Academy is the local private school in Pembrooke. The students who attend are frequently portrayed as antagonists to Riverdale High School, often disdaining Riverdale students as "townies." The Blossom twins are the only students who openly date Riverdale "townies," a practice that most Pembrooke students find barely tolerable were it not for the Blossom twins' wealth and popularity. Pembrooke Academy's athletics were not above using unfair tactics such as sabotage to win a competition. In many stories that feature a rivalry between Riverdale and Pembrooke, Pembrooke often loses despite their attempts to cheat to victory, or the two teams decide to come to a truce. Other versions Archie's Weird Mysteries Cheryl makes semi-regular appearances in the 2000–2002 Archie's Weird Mysteries comic series, despite not appearing in the TV series of the same name, which it is based on. She reprises her role as one of Archie's love interests alongside Betty and Veronica, although the more sexual aspects of her character are toned down, and Jason does not appear alongside her in this continuity. Afterlife with Archie Cheryl along with her brother Jason appear in the 2013 adult zombie comics series Afterlife with Archie. Jason expresses jealousy with Archie. He later states that he wants to grow old together, alone with Cheryl with no one to bother or judge them. In issue 7, after scouting with her brother, she returns alone, covered in blood, and saying to call her "Blaze". Archie vs. Predator Cheryl and Jason appeared in the first issue of the 2015 crossover series Archie vs. Predator. Cheryl and Jason take a trip to Los Perdidos Resort for a spring break, until they both were killed by an alien creature hunter, known as the Predator. Life with Archie: The Married Life In 2010, Cheryl Blossom made a guest appearance in the first issue of the revival series, Life with Archie: The Married Life. She was seen as a washed-up actress waiting tables in Los Angeles. It was revealed that her parents cut her off financially because they disapproved of her moving there to become an actress. Her brother, Jason, was revealed to be working for Mr. Lodge. Cheryl returned to Life with Archie in issue 21 (July 2012). In this issue, Cheryl returns to Riverdale; however, unknown to her family and friends back home, she was being treated for breast cancer. Part of this storyline features an underlying issue on the affordability of, and the right to, healthcare. New Riverdale Cheryl Blossom appeared in Archie No. 13, her first appearance in a new Riverdale series. She was introduced as Riverdale's queen bee who is not interested with making friends with the newly transferred Veronica Lodge. In other media Live-action Cheryl Blossom appears in The CW's teen drama series Riverdale as a series regular, played by Madelaine Petsch. She is the first character to appear on "Chapter One: The River's Edge". She is portrayed as the most popular girl at Riverdale High School, a "rich, entitled, and manipulative girl who recently lost her twin brother by being shot in the head by their own father." She is also the daughter of Penelope and Clifford Blossom, who operate Blossom Maple Farms, which produces the town's main export, maple syrup, amongst other things, and niece to Claudius Blossom, Clifford's twin brother. It is revealed that her parents' constant emotional abuse among other traumas is the main cause of her mental instability, which leads to her attempting suicide in season one. In the second season, her mother forces her into conversion therapy at an institution called "The Sisters of Quiet Mercy", namely due to her attraction towards other girls, mainly Josie McCoy. After escaping, Cheryl begins a relationship with Toni Topaz, thus joining the Southside Serpents gang in the season finale. Cheryl and Toni then proceed to move in together at Thistlehouse, the Blossom residence. In season three, her relationship with Toni progresses further, and she is confirmed as a lesbian. After being kicked out of the Serpents by Jughead, Cheryl thanks Toni for being the best girlfriend ever with a new gang, called the Pretty Poisons. After Cheryl breaks up with Toni, she stars in the high school musical production as Heather Chandler in "Heathers". Cheryl and Toni later get back together, but no sooner than that does she join The Farm, which is really an organ harvesting cult. Soon after her joining, Betty warns her about it. Cheryl saves Toni, but is still trapped there. While trying to break free she finds her dead brother Jason's body at the farm. Alice Cooper helps Cheryl escape and meet up with Toni. Meanwhile, Veronica, Archie, and Betty are all being tortured and nearly killed by Penelope Blossom, Cheryl's mother. Cheryl and Toni round up the Pretty Poisons and Serpents to save their friends. In the fourth season, Toni and Cheryl continue their relationship. Veronica and Cheryl start their own rum business called Maple Rum, run in an old brothel club that Penelope Blossom used to run. After visiting Ms. Burble, the guidance counselor, and expressing all of her feelings including that she has her dead brother's body in her basement and is being haunted by a doll, she is replaced by a coach on the cheerleading squad. References Notes Archie Comics characters Archie Comics titles Comics characters introduced in 1982 Female characters in comics Female characters in television Fictional bullies Fictional magazine editors Fictional twins Teenage characters in comics Teenage characters in television Fictional LGBT characters in television Fictional LGBT women	[ 0.0016750077484175563, 0.21321000158786774, -0.9693975448608398, -0.09778446704149246, 0.08564623445272446, 0.4541117548942566, 0.48209115862846375, 0.3020956218242645, -0.3753787577152252, 0.2760751247406006, 0.13252748548984528, 0.37071168422698975, -0.0621480867266655, 0.060453079640865326, -0.3934796452522278, 0.2914373278617859, -0.057222917675971985, 1.1728695631027222, 0.4180755317211151, -0.41748666763305664, -0.23120802640914917, -0.40437448024749756, -0.22747069597244263, -0.2376214861869812, 0.3452637195587158, 0.43775424361228943, 0.23170112073421478, -0.1353820413351059, -0.06990218162536621, 0.11274032294750214, -0.3569600284099579, 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207935	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il%20Dottore	Il Dottore	Il Dottore (, "the Doctor"; commonly known in Italian as Dottor Balan or simply Balanzone ; Bolognese ) is a commedia dell'arte stock character, one of the vecchi, or "old men", whose function in a scenario is to be an obstacle to the young lovers. Il Dottore and Pantalone are the comic foil of each other, Pantalone being the decadent wealthy merchant, and Il Dottore being the decadent erudite. He has been part of the main canon of characters since the mid-16th century. Overview Il Dottore was born from the city of Bologna, Italy. He is comically inept. He is usually extremely rich, though the needs of the scenario might have things otherwise, and extremely pompous, loving the sound of his own voice and spouting ersatz Latin and Greek. His interaction in the play is usually mostly with Pantalone, either as a friend, mentor or competitor. History Il Dottore first originated as the comic foil of Pantalone. The character has his performance origins in the year 1560 with the actor Lucio Burchiella; two other mentions follow soon after, with a pair of vecchi being mentioned in the year 1565, and another mention of Dottore Gracian in 1574. Since his introduction, he has existed in some form or other due to his popularity and interactions with Pantalone, however his popularity did wane in Italy by the 1800s. He has gone by many names besides Il Dottore, those being Dottore Gratiano, Dottore Baloardo ("Dr. Dolt"), Dottore Spaccastrummolo ("Dr. Hack-and-Bandage"), Dottore Scarpazon, and Dottore Forbizone ("Dr. Large Scissor"). His many names reflect his buffoonish nature, and call attention to his positive traits. Il Dottore migrates to France with the Gelosi troupe during the year 1572, still performed by Lucio Burchiella. Since Commedia dell'Arte performers were itinerant by nature, it is only natural that his character was transplanted to other countries. By the late 17th century, Il Dottore was firmly embedded in the public eye, as evidenced by the playwright Molière's inclusion of a Docteur-style character in his play . In contemporary media, Il Dottore can be found in many common characters, such as Sheldon from The Big Bang Theory and Dr. Zoidberg from Futurama. Characteristics Rotund and fond of drink and food but mostly chocolate. Il Dottore is also fond of girls however is untruthful and gets caught cheating several times; he is a love rat. Il Dottore is representative of the learned intellectual class, and as such is meant to playfully parody the educated elite. He attended the University of Bologna, and pretends to be an expert in many subjects, talking constantly, but usually having no idea about that of which he speaks. Depending on the portrayal, however, he can actually be very educated, and bore the other players into leaving the stage. The preferred crowd favorite, however, is the Dottore who speaks nonsense. Il Dottore walks with his chest up, knees bent, and with a bouncy movement, taking small steps; he gesticulates with his hands and fingers, making room around him by keeping others at bay. He stands in one position and plants himself to make a point. Il Dottore can be the father to one of the innamorati, usually either Columbina or Isabella. There are, however, existing scenarios in which Dottore is not a father, specifically "the Tooth-Puller", or Il Cavadente. There is also precedence for Il Dottore to be cuckolded. Mask and costume Unlike the majority of half masks in Commedia dell'Arte, Il Dottore's mask is unique in that it is a one-third mask; the mask itself is meant to be a parody of a Bolognese jurisconsult. The actor's cheeks may sometimes have rouge applied to imply that Il Dottore is fond of drinking. His costume is usually all or mostly black and he frequently wears a black felt hat with long, trailing robes. Under his black robes are shorter black robes and black shoes. The ruff around Il Dottore's neck didn't come into play until his popularity in France grew, at which point it was adopted in 1653 by Agostino Lolli. See also Giovanni Camillo Canzachi Commedia dell'Arte Goldoni Pantalone Innamorati Stock Character References The Italian Comedy by Pierre Louis Duchartre External links Character description of Il Dottore Thinkquest's page on Il Dottore Dottore, Il Commedia dell'arte characters	[ -0.14859434962272644, -0.4385627806186676, 0.6929686665534973, 0.010794988833367825, 0.4544834792613983, 0.20096416771411896, -0.23760931193828583, 0.1552237868309021, -0.38914433121681213, -0.5041102170944214, -0.49398648738861084, 0.7938976883888245, -0.3309159278869629, 0.44808587431907654, -0.47617727518081665, -0.023920245468616486, 1.1398646831512451, -0.07726247608661652, -0.6082804203033447, -0.8617246747016907, -0.3362613916397095, -0.147614523768425, -0.10451953858137131, 0.17472104728221893, -0.38035544753074646, 0.2266773283481598, 0.38398078083992004, 0.17080052196979523, -0.05803901329636574, 0.07373061776161194, 0.27745378017425537, 0.20866703987121582, 0.22228191792964935, 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207940	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick%20Turpin	Dick Turpin	Richard Turpin (bapt. 21 September 1705 – 7 April 1739) was an English highwayman whose exploits were romanticised following his execution in York for horse theft. Turpin may have followed his father's trade as a butcher early in his life but, by the early 1730s, he had joined a gang of deer thieves and, later, became a poacher, burglar, horse thief and killer. He is also known for a fictional overnight ride from London to York on his horse Black Bess, a story that was made famous by the Victorian novelist William Harrison Ainsworth almost 100 years after Turpin's death. Turpin's involvement in the crime with which he is most closely associated—highway robbery—followed the arrest of the other members of his gang in 1735. He then disappeared from public view towards the end of that year, only to resurface in 1737 with two new accomplices, one of whom Turpin may have accidentally shot and killed. Turpin fled from the scene and shortly afterwards killed a man who attempted his capture. Later that year, he moved to Yorkshire and assumed the alias of John Palmer. While he was staying at an inn, local magistrates became suspicious of "Palmer" and made enquiries as to how he funded his lifestyle. Suspected of being a horse thief, "Palmer" was imprisoned in York Castle, to be tried at the next assizes. Turpin's true identity was revealed by a letter he wrote to his brother-in-law from his prison cell, which fell into the hands of the authorities. On 22 March 1739, Turpin was found guilty on two charges of horse theft and sentenced to death; he was hanged at Knavesmire on 7 April 1739. Turpin became the subject of legend after his execution, romanticised as dashing and heroic in English ballads and popular theatre of the 18th and 19th centuries and in film and television of the 20th century. Early life Richard (Dick) Turpin was born at the Blue Bell Inn (later the Rose and Crown) in Hempstead, Essex, the fifth of six children to John Turpin and Mary Elizabeth Parmenter. He was baptised on 21 September 1705, in the same parish where his parents had been married more than ten years earlier. Turpin's father was a butcher and innkeeper. Several stories suggest that Dick Turpin may have followed his father into these trades; one hints that, as a teenager, he was apprenticed to a butcher in the village of Whitechapel, while another proposes that he ran his own butcher's shop in Thaxted. Testimony from his trial in 1739 suggests that he had a rudimentary education and, although no records survive of the date of the union, that in about 1725 he married Elizabeth Millington. Following his apprenticeship they moved north to Buckhurst Hill, Essex, where Turpin opened a butcher's shop. Essex gang Turpin most likely became involved with the Essex gang of deer thieves in the early 1730s. Deer poaching had long been endemic in the Royal Forest of Waltham, and in 1723 the Black Act (so called because it outlawed the blackening or disguising of faces while in the forests) was enacted to deal with such problems. Deer stealing was a domestic offence that was judged not in civil courts, but before justices of the peace; it was not until 1737 that the more severe penalty of seven years' transportation was introduced. However, in 1731 seven verderers became so concerned by the increase in activity that they signed an affidavit which demonstrated their worries. The statement was lodged with the Duke of Newcastle, Secretary of State, who responded by offering a £10 reward to anyone who helped identify the thieves, plus a pardon for those thieves who gave up their colleagues. Following a series of nasty incidents, including the threatened murder of a keeper and his family, in 1733 the government increased the reward to £50 (about £ as of ). The Essex gang (sometimes called the Gregory Gang), which included Samuel Gregory, his brothers Jeremiah and Jasper, Joseph Rose, Mary Brazier (the gang's fence), John Jones, Thomas Rowden and a young John Wheeler, needed contacts to help them to dispose of the deer. Turpin, a young butcher who traded in the area, almost certainly became involved with their activities. By 1733 the changing fortunes of the gang may have prompted him to leave the butchery trade, and he became the landlord of a public house, most likely the Rose and Crown at Clay Hill. Although there is no evidence to suggest that Turpin was directly involved in the thefts, by summer 1734 he was a close associate of the gang, which may indicate that he had been known to them for some time. By October 1734 several in the gang had either been captured or had fled, and the remaining members moved away from poaching, raiding the home of a chandler and grocer named Peter Split, at Woodford. Although the identities of the perpetrators are unknown, Turpin may have been involved. Two nights later they struck again, at the Woodford home of a gentleman named Richard Woolridge, a Furnisher of Small Arms in the Office of Ordnance at the Tower of London. In December Jasper and Samuel Gregory, John Jones, and John Wheeler, attacked the home of John Gladwin (a higler) and John Shockley, in Chingford. On 19 December Turpin and five other men raided the home of Ambrose Skinner, a 73-year-old farmer from Barking, leaving with an estimated £300. Two days later, the gang—minus Turpin—attacked the home of a Keeper, William Mason, at Epping Forest. During the robbery Mason's servant managed to escape, and returned about an hour later with several neighbours, by which time the house was ransacked and the thieves long gone. On 11 January 1735 the gang raided the Charlton home of a Mr. Saunders. For the robbery of a gentleman named Sheldon, one week later at Croydon, Turpin arrived masked and armed with pistols, with four other members of the gang. In the same month two men, possibly from the same gang, raided the home of a Reverend Mr. Dyde. The clergyman was absent but the two cut his manservant around the face "in a barbarous manner". Another brutal attack occurred on 1 February 1735 at Loughton: The gang lived in or around London. For a time Turpin stayed at Whitechapel, before moving to Millbank. On 4 February 1735 he met John Fielder, Samuel Gregory, Joseph Rose, and John Wheeler, at an inn along The Broadway in London. They planned to rob the house of Joseph Lawrence, a farmer at Earlsbury Farm in Edgware. Late that afternoon, after stopping twice along the way for food and drink, they captured a shepherd boy and burst into the house, armed with pistols. They bound the two maidservants, and brutally attacked the 70-year-old farmer. They pulled his breeches around his ankles, and dragged him around the house, but Lawrence refused to reveal the whereabouts of his money. Turpin beat Lawrence's bare buttocks with his pistols, badly bruising him, and other members of the gang beat him around the head with their pistols. They emptied a kettle of water over his head, forced him to sit bare-buttocked on the fire, and pulled him around the house by his nose, and hair. Gregory took one of the maidservants upstairs and raped her. For their trouble, the gang escaped with a haul of less than £30. Three days later Turpin, accompanied by the same men along with William Saunders and Humphrey Walker, brutally raided a farm in Marylebone. The attack netted the gang just under £90. The next day the Duke of Newcastle offered a reward of £50 in exchange for information leading to the conviction of the "several persons" involved in the two Woodford robberies, and the robberies of the widow Shelley and Reverend Dyde. On 11 February Fielder, Saunders, and Wheeler, were apprehended. Two accounts of their capture exist. One claims that on their way to rob the Lawrence household the gang had stopped at an alehouse in Edgware, and that on 11 February, while out walking, the owner noticed a group of horses outside an alehouse in Bloomsbury. He recognised these horses as those used by the same group of men who had stopped at his alehouse before the Lawrence attack, and called for the parish constable. Another account claims that two of the gang were spotted by a servant of Joseph Lawrence. Regardless, the three, who were drinking with a woman (possibly Mary Brazier) were promptly arrested and committed to prison. Wheeler, who may have been as young as 15, quickly betrayed his colleagues, and descriptions of those yet to be captured were circulated in the press. In The London Gazette, Turpin was described as "Richard Turpin, a butcher by trade, is a tall fresh coloured man, very much marked with the small pox, about 26 years of age, about five feet nine inches high, lived some time ago in Whitechapel and did lately lodge somewhere about Millbank, Westminster, wears a blue grey coat and a natural wig". Breakup of the Essex gang Once Wheeler's confession became apparent, the other members of the gang fled their usual haunts. Turpin informed Gregory and the others of Wheeler's capture, and left Westminster. On 15 February 1735, while Wheeler was busy confessing to the authorities, "three or four men" (most likely Samuel Gregory, Herbert Haines, Turpin, and possibly Thomas Rowden) robbed the house of a Mrs St. John at Chingford. On the following day Turpin (and Rowden, if present) parted company with Gregory and Haines, and headed for Hempstead to see his family. Gregory and Haines may have gone looking for Turpin, because on 17 February they stopped at an alehouse in Debden and ordered a shoulder of mutton, intending to stay for the night. However, a man named Palmer recognised them, and called for the parish constable. A fracas ensued, during which the two thieves escaped. They rejoined Turpin, and along with Jones and Rowden may have travelled to Gravesend before returning to Woodford. Another robbery was reported at Woodford toward the end of February—possibly by Gregory and his cohorts—but with most avenues of escape cut off, and with the authorities hunting them down, the remaining members of the Essex gang kept their heads down and remained under cover, probably in Epping Forest. Six days after the arrest of Fielder, Saunders, and Wheeler – just as Turpin and his associates were returning from Gravesend – Rose, Brazier, and Walker were captured at a chandler's shop in Westminster, while drinking punch. Fielder, Rose, Saunders and Walker were tried at the Middlesex General Session between 26 February and 1 March 1735. Turpin and Gregory were also named on the indictments for burglary. Walker died while still in Newgate Prison, but the remaining three were hanged at Tyburn gallows on 10 March, before their bodies were hung to rot in gibbets on Edgware Road. Walker's body was hung in chains. Two days before the hanging, a report of "four suspicious men" being driven away from an alehouse at East Sheen appeared in a newspaper, and was likely describing Gregory and his companions, but the remaining members of the Essex gang were not reported again until 30 March, when three of them (unsuccessfully) tried to steal a horse from a servant of the Earl of Suffolk. Turpin was present with four of the gang at another robbery, reported on 8 March. Jasper Gregory meanwhile was captured, and then executed late in March. His brothers were arrested on 9 April in Rake, West Sussex, after a struggle during which Samuel lost the tip of his nose to a sword, and Jeremy was shot in the leg. He died in Winchester gaol; Samuel was tried in May, and executed on 4 June. His body was later moved, to hang in chains alongside those of his colleagues at Edgware. Mary Brazier was transported to the Thirteen Colonies. Herbert Haines was captured on 13 April, and executed in August. John Wheeler, who had been instrumental in proving the cases against his former colleagues, and who was freed, died at Hackney in January 1738. The reason for his death is not recorded, but is assumed to be natural causes. Highwayman With the Essex gang now smashed by the authorities, Turpin turned instead to the crime he became most noted forhighway robbery. Although he may have been involved in earlier highway robberies on 10 and 12 April, he was first identified as a suspect in one event on 10 July, as "Turpin the butcher", along with Thomas Rowden, "the pewterer". Several days later the two struck at Epping Forest, depriving a man from Southwark of his belongings. With a further bounty of £100 on their heads they continued their activities through the latter half of 1735. In August they robbed five people accompanying a coach on Barnes Common, and shortly after that they attacked another coach party, between Putney and Kingston Hill. On 20 August the pair relieved a Mr Godfrey of six guineas and a pocket book, on Hounslow Heath. Fearing capture, they moved on to Blackheath in Hertfordshire, and then back to London. On 5 December the two were seen near Winchester, but in late December, following the capture of John Jones, they separated. Rowden had previously been convicted of counterfeiting, and in July 1736 he was convicted of passing counterfeit coin, under the alias Daniel Crispe. Crispe's true name was eventually discovered and he was transported in June 1738. Jones also suffered transportation, to the Thirteen Colonies. Little is known of Turpin's movements during 1736. He may have travelled to Holland, as various sightings were reported there, but he may also have assumed an alias and disappeared from public view. In February 1737 though, he spent the night at Puckeridge, with his wife, her maid and a man called Robert Nott. Turpin arranged the meeting by letter, which was intercepted by the authorities. While Turpin eluded his enemies, making his escape to Cambridge, the others were arrested on charges of "violent suspicion of being dangerous rogues and robbing upon the highway". They were imprisoned at Hertford gaol, although the women were later acquitted (Nott was released at the next Assize). Although one report late in March suggests, unusually, that Turpin alone robbed a company of higlers, in the same month he was reported to be working alongside two other highwaymen, Matthew King (then, and since, incorrectly identified as Tom King), and Stephen Potter. The trio were responsible for a string of robberies between March and April 1737, which ended suddenly in an incident at Whitechapel, after King (or Turpin, depending upon which report is read) had stolen a horse near Waltham Forest. Its owner, Joseph Major, reported the theft to Richard Bayes, landlord of the Green Man public house at Leytonstone. Bayes (who later wrote a biography of Turpin), tracked the horse to the Red Lion at Whitechapel. Major identified the animal, but as it was late evening and the horses had not yet been collected by their "owners", they elected to hold a vigil. John King (Matthew King's brother) arrived late that night, and was quickly apprehended by the party, which included the local constable. John King told him the whereabouts of Matthew King, who was waiting nearby. During the resulting mêlée, Matthew King was wounded by gunfire, and died on 19 May. Potter was later caught, but at his trial was released for lack of evidence against him. Fatal shooting Bayes' statement regarding the death of Matthew King may have been heavily embellished. Several reports, including Turpin's own account, offer different versions of what actually happened on that night early in May 1737; early reports claimed that Turpin had shot King, however by the following month the same newspapers retracted this claim, and stated that Bayes had fired the fatal shot. The shooting of King, however, preceded an event that changed Turpin's life significantly. He escaped to a hideaway in Epping Forest, where he was seen by Thomas Morris, a servant of one of the Forest's Keepers. Turpin shot and killed Morris on 4 May with a carbine when, armed with pistols, Morris attempted to capture him. The shooting was reported in The Gentleman's Magazine: Several newspapers suggested that on 6 and 7 May, he committed two highway robberies near Epping. Turpin may also have lost his mount; on 7 May. Elizabeth King, the wife of Turpin's accomplice, attempted to secure two horses left by Matthew King, at an inn called the Red Lion. The horses were suspected as belonging to "highwaymen" and Elizabeth King was arrested for questioning, but she was later released without charge. Morris's killing unleashed a flood of Turpin reports, and a reward of £200 was offered for his capture. As John Palmer Sometime around June 1737 Turpin boarded at the Ferry Inn at Brough, under the alias of John Palmer (or Parmen). Travelling across the River Humber between the historic counties of the East Riding of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, he posed as a horse trader, and often hunted alongside local gentlemen. On 2 October 1738 Turpin shot another man's game cock in the street. While being rebuked by John Robinson, he then threatened to shoot him also. Three East Riding justices (JPs), George Crowle (Member of Parliament for Hull), Hugh Bethell, and Marmaduke Constable, travelled to Brough and took written depositions about the incident. They threatened to bind him over, but Turpin refused to pay the required surety, and was committed to the House of Correction at Beverley. Turpin was escorted to Beverley by the parish constable, Carey Gill. He made no attempt at escape; It has been suggested that Turpin may have been depressed about failures in his life. Robert Appleton, Clerk of the Peace for the East Riding, and the man whose account details the above incident, later reported that the three JPs made enquiries as to how "Palmer" had made his money, suspecting that his lifestyle was funded by criminal activities. Turpin claimed that he was a butcher who had fallen into debt, and that he had levanted from his home in Long Sutton, Lincolnshire. When contacted, the JP at Long Sutton (a Mr Delamere) confirmed that John Palmer had lived there for about nine months, but that he was suspected of stealing sheep, and had escaped the custody of the local constable. Delamere also suspected that Palmer was a horse-thief and had taken several depositions supporting his view, and told the three JPs that he would prefer him to be detained. The three JPs now presumed that the case was too serious for Palmer to remain at Beverley House of Correction, and demanded sureties for his appearance at York Assizes. Turpin refused, and so on 16 October he was transferred to York Castle in handcuffs. Horse theft became a capital offence in 1545, punishable by death. During the 17th and 18th centuries, crimes in violation of property rights were some of the most severely punished; most of the 200 capital statutes were property offences. Robbery combined with violence was "the sort of offence, second only to premeditated murder (a relatively uncommon crime), most likely to be prosecuted and punished to [the law's] utmost rigour". Turpin had stolen several horses while operating under the pseudonym of Palmer. In July 1737 he stole a horse from Pinchbeck in Lincolnshire, and took it to visit his father at Hempstead. When Turpin returned to Brough (stealing three horses along the way) he left the gelding with his father. The identity of John Turpin's son was well known, and the horse's identity was soon discovered. On 12 September 1738 therefore, John Turpin was committed to gaol in Essex on charges of horse theft, but following his help in preventing a gaolbreak, the charges were dropped on 5 March 1739. About a month after "Palmer" had been moved to York Castle, Thomas Creasy, the owner of the three horses stolen by Turpin, managed to track them down and recover them, and it was for these thefts that he was eventually tried. From his cell, Turpin wrote to his brother-in-law, Pompr Rivernall, who also lived at Hempstead. Rivernall was married to Turpin's sister, Dorothy. The letter was kept at the local post office, but seeing the York post stamp Rivernall refused to pay the delivery charge, claiming that he "had no correspondent at York". Rivernall may not have wanted to pay the charge for the letter, or he may have wished to distance himself from Turpin's affairs, and so the letter was moved to the post office at Saffron Walden where James Smith, who had taught his younger schoolmate Turpin how to write while they were at school, recognised the handwriting. He alerted JP Thomas Stubbing, who paid the postage and opened the letter. Smith travelled to York Castle and on 23 February identified Palmer as Turpin. He received the £200 (about £ as of ) reward originally offered by the Duke of Newcastle following Turpin's murder of Thomas Morris. Trial Although there was some question as to where the trial should be held—the Duke of Newcastle wanted him tried in London—Turpin was tried at York Assizes. Proceedings began three days after the winter Assizes opened, on 22 March. Turpin was charged with the theft of Creasy's horses: a mare worth three pounds, a foal worth 20 shillings, and a gelding worth three pounds. The indictments stated that the alleged offences had occurred at Welton on 1 March 1739, and described Turpin as "John Palmer alias Pawmer alias Richard Turpin ... late of the castle of York in the County of York labourer". Technically the charges were invalid—the offences had occurred at Heckington, not Welton, and the date was also incorrect; the offences were in August 1738. Presiding over the trial was Sir William Chapple, a senior and respected judge in his early sixties. The prosecution was directed by King's Counsel Thomas Place and Richard Crowle (brother of George), and proceedings were recorded by a York resident, Thomas Kyll. Turpin had no defence barrister; during this period of English history, those accused had no right to legal representation, and their interests were cared for by the presiding judge. Among the seven witnesses called to testify were Thomas Creasy, and James Smith, the man who had recognised Turpin's handwriting. Turpin offered little in the way of questioning his accusers; when asked if he had anything to ask of Creasy, he replied "I cannot say anything, for I have not any witnesses come this day, as I have expected, and therefore beg of your Lordship to put off my trial 'till another day", and when asked about Smith, he claimed not to know him. When questioned himself, Turpin told the court that he had bought the mare and foal from an inn-keeper near Heckington. He repeated his original story of how he had come to use the pseudonym Palmer, claiming that it was his mother's maiden name. When asked by the judge for his name before he came to Lincolnshire, he said "Turpin". Without leaving the courtroom the jury found Turpin guilty of the first charge of stealing the mare and foal, and following further proceedings, guilty of stealing the gelding. Throughout the trial Turpin had repeatedly claimed that he had not been allowed enough time to form his defence, that proceedings should be delayed until he could call his witnesses, and that the trial should be held at Essex. Before sentencing him, the judge asked Turpin if he could offer any reason why he should not be sentenced to death; Turpin said: "It is very hard upon me, my Lord, because I was not prepar'd for my Defence." The judge replied: "Why was you not? You knew the Time of the Assizes as well as any Person here." Despite Turpin's pleas that he had been told the trial would be held in Essex, the judge replied: "Whoever told you so were highly to blame; and as your country have found you guilty of a crime worthy of death, it is my office to pronounce sentence against you", sentencing him to death. Execution Before his execution, Turpin frequently received visitors (the gaoler was reputed to have earned £100 from selling drinks to Turpin and his guests), although he refused the efforts of a local clergyman who offered him "serious remonstrances and admonitions". John Turpin may have sent his son a letter, dated 29 March, urging him to "beg of God to pardon your many transgressions, which the thief upon the cross received pardon for at the last hour". Turpin bought a new frock coat and shoes, and on the day before his execution hired five mourners for three pounds and ten shillings (to be shared between them). On 7 April 1739, followed by his mourners, Turpin and John Stead (a horse thief) were taken through York by open cart to Knavesmire, which was then the city's equivalent of London's Tyburn gallows. Turpin "behav'd himself with amazing assurance", and "bow'd to the spectators as he passed". He climbed a ladder to the gallows and spoke to his executioner. York had no permanent hangman, and it was the custom to pardon a prisoner on condition that he acted as executioner. On this occasion, the pardoned man was a fellow highwayman, Thomas Hadfield. An account in The Gentleman's Magazine for 7 April 1739 notes Turpin's brashness: "Turpin behaved in an undaunted manner; as he mounted the ladder, feeling his right leg tremble, he spoke a few words to the topsman, then threw himself off, and expir'd in five minutes." The short drop method of hanging meant that those executed were killed by slow strangulation, and so Turpin was left hanging until late afternoon, before being cut down and taken to a tavern in Castlegate. The next morning, Turpin's body was buried in the graveyard of St George's Church, Fishergate, opposite what is now the Roman Catholic St George's Church. On the Tuesday following the burial, the corpse was reportedly stolen by body-snatchers. The theft of cadavers for medical research was a common enough occurrence, and was possibly tolerated by the authorities in York. The practice was however unpopular with the general public, and the body-snatchers, together with Turpin's corpse, were soon apprehended by a mob. The body was recovered and reburied, supposedly this time with quicklime. Turpin's body is purported to lie in St George's graveyard, although some doubt persists as to the grave's authenticity. Later views Some of the Turpin legend can be sourced directly to Richard Bayes' The Genuine History of the Life of Richard Turpin (1739), a mixture of fact and fiction hurriedly put together in the wake of the trial, to satisfy a gullible public. The speeches of the condemned, biographies of criminals, and trial literature, were popular genres during the late 17th and early 18th centuries; written for a mass audience and a precursor to the modern novel, they were "produced on a scale which beggars comparison with any period before or since". Such literature functioned as news and a "forum in which anxieties about crime, punishment, sin, salvation, the workings of providence and social and moral transgression generally could be expressed and negotiated." Bayes' document contains elements of conjecture; for instance, his claim that Turpin was married to a Miss Palmer (and not Elizabeth Millington) is almost certainly incorrect, and the date of Turpin's marriage, for which no documentary evidence has been found, appears to be based solely on Bayes' claim that in 1739 Turpin had married 11 or 12 years earlier. His account of those present during the robberies committed by the Essex Gang often contains names that never appeared in contemporary newspaper reports, suggesting, according to author Derek Barlow, that Bayes embellished his story. Bayes' description of Turpin's relationship with "King the Highwayman" is almost certainly fictional. Turpin may have known Matthew King as early as 1734, and had an active association with him from February 1737, but the story of the "Gentleman Highwayman" may have been created only to link the end of the Essex gang with the author's own recollection of events. Barlow also views the account of the theft of Turpin's corpse, appended to Thomas Kyll's publication of 1739, as "handled with such delicacy as to amount almost to reverence", and therefore of suspect provenance. No contemporary portrait exists of Turpin, who as a notorious but unremarkable figure was not considered sufficiently important to be immortalised. An engraving in one edition of Bayes' 1739 publication, of a man hiding in a cave, is sometimes supposed to be him, but the closest description that exists is that given by John Wheeler, of "a fresh coloured man, very much marked with the small pox, about five feet nine inches high ... wears a blue grey coat and a light coloured wig". An E-FIT of Turpin, created from such reports, was published by the Castle Museum in York in 2009. Turpin is best known for his exploits as a highwayman, but before his execution the only contemporary report of him as such was in June 1737, when a broadsheet entitled "News news: great and wonderful news from London in an uproar or a hue and cry after the Great Turpin, with his escape into Ireland" was published. Although some of his contemporaries became the subject of chapbooks, names such as James Hind, Claude Duval and William Nevison, are not nearly as well-known today as the legend of Dick Turpin, whose fictionalised exploits first began to appear around the turn of the 19th century. It was, however, the story of a fabled ride from London to York that provided the impetus for 19th-century author William Harrison Ainsworth to include and embellish the exploit in his 1834 novel Rookwood. Ainsworth used Turpin as a plot device, describing him in a manner that makes him more lively than the book's other characters. Turpin is introduced with the pseudonym Palmer, and is later forced to escape on his horse, Black Bess. Although fast enough to keep ahead of those in pursuit, Black Bess eventually dies under the stress of the journey. This scene appealed more to readers than the rest of the work, and as Turpin was depicted as a likeable character who made the life of a criminal seem appealing, the story came to form part of the modern legend surrounding Turpin. The artist Edward Hull capitalised on Ainsworth's story, publishing six prints of notable events in Turpin's career. Ainsworth's tale of Turpin's overnight journey from London to York on his mare Black Bess has its origins in an episode recorded by Daniel Defoe, in his 1727 work A tour thro' the whole island of Great Britain. After committing a robbery in Kent in 1676, William Nevison apparently rode to York to establish an alibi, and Defoe's account of that journey became part of folk legend. A similar ride was attributed to Turpin as early as 1808, and was being performed on stage by 1819, but the feat as imagined by Ainsworth (about 200 miles in less than a day) is impossible. Nevertheless, Ainsworth's legend of Black Bess was repeated in works such as Black Bess or the Knight of the Road, a 254-part penny dreadful published in 1867–68. In these tales, Turpin was the hero, accompanied by his trusty colleagues Claude Duval, Tom King, and Jack Rann. These narratives, which transformed Turpin from a pockmarked thug and murderer into "a gentleman of the road [and] a protector of the weak", followed a popular cultural tradition of romanticising English criminals. This practice is reflected in the ballads written about Turpin, the earliest of which, Dick Turpin, would appear to have been published in 1737. Later ballads presented Turpin as an 18th-century Robin Hood figure: "Turpin was caught and his trial was passed, and for a game cock he died at last. Five hundred pounds he gave so free, all to Jack Ketch as a small legacy." Legacy Stories about Turpin continued to be published well into the 20th century, and the legend was also transferred to the stage and film. In 1845 the playwright George Dibdin Pitt recreated the most notable "facts" of Turpin's life, and in 1846 Marie Tussaud added a wax sculpture of Turpin to her collection at Madame Tussauds. Astley's Amphitheatre put on a hippodrama of Dick Turpin's Ride to York. In 1906 actor Fred Ginnett wrote and starred in the film Dick Turpin's Last Ride to York. Dick Turpin's Ride to York is a 1922 British historical silent film drama directed by Maurice Elvey, the first feature-length film of the story. It was for many years assumed by film historians to be completely lost, but two reels were rediscovered in 2003. Other silent versions appeared for the silver screen, and some adaptations even moulded Turpin into a figure styled on Robin Hood. Sid James appeared as Turpin in the 1974 Carry On film Carry On Dick, and LWT cast Richard O'Sullivan as Turpin in their eponymous series Dick Turpin (1979–1982). References Footnotes Notes Bibliography External links 'The Real Dick Turpin' Review of Sharpe's book referenced above, from the London Review of Books A stone in Wiltshire with an inscription dedicated to Turpin Indictment of Dick Turpin, 1739 1705 births 1739 deaths 1734 crimes 18th-century English criminals People executed by the Kingdom of Great Britain Crime in London Criminals from Essex English butchers English male criminals English folklore English highwaymen English murderers People executed by England and Wales by hanging People executed for theft Executed people from Essex Burials in York	[ -0.20883966982364655, 0.5182186365127563, -0.20105110108852386, -0.5488945841789246, -0.6377764344215393, 0.8173357844352722, 0.5955026149749756, 0.18307055532932281, -0.7199978232383728, -0.009326215833425522, -0.19041211903095245, 0.29959604144096375, -0.12673601508140564, 0.2612448036670685, 0.04340571537613869, 0.3546043932437897, 0.2357809692621231, 0.5118333697319031, 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207945	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique%20of%20Dialectical%20Reason	Critique of Dialectical Reason	Critique of Dialectical Reason () is a 1960 book by the philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, in which the author further develops the existentialist Marxism he first expounded in his essay Search for a Method (1957). Critique of Dialectical Reason and Search for a Method were written as a common manuscript, with Sartre intending the former to logically precede the latter. Critique of Dialectical Reason was Sartre's second large-scale philosophical treatise, Being and Nothingness (1943) having been the first. The book has been seen by some as an abandonment of Sartre's original existentialism, while others have seen it as a continuation and elaboration of his earlier work. It was translated into English by Alan Sheridan-Smith. The first volume, "Theory of Practical Ensembles", was first published in English in 1976; a corrected English translation was published in 1991, based on the revised French edition of 1985. The second volume, "The Intelligibility of History", was published posthumously in French in 1985 with an English translation by Quintin Hoare appearing in 1991. Sartre is quoted as having said this was the principal of his two philosophical works for which he wished to be remembered. Background In the wake of Being and Nothingness, Sartre became concerned to reconcile his concept of freedom with concrete social subjects and was strongly influenced in this regard by his friend and associate Maurice Merleau-Ponty, whose writings in the late 1940s and early 1950s, including Sense and Non-Sense, were pioneering a path towards a synthesis of existentialism and Marxism. Merleau-Ponty, however, then became increasingly skeptical of Marxism, culminating in his Adventures of the Dialectic (1955), while Sartre continued to grow more engaged with Marxist thought. Though Sartre had, by 1957, decisively broken with the Soviet Union and "official" Marxism in the wake of the Soviet suppression of the Hungarian uprising, he nonetheless declared Marxism "the philosophy of our time" and stated the need to resuscitate it from the moribund state that Soviet dogma had left it in, a need he attempted to answer by writing Critique of Dialectical Reason. The conflict between Sartre and Merleau-Ponty on this issue ended their long-standing friendship, though Ronald Aronson states that, in part, Critique of Dialectical Reason was Sartre's answer to his former friend and political mentor's attack on Marxism. More generally, Critique of Dialectical Reason was written following the rejection of Communism by leftist French intellectuals sympathetic to Marxism, a process that not only ended Sartre's friendship with Merleau-Ponty but with Albert Camus as well. The work was part of Sartre's attempt to learn "the lessons of history" from these events, and to try to create an adequate Marxist history and sociology. Summary Critique of Dialectical Reason is the product of a later stage in Sartre's thinking, during which he no longer identified Marxism with the Soviet Union or French Communism but came closer to identifying as a Marxist. In it, Sartre puts forward a revision of existentialism, and an interpretation of Marxism as a contemporary philosophy par excellence, one that can be criticized only from a reactionary pre-Marxist standpoint. Sartre argues that while the free fusion of many human projects may possibly constitute a Communist society, there is no guarantee of this. Conscious human acts are not projections of freedom that produce human 'temporality', but movements toward 'totalization', their sense being co-determined by existing social conditions. People are thus neither absolutely free to determine the meaning of their acts nor slaves to the circumstances in which they find themselves. Social life does not consist only of individual acts rooted in freedom since it is also a sedimentation of history by which we are limited and a fight with nature, which imposes further obstacles and causes social relationships to be dominated by scarcity. Every satisfaction of a need can cause antagonism and make it more difficult for people to accept each other as human beings. Scarcity deprives people of the ability to make particular choices and diminishes their humanity. Communism will restore the freedom of the individual and his/her ability to recognize the freedom of others. Reception From the time the Critique of Dialectical Reason was published in 1960, there has been much discussion about where it stands in relation to Sartre's earlier, seminal work, Being and Nothingness. Some Sartre scholars and critics, like George Kline, see the work as essentially a repudiation of Sartre's existentialist stance. Marjorie Grene thinks that the Critique of Dialectical Reason can be readily translated into the categories of Being and Nothingness. Hazel Barnes and Peter Caws see a shift in emphasis between the two works but not a difference of kind. Barnes observes that the title Critique of Dialectical Reason "suggests both Kant and Hegel." According to Barnes, the Critique of Dialectical Reason resembles Kant's Critique of Pure Reason in that it is concerned "with the nature, possibilities, and limitations of human reason." She sees this as the only similarity, however, since Sartre's interests are not primarily epistemological or metaphysical and he is more indebted to Hegel than to Kant. Josef Catalano argues that the Critique of Dialectical Reason gives a historical and social dimension to the being-for-itself described in Being and Nothingness. Finally, Fredric Jameson believes that a reading of the Critique forever alters our view of what Sartre meant in Being and Nothingness, that the label "existentialist" as applied to Sartre can no longer have its previous meaning. Sartre's analysis of "groups-in-fusion" (people brought together by common cause) resonated with the events of the May–June 1968 uprising in France and allowed him to sideline for a while the competing influence of Louis Althusser's structuralist interpretation of Marxism. Situating the Critique of Dialectical Reason in the context of May–June 1968, the psychoanalyst Didier Anzieu stated that "Sartre first described in his book the passive and anonymous forms of individual alienation--this is what he calls the 'practico-inert'--and then he showed how a group introduces negation into history and shapes itself (instead of being shaped), invents itself by breaking with this passive and anonymous society that an American sociologist called 'the lonely crowd.' The students who sparked the outbreak of the revolution of the spring of 1968 were shaped by, if not this second Sartrean philosophy, at least a dialectical philosophy of history. May of 1968 is the historical upsurge of a 'wild-flowering' force of negation. It is the inroad of a 'Sartrean' freedom, not that of the isolated individual but the creative freedom of groups." The philosopher Sidney Hook described the work as a philosophical justification for widespread human rights abuses by Communist leadership of the Soviet Union. The psychiatrists R. D. Laing and David Cooper consider the Critique of Dialectical Reason an attempt to provide a dialectical basis for a structural anthropology, and to establish through a dialectical approach the limits of dialectical reason. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari endorsed Sartre's view that there is no "class spontaneity" but only "group spontaneity". Leszek Kołakowski argues that the Critique of Dialectical Reason represents an abandonment of Sartre's original existentialism and that it absurdly depicts Marxism as "invincible". Kołakowski nevertheless considers the book an interesting attempt to find room for creativity and spontaneity within Marxism, noting that Sartre rejects the dialectic of nature and historical determinism while preserving the social significance of human behavior. Kołakowski criticizes Sartre for failing to explain how Communism could restore freedom. In his view, Sartre gives such a generalized account of revolutionary organization that he ignores the real difficulties of groups engaging in common action without infringing the freedom of their individual members. Kołakowski criticizes Sartre for introducing many superfluous neologisms, writing that aside from these he does not provide a genuinely new interpretation of Marxism; he sees Sartre's view of the historical character of perception and knowledge and its rejection of the dialectic of nature as stemming from the work of György Lukács. In his view, neither Sartre's view that freedom must be safeguarded in revolutionary organization nor his view that there will be perfect freedom when Communism has abolished shortages is new in a Marxist context, and Sartre fails to explain how either could have been brought about. The conservative philosopher Roger Scruton writes that the Critique of Dialectical Reason "shows a total rejection of the rules of intellectual enquiry - a determined flight from the rule of truth. To suppose that the book might actually fulfill the promise offered by its title is in fact a gross impertinence." References External links Critique of the Critique by Andy Blunden Table of contents and partial text at Google Books The Dogmatic Dialectic and the Critical Dialectic The Intelligibility of History: Totalisation without a Totaliser 1960 non-fiction books Books about Marxism Books by Jean-Paul Sartre Éditions Gallimard books French non-fiction books	[ -0.46549689769744873, 0.33914774656295776, -0.5790325999259949, -0.006650562398135662, -0.30579128861427307, 0.800081193447113, 0.5620049834251404, -0.27728044986724854, 0.39853420853614807, -0.5553103089332581, -0.0026995493099093437, 0.4288727939128876, -0.3396092355251312, 0.01781468279659748, -0.07455132156610489, 0.12478266656398773, 0.6516405940055847, -0.6785146594047546, -0.10529378056526184, -0.12950606644153595, 0.13596612215042114, 0.21334150433540344, 0.22265712916851044, -0.3504441976547241, -0.02544207125902176, 0.28706175088882446, 0.6047704815864563, -0.13008907437324524, -0.34836307168006897, 0.25353628396987915, 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