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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20pseudonyms
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List of pseudonyms
|
This is a list of pseudonyms, in various categories.
A pseudonym is a name adopted by a person for a particular purpose, which differs from his or her true name. A pseudonym may be used by social activists or politicians for political purposes or by others for religious purposes. It may be a soldier's noms de guerre or an author's nom de plume. It may be a performer's stage name or an alias used by visual artists, athletes, fashion designers, or criminals. Pseudonyms are occasionally used in fiction such as by superheroes or other fictional characters.
General list
Other lists
Maternal family names
Pen names
Porn names
Stage names
Fictional pseudonyms
Superhero genre
Iron Man (Anthony Edward "Tony" Stark) – Marvel Comics
Captain America (Steven Grant "Steve" Rogers) – Marvel Comics
The Hulk (Dr. Robert Bruce Banner) – Marvel Comics
Spider-Man (Peter Benjamin Parker) – Marvel Comics
Black Cat (Felicia Hardy) – Marvel Comics
Doctor Octopus (Dr. Otto Gunther Octavius) - Marvel Comics
Wolverine (Logan, James Howlett) – Marvel Comics
Amazing-Man (William Blake "Will" Everett) – DC Comics
Amazing-Man (William Blake "Will" Everett III) – DC Comics
Amazing-Man (Markus Clay) – DC Comics
Amethyst, Princess of Gemworld (Amy Winston) – DC Comics
Animal Man (Bernhard "Buddy" Baker) – DC Comics
Aquagirl (Lorena Marquez) – DC Comics
Argus (Nick Kelly) – DC Comics
Atom (Albert "Al" Pratt) – DC Comics
Aqualad (Garth) – DC Comics
Aqualad (Kaldur'ahm / Jackson Hyde) – DC Comics
Aquaman (Arthur Joseph Curry) – DC Comics
Superman (Kal-El / Clark Joseph Kent) – DC Comics
Batgirl (Barbara Gordon) – DC Comics
Batgirl (Cassandra Cain) – DC Comics
Batman (Bruce Wayne) – DC Comics
Catwoman (Selina Kyle) – DC Comics
Catwoman (Patience Phillips) – 2004 film
Huntress (Helena Wayne) – DC Comics
Huntress (Helena Bertinelli) – DC Comics
The Penguin (Oswald Chesterfield Cobblepot) – DC Comics
The Riddler (Dr. Edward Nigma) – DC Comics
Rorschach (Walter Joseph Kovacs) – Watchmen (Alan Moore graphic novel)
The Flash (Jason Peter "Jay" Garrick) – DC Comics
The Flash (Bartholomew Henry "Barry" Allen) – DC Comics
The Flash (Wallace Rudolph "Wally" West) – DC Comics
The Flash (Bartholomew Henry "Bart" Allen II) – DC Comics
Wonder Woman (Princess Diana of Themyscira / Diana Prince) – DC comics
Other fictional characters
Lord Voldemort (Thomas Marvolo "Tom" Riddle) – Harry Potter series
Aramis (Henri d'Aramitz, le Chevalier d'Herblay) – The Three Musketeers
Scarlet Pimpernel (Sir Percy Blakeney)
Athos (Armand de Sillègue d'Athos d'Autevielle, Le Comte de La Fère) – The Three Musketeers
Demosthenes (Valentine Wiggin) – Ender's Game series – OSC
Chuck Finley (Sam Axe)
d'Artagnan (Charles de Batz-Castelmore) – The Three Musketeers
Dylan Sharp (Deryn Sharp – Leviathan by Scott Westerfeld)
Jeff (Othello Jeffries from the comic strip Mutt and Jeff)
Locke (Peter Wiggin) – Ender's Game series – OSC
M (Sir Miles Messervy) – James Bond novels
Q (Major Boothroyd) – James Bond novels
Regina Phalange (Phoebe Buffay) – Friends
Porthos (Isaac de Porthau, Baron du Vallon de Bracieux de Pierrefonds) – The Three Musketeers
Rusty Shackleford (Dale Gribble)
Duke Silver (Ron Swanson)
Speaker for the Dead (Ender Wiggin) – Ender's Game series – OSC
Ken Adams (Joey Tribbiani) – Friends
Art Vandelay (George Costanza) – Seinfeld
La Volpe – Assassin's Creed II and Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood
Zorro (Don Diego de la Vega)
Alucard (Adrian Fahrenheit Ţepeş)
Mr. Underhill (Frodo Baggins) – Lord of the Rings series
The Shadow (Lamont Cranston)
Clint Eastwood (Marty McFly) – Back to the Future Part III
Heisenberg (Walter White) – Breaking Bad
Saul Goodman (James "Jimmy" McGill) – Breaking Bad
L (L Lawliet) – Death Note
John Smith – Kyon
The Doctor – Doctor Who
See also
Literary initials
List of people who adopted matrilineal surnames
List of pseudonyms used in the American Constitutional debates
List of works published under a pseudonym
Mononymous persons
Nicknames of jazz musicians
References
External links
FamousFolk – An extensive list of pseudonyms
Lists of names
Lists of people by name
!
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isobel%20Gowdie
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Isobel Gowdie
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Isobel Gowdie was a Scottish woman who confessed to witchcraft at Auldearn near Nairn during 1662. Scant information is available about her age or life and, although she was probably executed in line with the usual practice, it is uncertain whether this was the case or if she was allowed to return to the obscurity of her former life as a cottar’s wife. Her detailed testimony, apparently achieved without the use of violent torture, provides one of the most comprehensive insights into European witchcraft folklore at the end of the era of witch-hunts.
The four confessions she made over a period of six weeks include details of charms and rhymes, claims she was a member of a coven in the service of the Devil and that she met with the fairy queen and king. Lurid information concerning carnal dealings with the Devil were also provided. A combination of demonic and fairy beliefs, the narratives were used by Margaret Murray as the basis for her now mostly discredited theories about cults and witchcraft.
Modern day academics characterise Gowdie, who was illiterate and of a low social status, as a talented narrator with a creative imagination. It is unclear why she came forward or was initially arrested but she may have suffered from ergotism. Since the confessions were transcribed by Robert Pitcairn and first published in 1833, historians have described the material as remarkable or extraordinary and scholars continue to debate the topic in the 21st century.
Gowdie is commemorated outside academia by songs, books, plays and radio broadcasts. The Confession of Isobel Gowdie, a work for symphony orchestra, was composed by James MacMillan as a requiem for her.
Background
The early modern period saw the Scottish courts trying many cases of witchcraft and witch hunts began in about 1550. The parliament of Mary, Queen of Scots, passed the Scottish Witchcraft Act in 1563, making convictions for witchcraft subject to capital punishment. Mary's son, James, wrote Daemonologie in 1597 after his involvement with the North Berwick witch trials in 1590 and the Great Scottish Witch Hunt of 1597, a nationwide hunt that started in Aberdeen. In common with other European witch trials, major Scottish witch hunts occurred in batches; historians offer differing opinions as to why this would happen but generally agree that military hostilities and political or economic uncertainty played a part coupled with local ministers and landowners determined to seek convictions. Scotland had been subjected to nearly a century of vigorous oppression although areas in the north of the country had not felt the full brunt of Presbyterianism so a strong belief in fairy traditions and folklore persisted. The Laird of Park, who owned the land where Gowdie lived, was a fervent Covenanter and rejected all traditional superstitions. He had been involved in commissions for witchcraft trials and the deaths of his father, uncle and grandfather were publicly credited as being caused by witchcraft.
Adverse weather conditions caused a sustained period of poor harvests from 1649 until 1653. The execution of King Charles I took place in 1649 and an extensive witch hunt started that year. Charles II was declared the monarch of Scotland in 1660; most historians connect the Great Scottish Witch Hunt of 1661–62, the last but most severe wave of prosecutions, with the Restoration. Writing in 1884, Scottish antiquary Charles Kirkpatrick Sharpe opined "Whatever satisfaction the return of King Charles the Second might afford to the younger females in his dominions, it certainly brought nothing, save torture and destruction, to the unfortunate old women, or witches of Scotland." According to Emma Wilby, a British historian who has undertaken a comprehensive study of Gowdie and her confessions, she was one of probably seven witches tried in Auldearn during this witch hunt.
Personal life
Records provide no information on Gowdie before her marriage to John Gilbert, who had no involvement in the witchcraft case. Wilby speculates that she would have been brought up in the Auldearn region as she alluded to locations in the area. Likewise no detail is available concerning her age; at the time of her trial in 1662 she may have been aged anywhere from fifteen – although this is unlikely as she claimed to have participated in sexual activities fifteen years before her confession – to well into her thirties or fifties but she was certainly of child-bearing age despite there being no records of her having any children.
Gowdie and her husband lived in the area around Loch Loy, about two miles north of Auldearn. In the 17th century, the sea loch was larger than it is now and was surrounded by woodland, hills and sand dunes. Gowdie's husband was a farm labourer, possibly a cottar, hired by one of the tenants of the Laird of Park; in return for his labour he would have been provided with a cottage and the use of a small parcel of land. According to Wilby, their lifestyle and social status could be compared with present-day developing countries. Unable to read or write, Gowdie possessed a good imagination and the ability to express herself eloquently. Her daily life was spent in basic household chores and tasks such as milking, making bread, weaving yarn or weeding.
Confessions
Gowdie made four confessions over a period of six weeks; the first is dated 13 April 1662 at Auldearn. It is uncertain why she came forward; the historian John Callow, who authored her Oxford Dictionary of National Biography article, suggests it was because of her involvement in a conspiracy to torment the local minister, Harry Forbes, a zealous extremist who had a fear of witchcraft. Forbes was a witness at each of Gowdie's four interrogations. Accusations against Gowdie would have circulated for a lengthy period before she confessed. She would have been detained in solitary confinement, most probably in the tolbooth in Auldearn, throughout the six-week time span of her confessions.
Her first confession described an encounter with the Devil after she arranged to meet him in the kirk at Auldearn at night. Naming several others who attended including Janet Breadhead and Margret Brodie, she said she renounced her baptism and the Devil put his mark on her shoulder then sucked blood from it. Other meetings took place at several locations, for instance Nairn and Inshoch. She touched on having sexual intercourse with the Devil who she described as a very cold "meikle, blak, roch man". He had forked and cloven feet that were sometimes covered with shoes or boots. Details were given of taking a child's body from a grave and spoiling crops together with information about covens and where they danced. She explained that brooms were laid beside her husband in his bed so he would not notice she was absent. The coven ate and drank the best of food at houses they reached by flying through the air on magical horses and entered via the windows. They were entertained by the Queen of the Fairies, also known as the Queen of Elphame, in her home at Downie Hill which was filled with water bulls that frightened her. Gowdie claimed to have made clay effigies of the Laird of Park's male children to cause them suffering or death and that she had assumed the form of a jackdaw and, with other members of the coven who had transformed into animals like cats and hares, visited the house of Alexander Cumings. Some parts of her testimony, like her description of the king and queen of fairies, has been cut short when the notaries have just noted et cetera, a frequent occurrence when the material was deemed irrelevant or, if it did not comply with the inference the interrogators intended, it was abruptly ended. Alternatively it may have happened when the scribes were unable to keep pace with the volume of information being narrated by Gowdie.
A little over two weeks later, on 3 May 1662, Gowdie's second confession was transcribed. She expanded on details about the coven by providing the nicknames of its members and as many of the spirits that waited on them as she could remember; her own servant spirit, dressed in black, was called the Read Reiver. Claims included having the ability to transform into animals with the individual chants used to turn into a cat, horse or various other animals supplied. Over the duration of all her confessions a total of twenty-seven benevolent or malevolent chants were given, more than in any other British witchcraft case; three were transcribed twice but with significant differences.
Gowdie testified the Devil handmade elf arrows that were then enhanced by small roughly-spoken "elf-boys". The Devil allocated a number of arrows to each coven member with instructions they were to be fired in his name; no bows were supplied so the arrows were flicked by thumb. The witches were not always accurate when they fired the arrows but if the intended target, whether it was a woman, a man or an animal, was touched by the implement, she claimed they would die even if wearing a protective armour. Spells used to inflict illness and torment on Harry Forbes, the minister, were also described.
On 15 May 1662 Gowdie was brought before her interrogators for a third time. Like her first and second confessions, and in common with many other Scottish witchcraft testimonies, the transcript begins by detailing her pact with the Devil after she encountered him and agreed to meet him at Auldearn kirk. Taking the information she provided previously about the elf arrows a step further, she revealed the names of those killed, expressing regret for the deaths she caused and supplied names of other coven members with details of who they had murdered too. She gave an account of the Devil sending her on an errand to Auldearn disguised as a hare. Her narrative went on to describe how while in that form she was chased by a pack of dogs; she escaped from them by running from house to house until eventually she had the opportunity to utter the chant to transform herself back into a human. She added that sometimes the dogs would be able to bite a witch when she took the form of a hare; although the dogs could not kill the shapeshifter, the bite marks and scars would still be evident once the human form was reinstated.
Descriptions of dining with the Devil and his beating of coven members and their responses to it are recounted. Salacious details concerning sexual relations with the Devil together with broad characteristics of his genitalia are chronicled. Continuing on from the tale in her first testimony about the methods undertaken to kill any male children of the Laird of Park, the verse the Devil had taught them to chant while burning the effigies was relayed.
The fourth and final confession, dated 27 May 1662, is, according to the historian Robert Pitcairn who first reproduced Gowdie's testimonies in 1833, basically to confirm the three previous testimonies coupled with an attempt to elicit more information about the members of the coven to enable charges to be brought against them. Forty-one people were arrested as the result of Breadhead and Gowdie's statements.
Aftermath
The panel of interrogators felt there was ample evidence to secure a conviction against Gowdie so they applied to the Privy Council in Edinburgh seeking a Commission of Justiciary for a local trial to be held. Together with the confession of her accomplice, Janet Breadhead, some or all of Gowdie's confessions were sent with the request. According to Wilby, it is likely the confessions were received in Edinburgh around the middle of June 1662; the Register of the Privy Council for July contains an entry instructing the Sheriff principal of Nairn, Sir Hew Campbell of Calder [Cawdor], and others to arrange local trials for both women.
Gowdie's second testimony has a note on the back dated 10 July 1662 indicating the document had been appraised and the justice department found it germane; a further instruction was added to "Tak ceare of this peaper". On the same document the justice depute, Alexander Colville, added a signed statement beside the witness signatures endorsing the commission. Lord Brodie was likely to have been involved in approving the commission; he was in Edinburgh at the time and he noted in his diary that he had been "excisd in ordouring the depositions of witches". The entry in his diary the following day describes a meeting with Colville when they discussed witches and he mentions "Park's witches". Brodie was highly thought of by the minister and the lairds from the Auldearn area who had asked for his intervention on prior occasions. His relative, the Laird of Lethen, was a witness at Gowdie's interrogations and visited Brodie at the time; he was probably the person who took the trial application to Edinburgh. The pair prayed together petitioning against the Devil and witchcraft.
On 10 April 1662 the Privy Council had issued a proclamation prohibiting torture being used as a means of securing confessions from witches unless it was specifically authorised by the Council. This led to a caution frequently being appended to commissions. In Gowdie and Breadhead's case, the Council advised they should be found guilty only if the confessions had been volunteered without torture, that they were sane and without a wish to die.
There is no record of Gowdie being executed although this is not unusual as in 90 per cent of Scottish cases the final outcome is unknown due to the local records no longer existing. Wilby hypothesises that once the commission was returned to Auldearn, Gowdie and Breadhead would have been found guilty at a local trial in mid-July, transported by cart to Gallowhill on the outskirts of Nairn where they would have been strangled and burned. Prior to 1678 most Scottish witches tried under a Privy Council commission were convicted and executed; Pitcairn shared the opinion that Gowdie and Breadhead were executed and most modern day academics, like historian Brian P. Levack, agree it would be the likely outcome. The possibility the pair may have been acquitted on the basis of mental impairment has been put forward by some historians; Callow suggests they may have been freed under the clauses attached to the commission and then been permitted to return to "quiet obscurity".
Modern interpretations
The confessions are a blend of fairy and demonic beliefs without parallel in any other witchcraft case. They are more detailed than most and are inconsistent with much of the folklore and records from the witchtrials. It is unclear whether Gowdie's confessions are the result of psychosis, whether she had fallen under suspicion of witchcraft or sought leniency by confessing. Locally it has been suggested she may have suffered ergotism, which can produce hallucinations and other mental instability. At least two other confessions from the 16th century, those of Andro Mann and Allison Peirson, reported encounters with the Queen of Elphame; later, in 1670, Jean Weir from Edinburgh, also claimed she met the fairy queen.
Gowdie's confessions formed the crux of historian Margaret Murray's thesis about covens consisting of thirteen members; Murray also asserted cults were structured this way throughout Europe although her work was later discredited. Wilby opines there may have been dark shamanic aspects contained in the fairy elements. Despite the Privy Council's April 1662 proclamation, torture was often still employed and Levack speculates some form of it may have been applied to Gowdie; she may have become unbalanced by the imprisonment and lengthy inquisitions. While kept in solitary confinement, she was probably prevented from sleeping and mistreated. Scholars, such as Callow and Diane Purkiss, suggest Gowdie's narratives about sumptuous meals are indicative of a woman who was continually hungry; other details may be evidence of a powerless woman, angry and sexually frustrated by the austerity imposed by the ministers. Church and court records show rape as a recurrent crime during civil unrest and in the mid-16th century; Gowdie described her first carnal experience with the Devil as being in 1647 when soldiers may still have been in the area and Wilby postulates the lurid sexual details may be Gowdie's "fantasy-response to the trauma of rape."
Wilby characterises Gowdie as a survivor of conflicts like the Battle of Auldearn, who experienced the wrath of zealous, bigoted, ministers and local elite that were frightened of witches; she was a skilled story-teller who entertained relatives and friends with narratives of the supernatural. She suggests the tales recorded may have been the result of a talented orator responding to a "rapt audience".
Levack describes Gowdie's initial statement as "one of the most remarkable documents in the history of witchcraft" with academic Julian Goodare referring to her as "one of the most famous of all Scottish witches" whose "extraordinary confessions" include "some of the most remarkable [visionary activities] on record". These modern day descriptions mirror those of Pitcairn in 1833 and George F. Black in 1937 who wrote in the Calendar of Witchcraft in Scotland that "This is the most remarkable witchcraft case on record ... referred to, in more or less detail, in every work relating to witchcraft in Scotland." According to Wilby, the confessions still remain at the forefront of academics debating witchcraft.
In literature and music
Gowdie and her magic have been remembered in a number of later works of culture.
She appears as a character in the biographical novels The Devil's Mistress by novelist and occultist J. W. Brodie-Innes, Isobel by Jane Parkhurst and the fantasy novel Night Plague by Graham Masterton. In the 21st century her story has been the inspiration for plays, radio broadcasts and lectures.
The Confession of Isobel Gowdie is a work for symphony orchestra by the Scottish composer James MacMillan; he believed Gowdie's confession was obtained by torture, and that she was burned at the stake for witchcraft. In a broadcast by BBC Radio 3 in 2010 he styled the composition as his requiem for her. The Sensational Alex Harvey Band song titled 'Isobel Goudie' was one of many songs commemorating her.
The traditional English folk singer Fay Hield has set a selection of Gowdie's transformation chants to music in the song 'Hare Spell' from her 2020 album Wrackline.
See also
Cunning folk in Britain
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
17th-century Scottish people
17th-century Scottish women
People convicted of witchcraft
People from Nairn
Shapeshifting
Witch trials in Scotland
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207953
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Schenker
|
Michael Schenker
|
Michael Schenker (born 10 January 1955) is a German rock guitarist who has played in UFO and led the Michael Schenker Group. He was an early member of Scorpions, the band co-founded by his elder brother Rudolf Schenker. In the mid-1970s, Schenker joined UFO, playing lead and rhythm guitar. He left the band in 1978 to found the Michael Schenker Group. He has rejoined UFO three times, producing an album each time. Schenker continues to perform and record. He has been called "a legendary figure in the history of metal guitar."
Career
Early career and rise to fame: Scorpions and UFO
Schenker started playing guitar at an early age, after his brother Rudolf got a Gibson Flying V guitar for his birthday, which captured his imagination. His main influences were Jimmy Page, Jeff Beck, Eric Clapton, Leslie West, Johnny Winter and Rory Gallagher. He played his first gig when he was 11, with Rudolf and the Scorpions in a nightclub. Schenker debuted with Scorpions on their debut album Lonesome Crow at age 16.
Scorpions went on tour after recording their first album as the opening act for up-and-coming UK band UFO in Germany. Schenker was offered the position of lead guitar player for UFO (taking over for Bernie Marsden, himself a temporary replacement for Mick Bolton) and, with the blessing of his brother, accepted (Scorpions replaced him with Uli Roth), even though he didn't speak English.
Schenker co-wrote most of the songs on UFO's major label (Chrysalis Records) debut album Phenomenon. His career with UFO was turbulent, sometimes walking off mid-song causing shows to be cancelled. Despite having a series of successful albums and tours, Schenker unequivocally quit UFO after their show in Palo Alto, California, on 29 October 1978. During this tour the band had recorded six concerts whose selected tracks would make up their live album Strangers in the Night, which was released after he left the band.
Schenker briefly re-joined Scorpions in late 1978, when they were recording the album Lovedrive. He composed and played lead guitar on three songs, "Another Piece of Meat", "Coast To Coast" and "Lovedrive". Although it had been widely believed for decades that the three songs were Schenker's only contribution to the record, during an interview with satellite radio host Eddie Trunk, Schenker vehemently maintained that he contributed to the whole album. In 1979, Schenker briefly toured with the band in support of the album. He blamed his very short stay on finding out he did not enjoy playing other people's songs. He was permanently replaced by Matthias Jabs, who had originally joined Scorpions before Schenker's return.
Schenker auditioned for Aerosmith in 1979 after Joe Perry left. According to Martin Huxley, Schenker stormed out of the room after producer Gary Lyons made several jokes about Nazis. After the death of Randy Rhoads, Ozzy Osbourne's first call was to Schenker to replace Rhoads, as the German guitarist and his iconic Flying V were a huge influence on Rhoads. But, Osbourne claims, Schenker made too many outlandish demands (including a private jet). Schenker himself, in an interview with KNAC radio, claims he was the one to say "no" to Osbourne: "If I would have joined Ozzy Osbourne, I would have screwed up my life. I was almost about to do it, and something told me: DON'T!!" Schenker has also claimed that at some point he was offered, but turned down joining the likes of Deep Purple, Thin Lizzy, Ian Hunter and Motörhead in order to focus on his solo career.
Michael Schenker Group, McAuley Schenker Group and UFO Reunion
In 1979, Schenker started a solo career by founding the Michael Schenker Group (MSG). The history of MSG is strewn with personality conflicts and incidents. In 1982, original singer Gary Barden, who sang on the first two studio albums and a live album, was fired in favour of Graham Bonnet. Bonnet lasted one album (Assault Attack) and a single gig, at Sheffield University, where he drunkenly exposed himself and was subsequently fired from the band. Barden rejoined MSG for the rest of the tour. He also appeared on the 1983 studio album (Built to Destroy) and the band's second live album (Rock Will Never Die).
After Barden's second departure, Schenker reorganized the band around himself and new singer Robin McAuley and renamed it the McAuley Schenker Group. The new incarnation of MSG was steered toward a more commercial hard rock sound. After three albums, Schenker and McAuley parted company. In the meantime, he briefly replaced Robbin Crosby in Ratt, appearing on their 1990 MTV Unplugged performance.
In 1993, Schenker rejoined UFO. He co-wrote (with Phil Mogg) nearly the whole of their reunion album, Walk on Water (1995), and toured with them briefly.
He then resurrected the Michael Schenker Group with all new members and recorded three more albums, Written in the Sand, The Unforgiven, and Be Aware of Scorpions before rejoining UFO for two further releases, Covenant and Sharks.
2000–present
Schenker fell on hard times in the early 2000s, despite his rejoining UFO that year. He later recorded the album Arachnophobiac and supported it with two years of touring. In 2004, recognition came from Dean Guitars, which began producing a Schenker signature Dean V (with subtle differences from the Gibson, but with the split black and white trademark Schenker finish).
2005 was the 25th anniversary of the Michael Schenker Group. Schenker put together a new album of songs called Tales of Rock'n'Roll to celebrate the anniversary and enlisted singers from each iteration of the band to sing on the album. However, in that same year the collection Heavy Hitters, a set of covers featuring Schenker and a revolving group of heavy metal all-stars, was marketed as a Michael Schenker Group album, with the result that Schenker only received a flat fee.
After nearly-disastrous North American and European tours in 2007, which included cancelled shows and less-than-stellar performances caused by heavy drinking, Schenker regained his composure and toured in the UK as Michael Schenker & Friends in 2008. Early 2008, Schenker worked with Gary Barden, Don Airey, Simon Phillips, and Neil Murray on a new MSG album In the Midst of Beauty, which was released in May 2008, followed by touring.
In 2009 Schenker toured extensively including Russia, UK and the US with MSG including original members Gary Barden and Chris Glenn.
In November 2010, Schenker was given the Marshall "11" award in London along with other rock legends including Ron Wood and Slash. The award was presented to Schenker by Alice Cooper, with Jimmy Page, Tony Iommi and John Paul Jones also in attendance. The award is given to "those artists and musicians who represent rock 'n' roll excess and livin' on the edge."
In 2011 Schenker released a new album, Temple of Rock. It was supported with a tour of Europe, Japan and the USA. In Europe the line up included Herman Rarebell on drums and Francis Buchholz on bass, both former members of Scorpions (Rarebell also joined the band for the Japanese dates) and Doogie White, formerly singer for Rainbow and Yngwie Malmsteen. With this line-up he recorded the album Bridge the Gap which was released in 2013.
In August 2012 Schenker received a Lifetime Achievement in Rock and Roll Award from Vegas Rocks! Magazine. The award was presented by David Coverdale of Whitesnake. During the award ceremony Schenker performed with Sammy Hagar of Chickenfoot, Montrose and Van Halen.
Instruments and sound
Schenker's main guitar for most of his career was a Gibson Flying V, which he typically played through a "cocked" wah-wah pedal (switched on but left in a single position, around halfway through the travel of the foot pedal, and used as an equaliser to strengthen the midrange "sweet spot") and Marshall amplifiers. Schenker's "unmistakable midrange tone" was emphasised by the partially engaged wah pedal, as exemplified on the song "Rock Bottom" from the live UFO album Strangers in the Night, was listed among the 50 greatest tones of all time by Guitar Player magazine. Since 2004, Schenker has switched to using a signature model Dean V.
In 2007 Dean Guitars, after producing Schenker's signature Dean V, also made two acoustic models with the familiar black and white "V" design.
In video games
The Michael Schenker Group's song, "Armed and Ready", featured in Guitar Hero: Metallica.
The song "Assault Attack" was featured in Brütal Legend.
Awards and recognition
Placed on Guitar World magazine's 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Guitarists.
In 2010 Schenker was given the Marshall "11" award.
Schenker accepted his "Rock Guitar Legend" award at the Vegas Rocks! Magazine Music Awards 2012.
On 16 June 2014, Schenker was honored the Golden God Icon Award at the Metal Hammer Golden God Awards at the IndiO2 in London.
Influence
Schenker has been on the covers of many guitar magazines and has influenced many notable guitar players, including Kirk Hammett and James Hetfield (Metallica), Dave Mustaine and Marty Friedman (Megadeth), Dimebag Darrell (Pantera), Alex Skolnick and Eric Peterson (Testament), Mike McCready (Pearl Jam), Gary Holt (Exodus), Rob Cavestany (Death Angel), Adrian Smith (Iron Maiden), Slash, John Norum (Europe), Paul Gilbert, Randy Rhoads, George Lynch (Dokken), Warren DeMartini (Ratt), John Petrucci (Dream Theater), Michael Amott (Arch Enemy), Dan Spitz (Anthrax), Criss Oliva (Savatage), Jeff Waters (Annihilator), Phil Campbell (Motörhead), Kerry King (Slayer), and Syu (Galneryus).
Solo band members
Current members
Michael Schenker – lead and rhythm guitars, occasional backing vocals
Bodo Schopf – drums
Steve Mann – rhythm guitar, keyboards, backing vocals
Ronnie Romero – lead vocals
Barend Courbois – bass, backing vocals
Discography
Other Schenker projects
Look at Me Now (Bernie Marsden Album) (1981) as guest
Legends of Rock at Castle Donington (2001, Live)
Siggi Schwarz & The Electricguitar Legends (2004)
Siggi Schwarz & The Rock Legends (2005)
Heavy Metal Thunder (2005)
Numbers from the Beast (2005)
Agony & The Xtasy (Gary Barden Solo Album) (2006)
Siggi Schwarz and Michael Schenker - Live Together (2006, Live)
Metal X-Mas (two-CD Special Edition) (2010)
Strangers in the Night (2010)
Seeking Major Tom (2011)
Compilations
The Essential Michael Schenker Group (Best Of-style compilation, 1992)
The Story of Michael Schenker (1994, Compilation)
Armed & ready – the best of the Michael Schenker Group (1994, Music Collection International)
The Michael Schenker Story Live (1994): see also The Michael Schenker Story Live, the audio recording.
Forever And More: The Best of Michael Schenker (2003)
Greatest Riffs (2009, US-only compilation)
Instrumental Intensity (2010, Shrapnel Records compilation)
References
External links
2015 Michael Schenker Interview on Guitar.com
1955 births
Living people
People from Sarstedt
German Christians
German rock guitarists
German male guitarists
German heavy metal guitarists
Lead guitarists
Slide guitarists
Scorpions (band) members
UFO (band) members
Michael Schenker Group members
McAuley Schenker Group members
Ratt members
G3 (tour)
Contraband (band) members
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott%20Nearing
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Scott Nearing
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Scott Nearing (August 6, 1883 – August 24, 1983) was an American radical economist, educator, writer, political activist, pacifist, vegetarian and advocate of simple living.
Biography
Early years
Nearing was born in Morris Run, Tioga County, Pennsylvania, the heart of the state's coal country. Nearing's grandfather, Winfield Scott Nearing, had arrived in Tioga County with his family in 1864, at the age of 35, when he accepted a job as a civil and mining engineer. Before the end of the year he had assumed full control of mining operations as the superintendent of the Morris Run Coal Company, a position of authority which he held for the remainder of his working life. An intense, driven man, Scott Nearing's grandfather studied science and nature, practiced gardening and carpentry, and regularly received crates of books from New York City, amassing a large personal library. In his memoirs written late in his life, Scott Nearing would recall his grandfather as one of the four most influential figures in his life. Nearing's upbringing was that of a young bourgeois, his mother employing a part-time tutor and two Polish servants to clean the gleaming white house atop a hill overlooking the town. Scott's brother recalled that the citizens of Morris Run had treated the handsome and intelligent Scott "the way they would treat the heir to the nobleman. ... They all treated him with awe."
Nearing's father was a small businessman and stockbroker, his mother a vigorous, energetic, and idealistic woman whom Nearing later credited with instilling in him an appreciation for the higher things in life: nature, books, and the arts. Despite an upbringing in a life of privilege made possible in no small measure by the harsh anti-union policies of his patriarchal grandfather, young Scott nevertheless developed a social conscience, which one of his biographers describes as "a burr under his skin that none of his relatives acquired and that no interpretation satisfactorily explains."
Nearing graduated from high school in 1901 and enrolled in the University of Pennsylvania Law School, "where corporate bias so violated his idealism that after one year he quit." Instead, he studied oratory at Temple University in Philadelphia and enrolled in the Wharton School of Business of the University of Pennsylvania, where he immersed himself in the emerging science of economics. At the Wharton School, Nearing was deeply influenced by Simon Nelson Patten, an innovative and unconventional educator and founding father of the American Economic Association. Nearing distinguished himself as a "Wharton man" during the progressive era, one of the proverbial "best and brightest" trained in practical economics to be readied for a place as a responsible leader of the community. In the words of another of his students, Patten taught innovative thinking—"making use of creative intelligence to master new situations irrespective of received dogma." Nearing seems to have found these new intellectual tools for potential social change to be exciting and liberating. He completed his undergraduate program in just three years, while simultaneously engaging in campus politics and competitive debate.
Nearing received his BS degree from the University of Pennsylvania in 1905 and his PhD in Economics in 1909. From 1905 to 1907, he served as the Secretary of the Pennsylvania Child Labor Committee, a volunteer society working to solve the child labor problem in the state. From 1908 until 1915 while living in Arden, Delaware, Nearing taught economics and sociology at the Wharton School and Swarthmore College, authoring a stream of books on economics and social problems. Nearing was a staunch advocate of a "new economics," which insisted that
... economists part company with the ominous pictures of an overpopulated, starving world, prostrate before the throne of "competition," "individual initiative," "private property," or some other pseudo-god, and tell men in simple, straightforward language how they may combine, re-shape, or overcome the laws and utilize them as a blessing instead of enduring them as a burden and a curse.
Much as Karl Marx drew radical implications from the ideas of the conservative Hegel, Nearing took the economic logic of his department head, Simon Patten, and made radical inferences about wealth and the distribution of income that his mentor had hesitated to draw. He believed that unfettered wealth stifled initiative and impeded economic advancement, and hoped that progressive thinkers among the ownership class would come to realize the negative impact of economic parasitism and accept their civic duty of enlightened leadership. Nearing outlined an economic republicanism based on "four basic democratic concepts—equality of opportunity, civic obligation, popular government, and human rights."
While living in Arden in 1910, Nearing learned about The Landlord's Game, the forerunner of Monopoly, and taught it to his students. This use of the game as an instructional device led to its spread among colleges.
But Nearing's aggressive social activism in the classroom and through the printed word brought him into conflict with his employers at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School of Business, resulting in his dismissal and his emergence as a cause célèbre of the American radical movement during the next decade. On the morning of June 16, 1915, Nearing's secretary telephoned him to report that a letter from the provost had arrived, saying that "as the term of your appointment as assistant professor of economics for 1914–1915 is about to expire, I am directed by the trustees of the University of Pennsylvania to inform you that it will not be renewed." Penn's board of trustees was heavily stacked with bankers, corporation lawyers, financiers, and corporation executives, and Nearing's writing had not gone unnoticed. His tenuous situation had been exacerbated by an open letter to The North American in which he challenged the right wing evangelist Billy Sunday to apply the Gospel to the conditions of industrial capitalism, including "the railroad interests ... the traction company ... the manufacturers ... the vested interests." Reaction to Nearing's dismissal from the academy was swift, with department head Patten and others issuing statements condemning the decision. Progressives in the Wharton School quickly compiled a summary of the facts of the case and sent it to 1500 newspapers, journals, and academics around the country. Even conservatives in the faculty were deeply troubled since, as one Wharton professor observed, "the moment Nearing went, any conservative statement became but the spoken word of a 'kept' professor." Conversely, some radicals felt vindicated in their belief in the conservative nature of the American academy. Socialist writer Upton Sinclair told Nearing in an open letter that "You do not belong in a university. You belong with us Socialists and free lances . ... Instead of addressing small numbers of college boys, you will be able to address large audiences of men." Nearing's dismissal was retrospectively called by one historian "the most famous breach of academic freedom" of the era.
First World War
From the fall of 1915, Nearing was established as a radical "public man." He joined the American Union Against Militarism in 1916 and delivered a series of speeches condemning the "Preparedness" campaign then being promoted by Woodrow Wilson and the nation's political elite. He also remained a university professor, teaching Social Science at the city-owned Toledo University from 1915 through 1917. The intense nationalistic feeling that swept the country now that America was embroiled at last in the war in Europe spelled the end of Nearing's Toledo days, as he later recalled in his memoirs:
Al Miller, Chairman of the Toledo Forum, asked me to come to his office. He greeted me pleasantly and then said, "As you know, I am attorney for the Toledo Chamber of Commerce, on a permanent retainer. I am their legal spokesman; they are among my clients. They have directed me to introduce a resolution at the next meeting of the Toledo university trustees, ending your connection with the institution." He waited a moment for this announcement to sink in.
"Of Course," I said quietly. "That is one of the symptoms of war fever. Those who tell the truth or try to tell the truth are among the first victims of any war."
Al hurried on, "You understand, there is nothing personal about this. You and I have worked together on the Forum and other projects with never a real disagreement, certainly never a fight."
"That is true," I said, "and I think our joint efforts have helped to make some real advances here in Toledo."
"True," said Al. "It is also true that I have enjoyed every minute of our cooperation." Then he added: "At this point I guess we part company. I hope we part as friends, on two sides of the war barrier that separates us. Please remember that there is nothing personal about this," he repeated. "I respect your stand and wish you well. My duty lies elsewhere." We shook hands and I never saw him again.
Nearing packed up his things and moved to New York City, where he became a founding member of the People's Council of America for Democracy and Peace, a national pacifist organization established at the First American Conference for Peace and Democracy, held May 30–31, 1917. He assumed the chairmanship of that organization that fall. On July 1, 1917, Nearing joined the Socialist Party and began a new job, working for the next six years as a lecturer in economics and sociology at the Socialist Party's Rand School of Social Science.
Nearing was a prolific public speaker during this time, estimating that he had given approximately 200 speeches a year during the war years. Nearing also authored a series of pamphlets, published by the Rand School, one of which, The Great Madness: A Victory for the American Plutocracy, resulted in his indictment under the Espionage Act for alleged "obstruction to the recruiting and enlistment service of the United States." This indictment came down in April 1918, but it was not until February 1919—that is, several months after the war in Europe had actually ended—that the trial against Nearing and the Rand School actually commenced.
The prosecution attempted to show that Nearing, by writing against militarism, had illegally interfered with the ability of the United States government to recruit and conscript troops for its military activities in Europe. It spent its effort making Nearing admit that he had written and spoken against militarism and the war in Europe—which he was quite willing to do. But at the end of the trial, Nearing addressed the jury and made a key point:
The prosecution has not been able to show a single instance in which recruiting was obstructed. They have not been able to show a single instance in which insubordination, disloyalty, and refusal to duty was caused.
Nearing wrote: The only way to have intelligent public opinion is to have discussion, and the moment you check discussion you destroy democracy. ...
The Constitution does not guarantee us only the right to be correct, we have a right to be honest and in error. And the views that I have expressed in this pamphlet I expressed honestly. I believe they were right. The future will show whether or not I was correct, but under the laws, as I understand it, and under the Constitution, as I understand it, every citizen in this country has the right to express himself ... on public questions.
The judge in the case, Julius M. Mayer, dismissed the first two counts of the indictment, alleging conspiracy, without sending them to the jury. Following deliberation, the jury found Nearing not guilty but the American Socialist Society guilty on the third and fourth counts of the indictment. On March 21, 1919, sentence was passed and the American Socialist Society was fined $3,000 (short of the maximum fine of $10,000), a sum ultimately collected through small donations from Socialists, labor groups, and civil libertarians in New York City.
From Socialism to Communism
The Socialist Party of America split in the summer of 1919, with a factionalized Communist movement leaving to forge an underground existence in the years after the Palmer Raids. A significant organized "left wing" inspired by the Communist International remained in the party through 1921. Nearing seems not to have participated in the factional politics of these years, but his sympathies may well have rested with the former Socialists now building the various communist parties. As an employee of the Socialist Party-affiliated Rand School of Social Science, Nearing remained in the Socialist Party until the end of 1923.
The dramatic decline of the size and strength of the Socialist Party in the first years of the 1920s took a toll on Nearing. The plummeting membership of the SPA—down below the 13,500 member mark for 1921—stood in marked contrast to the new and rapidly growing "Legal Political Party" of the Communists, the Workers Party of America (WPA), which surpassed the Socialist Party in size in 1922 after only a few months of existence. Nearing searched his soul in a January 1923 lecture at the Rand School, later published in the Socialist press, posing the question "What Can the Radical Do?" Nearing argued that the function of the radical was not administrative, but that of external critic:
The Communist radical of today will be the administrator of tomorrow, and the Communist Society will need the radical as badly as the capitalist society needs him now. It will then be the business of the radical, as it is now, not to take an appointment as justice of the Supreme Court, not to perform any particular function as a part of the established order, but to stand apart and speak his mind about the established order. ... A radical who wishes to continue being a radical cannot do so if he is an essential part of the existing order, for then he owes a certain fealty to his position. I have seen Socialists elected to office; they become, not critical functionaries, but administrators, and one cannot be both at the same time.
It was the radical's additional function to get in touch with like-minded people in unions, cooperatives, and the sphere of political propaganda, Nearing added. It was the Communist Party's Trade Union Educational League that was currently "the liveliest thing in the trade unionism of the Middle West," attempting at "boring from within" to radicalize the American Federation of Labor. Outside the AF of L, on the "radical left" was the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), attempting to found revolutionary industrial unions. In contrast, cooperators were, by the nature of their task, localized and conservative, in Nearing's view. Publishing was in disarray, with Charles H. Kerr & Co. disorganized by wartime repression and the economics of publishing such that the production of inexpensive books was nearly impossible. Nearing produced concrete figures to show that since 1912, membership in the Socialist Party had "steadily declined" and drew an explosive conclusion from this:
That means, if it means anything, that in the United States as it is at present organized, the radical political movements are short-lived. And if that is true, then the Socialist Party has had its day. Through the Middle West recently I found the Socialist Party almost extinct. Since 1920 it has had first the Communist Party and then the Workers Party as rivals. ...
The Workers Party has fallen heir to the present radical political situation in the United States. Is it built to represent the American worker? So far the radical movement has represented the European worker in the United States. The opportunities for a radical political party are as great as, or greater than, ever before; the important problem before the Workers Party is to get radical ideas before the workers. Its second and more serious problem is to establish proper relations with Moscow. Moscow is strong; the Workers Party is weak; Moscow can dominate without any trouble.
Despite these misgivings, the potential of the growing organization appealed to Nearing over the malaise of the fading organization. He finally applied for membership in the WPA in December 1924 but was initially rejected, living for the next two years as a non-party fellow traveler of the organization. He finally gained admission to the Workers (Communist) Party in 1927 and went to work on the staff of its daily newspaper, The Daily Worker, on May 9, 1928, remaining there until resigning in January 1930 to publish a study on imperialism that failed to pass the organization's ideological scrutiny. According to at least one historian, Nearing was formally expelled from the CPUSA in 1930 in connection with this decision.
In 1925, Nearing spent two months in the Soviet Union visiting schools and talking with educational authorities. "It was a fascinating experience to visit this important educational laboratory in its opening experimental stages," he later recalled, noting that theories were then being actively tested with regard to subject matter, method of instruction, and social organization of students and teachers alike. The result of this visit was Education in Soviet Russia, one of the first serious studies of the nascent Soviet educational system.
In 1925 or 1926, Nearing taught a class on the law of social revolution. According to Whittaker Chambers, "an infiltration of Communists ... really ran the class, steered the discussions," and tried to "make the law of social revolution a Marxian law." Members included Dale Zysman, Sam Krieger, Eve Dorf, and her husband Ben Davidson, as well as Alfred J. Brooks, Myra Page, Benjamin Mandel, and Rachel Ragozin. It also included Carrie Katz, first wife of Sidney Hook, and Nerma Berman, wife of Isaiah Oggins. The result of this effort was The Law of Social Revolution. A Co-Operative Study By the Labor Research Study Group (New York: Social Science Publishers, 1926).
In 1927, Nearing made his first trip to Asia, traveling to China by ship for a three-month stay. En route, the Kuomintang Party split, with forces loyal to Chiang Kai-shek attacking and summarily executing their former Communist allies. As Nearing later recalled:
Leftists were liquidated on sight. The procedure was summary. When one was captured by Chiang's forces, his arms were held by two Chiang soldiers while a third, with a sword, hacked off his head. The remains were left lying as a warning to other Leftists to follow Chiang or perish. I saw some heads mounted on poles.
While there, Nearing rather boldly gave a speech at Yenching University on his book The American Empire, in a room darkened so that audience members could not be later identified and denounced. Upon his return to the United States, Nearing wrote Whither China?, a book on the Chinese situation.
Nearing remained a prominent figure of the American Left throughout the decade of the 1920s, producing a series of pamphlets on various radical political themes. He was also engaged professionally on the lecture circuit, making use of an agent to arrange speaking tours for about 20 years. These speaking tours continued into the early 1930s, by which time public interest in attending live speeches and debates on political themes had waned and ill health forced Nearing's agent into retirement.
Great Depression
Nearing and his first wife, Nellie Marguerite Seeds Nearing, were the parents of John Scott. They adopted a second son, Robert Nearing. John Scott wrote a participant's account of having worked in industry in the Soviet Union during the 1930s. His book, Behind the Urals, tells of the great effort being put into building an industrial complex out of reach of an invasion, indicating that Stalin foresaw the Second World War. When the purge trials started in the mid-thirties—also an indication of Stalin's preparation for war—Scott was advised to leave, and escaped with his Russian wife and little daughter via the trans-Siberian railroad.
He adopted a vegetarian diet when he was 35. In the 1930s and 1940s, Nearing and Helen Knothe, a lifelong vegetarian, lived together in Winhall in rural Vermont, where they had purchased a rather large forest tract for $2200 and a moderate-sized farm for $2500. Nearing and Knothe lived a largely ascetic and self-reliant life, growing much of their own food and putting up nine stone buildings over the course of two decades. Cash was earned from producing maple syrup and maple sugar from the trees on their land and from Scott Nearing's occasional paid lectures.
However, in her book "Meanwhile, Next Door to the Good Life", Jean Hay Bright documents that the Nearings were both heavily subsidized by substantial inheritances which supported their forest farm. In 1934, around the time they purchased the Vermont property, Helen inherited between $30,000–$40,000 from former suitor J. J. van der Leeuw (). Scott received an inheritance from his father that was said to be "at least a million dollars" in 1940 according to Nearing's son Robert. Hay Bright's calculations make clear that while very hard working homesteaders, the Nearings never came close to supporting themselves on their "cash crops" as they state.
Nearing wrote and self-published many pamphlets on topics such as low income, peace throughout the world, feminism, and different environmental causes.
Second World War
A consistent pacifist, Nearing opposed American participation in World War II throughout the conflict. In 1943 he was fired by the Federated Press for his anti-war position, which Managing Editor Carl Haessler criticized as "childish." Nearing was particularly shocked by the nuclear bombing of Japan, writing to President Harry S. Truman on August 6, 1945, the day the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, that "your government is no longer mine."
Cold War era
In 1952, the Nearings decided that their dream of a communal existence in Vermont would not come to fruition, so they moved to Brooksville, Maine. With the development of a ski area at nearby Stratton Mountain, the Nearings' 750 acre Vermont farm had increased in value from $2.75 an acre to $8,000, meaning the land they had purchased for about $2,000 was worth at least $6 million. Deciding they had done nothing to justify the increase, before moving to Maine the Nearings donated the land to the town of Stratton for use as a municipal forest.
In 1954 he co-authored Living the Good Life: How to Live Simply and Sanely in a Troubled World with his second wife, Helen Nearing. The book, in which war, famine, and poverty were discussed, described a nineteen-year "back to the land experiment," and also advocated modern-day "homesteading" and vegan organic gardening.
In the winter of 1956–57, the couple toured Canada, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, generating a book about their experiences called Socialists Around the World. The following winter, with their passports issued in 1956 nearing expiration, they embarked upon a trip through the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The pair visited Leningrad, Moscow, Stalingrad, Baku, Taskent, and Irkutsk, touring schools and universities, apartment buildings in the process of construction, factories, and collective farms in the course of their trip. In China they saw Peking (Beijing), Wuhan and Nanking. They returned to Brooksville to write a book on their experiences, The Brave New World. The two countries were characterized in the travelogue as "peaceful socialist giants":
The pro-peace attitude of the people of the Soviet Union and People's China is not based on fear of war but on confidence in their theory and way of life. One Soviet trade unionist put the matter to us in this way. "We are not afraid of war. We have been through it and survived its cruelties and horrors. We know that we can take it. Just because we have been through it and suffered from it, we know how terrible war is. It wastes materials, but worse than that, it squanders human idealism, energy, wealth and life. Still worse, those of us who are trying to build a socialist society are diverted and preoccupied by war. We know from bitter experience that if we are to engage in socialist construction we cannot fight wars. War is a full-time occupation."
After their travels to the USSR and China, New Century Publishers produced Nearing's pamphlets on Eastern Europe and Cuba in 1962 and 1963.
Vietnam era and thereafter
As the Vietnam War took center stage in the mid-1960s, and as a large back-to-the-land movement developed in the U.S., a renewed interest in Nearing's work and ideas occurred. Hundreds of anti-war believers flocked to Nearing's home in Maine to learn homesteading practical-living skills, some also to hear a master radical's anti-war message.
In 1968, Nearing signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War.
In 1973, the University of Pennsylvania formally reversed its dismissal of Nearing in 1915 by awarding him the title of Honorary Emeritus Professor of Economics. During this time, Nearing praised Albania and described its people as "rested, secure, hopeful, cheerful," adding that "they are building solidly and fundamentally for a better future."
Nearing appears in the film Reds (1981) as one of the many documentary "witnesses," telling stories about his friend John Reed and the heady days leading up to the Russian Revolution.
Vegetarianism
Nearing was a vice president of the International Vegetarian Union. He was a regular speaker at the conferences held by the International Vegetarian Union. He spoke at the events in the 1950-1960s, in 1973 in Sweden, and in 1975 in Orono, Maine.
At the 13th IVU World Vegetarian Congress 1953 in Sigtuna, Sweden his speech was growing "Food without Animal Residues."
In 2016, Portland Press Herald columnist Avery Yale Kamila reported: "In the 1977 documentary film “Living the Good Life,” Scott Nearing stands in the couple’s huge Maine garden and addresses a group of people interested in homesteading. He explains they use absolutely no “animal residues,” such as manure or bonemeal, in their gardens. “As vegetarians, we are against the slaughter business,” he tells the crowd, “and we don’t want to participate in it.”"
Foreign policy analyst
In addition to working variously as a teacher, paid public speaker, and author, Nearing wrote commentary on foreign affairs throughout his life. As an octogenarian summing up his life, Nearing recalled:
I have spent 70 years of study and travel in order to equip myself with information that would enable me to speak and write with authority on the course of world affairs. The authority I have sought is not in any sense political. It is the authority that results from collecting and classifying information on a scientific level and interpreting facts as I have found them. Since I do not speak with political authority I have no means of communicating my conclusions except by putting them in print myself and distributing them in the most advantageous way that is available to a private citizen.
Through the years, his writings on foreign affairs were distributed via several different channels. In 1921 Nearing was, along with his colleague Louis Lochner, a co-founder of a forerunner of the Federated Press, a news service that sent out domestic and international news releases and picture mats five days a week to the labor and radical press in America. Nearing remained a regular contributor to the Federated Press (controlled by the Communist Party for most of its existence) until 1943, when he was fired for his antiwar position, which Federated Press editor Carl Haessler characterized as "childish." Nearing then began to contribute to an obscure monthly newsletter from Florida, World Events.
Shortly after its founding in 1949, Nearing began contributing a "World Events" column to the independent theoretical Monthly Review, established by dissident Marxist economists Paul Sweezy and Leo Huberman. Nearing tellingly characterized the objective of this publication as "the dissemination of a true understanding of society and the reporting of dependable news of the movement toward a socialist society which is steadily spreading over the face of the globe." Through the decades, Nearing wrote thousands of pages of news and commentary on these themes, retiring from this activity only in 1970, at the age of 87.
Death
Nearing died on August 24, 1983, eighteen days after his 100th birthday. His death was described by his wife as a conscious leaving of life brought about by fasting. In the month before his death, his wife fed him an all-liquid diet as per his wishes. These details were glossed over by Helen Nearing in "Loving and Leaving the Good Life".
In the years after Scott's death, many people wrote to Helen lamenting the fact that they had tried and failed to emulate Scott's clean and deliberate death, and it was felt that Helen hoped Ellen LaConte, author of On Light Alone: A Guru Meditation on the Good Death of Helen Nearing (1996), and of Free Radical: a Reconsideration of the Good Death of Scott Nearing (1997), would set the record straight after her death.
In the summer of 1991, the North American Vegetarian Society inducted Helen and Scott Nearing into the Vegetarian Hall of Fame.
Philosophical ideas
During his 1919 trial for allegedly obstructing American military recruitment during World War I, at which he testified in his own defense, the prosecution asked Nearing whether he was a "pacifist socialist." Nearing's reply was illuminating; he replied that he was a "pacifist" and left it at that. Prosecutor Earl B. Barnes was taken aback and asked for clarification:
Q: Are you a pacifist even to class struggles?
[Nearing]: I am a pacifist in that I believe that no man has a right to do violence to any other man.
Q: Even in the class struggle?
[Nearing]: Under no circumstances.
Half a century later, in his 1972 autobiography The Making of a Radical, Nearing described himself as a pacifist, a socialist, and a vegetarian, writing, "I became a vegetarian because I was persuaded that life is as valid for other creatures as it is for humans. I do not need dead animal bodies to keep me alive, strong and healthy. Therefore, I will not kill for food." Nearing listed his four most influential teachers as Henry George, Leo Tolstoy, Simon Nelson Patten, his grandfather, and his mother. Other influences he acknowledged in his memoirs included Socrates, Gautama Buddha, Lao Tzu, Mahatma Gandhi, Jesus, Confucius, Henry David Thoreau, Charles Otis Whitman, Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin, Victor Hugo, Edward Bellamy, Olive Schreiner, Richard Maurice Bucke, and Romain Rolland's Jean-Christophe.
Nearing's journey over a century was described by one biographer as follows:
Nearing's intellectual development followed a path of increasing awareness of the intransigence of the dominant classes of capitalist culture to adopt reforms that would spread the enlightenment and opportunities of the leisure classes to society as a whole. From the time of his firing from the University of Pennsylvania in 1915 through the aftermath of World War I, he experienced the limits of permissible questioning of conventional wisdom. His long, difficult journey from an orthodox reformer of the ruling class from within to a complete secessionist from capitalist cultural hegemony led him by 1932 to choose homesteading—an experiment Nearing called "living the good life."
In that spirit, Nearing moved through a series of secessions—from Christianity, from politics, and finally from American society itself. He voyaged to the wilderness as if on a pilgrimage to a sacred place. His experience, along with a deeper understanding of American culture, led to the inescapable consciousness that capitalist cultural dominance was too strong to eliminate and therefore too powerful to control or mold to liberal purposes. The secessions in his life were progressive repudiations of American canons of moral conduct as well as indications of Nearing's perception of the fragmented, segmented, discontinuous nature of American society. Only in the isolated private sphere provided by homesteading could a radical resistance and constructive challenge to capitalist culture be nurtured.
In his devotion to conscientious self-reliance, Nearing emerged as a twentieth-century colleague of Emerson and Thoreau.
This view, that Nearing chose to "drop out" of politics and society itself and live life as a rugged agrarian individualist at one with nature, is a common interpretation—and certainly one with some merit. Another possible reading of Nearing's motivations and decision-making lies in his own writing. Nearing repeatedly drew inspiration from the life story of Count Leo Tolstoi, whose life Nearing clearly saw as analogous to his own:
Count Leo Tolstoi is a classic example of an individual in potential and actual conflict with his group. He was talented and had immense vitality. Until young manhood he accepted his place in the Tsarist social pattern and generally conformed to it. After some drastic experiences and much soul searching, Leo Tolstoi challenged the social system under which he lived to mortal combat. From that point until the day he left home and died in a railway station in his final attempt to win out against group pressures, his life consisted of combats with members of his family, with members of the neighboring nobility, with the army, with the Tsarist autocracy and with the established church.
The tension between the dissident individual and the group was an unenviable one, Nearing believed. In the conflict between the solitary individual and the community, Nearing identified only three possible outcomes:
(1) The individual may win out and impose himself and his ideas upon the group. The normal consequence of such an outcome is a personal dictatorship or the imposition upon the community of an oligarchy in which the dissident individual or individuals play a prominent role. (2) The division of the community into factions, one of which upholds the dissident individual, with a stalemate leading to feuding, rebellion, civil war. (3) The group wins out, imposes its will and eliminates the non-conformist. Such conflict sequences have occurred repeatedly in contemporary and in earlier history.
Nearing's chosen lifestyle of "Tolstoian," ascetic, rural self-sufficiency may be reasonably interpreted as the attempt of a self-aware dissident individual to avoid inevitably negative participation in the internal life of the group (be it a government or a political party), while retaining a keen and almost obsessive interest in the dynamics of society and the world as a whole.
In his poem America, the Beat Generation poet Allen Ginsberg called Nearing a "grand old man, a real mensch".
References
Chronological list of books and pamphlets by Scott Nearing
Titles published through 1915
Economics. (with Frank D. Watson) New York: Macmillan, 1908.
Social Religion: A Discussion of the Place of Social Welfare in a Religious Program. Philadelphia: Friends Conference, 1910.
Social Adjustment. New York: Macmillan, 1911.
The Solution of the Child Labor Problem. New York: Moffatt, Yard & Co., 1911.
Elements of Economics, with Special Reference to American Conditions: For the Use of High Schools. (with Henry Reed Burch) New York: Macmillan, 1912.
The Super Race: An American Problem. New York: B.W. Huebsch, 1912.
Woman and Social Progress: A Discussion of the Biologic, Domestic, Industrial and Social Possibilities of American Women. (with Nellie M. S. Nearing) New York: Macmillan, 1912.
Financing the Wage Earner's Family: A Survey of the Facts Bearing on Income and Expenditures in the Families of American Wage-Earners. New York: B.W. Huebsch, 1913.
Social Sanity: A Preface to the Book of Social Progress. New York: Moffat, Yard & Co., 1913.
Reducing the Cost of Living. Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs, 1914.
Wages in the United States, 1908–1910: A survey of the Facts Bearing on Income and Expenditures in the Families of American Wage-Earners. New York: Macmillan, 1914.
Anthracite: An Instance of a Natural Resources Monopoly. Philadelphia: John C. Winston Co., 1915.
Income: An Examination of the Returns for Services Rendered and from Property Owned in the United States. New York: Macmillan, 1915.
The New Education: A Review of Progressive Educational Movements of the Day. Chicago: Row, Peterson & Co., 1915.
Women in American Industry. Philadelphia: American Baptist Publication Society, 1915.
Titles published during Nearing's Socialist Party period (1916–1923)
Community Civics. (with Jessie Field) New York: Macmillan, 1916.
The Germs of War: A Study in Preparedness. St. Louis: National Rip-Saw Publishing Co., 1916.
Poverty and Riches: A Study of the Industrial Regime. Philadelphia: John C. Winston Co., 1916.
Should Socialism Prevail? A Debate Held October 21, 1915, Brooklyn, New York, Under the Auspices of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, Subject: – Resolved, That Socialism Ought to Prevail in the United States. Affirmative: Professor Scott Nearing, Mr. Morris Hillquit; Negative: Rev. Dr. John L. Belford, Professor Frederick M. Davenport; J. Herbert Lowe, Chairman. New York: The Rand School of Social Science, 1916.
Social Religion: An Interpretation of Christianity in Terms of Modern Life. New York: Macmillan, 1916.
The Great Madness: A Victory for the American Plutocracy. New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1917.
The Menace of Militarism: An Analysis, a Criticism, a Protest and a Demand. New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1917.
An Open Letter to Profiteers: An Arraignment of Big Business in Its Relation to the World War. New York: People's Council of America, 1917.
Will Democracy Cure the Social Ills of the World?: Debate. (with Clarence Darrow) Chicago: John F. Higgins, 1917.
Work and Pay. New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1917.
Scott Nearing's Address to the Jury. New York: Rand School of Social Science, n.d. [1918].
The Coal Question: Some Reasons Why It is Pressing and Some Suggestions for Solving It. New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1918.
The Debs Decision. New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1919.
Before the Court: Nearing — Debs: 1. Nearing's Summing-Up Speech; 2. Debs' Statement to the Court. (with Eugene V. Debs) New York: People's Print, n.d. [1919].
Violence or Solidarity? or, Will Guns Settle It? New York: People's Printer, n.d. [1919].
Labor and the League of Nations: With the Full Text of the Revised Covenant of the League of Nations. New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1919.
The Trial of Scott Nearing and the American Socialist Society: United States District Court for the Southern District of New York City City, February 5 to 19, 1919. (Introduction by Morris Hillquit.) New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1919.
The Human Element in Economics: Twelve Lessons. New York: Rand School of Social Science, Correspondence Dept., n.d. [1919].
Europe and the Next World War. New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1920.
Europe in Revolution: A Letter from Scott Nearing. New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1920.
A Nation Divided, or, Plutocracy versus Democracy. Chicago: Socialist Party of the United States, 1920.
The New Slavery. Chicago: Socialist Party of the United States, 1920.
The One Big Union of Business. New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1920.
Would the Practice of Christ's Teaching Make for Social Progress? Debate Between Scott Nearing and Percy Ward. Girard, KS: Appeal to Reason, 1920.
The American Empire. New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1921.
Rationalism versus Socialism. Debate Between Scott Nearing and Percy Ward. Chicago: Kimball Hall, 1921.
A Public Debate: Capitalism vs. Socialism. (with Edwin R.A. Seligman) New York: The Fine Arts Guild, 1921. – reissued in 1924 as a Haldeman-Julius "Little Blue Book"
Can the Church Be Radical? Debate Held at the Lexington Theatre, Sunday Afternoon, February 12, 1922: Affirmative, John Haynes Holmes, Minister of the Community Church; Negative, Scott Nearing, Lecturer in the Rand School. (with John Haynes Holmes) New York: Hanford Press, 1922.
The Next Step: A Plan for Economic World Federation. Ridgewood, NJ: Nellie Seeds Nearing, 1922.
Irrepressible America. New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1922.
Oil and the Germs of War. Ridgewood, NJ: Nellie Seeds Nearing, 1923.
Titles published during Nearing's Communist period (1924–1929)
Bolshevism and the West. Debate Between Scott Nearing and Bertrand Russell. New York: The League for Public Discussion, 1924.
Soviet Form of Government: Its Application to Western Civilization. Girard, KS: Haldeman-Julius Co., 1924.
Dollar Diplomacy : a Study in American Imperialism. (with Joseph Freeman) New York: B.W. Huebsch, 1925.
Educational Frontiers: A book about Simon Nelson Patten and Other Teachers. New York: Thomas Seltzer, 1925.
Has Propaganda Any Value in Education? Debate Between Scott Nearing and Alexis Fern. New York: Rand School of Social Science, 1925.
Education in Soviet Russia. New York: International Publishers, 1926.
Glimpses of the Soviet Republic. New York: Social Science Publishers, 1926.
Russia Turns East. New York: Social Science Publishers, 1926.
British Labor Bids for Power: The Historic Scarboro Conference of the Trades Union Congress. New York: Social Science Publishers, 1926.
Stopping a War: the Fight of the French Workers Against the Moroccan Campaign of 1925. New York: Social Science Publishers, 1926.
The Law of Social Revolution. A Co-Operative Study By the Labor Research Study Group. New York: Social Science Publishers, 1926.
World Labor Unity. New York: Social Science Publishers, 1926.
The British General Strike: An Economic Interpretation of its Background and its Significance. New York: Vanguard Press, 1927.
The Economic Organization of the Soviet Union. (with Jack Hardy) New York: Vanguard Press, 1927.
Where is Civilization Going? New York: Vanguard Press, 1927.
The Future of Capitalism and Socialism in America. (with Sam Adolph Lewisohn, Malcolm Churchill Rorty, and Morris Hillquit.) New York: League for Industrial Democracy, 1927.
Whither China? An Economic Interpretation of Recent Events in the Far East. New York: International Publishers, 1927.
Black America. New York: Vanguard Press, 1929.
Independent radicalism from the Depression through World War II (1930–1945)
The Twighlight of Empire: An Economic Interpretation of Imperialist Cycles. New York: Vanguard Press, 1930.
Why Hard Times?: A Study of the Economic and Social Forces That Are Sweeping Away Capitalist Imperialism. New York: Urquhart Press, n.d. [1931].
The Decisive Year, 1931: Capitalism, Imperialism, Sovietism Before the Bar of History. New York: Rand School of Social Science, n.d. [1931].
A Warless World: Is a Warless World Possible? New York: Vanguard Press, 1931.
War: Organized Destruction and Mass Murder by Civilized Nations. New York: Vanguard Press, 1931.
The One Way Out. New York: Vanguard Press, 1932.
Must We Starve? New York: Vanguard Press, 1932.
Which Offers More for the Future? Communism: Scott Nearing; Socialism: Norman Thomas; Capitalism: Don D. Lescohier. Chicago: Popular Interest Series Publishing Co., 1932.
Fascism. n.c. [Ridgewood, NJ]: Scott Nearing, n.d. [1933].
Europe – West and East. Ridgewood, NJ: Scott Nearing, n.d. [1934].
An ABC of Communism. Ridgewood, NJ: Scott Nearing, n.d. [1935].
The European Civil War: The First Twenty Years, 1917–1936. Baltimore: Christian Social Justice Fund, 1936.
The Rise and Decline of Christian Civilization. Ridgewood, NJ: Scott Nearing, n.d. [1940].
United World. Mays Landing, NJ: Open Road Press, 1944.
Democracy is Not Enough. New York: Island Press, 1945.
The Soviet Union as a World Power. New York: Island Press, 1945.
The Tragedy of Empire. New York: Island Press, 1945.
Independent radicalism after World War II (1946–1979)
The Revolution of Our Time. New York: Island Press, 1947.
The Illusion of Free Enterprise. Boston: Boston Community Church, 1948.
Why I Believe in Socialism. Washington, D. C.: World Events Committee, 1949.
The Maple Sugar Book: being a plain practical account of the Art of Sugaring designed to promote an acquaintance with the Ancient as well as the Modern practise, together with remarks on Pioneering as a way of living in the twentieth century. (with Helen Nearing) New York: John Day Co., 1950.
Cooperation and Peace or Competition and War. East Palatka, FL: World Events Committee, 1951.
Economics for the Power Age. East Palatka, FL: World Events Committee, 1952.
Man's Search for the Good Life. Harborside, ME: Social Science Institute, 1954.
To Promote The General Welfare. Harborside, ME: Social Science Institute, 1954.
USA Today: Reporting Extensive Journeys and First-Hand Observations, Commenting on Their Meaning and Offering Conclusions Regarding Present-Day Trends in the Domestic and International Affairs of the United States. (with Helen Nearing) Harborside, ME: Social Science Institute, 1955.
Our Right to Travel. (with Helen Nearing) Harborside, ME: Social Science Institute, 1956.
Socialists Around the World. (with Helen Nearing) New York: Monthly Review Press, 1958.
The Brave New World. (with Helen Nearing) Harborside, ME: Social Science Institute, 1958.
Soviet Education: What Does It Offer America? An Illustrated Eyewitness Report. Harborside, ME: Social Science Institute, n.d. [1958].
Freedom: Promise and Menace: A Critique on the Cult of Freedom. Harborside, ME: Social Science Institute, 1961.
Socialism in Practice: Transformation of East Europe. New York: New Century Publishers, 1962.
Cuba and Latin America: Eyewitness Report on the Continental Congress for Solidarity with Cuba. New York: New Century Publishers, 1963.
The Conscience of a Radical. Harborside, ME: Social Science Institute, 1965.
Living the Good Life: How to Live Sanely and Simply in a Troubled World. New York: Schocken Books, 1970.
The Making of a Radical: A Political Autobiography. New York: Harper and Row, 1972.
Civilization and Beyond: Learning From History. Harborside, ME: Social Science Institute, 1975.
Building and Using Our Sun-Heated Greenhouse: Grow Vegetables All Year Round. (with Helen Nearing) Charlotte, VT: Garden Way Publishing, 1978.
Continuing the Good Life: Half a Century of Homesteading. New York: Schocken Books, 1979.
Further reading
Saltmarsh, John A., Scott Nearing: An Intellectual Biography. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991.
Whitfield, Stephen J., Scott Nearing: Apostle of American Radicalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1974.
External links
The Scott & Helen Nearing Papers at the Thoreau Institute at Walden Woods
The Good Life Center – Non-profit group responsible for perpetuating the philosophy promoted by Helen and Scott Nearing.
Scott Nearing materials on the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)
1883 births
1983 suicides
People from Tioga County, Pennsylvania
Members of the Socialist Party of America
Members of the Communist Party USA
Industrial Workers of the World members
American activists
American centenarians
American pacifists
American tax resisters
Simple living advocates
Marxian economists
Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania alumni
Writers from Maine
People acquitted under the Espionage Act of 1917
American male writers
People from Brooksville, Maine
Suicides by starvation
Activists from Maine
University of Pennsylvania Law School alumni
Men centenarians
Tolstoyans
Vegetarianism activists
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207962
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Colorado%20%28ACR-7%29
|
USS Colorado (ACR-7)
|
The second USS Colorado (ACR-7/CA-7), also referred to as "Armored Cruiser No. 7", and later renamed Pueblo, was a United States Navy armored cruiser. She was the second US Navy ship named Colorado, and the first to be named after the state of Colorado. The first, , was named for the Colorado River.
Construction
Colorado was laid down on 25 April 1901, by William Cramp & Sons, Philadelphia, and launched two years later on 25 April 1903. She was sponsored by Miss C. M. Peabody, the daughter of the Governor of Colorado, James H. Peabody; and commissioned on 19 January 1905, with Captain Duncan Kennedy, in command.
Service history
Pre-World War I
Colorado sailed on her shakedown cruise down the east coast to Target Bay, Culebra Island, Puerto Rico, to train in Caribbean waters, reaching Culebra, on 24 March 1905. Following the shakedown, she joined Division Four, Cruiser Squadron, Atlantic Fleet, at Provincetown, Massachusetts, on 14 May. Colorado took part in the preliminary test of , a steel floating dry dock near Solomons Island, Maryland, from 23 to 24 June 1905.
Colorado participated in a fleet problem in the Caribbean, from 10 January–17 April 1906. Captain Kennedy died while the armored cruiser maneuvered at sea. He was buried ashore at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, and Lieutenant Commander Joseph L. Jayne, assumed command of the ship on 12 April 1906.
President Roosevelt held a Presidential Naval Review of a number of ships including Colorado, , , , and transport at Oyster Bay, New York, from 2–4 September 1906. Colorado then sailed for duty on the Asiatic Station, on 7 September 1906. After cruising to Japan and China to represent American interests in the Far East, she returned to San Francisco, on 27 September 1907, for exercises along the Californian and Mexican coasts, in the Hawaiian Islands, and off Central and South America.
The running aground of Colorado on 15 August 1908, lead to the upgrading and improvements of lighthouses in Puget Sound. On 26 August 1909, one of her launches had a minor collision with the ferry City of Seattle, between West Seattle and Seattle, with minor damage. She served again in the Far East, from September 1909 – February 1910.
Ceremonial visits and receptions for dignitaries highlighted the next two years, and from November 1911 – July 1912, Colorado returned to the Far East for duty. Between August and November, she sailed to land and support expeditionary troops at Corinto, Nicaragua, then patrolled Mexican waters until placed in reduced commission at Puget Sound Navy Yard on 17 May 1913.
Once more in full commission on 9 February 1915, she sailed as the flagship of the Pacific Reserve Fleet, patrolling in Mexican waters and observing and keeping in touch with interned merchant ships during the revolution. She returned to reserve status on 26 September 1915.
World War I
She was renamed Pueblo, in order to free up her original name for use with the , on 9 November 1916, while in overhaul.
Submarine ran aground in Humboldt Bay, California, on 14 December 1916. sailed for Eureka, to assist in salvaging the boat on 5 January 1917. While she attempted to float the submarine on 13 January, the cruiser stranded in the first line of breakers at Samoa Beach, off Eureka. Her crewmen reached shore safely. Pueblo made for the area and stood by Milwaukee on 24 January, but attempts to salvage the stricken cruiser proved unsuccessful. Milwaukee was decommissioned on 6 March 1917, and a storm in November 1918, broke the ship in two.
She returned to full commission upon the entry of the United States into World War I, and as flagship of the Scouting Force patrolled the South Atlantic, protecting shipping, paying diplomatic calls to South American ports, and preventing the sailing of German and Austrian ships interned at Bahia, Brazil.
Pueblo returned to Norfolk, Virginia on 18 January 1918, and from 5 February – 16 October, made seven voyages to escort convoys carrying men and supplies to England. After carrying the Brazilian ambassador to the United States to Rio de Janeiro, she returned to transatlantic duty, making six voyages between Hoboken and Brest, France, to bring home veterans of the American Expeditionary Force.
Post war
Pueblo arrived at Philadelphia, on 8 August 1919, and was placed in reduced commission until decommissioned on 22 September. She was redesignated CA-7 in 1920. In commission for the last time from 2 April 1921 – 28 September 1927, she served as receiving ship in the 3rd Naval District. She was scrapped on 2 October 1930.
In popular culture
A plaque commemorating the crew of USS Colorado was shown briefly in season 13, episode 1 of American Pickers.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
{{cite book| last= Friedman |first= Norman |authorlink=Norman Friedman |title = U.S. Cruisers: An Illustrated Design History |location= Annapolis, Maryland |publisher= Naval Institute Press |year= 1984 | isbn=0-87021-718-6}}Letters from Oregon Boys in France'' has a letter from radioman Robert Sturdevant on the ship's trip from the W. Coast of the United States through the Panama Canal to Rio de Janeiro in 1917.
External links
Pennsylvania-class cruisers
Ships built by William Cramp & Sons
1903 ships
Banana Wars ships of the United States
World War I cruisers of the United States
United States Navy Colorado-related ships
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparcos
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Hipparcos
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Hipparcos was a scientific satellite of the European Space Agency (ESA), launched in 1989 and operated until 1993. It was the first space experiment devoted to precision astrometry, the accurate measurement of the positions of celestial objects on the sky. This permitted the first high-precision measurements of the intrinsic brightnesses (compared to the less precise apparent brightness), proper motions, and parallaxes of stars, enabling better calculations of their distance and tangential velocity. When combined with radial velocity measurements from spectroscopy, astrophysicists were able to finally measure all six quantities needed to determine the motion of stars. The resulting Hipparcos Catalogue, a high-precision catalogue of more than 118,200 stars, was published in 1997. The lower-precision Tycho Catalogue of more than a million stars was published at the same time, while the enhanced Tycho-2 Catalogue of 2.5 million stars was published in 2000. Hipparcos follow-up mission, Gaia, was launched in 2013.
The word "Hipparcos" is an acronym for HIgh Precision PARallax COllecting Satellite and also a reference to the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea, who is noted for applications of trigonometry to astronomy and his discovery of the precession of the equinoxes.
Background
By the second half of the 20th century, the accurate measurement of star positions from the ground was running into essentially insurmountable barriers to improvements in accuracy, especially for large-angle measurements and systematic terms. Problems were dominated by the effects of the Earth's atmosphere, but were compounded by complex optical terms, thermal and gravitational instrument flexures, and the absence of all-sky visibility. A formal proposal to make these exacting observations from space was first put forward in 1967.
Although originally proposed to the French space agency CNES, it was considered too complex and expensive for a single national programme. Its acceptance within the European Space Agency's scientific programme, in 1980, was the result of a lengthy process of study and lobbying. The underlying scientific motivation was to determine the physical properties of the stars through the measurement of their distances and space motions, and thus to place theoretical studies of stellar structure and evolution, and studies of galactic structure and kinematics, on a more secure empirical basis. Observationally, the objective was to provide the positions, parallaxes, and annual proper motions for some 100,000 stars with an unprecedented accuracy of 0.002 arcseconds, a target in practice eventually surpassed by a factor of two. The name of the space telescope, "Hipparcos", was an acronym for High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite, and it also reflected the name of the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus, who is considered the founder of trigonometry and the discoverer of the precession of the equinoxes (due to the Earth wobbling on its axis).
Satellite and payload
The spacecraft carried a single all-reflective, eccentric Schmidt telescope, with an aperture of . A special beam-combining mirror superimposed two fields of view, 58° apart, into the common focal plane. This complex mirror consisted of two mirrors tilted in opposite directions, each occupying half of the rectangular entrance pupil, and providing an unvignetted field of view of about 1° × 1°. The telescope used a system of grids, at the focal surface, composed of 2688 alternate opaque and transparent bands, with a period of 1.208 arc-sec (8.2 micrometre). Behind this grid system, an image dissector tube (photomultiplier type detector) with a sensitive field of view of about 38-arc-sec diameter converted the modulated light into a sequence of photon counts (with a sampling frequency of 1200 Hz) from which the phase of the entire pulse train from a star could be derived. The apparent angle between two stars in the combined fields of view, modulo the grid period, was obtained from the phase difference of the two star pulse trains. Originally targeting the observation of some 100,000 stars, with an astrometric accuracy of about 0.002 arc-sec, the final Hipparcos Catalogue comprised nearly 120,000 stars with a median accuracy of slightly better than 0.001 arc-sec (1 milliarc-sec).
An additional photomultiplier system viewed a beam splitter in the optical path and was used as a star mapper. Its purpose was to monitor and determine the satellite attitude, and in the process, to gather photometric and astrometric data of all stars down to about 11th magnitude. These measurements were made in two broad bands approximately corresponding to B and V in the (Johnson) UBV photometric system. The positions of these latter stars were to be determined to a precision of 0.03 arc-sec, which is a factor of 25 less than the main mission stars. Originally targeting the observation of around 400,000 stars, the resulting Tycho Catalogue comprised just over 1 million stars, with a subsequent analysis extending this to the Tycho-2 Catalogue of about 2.5 million stars.
The attitude of the spacecraft about its center of gravity was controlled to scan the celestial sphere in a regular precessional motion maintaining a constant inclination between the spin axis and the direction to the Sun. The spacecraft spun around its Z-axis at the rate of 11.25 revolutions/day (168.75 arc-sec/s) at an angle of 43° to the Sun. The Z-axis rotated about the Sun-satellite line at 6.4 revolutions/year.
The spacecraft consisted of two platforms and six vertical panels, all made of aluminum honeycomb. The solar array consisted of three deployable sections, generating around 300 W in total. Two S-band antennas were located on the top and bottom of the spacecraft, providing an omni-directional downlink data rate of 24 kbit/s. An attitude and orbit-control subsystem (comprising 5-newton hydrazine thrusters for course manoeuvres, 20-millinewton cold gas thrusters for attitude control, and gyroscopes for attitude determination) ensured correct dynamic attitude control and determination during the operational lifetime.
Principles
Some key features of the observations were as follows:
through observations from space, the effects of astronomical seeing due to the atmosphere, instrumental gravitational flexure and thermal distortions could be obviated or minimised;
all-sky visibility permitted a direct linking of the stars observed all over the celestial sphere;
the two viewing directions of the satellite, separated by a large and suitable angle (58°), resulted in a rigid connection between quasi-instantaneous one-dimensional observations in different parts of the sky. In turn, this led to parallax determinations which are absolute (rather than relative, with respect to some unknown zero-point);
the continuous ecliptic-based scanning of the satellite resulted in an optimum use of the available observing time, with a resulting catalogue providing reasonably homogeneous sky density and uniform astrometric accuracy over the entire celestial sphere;
the various geometrical scan configurations for each star, at multiple epochs throughout the 3-year observation programme, resulted in a dense network of one-dimensional positions from which the barycentric coordinate direction, the parallax, and the object's proper motion, could be solved for in what was effectively a global least squares reduction of the totality of observations. The astrometric parameters as well as their standard errors and correlation coefficients were derived in the process;
since the number of independent geometrical observations per object was large (typically of order 30) compared with the number of unknowns for the standard model (five astrometric unknowns per star), astrometric solutions not complying with this simple five-parameter model could be expanded to take into account the effects of double or multiple stars, or non-linear photocentric motions ascribed to unresolved astrometric binaries;
a somewhat larger number of actual observations per object, of order 110, provided accurate and homogeneous photometric information for each star, from which mean magnitudes, variability amplitudes, and in many cases period and variability type classification could be undertaken.
Development, launch and operations
The Hipparcos satellite was financed and managed under the overall authority of the European Space Agency (ESA). The main industrial contractors were Matra Marconi Space (now EADS Astrium) and Alenia Spazio (now Thales Alenia Space).
Other hardware components were supplied as follows: the beam-combining mirror from REOSC at Saint-Pierre-du-Perray, France; the spherical, folding and relay mirrors from Carl Zeiss AG in Oberkochen, Germany; the external straylight baffles from CASA in Madrid, Spain; the modulating grid from CSEM in Neuchâtel, Switzerland; the mechanism control system and the thermal control electronics from Dornier Satellite Systems in Friedrichshafen, Germany; the optical filters, the experiment structures and the attitude and orbit control system from Matra Marconi Space in Vélizy, France; the instrument switching mechanisms from Oerlikon-Contraves in Zurich, Switzerland; the image dissector tube and photomultiplier detectors assembled by the Dutch Space Research Organisation (SRON) in the Netherlands; the refocusing assembly mechanism designed by TNO-TPD in Delft, Netherlands; the electrical power subsystem from British Aerospace in Bristol, United Kingdom; the structure and reaction control system from Daimler-Benz Aerospace in Bremen, Germany; the solar arrays and thermal control system from Fokker Space System in Leiden, Netherlands; the data handling and telecommunications system from Saab Ericsson Space in Gothenburg, Sweden; and the apogee boost motor from SEP in France. Groups from the Institut d'Astrophysique in Liège, Belgium and the Laboratoire d'Astronomie Spatiale in Marseille, France, contributed optical performance, calibration and alignment test procedures; Captec in Dublin. Ireland, and Logica in London contributed to the on-board software and calibration.
The Hipparcos satellite was launched (with the direct broadcast satellite TV-Sat 2 as co-passenger) on an Ariane 4 launch vehicle, flight V33, from Centre Spatial Guyanais, Kourou, French Guiana, on 8 August 1989. Launched into a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), the Mage-2 apogee boost motor failed to fire, and the intended geostationary orbit was never achieved. However, with the addition of further ground stations, in addition to ESA operations control centre at European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) in Germany, the satellite was successfully operated in its geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) for almost 3.5 years. All of the original mission goals were, eventually, exceeded.
Including an estimate for the scientific activities related to the satellite observations and data processing, the Hipparcos mission cost about €600 million (in year 2000 economic conditions), and its execution involved some 200 European scientists and more than 2,000 individuals in European industry.
Hipparcos Input Catalogue
The satellite observations relied on a pre-defined list of target stars. Stars were observed as the satellite rotated, by a sensitive region of the image dissector tube detector. This pre-defined star list formed the Hipparcos Input Catalogue (HIC): each star in the final Hipparcos Catalogue was contained in the Input Catalogue. The Input Catalogue was compiled by the INCA Consortium over the period 1982–1989, finalised pre-launch, and published both digitally and in printed form.
Although fully superseded by the satellite results, it nevertheless includes supplemental information on multiple system components as well as compilations of radial velocities and spectral types which, not observed by the satellite, were not included in the published Hipparcos Catalogue.
Constraints on total observing time, and on the uniformity of stars across the celestial sphere for satellite operations and data analysis, led to an Input Catalogue of some 118,000 stars. It merged
two components: first, a survey of around 58,000 objects as complete as possible to the following limiting magnitudes:
V<7.9 + 1.1sin|b| for spectral types earlier than G5, and
V<7.3 + 1.1sin|b| for spectral types later than G5 (b is the Galactic latitude). Stars constituting this survey are flagged in the Hipparcos Catalogue.
The second component comprised additional stars selected according to their scientific interest, with none fainter than about magnitude V=13 mag. These were selected from around 200 scientific proposals submitted on the basis of an Invitation for Proposals issued by ESA in 1982, and prioritised by the Scientific Proposal Selection Committee in consultation with the Input Catalogue Consortium. This selection had to balance 'a priori' scientific interest, and the observing programme's limiting magnitude, total observing time, and sky uniformity constraints.
Data reductions
For the main mission results, the data analysis was carried out by two independent scientific teams, NDAC and FAST, together comprising some 100 astronomers and scientists, mostly from European (ESA-member state) institutes. The analyses, proceeding from nearly 1000 Gbit of satellite data acquired over 3.5 years, incorporated a comprehensive system of cross-checking and validation, and is described in detail in the published catalogue.
A detailed optical calibration model was included to map the transformation from sky to instrumental coordinates. Its adequacy could be verified by the detailed measurement residuals. The Earth's orbit, and the satellite's orbit with respect to the Earth, were essential for describing the location of the observer at each epoch of observation, and were supplied by an appropriate Earth ephemeris combined with accurate satellite ranging. Corrections due to special relativity (stellar aberration) made use of the corresponding satellite velocity. Modifications due to general relativistic light bending were significant (4 milliarc-sec at 90° to the ecliptic) and corrected for deterministically assuming γ=1 in the PPN formalism. Residuals were examined to establish limits on any deviations from this general relativistic value, and no significant discrepancies were found.
Reference frame
The satellite observations essentially yielded highly accurate relative positions of stars with respect to each other, throughout the measurement period (1989–1993). In the absence of direct observations of extragalactic sources (apart from marginal observations of quasar 3C 273) the resulting rigid reference frame was transformed to an inertial frame of reference linked to extragalactic sources. This allows surveys at different wavelengths to be directly correlated with the Hipparcos stars, and ensures that the catalogue proper motions are, as far as possible, kinematically non-rotating. The determination of the relevant three solid-body rotation angles, and the three time-dependent rotation rates, was conducted and completed in advance of the catalogue publication. This resulted in an accurate but indirect link to an inertial, extragalactic, reference frame.
A variety of methods to establish this reference frame link before catalogue publication were included and appropriately weighted: interferometric observations of radio stars by VLBI networks, MERLIN and Very Large Array (VLA); observations of quasars relative to Hipparcos stars using charge-coupled device (CCD), photographic plates, and the Hubble Space Telescope; photographic programmes to determine stellar proper motions with respect to extragalactic objects (Bonn, Kiev, Lick, Potsdam, Yale/San Juan); and comparison of Earth rotation parameters obtained by Very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) and by ground-based optical observations of Hipparcos stars. Although very different in terms of instruments, observational methods and objects involved, the various techniques generally agreed to within 10 milliarc-sec in the orientation and 1 milliarc-sec/year in the rotation of the system. From appropriate weighting, the coordinate axes defined by the published catalogue are believed to be aligned with the extragalactic radio frame to within ±0.6 milliarc-sec at the epoch J1991.25, and non-rotating with respect to distant extragalactic objects to within ±0.25 milliarc-sec/yr.
The Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues were then constructed such that the resulting Hipparcos celestial reference frame (HCRF) coincides, to within observational uncertainties, with the International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF), and representing the best estimates at the time of the catalogue completion (in 1996). The HCRF is thus a materialisation of the International Celestial Reference System (ICRS) in the optical domain. It extends and improves the J2000 (FK5) system, retaining approximately the global orientation of that system but without its regional errors.
Double and multiple stars
Whilst of enormous astronomical importance, double stars and multiple stars provided considerable complications to the observations (due to the finite size and profile of the detector's sensitive field of view) and to the data analysis. The data processing classified the astrometric solutions as follows:
single-star solutions: 100,038 entries, of which 6,763 were flagged as suspected double
component solutions (Annex C): 13,211 entries, comprising 24,588 components in 12,195 solutions
acceleration solutions (Annex G): 2,622 solutions
orbital solutions (Annex O): 235 entries
variability-induced movers (Annex V): 288 entries
stochastic solutions (Annex X): 1,561 entries
no valid astrometric solution: 263 entries (of which 218 were flagged as suspected double)
If a binary star has a long orbital period such that non-linear motions of the photocentre were insignificant over the short (3-year) measurement duration, the binary nature of the star would pass unrecognised by Hipparcos, but could show as a Hipparcos proper motion discrepant compared to those established from long temporal baseline proper motion programmes on ground. Higher-order photocentric motions could be represented by a 7-parameter, or even 9-parameter model fit (compared to the standard 5-parameter model), and typically such models could be enhanced in complexity until suitable fits were obtained. A complete orbit, requiring 7 elements, was determined for 45 systems. Orbital periods close to one year can become degenerate with the parallax, resulting in unreliable solutions for both. Triple or higher-order systems provided further challenges to the data processing.
Photometric observations
The highest accuracy photometric data were provided as a by-product of the main mission astrometric observations. They were made in a broad-band visible light passband, specific to Hipparcos, and designated Hp. The median photometric precision, for Hp<9 magnitude, was 0.0015 magnitude, with typically 110 distinct observations per star throughout the 3.5-year observation period. As part of the data reductions and catalogue production, new variables were identified and designated with appropriate variable star identifiers. Variable stars were classified as periodic or unsolved variables; the former were published with estimates of their period, variability amplitude, and variability type. In total some 11,597 variable objects were detected, of which 8237 were newly classified as variable. There are, for example, 273 Cepheid variables, 186 RR Lyr variables, 108 Delta Scuti variables, and 917 eclipsing binary stars. The star mapper observations, constituting the Tycho (and Tycho-2) Catalogue, provided two colours, roughly B and V in the Johnson UBV photometric system, important for spectral classification and effective temperature determination.
Radial velocities
Classical astrometry concerns only motions in the plane of the sky and ignores the star's radial velocity, i.e. its space motion along the line-of-sight. Whilst critical for an understanding of stellar kinematics, and hence population dynamics, its effect is generally imperceptible to astrometric measurements (in the plane of the sky), and therefore it is generally ignored in large-scale astrometric surveys. In practice, it can be measured as a Doppler shift of the spectral lines. More strictly, however, the radial velocity does enter a rigorous astrometric formulation. Specifically, a space velocity along the line-of-sight means that the transformation from tangential linear velocity to (angular) proper motion is a function of time. The resulting effect of secular or perspective acceleration is the interpretation of a transverse acceleration actually arising from a purely linear space velocity with a significant radial component, with the positional effect proportional to the product of the parallax, the proper motion, and the radial velocity. At the accuracy levels of Hipparcos it is of (marginal) importance only for the nearest stars with the largest radial velocities and proper motions, but was accounted for in the 21 cases for which the accumulated positional effect over two years exceeds 0.1 milliarc-sec. Radial velocities for Hipparcos Catalogue stars, to the extent that they are presently known from independent ground-based surveys, can be found from the astronomical database of the Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg.
The absence of reliable distances for the majority of stars means that the angular measurements made, astrometrically, in the plane of the sky, cannot generally be converted into true space velocities in the plane of the sky. For this reason, astrometry characterises the transverse motions of stars in angular measure (e.g. arcsec per year) rather than in km/s or equivalent. Similarly, the typical absence of reliable radial velocities means that the transverse space motion (when known) is, in any case, only a component of the complete, three-dimensional, space velocity.
Published catalogues
The final Hipparcos Catalogue was the result of the critical comparison and merging of the two (NDAC and FAST consortia) analyses, and contains 118,218 entries (stars or multiple stars), corresponding to an average of some three stars per square degree over the entire sky. Median precision of the five astrometric parameters (Hp<9 magnitude) exceeded the original mission goals, and are between 0.6–1.0 mas. Some 20,000 distances were determined to better than 10%, and 50,000 to better than 20%. The inferred ratio of external to standard errors is ≈1.0–1.2, and estimated systematic errors are below 0.1 mas. The number of solved or suspected double or multiple stars is 23,882. Photometric observations yielded multi-epoch photometry with a mean number of 110 observations per star, and a median photometric precision (Hp<9 magnitude) of 0.0015 magnitude, with 11,597 entries were identified as variable or possibly-variable.
For the star mapper results, the data analysis was carried out by the Tycho Data Analysis Consortium (TDAC). The Tycho Catalogue comprises more than one million stars with 20–30 milliarc-sec astrometry and two-colour (B and V band) photometry.
The final Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues were completed in August 1996. The catalogues were published by European Space Agency (ESA) on behalf of the scientific teams in June 1997.
A more extensive analysis of the star mapper (Tycho) data extracted additional faint stars from the data stream. Combined with old photographic plate observations made several decades earlier as part of the Astrographic Catalogue programme, the Tycho-2 Catalogue of more than 2.5 million stars (and fully superseding the original Tycho Catalogue) was published in 2000.
The Hipparcos and Tycho-1 Catalogues were used to create the Millennium Star Atlas: an all-sky atlas of one million stars to visual magnitude 11. Some 10,000 nonstellar objects are also included to complement the catalogue data.
Between 1997 and 2007, investigations into subtle effects in the satellite attitude and instrument calibration continued. A number of effects in the data that had not been fully accounted for were studied, such as scan-phase discontinuities and micrometeoroid-induced attitude jumps. A re-reduction of the associated steps of the analysis was eventually undertaken.
This has led to improved astrometric accuracies for stars brighter than Hp=9.0 magnitude, reaching a factor of about three for the brightest stars (Hp<4.5 magnitude), while also underlining the conclusion that the Hipparcos Catalogue as originally published is generally reliable within the quoted accuracies.
All catalogue data are available online from the Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg.
Scientific results
The Hipparcos results have affected a very broad range of astronomical research, which can be classified into three major themes:
the provision of an accurate reference frame: this has allowed the consistent and rigorous re-reduction of historical astrometric measurements, including those from Schmidt plates, meridian circles, the 100-year-old Astrographic Catalogue, and 150 years of Earth-orientation measurements. These, in turn, have yielded a dense reference framework with high-accuracy, long-term proper motions (the Tycho-2 Catalogue). Reduction of current state-of-the-art survey data has yielded the dense UCAC2 Catalogue of the U.S. Naval Observatory on the same reference system, and improved astrometric data from recent surveys such as the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and 2MASS. Implicit in the high-accuracy reference frame is the measurement of gravitational lensing and the detection and characterisation of double and multiple stars;
constraints on stellar structure and stellar evolution: the accurate distances and luminosities of 100,000 stars has provided the most comprehensive and accurate data set of fundamental stellar parameters to date, placing constraints on internal rotation, element diffusion, convective motions, and asteroseismology. Combined with theoretical models and other data it yields evolutionary masses, radii, and ages for large numbers of stars covering a wide range of evolutionary states;
Galactic kinematics and dynamics: the uniform and accurate distances and proper motions have provided a substantial advance in understanding of stellar kinematics and the dynamical structure of the solar neighbourhood, ranging from the presence and evolution of clusters, associations and moving groups, the presence of resonance motions due to the Galaxy's central bar and spiral arms, determination of the parameters describing galactic rotation, discrimination of the disk and halo populations, evidence for halo accretion, and the measurement of space motions of runaway stars, globular clusters, and many other types of star.
Associated with these major themes, Hipparcos has provided results in topics as diverse as Solar System science, including mass determinations of asteroids, Earth's rotation and Chandler wobble; the internal structure of white dwarfs; the masses of brown dwarfs; the characterisation of extra-solar planets and their host stars; the height of the Sun above the Galactic mid-plane; the age of the Universe; the stellar initial mass function and star formation rates; and strategies for the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. The high-precision multi-epoch photometry has been used to measure variability and stellar pulsations in many classes of objects. The Hipparcos and Tycho catalogues are now routinely used to point ground-based telescopes, navigate space missions, and drive public planetaria.
Since 1997, several thousand scientific papers have been published making use of the Hipparcos and Tycho catalogues. A detailed review of the Hipparcos scientific literature between 1997–2007 was published in 2009, and a popular account of the project in 2010. Some examples of notable results include (listed chronologically):
studies of Galactic rotation from Cepheid variables
the nature of Delta Scuti variables
studies of local stellar kinematics
testing the white dwarf mass–radius relation
the structure and dynamics of the Hyades cluster
kinematics of Wolf–Rayet stars and O-type runaway stars
subdwarf parallaxes: metal-rich clusters and the thick disk
fine structure of the red giant clump and associated distance determinations
unexpected stellar velocity distribution in the warped Galactic disk
confirming the Lutz–Kelker bias of parallax measurement
refining the Oort and Galactic constants
Galactic disk dark matter, terrestrial impact cratering and the law of large numbers
vertical motion and expansion of the Gould Belt
the use of gamma-ray bursts as direction and time markers in SETI strategies
evidence of a galaxy merger in the early formation history of the Milky Way
study of nearby OB associations
close approaches of stars to the Solar System
studies of binary star orbits and masses
the HD 209458 planetary transits
formation of the stellar Galactic halo and thick disk
the local density of matter in the Galaxy and the Oort limit
ice age epochs and the Sun's path through the Galaxy
local kinematics of K and M giants and the concept of superclusters
an improved reference frame for long-term Earth rotation studies
the local stellar velocity field in the Galaxy
Identification of two possible "siblings" of the Sun (HIP 87382 and HIP 47399), to be studied for evidence of exoplanets
The Pleiades distance controversy
One controversial result has been the derived proximity, at about 120 parsecs, of the Pleiades cluster, established both from the original catalogue as well as from the revised analysis. This has been contested by various other recent work, placing the mean cluster distance at around 130 parsecs.
According to a 2012 paper, the anomaly was due to the use of a weighted mean when there is a correlation between distances and distance errors for stars in clusters. It is resolved by using an unweighted mean. There is no systematic bias in the Hipparcos data when it comes to star clusters.
In August 2014, the discrepancy between the cluster distance of as measured by Hipparcos and the distance of derived with other techniques was confirmed by parallax measurements made using VLBI, which gave , the most accurate and precise distance yet presented for the cluster.
Polaris
Another distance debate set-off by Hipparcos is for the distance to the star Polaris.
People
Pierre Lacroute (Observatory of Strasbourg): proposer of space astrometry in 1967
Michael Perryman: ESA project scientist (1981–1997), and project manager during satellite operations (1989–1993)
Catherine Turon (Observatoire de Paris-Meudon): leader of Input Catalogue Consortium
Erik Høg: leader of the TDAC Consortium
Lennart Lindegren (Lund Observatory): leader of the NDAC Consortium
Jean Kovalevsky: leader of the FAST Consortium
Adriaan Blaauw: chair of the observing programme selection committee
Hipparcos Science Team: Uli Bastian, Pierluigi Bernacca, Michel Crézé, Francesco Donati, Michel Grenon, Michael Grewing, Erik Høg, Jean Kovalevsky, Floor van Leeuwen, Lennart Lindegren, Hans van der Marel, Francois Mignard, Andrew Murray, Michael Perryman (chair), Rudolf Le Poole, Hans Schrijver, Catherine Turon
Franco Emiliani: ESA project manager (1981–1985)
Hamid Hassan: ESA project manager (1985–1989)
Dietmar Heger: ESA/ESOC spacecraft operations manager
Michel Bouffard: Matra Marconi Space project manager
Bruno Strim: Alenia Spazio project manager
See also
Gaia, follow-up mission launched in 2013
References
External links
The Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission at ESA
Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogues at the CASU Astronomical Data Centre, Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge
Hipparcos Main Catalogue and Tycho-1 Catalogue at the CDS in Strasbourg
Space astrometry missions
Parallax
European Space Agency satellites
Space telescopes
Satellites orbiting Earth
Spacecraft launched in 1989
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207965
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiface
|
Multiface
|
The Multiface was a hardware peripheral released by Romantic Robot for several 1980s home computers. The primary function of the device was to dump the computer's memory to external storage. Pressing a red button on the Multiface activated it. As most games of the era did not have a save game feature, the Multiface allowed players to save their position by saving a loadable snapshot of the game. Home computer software of the early 1980s was typically loaded into RAM in one go, with copy protection measures concentrating the loading phase or just after it. The snapshot feature could be used after copy protection routines had been executed, to create a backup that was effectively unprotected against unauthorised distribution. Later models of the Multiface mitigated this by requiring the device to be present when re-loading the dumps into memory, making the dumps useless to people without a Multiface. Software producers also reacted to the threat by using routines that would prevent execution of the product if it detected that a Multiface was present and by loading the software in multiple parts, thus requiring the presence of the original, copy-protected media.
Operation
Pressing the red button on the Multiface raised the non-maskable interrupt line on the computer's processor, effectively taking control of the computer. The Multiface would then page in its own ROM, temporarily replacing the computer's operating system with that within the Multiface.
Additional features
All Multifaces had the ability to view and edit the contents of memory. This made cheating in games especially easy: magazines used to print codes every month, known as 'pokes'. By changing the memory, various aspects of the game could be altered, such as the number of lives one had before the game was over.
Some models of Multiface allowed the user to save a screenshot, and this is how Your Sinclair and likely other magazines produced screenshots of games.
Multifaces contained an extra 8 kilobytes of RAM that could be used by specially written software. Examples of such software included Genie, a machine code disassembler, and Lifeguard, a program for analysing the memory of a game during play in order to identify which memory locations should be changed to aid cheating. These programs could be loaded into the Multiface RAM and activated by pressing the red button.
Some later Multifaces had a 'thru-port', an additional interface on the back of the unit which allowed other peripherals to be plugged into the back. This solved the problem of the Multiface using up the computer's only expansion port.
Models of Multiface
Multifaces were released for 8-bit and 16-bit microcomputers, such as the ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC & Atari ST. Different models had slightly different features.
Multiface One
The Multiface One was released in 1986 for the ZX Spectrum 48K. It initially cost £39.95 and had the capability of saving data to cassette tape, ZX Microdrive, Opus Discovery (an external 3.5 inch disk drive) or Technology Research Beta (an interface that allowed 5.25 inch and 3.5 inch drives to be connected). The device worked on 128K Spectrums, but only if they were put in 48K mode. It featured a Kempston joystick port, and later revisions contained a switch that effectively 'hid' the device from software. Early versions had a composite video out port but this feature was later removed.
Multiface Two
The Multiface Two was released for the Amstrad CPC 464 and had similar features to the Multiface One.
Multiface 128
The Multiface 128 was released in April 1987 for the 128K version of the Spectrum, including the original +2 model. It worked in 128K or 48K mode and it existed in two versions; initially without a 'thru-port' and later, with one, both of which originally cost the same £44.95, but were later reduced to the same price as the Multiface One. The 128 introduced the ability to save to the +D and DISCiPLE disk systems, but lost its joystick port (the Spectrum +2 already had built-in joystick ports). The device was not compatible with the later Spectrum +2A or the Spectrum +3.
Multiface 3
The Multiface 3, released in November 1987, was designed for the later Amstrad-made models of Spectrum that the 128 did not support. It existed in two versions; one with a 'thru-port', for £49.95, and one without, which cost £44.95. Both were later reduced to £29.95. The main feature of the Multiface 3 was its ability to save to +3 disk, a useful feature for +3 owners who wanted to avoid the long loading times of tapes.
Multiface ST
The Multiface ST and Multiface ST II were released for Atari's ST computers. They connected to the cartridge port with a wired connector attaching to the monitor port (to generate the interrupt signal when the button was pressed). Far less effective than the earlier Spectrum models and the same as the CPC model, they required the cartridge to be present in order to load saved games. Red, green and blue cartridges have been noted.
Anti-Multiface
Anti-Multiface was a public domain program for the Amstrad CPC which allowed the restoring of saved memory dumps without the need for a Multiface to be present. It was limited to 128K machines and would not work on dumps bigger than 64K. The program was developed by Serge Querne but credited to "Merlin J. Bond of Magic Software".
Similar products
Competing devices included the Mirage Imager, Disk Wizard, and Action Replay. At the time, none of these could save as many games, or offered the opportunities for cheating that Multiface did. Action Replays for cheating have since been released on newer systems. Other competing systems were a wide array of software-based transfer programs.
For game consoles of the 1990s there was the Game Genie, which served a similar purpose in allowing memory values to be edited in order to cheat at games.
External links
Info from Spectrum Hardware Page
Multiface 1 Manual at worldofspectrum.org
Multiface 3 Manual at worldofspectrum.org
Notes
Home computer peripherals
ZX Spectrum
Amstrad CPC
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Socialist%20Movement%20in%20the%20Netherlands
|
National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands
|
The National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands (, ; NSB) was a Dutch fascist and later Nazi political party that called itself a "movement". As a parliamentary party participating in legislative elections, the NSB had some success during the 1930s. Under German occupation, it remained the only legal party in the Netherlands during most of the Second World War.
Party history
1931–1940
The NSB was founded in Utrecht in 1931 during a period when several nationalist, fascist and Nazi parties were founded. The founders were Anton Mussert, who became the party's leader, and Cornelis van Geelkerken. The party based its program on Italian fascism and German Nazism: however, unlike the latter, before 1936 the party was not anti-semitic and even had Jewish members.
In 1933, after a year of building an organization, the party organized its first public meeting, a Landdag in Utrecht which was attended by 600 party militants. Here the party presented itself. After that, the party's support began to grow. In the same year, the government forbade civil servants to be members.
In the provincial elections of 1935, the party gained eight percent of the votes and two seats in the Senate. This was achieved against the background of the economic hardship of the Great Depression. Mussert's image as a reliable politician and his pragmatism allowed him to unite the different types of fascism and contributed to the party's success. This was bolstered by the party's strong organization and its political strategy, which was not oriented towards revolution but a democratic and legal take over of the country. By 1936, the party was holding annual mass meetings near Lunteren in Gelderland and, in 1938, it built the Muur van Mussert there, a wall which was supposed to be one element in a set of buildings and monuments inspired by the Nazi party rally grounds in Nuremberg.
In 1936, under the influence of Meinoud Rost van Tonningen, the party became more radical and openly anti-semitic. Rost van Tonningen began to question Mussert's leadership, with the support of the German Nazi Party, increasing divisions within the party. This radicalisation led to decreased support for the party and a strong anti-fascist reaction of the political parties, trade unions and churches. In the 1937 general elections, the party gained only four percent of the votes and four seats in the House of Representatives, although it increased its representation in the Senate to five seats. In parliament, the NSB MPs showed little respect for parliamentary procedures and rules. Many NSB MPs were called to order by the chairman of parliament for physical and verbal violence. In the provincial election of 1939, the party also gained four percent of the votes.
1940–1945
After the Second World War broke out, the NSB sympathized with the Germans and advocated strict neutrality for the Netherlands. In May 1940, 800 NSB members and sympathizers were put in custody by the Dutch government, after the German invasion. Supporters of the party in the Dutch East Indies were also interned at that time, and when a Japanese invasion of the colony began some of these were deported to Surinam and interned in the Jodensavanne internment camp. Soon after the Dutch defeat on May 14, 1940, the imprisoned European NSB members in the Netherlands were set free by German troops. In June 1940, Mussert delivered a speech in Lunteren in which he called for the Netherlands to embrace the Germans and renounce the Dutch Monarchy, which had fled to London.
In 1940 the German occupation government had outlawed all socialist and communist parties; in 1941 it forbade all parties, except for the NSB. The NSB openly collaborated with the occupation forces. Its membership grew to about 100,000. The NSB played an important role in lower government and civil service; every new mayor appointed by the German occupation government was a member of the NSB. On the national level, Mussert had expected he would be made leader of an independent Dutch state allied to Germany; in reality, however, the Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart was in charge of an occupation government. He chose to work with the remaining establishment as he realised that the NSB lacked popular support and talented candidates for more important functions.
Mussert had in total five meetings with Adolf Hitler in which he pleaded for an independent Netherlands, but he was unsuccessful. Although Seyss-Inquart had proposed that Mussert should be made Prime Minister of the Netherlands, he was only given the honorary title 'Leader of the Dutch People', and he was allowed to build a marginal State Secretariat, but he was given little or no actual power. His influence in the party waned at the expense of Rost van Tonningen and other more pro-German members. Unlike Mussert, Rost van Tonningen was in favour of incorporation of the Netherlands into a Greater Germanic Reich. Beginning in the summer of 1943, many male members of the NSB were organized in the Landwacht, which helped the government control the population.
On 4 September 1944, the Allied forces conquered Antwerp and the NSB expected the fall of the Netherlands to come soon. On 5 September, most of the NSB's leadership and many members fled to Germany and the party's organization fell apart, on what is known as Dolle Dinsdag (Mad Tuesday). Mussert himself spent the winter of 1944-45 at the estate of Bellinckhof, near Almelo. In these final months of the war the movement fractured further and further, and Mussert ordered measurements against leaders who behaved ´dishonorably´ in September 1944. In the beginning of 1945 he terminated the memberships of Rost van Tonningen and Van Geelkerken. However, at that time Musserts power was severely weakened by the war events and the fracturing of the NSB.
After the German surrender on 6 May 1945, the NSB was outlawed. Mussert was arrested the following day. Many of the members of the NSB were arrested, but only a few were convicted.
There were no attempts to continue the organization illegally. Former members were shunned and sometimes imprisoned or humiliated. After that, they and their children remained stigmatized for a long time in society. The senior leadership was arrested and faced charges. Mussert was executed on 7 May 1946, Van Geelkerken was imprisoned, Rost van Tonningen committed suicide while awaiting trial.
Ideology and issues
The NSB started out as a classical fascist party, which based itself on the principles of leadership. It wanted a fascist state with a compliant government, fascist order and state control. It put the national interest above the individual interest and the interest of social groups (pillars) that had characterized Dutch society. The party was anti-parliamentary and authoritarian. Its program, which was otherwise modeled on the program of the German Nazi Party, initially lacked reference to anti-semitic or racist ideology of the Nazi Party. After 1936, under the influence of Meinoud Rost van Tonningen, the party became more oriented towards the Nazi Party and took on its anti-semitic and racist ideas. It also began to sympathize with the aggressive foreign policy of Italy and Germany.
Practical demands of the NSB were: abolition of individual voting rights, corporatism, a duty to work and serve in the army, limits on the freedom of the press, laws against strikes. It demanded a unification of the Netherlands with Flanders and French Flanders in a Greater Netherlands, which would also control a large colonial empire consisting of Belgian Congo, Dutch East Indies and perhaps South Africa. This state would not be a part of Germany, but only an independent loyal ally to Germany.
Rituals and symbols
The NSB copied elements of the Italian Fascists and German Nazis. Like Mussolini's Fascists, the NSB uniforms included black shirts, and the Party adopted the Fascist salute. Since 1933 it used the salute "Hou Zee!", which, Anton Mussert said, connoted courage and referred to the glorious maritime history of the Dutch Republic. It also began using titles like Leider for Mussert (Leader; similar to Duce or Führer), Kameraad for men (comrade) and Kameraadske ('comradess', a neologism) for women. One party slogan was "Mussert or Moscow", evoking the Fascist defense against supposed Communist subversion. Although the Party later adopted the Nazi red and black colors and the swastika symbol, the original NSB flag used the Prince's Flag. A blue wolfsangel (a hooked symbol of a wolf trap) on a white disc was set against an orange field.
Leadership and support
This table shows the results of the NSB in elections to the House of Representatives (lower house), the Senate, the States-Provincial, and the party's political leadership: the fractievoorzitter, is the chair of the parliamentary party and the lijsttrekker is the party's top candidate in the general election, these posts are normally taken by the party's leader. The membership of NSB is also represented. The House of Representatives then had 100 members.
Municipal and provincial government
Before 1940 the NSB held seats in provincial and municipal legislatures, but did not cooperate in any governments. After 1940 these legislatures stopped functioning and the NSB's role in local and provincial legislatures expanded. All newly appointed mayors were members of the NSB.
The following figure shows the election results of the provincial elections of 1935 and 1939, per province. It shows the areas where the NSB was strong, namely in South Holland, North Holland and Gelderland. The NSB was the strongest in Drenthe and Limburg. In 1935, it became the second largest party in Limburg. The party was weaker in Friesland, North Brabant and Zeeland.
In 1939, on the eve of the Second World War, the party lost nearly half of its provincial seats.
Electorate
The NSB drew its main support from the middle class: civil servants, farmers, business people and soldiers supported the party. Most of these people were not part of the strong pillarized organisations surrounding the socialist unions, and the Protestant and Catholic churches. Instead they were often a loose member of the weaker liberal pillar, which was very diverse. The NSB party scored particularly well in Drenthe, Gelderland and the towns of Limburg at the border with Germany.
Party members
Historians Lou de Jong and A.A. de Jonge have characterized NSB members as socially isolated opportunists who were motivated to join the NSB through a mix of opportunism, idealism and social connections.
Organization
Organizational structure
The party was organized with Mussert serving as party chair and political leader. From September 1940 until its dissolution, Carolus Josephus Huygen served as Secretary General of the party. Yearly the party organized a Landdag, where Mussert held a political speech.
Associated organisations
The NSB was surrounded by several party organizations. It published a weekly newspaper, Volk en Vaderland ("People and Fatherland"). Between 1931 and 1935 the party had its own paramilitary organization, the black uniformed Weerbaarheidsafdeling (WA), similar to the Sturmabteilung of the Nazi Party. It was refounded in 1940. It also founded its own youth organization, Nationale Jeugdstorm (Youthstorm); a farmers' organization; and a daily newspaper, Het Nationale Dagblad (The National Daily).
In 1940 the NSB formed the Nederlandsche SS (Dutch SS), it had up to 7,000 members.
The term "NSB'er" has become synonymous with traitor in the Netherlands, and is used as an insult, especially in the context of ratting somebody out to authorities.
A grim joke after World War II, made by Dutch Resistance fighters, is that former NSB members insisted that their acronym actually stood for "Niet So [zo] Bedoeld" or "I didn't mean it" as they attempted to downplay their treachery.
Relationships to other parties
The NSB was methodically isolated by other parties. Before the war the socialist Social Democratic Workers' Party and Nederlands Verbond van Vakverenigingen (Dutch Association of Trade Unions) coordinated counter-demonstrations and propaganda with a separate organization 'Freedom, Labour and Bread'. The NSB lobbied with the German occupiers to have other political organisations outlawed. Although the Germans had no problem with banning the socialists, communists and Christian-democrats, it was considerably harder for the NSB to convince them to get rid of their fascist rivals. Eventually, the Germans forbade these too and urged members to join the NSB, as these parties were considered too small. The most important rival for the NSB was the Nederlandsche Unie, an organisation founded in 1940, which wanted to rebuild Dutch society within the cadre of the changed balance of power. Although their point of view was later considered collaborationist, many Dutch joined the movement as an alternative to the NSB, which it soon outgrew. The end for the Nederlandsche Unie came when they refused to suppert the German invasion of the Soviet-Union. Hence, as of 1941 to 1945, the NSB was the only permitted political party in the Netherlands.
Electoral performance
See also
Germanic-SS - the collective name given to Allgemeine-SS groups that were raised in Occupied Europe between 1939 and 1945.
Quisling
References
Notes
General references
Nazi parties
Dutch collaborators with Nazi Germany
Parties of one-party systems
Fascist parties in the Netherlands
Political parties established in 1931
Political parties disestablished in 1945
Collaboration with the Axis Powers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey%20Theatre
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Abbey Theatre
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The Abbey Theatre (), also known as the National Theatre of Ireland (), in Dublin, Ireland, is one of the country's leading cultural institutions. First opening to the public on 27 December 1904, and moved from its original building after a fire in 1951, it has remained active to the present day. The Abbey was the first state-subsidized theatre in the English-speaking world; from 1925 onwards it received an annual subsidy from the Irish Free State. Since July 1966, the Abbey has been located at 26 Lower Abbey Street, Dublin 1.
In its early years, the theatre was closely associated with the writers of the Irish Literary Revival, many of whom were involved in its founding and most of whom had plays staged there. The Abbey served as a nursery for many of leading Irish playwrights, including William Butler Yeats, Lady Gregory, Seán O'Casey and John Millington Synge, as well as leading actors. In addition, through its extensive programme of touring abroad and its high visibility to foreign, particularly American, audiences, it has become an important part of the Irish cultural brand.
History
Origins
The Abbey arose from three distinct bases. The first was the seminal Irish Literary Theatre. Founded by Lady Gregory, Edward Martyn and W. B. Yeats in 1899—with assistance from George Moore—it presented plays in the Antient Concert Rooms and the Gaiety Theatre, which brought critical approval but limited public interest. Lady Gregory envisioned a society promoting "ancient idealism" dedicated to crafting works of Irish theatre pairing Irish culture with European theatrical methods.
The second base involved the work of two Dublin directors, William and Frank Fay. William worked in the 1890s with a touring company in Ireland, Scotland and Wales, while his brother Frank was involved in amateur dramatics in Dublin. After William returned to Dublin, the Fay brothers staged productions in halls around the city and eventually formed W. G. Fay's Irish National Dramatic Company, focused on the development of Irish acting talent. In April 1902, the Fays gave three performances of Æ's play Deirdre and Yeats' Cathleen Ní Houlihan in St Theresa's Hall on Clarendon Street. The performances played to a mainly working-class audience rather than the usual middle-class Dublin theatregoers. The run was a great success, thanks in part to the beauty and force of Maud Gonne, who played the lead in Yeats' play. The company continued at the Antient Concert Rooms, producing works by Seumas O'Cuisin, Fred Ryan and Yeats.
The third base was the financial support and experience of Annie Horniman, a middle-class Englishwoman with previous experience of theatre production, having been involved in the presentation of George Bernard Shaw's Arms and the Man in London in 1894. An acquaintance of Yeats from London circles, including the Order of the Golden Dawn, she came to Dublin in 1903 to act as Yeats' unpaid secretary and to make costumes for a production of his play The King's Threshold. Her money helped found the Abbey Theatre and, according to the critic Adrian Frazier, would "make the rich feel at home, and the poor—on a first visit—out of place."
The founding of the Theatre is also connected with a broader wave of change found in European drama at the end of the nineteenth century. The founding of Théâtre Libre in Paris in 1887 and the work of the Moscow Art Theatre in 1895 represented a challenge to a "stale metropolitanism". This movement echoes Lady Gregory's commitment and determination to make the Abbey Theatre a theatre for the people.
Foundation
Encouraged by the St Theresa's Hall success, Yeats, Lady Gregory, Æ, Martyn, and John Millington Synge founded the Irish National Theatre Society in 1903 with funding from Horniman. They were joined by actors and playwrights from Fay's company. At first, they staged performances in the Molesworth Hall.<ref>Mikhail, E. H. The Abbey Theatre: Interviews and Recollections', Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, October 1987. p. 97. </ref> When the Mechanics' Theatre in Lower Abbey Street and an adjacent building in Marlborough Street became available after fire safety authorities closed it, Horniman and William Fay agreed to buy and refit the space to meet the society's needs.
On 11 May 1904, the Society formally accepted Horniman's offer of the use of the building. As Horniman did not usually reside in Ireland, the royal letters patent required were granted in the name of Lady Gregory, although paid for by Horniman. The founders appointed William Fay theatre manager, responsible for training the actors in the newly established repertory company. They commissioned Yeats' brother Jack to paint portraits of all the leading figures in the society for the foyer, and hired Sarah Purser to design stained glass for the same space.
On 27 December, the curtains went up on opening night. The bill consisted of three one-act plays, On Baile's Strand and Cathleen Ní Houlihan by Yeats, and Spreading the News by Lady Gregory. On the second night, In the Shadow of the Glen by Synge replaced the second Yeats play. These two bills alternated over a five-night run. Frank Fay, playing Cúchulainn in On Baile's Strand, was the first actor on the Abbey stage. Although Horniman had designed the costumes, neither she nor Lady Gregory was present, as Horniman had already returned to England. In addition to providing funding, her chief role with the Abbey over the coming years was to organise publicity and bookings for their touring productions in London and provincial England.
In 1905 without properly consulting Horniman, Yeats, Lady Gregory and Synge decided to turn the theatre into a limited liability company, the National Theatre Society Ltd. Annoyed by this treatment, Horniman hired Ben Iden Payne, a former Abbey employee, to help run a new repertory company which she founded in Manchester. Leading actors Máire Nic Shiubhlaigh, Honor Lavelle (Helen Laird), Emma Vernon, Máire Garvey, Frank Walker, Seamus O'Sullivan, Pádraic Colum and George Roberts left the Abbey.
The press was impressed with the building and the Cork Constitution wrote that "the theatre has neither orchestra nor bar, and the principal entrance is through a building which was formerly the Dublin morgue." Theatregoers were surprised and thought it to be scandalous that part of the theatre used to be a morgue. The orchestra was established under the guidance of Dr John F Larchet.
Contributions of founders and funders
Lady Gregory
Gregory helped create the Irish Literary Theatre, which would later form one base for the INTS, with W.B Yeats and Edward Martyn. She met Yeats in 1898, and he admitted to her that it was a dream of his to create a theatre in which new ambitious Irish plays could be performed. The idea seemed more and more possible to achieve as they kept talking and by the end of their first meeting they had a plan for how to make a "national theatre" a reality. In the first year of the theatre, Lady Gregory was in charge of finding money and support from patrons, and she even donated some of her own money. She was critical in making the ILT and the INTS function financially before Annie Horniman's support.
In 1903, when Horniman offered the INTS a theatre, Lady Gregory schemed to bypass the terms of the deal. She didn't like Horniman and was happy when she left, saying she was "free from her and from further foreign invasion." She wrote many plays for the theatre, specializing in the one-act play.
William Butler Yeats
The Abbey Theatre is sometimes called Yeats' theatre or a manifestation of his own artistic ambitions and ideals. He wanted a theatre in which the playwright's words were the most important thing, prevailing over the actor and the audience. It was very important to him that the authors had control. It was because of him and his efforts that Lady Gregory, Synge and he became the Board of Directors of the INTS. It was only after meeting Lady Gregory that Yeats thought the creation of such a theatre possible. He worked closely with her for almost a year before the first production of the ILT, during which his play Cathleen Ni Houlihan and Edward Martyn's The Heather Field were performed to great success, some even calling it "the cultural event of the decade," though some accused him of being too political or even of writing a heretical play.
He then adopted a new, more inclusive politic, which helped him and Lady Gregory recruit many new patrons, most Protestant and/or Unionist. As early as 1900, Yeats sent a letter to Lady Gregory that implied that he was confident about finding a reliable patron who, at the time, remained anonymous. The patron he was talking about was Annie Horniman, who had anonymously financed Yeats' first play in 1884. By that point, he was starting to want The Abbey to be seen as nationalist. However, by October 1901, he had lost interest in the ILT as a mean to express his artistic vision, as he was forced to make sacrifices to accommodate co-workers. He chose to stay because of his relationship with Horniman, who he saw as a mean to secure his ambitions and those of the Fay Brothers' troupe of Irish actors.
His relationship with Horniman was essential to his projects, so much so that he declared in front of an audience that he would not accept money from Nationalists and Unionists, which forced him to change the entire politics of the INTS. He gave this speech in 1903 and by 1904 he was the president of the Abbey Theatre. When Horniman left, he wanted to bring back the nationalist aspect the theatre once had but was stopped by a threat from Horniman to close it down; he finally had the last word with the help of Bernard Shaw and Lady Gregory. During the summer of 1909, Shaw offered his play Blanco Posnet to the Abbey, a play previously censored that allowed him to challenge British authority and to come back to the good graces of Nationalists, thus giving him a new reputation and making the INTS closer to becoming "a representative Irish Institution." Following Horniman's offer to sell him back the theatre, he then tried to "play" her so that she would pay more. Yeats, with the help of Lady Gregory, bought the Abbey back and sued Horniman for the subsidy he believed that she owed but won only on the principle, and did not receive the money.
Miss Annie Horniman
Annie Horniman, a British theatre enthusiast and manager, was essential in the creation of the Abbey Theater, as she was its first significant patron and the woman who offered the edifice in which it would later be established. She was first brought in by Yeats as a costume designer for his play The King's Threshold, as she greatly loved his art and it was also a way for him to get closer to her. Yeats's long relationship with her and her love for theatre made her more likely to accept to become a permanent patron and, by 1901, her money was secured. Her support was so important that he already had a role for her in the Abbey Theatre before it was even created. However, by the time the ITL became the INTS, Yeats had to assure her that her money would not be used to fund a Nationalist rebellion.
She supported him as well as the INTS with financial support as she came from a rich family and, in 1903, after Yeats eloquently declared his apolitical theatrical ideals, she offered to give him a theatre in Dublin worth thirteen thousand pounds, but for the deal to work, she had strict conditions. Firstly, she requested that his speech, essays on the "Irish National Theatre," and her offer be made public. Secondly, the point she stressed most, there were to be no politics at all. She finally gave the building for the Abbey Theatre in 1904, but remained the owner. Yeats accepted her terms but Gregory and Synge worked on finding ways to finesse their way around them before officially accepting. She didn't want to have anything to do with Irish politics, especially not nationalism, and was very reactive to anything she saw as political, which caused several inflammatory feuds with her colleagues. She also did not care for the accessibility of theatre, which was an important issue for the founders, and she created additional rules for ticket pricing, and made the Abbey Theatre one of the most expensive theatres in Dublin. From then, she became the manager of the Abbey Theatre. Over the years, she put many times the theatre's value in money back into it in exchange for input on the plays being staged and respect from the company's directors.
She remained involved for a few strenuous years and left in 1907, angrily realizing she couldn't achieve self-expression at the Abbey, but stayed financially involved until 1910. From 1907 to 1909, she turned on the INTS, essentially threatening to close if anything she deemed political was performed, even if the interpretation was debatable. After the riots following Synge's Playboy of the Western World, she fully expressed her hatred for Irish nationalism and patriotism and threatened the Abbey once again, but when Blanco Posnet was presented and the Nationalists were appeased, she made a deal with Yeats and Lady Gregory to sell them the Theatre. The negotiations dragged on and in 1910, when the Abbey stayed open on the day King Edward VII died, Horniman had a final dispute in court with Yeats before leaving the Abbey Theatre for good.
Early years
In the early years, there were challenges in finding plays by Irish playwrights, and so the founders established guidelines for playwrights submitting plays and wrote some plays themselves. The emergence of the theatre, the challenge of finding plays by Irish playwrights, the protests surrounding Playboy of the Western World, and the work of the Irish Theatre were key developments during this time. As one of the first directors of the new Abbey Theatre, Lady Gregory exchanged correspondence with her counterparts W.B Yeats and JM Synge which chronicled the further development of the new Abbey Theatre including themes such as the critical reception of plays, the challenge of balancing state funding and artistic liberty, and the contributions of actors and others supporting the theatre. The new Abbey Theatre found great popular success, and large crowds attended many of its productions. The Abbey was fortunate in having Synge as a key member, as he was then considered one of the foremost English-language dramatists. The theatre staged many plays by eminent or soon-to-be eminent authors, including Yeats, Lady Gregory, Moore, Martyn, Padraic Colum, George Bernard Shaw, Oliver St John Gogarty, F. R. Higgins, Thomas MacDonagh, Lord Dunsany, T. C. Murray, James Cousins and Lennox Robinson. Many of these authors served on the board, and it was during this time that the Abbey gained its reputation as a writers' theatre.
The Abbey's fortunes worsened in January 1907 when the opening of Synge's The Playboy of the Western World resulted in civil disturbance. The troubles (since known as the Playboy Riots) were encouraged, in part, by nationalists who believed the theatre was insufficiently political and who took offence at Synge's use of the word 'shift', as it was known at the time as a symbol representing Kitty O'Shea and adultery, and hence was seen as a slight on the virtue of Irish womanhood. Much of the crowd rioted loudly, and the actors performed the remainder of the play in dumbshow. The theatre's decision to call in the police further roused the anger of the nationalists. Although press opinion soon turned against the rioters and the protests faded, management of the Abbey was shaken. They chose not to stage Synge's next—and last completed—play, The Tinker's Wedding (1908), for fear of further disturbances. That same year, the Fay brothers' association with the theatre ended when they emigrated to the United States due to a clash with Yeats outlook; Lennox Robinson took over the Abbey's day-to-day management after Horniman withdrew financial support.
In 1909, Shaw's The Shewing-Up of Blanco Posnet led to further protests. The subsequent discussion occupied a full issue of the theatre's journal The Arrow. Also that year, the proprietors decided to make the Abbey independent of Annie Horniman, who had indicated a preference for this course. Relations with Horniman had been tense, partly because she wished to be involved in choosing which plays were to be performed and when. As a mark of respect for the death of King Edward VII, an understanding existed that Dublin theatres were to close on the night of 7 May 1910. Robinson, however, kept the Abbey open. When Horniman heard of Robinson's decision, she severed her connections with the company. By her own estimate, she had invested £10,350—worth approximately $1 million in 2007 US dollars—on the project.
With the loss of Horniman, Synge, and the Fays, the Abbey under Robinson tended to drift, suffering from falling public interest and box office returns. This trend was halted for a time by the emergence of Seán O'Casey as an heir to Synge. O'Casey's career as a dramatist began with The Shadow of a Gunman, staged by the Abbey in 1923. This was followed by Juno and the Paycock in 1924, and The Plough and the Stars in 1926. Theatregoers arose in riots over the last play, in a way reminiscent of those that had greeted the Playboy 19 years earlier. Concerned about public reaction, the Abbey rejected O'Casey's next play. He emigrated to London shortly thereafter.
World War I and the Irish Rebellion of 1916 almost ended the theatre; however, in 1924, Yeats and Lady Gregory offered the Abbey to the government of the Free State as a gift to the Irish people. Although the government refused, the following year Minister of Finance Ernest Blythe arranged an annual government subsidy of £850 for the Abbey. This made the company the first state-supported theatre in the English-speaking world. The subsidy allowed the theatre to avoid bankruptcy, but the amount was too small to rescue it from financial difficulty.
Affiliated schools
The Abbey School of Acting was set up that year. The Abbey School of Ballet was established by Ninette de Valois — who had provided choreography for a number of Yeats' plays – and ran until 1933.
The Peacock and the Gate
Around this time the company acquired additional space, allowing them to create a small experimental theatre, the Peacock, in the ground floor of the main theatre. In 1928, Hilton Edwards, Micheál MacLiammoir, cabaret impresario Daisy Bannard Cogley and Gearóid Ó Lochlainn launched the Gate Theatre Studio, leasing the Peacock from 14 October and using the venue to stage works by European and American dramatists.
The Gate also sought work from new Irish playwrights and moved to its own premises in 1930. Despite the Peacock space, the Abbey itself entered a period of artistic decline. This is illustrated by the story of how one new work was said to have come to the Gate Theatre. Denis Johnston reportedly submitted his first play, Shadowdance, to the Abbey; however, Lady Gregory rejected it, returning it to the author with "The Old Lady says No" written across the title page. Johnston decided to re-title the play. The Gate staged The Old Lady Says 'No' in The Peacock in 1928. (Note: academic critics Joseph Ronsley and Christine St. Peter have questioned the veracity of this story.)
1930s to 1950s
The tradition of the Abbey as primarily a writers' theatre survived Yeats' withdrawal from day-to-day involvement. Frank O'Connor sat on the board from 1935 to 1939, served as managing director from 1937, and had two plays staged during this period. He was alienated from and unable to cope with many of the other board members. They held O'Connor's past adultery against him. Although he fought formidably to retain his position, soon after Yeats died the board began machinations to remove O'Connor. In 1941 Ernest Blythe, a politician, who had arranged the first State subsidy for the theatre, became managing director.Welch, p. 135.
During the 1940s and 1950s, there was a steady decline in the number of new productions. There were 104 new plays produced from 1930 to 1940, whereas this number dropped to 62 for 1940–1950. Thereafter, there was another decrease. However, the theatre was undeterred by the dwindling amount of productions of original plays and had their audience numbers increase. The attitude of the general public had vastly changed towards the Abbey since the beginning of the century. It was no longer reserved as a theatre for the rich and for a small clique of intellectuals, it had become a theatre for the people. The plays of O'Casey and Lennox Robinson that were being produced by theatre at the time most likely aided in this shift. Larger audiences also brought a change in the Abbey's repertory policy. Rather than the theatre's old system of limiting the initial run of a new play to week, no matter how popular the play became, the Abbey ran their new plays until their audience was exhausted. This change in policy which was brought about partly because of the shortage of new plays was to have serious consequences in future years when the Abbey found its stock of popular revivals exhausted.
During the 1940s and 1950s, the staple fare at the Abbey was comic farce set in the idealised peasant world of Éamon de Valera. If such a world had ever existed, it was no longer considered relevant by most Irish citizens, and as a result, audience numbers continued to decline. This drift might have been more dramatic but popular actors, including F. J. McCormick, and dramatists, including George Shiels, could still draw a crowd. Austin Clarke staged events for his Dublin Verse Speaking Society—later the Lyric Theatre—at the Peacock from 1941 to 1944 and the Abbey from 1944 to 1951.
On 17 July 1951, a fire damaged the Abbey Theatre, with only the Peacock remaining intact. It is often recounted that the building was destroyed in the fire, but Frank MacDonald contends this is an overstatement, citing the continued use of the building by the Irish Academy of Letters until its eventual demolition in 1960. The company leased the old Queen's Theatre in September and continued in residence there until 1966.
The board had plans for rebuilding with a design by the Irish architect Michael Scott which dated back to 1959. The magazine, the Irish Builder, argued that it was favourable to refurbish the old building rather than build a new one, as "we feel the tourists who come here would prefer to see the old Abbey of Yeats and Synge, rather than the Abbey of Scott." On 3 September 1963, the President of Ireland, Éamon de Valera, laid the foundation stone for the new theatre, and the Abbey reopened on 18 July 1966. The cost of the new building was £725,000, an overspend on the original estimated £235,000, and resulted in the Dáil Committee for Public Accounts calling for an investigation into the overrun.
1950s to 1990s
A new building, a new generation of dramatists, including such figures as Hugh Leonard, Brian Friel and Tom Murphy, and tourism that included the National Theatre as a key cultural attraction, helped revive the theatre. Beginning in 1957, the theatre's participation in the Dublin Theatre Festival aided its revival. Plays such as Brian Friel's Philadelphia Here I Come! (1964), Faith Healer (1979) and Dancing at Lughnasa (1990); Tom Murphy's A Whistle in the Dark (1961) and The Gigli Concert (1983); and Hugh Leonard's Da (1973) and A Life (1980), helped raise the Abbey's international profile through successful runs in the West End in London, and on Broadway in New York City.
Challenges in the 2000s
In December 2004 the theatre celebrated its centenary with events that included performances of the original programme by amateur dramatic groups and a production of Michael West's Dublin By Lamplight, originally staged by Annie Ryan for The Corn Exchange company at the Project Arts Centre in November 2004. Despite the centenary, not all was well: audience numbers were falling, the Peacock was closed for lack of money, the theatre was near bankruptcy, and the staff felt the threat of huge lay-offs.
In September 2004 two members of the theatre's advisory council, playwrights Jimmy Murphy and Ulick O'Connor, tabled a "motion of no confidence" in Artistic Director Ben Barnes, and criticised him for touring with a play in Australia during the deep financial and artistic crisis at home. Barnes returned and temporarily held his position. The debacle put the Abbey under great public scrutiny. On 12 May 2005, Barnes and managing director Brian Jackson resigned after it was found that the theatre's deficit of €1.85 million had been underestimated. The new director, Fiach Mac Conghail, due to start in January 2006, took over in May 2005.
Reestablishment
On 20 August 2005, the Abbey Theatre's Advisory Council approved a plan to dissolve the Abbey's owner, the National Theatre Society, and replace it with a company limited by guarantee, the Abbey Theatre Limited. After strong debate, the board accepted the program. Basing its actions on this plan, the Arts Council of Ireland awarded the Abbey €25.7 million in January 2006 to be spread over three years. The grant represented an approximate 43 per cent increase in the Abbey's revenues and was the largest ever awarded by the Arts Council. The new company was established on 1 February 2006, with the announcement of a new Abbey Board chaired by High Court Judge Bryan McMahon. In March 2007 the larger auditorium in the theatre was radically reconfigured by Jean-Guy Lecat as part of a major upgrade of the theatre.
In 2009, the Literary Department announced the pilot of a new development initiative, the New Playwrights Programme. The six writers who took part in this pilot programme were Aidan Harney, Lisa Keogh, Shona McCarthy, Jody O'Neill, Neil Sharpson and Lisa Tierney-Keogh.
More than 30 writers were commissioned by the Abbey after Mac Conghail was appointed director in May 2005, and the Abbey produced new plays by Tom Murphy, Richard Dormer, Gary Duggan, Billy Roche, Bernard Farrell and Owen McCafferty. The Abbey also developed a relationship with the Public Theater in New York, where it has presented two new plays: Terminus by Mark O'Rowe and Sam Shepard's Kicking a Dead Horse. The Abbey also made a historic move in 2009/10 by producing four consecutive new plays by women writers: B for Baby by Carmel Winter, No Romance by Nancy Harris, Perve by Stacey Gregg and 16 Possible Glimpses by Marina Carr.
The Abbey ran a special programme, Waking the Nation, to commemorate the Easter Rising of 1916. Some controversy arose over the fact that of ten productions, only one, a monologue for children, was by a female playwright.
Co-directors and new building plans
In 2016, the Abbey's direction passed to two co-directors on five-year contracts. Neil Murray from Wales and Graham McLaren from Scotland pursued policies involving significant touring, a wider selection of plays including shorter runs, reduced reliance on Abbey stalwarts such as The Plough and the Stars (57 productions in the theatre's history), free previews, and an emphasis on diversity. They also pursued the project to renew the theatre building, with McLaren describing the current structure as "the worst theatre building I have ever worked in ... Stalinesque ... a terrible, terrible design".
After discussions about new locations in the Docklands, on O'Connell Street and elsewhere, it was decided to redevelop the Abbey in-situ. Hence, in September 2012, the Abbey Theatre purchased 15-17 Eden Quay, and in 2016, 22-23 Eden Quay. With a budget of up to 80 million euro mentioned, including capital funding from central government, the plan is to remove the existing building and build on the combined site, creating two new theatre spaces, of 700 and 250 seats, along with a restaurant, modern rehearsal spaces, and new offices. The new theatre would open on to the Liffey quays. As of January 2020, construction has not yet commenced.
In February 2021, after open competition, two new co-directors were appointed, Caitriona McLaughlin as Artistic Director and Mark O'Brien as Executive Director.
References
Bibliography
Fitz-Simon, Christopher. The Abbey Theatre—Ireland's National Theatre: The First 100 Years. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2003.
Foster, R. F. W. B. Yeats: A Life, Vol. II: The Arch-Poet 1915–1939. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. .
Frazier, Adrian. Behind the Scenes: Yeats, Horniman, and the Struggle for the Abbey Theatre. Berkeley: University of California, March 1990.
Gregory, Lady Augusta. Our Irish Theatre. New York and London: Knickerbocker Press, 1913.
Grene, Nicholas. The Politics of Irish Drama: Plays in Context from Boucicault to Friel. Cambridge University Press, February 1999.
Hogan, Robert, and Richard Burnham. Modern Irish Drama: A Documentary History. Vols. I-VI..
Hunt, Hugh. The Abbey: Ireland's National Theater, 1904–1979. New York: Columbia University Press, October 1979.
Igoe, Vivien. A Literary Guide to Dublin. Methuen, April 1995.
Kavanagh, Peter. The Story of the Abbey Theatre. New York: Devin-Adair, 1950.
Kilroy, James. The "Playboy" Riots. Dublin: Dolmen Pres, 1971. ASIN: B000LNLIXO
McGlone, James P. Ria Mooney: The Life and Times of the Artistic Director of the Abbey Theatre. McFarland and Company, February 2002.
Robinson, Lennox. Ireland's Abbey Theatre. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1951.
Ryan, Philip B. The Lost Theatres of Dublin. The Badger Press, September 1998.
Welch, Robert. The Abbey Theatre, 1899–1999: Form and Pressure. Oxford: Oxford University Press, February 1999.
External links
The Abbey and the genius of Irish theatre.
Denis Johnston and The Old Lady Says 'No'
Dublin's Abbey in centenary crisis—Guardian Unlimited''.
Barnes to stay on as Abbey Theatre director—RTÉ News
Arts Council voices concern over Abbey—RTÉ News
Resignations—RTÉ News.
Abbey Theatre Collection at Southern Illinois University Carbondale Special Collections Research Center
Abbey Theatre Collection at the Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library
Abbey Theatre Collection at the John J. Burns Library, Boston College
Abbey Theatre Dublin at Google Cultural Institute
Irish literature
National theatres
Theatres in Dublin (city)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amstrad%20Action
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Amstrad Action
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Amstrad Action was a monthly magazine, published in the United Kingdom, which catered to owners of home computers from the Amstrad CPC range and later the GX4000 console.
It was the first magazine published by Chris Anderson's Future Publishing, which with a varied line-up of computing and non-computing related titles has since become one of the foremost magazine publishers in the UK.
The publication, often abbreviated to AA by staff and readers, had the longest lifetime of any Amstrad magazine, running for 117 issues from October 1985 until June 1995 - long after the CPC had ceased production and games were no longer available.
History
Published by Future plc, a company set up by Chris Anderson (ex-Personal Computer Games and Zzap!64 editor). Launch Editor, Peter Connor, also an ex-PCG staff member, shared the writing duties with the only other staff writer, Bob Wade. Bob, another ex-PCG/Zzap!64 staff member, was given the title ‘Software Editor’ and would review the vast majority of the games featured, with Peter given a second opinion. Trevor Gilham, Art Editor, would complete the four man team.
Issue 1 dated October 1985 was released in September 1985 with the cover price of £1; 1p for every one of the 100 pages. It took the new publication a few issues to find its readers, but with the help of a bumper 116 page Christmas 1985 issue with a cover mounted tape, the circulation figures grew rapidly. In October 1986 Amstrad Action split into three separate publications. AA still catered for the CPC range, while 8000 Plus and PC Plus focused on the Amstrad PCW and PC range respectively.
AA eventually gave in to reader's pleas to have a permanent cover tape. An announcement was made, in AA66, that the following issue would not only include a cover tape, but contain more colour and be printed on different paper. Review pages were also slightly re-designed.
In April 1992 the Audit Bureau of Circulation figures showed an increase to 37,120, the highest circulation since July–December 1988's 38,457.
AA100 looked at the top 100 products for the CPC and took a trip down memory lane, looking back at past editors and staff. As circulation figures wound down further still there was a drastic drop in page numbers from 60 to 36 in July 1994's AA106. More compact issues mean no superfluous columns or features. AA107 became the first issue with only one member of official staff.
In AA111 there was no credits list, but the new editor, Karen Levell, answered the Reaction letters and confirmed her appointment. Although everything appeared as normal in June 1995's AA117, with AA118 advertised in the next month box, this was the last AA ever. The final headline (on issue AA117) was Publish and be Damned. The same month as AA's final issue (June 1995), publishing company HHL released the first issue of "CPC Attack!", a magazine which covered all Amstrad computer variations but also with additional non-Amstrad articles relating to the burgeoning console market. This more inclusive magazine, however, failed to become popular and was cancelled after just six issues, the last being published in November 1995 However, 'CPC Attack!' is usually quoted as being the successor to ACU (Amstrad Computer User), despite the fact that ACU magazine was cancelled after its final issue (May 1992), three years before the demise of 'AA'.
Features and editorial style
AA covered both 'games' and 'serious' side of the CPC, maintaining a 50/50 coverage throughout its run. The editorial coverage was always seen as being one of the three main areas; games/leisure, serious (programming, business software etc.), and the regulars, such as 'Amscene', 'Forum', 'Action Test', and 'Cheat Mode'.
Amscene
The latest CPC news regarding all things in the Amstrad world. Later included the games charts and games preview pages.
Reaction
The readers letters were answered in the Reaction section, where numerous arguments and, usually good natured, humour was found. Later during AAs run the standout letter of the month was highlighted and given the star prize award of £25. The technical problems page 'Problem Attic' started out in the Reaction pages in the early years before getting its own space. "If your CPC’s in danger, if you need help, then you can contact the AA team."
Action Test
The review approach included a main write up, a second opinion box, a good news / bad news comparison list and the percentages. Percentages were given to Graphics, Sonics, Grab Factor, Staying Power and an overall AA Rating. High rated games of 80% and above were given an 'AA Rave' accolade, while the highest rated game of the month received the 'Mastergame' award. This review style continued well into the early 1990s when the award accolades were scrapped. As budget games became more prominent during the CPC's life AA covered this growing market by including budget reviews in the 'Budget Bonanza' and later 'Action Replay' sections.
The Pilgrim
Interactive fiction was covered by "The Pilgrim", then "Balrog" and "The Examiner". The Pilgrim format included the latest adventure game reviews. 'Clue Sniffing With The Pilgrim' included adventure clues and tips. 'Pilgrim Post' was the letters column for adventure game topics. 'Adventure News' detailed the latest happenings in the world of adventure games.
Forum
The Forum carried on from the Problem Attic column where the resident Technical Editor answered reader's hardware or software problems and queries. As space in the magazine became restrictive other features like 'Helpline' and 'Ask Alex' were merged into the new 'Techy Forum'.
Type-In
One long running feature of AA was the Type-In section. This included utility, games and demo type-ins sent in by the readers. One had to type in the program code into the computer then run it. The core of this split the readership over whether the programs should be put on the covertape instead - over a six-month period this is what happened, until this practice (and ultimately the Type-Ins section) was abandoned due to space restrictions.
Helpline
The Helpline page was where eager Amstrad readers would offer contact details help fellow readers having problems. It was later merged with Technical Forum.
Cheat Mode
The tips pages included game pokes, tips, cheats and maps all contributed by the readers.
Aafterthought
Initially called Rear View, the back page was where all the loose ends were closed off, like competition winner results and last minute happenings.
Features
As activity in the Amstrad world declined, the editorial staff, and subsequently the editorial content, was constantly being reduced and the magazine adopted an increasingly eccentric style, with one edition in particular featuring an eight-page script for a Christmas pantomime. Later on, a double spread review for the 2nd Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles game was split between the review itself and a bizarre transcribed interview between Rod Lawton and Adam Peters (pretending to be one of the turtles). Peters would usually try and promote his band in some way (he featured on the cover of 'music orientated' issue and had one of his techno-MIDI band's songs on the covertape). The magazine is also notable for pioneering the kind of responses – sometimes dry, sometimes surreal, usually humorous and mildly rude – to readers' letters of a form now seen throughout UK gaming magazine culture. These characteristics, for many readers, added to AA'''s charm.
Cover Tapes
Chris Anderson using his previous success of covermounted cassette tapes with Personal Computer Games included one with the Christmas special issue of 1985. This included two unreleased games from Ocean Software; Kung Fu and Number 1. The covermount cassette tape was only an occurrence on the Christmas and AA birthday issues, not becoming a regular feature until AA67 in 1991, mainly due to requests from many readers. Cover-cassettes featured game demos, applications, software utilities and, in some instances, complete games. Due to the low quality of the cassettes used many Amstrad owners found them to be unreliable, something which was commonly reflected in the letters pages. One solution to fixing the unreliable tapes as posted to the letters section was to unwind the tape and put a warm iron on it. Later, a utility was released on the covertape to convert the contents to the proprietary 3" disk.
Dizzy, AA Special EditionCodemasters produced a Dizzy game specially for the AA birthday covertape in October 1988. This 'Special Edition' included different rooms and objects to explore.
Action Pack #1
AA67, dated April 1990, came with the first of the permanent cover tapes called Action Pack #1, along with a new cover price of £2.20. A playable demo of Ocean Software's Total Recall and complete games Hydrofool and Codemasters' Dizzy were included on the tape.
Action Pack #2
This tape caused some controversy among the readers as one of the featured games How To Be A Complete Bastard featured mild swearing, plus the game's quest was to be violent and obnoxious throughout a house party.
Stormlord Censored
December 1993 AA99's Serious Action cover tape included the complete Stormlord game, albeit a censored version. With the self-censoring of the Hewson game it seemed that AA was trying to avoid similar controversy that followed AA68's Action Pack #2.
Best Game Ever On Covertape
Voted the best game on the CPC, Firebird's Elite was the complete game given away with the 100th issue's Serious Action cover tape.
AA Games Accolades
Initially only the best rated game of the month earned an AA Mastergame accolade, but from issue 57 this was changed to all games that received a 90% or higher rating. Games receiving 80–90% were awarded an AA Rave. Publishers of CPC games such as Activision, Ocean and Infogrames proudly mounted these awards on their packaging to promote their games to potential customers. The first game to receive a 'Mastergame' award was Melbourne House's The Way of the Exploding Fist, gaining an impressive 94% AA Rating. Issue 38 was the first issue not to award any game the Mastergame accolade. Apparently there were no games worthy of the award that month. The lowest rated Mastergame was Target Renegade, from Imagine Software, receiving an 86% overall rating. Quite why it was awarded a Mastergame was not explained and remains a mystery.Laser Squad, by Blade Software, which has been mentioned many times as being an AA staff favourite, is awarded the Mastergame accolade, in AA49, with a 91% rating. March 1990 and the mysterious lost Mastergame that would be Chase HQ. The Ocean arcade game conversion received a score of 90%, coupled with being the highest rated game this issue. This would normally justify the Mastergame accolade, however the game only got an AA Rave accolade and no explanation or corrections were made since. June 1990 was the first issue to award the Mastergame accolade to more than one game; E-Motion by US Gold and Turrican by Rainbow Arts received ratings of 92% and 90% respectively. November 1990 and Rick Dangerous 2 received the highest rating so far. The MicroStyle game gained a MasterGame award and an AA Rating of 97%.
Psygnosis' Lemmings and Ocean's The Addams Family were the last games to receive a Mastergame accolade in July 1992's AA82; receiving 97% and 90% respectively. Following issues dispensed with AA Rave and Mastergame accolades. Lemmings joins Rick Dangerous 2 as gaining the highest AA rating given during its publication. March 1993's issue 90 featured the first highest rated game not to receive an AA accolade. Nigel Mansell’s World Championship received an overall rating of 93%, but no accolade of either Rave or Mastergame. The long standing AA signature accolade had been discarded.
Editorial staff
Memorable staff included Publisher Chris Anderson, Bob Wade, Richard Monteiro, Steve Carey, Rod "The Beard" Lawton, Trenton Webb, James Leach, Frank O'Connor and Adam Waring. Later editorial staff included Linda Barker, Dave Golder, Tim Norris and Simon Forrester, whose magazine nickname/handle was "The Hairy One", "The Hairy Happening" or often just "Hairy". Simon had written various programs himself for the platform and was known to jump down the throats of people who didn't agree with his fondness for the video game Chuckie Egg.
Editors
Bob Wade
Software Editor (AA1–AA12)
Deputy Editor (AA13–AA16)
Editor (AA17–AA34)
Like Chris, Bob started out at PCG and Zzap!64, before becoming the Software Editor on AA. Climbed the ranks of Deputy Editor before becoming the Editor. Bob left after issue 34 to Edit sister publication Advanced Computer Entertainment and later Amiga Format. While at Amiga Format he helped launch Amiga Power. Left journalism, in the mid-1990s, to form his own games development company; Binary Asylum, producing Amiga games like Zee Wolf and Zee Wolf 2. After Binary Asylum failed to establish itself into the PC market Bob moved over to the internet product monitoring service; Game Campaign. He is now back at Future.
Steve Carey
Editor (AA35–AA50)
Having spent some time at PC Plus as Production Editor, Steve replaced the departing Bob Wade as Editor on issue 35. Left after issue 50 in November 1989 to edit ST Format. Later went on to become a Publisher overseeing such titles as MEGA, Amiga Power, PC Gamer, .net and the games industries well respected EDGE, among others. In January 1995 he was made Publishing Director for the Consumer Division. He now lives in Australia.
Rod Lawton
Editor (AA51–AA89)
Previous experience of working on New Computer Express and ACE, Rod arrived at AA51 and holds the record for longest serving editor, spanning 39 issues and over three years. Left to work as Editor at Future's newly launched Leisure publishing section. Has written, or co-written, many computing and games books. Has written for many publications since, including PC Plus, PC Answers, PC Format. Most recently has written for the weekly "Computing for beginners" style magazine Computeractive. Also runs a Digital Imaging web site where photographers at all levels of expertise can find out more about the terms, concepts and techniques behind photography.
Dave Golder
Editor (AA96–AA109)
Previous work on Your Sinclair and Commodore Format before arriving as Editor on AA96. Left after issue 111 to edit fellow Future title Ultimate Future Games. In 1995 he helped launch the new Future Publishing Sci-Fi mag SFX, taking over the editor position in 1996 and remained there until 2005. Currently writes a Sci-Fi column on the Sci-Fi UK website.
Staff Writers
Richard Monteiro
Technical Editor (AA15–AA32)
Richard arrived as the new Technical Editor on issue 15. After 18 issues he left to launch new Future publication ST/Amiga Format. In 1990 Richard formed the company Words Works Limited, in Trowbridge with his own editorial team and produced RAZE under subcontract from Newsfield Publications. The first issue of RAZE appeared in October 1990 and ran for 12 issue until Newsfield couldn't sustain any more publications. In 1992 Richard, along with another ex-Future Publishing staff member Dianne Taverner, co-founded Paragon Publishing, holding the title Managing Director. Key titles published during the 1990s included Sega Pro, Play, XGen and Games World: The magazine.
Trenton Webb
Staff Writer (AA42–AA59)
Trenton arrived as the new games reviewing guru in June 1989's issue. After 18 issues had left to work on many other Future Publishing titles including Amiga Format and Your Sinclair. During this time he appeared on Channel 4's GamesMaster video games TV show in the reviews section. Later became Editor of magazines such as Game Zone, Commodore Format and ST Format. He left journalism in the mid-1990s to work in the industry itself, working with Bob Wade, at Binary Asylum, as a Games Designer. After Binary Asylum closed, he went to work for Internet and Intranet website design firm Zehuti as Project Manager.
James Leach
Staff Writer (AA60–AA64)
Experienced member of Future publishing who has worked on many magazines. Apart from Amstrad Action James had worked on Your Sinclair, Amiga Format, PC Format, GamesMaster and as Editor on SNES magazine Super Play. After leaving Future Publishing, in the mid-1990s, James went on to work for software company Bullfrog, contributing to many games including Syndicate Wars, Dungeon Keeper and Theme Hospital. Other companies James has worked for include Black & White Studios and Lionhead, holding positions such as Lead Writer and Head of Scripting & Writing respectively, working on such games as Black & White, Fable and Black & White 2. In 2006 James left Lionhead to go freelance where he now describes his skill and experience as "Writer of game plots, dialogue, websites, ads (ATL and BTL), children's books, sitcoms and more."
Frank O'Connor
Staff Writer (AA65–AA72)
Frank's first job in the industry was Amstrad Action position of Staff Writer. Frank left AA after issue 71 to work on EMAP's Computer & Video Games (a.k.a. C+VG). After his stint on C+VG Frank came back to Future Publishing to edit the Nintendo games magazine Total!. Appeared, as co-commentator, on many GamesMaster episodes during the second and third series from 1992 to 1994. Later moved into the games industry; worked as Editor in Chief on DailyRadar.com an online video games site. Later held the position of Executive Editor on the Official Xbox Magazine. Is currently Content Manager for Bungie; the developer of Halo, Myth, Oni, and Marathon.
Adam Waring
Technical Editor (AA50–AA83)
Joint second longest serving editorial staff, along with Bob Wade, Adam was the Technical Editor for 34 issues. Reviewed Rick Dangerous 2, which is the joint highest rated AA game. Adam had written several games himself, including Lost Caves and Ninja Massacre, and if one came up for review upon re-release, he would gracefully be allowed to write a second opinion. He also wrote Your Sinclair "Spec Tec" column where readers technical queries were answered. Left Future Publishing in 1992 to travel around the world. Returned to Future Publishing Editing magazines such as Max Magazine. Went on to edit Merricks Media's Spanish Magazine based in Bath.
Simon Forrester
Staff Writer (AA89–AA106)
One of the last Staff Writers to work on AA, arriving just as Rod Lawton was leaving in 1993. Later shared duties between AA and Commodore Format before taking over the editorship of CF in 1995. Later worked for Bath-based internet monitoring company called FYI, and their site gamecampaign.com, and then Bath-based web designers Zehuti Ltd.
Freelance writers
There were many freelance writers, with many producing a regular, monthly column. They included Steve "The Pilgrim" Cooke; Stuart "The Balrog" Whyte; PD columnists Jerry Glenwright, Caroline Lamb (a.k.a. Steve Williams), Tim Blackbond and Keith Wood; fanzine columnist David Crookes; and reviewers Richard Wildey and Angela Cook. David Crookes continues to write about the Amstrad as a freelance writer for Retro Gamer magazine.
One of the most memorable, however, was technical writer and covertape editor Richard Fairhurst, a.k.a. CRTC. The latter name matched the initialism of the CPC's Cathode Ray Tube Controller and was sometimes expanded to ChaRleyTroniC. He ran a public domain library called Robot PD and was also an accomplished computer programmer, producing the fully-fledged utilities PowerPage and RoutePlanner for the CPC as well as contributing to various demos. In the CPC fan community, he wrote articles about demos for CPC Attack, was editor of the Amstrad-centred disczine Better Than Life, and was the final editor of the more professional-centric fanzine WACCI''.
References
External links
TACGR 'The Amstrad Computer Games Resource' – AA list of Mastergames, Raves and all other rated games.
AA magazine cover scans AA cover scans from Nich Campbell's Amstrad CPC web pages.
CPCWIKI Amstrad Action entry
Archived Amstrad Action magazines on the Internet Archive
1985 establishments in the United Kingdom
1995 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Amstrad CPC
Amstrad magazines
Video game magazines published in the United Kingdom
Defunct computer magazines published in the United Kingdom
Magazines established in 1985
Magazines disestablished in 1995
|
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207978
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaine
|
Elaine
|
Elaine may refer to:
Elaine (legend), name shared by several different female characters in Arthurian legend, especially:
Elaine of Astolat
Elaine of Corbenic
"Elaine" (short story), 1945 short story by J. D. Salinger
Elaine (singer), South African singer
Business
Elaine's, a New York City restaurant
Entertainment
The Exploits of Elaine, 1914 film serial in the genre of The Perils of Pauline
"Elaine" (song) by ABBA, the B-side of the single The Winner Takes It All and a bonus track on the CD re-issues of Super Trouper
"Miss Elaine", song by Run–D.M.C. from the album Tougher Than Leather
Elaine Marley, heroine of the video series Monkey Island
Elaine (opera), composed by Herman Bemberg
Elaine Benes (Seinfeld character)
Places
Elaine, Victoria, a town in Australia
Elaine, Arkansas, a US city
People
Elaine (given name)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dannie%20Abse
|
Dannie Abse
|
Daniel Abse CBE FRSL (22 September 1923 – 28 September 2014) was a Welsh poet and physician. His poetry won him many awards. As a medic, he worked in a chest clinic for over 30 years.
Early years
Abse was born in Cardiff, Wales, as the younger brother of the politician and reformer Leo Abse and the eminent psychoanalyst Wilfred Abse. Unusually for a middle-class Jewish boy, Dannie Abse attended St Illtyd's College, a working-class Catholic school in Splott. Abse studied medicine, first at the University of Wales College of Medicine and then at Westminster Hospital Medical School and King's College London.
Abse was a passionate supporter of Cardiff City football club. He first went to watch them play in 1934 and many of his writings refer to his experiences watching and lifelong love of the team known as "The Bluebirds".
Career as poet
Although best known as a poet, Abse worked in the medical field, and was a physician in a chest clinic for over thirty years. He received numerous literary awards and fellowships for his writing. In 1989, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Wales.
His first volume of poetry, After Every Green Thing, was published in 1949. His autobiographic work, Ash on a Young Man's Sleeve, was published in 1954. He won the Welsh Arts Council Award in both 1971 and 1987, and the Cholmondeley Award in 1985. He was a Fellow of The Royal Society of Literature from 1983. In a foreword to Collected Poems 1948–1976, Abse noted that his poems are increasingly "rooted in actual experience," both domestic and professional, and many display a reconciliation between Jewish and Welsh themes and traditions.
Abse lived for several decades in the north-west area of London, mainly near Hampstead, where he had considerable ties. For several years he wrote a column for the local Hampstead and Highgate Express. These articles subsequently appeared in book form.
In 2005, his wife Joan was killed in a car accident, while Abse suffered a broken rib. His poetry collection, Running Late, was published in 2006, and The Presence, a memoir of the year after his wife died, was published in 2007; it won the 2008 Wales Book of the Year award. The book was later dramatised for BBC Radio 4. He was awarded the Roland Mathias prize for Running Late.
In 2009, Abse brought out a volume of collected poetry. In the same year, he received the Wilfred Owen Poetry Award. Abse was a judge for the inaugural 2010 Hippocrates Prize for Poetry and Medicine. Abse was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to poetry and literature.
Abse died on 28 September 2014, six days after his 91st birthday.
Books
After Every Green Thing, Hutchinson, 1948
Walking Under Water, Hutchinson, 1952
Fire in Heaven, Hutchinson, 1956
Mavericks: An Anthology, ed. with Howard Sergeant, Editions Poetry and Poverty, 1957
Tenants of the House: Poems 1951–1956, Hutchinson, 1957
Poems, Golders Green, Hutchinson, 1962
Poems! Dannie Abse: A Selection, Vista/Dufour, 1963
Modern European Verse, ed., Vista, 1964
Medicine on Trial, Aldus, 1967
Three Questor Plays, Scorpion, 1967
A Small Desperation, Hutchinson, 1968
Demo Sceptre, 1969
Selected Poems, Hutchinson, 1970
Modern Poets in Focus 1, ed., Corgi, 1971
Modern Poets in Focus 3, ed., Corgi, 1971
Thirteen Poets, ed., Poetry Book Society, 1972
Funland and Other Poems, Hutchinson, 1973
Modern Poets in Focus 5, ed., Corgi, 1973
The Dogs of Pavlov, Vallentine, Mitchell, 1973
A Poet in the Family, Hutchinson, 1974
Penguin Modern Poets 26, with Dannie Abse, D. J. Enright and Michael Longley, Penguin, 1975
Collected Poems 1948–1976, Hutchinson, 1977
More Words, BBC, 1977
My Medical School, Robson, 1978
Pythagoras, Hutchinson, 1979
Way Out in the Centre, Hutchinson, 1981
A Strong Dose of Myself, Hutchinson, 1983
One-legged on ice: poems, University of Georgia Press, 1983
Doctors and Patients ed., Oxford University Press, 1984
Ask the Bloody Horse, Hutchinson, 1986
Journals From the Ant Heap, Hutchinson, 1986
Voices in the Gallery: Poems and Pictures, ed. with Joan Abse, Tate Gallery, 1986
The Music Lover's Literary Companion, ed. with Joan Abse, Robson, 1988
The Hutchinson Book of Post-War British Poetry, ed., Hutchinson, 1989
White Coat, Purple Coat: Collected Poems 1948–1988, Hutchinson, 1989
People, contributor, National Language Unit of Wales, 1990
Remembrance of Crimes Past: Poems 1986–1989, Hutchinson, 1990
The View from Row G: Three Plays, Seren, 1990
Intermittent Journals, Seren, 1994
On the Evening Road, Hutchinson, 1994
Selected Poems, Penguin, 1994
The Gregory Anthology 1991–1993, ed. with A. Stevenson, Sinclair-Stevenson, 1994
Twentieth-Century Anglo-Welsh Poetry, ed., Seren, 1997
Welsh Retrospective, Seren, 1997
Arcadia, One Mile, Hutchinson, 1998
Be seated, thou: poems 1989–1998, Sheep Meadow Press, 1999
Encounters Hearing Eye, 2001
Goodbye, Twentieth Century: An Autobiography, Pimlico, 2001
New and Collected Poems, Hutchinson, 2002
The Two Roads Taken: A Prose Miscellany, Enitharmon Press, 2003
Yellow Bird, Sheep Meadow Press, 2004
Running Late, Hutchinson, 2006
100 Great Poems of Love and Lust: Homage to Eros, compiler/ed., Robson, 2007
The Presence, Hutchinson, 2007
New Selected Poems 1949–2009: Anniversary Collection, Hutchinson, 2009 (shortlisted for Ted Hughes Award for New Work in Poetry)
Speak, Old Parrot, Hutchinson, 2013
Ask the Moon: New and collected poems 1948–2014, Hutchinson, 2014
Fiction
Ash on a Young Man's Sleeve, Hutchinson, 1954
Some Corner of an English Field, Hutchinson, 1956
O Jones, O Jones, Hutchinson, 1970
There Was A Young Man From Cardiff, Hutchinson, 1991
The Strange Case of Dr Simmonds & Dr Glas, Robson, 2002
Plays
Fire in Heaven (produced London, 1948), retitled Is the House Shut (1964) and In the Cage (1967)
Hands Around the Wall (produced London, 1950)
House of Cowards (produced London, 1960)
The Eccentric (produced London, 1961)
Gone (produced London, 1962)
The Joker (produced, London, 1962), retitled The Courting of Essie Glass (1981)
The Dogs of Pavlov (produced London, 1969)
Funland (produced London, 1975)
Pythagoras (produced Birmingham, 1976), retitled Pythagoras (Smith)
Published plays
– includes House of Cowards, Gone and In the Cage
– includes House of Cowards, The Dogs of Pavlov and Pythagoras (Smith)
Radio plays
Conform or Die (1957)
No Telegrams, No Thunder (1962)
You Can't Say Hello to Anybody (1964)
A Small Explosion (1964)
The Courting of Elsie Glass (1975)
References
Further reading
External links
Annotations at NYU Literature, Arts, and Medicine Database of several Abse works, with links to texts and audio of the poet reading poems " Carnal Knowledge", "Case History", "The Origin of Music", "Pathology of Colours", "The Stethoscope".
"Dannie Abse", Fellows Remembered, The Royal Society of Literature
Dannie Abse Papers at the Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library
1923 births
Anglo-Welsh poets
20th-century Welsh poets
21st-century Welsh poets
20th-century British poets
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
Jewish poets
Alumni of King's College London
Fellows of King's College London
Alumni of the University of Wales
20th-century Welsh medical doctors
2014 deaths
Writers from Cardiff
Welsh Jews
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Dannie
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Fuseli
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Henry Fuseli
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Henry Fuseli ( ; German: Johann Heinrich Füssli ; 7 February 1741 – 17 April 1825) was a Swiss painter, draughtsman and writer on art who spent much of his life in Britain. Many of his works, such as The Nightmare, deal with supernatural subject matter. He painted works for John Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery, and created his own "Milton Gallery". He held the posts of Professor of Painting and Keeper at the Royal Academy. His style had a considerable influence on many younger British artists, including William Blake.
Biography
Fuseli was born in Zürich, Switzerland, the second of 18 children. His father was Johann Caspar Füssli, a painter of portraits and landscapes, and author of Lives of the Helvetic Painters. He intended Henry for the church, and sent him to the Caroline college of Zurich, where he received an excellent classical education. One of his schoolmates there was Johann Kaspar Lavater, with whom he became close friends.
After taking orders in 1761, Fuseli was forced to leave the country as a result of having helped Lavater to expose an unjust magistrate, whose powerful family sought revenge. He travelled through Germany, and then, in 1765, visited England, where he supported himself for some time by miscellaneous writing. Eventually, he became acquainted with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom he showed his drawings. Following Reynolds' advice, he decided to devote himself entirely to art. In 1770 he made an art-pilgrimage to Italy, where he remained until 1778, changing his name from Füssli to the more Italian-sounding Fuseli.
Early in 1779 he returned to Britain, taking in Zürich on his way. In London he found a commission awaiting him from Alderman Boydell, who was then setting up his Shakespeare Gallery. Fuseli painted a number of pieces for Boydell, and published an English edition of Lavater's work on physiognomy. He also gave William Cowper some valuable assistance in preparing a translation of Homer. In 1788 Fuseli married Sophia Rawlins (originally one of his models), and he soon after became an associate of the Royal Academy. The early feminist Mary Wollstonecraft, whose portrait he had painted, planned a trip with him to Paris, and pursued him determinedly, but after Sophia's intervention the Fuselis' door was closed to her forever. Fuseli later said "I hate clever women. They are only troublesome". In 1790 he became a full Academician, presenting Thor Battering the Midgard Serpent as his diploma work. In 1799 Fuseli was appointed professor of painting to the Academy. Four years later he was chosen as Keeper, and resigned his professorship, but resumed it in 1810, continuing to hold both offices until his death. As Keeper, he was succeeded by Henry Thomson.
In 1799 Fuseli exhibited a series of paintings from subjects furnished by the works of John Milton, with a view to forming a Milton gallery comparable to Boydell's Shakespeare gallery. There were 47 Milton paintings, many of them very large, completed at intervals over nine years. The exhibition proved a commercial failure and closed in 1800. In 1805 he brought out an edition of Pilkington's Lives of the Painters, which did little for his reputation.
Antonio Canova, when on his visit to England, was much taken with Fuseli's works, and on returning to Rome in 1817 caused him to be elected a member of the first class in the Academy of St Luke.
Works
As a painter, Fuseli favoured the supernatural. He pitched everything on an ideal scale, believing a certain amount of exaggeration necessary in the higher branches of historical painting. In this theory he was confirmed by the study of Michelangelo's works and the marble statues of the Monte Cavallo, which, when at Rome, he liked to contemplate in the evening, relieved against a murky sky or illuminated by lightning.
Describing his style, the 1911 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica said that:His figures are full of life and earnestness, and seem to have an object in view which they follow with intensity. Like Rubens he excelled in the art of setting his figures in motion. Though the lofty and terrible was his proper sphere, Fuseli had a fine perception of the ludicrous. The grotesque humour of his fairy scenes, especially those taken from A Midsummer-Night's Dream, is in its way not less remarkable than the poetic power of his more ambitious works.
Though not noted as a colourist, Fuseli was described as a master of light and shadow. Rather than setting out his palette methodically in the manner of most painters, he merely distributed the colours across it randomly. He often used his pigments in the form of a dry powder, which he hastily combined on the end of his brush with oil, or turpentine, or gold size, regardless of the quantity, and depending on accident for the general effect. This recklessness may perhaps be explained by the fact that he did not paint in oil until the age of 25.
Fuseli painted more than 200 pictures, but he exhibited only a small number of them. His earliest painting represented Joseph interpreting the Dreams of the Baker and Butler, but the first to excite particular attention was The Nightmare, exhibited in 1782, a painting of which he painted several versions. Themes seen in The Nightmare such as horror, dark magic and sexuality, were echoed in his 1796 painting, Night-Hag visiting the Lapland Witches.
His sketches or designs numbered about 800; they have admirable qualities of invention and design, and are frequently superior to his paintings. In his drawings, as in his paintings, his method included deliberately exaggerating the proportions of the human body and throwing his figures into contorted attitudes. One technique involved setting down arbitrary points on a sheet, which then became the extreme points of the various limbs. Notable examples of these drawings were made in concert with George Richmond when the two artists were together in Rome. He rarely drew the figure from life, basing his art on study of the antique and Michelangelo.
He produced no landscapes—"Damn Nature! she always puts me out" was his characteristic exclamation—and painted only two portraits. However, similar to contemporary landscape painters such as J. M. W. Turner, he evoked qualities of terror and the sublime.
Many interesting anecdotes of Fuseli, and his relations to contemporary artists, are given in his Life by John Knowles (1831). He influenced the art of Fortunato Duranti.
Writings
In 1788 Fuseli started to write essays and reviews for the Analytical Review. With Thomas Paine, William Godwin, Joseph Priestley, Erasmus Darwin, Mary Wollstonecraft, and others interested in art, literature and politics, Fuseli frequented the home of Joseph Johnson, a publisher and prominent figure in radical British political and intellectual life. He also visited Allerton Hall in Liverpool, the home of William Roscoe.
When Louis XVI was executed in France in 1793, Fuseli condemned the revolution as despotic and anarchic, although he had first welcomed it as a sign of "an age pregnant with the most gigantic efforts of character".
He was a thorough master of French, Italian, English and German, and could write in all these languages with equal facility and vigour, although he preferred German as the vehicle of his thoughts. His principal work was his series of twelve lectures delivered to the Royal Academy, begun in 1801.
Influence
His pupils included John Constable, Benjamin Haydon, William Etty, and Edwin Landseer. William Blake, who was 16 years his junior, recognized a debt to him, and for a time many English artists copied his mannerisms.
Death
After a life of uninterrupted good health he died at the house of the Countess of Guildford on Putney Hill, at the age of 84, and was buried in the crypt of St Paul's Cathedral. He was comparatively wealthy at the time of his death.
Gallery
Films
Passion and Obsession: Henry Fuseli, 1741–1825: painter and writer by Gaudenz Meili and Prof. David H. Weinglass, Zurich 1997
See also
Füssli, Johann Caspar (1706–1782), Swiss portrait painter (father of Henry Fuseli)
Füssli, Johann Kaspar (1743–1786), Swiss entomologist (brother of Henry Fuseli)
References and sources
References
Sources
Further reading
Calè, Luisa. Fuseli's Milton Gallery: 'Turning readers into spectators'''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2006.
Hammelmann, Hans (1957). "Eighteenth-Century English Illustrators: Henry Fuseli, R.A.," The Book Collector 6 No.4 (winter): 350–363.
Keay, Carolyn. Henry Fuseli. London: Academy Editions, 1974.
Lentzsch, Franziska, et al. Fuseli: The Wild Swiss. Zürich: Scheidegger & Spiess, 2005.
Myrone, Martin. Gothic Nightmares: Fuseli, Blake and the Romantic Imagination. London: Tate Publishing, 2006.
Andrei Pop. Antiquity, Theatre, and the Painting of Henry Fuseli. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Powell, Nicolas. Fuseli: The Nightmare. London: Allen Lane, 1973.
Pressly, Nancy L. The Fuseli Circle in Rome: Early Romantic Art of the 1770s. New Haven: Yale Center for British Art, 1979.
Tomory, P. A. The Life and Art of Henry Fuseli. New York: Praeger, 1972.
Weinglass, David H. Henry Fuseli and the Engraver's Art''. Boston: World Wide Books, 1982.
External links
Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections
Fuseli's Lecture on Painting 1801
1741 births
1825 deaths
18th-century British painters
British male painters
19th-century British painters
Burials at St Paul's Cathedral
Keepers of the Royal Academy
British portrait painters
Swiss portrait painters
Royal Academicians
People from Zürich
18th-century Swiss painters
Swiss male painters
19th-century Swiss painters
19th-century male artists
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] |
207983
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerOpen%20Environment
|
PowerOpen Environment
|
The PowerOpen Environment (POE), created in 1991 from the AIM alliance, is an open standard for running a Unix-based operating system on the PowerPC computer architecture.
History
The AIM alliance was announced on October 2, 1991, yielding the historic first technology partnership between Apple and IBM. One of its many lofty goals was to somehow eventually merge Apple's user-friendly graphical interface and desktop applications market with IBM's highly scalable Unix server market, allowing the two companies to enter what Apple believed to be an emerging "general desktop open systems market". This was touched upon by Apple's November 1991 announcement of A/UX 3.0. The upcoming A/UX 4.0 (never actually released) would target the PowerOpen Environment ABI, merge features of IBM's AIX variant of Unix into A/UX, and use the OSF/1 kernel from the Open Software Foundation. A/UX 3.0 would serve as an "important migration path" to this new system, making Unix and System 7 applications compliant with PowerOpen. A/UX 4.0 and AIX were intended to run on a variety of IBM's POWER and PowerPC hardware, and on Apple's PowerPC based hardware.
The need for the POE lessened due to the increasing availability of Unix and Linux distributions for the PowerPC, including AIX. The PowerOpen Association, an organization formed to promote the POE and test for conformance with it, disbanded in 1995.
Overview
The POE contains API and ABI specifications. The presence of the ABI specification in the POE distinguishes it from other open systems such as POSIX and XPG4, since it allows platform-independent binary compatibility, which is otherwise typically limited to particular hardware. Derived from AIX, the POE conforms to industry open standards including POSIX, XPG4, and Motif.
The POE is hardware bus independent. System implementations can range from laptop computers to supercomputers. It requires a multi-user, multitasking operating system. It provides networking support, an X Window System extension, a Macintosh Application Services extension, and Motif.
See also
AIM alliance
PowerPC Reference Platform
References
PowerOpen ABI specification
This article was originally based on material from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing and is used under the GFDL.
IBM software
|
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207985
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick%20Dangerous
|
Rick Dangerous
|
Rick Dangerous is a platform game developed by Core Design for the Acorn Archimedes, Amiga, Atari ST, Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, and MS-DOS. The game was released in 1989 and published by MicroProse on the Firebird Software label in the UK, and on the MicroPlay label in America. It was also published in Spain by Erbe Software. Later, it was released with two other games, Stunt Car Racer and MicroProse Soccer, on the Commodore 64 Powerplay 64 cartridge. The game was followed by a sequel, Rick Dangerous 2, in 1990. Loosely based on the Indiana Jones film franchise, the game received mixed reviews from critics.
Plot
The plot of Rick Dangerous is largely based on the Indiana Jones movie Raiders of the Lost Ark. Set in 1945, British agent Rick Dangerous travels to the Amazon jungle to search for the lost Goolu tribe. His plane crashes in the jungle, and Rick must escape from the enraged Goolu. When the game starts Rick finds himself in a cave running from a rolling boulder, a famous scene from the Indiana Jones movie.
Armed with a pistol and dynamite, Rick must fight hostiles and evade traps in three more levels. The second level of the game is set inside a pyramid located in Egypt. In the third level, Rick must venture to the Nazi stronghold of Schwarzendumpf castle to rescue captured Allied soldiers. The rescued soldiers tell him that the Nazis are planning a missile attack on London. Therefore, in the last level, Rick must infiltrate their secret missile base.
Gameplay
Rick can jump and climb, as well as carry a limited amount of dynamite and ammunition for his gun. This gun is Rick's primary means of disposing of enemies. Most traps throughout the game that can kill Rick can also kill his enemies, which can be to the player's advantage. The dynamite sticks that Rick carries are generally used for solving puzzles, such as through exploding certain blocks (some of them fly towards the explosion, potentially killing Rick in the backfire). Rick is also armed with a pogo stick that allows him to paralyze enemies.
Many of the traps in Rick Dangerous have no visible warning, which means that a player's initial progress through the game may consist of trial and error. This was criticized by some reviewers.
Reception
Your Sinclair awarded Rick Dangerous with a 78% rating, stating that the game was "A trekkin' good arcade adventure. Simple but tricky, with that vital just-one-more-go element," while Computer and Video Games gave the Spectrum game an 87%, plus a "C+VG Hit" award, saying that it was "An excellent platform game ..."
The C64 version met with lukewarm reviews; an 84% from CU Amiga-64 and a 73% from Zzap!64. Zzap!64 pointed out that the game was "a playable and fun platform-style game but not much more than that". The Amstrad version also received the same response getting a 76% from The Games Machine, although the game fared slightly better with Amstrad Action who rated it 83% and awarded it with an "AA Rave" accolade.
ACE gave the Amiga version an 890 rating, and Amiga Format gave an 89%. Amiga Power was highly critical of both games and the reliance on pattern learning.
The Atari ST version received positive reviews; 88% and 87% from The One for 16-bit Games and Computer and Video Games, respectively. The One magazine explained that "Rick Dangerous rates as one of the most enjoyable 16-bit arcade games in a long time".
Game developer David Cage considers Rick Dangerous to be his favourite game.
References
External links
Rick Dangerous at MobyGames
Rick Dangerous at Hall of Light
1989 video games
Acorn Archimedes games
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Atari ST games
Cancelled Game Boy Advance games
Commodore 64 games
Core Design games
DOS games
Fictional secret agents and spies
Microplay Software games
Platform games
Square Enix franchises
Video games about Nazi Germany
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games set in Brazil
Video games set in Egypt
Video games set in Germany
Video games set in London
ZX Spectrum games
Works set in castles
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracles%20of%20Macedon
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Heracles of Macedon
|
Heracles of Macedon (; c. 327 – 309 BC) was a reputed illegitimate son of Alexander the Great of Macedon by Barsine, daughter of Satrap Artabazus of Phrygia. Heracles was named after the Greek mythological hero of the same name, from whom the Argeads claimed descent.
History
It cannot be established definitively whether Heracles was Alexander’s son or not. Of the ancient sources, both Plutarch and Justin mention Barsine and Heracles but Arrian in the Alexander's Anabasis mentions neither. Plutarch recounts that Alexander took Barsine as his mistress, but on the arguably spurious grounds that she was recommended to him by Parmenion (despite the many disagreements between him and Alexander, and Alexander's apparent contempt for his judgement). Of Barsine, Mary Renault states that:
If Heracles were Alexander’s illegitimate child, then it also raises the pointed question as to why he, as Alexander’s only living son at the time of his death, was not immediately drawn into the succession disputes, and why he was passed over in favour of Philip Arrhidaeus - himself illegitimate - who was only a son of Alexander’s father Philip, and thus a more distant claimant than Heracles. Renault concludes that the romance with Barsine was invented retrospectively to validate Heracles' parentage.
On Alexander's death Nearchus, who was then son-in-law of Barsine, advocated for Heracles' inheritance, but was unsuccessful.
Either way, Heracles lived in obscurity until Alexander IV's murder by Cassander in 310 BC or 309 BC. At that point Polyperchon, a regent of Macedon who had been replaced by Cassander and had all but disappeared for the previous six years, began championing Heracles as Alexander's true heir, and Polyperchon began forming an army. Instead of fighting, Cassander negotiated with Polyperchon. By offering Polyperchon various bribes such as a sinecure and a large number of talents, Cassander persuaded him to murder Heracles, and Polyperchon retired to obscurity once more.
Family tree
References
External links
A detailed biography of Heracles' mother Barsine
Children of Alexander III the Great on Web Archive (Pothos.org 2011)
A genealogical tree of Heracles
4th-century BC Macedonians
Family of Alexander the Great
Ancient Macedonians
People who died under the regency of Cassander
Murdered royalty of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
320s BC births
309 BC deaths
Greek people of Iranian descent
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20Taizong%20of%20Tang
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Emperor Taizong of Tang
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Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder of the dynasty for his role in encouraging Li Yuan, his father, to rebel against the Sui dynasty at Jinyang in 617. Taizong subsequently played a pivotal role in defeating several of the dynasty's most dangerous opponents and solidifying its rule over China.
Taizong is considered to be one of the greatest emperors in China's history and henceforth, his reign became regarded as the exemplary model against which all future emperors were measured. His era, the "Reign of Zhenguan ()" is considered a golden age in ancient Chinese history and was treated as required studying material for future crown princes. Taizong continued to develop imperial examination systems. He asked his officers to become loyal to the policies not people, in order to eliminate corruption. Under the Zhenguan era, Tang China flourished economically and militarily. For more than a century after his death, China enjoyed prosperity and peace brought about by the solidification of imperial protection over the Chinese regions. In territorial extent, it covered most of the territories previously held by the Han dynasty and parts of modern Korea, Vietnam, Xinjiang, and Central Asian regions. This era of consolidation and conquest laid the foundation for Xuanzong's reign, which is considered to be the height of the Tang dynasty.
In 630, Emperor Taizong sent his general Li Jing against the Eastern Turks, defeating and capturing their Jiali Khan Ashina Duobi and destroying their power. This made Tang the dominant power in East and Central Asia, and Emperor Taizong subsequently took the title of Tengeri Qaghan (, "Tenger Khan" or the God like Emperor). He also launched a series of campaigns against the oasis states of the Tarim Basin, and against the armies of their main ally, the Western Turks. During his reign, Tang armies annexed Karakhoja in 640, Karasahr in 644 and Kucha in 648. Eventually, the Tang defeated and annexed the Western Gokturk khaganate after Su Dingfang defeated Qaghan Ashina Helu in 657.
Unlike much of the nobility in his time, Emperor Taizong was a frank rationalist and scholar of logic and scientific reason, openly scorning superstitions and claims of signs from the heavens. He also modified important rites in order to ease the burden of agricultural labour. The modern Chinese historian Bo Yang opined that Emperor Taizong achieved greatness by enduring criticism which others would find difficult to accept whilst trying hard not to abuse his absolute power (using Emperor Yang of Sui as a negative example), as well as through his employment of capable chancellors such as Fang Xuanling, Du Ruhui and Wei Zheng. Emperor Taizong's wife Empress Zhangsun also proved to be a capable assistant.
Early life
Lǐ Shìmín was born in 598 at Wugong, in modern Xianyang, Shaanxi). His father Li Yuan, the Duke of Tang, was a general of the Sui Dynasty, and a nephew, by marriage, to Sui's founding emperor Emperor Wen. Li Shimin's grandmother Duchess Dugu was a sister of Empress Dugu, both of whom were daughters of Dugu Xin, a major Xianbei general during Sui's predecessor dynasty Northern Zhou. Li Shimin's mother, Li Yuan's wife Duchess Dou, was a daughter of Dou Yi (), the Duke of Shenwu, and his wife, Northern Zhou's Princess Xiangyang. Duchess Dou bore Li Yuan four sons—an older brother to Li Shimin, Li Jiancheng, and two younger brothers, Li Yuanba (), who would die in 614, and Li Yuanji – and at least one daughter (the later Princess Pingyang). Li Yuan named Li Shimin "Shimin" as a shortened form of the phrase "save the earth and pacify the people" (). Li Shimin apparently showed talent early in his life, and in 613, the official Gao Shilian, impressed with him, gave him a niece (the later Empress Zhangsun) in marriage as his wife; he was 14 and she was 12. In 615, when Emperor Wen's son and successor Emperor Yang was ambushed by Eastern Turkic (Dongtujue) forces under Shibi Khan at Yanmen Commandery (present-day Daixian in Shanxi), a general call was made for men to join the army to help rescue the emperor. Li Shimin answered that call and served under the general Yun Dingxing (), apparently doing so with distinction. In 616, when Li Yuan was put in charge of the important city of Taiyuan, he brought Li Shimin with him to Taiyuan, while leaving at least three other sons—Li Jiancheng, Li Yuanji, and Li Zhiyun (, by Li Yuan's concubine Lady Wan)—at the ancestral home Hedong (, in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi).
Participation in the rebellion against Sui rule
Emperor Yang was soon dissatisfied with Li Yuan and Wang Rengong (), the governor of Mayi Commandery (, roughly modern Shuozhou, Shanxi), over their inability to stop Eastern Turkic incursions and the growing strength of agrarian rebels, particularly the Eastern Turkic-supported Liu Wuzhou, who soon rose against Wang, killed him, and captured Emperor Yang's secondary palace near Taiyuan. Li Yuan also became fearful of a prophecy that the next emperor would be named Li — Emperor Yang had previously killed another official, Li Hun (), and Li Hun's clan over his fear that Li Hun's nephew, Li Min (), would seize the throne.
Fearful for his life, Li Yuan considered rebellion. However, he did not know that Li Shimin had also been secretly discussing plans for rebellion with Li Yuan's associates Pei Ji and Liu Wenjing. Once Li Shimin's plans matured, he had Pei inform Li Yuan of them—and also had Pei warn Li Yuan that if it were revealed that Li Yuan had had sexual relations with some of Emperor Yang's ladies in waiting at the secondary Jinyang Palace (, which Pei was in charge with and had allowed Li Yuan to do so), all of them would be slaughtered. Li Yuan agreed to rebel, and after secretly summoning Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji from Hedong and his son-in-law Chai Shao () from the capital Chang'an, he declared a rebellion, claiming to want to support Emperor Yang's grandson Yang You the Prince of Dai, nominally in charge at Chang'an with Emperor Yang at Jiangdu (, in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu), as emperor. He made both Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin major generals and advanced southwest, toward Chang'an. He gave Li Shimin the title of Duke of Dunhuang. After defeating local Sui forces loyal to Emperor Yang, he defeated a Sui army of 30,000 men under the command of a veteran general of the wars in Korea outside of modern-day Beijing.
However, when Li Yuan arrived near Hedong, his army was bogged down by the weather. With food running out, there were rumors that the Eastern Turks and Liu Wuzhou would attack Taiyuan. Li Yuan initially ordered retreat, but at the earnest opposition by Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin, continued to advance. After defeating Sui forces at Huoyi (, also in modern Yuncheng), he decided to leave a small contingent to watch over Hedong while advancing across the Yellow River into Guanzhong (i.e., the Chang'an region). Once he did, he headed for Chang'an himself, while sending Li Jiancheng to capture the territory around the Tong Pass region to prevent Sui forces at Luoyang from reinforcing Chang'an and Li Shimin north of the Wei River to capture territory there. Meanwhile, Li Shimin's sister (Chai's wife) had also risen in rebellion in support of him, and she was able to gather a sizeable army and capture some cities. She joined forces with Li Shimin and her husband Chai Shao. Soon, Li Yuan reconsolidated his forces and put Chang'an under siege. In winter 617, after defeating a large Sui army, he captured Chang'an from imperial forces and declared Yang You emperor (as Emperor Gong). He had himself made regent (with the title of grand chancellor) and created the Prince of Tang. (Meanwhile, most of the Sui territories and armies did not recognize Emperor Gong as emperor and continued to recognize Emperor Yang as emperor and not as retired emperor.) He made Li Shimin the Duke of Qin.
Li Yuan's control of the Chang'an region became almost immediately contested by the rebel ruler Xue Ju, the Emperor of Qin, who sent his son Xue Rengao toward Chang'an. Li Yuan sent Li Shimin to resist Xue Rengao, and Li Shimin defeated Xue Rengao at Fufeng, in modern Baoji, Shaanxi), temporarily causing Xue Ju to toy with the idea of surrendering to Li Yuan, although Xue was subsequently dissuaded by his strategist Hao Yuan () from doing so.
In spring 618, with Sui's eastern capital Luoyang (where the officials in charge did not recognize Li Yuan's authorities) under attack by the rebel ruler Li Mi the Duke of Wei, Li Yuan sent Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin to Luoyang, ostensibly to aid the Sui forces at Luoyang but instead intending to test whether Luoyang might submit to him. The officials at Luoyang rebuffed his attempt at rapprochement, and Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin, not wanting to fight either them or Li Mi for control of Luoyang at this stage, withdrew. Li Yuan subsequently changed Li Shimin's title to Duke of Zhao.
In summer 618, when news arrived at Chang'an that Emperor Yang had been killed at Jiangdu in a coup led by the general Yuwen Huaji, Li Yuan had Emperor Gong yield the throne to him, establishing Tang Dynasty as its Emperor Gaozu. He created Li Jiancheng crown prince but created Li Shimin the Prince of Qin, also making him Shangshu Ling (), the head of the executive bureau of the government () and a post considered one for a chancellor, while continuing to have Li Shimin serve as a major general as well.
During Emperor Gaozu's reign
Campaign to reunify the empire
The first thing that Li Shimin had to deal with was another incursion by Xue Ju, as Xue attacked Jing Prefecture (, roughly modern Pingliang, Gansu) and Emperor Gaozu sent Li Shimin to resist Xue. Li Shimin established his defenses and refused to engage Xue to try to wear Xue Ju out, but at that time, he was afflicted with malaria, and he let his assistants Liu Wenjing and Yin Kaishan () take command, ordering them not to engage Xue Ju. Liu and Yin, however, did not take Xue Ju seriously, and Xue Ju ambushed them at Qianshui Plain (, in modern Xianyang), crushing Tang forces and inflicting 50%–60% casualties. Li Shimin was forced to withdraw back to Chang'an, and Liu and Yin were removed from their posts. (This would be Li Shimin's only defeat recorded in historical records until the Goguryeo campaign of 645.) Xue Ju, in light of his victory, was ready to launch an assault on Chang'an itself, under Hao Yuan's advice, but suddenly died of an illness in fall 618 and was succeeded by Xue Rengao. Emperor Gaozu then sent Li Shimin against Xue Rengao. Three months after Xue Rengao took the throne, Li Shimin engaged him, and after a fierce battle between Li Shimin and Xue Rengao's major general Zong Luohou (), Li Shimin crushed Zong's forces, and then attacked Xue Rengao. Xue Rengao was forced to withdraw into the city of Gaozhi (, in modern Xianyang as well), and once he did, his soldiers began surrendering to Li Shimin en masse. Xue Rengao was himself forced to surrender. Li Shimin had him delivered to Chang'an, where he was executed. Around new year 619, Emperor Gaozu made Li Shimin Taiwei (, one of the Three Excellencies) and put him in charge of Tang operations east of the Tong Pass.
In spring 619, Liu Wuzhou launched a major offensive against Tang. He captured Taiyuan in summer 619, forcing Li Yuanji, who had been in charge there, to flee, and then continued his offensive south. Emperor Gaozu sent Pei Ji against him, but by winter 619, Liu had crushed Pei's forces and taken over nearly all of modern Shanxi. Emperor Gaozu, shocked at the development, considered abandoning the region altogether. Li Shimin opposed doing so and offered to lead the army against Liu. Emperor Gaozu agreed and commissioned him with an army. He crossed the Yellow River and approached Liu's major general Song Jingang () but did not engage him, choosing to try to wear Song out, only having his subordinates Yin Kaishan and Qin Shubao engage the other Dingyang generals Yuchi Jingde and Xun Xiang () in relatively low-level engagements. Eventually, in spring 620, when Liu and Song ran out of food supplies, they retreated, and Li Shimin gave chase, dealing Song a major defeat. Yuchi and Xun surrendered, and after Li Shimin chased further, both Liu and Song fled to the Eastern Turks. All of Dingyang territory fell into Tang hands.
In summer 620, Emperor Gaozu again commissioned Li Shimin against a major enemy—the former Sui general Wang Shichong, who had Sui's last emperor, Emperor Yang's grandson Yang Tong, yield the throne to him in 619, establishing a new state of Zheng as its emperor. When Li Shimin arrived at the Zheng capital Luoyang, Wang offered peace, but Li Shimin rebuffed him and put Luoyang under siege. Meanwhile, his subordinates took Zheng cities one by one. By winter 620, most of Zheng territory, other than Luoyang and Xiangyang, defended by Wang Shichong's nephew Wang Honglie (), had submitted to Tang. Wang sought aid Dou Jiande the Prince of Xia, who controlled most of modern Hebei. Dou, reasoning that if Tang were able to destroy Zheng, his own Xia state would be next, agreed. He sent his official Li Dashi to try to persuade Li Shimin to withdraw, but Li Shimin detained Li Dashi and gave no response. Meanwhile, during the campaign, Li Shimin chose some 1,000 elite soldiers (), clad in black uniform and black armor, commanded by himself, to serve as advance troops, with Qin Shubao, Yuchi Jingde, Cheng Zhijie (), and Zhai Zhangsun () as his assistants.
By spring 621, Luoyang was in desperate situation, and Xia forces had not yet arrived, but Tang troops had also suffered serious casualties, as Luoyang's defenses, aided by powerful bows and catapults, were holding. Emperor Gaozu, hearing that Dou had decided to come to Wang's aid, ordered Li Shimin to withdraw, but Li Shimin sent his secretary Feng Deyi to Chang'an to explain to Emperor Gaozu that if he did withdraw, Wang would recover and again be a major threat in the future. Emperor Gaozu agreed and allowed Li Shimin to continue to siege Luoyang. When Xia forward troops arrived first, Li Shimin surprised and defeated them, and then sent Dou a letter suggesting that he withdraw. Dou would not do so, and, against the advice of his wife Empress Cao and secretary general Ling Jing () that he should instead attack Tang's prefectures in modern southern Shanxi, he marched toward Luoyang. Anticipating Dou's maneuver, Li Shimin left a small detachment, commanded by Li Yuanji, at Luoyang, while marching east himself, taking up position at the strategic Hulao Pass. When the armies engaged at Hulao, Li Shimin defeated Dou and captured him. He took Dou back to Luoyang and displayed him to Wang Shichong. Wang, in fear, considered abandoning Luoyang and fleeing south to Xiangyang, but as his generals pointed out that his only hope was Dou, he surrendered. Xia forces, after initially fleeing back to their capital Mingzhou (now Guangfu, Hebei), also surrendered. Zheng and Xia territory were Tang's. Li Shimin returned to Chang'an in a grand victory procession and, to reward Li Shimin, Emperor Gaozu awarded both him and Li Yuanji three mints so that they could mint money of their own. He also bestowed on Li Shimin the special title of "Grand General of Heavenly Strategies" (). Meanwhile, Li Shimin's staff, already full of generals and strategists, were supplemented with a number of literary men.
The former Xia territory did not remain in Tang hands for long. In the winter of 621, the Xia general Liu Heita rose against Tang rule, claiming to be avenging Dou, whom Emperor Gaozu had executed against Li Shimin's wishes after he had been brought back to Chang'an. Liu was allied with Xu Yuanlang, a former agrarian rebel general who was nominally under Wang Shichong and who had submitted to Tang after Wang's defeat. Liu dealt successive defeats to Emperor Gaozu's cousin Li Shentong (), the Prince of Huai'an; Li Xiaochang (), the Prince of Yi'an; and Li Shiji. By the end, he had recovered almost all of the former Xia territory, established his capital at Mingzhou, and proclaimed himself the Prince of Handong. Emperor Gaozu finally sent Li Shimin and Li Yuanji against him in 622 and, after some indecisive battles, Li Shimin defeated him by first erecting a dam across the Ming River and then destroying it, with the resultant flood destroying the rebel army. Liu fled to the Eastern Turks, while Li Shimin then headed east and defeated Xu. After leaving Li Shiji, Li Shentong, and Ren Gui () to continue attacking Xu, Li Shimin returned to Chang'an.
Struggle against Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji
By this point, Li Shimin and his older brother Li Jiancheng, who was created crown prince in 618, reportedly after Emperor Gaozu first offered the position to Li Shimin due to his contributions, were locked in an intense rivalry, as Li Shimin's accomplishments caused people to speculate that he would displace Li Jiancheng as crown prince, and Li Jiancheng, while an accomplished general himself, was overshadowed by his younger brother. The court became divided into a faction favoring the Crown Prince and a faction favoring the Prince of Qin. The rivalry was particularly causing problems within the capital, as the commands of the Crown Prince, the Prince of Qin, and the Prince of Qi (i.e., Li Yuanji) were said to have the same force as the emperor's edicts, and the officials had to carry conflicting orders out by acting on the ones that arrived first. Li Shimin's staff was full of talented men, but Li Jiancheng was supported by Li Yuanji, as well as Emperor Gaozu's concubines, who had better relationships with Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji than they did with Li Shimin.
Late in 622, when Liu Heita returned east after receiving aid from the Eastern Turks, defeating and killing Li Shimin's cousin Li Daoxuan (), the Prince of Huaiyang, he again regained most of former Xia territory. Li Jiancheng's staff members Wang Gui and Wei Zheng suggested that Li Jiancheng needed to enhance his own reputation in battle, and so Li Jiancheng volunteered for the mission. Emperor Gaozu thus sent Li Jiancheng, assisted by Li Yuanji, to attack Liu. Li Jiancheng defeated Liu around the new year of 623, and Liu was subsequently betrayed by his own official Zhuge Dewei () and delivered to Li Jiancheng. Li Jiancheng executed Liu in his former capital and returned to Chang'an in triumph. China was, by this point, roughly united under Tang rule.
For the next few years, the rivalry intensified, although during the meantime both Li Jiancheng and Li Shimin served as generals when the Eastern Göktürks made incursions. In 623, when the general Fu Gongshi rebelled at Danyang (, in modern Nanjing, Jiangsu), Emperor Gaozu briefly commissioned Li Shimin to attack Fu, but soon cancelled the order and sent Li Shimin's cousin Li Xiaogong the Prince of Zhao Commandery instead.
In 624, when Li Jiancheng was found to have, against regulations, tried to add soldiers to his guard corps, Emperor Gaozu was so angry that he put Li Jiancheng under arrest. In fear, Li Jiancheng's guard commander Yang Wen'gan () rebelled. Emperor Gaozu sent Li Shimin against Yang, offering to make him crown prince after he returned. After Li Shimin left, however, Feng Deyi (now a chancellor), Li Yuanji, and the concubines all spoke on Li Jiancheng's behalf, and after Li Shimin returned, Emperor Gaozu did not depose Li Jiancheng, but instead blamed the discord between him and Li Shimin on Li Jiancheng's staff members Wang Gui and Wei Ting () and Li Shimin's staff member Du Yan, exiling them to Xi Prefecture (, roughly modern Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan).
Later that year, Emperor Gaozu, troubled by repeated Göktürk incursions, seriously considered burning Chang'an to the ground and moving the capital to Fancheng, a suggestion that Li Jiancheng, Li Yuanji, and Pei Ji agreed with. Li Shimin opposed, however, and the plan was not carried out. Meanwhile, Li Shimin himself was sending his confidants to Luoyang to build up personal control of the army there. After an incident in which Li Shimin suffered a severe case of food poisoning after feasting at Li Jiancheng's palace—an event that both Emperor Gaozu and Li Shimin apparently interpreted as an assassination attempt—Emperor Gaozu considered sending Li Shimin to guard Luoyang to prevent further conflict, but Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji, after consulting each other, believed that this would only give Li Shimin an opportunity to build up his personal power there, and therefore opposed it. Emperor Gaozu therefore did not carry out the plan. Meanwhile, the rivalry continued. Traditional historical accounts also indicated that at one point, when Li Shimin visited Li Yuanji's mansion, Li Yuanji wanted to assassinate Li Shimin, but Li Jiancheng, who could not resolve to kill a brother, stopped the plot. There was yet another incident in which Li Jiancheng, knowing that a horse threw its rider easily, had Li Shimin ride it, causing Li Shimin to fall off from it several times.
By 626, Li Shimin was fearful that he would be killed by Li Jiancheng, and his staff members Fang Xuanling, Du Ruhui, and Zhangsun Wuji were repeatedly encouraging Li Shimin to attack Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji first—while Wei Zheng was encouraging Li Jiancheng to attack Li Shimin first. Li Jiancheng persuaded Emperor Gaozu to remove Fang and Du, as well as Li Shimin's trusted guard generals Yuchi Jingde and Cheng Zhijie, from Li Shimin's staff. Zhangsun Wuji, who remained on Li Shimin's staff, continued to try to persuade Li Shimin to attack first.
In summer 626, the Göktürks were making another attack, and under Li Jiancheng's suggestion, Emperor Gaozu, instead of sending Li Shimin to resist the Göktürks as he first was inclined, decided to send Li Yuanji instead. Li Yuanji was given command of much of the army previously under Li Shimin's control, further troubling Li Shimin, who believed that with the army in Li Yuanji's hands, he would be unable to resist an attack. Li Shimin had Yuchi summon Fang and Du back to his mansion secretly, and then on one night submitted an accusation to Emperor Gaozu that Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji were committing adultery with Emperor Gaozu's concubines. Emperor Gaozu, in response, issued summonses to Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji for the next morning, convening the senior officials Pei Ji, Xiao Yu, and Chen Shuda to examine Li Shimin's accusations. As Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji approached the central gate leading to Emperor Gaozu's palace, Xuanwu Gate (), Li Shimin carried out the ambush he had set. He personally fired an arrow that killed Li Jiancheng. Subsequently, Yuchi Jingde killed Li Yuanji. Li Shimin's forces entered the palace and, under the intimidation of Li Shimin's forces, Emperor Gaozu agreed to create Li Shimin crown prince. Li Jiancheng's and Li Yuanji's sons were killed, and Li Shimin took Li Yuanji's wife Princess Yang as a concubine. Two months later, with Li Shimin firmly in control of power, Emperor Gaozu yielded the throne to him (as Emperor Taizong).
As emperor
Early reign (626–633)
One of the first actions that Emperor Taizong carried out as emperor was releasing a number of ladies in waiting from the palace and returning them to their homes, so that they could be married. He made his wife Princess Zhangsun the empress, and their oldest son Li Chengqian the crown prince.
Emperor Taizong also immediately faced a crisis, as the Eastern Turkic leader Jiali Khan Ashina Duobi, along with his nephew the subordinate Tuli Khan Ashina Shibobi (), launched a major incursion toward Chang'an, and just 19 days after Emperor Taizong took the throne, the two khans were just across the Wei River from Chang'an. Emperor Taizong, accompanied by Gao Shilian and Fang Xuanling, was forced to meet Ashina Duobi across the river and personally negotiate peace terms, including tributes to Eastern Turks, before Ashina Duobi withdrew.
Late in 626, Emperor Taizong ranked the contributors to Tang rule and granted them titles and fiefs, naming among the first rank of contributors Zhangsun Wuji, Fang Xuanling, Du Ruhui, Yuchi Jingde, and Hou Junji. When Li Shentong, as his distant uncle, objected to being ranked under Fang and Du, Emperor Taizong personally explained how Fang and Du's strategies allowed him to be successful, and this managed to get the other objectors to quiet down, as Emperor Taizong was even willing to rank low such an honored individual as Li Shentong. Emperor Taizong also buried Li Jiancheng and Li Yuanji with honors due imperial princes and had their staff members attend the funeral processions. Meanwhile, he appeared to begin to reshuffle government further—which he had already begun after being created crown prince—by dismissing his father's trusted advisors Xiao Yu and Chen Shuda, making his own trusted advisors chancellors. (Xiao, however, was soon restored to being chancellor, although his career during Emperor Taizong's reign would see repeated dismissals and repeated restorations.) However, he also began to greatly pay attention to the officials' submissions and their criticism of imperial governance, making changes where he saw needed. He also particularly began to trust Wei Zheng, accepting much advice from Wei as far as his personal conduct was concerned. He was also willing to demote his own trusted advisors, as he demoted Gao Shilian after finding that Gao had held back submissions from his deputy Wang Gui. Viewing Sui's Emperor Yang as a negative example, he frequently solicited criticism, rewarding those officials willing to offer them, particularly Wei and Wang Gui. His openness to opposing ideas was also evident in his attempt to reconcile traditional Taoist religion and Buddhism, as demonstrated in his Emperor's Preface to the Sacred Teachings ().
Li Yi's Rebellion
Also in 627, the general Li Yi the Prince of Yan—a late-Sui warlord who later submitted to Tang, who associated with Li Jiancheng—fearing that Emperor Taizong would eventually take action against him, rebelled at Bin Prefecture (, in modern Xianyang), but was quickly crushed by the official Yang Ji () and killed in flight. Later that year, when Emperor Gaozu's cousin Li Youliang () the Prince of Changle, the commandant at Liang Prefecture (, roughly modern Wuwei, Gansu), was accused of allowing his staff to oppress the people and to trade with Qiang and Xiongnu tribesmen, Emperor Taizong sent the chancellor Yuwen Shiji (Yuwen Huaji's brother) to investigate, and in fear, Li Youliang's staff members plotted to hold him hostage and rebel. When this was discovered, Emperor Taizong forced Li Youliang to commit suicide. Late in the year, Wang Junkuo (), the commandant at You Prefecture (, roughly modern Beijing), also rebelled, but was defeated quickly and killed in flight. However, although there were also reports that Feng Ang (), a warlord in the Lingnan region, was rebelling, Emperor Taizong, at Wei's suggestion, sent messengers to comfort Feng, and Feng submitted.
Also in 627, Emperor Taizong, seeing that there were too many prefectures and counties, consolidated and merged many of them, and further created another level of local political organization above prefectures—the circuit () – dividing his state into 10 circuits.
Campaign against the Eastern Turks
In 628, with Ashina Duobi and Ashina Shibobi having a falling out, Ashina Shibobi submitted to Emperor Taizong, as did the chieftains of Khitan tribes, who had previously submitted to the Eastern Turks. With their khaganate in turmoil, Ashina Duobi was no longer able to protect the last late-Sui rebel ruler who alone remained standing against Tang pressure – Liang Shidu the Emperor of Liang, and in summer 628, with the Tang generals Chai Shao and Xue Wanjun () sieging the Liang capital Shuofang (in modern Yulin, Shaanxi), Liang Shidu's cousin Liang Luoren () killed Liang Shidu and surrendered, finally uniting China. With the Eastern Turkic Khaganate weakened, their vassal Xueyantuo also broke away and formed its own khanate, and Emperor Taizong entered into an alliance with Xueyantuo's leader Yinan, creating Yinan the Zhenzhupiqie Khan (or Zhenzhu Khan in short).
In late 629, believing the time ripe for a major attack on the Eastern Turks, Emperor Taizong commissioned the general Li Jing with overall command of a multi-pronged army, assisted by the generals Li Shiji, Li Daozong, Chai Shao, Xue Wanche (, Xue Wanjun's brother) and Su Dingfang, attacking the Eastern Turks at multiple points. The army was successful in its attacks, forcing Ashina Duobi to flee, and by late spring 630, Ashina Duobi had been captured, and Eastern-Turkic chieftains all submitted to Tang. Emperor Taizong spared Ashina Duobi but detained him at Chang'an, and he considered what to do with the Eastern Turks.
The main opposing views were from the chancellors Wen Yanbo (who advocated leaving the Turks within China's borders to serve as a defense perimeter) and Wei (who advocated leaving them outside the borders). Emperor Taizong accepted Wen's suggestion and established a number of prefectures to accommodate the Turks, leaving them governed by their chieftains without creating a new khan to govern them.
In 631, Emperor Taizong established a feudal scheme, where the contributors to his reign were given, in addition to their current posts, additional posts as prefectural governors, to be passed on to their descendants. Soon, however, receiving much opposition to the plan, the strongest of which came from Zhangsun Wuji, Emperor Taizong cancelled the scheme.
After the conquest of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, Emperor Taizong's officials repeatedly requested that he carry out sacrifices to heaven and earth at Mount Tai, and Emperor Taizong, while at times tempted by the proposal, was repeatedly dissuaded from doing so by Wei, who pointed out the expenses and the labors that would be imposed on the people as a result, and also that this would open China's borders to attack.
Middle reign (634–641)
In 634, Emperor Taizong sent 13 high level officials, including Li Jing and Xiao Yu, to examine the circuits to see whether the local officials were capable, to find out whether the people were suffering, to comfort the poor, and to select capable people to serve in civil service. (Li Jing initially recommended Wei Zheng, but Emperor Taizong declined sending Wei, stating that Wei needed to stay to point out his faults and that he could not afford to have Wei away even for a single day.)
Campaign against Tuyuhun
Around this time, Tang was having increasing conflicts with Tuyuhun, whose Busabo Khan Murong Fuyun, under instigation by his strategist the Prince of Tianzhu, had been repeatedly attacking Tang prefectures on the borders. At one point, Murong Fuyun sought to have a Tang princess marry his son the Prince of Zun, but the marriage negotiations broke down over Emperor Taizong's insistence that the Prince of Zun come to Chang'an for the wedding. In summer 634, Emperor Taizong had the generals Duan Zhixuan and Fan Xing () lead forces against Tuyuhun, but with Tuyuhun's forces highly mobile and avoiding direct confrontation, Duan, while not defeated, could not make major gains. Once Duan withdrew, Tuyuhun resumed hostilities. In winter 634, with the Tibetan king Songtsän Gampo making overtures to marry a Tang princess as well, Emperor Taizong sent the emissary Feng Dexia () to Tibet with an eye toward an alliance against Tuyuhun. In winter 634, he commissioned Li Jing, assisted by the other generals Hou Junji, Xue Wanjun, Xue Wanche, Qibi Heli, Li Daozong, Li Daliang, Li Daoyan (), and Gao Zengsheng (), to attack Tuyuhun. In 635, Li Jing's forces crushed Tuyuhun forces. Murong Fuyun was killed by his own subordinates, and his son Murong Shun killed the Prince of Tianzhu and surrendered. Emperor Taizong created Murong Shun the new khan, although Murong Shun was soon assassinated. Emperor Taizong then created Murong Shun's son Murong Nuohebo as the new khan.
Also in 635, Emperor Gaozu died, and Emperor Taizong, observing a mourning period, briefly had Li Chengqian serve as regent, and after he resumed his authorities less than two months later, he still authorized Li Chengqian to thereafter rule on minor matters.
In spring 636, Emperor Taizong commissioned his brothers and sons as commandants and changed their titles in accordance with the commands that they received, sending them to their posts—with the exception of his son Li Tai the Prince of Wei, who by this point was beginning to be highly favored by him. He further allowed Li Tai to engage literary men to serve as his assistants, as Li Tai favored literature. From this point on, Li Tai would be so favored that there began to be talks that Emperor Taizong might let him displace Li Chengqian, whose favors began to wane.
In fall 636, Empress Zhangsun died. Emperor Taizong mourned her bitterly and personally wrote the text of her monument.
In summer 637, Emperor Taizong recreated the feudal scheme that he had considered and abandoned in 631, creating 35 hereditary prefect posts. (By 639, however, the system was again abandoned after much opposition.)
Treatment of Noble Clan
Sometime before 638, Emperor Taizong, disgusted with the traditional noble clans of Cui, Lu, Li, and Zheng and believing that they were abusing their highly honored names, commissioned Gao Shilian, Wei Ting, Linghu Defen, and Cen Wenben to compile a work later to be known as the Records of Clans (), with the intent of dividing the clans into nine classes based on their past contributions, good deeds, and ill deeds. In an initial draft that Gao submitted, he nevertheless ranked the branch of the Cui clan that the official Cui Min'gan () belonged to as the highest, a decision that Emperor Taizong rebuked, as he pointed out that Gao was merely again looking at tradition and not the recent contributions. He therefore personally intervened in revising the work, reducing Cui's clan to the third class.
Tibetan attack on Songzhou
In fall 638, Tibet's Songtsän Gampo, displeased that Emperor Taizong had declined to give him a Tang princess in marriage and believing that Murong Nuohebo had persuaded Emperor Taizong to decline the marriage proposal, launched a major attack with forces of 200,000 on Tuyuhun and then on several Tang prefectures, putting Song Prefecture (, roughly modern Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan) under siege. Emperor Taizong commissioned Hou Junji, assisted by Zhishi Sili (), Niu Jinda (), and Liu Jian (), of a total of force of 50,000 to counterattack, and Niu, who commanded the forward forces, defeated Tibetan forces at Song Prefecture. Songsän Gampo withdrew and sued for peace, but still sought to marry a Tang princess. Emperor Taizong agreed this time.
Also in 638, believing that Xueyantuo was growing increasingly strong and difficult to control, Emperor Taizong granted Yinan's sons Bazhuo and Jialibi () both lesser khan titles, to try to create dissensions between them.
In summer 639, Ashina Jiesheshuai (), the younger brother of Ashina Shibobi, whom Emperor Taizong did not favor and gave little recognition to, formed a conspiracy with Ashina Shibobi's son Ashina Hexiangu () to assassinate Emperor Taizong. They had planned to wait for Li Zhi the Prince of Jin to depart from the palace in the morning and use that opportunity to attack the palace. On the day they planned, however, Li Zhi did not leave the palace, and Ashina Jiesheshuai attacked anyway but was quickly defeated, captured, and executed. After this incident, however, the officials began advocating sending the Turks away from the heart of the state. In fall 639, Emperor Taizong created a Turkish prince who had served him faithfully, Li Simo (né Ashina Simo) as the khan of a newly recreated Eastern Turkic state (as Qilibi Khan), giving him all of the Turks and Xiongnu who had surrendered as his subordinates, to be settled north of the Great Wall and the Yellow River. However, the Turks were fearful of Xueyantuo and initially refused to head to their new location. Emperor Taizong issued an edict to Yinan that he and Li Simo keep their peace and not attack each other, and after receiving from Yinan the assurance that he would not attack, the Turks advanced to the new location.
Campaign against Western Turks
Taizong began a series of campaigns against the Western Turks (Xitujue) and their allies, the oasis states of the Tarim Basin, around 640. These hostilities between the Western Turks and Tang would continue until the defeat and conquest of the Western Turks in 657 under Taizong's successor, Gaozong. The kingdoms of Shule and Khotan surrendered to the Chinese in 632, as did the kingdom of Yarkand in 635. Qu Wentai (), the king of Gaochang, who had previously been submissive to Tang, had become increasingly hostile to Tang, allying with the Western Turks. In 640, Emperor Taizong commissioned Hou Junji, assisted by Xue Wanjun, to launch a major attack on Gaochang. As they approached Gaochang, Qu Wentai died in fear and was succeeded by his son Qu Zhisheng (). Qu Zhisheng offered to submit, but Hou demanded a surrender, which Qu Zhisheng refused. However, Hou put Gaochang under siege, and with aid from the Western Turks not arriving, Qu Zhisheng surrendered. Wei Zheng suggested that Emperor Taizong allow Qu Zhisheng to remain king, pointing out that the monetary and human costs would be high to keep a permanent garrison at Gaochang, but Emperor Taizong disagreed, and he converted Gaochang into two prefectures and annexed it into his state.
In winter 640, Songsän Gampo sent his prime minister Gar Tongtsen Yülsung ("Lu Dongzan" () in Chinese) as an emissary to Tang, offering tributes and again requesting marriage. Emperor Taizong created a daughter of a clansman as the Princess Wencheng, and in 641 sent Li Daozong to accompany Princess Wencheng to Tibet to preside over the wedding.
In winter 641, believing that Emperor Taizong was about to carry out sacrifices to heaven and earth at Mount Tai and would be unable to aid the Eastern Turks, Yinan launched a major attack on them, commanded by his son Dadu (). Li Simo was forced to retreat inside the Great Wall. Emperor Taizong commissioned Li Shiji, assisted by Zhang Jian (), Li Daliang, Zhang Shigui (), and Li Xiyu (), to attack Xueyantuo. Li Shiji soon defeated Dadu at Nuozhen River (, flowing through modern Baotou, Inner Mongolia), and Dadu fled.
Late reign (642–649)
By 642, it was clear that Li Tai had ambitions on replacing his brother Li Chengqian, and the governmental officials began to be divided into pro-Li Chengqian and pro-Li Tai factions. After urging by Wei Zheng and Chu Suiliang to take actions that would clarify that Li Chengqian's position was secure, Emperor Taizong attempted to do so by making repeated statements to that effect, but his continued favoring of Li Tai led to continued speculation among officials.
Also by 642, Xueyantuo had posed a sufficiently serious threat (albeit still formally submissive) that Emperor Taizong saw two alternatives—destroying it by force or forming into a heqin relationship by marrying one of his daughters to Yinan. This particularly became an issue after the Tang general Qibi Heli (), the chieftain of the Qibi Tribe, was kidnapped by his own subordinates and taken to Xueyantuo. In order to ransom Qibi, Emperor Taizong made a promise to eventually give his daughter Princess Xinxing to Yinan in marriage, and Yinan released Qibi.
In the winter 642, an event took place in Goguryeo that would eventually precipitate wars between Tang and Goguryeo. According to Chinese accounts King Yeongnyu, the king of Goguryeo, was apprehensive about his general Yeon Gaesomun and was plotting with his other officials to kill Yeon. When Yeon received the news, he started a coup and killed the king and the high level officials. He declared King Yeongnyu's nephew Go Jang (King Bojang) king, while taking power himself with the title of Dae Mangniji (, Generalissimo). When Emperor Taizong received the news, there were suggestions that an attack be launched against Goguryeo, suggestions that Emperor Taizong initially declined.
In spring 643, Wei died, and Emperor Taizong mourned him bitterly, authoring Wei's monument himself and, prior to Wei's death, promising to give his daughter Princess Hengshan in marriage to Wei's son Wei Shuyu (). Later in spring, Emperor Taizong commissioned 24 portraits at Lingyan Pavilion to commemorate the 24 great contributors to his reign.
Contacts with the Byzantine Empire
The Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang mention several embassies made by Fu lin (; i.e. the Byzantine Empire), which they equated with Daqin (which may refer to the Roman Empire or Middle East), beginning in 643 with an embassy sent by the king Boduoli (, i.e. Constans II Pogonatos) to Emperor Taizong, bearing gifts such as red glass and green gemstones. These histories also provided cursory descriptions of Constantinople and its walls, as well as how it was besieged by Da shi (; the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate) and their commander "Mo-yi" (; i.e. Muawiyah I, governor of Syria before becoming caliph), who forced the Byzantines to pay tribute. Henry Yule highlights the fact that Yazdegerd III (r. 632–651), last ruler of the Sasanian Empire, sent diplomats to China for securing aid from Emperor Taizong (considered the suzerain over Ferghana in Central Asia) during the loss of the Persian heartland to the Islamic Rashidun Caliphate, which may have also prompted the Byzantines to send envoys to China amid their recent loss of Syria to the Muslims. Tang Chinese sources also recorded how Sassanid prince Peroz III (636–679) fled to Tang China following the conquest of Persia by the growing Islamic caliphate.
The expansion of China's power into Central Asia under Emperor Taizong seems to have been noticed in the West. Theophylact Simocatta, a Byzantine Greek historian during the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641), wrote that Taugast (or Taugas; Old Turkic: Tabghach, from Tuoba, the Xianbei clan of Northern Wei), was a great eastern empire in the Far East that ruled over Turkic people, with a capital city roughly 1,500 miles northeast from India that he called Khubdan (from the Turkic word Khumdan, meaning, Chang'an), where idolatry was practiced but the people were wise and lived by just laws. He depicted the Chinese empire as being divided by a great river (i.e. the Yangzi) that served as the boundary between two rival states at war, yet during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Maurice (582–602 AD) the northerners wearing "black coats" conquered the "red coats" of the south (black being a distinctive color worn by the people of Shaanxi, location of the Sui capital Sui Chang'an, according to the 16th-century Persian traveler Hajji Mahomed, or Chaggi Memet). This account may correspond to the conquest of the Chen dynasty and reunification of China by Emperor Wen of Sui (r. 581–604). Simocatta names their ruler as Taisson, which he claimed meant Son of God, either correlating to the Chinese Tianzi (i.e. Son of Heaven) or even the name of the contemporary ruler Emperor Taizong.
Succession dispute
Also in 643, Emperor Taizong would see major turmoil among his own closest family. In spring 643, his son Li You () the Prince of Qi, angry over restrictions that his secretary general Quan Wanji () had often placed on him, killed Quan and declared a rebellion. Emperor Taizong sent Li Shiji against Li You, but before Li Shiji could engage Li You, Li You was captured by his own subordinate Du Xingmin () and delivered to Chang'an, where Emperor Taizong ordered him to commit suicide and executed 44 of his associates.
The death of Li You drew out news of another plot. Li Chengqian, who had been fearful that Emperor Taizong would eventually remove him and replace him with Li Tai, had begun to conspire with Hou Junji, Li Yuanchang () the Prince of Han (Emperor Taizong's brother), the general Li Anyan (), and his brothers-in-law Zhao Jie () and Du He (, Du Ruhui's son) to overthrow Emperor Taizong. During the investigations in the aftermaths of Li You's rebellion, one of the co-conspirators, Li Chengqian's guard Gegan Chengji (), was implicated by association, and in order to save himself, he revealed Li Chengqian's plot. Emperor Taizong was shocked by the news, and he appointed Zhangsun Wuji, Fang Xuanling, Xiao Yu, and Li Shiji, along with the officials in charge of the supreme court and the legislative and examination bureaus of the government to carry out a joint investigation. At the suggestion of the mid-level official Lai Ji, Emperor Taizong deposed, but did not kill, Li Chengqian, while ordering Li Yuanchang to commit suicide and executing Hou Junji, Li Anyan, Zhao, and Du.
Taizong's eldest son chose to speak Turkic, dress in Turkic clothes and even set up a tent in his residence in imitation of a Turkic khan. Taizong removed him from the position of heir apparent and chose as his successor Li Zhi, who embraced Han Chinese cultural heritage.
After Li Chengqian was deposed, Emperor Taizong briefly promised Li Tai that he would be made crown prince. However, as the investigations continued, Emperor Taizong came to the belief that Li Chengqian's downfall was driven by Li Tai's machinations, and therefore resolved to depose Li Tai as well. At Zhangsun's suggestion, Emperor Taizong created a younger son, Li Zhi the Prince of Jin (who, like Li Chengqian and Li Tai, were born of Empress Zhangsun), crown prince, who was considered kinder and gentler, while exiling Li Chengqian and Li Tai. However, starting later that year, Emperor Taizong began to doubt whether Li Zhi's personality was sufficiently strong to serve as emperor, and he toyed with the idea of making another son, Li Ke the Prince of Wu, a son of his concubine Consort Yang (Emperor Yang of Sui's daughter), crown prince, but did not do so due to strong opposition by Zhangsun Wuji.
Meanwhile, coming to the belief that he made an ill-advised promise to Yinan to give him Princess Xinxing in marriage, Emperor Taizong demanded a large amount of bride price – 50,000 horses, 10,000 cows and camels, and 100,000 sheep—a price that Yinan agreed to, but could not immediately collect and deliver. Emperor Taizong used it as an excuse to cancel the marriage agreement. Meanwhile, as Wei Zheng had, prior to his death, recommended Hou Junji and Li Chengqian's staff member Du Zhenglun as chancellors, Emperor Taizong came to suspect that Wei was part of the plot as well. He destroyed the monument he had authored for Wei and cancelled the betrothal between Wei Shuyu and Princess Hengshan.
Campaign against the Karasahr
In 644, with Yanqi's king Long Tuqizhi (), who had assisted the Tang campaign to conquer Gaochang, turning against Tang and allying with the Western Turks, Emperor Taizong sent the general Guo Xiaoke (), the commandant at Anxi (, i.e., Gaochang) to launch a surprise attack on Yanqi. Guo caught Long Tuqizhi by surprise and captured him, making his brother Long Lipozhun () regent. (The Western Turkic viceroy Ashina Quli () subsequently captured Long Lipozhun and briefly occupied Yanqi, although he then, not wanting a direct confrontation with Tang, withdrew, and the Yanqi nobles made Long Tuqizhi's cousin Long Xuepoanazhi () king.)
Goguryeo-Tang War
Also in 644, with Goguryeo attacking Silla and Silla requesting aid, Emperor Taizong decided to prepare for a campaign to conquer Goguryeo. He arrested the emissaries that Yeon sent to the Tang court, accusing them of disloyalty to King Yeongnyu. By winter 644, the mobilization was in full force. (Apparently because of Tang's preparation to attack Goguryeo, however, the reconstituted Eastern Turkic people, fearing an attack from Xueyantuo at a time that Tang would be ill-equipped to assist, panicked and abandoned their khan Li Simo, fleeing into Tang territory. Emperor Taizong reabsorbed the Eastern Turks into Tang, while making Li Simo a general in his army.)
In spring 645, Emperor Taizong departed from Luoyang and led the troops northeast, behind a vanguard of 60,000 commanded by Li Shiji and Li Daozong. At the same time, Zhang Liang led the other 40,000 from sea. By summer 645, Tang forces had captured Yodong Fortress (, in modern Liaoyang, Liaoning), and headed southeast toward the Goguryeo capital Pyongyang. Emperor Taizong personally led about 30,000 Tang and tribal forces and defeated a 150,000 force commanded by two Gogureyo generals and then put Ansi (, in modern Anshan, Liaoning) fortress under siege.
However, the capable defense put up by Ansi's commanding general stymied Tang forces and, in late fall, after suffering some casualties, with winter fast approaching and his food supplies running out, Emperor Taizong withdrew. He much regretted launching the campaign and made the comment, "If Wei Zheng were still alive, he would never have let me launch this campaign." He reerected the monument he authored for Wei and summoned Wei's wife and children to meet him, treating them well.
Campaign against Xueyantuo and conquest of the Kucha
Meanwhile, in the aftermaths of the Goguryeo campaign, Xueyantuo's Duomi Khan Bazhuo (son of Yinan, who had died earlier in 645) launched attacks against Tang's border prefectures, with largely inconclusive results. In spring 646, the Tang generals Qiao Shiwang () and Zhishi Sili counterattacked, defeating Bazhuo's forces, causing him to flee. His vassals Huige, Pugu (), and Tongluo () tribes took the opportunity to rebel and attack him. Hearing this, Emperor Taizong launched a major attack, commanded by Li Daozong, Ashina She'er (), Zhishi Sili, Qibi Heli, Xue Wanche, and Zhang Jian, against Xueyantuo. With Xueyantuo under attack from multiple sides, Bazhuo was killed by Huige forces, and the remaining Xueyantuo people fled and supported Bazhuo's cousin Duomozhi as Yitewushi Khan, but soon offered to submit to Tang. Emperor Taizong sent Li Shiji toward Duomozhi's location, with the direction to either accept his submission or destroy him. Duomozhi surrendered and was taken to Chang'an, ending Xueyantuo's rule over the region. The other tribes formerly submissive to Xueyantuo offered Emperor Taizong the title of "Heavenly Khan" and thereafter largely became submissive to Tang. Tang nominally established seven command posts and six prefectures over the region. (Huige's khan Yaoluoge Tumidu (), while submissive to Tang, for some time tried to take control over the region himself, but was subsequently assassinated in 648, and there would be no other organized attempt by Huige to take over the region until for about another century.)
After the victory over Xueyantuo, Emperor Taizong again turned his attention toward to Goguryeo, cutting off relations once more and considering another campaign. Under suggestions by some of his officials, he decided to launch harassment campaigns against Goguryeo's northern region on a yearly basis, to weaken Goguryeo gradually. The first of these campaigns was launched in spring 647, with Li Shiji and Niu Jinda in command, and would reoccur. All this was in preparation of another campaign in 649 with forces totaling 300,000, but Taizong died before this campaign and the campaign was stalled into Gaozong's reign.
In 648, Emperor Taizong launched another campaign, commanded by Ashina She'er, aimed at Qiuzi, but first attacking Yanqi and killing Long Xuepoanazhi and replacing him with his cousin Long Xiannazhun (). Ashina She'er advanced on Qiuzi and captured its king Bai Helibushibi (), making his brother king instead.
Death
By summer of 649, Emperor Taizong was seriously ill—with some believing that his illness was caused by his taking of pills given to him by alchemists. Believing Li Shiji to be capable but fearing that he would not be submissive to Li Zhi, he demoted Li Shiji out of the capital to be the commandant at remote Die Prefecture (, roughly modern Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu), with instructions to Li Zhi that if Li Shiji hesitated, to execute him immediately, and if he did not, to recall him after Emperor Taizong's death and make him chancellor. Li Shiji, when receiving the order and realizing that his life was at stake, immediately departed for Die Prefecture. (After Emperor Taizong's death, Li Zhi would indeed recall Li Shiji and make him chancellor.) Soon thereafter, Emperor Taizong, after entrusting Li Zhi to Zhangsun Wuji and Chu Suiliang, died at his summer palace Cuiwei Palace (). His death was initially kept a secret, and three days later, after his casket had been returned to Chang'an, his death was announced, and Li Zhi took the throne as Emperor Gaozong.
Monuments
After consolidating the Tang Empire, Emperor Taizong ordered six large stone panels, known as Zhaoling Liujun (), to be carved with the portraits of his favorite horses. These were the horses he had ridden in overcoming his rivals and securing the borders of the country.
Emperor Taizong further composed laudatory poems for each of the six horses depicted in the stone reliefs. Constructed between 636 and 649 CE, the stone reliefs "exemplify the beauty of early Tang sculpture; the images are realistic yet powerful, created with simplicity and matured craftsmanship."
After Taizong's death, the monuments were situated along the east and west sides of the "spirit path" at the North Gate of the tomb complex named Zhaoling or Zhao Mausoleum. The six stone horse reliefs remained at the Mausoleum until the early twentieth century, when four were removed to the Beilin Museum in Xi'an, China and two were sold and subsequently donated to the Penn Museum in Philadelphia in 1921.
Era name
Zhenguan () 627–649
Chancellors during reign
Family
Consorts and Issue:
Empress Wende, of the Zhangsun clan of Henan (; 601–636)
Li Chengqian, Prince Min of Hengshan (; 618–645), first son
Li Tai, Prince Gong of Pu (; 620–653), fourth son
Princess Changle (; 621–643), personal name Lizhi (), fifth daughter
Married Zhangsun Chong of Henan (), a son of Zhangsun Wuji, in 633, and had issue (one son)
Li Zhi, Gaozong (; 628–683), ninth son
Princess Chengyang (; 630–671)
Married Du He of Jingzhao, Duke Xiangyang (; 616–643), a son of Du Ruhui
Married Xue Guan of Hedong () in 643, and had issue (two sons)
Princess Jinyang (; 633–644)
Princess Xincheng (; 634–663)
Married Zhangsun Quan of Henan (; 636–659) in 649
Married Wei Zhengju of Jingzhao (; d. 663) in 660
Noble Consort, of the Wei clan of Jingzhao (; 597–665), personal name Gui ()
Princess Linchuan (; 624–682)
Married Zhou Daowu of Runan, Duke Qiao (), and had issue (three sons, two daughters)
Li Shen, Prince of Ji (; 629–689), tenth son
Noble Consort, of the Yang clan ()
Li Fu, Prince of Zhao (; 634–670), 13th son
Consort, of the Yang clan ()
Li Ke, Prince of Wu (; 619–653), third son
Li Yin, Prince Dao of Shu (; 621–667), sixth son
Consort, of the Yin clan ()
Li You, Prince of Qi (; 621–643), fifth son
Virtuous Consort, of the Yan clan (; 609–671)
Li Zhen, Prince Jing of Yue (; 627–688), eighth son
Li Xiao, Prince Shang of Jiang (; 630–632), 11th son
Able Consort, of the Zheng clan (賢妃 郑氏)
Able Consort, of the Xu clan (; 627–650), personal name Hui ()
Lady of Bright Countenance, of the Wei clan (昭容 韋氏), personal name Nizi (尼子)
Beauty, of the Xiao clan (美人 萧氏)
Talented Lady, of the Wu clan; 624–705, personal name Mei (媚), known commonly as Empress Wu Zetian
Talented Lady, of the Cui clan of Qinghe (才人 清河崔氏)
Talented Lady, of the Xiao clan (才人 萧氏)
Princess consort, of the Yang clan of Hongnong ()
Li Ming, Prince Gong of Cao (; d. 682), 14th son
Lady, of the Wang clan ()
Li Yun, Prince of Jiang (; d. 674), seventh son
Lady, of the Gao clan (高氏)
Unknown
Li Kuan, Prince Chu (; b. 619), second son
Li Jian, Prince Dai (; 631), 12th son
Princess Xiangcheng (; d. 651), first daughter
Married Xiao Rui of Lanling, Duke Song (), a son of Xiao Yu
Princess Runan (; d. 636), third daughter
Princess Nanping (; d. 650), third daughter
Married Wang Jingzhi, Baron Nancheng (), the youngest son of Wang Gui, in 637
Married Liu Xuanyi of Henan, Duke Yu () in 643
Princess Sui'an (; d. 651), fourth daughter
Married Dou Kui of Henan, Baron Xindou ()
Married Wang Dali (; 613–669), and had issue (one son)
Princess Yuzhang (; 621–642), sixth daughter
Married Tang Yishi (), a son of Tang Jian, in 637, and had issue (one son)
Princess Baling (; d. 653), seventh daughter
Married Chai Lingwu, Duke Xiangyang (; d. 653), the second son of Chai Shao
Princess Pu'an (), eighth daughter
Married Shi Renbiao, Duke Dou ()
Princess Dongyang (; d. 701)
Married Gao Lüxing of Bohai, Duke Shen (), the first son of Gao Shilian
Princess Qinghe (; 624–664), personal name Jing (), 11th daughter
Married Cheng Huailiang, Duke Dong'a (), the second son of Cheng Zhijie, in 633
Princess Lanling (; 628–659), personal name Shu (), 19th daughter
Married Dou Huaizhe of Henan () in 636, and had issue (one daughter)
Princess Jin'an (), 13th daughter
Married Wei Si'an of Jingzhao ()
Married Yang Renlu of Hongnong ()
Princess Ankang (), 14th daughter
Married Dugu Mou of Henan () in 643
Princess Xinxing (), 15th daughter
Married Zhangsun Xi of Henan ()
Princess Gaoyang (; d. 653)
Married Fang Yi'ai of Qinghe (; d. 653), a son of Fang Xuanling, in 648
Princess Jinshan (), 18th daughter
Princess Changshan (), 20th daughter
Ancestry
Literary and other cultural references
Emperor Taizong was the subject of a 64-chapter (in eight volumes) The Novel of the Prince of Qin of the Great Tang (大唐秦王詞話 Datang Qin Wang Cihua) by Zhu Shenglin of the Ming Dynasty. The novel is also known as The Biography of the Prince of Qin of the Tang Dynasty (), Romance of Tang (), and Romance of the Prince of Qin ().
Journey to the West details a fictional account of the origin of the Chinese door gods. Emperor Taizong asked his generals Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong to stand guard outside his bedroom to protect him from a vengeful spirit.
Television/Cinema
Hong Kong's TVB produced a television series about Li Shimin's adventure based on The Novel of the Prince of Qin of the Great Tang ().
The Foundation, a 1983 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB. It featured a young Li Shimin prominently as one of its three leading characters.
Portrayed by Sean Lau in the 1987 TVB TV series The Grand Canal.
Portrayed by Wilson Lam in 1993 Taiwan's TTV 54 episodes TV series Tang Taizong, Li Shimin.
Portrayed by Peter Ho in the 2004 TV series The Prince of Qin, Li Shimin.
Portrayed by Shen Xiaohai in the 2006 TV series Initiating Prosperity.
Portrayed by Tang Guoqiang in the CCTV-1 TV series Carol of Zhenguan.
Portrayed by Ma Yue in the 2006 BTV TV series The Rise of the Tang Empire.
Portrayed by Seo In-seok and Lee Joo-hyeon in 2006–2007 SBS TV series Yeon Gaesomun.
Portrayed by Song Yong-tae in the 2006–2007 KBS TV series Dae Jo Yeong.
Portrayed by Yu Shaoqun in the 2012 Hunan TV TV series Heroes of Sui and Tang Dynasties.
Portrayed by Yoon Seung-won in the 2012-2013 KBS1 TV series Dream of the Emperor.
Portrayed by Du Chun in the 2013 Dragon TV TV series Heroes in Sui and Tang Dynasties.
Portrayed by Zhang Fengyi in the 2014 Hunan Television TV series The Empress of China.
Portrayed by Zheng Guo Lin in the 2014 TV series Heroes of Sui and Tang Dynasties 3 & 4.
Portrayed by Winston Chao in the 2016 movie Xuanzang.
Portrayed by Park Sung-woong in the 2018 Korean film The Great Battle.
Portrayed by Geng Le in the 2021 Chinese TV series The Long Ballad 長歌行.
Portrayed by Qin Junjie in the upcoming CCTV TV series Peace in Palace, Peace in Chang'An.
Portrayed by Ma Yue in the TV series Ode to Daughter of Great Tang.
See also
Chinese emperors family tree (middle)
Turks in the Tang military
References
Bibliography
.
(alk. paper)
(paperback).
.
.
Further reading
Old Book of Tang, vols. 2, 3.
New Book of Tang, vol. 2.
Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199.
Luttwak, Edward N. (2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. .
Schafer, Edward H. (1985) [1963], The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T'ang Exotics (1st paperback ed.), Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, .
See especially : Ch.4, T'ai-tsung (626–49) the Consolidator. p. 150 to 241.
Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route. London: Hakluyt Society. Accessed 21 September 2016.
External links
The biographies of the sons (in Traditional Chinese)
唐太宗百字箴与百字铭
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598 births
649 deaths
Tang dynasty emperors
Tang dynasty generals at war against Goguryeo
Chancellors under Emperor Gaozu of Tang
Tang dynasty poets
Tang dynasty generals at war against the Göktürks
7th-century Chinese monarchs
Politicians from Xianyang
Poets from Shaanxi
Tang dynasty politicians from Shaanxi
Writers from Xianyang
Chinese duellists
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207994
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Kaspar%20Lavater
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Johann Kaspar Lavater
|
Johann Kaspar (or Caspar) Lavater (; 15 November 1741 – 2 January 1801) was a Swiss poet, writer, philosopher, physiognomist and theologian.
Early life
Lavater was born in Zürich, and was educated at the Gymnasium there, where J. J. Bodmer and J. J. Breitinger were amongst his teachers.
Corruption fighter
At barely twenty-one years of age, Lavater greatly distinguished himself by denouncing, in conjunction with his friend Henry Fuseli the painter, an iniquitous magistrate, who was compelled to make restitution of his ill-gotten gains.
Zwinglian
In 1769 Lavater took Holy Orders in Zurich's Zwinglian Church, and officiated until his death as deacon or pastor in churches in his native city. His oratorical fervor and genuine depth of conviction gave him great personal influence; he was extensively consulted as a casuist, and was welcomed with enthusiasm on his journeys throughout Germany. His writings on mysticism were widely popular as well.
In the same year (1769), Lavater tried to convert Moses Mendelssohn to Christianity, by sending him a translation of Charles Bonnet's Palingénésie philosophique, and demanding that he either publicly refute Bonnet's arguments or convert. Mendelssohn refused to do either, and many prominent intellectuals took Mendelssohn's side, including Lichtenberg and Herder.
Physiognomy
Lavater is most well known for his work in the field of physiognomy, Physiognomische Fragmente zur Beförderung der Menschenkenntnis und Menschenliebe, published between 1775 and 1778. He introduced the idea that physiognomy related to the specific character traits of individuals, rather than general types.
Lavater is attributed with catalysing a golden age for silhouettes through this work in physiognomy. According to him, the character of a person could be elucidated through examining their “lines of countenance”. The most accurate of readings were facilitated by the tracing of a profile outline portrait. This contour line could be filled with black or cut from the white paper and placed over a black backing. More often, the silhouette was simply cut from black paper. In the chapter “On Shades”, Lavater wrote, “What can less the image of a living man be than a shade? Yet how full of speech! Little gold, but the purest."
The fame of this book, which found admirers in France and England as well as Germany, rests largely upon the handsome style of publication and the accompanying illustrations.
The two principal sources from which Lavater developed his physiognomical studies were the writings of the Italian polymath Giambattista della Porta, and the observations made by Sir Thomas Browne in his Religio Medici (translated into German in 1748 and praised by Lavater).
Lavater's studies have also been related to Franz Xaver Messerschmidt's work as a sculptor. His work being mentioned by Ernst Gombrich described as a physiognomical fallacy.
Poet
As a poet, Lavater published Christliche Lieder (1776–1780) and two epics, Jesus Messias (1780) and Joseph von Arimathia (1794), in the style of Klopstock. More relevant to the religious temperament of Lavater's times are his introspective Aussichten in die Ewigkeit (4 vols. 1768-1778), Geheimes Tagebuch von einem Beobachter seiner selbst (2 vols., 1772–1773), and Pontius Pilatus, oder der Mensch in allen Gestalten (4 vols., 1782–1785).
Goethe
From 1774 on, Goethe was intimately acquainted with Lavater, but later had a falling out with him, accusing him of superstition and hypocrisy.
Blake
In 1788 William Blake annotated Lavater's Aphorisms of Man. Lavater published 632 aphorisms in all. Blake considered the following aphorism to be an excellent example of an aphorism. "40. Who, under pressing temptations to lie, adheres to truth, nor to the profane betrays aught of a sacred trust, is near the summit of wisdom and virtue."
Last days
During his later years, Lavater's influence waned, and he incurred considerable ridicule due to his vanity. His conduct during the French occupation of Switzerland brought about his death. On the taking of Zürich by the French in 1799, Lavater, while trying to appease the aggressors, was shot by an infuriated grenadier; he died over a year later.
The Swiss artist and illustrator, Warja Honegger-Lavater, was a direct descendant of Johann Kaspar Lavater.
Publications
Vermischte Schriften (2 vols., 1774–1781)
Kleinere prosaische Schriften (3 vols., 1784–1785)
Nachgelassene Schriften (5 vols., 1801–1802)
Sämtliche Werke (poems only; 6 vols., 1836–1838)
Ausgewählte Schriften (8 vols., 1841–1844).
Physiognomische Fragmente zur Beförderung der Menschenkenntnis und Menschenliebe
References
The Faces of physiognomy : interdisciplinary approaches to Johann Caspar Lavater. Edited by Ellis Shookman. Columbia, SC : Camden House, 1993. ()
External links
1741 births
1801 deaths
People from Zürich
Christian poets
Swiss male poets
Swiss Protestant ministers
Physiognomists
Swiss illustrators
Criminologists
18th-century Swiss philosophers
Swiss theologians
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207995
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20NewZealand%20Story
|
The NewZealand Story
|
is a platformer arcade game developed and published by Taito in 1988. The game's concept and setting were inspired by a holiday trip in New Zealand by one of the Taito programmers. The player controls , a kiwi who must save his girlfriend and several of his other kiwi chick friends who have been kidnapped by a large blue leopard seal. While avoiding enemies, the player has to navigate a scrolling maze-like level, at the end of which they release one of Tiki's kiwi chick friends trapped in a cage. In 2007, the arcade game received a remake for the Nintendo DS under the title, New Zealand Story Revolution.
Gameplay
The goal of each level is to safely get Tiki through the level, avoiding enemy fire and spikes (Tiki dies in one hit), and rescue one of his kiwi friends at the end. The weaponry starts out as an endless supply of arrows, but pickups can change these into bombs, lasers or bouncing fireballs. These act a little differently, and what is useful depends upon the player's location. A distinctive feature of this game is the ability to ride a variety of flying vehicles, including balloons, blimps and UFOs. Vehicles can be found ready for use or can be stolen from an enemy.
The levels Tiki has to explore are quite expansive. Instead of single screen levels, they scroll along with the player and extend in all directions, encouraging the player to explore and navigate to find the exit and the many secrets hidden about the maze. On the lower left corner of the screen, there is a mini-map which shows Tiki's position and the location of his caged kiwi friend, which is also the exit of each stage. Often, the vast size of the stages requires that Tiki get some means of transportation, often from enemies, to explore the stage and reach the exit. Though Tiki dies by enemies' weapons and projectiles, he is not harmed by them directly.
The game features four main zones, each with four rounds, the fourth round featuring a boss fight at the end. Other features include the many secret areas and shortcuts hidden throughout the game, accessed using special hidden "warp" portals. On certain later levels, if the player loses their last life due to being killed by a projectile weapon, they will be sent up to a special "Heaven" round. Here, they can either receive a special ending or find the secret route out of Heaven and continue playing the game.
Each stage has an invisible time limit in which the player should take to reach the exit. If the player takes too long to find it, a jingle will play, accompanied by a "Hurry Up!" message. If enough time passes after the warning, an invincible little red devil will appear onscreen to chase down Tiki and kill him instantly if it catches up to him.
The game shares several elements with previous Taito games (such as collecting letters to spell out "EXTEND", from Bubble Bobble).
Ports and releases
After the release of the original arcade game in 1988, the game was converted to most of the game consoles and home computers of the time. Most home releases came in 1989, with some arriving later through 1990–1992. The home computer versions were published by Ocean Software, and their home computer versions refer to Wally as a walrus on the packaging; however, the original arcade version specifically mentions him as being a leopard seal during the closing credits. The NES version was developed by Software Creations and published in the PAL regions by Ocean. In North America the NES version was published by Taito as Kiwi Kraze, instead of The NewZealand Story. The game received more publicity due to being included in the Amiga 500 Batman Pack, which was launched in September 1989 and sold over 2 million units. Home conversions generally received good reviews in video game magazines. The game was also converted for the Japanese FM Towns and Sharp X68000 systems, providing arcade-perfect conversions, but released exclusively in Japan since both computers were only available there.
The Sega Mega Drive version (again, only released in Japan) had its levels based on the prototype version of the arcade game.
The Taito Legends pack includes an emulated version of the original arcade version of The NewZealand Story, allowing it to be played on the Xbox, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable and any PC. On October 14, 2008, the PC-Engine version was released for the Wii Virtual Console in Japan.
Tiki the Kiwi also made some cameo appearances in other Taito games such as Liquid Kids, Bubble Symphony and (along with his lover Phee Phee) Pop'n Pop.
Remake
On January 25, 2007, Rising Star Games published the Taito-developed Nintendo DS remake titled New Zealand Story Revolution in Australia and in Europe on February 2, 2007. In North America, it was published by Ignition Entertainment on February 13, 2007. On May 31, 2007, it was published in Japan by CyberFront as . This version combines the use of both screens for action on the top screen and a map on the bottom screen. During certain instances, the game utilizes the touchscreen, such as opening a door, finding a secret button or flicking Tiki to safety. It also introduces a four-player wireless mode, Normal and Expert game modes, and improved graphics and BGM over the original arcade version. Also, unlike in the original, Tiki can receive multiple hits before losing a life, and can shoot at an angle.
Reception
In Japan, Game Machine listed The NewZealand Story on their November 15, 1988 issue as being the ninth most-successful table arcade unit of the month. In Europe, the arcade game received positive reviews from Computer and Video Games and The Games Machine.
The ZX Spectrum conversion of The NewZealand Story, published by Ocean in 1989, achieved critical success. CRASH awarded 91%, Your Sinclair 93%, and Sinclair User 82%. On the conversion from arcade to an 8-bit platform, Your Sinclair accepted the "disappointing" monochrome display for the sake of smoother play. CRASH commented on the accuracy of the character graphics and animation describing it as "an arcade conversion masterpiece", but found the multi-load cassette version to be awkward. The gameplay was deemed "addictive", with the variety of weapons and modes of transport being particular highlights. By November, The NewZealand Story was number 2 in the Spectrum full-price games chart. The Spectrum version was voted number 34 in the Your Sinclair Readers' Top 100 Games of All Time. The game was ranked the 19th best game of all time by Amiga Power. Mega placed the game at #40 in their Top Mega Drive Games of All Time.
The Nintendo DS remake Revolution received average critical reception. IGN awarded Revolution a "mediocre" score of 5.9, and Eurogamer gave 6/10. While reviews highlighted the challenging and fun retro gameplay, they criticized the touch-stylus and spot-the-difference events as poorly implemented, and the level design sometimes seen as spiteful.
References
External links
Official website for New Zealand Story DS
The NewZealand Story at arcade-history
1988 video games
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Arcade video games
Atari ST games
Commodore 64 games
FM Towns games
Nintendo DS games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Ocean Software games
Platform games
Master System games
Sega Genesis games
Sharp X68000 games
Taito games
Virtual Console games
TurboGrafx-16 games
Video games about birds
Video games scored by Tim Follin
Video games scored by Yasuhisa Watanabe
Video games developed in Japan
Video games set in New Zealand
ZX Spectrum games
Taito arcade games
|
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] |
208006
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%207040
|
IBM 7040
|
The IBM 7040 was a historic but short-lived model of transistor computer built in the 1960s.
History
It was announced by IBM in December 1961, but did not ship until April 1963. A later member of the IBM 700/7000 series of scientific computers, it was a scaled-down version of the IBM 7090. It was not fully compatible with the 7090. Some 7090 features, including index registers, character instructions and floating point, were extra-cost options. It also featured a different input/output architecture, based on the IBM 1414 data synchronizer, allowing more modern IBM peripherals to be used. A model designed to be compatible with the 7040 with more performance was announced as the 7044 at the same time.
Peter Fagg headed the development of the 7040 under executive Bob O. Evans.
A number of IBM 7040 and 7044 computers were shipped, but it was eventually made obsolete by the IBM System/360 family, announced in 1964. The schedule delays caused by IBM's multiple incompatible architectures provided motivation for the unified System/360 family.
The 7040 proved popular for use at universities, due to its comparatively low price. For example, one was installed in May 1965 at Columbia University.
One of the first in Canada was at the University of Waterloo, bought by professor J. Wesley Graham. A team of students was frustrated with the slow performance of the Fortran compiler. In the summer of 1965 they wrote the WATFOR compiler for their 7040, which became popular with many newly formed computer science departments.
IBM also offered the 7040 (or 7044) as an input-output processor attached to a 7090, in a configuration known as the 7090/7040 Direct Coupled System (DCS). Each computer was slightly modified to be able to interrupt the other.
IBM used similar numbers for a model of its eServer pSeries 690 RS/6000 architecture much later. The 7040-681, for example, was withdrawn in 2005.
See also
List of IBM products
IBM mainframe
History of IBM
References
External links
7040
7 7040
36-bit computers
ja:IBM 7040
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie%20Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se%20Rodet%20Geoffrin
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Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin
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Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin (née Rodet; 26 June 1699 – 6 October 1777) was a French salon holder who has been referred to as one of the leading female figures in the French Enlightenment. From 1750 to 1777, Madame Geoffrin played host to many of the most influential Philosophes and Encyclopédistes of her time. Her association with several prominent dignitaries and public figures from across Europe has earned Madame Geoffrin international recognition. Her patronage and dedication to both the philosophical men of letters and talented artists that frequented her house is emblematic of her role as guide and protector. In her salon on the Rue Saint-Honoré, Madame Geoffrin demonstrated qualities of politeness and civility that helped stimulate and regulate intellectual discussion. Her actions as a Parisian salonnière exemplify many of the most important characteristics of Enlightenment sociability.
Early life
Born in 1699, Madame Geoffrin was the first child of a bourgeois named Pierre Rodet, a valet de chambre for the Duchess of Burgundy, and Angélique Thérèse Chemineau, the daughter of a Parisian Banker. Marie Thérèse's mother died a year later in giving birth to her son Louis. At age seven, Marie Thérèse and her brother were taken to live with their grandmother Madame Chemineau on the rue Saint-Honoré. At thirteen, she was engaged to be married to the widower Pierre François Geoffrin, a lieutenant-colonel of the National Guard and a prosperous general cashier of the Saint-Gobain Venetian mirror manufactory. Despite the fact that he was forty-nine years old, and Marie Thérèse was barely fourteen years old, Monsieur Geoffrin had inherited a substantial fortune from his first wife, and the chance for "an excellent settlement" was thought to be quite suitable by Madame Chemineau. The marriage took place on 19 July 1713. Nearly two years after the wedding, she gave birth to her first child, a daughter named also Marie Thérèse, and the future Marquise de La Ferté-Imbault. Her second child, a son, (who was to die later in childhood) was born two years later. It was not until Madame Geoffrin was over thirty years old that her connection to the salons would become established. Her husband, Pierre François Geoffrin died 20 December 1749, a fact that was hardly noticed by Mme Geoffrin's visitors—indeed, Madame Geoffrin hardly seemed to notice herself.
Education
Geoffrin was unable to receive a formalized education. It has been suggested, most notably by Dena Goodman, that the salon itself acted as a schoolhouse, where Geoffrin and other salonnières could train. Goodman writes, "For Madame Geoffrin, the salon was a socially acceptable substitute for a formal education denied her not just by her grandmother, but more generally by a society that agreed with Madame Chemineau's (her grandmother's) position." She also states, "Her earliest schoolmasters were Fontenelle, the abbe de Saint-Pierre, and Montesquieu. Madame de Tencin played a large role in Madame Geoffrin's rise in society. Goodman states, "Madame Geoffrin made a daring step for a devout girl when, at the age of eighteen, but already a wife and mother, she began to frequent the afternoon gatherings at the home of Madame de Tencin." After Madame de Tencin's death in December 1749, Madame Geoffrin inherited many of de Tencin's former guests, thereby solidifying her own salon.
Madame Geoffrin and the salons
Madame Geoffrin's popularity in the mid-eighteenth century came during a time where the center of social life was beginning to move away from the French court and toward the salons of Paris. Instead of the earlier, seventeenth-century salons of the high nobility, Madame Geoffrin's salon catered generally to a more philosophical crowd of the Enlightenment period. Goodman, in "Enlightenment Salons," writes, "In the eighteenth century, under the guidance of Madame Geoffrin, Julie de Lespinasse, and Suzanne Necker, the salon was transformed from a noble, leisure institution into an institution of the Enlightenment." Goodman writes:
"Geoffrin, who acted as a mentor and model for other salonnières, was responsible for two innovations that set Enlightenment salons apart from their predecessors and from other social and literacy gatherings of the day. She invented the Enlightenment salon. First, she made the one-o'clock dinner rather than the traditional late-night supper the sociable meal of the day, and thus she opened up the whole afternoon for talk. Second, she regulated these dinners, fixing a specific day of the week for them. After Geoffrin launched her weekly dinners, the Parisian salon took on the form that made it the social base of the Enlightenment Republic of Letters: a regular and regulated formal gathering hosted by a woman in her own home which served as a forum and locus of intellectual activity."
Her dinners were held twice weekly. Mondays were specifically for artists. Wednesdays were generally reserved for Men of Letters.
Goodman writes, "Enlightenment salons were working spaces, unlike other Eighteenth-century social gatherings, which took place as their model." She continues, "The Enlightenment was not a game, and the salonnières were not simply ladies of leisure killing time. On the contrary, Enlightenment salonnières were precisely those women who fought the general malaise of the period by taking up their métier."
Salons, French society, and the international community
Madame Geoffrin's role was central to her identity as a French hostess. The historian, Denise Yim writes, "The most distinguished salonniéres were discerning women who selected their company with care, set the tone, guided the conversation, and could influence the fortunes of those appearing there." She continues, "The most influential salonnière was perhaps Madame Geoffrin of the rue Saint-Honoré, who managed to attract the largest number of distinguished foreigners to her home." A lady of great renown, Geoffrin's salon catered to a wide range of foreign dignitaries and distinguished guests. "An invitation to the Monday and Wednesday dinners of Madame Geoffrin was an honor greatly coveted by foreigners passing through Paris. The hostess herself had gained a European reputation even before her journey to Poland, and to dine with Madame Geoffrin was by some people considered almost as great an honor as being presented at Versailles."" Yim continues, "Whether it was Madame Geoffrin's design to attract all the most eminent foreigners to her salon, thereby spreading the reputation of her home throughout Europe, as Marmontel wrote, or whether this was the natural consequence of the presence of so many philosophes and Encyclopédistes, it was a fact that no foreign minister, no man or woman of note who arrived in Paris failed to call on Madame Geoffrin in the hope of being invited to one of her select dinners."
Salon politeness and gift giving
Madame Geoffrin exemplified the qualities of politeness that were required for the participation in French high society. She was completely devoted to the management and organization of her salon, and of the patrons that frequented it. Madame Geoffrin could be defined by the ordered consistency of all her actions. "Regularity was part of a greater sense of organization that defined all aspects of Madame Geoffrin's life and every hour of her day, from a 5 a.m. rising, through a morning of domestic duties, letter writing, and errands, to the afternoons she devoted twice a week to her salon."
Although some historians, such as Dena Goodman, associate Geoffrin and other salonnières with intellectual life, other researchers depict the salons as the realm of anti-intellectual socialites. For example, with no education or remarkable mental gifts of a sort that leave permanent traces, she was the best representative of the women of her time who held their place in the world solely through their skill in organizing and conducting a salon. She was in no sense a luminary; and conscious that she could not shine by her own light, she was bent upon shining by that of others." Denise Yim adds that "these women considered themselves the purveyors, the disseminators, the nurturers, the very guardians of taste in the belles lettres, in the fine arts, and in the music. Their own peculiar art consisted of pleasing." "Maintaining the tensions between inner satisfaction and outer negation which made Geoffrin the model salonnière was not easy."
Antoine Lilti also rejects the notion that Geoffrin and other salonnières 'governed' an intellectual arena. Lilti focuses, rather, on the salonnières' practice of politeness and gift giving. In relation to Madame Geoffrin, Lilti writes, "there exists numerous testimonials about the gifts that Madame Geoffrin bestowed upon the writers who regularly attend her salon, from the pieces of the silverware offered to the Suards, the silver pans and 2,000 gold écus presented to Thomas. He continues, "writers were not the only ones to benefit from this generosity. Madame Geoffrin received artists every Monday, securing contracts for them among high society collectors and even commissioned artwork for herself. Madame Geoffrin's notebooks mention that these artists also received regular gifts." For Lilti, Geoffrin's gift giving was nothing more than a reaffirmation of social inequities. He states, "the exchange of gifts, of course, was a common practice in all areas of high society, but it took on a particular social signification in the case of gifts given to men of letters, since the absence of reciprocity rendered the relationship asymmetrical. It was more about simply reinforcing a social bond through gift-giving, as it was for the socialites who exchanged little gifts with each other, but instead made a financial relationship part of urbane sociability––especially when the rapport became more or less permanent in the form of allowances, such as the ones that Madame Geoffrin bestowed upon d'Alembert, Thomas, and the abbé Morellet."
Continuity in the salons
Madame Geoffrin's personal acquaintance with many other influential salonnières indicates a type of formalized continuity in the salons. Though it has been argued that women did not appear in salon societies, the training of salonnières was undertaken by older women in the same position. Dena Goodman states, "Indeed, the history of the eighteenth century salon is a history of female apprenticeships, where younger women, such as Madame Geoffrin learned from older women, such as Madame de Tencin, and Julie de Lespinasse and Suzanne Necker learned in turn from Madame Geoffrin." Therefore, Madame Geoffrin spent many years in the company of Madame de Tencin, herself a highly influential salonnière, and in turn, spent much time cultivating her own protégées, namely Madame Necker and Madame Lespinasse, who would attempt to continue the salon tradition after her death. One woman allowed admission into Madame Geoffrin's salon, Madame d'Etioles, who was to become Madame la Marquise de Pompadour after earning the French King's interest, is reputed to have offered Madame Geoffrin and her daughter opportunities to present themselves at the French Court. It was an honor that was refused (on more than one occasion) by the salonnières. Another salonnière, the Marquise du Deffand, can be said to have competed against Madame Geoffrin for the friendship of many prominent men of letters. Aldis writes, "There had always been a kind of tacit rivalry between Madame Geoffrin and the Marquise du Deffand; the aristocratic Marquise sneered at her rival's low origin for the business and want of education, while Madame Geoffrin might well have ignored her taunts in the success of her salon, indisputably, the most celebrated in Paris and the civilized world."Geoffrin's relationship with her daughter is one exception to the continuity between women in the salons. Madame de la Ferté-Imbault, upon hearing her mother's suggestion to begin her own salon, organized the Order of Lanurelus, a type of counter-salon that acted in opposition to the serious salons of the Philosophes. The Order of Lanurelus (of which de la Ferté-Imbault proclaimed herself Grand Mistress) ran from 1771 until around the time of Geoffrin's death in 1777. "It was a forum not for the philosophes and their Republic of Letters, but for the anti-philosophe campaign. Goodman writes, "The battle of the hearts and minds of the elite of the eighteenth century was, for a few years, fought out in a single house on the rue Saint-Honoré!"
Patron of the arts
The debate surrounding Madame Geoffrin as a patron of the arts centers around gender divisions and sociability in eighteenth century France. Geoffrin, considered by many contemporaries to be one of the most influential patrons of art, supported many artists and commissioned several works. Dena Goodman, in what has been criticized as perhaps an idealized feminist theory, suggests, "The salonnière's art...allowed her to manage the egos of others (males) without imposing her own upon them." In relation to her (possible) conception and patronage of the highly regarded historical artist Carle Van Loo's painting, Une Conversation the historian Emma Barker writes, "most recent commentators have agreed in locating the interest and significance of these works in their having been commissioned by an exceptional female patron, the hostess of a celebrated Parisian salon whose guests included some of the leading figures of the French Enlightenment." Barker argues that the Conversation may be seen to represent a self-consciously feminocentric vision of history." Dena Goodman, in her Republic of Letters, claims that, "the paintings embody the serious spirit of Geoffrin's salon and observes that they depict two activities that dominated salon sociability: conversation and reading out loud." Madame Geoffrin as patron of the arts is also emblematic of a more international connection. Her correspondence with both Catherine the Great of Russia and King Stanislaw August of Poland, as well as several other dignitaries and heads of state often centered around the commission of several paintings that were often hung in her salon. On the relationship between Geoffrin and Stanislaw, the academic Maria Gordon-Smith writes, "The King knew Madame Geoffrin in Paris from his youthful days on the grand tour in 1753, when he was entrusted to her care by her father. After his election, Madame Geoffrin became his adviser and agent in all matters connected with the choice and purchase of French Art."
Conception
In her relationship to salons, Madame Geoffrin occupies a very contentious space in Enlightenment historiography. On the broadest level of representation, Madame Geoffrin stands as one of only a handful of women to participate in the Enlightenment. "The salonnières of the Enlightenment were a small number of women who knew and admired one another, lived lives of regularity rather than dissipation, and were committed both to their own education and the philosophes' project of Enlightenment." Dena Goodman's notion of the centrality of the salonnières in creating Enlightenment institutions places Madame Geoffrin at the heart of the Enlightenment sociability. She writes, "Under the guidance of Marie-Therese Geoffrin, Julie de Lespinasse and Suzanne Necker, Parisian salons became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment." Goodman uses Geoffrin to argue that salonnières in the eighteenth century represented a re-shaping of an existing form of sociability that would serve the ambitions of the women who ran them. Goodman states, "In using the social gathering and transforming it to meet their own needs, Madame Geoffrin and salonnières like her created a certain kind of social and intellectual space that could be exploited by the expanding group of intellectuals who were beginning to call themselves "philosophers." The historian Denise Yim loosely agrees with Goodman on the idea that salonnières did use their position for a more serious educational purpose. She writes, "It is evident, although they do not say so themselves, that Julie de Lespinasse, Madame Geoffrin and Madame Vigee-Lebrun also improved themselves in their own salons.
This representation has been debased by much of the recent literature. Janet Burke and Margaret Jacob write that by placing only, "a handful of selfless salonnières (such as Geoffrin) at the centre of Enlightenment history, Goodman is effectively obliterating a wider version of the Enlightenment cultural practices as well as downgrading "all other seemingly enlightened woman." Antoine Lilti, in countering many of Goodman's arguments, would debase the idea that Madame Geoffrin acted as a participant in the new sociability of Enlightenment society. Instead he claims that the politeness and gift giving would have been unthinkable without the presences of fashionable men of letters, which attracted to her salon the finest representatives of the Parisian and European aristocracy, and which permitted her to appear as a protector of talents and an accomplished socialite."
The historian Steven Kale discounts the entire theory that Madame Geoffrin (and salonnières in general) played a significant role in the Enlightenment. Kale examines the differences in the roles of men and women in the public sphere before and after 1789. He states, "There is no reason to contradict the widely held view that the salon was a feminist space insofar as it was more often than not presided over by a woman who gave it tone and structure." However, he states, "But it is one thing to say that the presence of a woman is a distinguishing feature of salons and another to argue that female dominance set them apart from other institutions of elite sociability." He adamantly believes that, "Salonnières generally exercised no political power outside their role in the formation of public opinion, and salons were not centers of political intrigue. Kale states, "Salonnières were engaged in a common social practice, the goal of which was not to achieve for women a role in public affairs but to serve the public needs of men, whether intellectuals or politicians, who had the power to determine the limits of women's public participation." Kale rejects the notion that Geoffrin held any semblance of power; his argument debases the long-held idea that the female-run salons were, "institutions of democratic sociability." Instead, he bases much of his critics of earlier historians on the idea that salonnières such as Madame Geoffrin reaffirmed the aristocratic institutions of the Old Regime. He writes, "The genius of salons, and of salonnières, lay in their ability to maintain a delicate balance between exclusivity and openness, between "inclusions and exclusions", so that the aristocracy could have both a means of producing social cohesion and a vehicle for the dissemination of traits meant to characterize a wider society of elites undergoing redefinition." Therefore, Kale visualizes Geoffrin's salon as confirming the aristocratic conception of the social and political conception of the social and political role of women in the Old Regime.
Notes
References
Aldis, Janet. "Madame Geoffrin. Her Salon and Her Times. 1750–1777." London. Methven & co.
Mason, Amelia Ruth Gere. "The Women of French Salons." New York. The Century Co. 1891.
Barker, Emma. "Mme Geoffrin, Painting and Galanterie: Carle Van Loo's Conversation Espangnole and Lecture Espangnole." Eighteenth-Century Studies 40, no. 4 (2007): 587–614.
Burke, Janet M. and Margaret C. Jacob. "French Feemasonry, Women, and Feminist Scholarship." The Journal of Modern History 68, no. 3 (1996): 513–529.
Goodman, Dena. "Enlightenment Salons: The Convergence of Female and Philosophic Ambitions".Eighteenth Century Studies 22, no. 3 (1989): 329–350.
Goodman, Dena. "Filial Rebellion in the Salon: Madame Geoffrin and Her Daughter", French Historical Studies 16, no. 1 (1989): 28–47.
Goodman, Dena. The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment. New York, Cornell University Press, 1994
Gordon, Daniel. "Philosophy, Sociology, and Gender in the Enlightenment Conception of Public Opinion." French Historical Studies 17, no. 4 (1992): 882–911.
Gordon-Smith, Maria. "Jean Pillement at the Court of King Stanislaw August of Poland." Artibus et Historiae 26, no. 52 (2005): 129–163.
Kale-Steven D. "Woman, the Public Sphere, and the Persistence of Salons." French Historical Studies 25, no. 1 (2002): 115–148.
Lilti, Antoine. Sociability and Mondanité. Men of Letters in the Parisian Salons of the Eighteenth Century. French Historical Studies 28, no. 3: 415–445.
Yim, Densie. "Le gout de la nation: The Influence of Women in Forming French and Foreign Taste." Australian Journal of French Studies 44, no. 3 (2007): 221–237.
External links
Presumed portrait of Mme Geoffrin, by Marianne Loir (National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, DC)
French salon-holders
1699 births
1777 deaths
Socialites from Paris
Burials at Saint-Roch, Paris
18th-century letter writers
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208013
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujifilm
|
Fujifilm
|
, trading as Fujifilm, or simply Fuji, is a Japanese multinational conglomerate headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, operating in the realms of photography, optics, office and medical electronics, biotechnology, and chemicals.
The offerings from the company that started as a manufacturer of photographic films, which it still produces, include: document solutions, medical imaging and diagnostics equipment, cosmetics, pharmaceutical drugs, regenerative medicine, stem cells, biologics manufacturing, magnetic tape data storage, optical films for flat-panel displays, optical devices, photocopiers and printers, digital cameras, color films, color paper, photofinishing and graphic arts equipment and materials.
History
20th century
Fuji Photo Film Co., Ltd. was established in 1934 as a subsidiary of Daicel with the aim of producing photographic films. Over the following 10 years, the company produced photographic films, motion-picture films and X-ray films. In the 1940s, Fuji Photo entered the optical glasses, lenses and equipment markets. After the Second World War, Fuji Photo diversified, penetrating the medical (X-ray diagnosis), printing, electronic imaging and magnetic materials fields. In 1962, Fuji Photo and UK-based Rank Xerox Limited (now Xerox Limited) launched Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd. through a joint venture.
From the mid-1950s, Fuji Photo accelerated the establishment of overseas sales bases. In the 1980s, Fuji Photo expanded its production and other bases overseas, stepping up the pace of its business globalization. Meanwhile, Fuji Photo developed digital technologies for its photo-related, medical and printing businesses. As a result, it invented computed radiography (CR), which solved a number of issues of traditional radiography, resulting a decrease of radiation exposure to both technician and patient. Fujifilm's systems were marketed and sold under the FCR brand.
Like its rival Eastman Kodak which dominated in the US, Fuji Photo enjoyed a longtime near-monopoly on camera film in Japan. By becoming one of the title sponsors of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics (an opportunity that Kodak passed on), offering cheaper camera film, and establishing a film factory in the US, Fuji gained considerable market share there, while Kodak had little success in penetrating Japan. In May 1995, Kodak filed a petition with the US Commerce Department under section 301 of the Commerce Act arguing that its poor performance in the Japanese market was a direct result of unfair practices adopted by Fuji. The complaint was lodged by the US with the World Trade Organization. On January 30, 1998, the WTO announced a "sweeping rejection of Kodak's complaints" about the film market in Japan.
21st century
The new millennium witnessed the rapid spread of digital technology, and demand for photographic films plunged in line with the growing popularity of digital cameras. In response, Fuji Photo implemented management reforms aimed at drastic transformation of its business structures. Even as early as the 1980s, the company had foreseen the switch from film to digital, so "it developed a three-pronged strategy: to squeeze as much money out of the film business as possible, to prepare for the switch to digital and to develop new business lines." While both film manufacturers recognized this fundamental change, Fuji Photo adapted to this shift much more successfully than Eastman Kodak (which filed for bankruptcy in January 2012). Fuji Photo's diversification efforts also succeeded while Kodak's had failed; furthermore Kodak built up a large but barely profitable digital camera business that was undone quickly by smartphone cameras.
In March 2006, Noritsu and Fuji announced a strategic alliance for Noritsu to manufacture all of Fuji's photofinishing hardware, such as minilabs. Each company produces its own software for the minilabs.
On September 19, 2006, Fujifilm announced plans to establish a holding company, Fujifilm Holdings Corp. Fujifilm and Fuji Xerox would become subsidiaries of the holding company. A representative of the company reconfirmed its commitment to film, which accounts for 3% of sales.
On January 31, 2018, Fujifilm announced that it would acquire a 50.1% controlling stake in Xerox for US$6.1 billion, which will be amalgamated into its existing Fuji Xerox business. The deal was subsequently dropped after intervention by activist investors Carl Icahn and Darwin Deason. In late 2019, Fujifilm announced its acquisition of Xerox's 25% stake in the 57-year-old joint venture, Fuji Xerox.
In December 2019, Fujifilm acquired Hitachi's diagnostic imaging business for US$1.63 billion.
Amid the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, one of Fujifilm Toyama Chemical drugs, i.e. favipiravir, an antiviral commercially named Avigan, is being considered as a possible treatment for the virus, after having been approved by China, Russia, and Indonesia authorities by June 2020.
In June 2020, Fujifilm announced a US$928 million investment to a Denmark-based biologics production facility, which it acquired from Biogen a year earlier for around US$890 million, to double the manufacturing capacity. A tape cartridge using strontium ferrite that could store up to 400TB was showcased by Fujifilm in the late same month.
Subsidiaries
Fuji Xerox was a joint venture between Fujifilm and Xerox Corporation of North America. After the dissolution of their partnership in 2019, Fujifilm made it a wholly owned subsidiary. In January 2020, the corporate name change was announced, from Fuji Xerox to Fujifilm Business Innovation Corporation, effective on April 1, 2021.
Fujifilm bought Sericol Ltd., a UK-based printing ink company specializing in screen, narrow web, and digital print technologies in March 2005.
Fujifilm de México is a Fujifilm subsidiary in Mexico that sells Fujifilm products since 1934 and has been recognized as one of The Best Mexican Companies (Las Mejores Empresas Mexicanas) from 2012 to 2015, a recognition promoted by Banamex, Deloitte México and Tecnológico de Monterrey.
Fujifilm is active in pharmaceutical products and contract manufacturing through its subsidiaries including Fujifilm Toyama Chemical, Fujifilm Diosynth Biotechnologies, etc.
As of July 2020, the Fujifilm Group has two operating companies, which encompass more than 300 subsidiaries in total, and three "shared services companies" under the umbrella. The group structure and a list of some Fujifilm subsidiaries are the following:
FUJIFILM Holdings Corporation
FUJIFILM Corporation
Fujifilm Imaging Systems
Fuji Color Photo Center
Fujifilm Medical
Fujifilm Pharma
Fujifilm RI Pharma
Fujifilm Toyama Chemical
Fujifilm Dimatix
Fujifilm Diosynth Biotechnologies
FUJIFILM Cellular Dynamics
Fujifilm Photo Manufacturing
Fujifilm Fine Chemicals
Fujifilm Electronics Materials
Fujifilm Engineering
Fujifilm Optics
Fujifilm Opto Materials
Fujifilm Global Graphic Systems
Fujifilm Computer Systems
Fujifilm Software
Fujifilm Techno Services
Fujifilm Techno Products
Fujifilm Business Supply
Fujifilm Digital Press
Fujifilm Media Crest
Fujifilm Sonosite, Inc.
Fujifilm Shizuoka
Fujifilm Kyushu
Fujifilm Logistics
Fujifilm VisualSonics
Fuji Xerox
Fuji Xerox Printing Systems Sales
Fuji Xerox Information Systems
Fuji Xerox System Service
Fuji Xerox Interfield
Fuji Xerox Advanced Technologies
Fuji Xerox Manufacturing
Fuji Xerox Service Creative
Fuji Xerox Service Link
Fuji Xerox Learning Institute
FUJIFILM Business Expert Corporation
FUJIFILM Systems Corporation
FUJIFILM Intellectual Property Research Co., Ltd.
Products
Photographic film
Fujifilm photographic films
Motion picture film stock.
Fujichrome color reversal (slide) films.
Velvia: one of the most saturated and fine-grained slide films, valued by nature and landscape photographers.
Provia: a slide film giving more natural colors than Velvia
: a fined grained, low contrast slide film often used for studio or portrait applications
Sensia: a low-contrast consumer slide film; the current emulsion is considered to be identical or near-identical to Astia in the professional line.
Fortia: slide film, featuring extremely vivid color rendering suitable for flower photography and other high-saturation applications (for Japanese market).
Fujicolor color negative (print) films
Fujicolor Pro 160S, 160C, 400H, and 800Z (formerly NPS, NPC, NPH, and NPZ): professional films with different levels of contrast
Reala: the first film to use the fourth cyan-sensitive layer, currently sold under Superia Reala name
Superia: intended for snapshots
Press: Cut from the same emulsion stock as Superia, but cold stored and sold as a professional film.
Fuji Neopan Professional black & white negative film. Neopan 400 and 1600 were designed to use the same developing times, and can be developed in the same tank/machine and developer combination simultaneously. ACROS and SS do not share this feature.
Neopan SS: ISO 100 film, most common and least expensive Neopan film
Neopan ACROS: ISO 100 film, finer grain than SS but usually more expensive
Neopan Presto: ISO 400 speed film
Neopan Super Presto: ISO 1600 for low-light shooting or fast action
Cameras and lenses
Fujifilm GFX series cameras (medium format sensor)
Fujifilm X series cameras (all current models APS-C; some past models featured a 2/3" sensor)
The Fujifilm FinePix series of digital cameras including:
Nikon F-mount compatible digital SLRs like the FinePix S5 Pro
Compact cameras like the FinePix F-series and FinePix Z-Series, Fujifilm X100 and X100S
Waterproof and shockproof FinePix XP-Series digital cameras
The Clear Shot series of 35mm compact cameras
Instax series of instant camera
Fotorama series of instant camera
Various rangefinder cameras, and older Fujica film cameras
Professional film cameras such as the GA645, GW670, GW690, GF670, GF670W and Fuji GX680 6x8cm medium format cameras
Fujinon camera lenses and binoculars: including the most widely used television lenses in the world
Other
Photographic paper
Inkjet printer paper
Magnetic media, including audiotape (also includes the Axia brand) until 2009, videotape, Magnetic tape data storage and floppy disks
Optical media, such as DVDs and CDs, mostly produced by Ritek and Taiyo Yuden; some by Philips
Flash memory
Fujifilm X-Trans series of CMOS image sensors.
Photostimulable Phosphor Plate - X-ray film.
Base material for LCD displays
instax: Fuji instant film packs and backs for sheet film cameras
Recording Media
Microfilm
Minilab equipments, announced in 2006 a global alliance with Noritsu Koki, together holding a market share of more than 80% of the global market
Digital X-Ray, digital mammography and computed radiography devices
Synapse Radiology PACS
Synapse Cardiovascular PACS
Synapse RIS
Ultrasound systems
Endoscopy
Specialty Chemicals
Biologics contract manufacturing and development
Biomaterials
Regenerative medicine
Cosmetics (ASTALIFT series, Nanolift series)
See also
Fujifilm FinePix
Fujifilm cameras
List of photographic equipment makers
List of photographic films
List of discontinued photographic films
References
External links
Wiki collection of bibliographic works on Fujifilm
Fujifilm
Fujifilm
Cosmetics companies of Japan
Japanese brands
Lens manufacturers
Manufacturing companies based in Tokyo
Chemical companies established in 1934
Electronics companies established in 1934
Technology companies established in 1934
Multinational companies headquartered in Japan
Optics manufacturing companies
Photographic film makers
Photography companies of Japan
Companies based in Stamford, Connecticut
Recipients of the Scientific and Technical Academy Award of Merit
|
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208015
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pl%C3%ADnio%20Salgado
|
Plínio Salgado
|
Plínio Salgado (; January 22, 1895 – December 8, 1975) was a Brazilian politician, writer, journalist, and theologian. He founded and led Brazilian Integralist Action, a political party inspired by the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini.
Initially a supporter of the dictatorship led by Getúlio Vargas, he was later persecuted and exiled in Portugal for promoting uprisings against the government. After his return, he launched the Party of Popular Representation, and was elected to represent Paraná in the Chamber of Deputies in 1958, being re-elected in 1962, this time to represent São Paulo. He was also a candidate in the 1955 presidential election, securing 8.28% of the votes. After the 1964 coup d'état, which led to the extinction of political parties, he joined the National Renewal Alliance political party, obtaining two terms in the Chamber of Deputies. He retired from politics in 1974, just a year before his death.
Early life
Born in the small conservative town of São Bento do Sapucaí in the São Paulo state, Plínio Salgado was the son of Colonel Francisco das Chagas Salgado, a local political leader, and Ana Francisca Rennó Cortez, a teacher. A very active child at school, he had special interest for mathematics and geometry. After the loss of his father, at the age of 16, which is said to have made him a bitter young man, his interests shifted towards psychology and philosophy.
At the age of 20, Salgado founded and directed the weekly newspaper Correio de São Bento. In 1918, he began his political life by taking part in the foundation of a party called Partido Municipalista. This party congregated town leaders from municipalities in the Paraíba Valley region, and advocated municipal autonomy.
Also in that year, Salgado married Maria Amélia Pereira, and on July 6, 1919, his only daughter Maria Amélia Salgado was born. Fifteen days after giving birth to the couple's daughter, Salgado's wife, Maria Amélia died. Filled with sorrow, Plínio left his original study of materialist philosophers, and found comfort in the Roman Catholic theology, and began to study the works of Brazilian Catholic thinkers, such as Raimundo Farias Brito and Jackson Figueiredo. The death of his wife had a great impact on the course of Salgado's life. He would only marry again 17 years later, with Carmela Patti.
Through his articles in Correio de São Bento, Salgado became known by fellow journalists in São Paulo, and in 1920 was invited to work there in Correio Paulistano, the official newspaper of the Republican Party of São Paulo, where he became a friend of poet Menotti del Picchia. He was a discrete member of the Modern Art Week in 1922. He published his first novel, The Stranger in 1926. After that, alongside Cassiano Ricardo, del Picchia and Cândido Mota Filho, he launched the Green-Yellow movement, a nationalistic group inside Modernist movement. The following year, also alongside del Picchia and Ricardo, Salgado launched the Anta movement, which exalted the indigenous peoples, particularly the Tupi, as the true carriers of the Brazilian identity.
That same year, he published his book Literature and Politics, in which he defends nationalistic ideas with a strong anti-liberal and pro-latifundia stance, inspired by Alberto Torres and Oliveira Viana. His shift to far right-wing politics, made Ricardo launch the Flag movement, a social-democratic dissidence of the Green-Yellow and Anta movements.
Integralism
In 1930, Salgado supported the presidential candidacy of Júlio Prestes against Getúlio Vargas. At that time, during a trip to Europe, he became impressed with Benito Mussolini's Fascist movement in Italy. After his return to Brazil, on October 4, 1930, a day after the beginning of the 1930 Revolution which deposed President Washington Luís, Salgado wrote two articles in Correio Paulistano defending his administration. Nevertheless, with the victory of the revolutionaries, he began to support the Vargas regime.
In the newspaper A Razão, founded by Alfredo Egidio de Souza Aranha, Salgado developed an intense campaign against the constitutionalization of Brazil. As such, he drew the ire of anti-dictatorship activists, which burned down the newspaper's office just before the outbreak of the Constitutionalist Revolution.
At the height of the Vargas dictatorship, Salgado created the Society for Political Studies, which congregated intellectuals sympathetic to Fascism. Months later, he launched the October Manifesto, which provided the guidelines of a new political party, the Brazilian Integralist Action.
Salgado adapted virtually all Fascist symbolism, such as a paramilitary organization with green-shirted uniformed ranks, highly regimented street demonstrations, and aggressive rhetoric although he publicly rejected racism. The movement was directly financed, in part, by the Italian embassy. The Roman salute was accompanied by the screaming of the Tupi word Anauê, which means "you are my brother," while the Greek letter sigma (Σ) served as the movement's official symbol. Even though Salgado himself was never an anti-Semite, many of the party members adopted anti-semitic views.
The Integralist Action drew its support from lower middle class Italian immigrants, a large part of the Portuguese community, lower middle class Brazilians, and military officers, especially in the Navy. As the party grew, Vargas turned to Integralism as his only mobilized base of support on the right-wing, which was elated by his Fascist-style crackdown against the Brazilian left. In 1934, Salgado's movement targeted the Communist Party, then under the leadership of Luiz Carlos Prestes, as an underground party, mobilizing a conservative support base mass to engage in street brawls and urban terrorism.
On 1937, Salgado launched his presidential candidacy for the general elections scheduled to take place in January 1938. Aware of Vargas' intention to cancel the election and remain in power, he supported his Estado Novo coup, hoping to make Integralism the doctrinal basis of the new regime, as Vargas had promised him to take office as the Minister of Education. The President, however, banned the Integralist party, treating it the same way he had treated other political parties after transforming Brazil into a one-party state.
On 1939, Integralist militants tried twice, in the months of March and May, to promote uprisings against Vargas. Despite denying involvement in the events, Salgado was arrested after the May uprising and was imprisoned in the 17th-century Santa Cruz Fortress in Niterói, Rio de Janeiro. About a month later, he was sent to a six-year exile in Portugal. During that period, he persistently sought to rehabilitate himself with the Brazilian regime, praising it in several manifestos, including its decision to declare war against Germany and Italy.
Later career
Salgado returned to Brazil in 1945, with the end of the Estado Novo regime and then founded the Party of Popular Representation, reformulating the integralist doctrine. Still driven by the ambition of becoming president, Salgado ran for presidency under his new party in 1955 but finished last, obtaining just 8% of the votes (around 714,000 votes). Then he supported the inauguration of President-elect Juscelino Kubitschek, contested by the National Democratic Union, and was named to the head of the National Institute for Immigration and Colonization.
Salgado was elected to represent Paraná in the Chamber of Deputies in 1958. He would be re-elected in 1962, this time to represent the São Paulo state.
In 1964, he was one of the speakers at the March of Family with God for Freedom rally in São Paulo against President João Goulart. Salgado supported the 1964 coup d'état which overthrew Goulart, and with the introduction of the two-party system, he joined the National Renewal Alliance Party, obtaining two terms as a São Paulo deputy.
Salgado died in São Paulo on 9 December 1975, aged 80. He is buried at Morumbi Cemetery.
References
1895 births
1975 deaths
People from São Bento do Sapucaí
Brazilian Roman Catholics
Republican Party of São Paulo politicians
Brazilian Integralist Action politicians
Party of Popular Representation politicians
National Renewal Alliance politicians
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Brazil) from Paraná
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Brazil) from São Paulo
Political history of Brazil
Brazilian anti-communists
Brazilian nationalists
Brazilian newspaper founders
Brazilian newspaper publishers (people)
Brazilian fascists
Christian fascists
Catholicism and far-right politics
Far-right politics in Brazil
Candidates for President of Brazil
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L.%20S.%20Lowry
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L. S. Lowry
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Laurence Stephen Lowry ( ; 1 November 1887 – 23 February 1976) was an English artist. His drawings and paintings mainly depict Pendlebury, Lancashire, where he lived and worked for more than 40 years, Salford and its vicinity.
Lowry is famous for painting scenes of life in the industrial districts of North West England in the mid-20th century. He developed a distinctive style of painting and is best known for his urban landscapes peopled with human figures, often referred to as "matchstick men". He painted mysterious unpopulated landscapes, brooding portraits and the unpublished "marionette" works, which were only found after his death.
His use of stylised figures, which cast no shadows, and lack of weather effects in many of his landscapes led critics to label him a naïve "Sunday painter".
Lowry holds the record for rejecting British honours (five), including a knighthood (1968). A collection of his work is on display in The Lowry, a purpose-built art gallery on Salford Quays. On 26 June 2013, a major retrospective opened at the Tate Britain in London, his first at the gallery; in 2014 his first solo exhibition outside the UK was held in Nanjing, China.
Early life
Lowry was born on 1 November 1887 at 8 Barrett Street Stretford, which was then in Lancashire. It was a difficult birth, and his mother Elizabeth, who hoped for a girl, was uncomfortable even looking at him at first. Later she expressed envy of her sister Mary, who had "three splendid daughters" instead of one "clumsy boy". Lowry's father Robert, who was of Northern Irish descent, worked as a clerk for the Jacob Earnshaw and Son Property Company and was a withdrawn and introverted man. Lowry once described him as "a cold fish" and "(the sort of man who) realised he had a life to live and did his best to get through it."
After Lowry's birth, his mother's health was too poor for her to continue teaching. She is reported to have been a religious woman who was talented and respected, with aspirations of becoming a concert pianist. She was also an irritable, nervous woman brought up to expect high standards by her stern father. Like him, she was controlling and intolerant of failure. She used illness as a means of securing the attention and obedience of her mild and affectionate husband and she dominated her son in the same way. Lowry maintained that he had an unhappy childhood, growing up in a repressive family atmosphere. Although his mother demonstrated no appreciation of her son's gifts as an artist, a number of books Lowry received as Christmas presents from his parents are inscribed to "Our dearest Laurie". At school he made few friends and showed no academic aptitude. His father was affectionate towards him but was, by all accounts, a quiet man who was at his most comfortable fading into the background as an unobtrusive presence.
Much of Lowry's early years were spent in the leafy Manchester suburb of Victoria Park, Rusholme, but in 1909, when he was 22, due to financial pressures, the family moved to 117 Station Road in the industrial town of Pendlebury. Here the landscape comprised textile mills and factory chimneys rather than trees. Lowry later recalled: "At first I detested it, and then, after years I got pretty interested in it, then obsessed by it ... One day I missed a train from Pendlebury – [a place] I had ignored for seven years – and as I left the station I saw the Acme Spinning Company's mill ... The huge black framework of rows of yellow-lit windows standing up against the sad, damp charged afternoon sky. The mill was turning out ... I watched this scene — which I'd looked at many times without seeing — with rapture ..."
Education
After leaving school, Lowry began a career working for the Pall Mall Company, later collecting rents. He would spend some time in his lunch hour at Buile Hill Park and in the evenings took private art lessons in antique and freehand drawing. In 1905, he secured a place at the Manchester School of Art, where he studied under the French Impressionist, Pierre Adolphe Valette. Lowry was full of praise for Valette as a teacher, remarking "I cannot over-estimate the effect on me of the coming into this drab city of Adolphe Valette, full of French impressionists, aware of everything that was going on in Paris". In 1915 he moved on to the Royal Technical Institute, Salford (later to become the Royal Technical College, Salford and now the University of Salford) where his studies continued until 1925. There he developed an interest in industrial landscapes and began to establish his own style.
Lowry's oil paintings were originally impressionistic and dark in tone but D. B. Taylor of the Manchester Guardian took an interest in his work and encouraged him to move away from the sombre palette he was using. Taking this advice on board, Lowry began to use a white background to lighten the pictures. He developed a distinctive style of painting and is best known for his urban landscapes peopled with human figures, often referred to as "matchstick men". He also painted mysterious unpopulated landscapes, brooding portraits and the unpublished "marionette" works, which were only found after his death.
Death of his parents
His father died in 1932, leaving debts. His mother, subject to neurosis and depression, became bedridden and dependent on her son for care. Lowry painted after his mother had fallen asleep, between 10:00 p.m. and 2:00 or 3:00 a.m. Many paintings produced during this period were damning self-portraits (often referred to as the "Horrible Heads" series), which demonstrate the influence of expressionism and may have been inspired by an exhibition of Vincent van Gogh's work at Manchester Art Gallery in 1931. He expressed regret that he received little recognition as an artist until his mother died (1939) and that she was not able to enjoy his success. From the mid-1930s until at least 1939, Lowry took annual holidays at Berwick-upon-Tweed. After the outbreak of the Second World War Lowry served as a volunteer fire watcher and became an official war artist in 1943. In 1953, he was appointed Official Artist at the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. After his mother's death in October 1939, he became depressed and neglected the upkeep of his house to such a degree that the landlord repossessed it in 1948. He was not short of money and bought "The Elms" in Mottram in Longdendale then in Cheshire. The area was much more rural but Lowry professed to dislike both the house and the area:
Although he considered the house ugly and uncomfortable, it was spacious enough both to set up his studio in the dining room and to accommodate the collection of china and clocks that he had inherited from his mother; he stayed there until his death almost 30 years later.
Personal life
In later years, Lowry spent holidays at the Seaburn Hotel in Sunderland, painting scenes of the beach and nearby ports and coal mines. When he had no sketchbook, Lowry drew scenes in pencil or charcoal on the back of envelopes, serviettes and cloakroom tickets and presented them to young people sitting with their families. Such serendipitous pieces are now worth thousands of pounds.
He was a secretive and mischievous man who enjoyed stories irrespective of their truth. His friends observed that his anecdotes were more notable for humour than accuracy and in many cases he set out deliberately to deceive. His stories about the fictional Ann were inconsistent and he invented other people as frameworks on which to hang his tales. The collection of clocks in his living room were all set at different times: to some people, he said that this was because he did not want to know the real-time; to others, he claimed that it was to save him from being deafened by their simultaneous chimes. The owner of an art gallery in Manchester who visited him at his home, The Elms, noted that while his armchair was sagging and the carpet frayed, Lowry was surrounded by items such as his beloved Rossetti drawing, Proserpine, as well as a Lucian Freud drawing located between two Tompion clocks.
Lowry had many long-lasting friendships, including the Salford artist Harold Riley, and made new friends throughout his adult life. He bought works from young artists he admired, such as James Lawrence Isherwood, whose Woman with Black Cat hung on his studio wall. He was friends with some of these artists; he befriended the 23-year-old Cumberland artist Sheila Fell in November 1955, describing her as "the finest landscape artist of the mid-20th century". He supported Fell's career by buying several pictures that he gave to museums. Fell later described him as "A great humanist. To be a humanist, one has first to love human beings, and to be a great humanist, one has to be slightly detached from them". As he never married, this affected his influence but he did have several female friends. At the age of 88 he said that he had "never had a woman". Although seen as a mostly solitary and private person, Lowry enjoyed attending football matches and was an ardent supporter of Manchester City.
Retirement
Lowry retired from the Pall Mall Property Company in 1952 on his 65th birthday. In 1957 an unrelated 13-year-old schoolgirl called Carol Ann Lowry wrote to him at her mother's urging to ask his advice on becoming an artist. He visited her home in Heywood and befriended the family. His friendship with Carol Ann Lowry lasted for the rest of his life. BBC Radio 4 broadcast in 2001 a dramatisation by Glyn Hughes of Lowry's relationship with Carol Ann.
In the 1960s Lowry shared exhibitions in Salford with Warrington-born artist Reginald Waywell D.F.A.
Lowry joked about retiring from the art world, citing his lack of interest in the changing landscape. Instead, he began to focus on groups of figures and odd imaginary characters. Unknown to his friends and the public, Lowry produced a series of erotic works that were not seen until after his death. The paintings depict the mysterious "Ann" figure, who appears in portraits and sketches produced throughout his lifetime, enduring sexually charged and humiliating tortures. When these works were exhibited at the Art Council's Centenary exhibition at the Barbican in 1988, art critic Richard Dorment wrote in The Daily Telegraph that these works "reveal a sexual anxiety which is never so much as hinted at in the work of the previous 60 years." The group of erotic works, which are sometimes referred to as "the mannequin sketches" or "marionette works", are kept at the Lowry Centre and are available for visitors to see on request. Some are also brought up into the public display area on a rotation system. Manchester author Howard Jacobson has argued that the images are just part of Lowry's melancholy and tortured view of the world and that they would change the public perception of the complexity of his work if they were more widely seen.
Death and legacy
Lowry died of pneumonia at the Woods Hospital in Glossop, Derbyshire, on 23 February 1976, aged 88. He was buried in the Southern Cemetery in Manchester, next to his parents. He left an estate valued at £298,459, and a considerable number of artworks by himself and others to Carol Ann Lowry, who, in 2001, obtained trademark protection of the artist's signature.
Lowry left a cultural legacy, his works often sold for millions of pounds and inspired other artists. The Lowry art gallery in Salford Quays was opened in 2000 at a cost of £106 million; named after him, the gallery houses 55 of his paintings and 278 drawings – the world's largest collection of his work – with up to 100 on display. In January 2005, a statue of him was unveiled in Mottram in Longdendale 100 yards away from his home from 1948 until his death in 1976. The statue has been a target for vandals since it was unveiled. In 2006 the Lowry Centre in Salford hosted a contemporary dance performance inspired by his work.
To mark the centenary of his birth in 1987, Royston Futter, director of the L. S. Lowry Centenary Festival, on behalf of the City of Salford and the BBC commissioned the Northern Ballet Theatre and Gillian Lynne to create a dance drama in his honour. A Simple Man was choreographed and directed by Lynne, with music by Carl Davis and starred Christopher Gable and Moira Shearer (in her last dance role). It was broadcast on BBC, for which it won a BAFTA award as the best arts programme in 1988, and also performed live on stage in November 1987. Further performances were held in London at Sadler's Wells in 1988, and again in 2009.
In February 2011 a bronze statue of Lowry was installed in the basement of his favourite pub, Sam's Chop House.
In 2013 a retrospective was held at the Tate Britain in London, his first there. In 2014 his first solo exhibition outside the UK was held in Nanjing, China. One of the 'houses' at Wellacre Academy in Manchester is named after him.
Awards and honours
Lowry was awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree by the University of Manchester in 1945, and Doctor of Letters in 1961. In April 1955 Lowry was elected as an Associate Member of the Royal Academy of Arts and in April 1962 became a full Royal Academician. At the end of December of the same year his membership status evolved to that of Senior Academician having reached the age of 75. He was given the freedom of the city of Salford in 1965.
In 1975 he was awarded two honorary Doctor of Letters degrees by the Universities of Salford and Liverpool. In 1964, the art world celebrated his 77th birthday with an exhibition of his work and that of 25 contemporary artists who had submitted tributes at Monk's Hall Museum, Eccles. The Hallé orchestra performed a concert in his honour and Prime Minister Harold Wilson used Lowry's painting The Pond as his official Christmas card. Lowry's painting Coming Out of School was depicted on a postage stamp of highest denomination in a series issued by the Post Office depicting great British artists in 1968.
Lowry twice declined appointment to the Order of the British Empire: as an Officer (OBE) in 1955, and as a Commander (CBE) in 1961, Lowry saying "There seemed little point.. once mother was dead" (as seen in the end credits of the movie Mrs Lowry and son). He turned down a knighthood in 1968, and appointments to the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) in 1972 and 1976. He holds the record for the most honours declined.
Quotations
On the industrial landscape
"We went to Pendlebury in 1909 from a residential side of Manchester, and we didn't like it. My father wanted to go to get near a friend for business reasons. We lived next door, and for a long time my mother never got to like it, and at first I disliked it, and then after about a year or so I got used to it, and then I got absorbed in it, then I got infatuated with it. Then I began to wonder if anyone had ever done it. Seriously, not one or two, but seriously; and it seemed to me by that time that it was a very fine industrial subject matter. And I couldn't see anybody at that time who had done it – and nobody had done it, it seemed."
"Most of my land and townscape is composite. Made up; part real and part imaginary ... bits and pieces of my home locality. I don't even know I'm putting them in. They just crop up on their own, like things do in dreams."
On his style
"I wanted to paint myself into what absorbed me ... Natural figures would have broken the spell of it, so I made my figures half unreal. Some critics have said that I turned my figures into puppets, as if my aim were to hint at the hard economic necessities that drove them. To say the truth, I was not thinking very much about the people. I did not care for them in the way a social reformer does. They are part of a private beauty that haunted me. I loved them and the houses in the same way: as part of a vision.
"I am a simple man, and I use simple materials: ivory black, vermilion, prussian blue, yellow ochre, flake white and no medium. That's all I've ever used in my paintings. I like oils ... I like a medium you can work into over a period of time."
On painting his "Seascapes"
"It's the battle of life – the turbulence of the sea ... I have been fond of the sea all my life, how wonderful it is, yet how terrible it is. But I often think ... what if it suddenly changed its mind and didn't turn the tide? And came straight on? If it didn't stay and came on and on and on and on ... That would be the end of it all."
On art
"You don't need brains to be a painter, just feelings."
"I am not an artist. I am a man who paints."
"If people call me a Sunday painter, I'm a Sunday painter who paints every day of the week."
Works
Lowry's work is held in many public and private collections. The largest collection is held by Salford City Council and displayed at The Lowry. Its collection has about 400 works. X-ray analyses have revealed hidden figures under his drawings – the "Ann" figures. Going to the Match is owned by the Professional Footballers' Association (PFA) and is displayed at The Lowry along with a preparatory pencil sketch.
The Tate Gallery in London owns 23 works. The City of Southampton owns The Floating Bridge, The Canal Bridge and An Industrial Town. His work is featured at MOMA, in New York City. The Christchurch Art Gallery Te Puna o Waiwhetu in Christchurch, New Zealand has Factory at Widnes (1956) in its collection. The painting was one of the gallery's most important acquisitions of the 1950s and remains the highlight of its collection of modern British art.
In the early days of his career Lowry was a member of the Manchester Group of Lancashire artists, exhibiting with them at Margo Ingham's Mid-Day Studios in Manchester. He made a small painting of the Mid-Day Studios which is in the collection of the Manchester City Art Gallery.
During his life Lowry made about 1,000 paintings and over 8,000 drawings.
Selected paintings
1920 St Augustine's church
1928 Irk Place
1935 The Fever Van
1936 Laying a Foundation Stone — the mayor of Swinton and Pendlebury, laying a foundation stone in Clifton
1938 A Cricket Match — set to be auctioned during the 2019 Cricket World Cup
1941 Houses on a Hill
1943 A Fylde Farm — collected by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother and hung at Clarence House
1943 Going To Work — painted as a war artist and in the collection of the Imperial War Museum.
1945 V.E. Day
1946 Good Friday, Daisy Nook — sold in 2007 for £3.8 million (then record price for a Lowry)
1947 A River Bank — bought in 1951 by Bury Council for £150 and controversially sold in 2006, for £1.25 million at Christie's, by the Metropolitan Borough of Bury, towards funding a £10 million budget deficit
1947 Iron Works
1947 Cranes and Ships, Glasgow Docks — acquired by Glasgow City Council at Christie's in November 2005 for £198,400, presently on display at the Kelvin Hall, it was bought specifically for display in the new Riverside Museum
1949 Agricultural fair, Mottram-in-Longdendale
1949 The Cripples - features number of disabled people in a park, including Lowry as a disabled person (centre). The people are a mixture of imaginary and real people. For example, it is believed that a man known locally known as 'Johnny on wheels' is depicted to the right.
1949 The Football Match — not seen in public for two decades before May 2011 when offered for sale at Christie's; later sold for £5.6m – a record price for a Lowry painting.
1949 The regatta
1950 The Pond — the image was used as a Christmas card by Prime Minister Harold Wilson in 1964
1952 Ancoats Hospital Outpatients Hall — a rare internal scene, showing Ancoats Hospital and given to The Whitworth Gallery in 1975.
1953 Football Ground — fans converging on Bolton Wanderers's old football ground Burnden Park; painted for a competition run by the Football Association, it was later renamed Going to the Match and was bought by the Professional Footballers' Association for a record £1.9 million in 1999.
1954 Piccadilly Gardens, a view of the former sunken gardens in Piccadilly Gardens, Manchester, now in Manchester Art Gallery collection
1955 A Young Man
1955 Industrial Landscape
1956 Fairground at Daisy Nook
1960 Old church and steps
Drawings
1924 View from a window of the Royal Technical College
1924 The Flat Iron Market
1928 Newton Mill and bowling green
1930 Swinton Industrial Schools
1936 Dewars Lane (Dewars Lane is now part of the Lowry Trail in Berwick-upon-Tweed)
1942 A Bit of Wenlock Edge
1947 Figures in lane
1945? St Luke's Church, Old Street, London
1953 Agecroft regatta
Stolen Lowry works
Five Lowry art works were stolen from the Grove Fine Art Gallery in Cheadle Hulme, Stockport on 2 May 2007. The most valuable were The Viaduct, estimated value of £700,000 and The Tanker Entering the Tyne, which is valued at over £500,000. The Surgery, The Bridge at Ringley and The Street Market were also stolen. The paintings were later found in a house in Halewood near Liverpool. Only one of the four robbers was caught and convicted; two other men were later convicted for possession of the stolen works.
A further "The Skater" a pencil drawing has never been returned although the gallery owner was taken to court found guilty but declared himself bankrupt leaving the owner, Arnold Monk without the drawing he had lent for display.
Attributed works in 2015
In July 2015 three works – Lady with Dogs, Darby and Joan and Crowd Scene – featured in the BBC One series Fake or Fortune?. The programme enlisted the help of various experts to determine whether the paintings were genuine or forgeries. The works in question had been bought in the 1960s by a Cheshire businessman, Gerald Ames, but their provenance was poor, and it was noted that Lowry was "probably the most faked British artist, his deceptively simple style of painting making him a soft target for forgers". All three works were judged to be genuine by a panel of experts, and the total value of the paintings was estimated to be in excess of £200,000.
The programme also revealed that while Lowry often claimed to use only five colours (lead white, ivory black, vermillion, Prussian blue and yellow ochre), Lowry was photographed in his studio with titanium white and zinc white stored under his table which he also applied onto his work. The usage of other paints became helpful when determining that the above works were genuine.
Discovered work
The Mill, Pendlebury, a painting never publicly exhibited or featured in any book, was found in the estate of Leonard D. Hamilton, a British-American researcher, after his death in 2019. Hamilton was a Manchester Grammar School boy who studied at Balliol College, Oxford, and Trinity College, Cambridge, before moving to the US in 1949. The work was sold, at Christie's modern British art auction, with an estimate is £700,000 to £1m. The work sold on 21 January 2020, to a private collector, for £2.65m.
Art market
In March 2014 fifteen of Lowry's works, from the A.J. Thompson Collection, were auctioned at Sotheby's in London; the total sale estimate of £15 million was achieved, even though two paintings failed to reach their reserve price and were withdrawn. Thompson, owner of the Salford Express, collected only Lowry paintings, starting in 1982. The auction included the paintings Peel Park, Salford and Piccadilly Circus, London, Lowry's most expensive painting at auction to date, which fetched £5.6 million in 2011 but only £5.1 million in 2014. Lowry painted very few London scenes, and only two depict Piccadilly Circus.
In popular culture
In January 1968 rock band Status Quo paid tribute to Lowry in their first hit single "Pictures of Matchstick Men".
In 1978 Brian and Michael reached number one in the UK Singles Chart with the tribute single "Matchstalk Men and Matchstalk Cats and Dogs".
Manchester rock band Oasis released a music video for the song "The Masterplan", to promote their 2006 compilation album Stop the Clocks, using animation in the style of his paintings. The video follows the band in many famous Lowry scenes, including Man Lying On A Wall and Fairground At Daisy Nook, but also includes quirky modern-day additions such as a cars and a satellite dish.
In August 2010 the play Figures Half Unreal was performed by the Brass Bastion theatre company in Berwick-upon-Tweed where Lowry was a regular visitor.
On 1 November 2012 Google celebrated his 125th birthday with a Google Doodle.
Lowry features in the chorus of the Manic Street Preachers' song "30-Year War" on their 2013 album Rewind the Film:
In the BBC's Fake or Fortune? experts determined whether three works were genuine Lowry paintings or forgeries. Experts analysed the paint used in one of the paintings, but the white paint did not match the flake white Lowry claimed to have always used. Lowry claimed to have only used five colours, flake white (lead white), ivory black, vermillion red, Prussian blue and yellow ochre, produced by Winsor & Newton. Photographic evidence from the 1950s, however, showed that he had experimented with both titanium white and zinc white: Darby and Joan contained traces of zinc white. The same painting was also plainly visible in a contemporary BBC documentary film.
The 2019 film Mrs Lowry & Son, directed by Adrian Noble and starring Vanessa Redgrave and Timothy Spall, depicts the fraught relationship between Lowry and his elderly bed-ridden mother between 1934 and 1939.
Sunday painter by Dutch band Nits is a song inspired by Lowry.
References
Sources
Andrews, Allen. The Life of L. S. Lowry, A Biography (London: Jupiter Books, 1977)
Clarke, Hilda Margery. Lowry Himself (Southampton: The First Gallery, 1992)
Howard, Michael. Lowry — A Visionary Artist (Lausanne, Switzerland: Acatos, 1999)
Leber, Michael and Sandling, Judith (eds). L. S. Lowry (Oxford: Phaidon, 1987)
Leber, Michael and Sandling, Judith. Lowry's City: A Painter and His Locale (London: Lowry House, 2001)
Levy, Nichael. The Paintings of L. S. Lowry: Oils and Watercolours (London: Jupiter Books, 1975)
Levy, Michael. The Drawings of L. S. Lowry: Public and Private (London: Jupiter Books, 1976)
Lowry, L. S. L. S. Lowry, R. A.: A Selection of Masterpieces (London: Crane Kalman Gallery, 1994)
McLean, David. L. S. Lowry (London: The Medici Society, 1978)
Marshall, Tilly. Life with Lowry (London: Hutchinson, 1981)
Rhode, Shelley. A Private View of L. S. Lowry (London: Collins, 1979)
Rohde, Shelley. The Lowry Lexicon — An A–Z of L. S. Lowry (Salford Quays: Lowry Press, 1999)
Sieja, Doreen. The Lowry I Knew (London: Jupiter Books, 1983)
Spalding, Julian. Lowry (Oxford: Phaidon, New York: Dutton, 1979)
Timperley, W. H. (will illustrations by L. S. Lowry), A Cotswold Book (London: Jonathan Cape, 1931)
External links
Work by LS Lowry: People
Work by LS Lowry: Places
1887 births
1976 deaths
20th-century English painters
Artists from Lancashire
Alumni of Manchester Metropolitan University
Alumni of the University of Salford
British war artists
English male painters
English people of Northern Ireland descent
Landscape artists
Modern painters
Naïve painters
People from Pendlebury
People from Stretford
Royal Academicians
World War II artists
Members of the Royal Society of British Artists
English landscape painters
Burials at Southern Cemetery, Manchester
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208022
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO%2010006
|
ISO 10006
|
ISO 10006:2018, Quality management systems - Guidelines for quality management in projects, is an international standard developed by the International Organization for Standardization.
ISO 10006:2018 gives guidance on the application of quality management in projects. It supersedes ISO 10006:2003.
Basic principles
ISO 10006 is applicable to organizations working on projects of varying complexity, small or large, of short or long duration, being an individual project to being part of a programme or portfolio of projects, in different environments, and irrespective of the kind of product/service or process involved, with the intention of satisfying project interested parties by introducing quality management in projects. This can necessitate some tailoring of the guidance to suit a particular project.
ISO 10006 defines a project as "unique process undertaken to achieve an objective". A project generally consists of a set of coordinated and controlled activities with start and finish dates, conforming to specific requirements, including the constraints of time, cost and resources.
Linked standards
ISO 10006 is not a guide to "project management" itself. Guidance on quality in project management processes is discussed in this International Standard. Guidance on quality in a project's product-related processes, and on the "process approach", is covered in ISO 9004. A new "Project Management - Guide to project Management" ISO 21500 has been published in September 2012.
Since ISO 10006 is a guidance document, it is not intended to be used for certification/registration purposes.
See also
Clinical trial
List of ISO standards
Project management
Quality management system
External links
Overview and discussion of the ISO 10006 Standard
Combining the ISO 10006 and PMBOK To Ensure Successful Projects
ISO 10006:2017 Standard
10006
Project management certification
|
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208031
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Bruton
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John Bruton
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John Gerard Bruton (born 18 May 1947) is an Irish former Fine Gael politician who served as Taoiseach from 1994 to 1997, Ambassador of the European Union to the United States from 2004 to 2009, Leader of Fine Gael from 1990 to 2001, Leader of the Opposition from 1990 to 1994 and 1997 to 2001, Deputy Leader of Fine Gael from 1987 to 1990, Minister for the Public Service from January 1987 to March 1987, Minister for Finance from 1981 to 1982 and 1986 to 1987, Minister for Industry, Trade, Commerce and Tourism from 1983 to 1986, Minister for Industry and Energy from 1982 to 1983, Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Education and Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Industry and Commerce from 1973 to 1977. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1969 to 2004.
He led a Rainbow Coalition government of Fine Gael–Labour–Democratic Left.
Bruton was first elected to Dáil Éireann as a TD for the Meath constituency in 1969, and served continuously until his retirement from domestic politics in 2004. He served as the Ambassador of the European Union to the United States from 2004 to 2009, and is a former vice-president of the European People's Party (EPP).
Early and personal life
John Gerard Bruton was born to a wealthy, Catholic farming family in Dunboyne, County Meath, and educated at Clongowes Wood College.
Oliver Coogan notes in his Politics and War in Meath 1913–23 that Bruton's granduncle was one of the farmers in south Meath who prevented the traditionally Anglo-Irish ascendency hunt from proceeding in the area during the Irish War of Independence.
Bruton later went on to study at University College Dublin (UCD), where he received an honours Bachelor of Arts degree and qualified as a barrister from King's Inns, but never went on to practice law. Bruton was narrowly elected to Dáil Éireann in the 1969 general election, as a Fine Gael TD for Meath. At the age of 22, he was one of the youngest ever members of the Dáil at that time. He more than doubled his vote in the 1973 general election, which brought Fine Gael to power as part of the National Coalition with the Labour Party. Bruton was appointed Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Industry and Commerce and to the Minister for Education, in the National Coalition in 1973. He remained in office until 1977.
He is married to Finola Bruton (née Gill) and they have four children.
Shadow cabinet and in government
Following Fine Gael's defeat at the 1977 general election, Bruton was appointed to the new front bench as Spokesperson on Agriculture by its new leader, Garret FitzGerald. He was later promoted as Spokesperson for Finance, making a particular effective speech in the Dáil in response to the budget of 1980. He played a prominent role in Fine Gael's campaign in the 1981 general election, which resulted in another coalition with the Labour Party, with FitzGerald as Taoiseach. Bruton received a huge personal vote in Meath, and at the age of only 34 was appointed Minister for Finance, the most senior position in the cabinet. The new government had to abandon its election promises to cut taxes in the light of overwhelming economic realities. The government collapsed unexpectedly on the night of 27 January 1982, when Bruton's controversial budget was defeated in the Dáil. The previously supportive Independent Socialist TD Jim Kemmy, voted against the budget, which proposed among other things the introduction of VAT on children's shoes, thus causing the Dáil to be dissolved and Fine Gael to lose power.
First leadership bid
The minority Fianna Fáil government which followed only lasted until November 1982, when Fine Gael once again returned to power in a coalition government with the Labour Party, but when the new government was formed, Bruton was moved from Finance to become Minister for Industry and Energy. After a reconfiguration of government departments in 1983, Bruton became Minister for Industry, Trade, Commerce and Tourism. In a cabinet reshuffle in 1986, Bruton was appointed again as Minister for Finance. Although he was Minister for Finance, Bruton never presented his budget. The Labour Party withdrew from the government due to a disagreement over his budget proposals leading to the collapse of the government and another election.
Following the 1987 general election Fine Gael suffered a heavy defeat. Garret FitzGerald resigned as leader immediately, and a leadership contest ensued between Alan Dukes, Peter Barry and Bruton himself. The exact result of the vote was not published. This was a severe blow as the victor, Dukes, was, like Bruton, one of the younger generation of politicians (albeit a couple of years older than Bruton), but had been a TD for 12 years fewer. Bruton was of Fine Gael's christian democrat tradition, whereas Dukes was in FitzGerald's social democratic and liberal mould. Dukes was perceived to be a lacklustre leader however, who alienated his party's TDs and Senators and made little progress in recovering the ground lost by Fine Gael in 1987. His Tallaght Strategy where he stated that he would support Fianna Fáil on economic reforms was also unpopular. The disastrous performance in the 1990 presidential election in which the party finished in a then humiliating and unprecedented third in a national election, proved to be the final straw for the party and Dukes was forced to resign as leader shortly after. Bruton, who was the deputy leader of Fine Gael at the time, was unopposed in the ensuing leadership election.
Leadership of Fine Gael
Whereas Dukes came from the social democratic wing of Fine Gael, Bruton came from the more conservative wing. However to the surprise of critics and of conservatives, in his first policy initiative he called for a referendum on a Constitutional amendment permitting the enactment of legislation allowing for divorce in Ireland.
Fine Gael had been in decline for nearly a decade; from the high point of the November 1982 general election when it achieved 70 seats in Dáil Éireann (only five seats short of Fianna Fáil's total). The party had lost a considerable number of seats over the following ten years. Following the inexperienced Dukes' disastrous period of leadership, Bruton's election was seen as offering Fine Gael a chance to rebuild under a far more politically experienced leader. However Bruton's perceived right wing persona and his rural background was used against him by critics and particularly by the media.
By the 1992 general election, the anti-Fianna Fáil mood in the country produced a major swing to the opposition, but that support went to the Labour Party, not Bruton's Fine Gael, which actually lost a further 10 seats. Even then, it initially appeared that Fine Gael was in a position to form a government. However, negotiations stalled in part from Labour's refusal to be part of a coalition which would include the libertarian Progressive Democrats, as well as Bruton's unwillingness to take Democratic Left into a prospective coalition. The Labour Party broke off talks with Fine Gael and opted to enter a new coalition with Fianna Fáil. It was a humiliating blow to Bruton, as the Labour Party was always seen as a natural ally of Fine Gael rather than Fianna Fáil. Fine Gael, and Bruton personally, continued to perform poorly in opinion polls throughout 1993 and early 1994, Bruton narrowly survived a challenge to his leadership in early 1994. However a couple of by-election victories, and a good performance in the 1994 European elections, coupled with a disastrous showing by the Labour Party, shored up his position.
In late 1994, the government of Fianna Fáil's Albert Reynolds collapsed. Bruton was able to persuade Labour to end its coalition with Fianna Fáil and enter a new coalition government with Fine Gael and Democratic Left. Bruton faced charges of hypocrisy for agreeing to enter government with Democratic Left, as Fine Gael campaigned in the 1992 general election on a promise not to enter government with the party. Nevertheless, on 15 December, aged 47, Bruton became the then youngest ever Taoiseach. This was the first time in the history of the state that a new government was installed without a general election being held.
10th Taoiseach (1994–1997)
Bruton's politics were markedly different from most Irish leaders. Whereas most leaders had come from or identified with the independence movement Sinn Féin (in its 1917–22 phase), Bruton identified more with the more moderate Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) tradition that Sinn Féin had eclipsed at the 1918 general election. He hung a picture of IPP leader John Redmond, his political hero, on a wall in his office as Taoiseach, in preference to other figures such as Patrick Pearse. But as evidence of Bruton's complexity, he also kept a picture of former Fianna Fáil Taoiseach Seán Lemass, which had been hung there by Reynolds, and which Bruton kept because he viewed Lemass as the best and most reforming Taoiseach in the history of the state.
Continued developments in the Northern Ireland peace process and his attitude to Anglo-Irish relations came to define Bruton's tenure as Taoiseach. In February 1995, he launched the Anglo-Irish 'Framework Document' with the British Prime Minister, John Major. This document outlined new proposed relations between Ireland, Northern Ireland and the United Kingdom. Many of Bruton's opponents considered him to be too willing to accommodate unionist demands (in one famous accusation, Albert Reynolds referred to him as "John Unionist"). However, he took a strongly critical position on the British Government's reluctance to engage with Sinn Féin during the IRA's 1994–1997 ceasefire. Bruton complained to a local radio reporter in Cork that "I am sick of answering questions about the fucking peace process", for which he later apologised.
Bruton also established a working relationship with Gerry Adams of Sinn Féin, however both were mutually distrustful of each other. The relationship became frayed following the ending of the ceasefire in 1996, resulting in a bomb explosion in London. These relations worsened when the IRA killed Jerry McCabe, a member of the Garda Síochána, in a botched post office robbery in County Limerick, and another bomb explosion in Manchester. However, Bruton received widespread praise in the Republic for condemning the Royal Ulster Constabulary for yielding to loyalist threats at Drumcree by allowing members of the Orange Order to parade through a nationalist district. He stated that the RUC had been neither impartial nor consistent in applying the law. His outrage and criticism led to a tense atmosphere between London and Dublin. By the time of the 1997 general election Sinn Féin stated that they would prefer a Fianna Fáil led government and the IRA resumed their ceasefire soon after Fine Gael lost the 1997 general election.
He also presided over a successful Irish Presidency of the European Union in 1996, and helped finalise the Stability and Growth Pact, which establishes macroeconomic parameters for countries participating in the single European currency, the euro. Bruton was the fifth Irish leader to address a joint session of the United States Congress on 11 September 1996, as the 30th head of state or government of an EU country to do so since 1945.
Bruton's government suffered from some allegations of corruption, and political embarrassment. In 1996, the Minister for Transport, Energy and Communication, Michael Lowry, resigned from the cabinet after allegations that he had not paid income tax on payments from the supermarket tycoon, Ben Dunne, for work he had done for him as a businessman prior to becoming a Minister. His Minister of State at the Department of Finance also resigned, on 9 February 1995, as a result of leaks from the Department of Finance. Additionally, many years later Frank Dunlop made allegations before the planning tribunal that he had informed Bruton about demands for a £250,000 bribe made to him by a Fine Gael Dublin City Councillor, Tom Hand, to rezone the Quarryvale development. Dunlop testified that when he informed Bruton of the bribery attempts, Bruton replied, "There are no angels in the world or in Fine Gael". Bruton vehemently denied this and Fine Gael counsel told the Planning Tribunal in 2003: "I refute entirely Mr Dunlop's contention that he advised me then of the alleged demand made to him by the late Tom Hand". However, following further evidence at the tribunal, Bruton returned to it in October 2007, and conceded that "it gradually came back to me", that Dunlop, "did say to me something about a Councillor looking for money". But, in his own evidence to the tribunal in 2007, Dunlop himself said that he had not mentioned any figure of 250,000 to Bruton in his 1993 conversation with him.
Bruton presided over the first official visit by a member of the British Royal Family since 1912, by Charles, Prince of Wales. His welcome speech to Prince Charles, was viewed by many journalists negatively in Ireland. In Britain, The Times accused him of being "embarrassingly effusive" while The Guardian lambasted that Bruton get a grip on his "extravagantly nonsensical attitudes". Bruton himself viewed the fact that the heir to the British throne could visit the Republic successfully, as marking an important turning point in Anglo-Irish relations and stands over the comments he made as appropriate in the circumstances.
Following the murder of crime journalist Veronica Guerin, his government established the Criminal Assets Bureau.
Post-Taoiseach period
The government was widely expected to win re-election in 1997. While Fine Gael gained nine seats, Labour was severely mauled, losing 16 seats. This left Bruton far short of the parliamentary support he needed to retain office, and he resigned. A Fianna Fáil–Progressive Democrat coalition led by Bertie Ahern came into power, with Bruton reverting to leadership of the opposition.
Fine Gael became paralysed in opposition. Bruton was deposed from leadership in 2001, in favour of Michael Noonan, due in part to fears Fine Gael would suffer severe losses in the 2002 election. However, Noonan failed to live up to expectations and the party suffered an even greater collapse than had been expected under Bruton. Having gone into the election expecting to increase its seat count from 54 to 60, it only won 31. This not only tied Fine Gael's second-worst performance in an election, but was 39 seats less than at its high point twenty years earlier in 1982.
Bruton, a passionate supporter of European integration, was chosen as one of the two Irish Parliament Representatives to the European Convention, which helped draft the proposed European Constitution. He was one of two National Parliament Representatives to sit on the 12-member Praesidium, which helped steer the European Convention. He is a member of the Comite d'Honneur of the Institute of International and European Affairs, along with Peter Sutherland and Bertie Ahern. He accepted an offer to become European Union Ambassador to the United States, in the summer of 2004, and after resigning from the Dáil on 31 October 2004, he assumed that office. Bruton was praised by Ahern, who said Bruton had played "a pivotal role in developing Ireland's relations with the European Union."
Bruton received an Honorary Doctorate from Memorial University of Newfoundland in 2003, and from the University of Missouri in 2009.
He regularly lectures at national and international universities. In early 2004, he accepted a position as Adjunct Faculty Member in the School of Law and Government at Dublin City University. In November 2008, he received the Order of the Polar Star award from the Government of Sweden.
His brother, Richard Bruton, is also a Fine Gael politician, and has served in a number of ministerial roles, most recently as Minister for Communications, Climate Action and Environment.
On 29 October 2009, it was announced that he had written to the Ambassadors to the United States of the 27 members of the European Union expressing his interest in applying for the position of President of the European Council following implementation of the Lisbon Treaty. Bruton was very much an outside shot for the position as EU leaders firmly indicated they want a chairman-style president rather than a high-profile figurehead to fill the post. Herman Van Rompuy, the then Belgian Prime Minister, was appointed President of the European Council on 19 November 2009 and took office on 1 December 2009.
On 21 May 2010, it was announced that he would be the chairman of the newly formed financial services body, IFSC Ireland. His main role will be to promote Ireland as a location of choice for international financial services.
Bruton was widely discussed as a candidate for the 2011 presidential election and was approached by Fine Gael with the opportunity to become their candidate; on 28 May 2011, however, Bruton issued a statement that he was "flattered" to be asked, but would not be a candidate for the presidency.
Since November 2011, Bruton acts as an advisor to Fair Observer focusing mainly on the areas of politics, finance and economics as well as on issues pertaining to Europe.
Bruton receives annual pension payments of €141,849.
In September 2014, on the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Home Rule Bill, Bruton said the 1916 Easter Rising was a mistake and an unjust war.
Bruton supported the "No" campaign during the 2018 Irish referendum on abortion.
Government
24th Government of Ireland (December 1994 – June 1997)
References
External links
Washington Diplomat Bio
1947 births
Living people
Alumni of University College Dublin
Ambassadors of the European Union to the United States
Fine Gael TDs
Institute of European Affairs
Leaders of Fine Gael
Members of the 19th Dáil
Members of the 20th Dáil
Members of the 21st Dáil
Members of the 22nd Dáil
Members of the 23rd Dáil
Members of the 24th Dáil
Members of the 25th Dáil
Members of the 26th Dáil
Members of the 27th Dáil
Members of the 28th Dáil
Members of the 29th Dáil
Ministers for Finance (Ireland)
Ministers for Transport (Ireland)
Order of the Polar Star
Parliamentary Secretaries of the 20th Dáil
People educated at Clongowes Wood College
Politicians from County Meath
European People's Party politicians
Presidents of the European Council
Taoisigh
Irish officials of the European Union
Ministers for Enterprise, Trade and Employment
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%C3%ADs%20Carlos%20Prestes
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Luís Carlos Prestes
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Luís Carlos Prestes (January 3, 1898 – March 7, 1990) was a Brazilian revolutionary and politician who served as the general-secretary of the Brazilian Communist Party from 1943 to 1980 and a senator for the Federal District from 1946 to 1948. One of the leading Communists in Brazil, Prestes has been regarded by many as one of Brazil's most charismatic yet tragic figures for his leadership of the 1924 tenente revolt and his subsequent work with the Brazilian Communist movement. The 1924 expedition earned Prestes the nickname The Knight of Hope.
Beginning in 1924, as a young army officer, Prestes was a leading figure in an abortive military revolt. After its failure, he led a band of rebel troops, known as the Prestes Column, on a three-year, 14,000-mile trek through the remote Brazilian interior in a futile attempt to stir peasant opposition to the Government. Eventually, the rebels went into exile in Bolivia. Although the effort failed, he became a romantic hero.
He went on to become general-secretary of the Brazilian Communist Party, which advocated ending payments on the national debt, nationalization of foreign-owned companies, and land reform. Imprisoned after a violent uprising in 1935, he was released after World War II and later served briefly as a senator. He was the communist opposition throughout the Vargas Era in Brazil.
In the 1980s, Prestes accused the Brazilian Communist Party of abandoning Marxist-Leninist philosophy. He was removed from the leadership in 1980 and expelled in 1984.
He campaigned for Leonel Brizola, a center-left candidate, in the 1989 presidential election, won by Fernando Collor de Mello.
Early life and Tenente revolt
Prestes was born in Porto Alegre in the southernmost state of Rio Grande do Sul on January 3, 1898. His father had been an officer in the army. With his family enduring financial difficulties after his father left them, Prestes enrolled in the Military School of Realengo in Rio de Janeiro (where future fellow-tenentes Antônio de Siqueira Campos and Eduardo Gomes also attended) at the age of 11, completing his military training in 1919. Specializing in Military Engineering, he finished first in his class.
Although he played a key part in the planning of the revolt of 1922, Prestes actually missed out on the fateful "March of the 18," as he was in bed with typhoid fever when the revolt broke out. Since Prestes was not directly involved in the revolt, he escaped the prison sentences of some of his colleagues, but he was transferred to Rio Grande do Sul.
When the 1924 revolt broke out in an attempt to once again bring an end to the First Republic, Prestes rose to a key position in the Tenentes movement, named for the role the lower-ranking officers played in the revolts of both 1922 and 1924. While not involved in the temporary takeover of São Paulo in July 1924, Prestes rose to fame when, after a failed attempt to take over a garrison, he met the rebels from São Paulo and led the combined group of tenentes and rebels in what came to be known as the "Prestes Column."
Given his future political trajectory, it is more than a little ironic that Prestes rejected Siqueira Campos’s recommendation the tenentes affiliate with the communists in the international political arena. Over nearly 3 years, the column marched 25,000 kilometers (16,000 miles) across thirteen Brazilian states. The column, organized in protest of the politics and policies of the oligarchical First Republic (1889–1930), lacked the power to threaten the First Republic directly, but was nonetheless strong enough to resist the government’s efforts to apprehend and eliminate the Prestes Column, which ultimately went into exile in Bolivia in 1927. His ability to avoid defeat at the hands of government forces made Prestes somewhat of a folk hero both in Brazil and internationally.
In exile (1927–1930)
While in Bolivia, Prestes worked on road-building, sanitation, and other infrastructure projects for the British enterprise Bolivian Company Limited. In late 1927, the secretary-general of the Partido Comunista Brasileiro (Brazilian Communist Party; PCB), Astrojildo Pereira, went to Bolivia to meet Prestes. During the visit, he left some Marxist works with Prestes and recommended an alliance with the Brazilian Communist Party.
Ironically (given Prestes’ future political path), the tenente turned down Pereira's recommendation, remaining in Bolivia until late 1928, when he went to Argentina and found work as an engineer. It was at this time that Prestes finally read Marxist works and began to identify with socialism, a process further facilitated by his conversations with the Rodolfo Ghioldi, a key figure in Argentine communist politics, and Samuel Guralski, who was a representative of the Communist International (Comintern) in South America from 1930 through 1934.
1930 revolution
The tenente revolt heralded the end of the 'coffee and milk' coronelismo politics and the beginning of social reforms. The Revolution of 1930 ended Brazil's Old Republic. Joined by many moderate tenentes, but not Prestes, the Revolution of 1930 installed Getúlio Vargas as Brazil's provisional president. Although the tenentes sympathized with him, Vargas was a far more conservative figure.
Because the tenentes wanted Prestes to join Vargas, Prestes decided to meet him in Porto Alegre and explained his idea of socialist revolution to Vargas for about two hours. Vargas was highly impressed by Prestes and even donated 800 contos de réis (about $400,000 at the time, or about $5,860,000 in 2017 USD) to the revolutionary cause.
However, Prestes viewed Vargas as the leader of a bourgeois revolution and believing that the Liberal Alliance was merely going to replace one oligarchical system with another, Prestes fatefully declined. He attempted to create the League of Revolutionary Action, a "third path" that differed from the Liberal Alliance and the First Republic, but the movement failed to gain enough adherents to be sustainable. Continuing to deploy Marxist analysis in his consideration of Brazilian politics and society, he nonetheless was excluded from the Brazilian Communist Party, which had begun replacing intellectuals with workers in the party structure. Ultimately, Prestes once again went into a self-imposed exile, this time in Uruguay.
Alignment to Marxism
In 1931, he went to the USSR where he worked as an engineer and continued his study of Communism. At the end of 1934, he left the Soviet Union to return to Brazil, accompanied by his soon-to-be wife, Olga Benário, an agent of the Comintern assigned to provide security for him.
In 1935, he was made a member of the executive committee of the Communist International and is reported to have earned the confidence of Stalin. In that same year, he became the leader of the Aliança Nacional Libertadora (National Liberation Alliance) (ANL), a left-wing popular front, consisting of socialists, communists, and other progressives led by the Communist Party in opposition to Vargas' crackdown against organized labor.
Getúlio Vargas, who had by this time become Brazil's legally recognized president (no longer merely ad interim), thus looked to a form of authoritarian government. He endeavored to suppress his enemies on the left, led by Prestes, through violence and state terror in order to survive with his coalition intact during the agitated years that began in 1934. Vargas had become allied with Brazil's agrarian oligarchies, having an established network of economic and political power, and the Integralists, a fascist movement with a mass popular base in urban Brazil. Vargas's political power forced the Brazilian Congress to respond to the growth of the Communist movement.
While former tenentes and colleagues such as Eduardo Gomes, Juracy Magalhães, and Juarez Távora were increasingly moving rightward, Prestes had soured on the Vargas government after supporting his rise in 1930. With Prestes's affiliation with the ANL, its membership grew in the course of 1935, and, in a moment of overconfidence, the ANL issued a manifesto that called for the overthrow of the Vargas government. Vargas used the opportunity to declare the ANL an illegal organization; when Prestes and other members of the ANL launched an insurrection in November 1935 in Rio Grande do Norte, Vargas's government quickly cracked down and ended it. Miscalculating Vargas's intentions, the ANL ultimately created the pretext that allowed Vargas to further solidify his control, going after a broader range of critics and opponents of his government. Prestes avoided the initial wave of crackdowns, but by March 1936, both he and Olga had been imprisoned. Given her status as a foreigner, Vargas sent a pregnant Olga back to Nazi Germany.
After the revolt failed, the leaders were tried for sedition in 1937. Prestes arrested was sentenced to 16 years in prison. In 1945, while still in prison, Prestes was elected general secretary of the Communist Party of Brazil.
Imprisonment
As a result of Vargas' increased political power, the Brazilian Congress branded all leftist opposition as "subversive" under a March 1935 National Security Act. The new act allowed the President to ban the ANL. Vested with its new emergency powers, the federal government imposed a crackdown on the entire left, with arrests, torture, and summary trials. By mid-1935 Brazilian politics had become drastically destabilized. In July the government moved against the ANL, with troops raiding offices, confiscating propaganda, seizing records, and jailing leaders. The ANL resorted to its armed insurrection in November, but it was quickly defeated. The authoritarian regime, like its fascist counterparts in Europe, responded by imprisoning and torturing Prestes and violently crushing the Communist movement through state terror.
Vargas, seeking to co-opt Brazil's fascist movement and paramilitary, known as "Integralism" and led by Plínio Salgado, tolerated a tide of anti-Semitism, and may have targeted Prestes' wife to appease his new supporters. Vargas deported the pregnant, German-Jewish wife of Luís Carlos Prestes, Olga Benario, to Nazi Germany, where she later was murdered by her Nazi captors in a concentration camp.
Political career
After Vargas began abandoning fascist-style autocracy in 1945, following his rapprochement with the World War II Allies in 1943, political prisoners were released. Prestes was released from prison in May 1945 in an amnesty for political prisoners.
With the overthrow of the Vargas regime in October 1945, new elections took place. Prestes gave an astute assessment of Vargas' politics, commenting, "Getúlio is very flexible. When it was fashionable to be a fascist, he was a fascist. Now that it is fashionable to be democratic, he will be a democrat." Despite his own treatment at the hands of Vargas, and the fate of his wife, Prestes threw his support behind Vargas in the name of national unity.
Once more he plunged into the political arena. With about 6 months in which to work before the presidential election, Prestes set about reorganising the Communist Party, which numbered only 4000 members. The Communists showed unprecedented strength in the ensuing elections, polling some 700,000 or 15 percent of the total.
In the elections of December 2, 1945, Prestes won the highest number of votes in his race for the senator of the Federal District. Prestes's election coincided, however, with the beginning of the Cold war.
As a senator, Prestes played a part in the writing of a new constitution in 1946. Later that month, Vargas was ousted by the hard-right wing of the military partly because of his liberalizing moves; the Communist movement became persecuted once again. In May 1947, the Brazilian government outlawed the Communist Party, and Congress followed suit by ousting its Communist members. Prestes immediately went into hiding and operated underground for 10 years.
He refused to support any of the candidates in the 1950 election, and remained an open critic of Vargas's presidency up through the latter's suicide in 1954. Prestes did support the candidacy of Juscelino Kubitschek in 1955, and began to play a more public role even while the PCB remained illegal. With the ascendance of João Goulart to the presidency in the wake of Jânio Quadros’s abrupt resignation in August 1961, Prestes, like others on the left (and not just in the PCB) saw a chance for real reform for Brazil’s workers and peasants, and he continually publicly pressured Goulart to accelerate reforms in Brazil. Of course, amidst the polarization of the Cold War, the middle classes, conservatives, and military saw the spectre of communism in Goulart’s eventual leftward shift; determined to prevent a communist "dictatorship," the military overthrew Goulart and instead ushered in a conservative dictatorship.
Once again living under a right-wing regime, Prestes once again went underground, then exile, as the military targeted other veteran PCB members such as Gregório Bezerra. Even while former tentente Eduardo Gomes served as the Minister of the Air Force during the military dictatorship, former tenente Luís Carlos Prestes was constantly attempting to avoid military repression. Yet that was not the least of Prestes’ problems. Long acknowledged as a leader in Brazilian Communism, the heterogeneity of Marxism both globally and in Brazil transformed his role in the 1960s.
Under the presidency of João Goulart (1961–1964), a protégé of Getúlio Vargas, and another gaúcho from Rio Grande do Sul, the closeness of the government to the historically disenfranchised working class and peasantry and even to the Communist Party under none other than Luís Carlos Prestes was equally remarkable. Goulart appeared to have been co-opting the Communist movement in a manner reminiscent of Vargas' co-option of the Integralists shortly, and not coincidentally, before his ouster by reactionary forces. Once again, Prestes was imprisoned and the Communist movement was persecuted.
The experience of the failed tenente rebellion and Vargas' suppression of the Communist movement left Prestes, and some of his comrades, skeptical of armed conflict for the rest of his life. His well-cultivated skepticism later helped precipitate the permanent schism between hard-line Maoists and orthodox Moscow-influenced militants in the Brazilian Communist Party during the early 1960s. Prestes went on to lead the pro-Soviet faction of the party known as the Brazilian Communist Party (or PCB) while the Maoists formed the Communist Party of Brazil (or PCdoB). While the Maoists went underground and engaged in urban combat against the military dictatorship after 1964, Prestes' faction did not.
Later life and death
In 1970, Prestes went to Moscow with his second wife and children, and only returned to Brazil after amnesty for political offenders was granted ten years later. By the mid-1970s, the dictatorship, having effectively eliminated the other armed leftist movements, turned its sights on the PCB, targeting and killing some of its top leaders, but by that point, Prestes had been in exile for a number of years.
Ultimately, Prestes returned to Brazil with the military's general amnesty of 1979 that pardoned political prisoners and exiles (while also pardoning any and all military members and officials tied to torture or the execution of the regime's opponents). Despite the return of the man many saw as the figurehead and leader of the Brazilian Communist Party, the remnants of the party remained divided over what paths to pursue as Brazil returned to democratization, riven by questions over whether to support the institutional transition or to demand a more radical revolution. While many could and did acknowledge Prestes's historical importance to the left in Brazil, they felt that, at over 80 years old, he was no longer the appropriate leader, and he was removed from his position as secretary-general of the PCB.
He became a supporter of the Brazil's Democratic Labour Party and took part in Leonel Brizola's presidential campaign in 1989.
In his final days, nearly penniless, Prestes was largely supported by architect Oscar Niemeyer, a long-time Communist sympathizer and designer of many buildings in Brasilia. Prestes died of a heart attack on March 7, 1990, aged 92.
See also
Olga Benário Prestes
Carlos Marighella
João Goulart
Getúlio Vargas
Brazilian Communist Party
Tenente revolts
Brazilian Communist Uprising of 1935
The Knight of Hope, biography of Prestes by Jorge Amado
Coluna Prestes, that preceded and perhaps inspired the Chinese Long March
External links
A brief overview of the Prestes Column in Brazil 1924-1927
Prestes in Timeline The most important dates of his career.
Ciclo revolucionário brasileiro: do Tenentismo ao Estado Novo (in Portuguese)
O Velho - A História de Luiz Carlos Prestes (Documentary about the life of Luís Carlos Prestes)
Footnotes
References
The Prestes Column: Revolution in Brazil, by Neill Macaulay (1974).
1898 births
1990 deaths
People from Rio Grande do Sul
Brazilian rebels
Brazilian Communist Party politicians
Brazilian communists
Anti-fascists
Brazilian expatriates in the Soviet Union
Brazilian exiles
Brazilian expatriates in Argentina
People granted political asylum in the Soviet Union
International Lenin School alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franglais
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Franglais
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Franglais (; also Frenglish ) is a French blend which referred first to the overuse of English words by French-speakers, and later to diglossia or the macaronic mixture of French () and English ().
Etymology
The word Franglais was first attested in French in 1959, but it was popularised by the academic, novelist, and critic René Étiemble in his denunciation of the overuse of English words in French, Parlez-vous franglais? published in 1964. Earlier than the French term was the English label Frenglish first recorded in 1937. Other colloquial blends for French influenced English include: Franglish (recorded from 1967), Frenchlish (1974), and Fringlish (1982).
English sense
In English, Franglais means a combination of English and French. It evokes the linguistic concepts of mixed language and barbarism. Reasons for this blend could be caused by lexical gaps, native bilingualism, populations trying to imitate a language where they have no fluency (sometimes known as creoles/pidgins), or humorous intent. Franglais usually consists of either filling in gaps in one's knowledge of French with English words, using false friends, or speaking French which (although ostensibly "French") would not be understood by a French speaker who does not also have a knowledge of English (for example, by using a literal translation of English idiomatic phrases).
Some examples of Franglais are:
Longtemps, pas voir.Long time, no see.
Je vais driver downtown.I'm going to drive downtown. ()
Je suis tired.I am tired. ()
Je care pas.I don't care. ()
J'agree.I agree. ()
M'en va gazer mon char. (Québec) – I'm going to go fill up my car (with gas). ()
Franglais may also mean a diplomatic compromise, such as the abbreviation UTC for Coordinated Universal Time.
In English humour
Chaucer's Prioress knew nothing of the French of France, but only that of Stratford-atte-Bow ('Cockney French'). Similar mixtures occur in the later stages of Law French, such as the famous defendant who "ject un brickbat a le dit Justice, que narrowly mist" ("threw a at the said Justice, which narrowly missed").
Another example in English literature is found in Henry V by William Shakespeare. In Act 3, Scene 4, a French princess is trying to learn English, but unfortunately, "foot" as pronounced by her maid sounds too much like (vulgar French for 'semen', or 'to have sexual intercourse' when used as a verb) and "gown" like (French for 'cunt', also used to mean 'idiot'). She decides that English is too obscene.
A literary example of the delight in occurs in Robert Surtees' Jorrocks' Jaunts and Jollities:
The 19th-century American writer Mark Twain, in Innocents Abroad, included the following letter to a Parisian landlord:
The humourist Miles Kington wrote a regular column "Let's Parler Franglais" which was published in the British magazine Punch in the late 1970s. These columns were collected into a series of books: Let's Parler Franglais, Let's Parler Franglais Again!, Parlez-vous Franglais?, Let's Parler Franglais One More Temps, The Franglais Lieutenant's Woman and Other Literary Masterpieces.
A somewhat different tack was taken in Luis van Rooten's Mots d'Heures: Gousses, Rames: The D'Antin Manuscript. Here, English nursery rhymes are written with meaningless French phrases which are meant to recall the sounds of the English words, and the resulting French texts are presented as a historical manuscript and given a pseudo-learned commentary.
Another classic is Jean Loup Chiflet's Sky My Husband! Ciel Mon Mari! which is a literal translation of French into English. However, in this context, the correct translation of is 'heavens...!'
In Monty Python's 1975 movie Monty Python and the Holy Grail, the French castle guard (John Cleese) orders, when King Arthur (Graham Chapman) doesn't want to go away, his fellow guards to "Fetchez la vache." The other French guards respond with "" and he repeats "Fetchez la vache!" The guards finally get it: fetch ('the cow'), which they then catapult at the Britons.
French sense
In French, refers to the use of English words sometimes deemed unwelcome borrowings or bad slang. An example would be (also ), which is used in many French dialects which have no synonym; however Canadians would use ('the end of the week') instead, although in France refers to the end of the work week, i.e. Thursday and Friday. also refers to nouns coined from Anglo-Saxon roots or from recent English loanwords (themselves not always Anglo-Saxon in origin), often by adding -ing at the end of a popular word—e.g., ('a car park or parking lot' is alternatively in Canadian French, although means 'the action of parking or the state of being parked' in European French); ('a campsite'); and ('shampoo', but pronounced , not ), which has been standardized and has appeared on many French hair-care product labels since at least the 1960s. A few words which have entered French are derived from English roots but are not found at all in English, such as ('a makeover'), and ('a rugby player'). Others are based on misunderstandings of English words, e.g.: un meaning 'a jog or a run' rather than 'a pediment'; meaning 'a tram', not 'a tram-track'. Still others are based on (with the apostrophe in both singular and plural) meaning 'a lapel pin'; or meaning 'a walkie-talkie' (hand-held, two-way radio). For those who do not speak English, such words may be believed to exist as such in English. However, in Canada, where both English and French are spoken, expressions such as and are not used.
Some examples of Franglais are in fact imagined or examples of words being adopted from one language into another in the opposite direction of what many people believe. People who have no linguistic training or don't bother to consult dictionaries tend to create and perpetuate such urban legends about Franglais. For example, many numismatists think that the French spelling of the English term piedfort results from an imagined reintroduction of an English misspelling. In fact, the spelling piéfort is found in French dictionaries as an alternative of and even as the only spelling given in the 1932-1935 edition of the Dictionnaire de l'Académie française. and the etymology derived by professional linguists and shown in these dictionaries shows the change in spelling happened within French.
Owing to the worldwide popularity of the Internet, relatively new English words have been introduced into French (e.g. and , referring to either e-mail or an e-mail address). An equivalent for the English word e-mail derived from French roots was coined in Quebec French and promoted by Quebec government: (from ), and this term is now widely used there. The Académie française has also suggested the use of the abbreviation (from ) as an analogy with the abbreviation for 'telephone', to be used before an e-mail address; however the term, which roughly approximates the English pronunciation of mail, is now used more broadly in France than that prescribed usage. Another example from French is the word . The equivalent of the English verb to look at in French is but the noun a look (i.e. the way that something looks or is styled) has become in French, such that the sentence "This Pepsi can has a new look" in French would be "".
In France
After World War II, a backlash began in France over the growing use of English there. "Corruption of the national language" was perceived by some to be tantamount to an attack on the identity of the country itself. During this period, ever greater imports of American products led to the increasingly widespread use of some English phrases in French. Measures taken to slow this trend included government censorship of comic strips and financial support for the French film and French-language dubbing industries. Despite public policies against the spread of English, Franglais is gaining popularity in both writing and speaking.
In recent years, English expressions are increasingly present in French mass media:
TV reality shows often use English titles such as Loft Story, Star Academy, Popstars, and Secret Story.
A leading national newspaper, Le Monde, publishes a weekly article selection of The New York Times entirely in English and uses anglicisms such as newsletter, chat, and e-mail instead of French substitutions (/ for "chat" or courriel for "e-mail").
Note that saying to a French person instead of Internet "chat" may confuse them, since refers in France to real-life conversation and is rarely used in an Internet context. The word (a blend of 'keyboard' and 'chat') is hardly known outside of Canada. The word chat in writing can be confusing as well since it natively means 'cat' in French, thus the unique respelling is occasionally seen.
In James Huth's blockbuster movie Brice de Nice (to be pronounced as if it were in English), Franglais is used in a satirical way to make fun of teens and other trendy people who use English words to sound cool.
Most telecommunication and Internet service providers use English and Franglais expressions in product names and advertising campaigns. The leading operator, France Télécom, has dropped the accents in its corporate logo. In recent years, it has changed its product names with trendier expressions such as Business Talk, Live-Zoom, Family Talk. France Télécom's mobile telecommunications subsidiary Orange SA runs a franchise retail network called mobistores. Its Internet subsidiary, formerly known as Wanadoo (inspired by the American slang expression wanna do) provides a popular triple play service through its Livebox cable modem. The second-largest Internet service provider in France is Free, which offers its freebox. Set-top boxes that are offered by many other providers are also following this trend (e.g. Neuf-box, Alice-box, etc.) and the word box by itself is gradually ending up referring to these set-top boxes.
SNCF, the state-owned railway company, has recently introduced a customer fidelity program called S'Miles. Meanwhile, Air France has renamed its Fréquence Plus frequent flyer program to Flying Blue. The Paris transportation authority RATP has also recently introduced a contactless smartcard ticketing system (like the Oyster card in London) called NaviGO.
Public authorities such as the Académie française and the Conseil supérieur de la langue française generally propose alternative words for anglicisms. The acceptance of such words varies considerably; for example, and existed before the English words computer and software reached France, so they are accepted (even outside France in the case of ). On the other hand, failed to replace weekend or (the latter being in current usage in Canada). The word courriel, equivalent of "e-mail", coined and used in French-speaking Canada is gaining popularity in written European French. However, most French Internet users generally speak about mail without the prefix "e-". Note that English words are often shorter, and they are usually coined first (the French alternatives are generally thought of only after the original word has already been coined, and then they are debated at length before coming into use). This is partly why they tend to stay in use.
Alternative words proposed by the Académie française are sometimes poorly received by a technologically aware audience and unclear to a non-technologically aware audience. The proposed terms may be ambiguous (often because they are coined based on phonetics, thus hiding their etymology) which results in nonsense (e.g. for CD-RW (literally 'rewritable CD-ROMs', despite ROM meaning 'read-only memory'). Some words are considered uncool, for example, (formed by adding t- to chat) or (formed by writing DVD phonetically).
The use of English expressions is very common in the youth language, which combines them with wordplay. The letter j is thus sometimes humorously pronounced as in English in words such as ('youth'), rendered as /dʒœns/ and thus written ,
In Canada
Quebec
Quebec is the only French majority province in Canada and the only "de jure" (but not "de facto") monolingual jurisdiction. New Brunswick is officially bilingual, and the other provinces, while mostly English-speaking, are not officially English-only.
When a speaker uses calques and loanwords in speech which includes English or French words and grammatical structures in a combination, it is sometimes referred to as Franglais, or a mixed language. The Montreal Gazette has examined this so-called "linguistic mosaic".
Quebec French has longstanding borrowings from English due to the historical coexistence of two speech communities within Quebec (and especially around Montreal). Likewise, Quebec English, the language of the English-speaking minority, has borrowed many French words such as dépanneur ('convenience store'), autoroute ('highway'), stage ('internship'), circular ('flyer', from the word , a circulated pamphlet), and many others . These are permanent and longstanding features of local usage, rather than the recent slangish improvisation by any speaker or affinity group with poor knowledge of the other language.
Some words are attributed to what is called Joual (French pronunciation: [ʒwal]): the name given by some to linguistic features of what is known as basilectal dialect of French when it is placed on Post-creole continuum.
These expressions have mainly become part of a common tongue/register born out of mutual concession to each other. In fact, the substantial bilingual community in and around Montreal will occasionally refer to Franglais, usually after it is pointed out by an observer that someone has used various French and English words, expressions or prepositions in the same sentence, a surprisingly common occurrence in various spoken registers.
Other areas in Canada
Canadian French is French as it is spoken in Canada. Scholars debate to what extent language mixture can be distinguished from other mechanisms, such as code-switching, substrata, or lexical borrowing. A mixed language arises in a population which is fluent in both languages.
The word Franglais refers to the long-standing and stable mixes of English and French spoken in some towns, cities, and rural areas of other Canadian provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Manitoba, and Newfoundland. Such mixing is used in the northern regions of Maine (U.S.) (see Chiac and Acadian French). It has been asserted that this mix uses approximately equal proportions of each language (except in Newfoundland), although it is more likely to be understood by a French-speaker, since it usually uses English words in French pronunciation and grammar.
Franglais is commonly spoken in French-language schools in Ontario and Alberta, as well as in DSFM (Division scolaire Franco-Manitobaine) schools in Manitoba, where students may speak French as their first language but will use English as their preferred language, yet will refer to school-related terms in French specifically (e.g. "Let's go to the bibliothèque", instead of "Let's go to the library"). As many French schools and French immersion classes have a strict "French-only" policy, English or Franglais is used out of class, between students.
Because of bilingual product packaging, speakers and readers may form new pronunciations that become terms. For example, someone may pronounce the words on a package of strong cheddar and call it "old fort".
Mistaken and unstable usages
Franglais, in the sense of mistaken usage by second-language speakers, occurs across Canada. An example of an anglicism turned Franglais is the mistranslation of English phrases into French by students who are unaware of the Canadian French word. For example, a hot dog is sometimes called un chien chaud when the French word is simply . (However, the Quebec government has itself promoted expressions such as for 'hot dog', and for 'hamburger', neither of which has gained widespread acceptance.) In some ways, confusion over which expression is more correct, and the emphasis that many immersion schools place on eliminating anglicisms from students' vocabulary, has promoted the use of Franglais. Franglais can also slowly creep into use from mispronunciation and misspelling by many bilingual Canadians. Common mistakes that immersion or bilingual students propagate include incorrect inflection and stresses on syllables, incorrect doubling of consonants, strange vowel combinations in their spelling and using combinations of prefixes and suffixes from English.
Recently, Canadian youth culture (especially in British Columbia and southeastern Ontario) purposely uses Franglais for its comical or euphemistic characteristics, for example, in replacing English swear words with French ones. Some English-speaking Canadians, especially Anglo-Quebecers and those in southeastern Ontario, euphemistically use the (i.e., religious words such as as expletives) rather than swearing in English.
Pseudo-anglicisms
There is a particular form of Franglish which consists of the adoption of English words with alternative meanings to their usage in English.
These are words like ('a scramble', 'a rush', 'a strong effort'), or ('a tan', 'the act of sunbathing'), made by adding the English ending -ing to a verb from French (e.g. 'to force' or 'to tan') to form a new noun. These are slang or informal at best, and not widely accepted.
Another type of false anglicism comes from the shortening of an English name, keeping only the first word (while the important word is the last). For example, a dress suit is designated by the word , borrowed ultimately from 'smoking jacket'. Yet the British use dinner jacket and Americans use tuxedo (or tux); in English, smoking is used only as a participle and as the gerund. Another example is the use of the word for 'clapperboard' used in filmmaking.
They are either French constructions which mimic English rules, or shifts of meaning which affect borrowings.
In Cameroon
Cameroon has substantial English and French-speaking populations as a legacy of its colonial past as British Southern Cameroons and French Cameroun. Despite linguistically segregated education since independence, many younger Cameroonians in urban centres have formed a version of Franglais/Franglish from English, French and Cameroonian Pidgin English known as Camfranglais or Frananglais. Many educational authorities disapprove of it, and they have banned it in their schools. Nevertheless, the youth-culture argot has gained popularity and has a growing music scene.
Elsewhere in the world
Franglais is spoken in London, due to its large French-speaking population.
Franglais also thrives in communities where imperfect English–French bilingualism is common. The United Nations Office at Geneva is so named in an imitation of the French , rather than the expected "in Geneva".
Another example is provided by the civil servants in European Union institutions (European Parliament, European Commission, European Court of Justice), based in bilingual Brussels (French and Dutch) and Luxembourg City (Luxembourgish and German). They often work in English, but they are surrounded by a French-speaking environment, which influences their English (e.g. "I'm a stagiaire at the Commission and I'm looking for another stage in a consultancy", referring to internships).
Songs
A notable song with substantial Franglais lyrics was "(Si Si) Je Suis un Rock Star", written and recorded by Bill Wyman. The record reached #14 in the UK Singles Chart in 1981.
The song "For Me, for Me, Formidable" by Charles Aznavour relates the struggle of a French singer trying to sing a love song to an English girl.
The song "I Want to Pogne" by Rock et Belles Oreilles.
"It is not because you are" by Renaud.
"I went to the market, mon p'tit panier sous mon bras", a popular Acadian song made famous by Gilles Vigneault.
"Michelle" by the Beatles ('Michelle, ma belle, these are words that go together well: ma Michelle' and more).
"L'amour à la française", French entry at the Eurovision Song Contest 2007.
Québécois musician Daniel Lanois has written many songs in Franglais, including O Marie and Under a Stormy Sky from his 1989 album Acadie and The Collection of Marie Claire from his 1993 album For the Beauty of Wynona.
See also
Post-creole continuum
Cultural identity and Cultural imperialism
Creole language
Code-switching
Loanword
Dunglish
Spanglish
Béarlachas
References
External links
La petite lesson en Franglais
Au revoir Mister Franglais BBC reporting on the death of Miles Kington
Le Grande Thanksgiving by Art Buchwald
Macaronic forms of English
Macaronic forms of French
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208042
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungibility
|
Fungibility
|
In economics, fungibility is the property of a good or a commodity whose individual units are essentially interchangeable and each of whose parts is indistinguishable from another part.
For example, gold is fungible since a specified amount of pure gold is equivalent to that same amount of pure gold, whether in the form of coins, ingots, or in other states, whereas a unique item such as gold fashioned into a statue by a famous artist would not be considered fungible. Other fungible commodities include sweet crude oil, company shares, bonds, other precious metals, and currencies.
Fungibility refers only to the equivalence and indistinguishability of each unit of a commodity with other units of the same commodity, and not to the exchange of one commodity for another.
Etymology
The word fungibility comes from the Latin fungibilis, from the verb fungī, meaning "to perform", via phrases such as fungi vice, meaning "serve in place of". It is related to words such as "function" and "defunct".
Use
Finance
Fungibility is different from liquidity. A good is said to be liquid if it can be easily exchanged for money or another good. A good is fungible if one unit of the good is substantially equivalent to another unit of the same good of the same quality at the same time, place, etc.
Notably, money is fungible: one US $10 banknote is interchangeable with any other genuine banknote like it. It is also interchangeable with two fives, ten ones, or any other combination of banknotes and coins adding up to $10.
On the other hand, diamonds and other gems are not perfectly fungible because their varying cuts, colors, grades, and sizes make it difficult to find several diamonds expected to have the same value. Packaged products on a retail shelf may be considered fungible if they are of the same type and equivalent in function and form. Customers and clerks can interchange packages freely until purchase, and sometimes afterward. After one opens the package and uses the product, however, it is usually considered unique and no longer interchangeable with unopened packages outside of exceptional circumstances, such as a return or exchange.
Cryptocurrency
Cryptocurrencies are usually considered to be fungible assets, where one coin is equivalent to another. However, after a major breach in Japanese exchange Coincheck, token developers for cryptocurrency NEM added a special flag to hacked coins to indicate they are not to be traded or used.
Tasking
Fungibility has been used to describe certain types of tasks that can be broken down into interchangeable pieces that are easily parallelized and are not interdependent on the other pieces. For example: If a worker can hand dig one meter of ditch in a day, and a ten-meter ditch needs to be dug, that worker can either be given ten days to complete the entire project, or nine more workers can be hired for a single day. Each worker can complete their piece of the project without interfering with the other workers, and more importantly, each worker is not dependent on the results of any of the other workers to complete their share of the total project.
On the other hand, non-fungible tasks tend to be highly serial in nature and require the completion of earlier steps before later steps can even be started. As an example of a serial task that is not fungible, suppose there was a group of nine newly pregnant women. After one month, these women would have experienced a total of nine months of pregnancy, but a complete baby would not have been formed.
Quantum physics
Oxford University theoretical physicist David Deutsch has adopted the term "fungible" to describe the physical nature of quantum particles and universes within the quantum multiverse, where, by virtue of being identical in all respects, different particles chaotically divide or combine as a result of physical interactions from a common fungible fund in superposition.
Law
United States
In legal disputes in the United States, when one party is compelled to remedy another party as the result of a ruling or adjudication, the appropriate legal remedy may depend on the fungibility of the underlying right, obligation or property interest that is intended to be restored. Depending on whether the interests of the aggrieved party are fungible, a determination made by the trier of fact, the appropriate remedy may change. For example, a court may require specific performance (an equitable remedy) as a remedy for breach of contract, instead of the more favored remedy of monetary damages.
Belgium
Belgium has adopted fungibility for its domestic central securities depository, CIK (Euroclear), which was set up in 1967–1968. According to royal decree No. 62, issued on 10 November 1967, depositors of fungible securities have the rights of co-ownership. This change was fundamental to the development of Euroclear, by then beginning to process Eurobonds and build systems.
See also
Currency
Interchangeable parts
References
Further reading
Commodities
|
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208051
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillian%20Ayres
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Gillian Ayres
|
Gillian Ayres (3 February 1930 – 11 April 2018) was an English painter. She is best known for abstract painting and printmaking using vibrant colours, which earned her a Turner Prize nomination.
Early life and education
Gillian Ayres was born to Florence and Stephen Ayres on 3 February 1930 in Barnes, London, the youngest of three sisters. She started school when she was six. Her parents, a prosperous couple who owned a hatmaking factory, sent her to Ibstock, a progressive school in Roehampton run on Fröbel principles.
In 1941, Ayres was sent to Colet Court, the junior school for St Paul's, Hammersmith. She passed the entrance exam for St Paul's Girls' School the following year, and developed an interest in art while there. Among her schoolfriends was Shirley Williams, with whom she taught art to children in bomb-damaged parts of London.
Ayres then decided to go to art school. In 1946, she applied to the Slade School of Fine Art and was accepted. However, at sixteen, she was too young to enroll. She was advised to apply to the Camberwell School of Art and studied there from 1946 to 1950.
Teaching
Gillian Ayres worked part-time at the AIA Gallery in Soho from 1951-59 before starting a teaching career. She held a number of teaching posts through the 1960s and 1970s, becoming friends with painters such as Howard Hodgkin, Robyn Denny and Roger Hilton. In 1959, she was asked to teach at Bath Academy of Art, Corsham, for six weeks. She remained on the teaching staff until 1965.
For much of her time at Corsham she shared a teaching studio with Malcolm Hughes. She was a senior lecturer at Saint Martin's School of Art, London, from 1965 to 1978 and became head of painting at Winchester School of Art in 1978, the first female teacher in the UK to hold such a position. She left teaching in 1981, and moved to an old rectory on the Llyn Peninsula in north-west Wales to become a full-time painter.
Painting
Gillian Ayres' early works are typically made with thin vinyl paint in a limited number of colours arranged in relatively simple forms, but later works in oil paint are more exuberant and very colourful, with a thick impasto being used.
One of Ayres' early projects was a 1957 commission by architect Michael Greenwood to decorate the South Hampstead high school dining hall in north London. The murals, described as "the only true British contribution to American abstract expressionism", were quickly covered over with wallpaper before being rediscovered in 1983 in nearly perfect condition.
The titles of her paintings, such as Anthony and Cleopatra (1982), A Midsummer Night (1990) and Gyre and Gimble (2013), were usually given after the painting is completed and do not directly describe the content of the painting, but rather are intended to resonate with the general mood of the work.
Printmaking
Ayres was a dedicated printmaker, making prints with Jack Shirreff in Wiltshire, and in her later life with Peter Kosowicz at Thumbprint Editions, London. Ayres made her first print project, a group of three etchings, with the Alan Cristea Gallery in 1998. The Alan Cristea Gallery went on to present her works in seven solo exhibitions at the gallery, and numerous group exhibitions, and at art fairs around the world. Several of her solo exhibitions toured to institutes in the UK, and the gallery worked in partnership with institutions and museums, including Jerwood Gallery, Hastings (2010), the National Museum Cardiff, Wales (2017) and CAFA Art Museum, Beijing (2017) to bring Ayres’ work to wider audiences through major exhibitions of her paintings, drawings and prints.
Solo exhibitions and collections
Ayres had a number of solo exhibitions, the first at Gallery One, London, in 1956. Since 1980 she has been featured in over 25 solo exhibitions, including the Museum of Modern Art Oxford, Oxford (1981); Serpentine Gallery, London (1983); Royal Academy of Arts, London (1997); Southampton City Art Gallery (2005); Jerwood Gallery (2010); National Museum Wales, Cardiff (2017) and CAFA Art Museum, Beijing (2017). Her art is also featured in the collections of numerous galleries, including Tate Gallery, London; Victoria and Albert Museum, London; Whitworth Art Gallery, Manchester; Swindon Museum and Art Gallery; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Yale Center for British Art, New Haven and the Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Awards
Ayres was awarded the Japan International Art Promotion Association Award in 1963, and in 1975 she was awarded a bursary by the Arts Council of Great Britain. In 1982 she was named runner up for the John Moores Painting Prize and shortlisted for the Turner Prize in 1989.
She was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1986, and in 1991 became a Royal Academician. She later temporarily resigned from the Academy, following the broadcast of a BBC Omnibus television documentary about the preparations for the controversial Sensation exhibition hosted by the Academy in 1997 show-casing the Young British Artists. The documentary, according to Ayres, presented an unfair view of the older members of the Academy. She objected to the inclusion of Marcus Harvey's portrait of serial killer Myra Hindley in the exhibition.
She was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2011 Birthday Honours.
Momart fire (2004)
On 24 May 2004, 14 of Ayres' pieces were destroyed in a fire at a warehouse of the art-storage company Momart in the Cromwell industrial estate in Leyton, east London.
Personal life
Ayres married the painter Henry Mundy in 1951. They divorced almost 30 years later but continued to live together. They had two sons. The couple lived with their younger son, also a painter.
In 1987, Ayres moved from Wales to a 15th-century cottage at Morwenstow, on the Devon–Cornwall border. In the late 1970s, Ayres suffered from pancreatitis and was comatose for four days. In 2003, she suffered a heart attack.
Death
Ayres died in hospital in North Devon on 11 April 2018, aged 88. Upon her death, she was described as "immensely courageous, independent and determined in both her art and her lifestyle" by the Alan Cristea Gallery, who represented her for twenty years. Her work was shown posthumously, alongside that of Rachel Jones and Nao Matsunaga in 2019 at the New Art Centre, Salisbury, Wiltshire.
References
Further reading
With foreword by Andrew Marr and texts by Martin Gayford and David Cleaton-Roberts.
External links
Alan Cristea Gallery
Gillian Ayres works at the Tate Gallery
Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections
"Gillian Ayres", Artnet
1930 births
2018 deaths
20th-century English painters
21st-century English painters
20th-century British women artists
21st-century British women artists
20th-century English women
21st-century English women
Academics of Saint Martin's School of Art
Alumni of Camberwell College of Arts
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English contemporary artists
English women painters
Painters from London
People educated at Colet Court
People from Barnes, London
Royal Academicians
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meerkat
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Meerkat
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The meerkat (Suricata suricatta) or suricate is a small mongoose found in southern Africa. It is characterised by a broad head, large eyes, a pointed snout, long legs, a thin tapering tail, and a brindled coat pattern. The head-and-body length is around , and the weight is typically between . The coat is light grey to yellowish brown with alternate, poorly defined light and dark bands on the back. Meerkats have foreclaws adapted for digging and have the ability to thermoregulate to survive in their harsh, dry habitat. Three subspecies are recognised.
Meerkats are highly social, and form packs of two to 30 individuals each that occupy home ranges around in area. There is a social hierarchy—generally dominant individuals in a pack breed and produce offspring, and the nonbreeding, subordinate members provide altruistic care to the pups. Breeding occurs round the year, with peaks during heavy rainfall; after a gestation of 60 to 70 days a litter of three to seven pups is born.
They live in rock crevices in stony, often calcareous areas, and in large burrow systems in plains. The burrow systems, typically in diameter with around 15 openings, are large underground networks consisting of two to three levels of tunnels. These tunnels are around high at the top and wider below, and extend up to into the ground. Burrows have moderated internal temperatures and provide a comfortable microclimate that protects meerkats in harsh weather and at extreme temperatures.
Meerkats are active during the day, mostly in the early morning and late afternoon; they remain continually alert and retreat to burrows (or 'boltholes') on sensing danger. They use a broad variety of calls to communicate among one another for different purposes, for example to raise alarm on sighting a predator. Primarily insectivorous, meerkats feed heavily on beetles and lepidopterans, though they also include amphibians, arthropods, small birds, reptiles, and plant material in their diet.
Commonly found in arid, open habitats with little woody vegetation, meerkats occur in southwestern Botswana, western and southern Namibia, northern and western South Africa; the range barely extends into southwestern Angola. With no significant threats to the populations, the meerkat is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. Meerkats are widely depicted in television, movies and other media.
Etymology
'Meerkat' derives from the Dutch name for a kind of monkey, which in turn comes from the Old High German mericazza, possibly as a combination of meer ('lake') and kat ('cat'). This may be related to the similar (markat, or monkey), deriving from Sanskrit, though the Germanic origin of the word predates any known connections to India. The name was used for small mammals in South Africa from 1801 onward, possibly because the Dutch colonialists used the name in reference to many burrowing animals. The native South African name for the meerkat is 'suricate', possibly deriving from the , which in turn may have a Dutch origin. In Afrikaans the meerkat is called graatjiemeerkat or stokstertmeerkat; the term mierkatte or meerkatte can refer to both the meerkat and the yellow mongoose (). In colloquial Afrikaans mier means 'ant' and kat means 'cat', hence the name probably refers to the meerkat's association with termite mounds.
Taxonomy
In 1776, Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber described a meerkat from the Cape of Good Hope, giving it the scientific name Viverra suricatta. The generic name Suricata was proposed by Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest in 1804, who also described a zoological specimen from the Cape of Good Hope. The present scientific name Suricata suricatta was first used by Oldfield Thomas and Harold Schwann in 1905 when they described a specimen collected at Wakkerstroom. They suggested there were four local meerkat races in the Cape and Deelfontein, Grahamstown, Orange River Colony and southern Transvaal, and Klipfontein respectively. Several zoological specimens were described between the late 18th and 20th centuries, of which three are recognised as valid subspecies:
S. s. suricatta occurs in southern Namibia, southern Botswana, and South Africa.
S. s. majoriae occurs in central and northwestern Namibia.
S. s. iona occurs in southwestern Angola.
Phylogeny and evolution
Meerkat fossils dating back to have been excavated in various locations in South Africa. A 2009 phylogenetic study of the family Herpestidae split into two lineages around the Early Miocene (25.4–18.2 mya)—eusocial and solitary mongooses. The meerkat belongs to the monophyletic eusocial mongoose clade along with several other African mongooses: Crossarchus (kusimanse), Helogale (dwarf mongoose), Liberiictis (Liberian mongoose) and Mungos (banded mongoose). The solitary mongoose lineage comprises two clades including species such as Meller's mongoose (Rhynchogale melleri) and the yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata). The meerkat genetically diverged from the rest of the clade 22.6–15.6 mya. The phylogenetic relationships of the meerkat are depicted as follows:
Characteristics
The meerkat is a small mongoose of slim build characterised by a broad head, large eyes, a pointed snout, long legs, a thin tapering tail and a brindled coat pattern. It is smaller than most other mongooses except the dwarf mongooses (genus Helogale) and possibly Galerella species. The head-and-body length is around , and the weight has been recorded to be between without much variation between the sexes (though some dominant females can be heavier than the rest). The soft coat is light grey to yellowish brown with alternate, poorly defined light and dark bands on the back. Individuals from the southern part of the range tend to be darker. The guard hairs, light at the base, have two dark rings and are tipped with black or silvery white; several such hairs aligned together give rise to the coat pattern. These hairs are typically between , but measure on the flanks. Its head is mostly white and the underparts are covered sparsely with dark reddish brown fur, with the dark skin underneath showing through. The eyes, in sockets covering over 20% of the skull length, are capable of binocular vision. The slim, yellowish tail, unlike the bushy tails of many other mongooses, measures , and is tipped with black. Females have six nipples. The meerkat looks similar to two sympatric species—the banded and the yellow mongooses. The meerkat can be told apart from the banded mongoose by its smaller size, shorter tail and bigger eyes relative to the head; the yellow mongoose differs in having a bushy tail and lighter coat with an inner layer of yellow fur under the normal brown fur.
The meerkat has 36 teeth with the dental formula of . It is well adapted for digging, movement through tunnels and standing erect, though it is not as capable of running and climbing. The big, sharp and curved foreclaws (slightly longer than the hindclaws) are highly specialised among the feliforms, and enable the meerkat to dig efficiently. The black, crescent-like ears can be closed to prevent the entry of dirt and debris while digging. The tail is used to balance when standing upright. Digitigrade, the meerkat has four digits on each foot with thick pads underneath.
The meerkat has a specialised thermoregulation system that helps it survive in its harsh desert habitat. A study showed that its body temperature follows a diurnal rhythm, averaging during the day and at night. As the body temperature falls below the thermoneutral zone, determined to be , the heart rate and oxygen consumption plummet; perspiration increases sharply at temperatures above this range. Additionally, it has a basal metabolic rate remarkably lower than other carnivores, which helps in conserving water, surviving on lower amounts of food and decreasing heat output from metabolic processes. During winter, it balances heat loss by increasing the metabolic heat generation and other methods such as sunbathing.
Ecology and behaviour
The meerkat is a social mammal, forming packs of two to 30 individuals each comprising nearly equal numbers of either sex and multiple family units of pairs and their offspring. Members of a pack take turns at jobs such as looking after pups and keeping a lookout for predators. Meerkats are a cooperatively breeding species—typically the dominant 'breeders' in a pack produce offspring, and the nonbreeding, subordinate 'helpers' provide altruistic care for the pups. This division of labour is not as strictly defined as it is in specialised eusocial species, such as the breeder-worker distinction in ants. Moreover, meerkats have a clear dominance hierarchy with older individuals having a higher social status. A study showed that dominant individuals can contribute more to offspring care when fewer helpers were available; subordinate members increased their contributions if they could forage better.
Packs live in rock crevices in stony areas and in large burrow systems in plains. A pack generally occupies a home range, large on average but sometimes as big as , containing many burrows apart, of which some remain unused. A 2019 study showed that large burrows towards the centre of a range are preferred over smaller ones located near the periphery; this was especially the case with packs that had pups to raise. A pack may shift to another burrow if the dominant female has little success finding prey in an area. The area near the periphery of home ranges is scent marked mostly by the dominant individuals; there are communal latrines, large, close to the burrows. Packs can migrate collectively in search of food, to escape high predator pressure and during floods.
Meerkats are highly vigilant, and frequently survey their surroundings by turning their heads side to side; some individuals always stand sentry and look out for danger. Vocal communication is used frequently in different contexts; for instance repetitive, high-pitched barks are used to warn others of predators nearby. They will generally retreat to their burrows for safety, where they will remain until the danger is gone. They stick their heads out of burrows to check the area outside, still barking. Mobs of meerkats fiercely attack snakes that may come near them. Raptors such as bateleurs, martial eagles, tawny eagles, and pale chanting goshawks are major aerial predators; on the ground, meerkats may be threatened by bat-eared foxes, black-backed jackals, and Cape foxes.
Social behaviour
Encounters between members of different packs are highly aggressive, leading to severe injuries and sometimes deaths. Females, often the heaviest ones, try to achieve dominance over the rest in many ways such as fierce competition or taking over from the leader of the pack. A study showed that females who grew faster were more likely to assert dominance, though males did not show such a trend. Males seeking dominance over groups tend to scent mark extensively and are not submissive; they often drive out older males in a group and take over the pack themselves. Subordinate individuals face difficulties in breeding successfully; for instance, dominant females often kill the litters of subordinate ones. As such, subordinate individuals might disperse to other packs to find mates during the breeding season. Some subordinate meerkats will even kill the pups of dominant members in order to improve their own offspring's position. It can take days for emigrants to secure entry into other packs, and they often face aversion from the members. Males typically succeed in joining existing groups; they often inspect other packs and their burrow systems in search of breeding opportunities. Many often team up in 'coalitions' for as long as two months and travel nearly a day on twisted paths. Dispersal appears to be less common in females, possibly because continuing to stay with in a pack can eventually win them dominance over other members. Dispersed females travel longer than coalitions, and tend to start groups of their own or join other similar females; they aim for groups of emigrant males or those without a breeding female. Subordinate females, unlike subordinate males, might be ousted from their packs, especially in the latter part of the dominant female's pregnancy, though they may be allowed to return after the birth of the pups.
Burrowing
Meerkat burrows are typically in diameter with around 15 openings, though one of dimensions with as many as 90 holes has been reported. These large underground networks comprise two to three levels of tunnels up to into the ground; the tunnels, around high at the top, become broader after descending around a metre. The entrances, in diameter, are created by digging at an angle of 40 degrees to the surface; the soil accumulated as a result can slightly increase the height of burrow sites. 'Boltholes' are used for a quick escape if dangers are detected. While constructing or renovating burrows meerkats will line up to form a continuous head-to-tail chain, break the soil into crumbs with their foreclaws, scoop it out with their forepaws joined and throw it behind them between their hindlegs.
Outside temperatures are not reflected at once within burrows; instead there is usually an eight-hour lag which creates a temperature gradient in warrens, so that burrows are coolest in daytime and warmest at night. Temperatures inside burrows typically vary between in summer and in winter; temperatures at greater depths vary to a much lesser extent, with summer temperatures around and winter temperatures around . This reduces the need for meerkats to thermoregulate individually by providing a comfortable microclimate within burrows; moreover burrowing protects meerkats in harsh weather and at extreme temperatures. Consequently, meerkats spend considerable time in burrows; they are active mainly during the day and return to burrows after dark and often to escape the heat of the afternoon. Activity peaks during the early morning and late afternoon. Meerkats huddle together to sleep in compact groups, sunbathe and recline on warm rocks or damp soil to adjust their body temperatures.
Meerkats tend to occupy the burrows of other small mammals more than constructing them on their own; they generally share burrows with Cape ground squirrels and yellow mongooses. Cape ground squirrels and meerkats usually do not fight for space or food. Though yellow mongooses are also insectivores like meerkats, competition for prey is minimal as yellow mongooses are less selective in their diet. This association is beneficial to all the species as it saves time and efforts spent in making separate warrens. Many other species have also been recorded in the meerkat burrows, including African pygmy mice, Cape grey mongooses, four-striped grass mice, Highveld gerbils, rock hyraxes, slender mongooses, South African springhares and white-tailed rats.
Vocalisations
Meerkats have a broad vocal repertoire that they use to communicate among one another in several contexts; many of these calls may be combined by repetition of the same call or mixing different sounds. A study recorded 12 different types of call combinations used in different situations such as guarding against predators, caring for young, digging, sunbathing, huddling together and aggression.
Short-range 'close calls' are produced while foraging and after scanning the vicinity for predators. 'Recruitment calls' can be produced to collect meerkats on sighting a snake or to investigate excrement or hair samples of predators or unfamiliar meerkats. 'Alarm calls' are given out on detecting predators. All these calls differ in their acoustic characteristics, and can evoke different responses in the 'receivers' (meerkats who hear the call); generally the greater the urgency of the scenario in which the call is given, the stronger is the response in the receivers.
This indicates that meerkats are able to perceive the nature of the risk and the degree of urgency from the acoustics of a call, transmit it and respond accordingly. For instance, upon hearing a terrestrial predator alarm call, meerkats are most likely to scan the area and move towards the source of the call, while an aerial predator alarm call would most likely cause them to crouch down. A recruitment call would cause receivers to raise their tails (and often their hair) and move slowly towards the source.
The complexity of calls produced by different mongooses varies by their social structure and ecology. For instance eusocial mongooses such as meerkats and banded mongooses use calls in a greater variety of contexts than do the solitary slender mongooses. Moreover, meerkats have more call types than do banded mongooses. Meerkat calls carry information to identify the signaling individual or pack, but meerkats do not appear to differentiate between calls from different sources. The calls of banded mongooses also carry a 'vocal signature' to identify the caller.
Diet
The meerkat is primarily an insectivore, feeding heavily on beetles and lepidopterans; it can additionally feed on eggs, amphibians, arthropods (such as scorpions, to whose venom they are immune), reptiles, small birds (such as the southern anteater-chat), plants and seeds. Captive meerkats include plenty of fruits and vegetables in their diet, and also kill small mammals by biting the backs of their skulls. They have also been observed feeding on the desert truffle Kalaharituber pfeilii. Meerkats often eat citron melons and dig out roots and tubers for their water content.
Mongooses spend nearly five to eight hours foraging every day. Like other social mongooses, meerkats in a pack will disperse within of one another and browse systematically in areas within their home range without losing visual or vocal contact. Some individuals stand sentry while the rest are busy foraging. Meerkats return to an area only after a week of the last visit so that the food supply is replenished sufficiently. They hunt by scent, and often dig out soil or turn over stones to uncover hidden prey. Meerkats typically do not give chase to their prey, though they may pursue geckos and lizards over several metres. Food intake is typically low during winter.
Reproduction
Meerkats breed throughout the year with seasonal peaks, typically during months of heavy rainfall; for instance, maximum births occur from January to March in the southern Kalahari. Generally only dominant individuals breed, though subordinate members can also mate in highly productive years. Females become sexually mature at two to three years of age. Dominant females can have up to four litters annually (lesser for subordinate females), and the number depends on the amount of precipitation. Mating behaviour has been studied in captive individuals. Courtship behaviour is limited; the male fights with his partner, getting hold of her by her snout. He will grip the nape of her neck if she resists mounting, and hold her down by grasping her flanks during copulation.
After a gestation of 60 to 70 days, a litter of three to seven pups is born. Pups weigh around in the first few days of birth; the average growth rate for the first three months is per day, typically the fastest in the first month. A 2019 study showed that growth and survival rates of pups might decrease with increase in temperature.
Infants make continuous sounds that resemble bird-like tweets, that change to a shrill contact call as they grow older. Young pups are kept securely in a den, from where they emerge after around 16 days, and start foraging with adults by 26 days. The nonbreeding members of the pack help substantially with juvenile care, for instance they feed the pups and huddle with them for warmth. A study showed that nearly half of the litters of dominant females, especially those born later in the breeding season were nursed by subordinate females, mostly those that were or recently had been pregnant.
Sex biases have been observed in feeding; for instance, female helpers feed female pups more than male pups unlike male helpers who feed both equally. This is possibly because the survival of female pups is more beneficial to female helpers as females are more likely to remain in their natal pack. Some helpers contribute to all activities more than others, though none of them might be specialised in any of them. Sometimes helpers favour their own needs over those of pups and decide not to feed them; this behaviour, known as "false-feeding", is more common when the prey is more valued by the meerkat.
The father remains on guard and protects his offspring, while the mother spends a lot of time foraging to produce enough milk for her young. Mothers give out shrill, repetitive calls to ensure their pups follow them and remain close together. Unable to forage themselves, young pups vocalise often seeking food from their carers. Like many species, meerkat pups learn by observing and mimicking adult behaviour, though adults also engage in active instruction. For example, meerkat adults teach their pups how to eat a venomous scorpion by removing the stinger and showing the pups how to handle the creature. The mother runs around with prey in her mouth, prompting her pups to catch it. Pups become independent enough to forage at around 12 weeks of age. Meerkats are estimated to survive for five to 15 years in the wild; the maximum lifespan recorded in captivity is 20.6 years.
Females appear to be able to discriminate the odour of their kin from that of others. Kin recognition is a useful ability that facilitates cooperation among relatives and the avoidance of inbreeding. When mating occurs between meerkat relatives it often results in negative fitness consequences (inbreeding depression), that affect a variety of traits such as pup mass at emergence from the natal burrow, hindleg length, growth until independence and juvenile survival. These negative effects are likely due to the increased homozygosity or higher genetic similarity among individuals that arise from inbreeding and the consequent expression of deleterious recessive mutations.
Distribution and habitat
The meerkat occurs in southwestern Botswana, western and southern Namibia, northern and western South Africa; the range barely extends into southwestern Angola. It lives in areas with stony, often calcareous ground in a variety of arid, open habitats with little woody vegetation. It is common in savannahs, open plains and rocky areas beside dry rivers in biomes such as the Fynbos and the Karoo, where the mean yearly rainfall is below . The average precipitation reduces to towards the northwestern areas of the range. It prefers areas with short grasses and shrubs common in velds, such as camelthorn in Namibia and Acacia in the Kalahari. It is absent from true deserts, montane regions and forests. Population densities vary greatly between places, and are significantly influenced by predators and rainfall. For instance, a study in the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park, where predation pressure is high, recorded a lower mean meerkat density relative to a ranch with lower occurrence of predators; in response to a 10% decrease in rainfall over a year, the density fell from .
Threats and conservation
The meerkat is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. There are no significant threats except low rainfall, which can lead to deaths of entire packs; populations appear to be stable. Meerkats occur in several protected areas such as the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park and the Makgadikgadi National Park. The Kalahari Meerkat Project, founded by Tim Clutton-Brock, is a long-term research project run by four different research groups that aims focuses on understanding cooperative behaviour in meerkats. It began in the Gemsbok National Park (now part of Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park) but was shifted to the Kuruman River Reserve in 1993.
Interactions with humans
Meerkats are generally tame animals. However, they are unsuitable as a pet as they can be aggressive and have a strong, ferret-like odour. In South Africa meerkats are used to kill rodents in rural households and lepidopterans in farmlands. Meerkats can transmit rabies to humans, but yellow mongooses appear to be more common vectors. It has been suggested that meerkats may even limit the spread of rabies by driving out yellow mongooses from their burrows; meerkats are generally not persecuted given their economic significance in crop protection, though they may be killed due to rabies control measures to eliminate yellow mongooses. Meerkats can also spread tick-borne diseases.
Meerkats have been widely portrayed in movies, television and other media. A popular example is Timon from the Lion King franchise, who is an anthropomorphic meerkat. Meerkat Manor (2005–2008), a television programme produced by Oxford Scientific Films that was aired on Animal Planet, focused on groups of meerkats in the Kalahari that were being studied in the Kalahari Meerkat Project.
See also
The Meerkats, a 2008 documentary feature film
Compare the Meerkat
Eusociality
References
Further reading
External links
Mongooses of Sub-Saharan Africa
Mammals of Southern Africa
Mammals described in 1776
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] |
208054
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everybody%27s%20Autobiography
|
Everybody's Autobiography
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Everybody's Autobiography is a book by Gertrude Stein, published in 1937.
It is a continuation of her own memoirs, picking up where The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, published in 1933, left off. Both were written in a less experimental, more approachable style than most of her other work.
In chapter four of this book is found the famous quote "There is no there there" which refers to her disappeared childhood home in Oakland, California.
References
Books by Gertrude Stein
1937 non-fiction books
Culture of Oakland, California
Books about the San Francisco Bay Area
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208057
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%20%26%20Beyond
|
Earth & Beyond
|
Earth & Beyond was a science fiction massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) developed by Westwood Studios and published by Electronic Arts (EA). The game was released in September 2002 in the United States. EA shut down Earth & Beyond on September 22, 2004. It was the last game developed by Westwood Studios.
History
Development for Earth and Beyond—originally designated as Project G—began in 1997. By 2001, Westwood had created content for over 100 sectors of playable space. Public Beta for the game began on March 9, 2002, allowing up to 100,000 new players to roam the sectors and test content. The finished game was launched on September 24 the same year. It was initially shipped in limited quantities to retailers to allow for smooth experience as new players sign on to the servers. In January 2003, the main story line and accompanying events began. This required all players to download a patch and wait for servers to be upgraded. This was the first of regular monthly story driven updates designed to gradually change the game environment as the plot unfolded. In June that year, players met a new race - the Vrix. This was a substantial update to the online universe, adding many more missions for higher level players and improving the intelligence of all NPCs in the game.
Cancellation
Electronic Arts closed Earth and Beyond servers on September 22, 2004 (known as the Earth and Beyond Sunset).
Plot
Earth & Beyond was set some time around 2575 AD. It featured three races: the Progen, Jenquai and Terran. The Progen were a genetically-altered and advanced race. The Jenquai were philosophers who sought eternal life. The Terrans were the original humans. Each of the three races had descended from the human race on Earth. The game's storyline took place in the Milky Way Galaxy. The Progen, Terran and Jenquai were all uneasy of each other, but still managed to live together in peace. The Terrans were known for their extremely large corporations, such as Infiniti Corp. and GetCo. Infiniti Corp. was the manufacturer of the inter-system and inter-sector warp gates. The warp gates were originally created by the mysterious Ancients, an enigmatic and hyper-advanced race who had all but disappeared.
Back story
After two centuries of conflict, Humankind's three races – the Progen, Terrans and Jenquai – had achieved an uneasy balance of power by dividing known space between them. The Terrans claimed Earth, headquarters to their massive trade corporations. The genetically engineered Progen, bred for perfection, commanded the wastes of Mars. And the Jenquai, ever seeking knowledge, created great space stations to orbit the moons of Jupiter. Peace was shattered when the first stargate, an ancient artifact built by an unknown people, was discovered. Coveting its secrets for their own, the Jenquai hid the Gate from the other races. But their efforts were in vain; within months, a spy employed by the Terran conglomerate InfinitiCorp revealed the Gate's existence to the outraged Terrans and Progen. Humanity was suddenly thrust into conflict, an epic battle over control of the Gate.
The three races fought a devastating nine-year war, dubbed the Gate War, using weapons far deadlier than any previously conceived. Millions of lives were lost, and millions more would have perished had the Terrans not surprised their foes with a sudden cease-fire proposal. After months of negotiations, the three civilizations agreed to share the Gate, and declared an uneasy peace. However, InfinitiCorp had plans of its own. Under utmost secrecy, its scientists had reverse-engineered the Gate's technology, and within a few years the mighty conglomerate announced to the astonished worlds the genesis of the Infinitigate.
Fifty years have passed since the invention of the Infinitigate. Progen, Jenquai and Terrans alike have thrived, spreading their civilizations across a dozen star systems, exploiting their riches. However, though the races are at peace, acrimony remains. Tension and distrust govern galactic relations and every citizen fears the day when the spectre of war again raises its shadow.
Gameplay
Earth and Beyond was played by controlling either a humanoid or spaceship avatar in the third-person. Each game server, or Universe, consisted of 12 main star systems. Each system contained multiple sectors. Warp gates were used to travel from sector to sector, and system to system.
Players created a character by choosing one of the three races, and one of three professions: Warrior, Trader or Explorer. Characters gained three types of experience: Combat experience was gained through fighting and completing combat jobs (being incapacitated resulted in "EXP Debt" and the character would only receive half of the normal experience until the debt was repaid), Trade experience was gained from selling loot, by building items and by taking trade jobs, and Exploration experience was gained from visiting navigation points and exploration jobs. In general each system had a number of "nav points". Visiting a nav point for the first time gave a certain amount of exploration experience. After a nav point was visited, it appeared on the "radar" when the player was in the system.
Player's ships were constructed from a reactor, shield and engine. Optionally, a ship could have weapons or other devices that may buff or debuff other ships. Ship equipment could be reverse-engineered, rebuilt and enhanced. Player-made items could have better stats than dropped or purchased items, depending on the skill of the builder.
There were several varieties of boss spawns: Some were activated after a certain number of lower level monsters were killed, while others were time-based. For example, the Crystal Daeva, which produced valuable loot, had a spawn time of 72 hours. Nearly all bosses carried valuable and rare loot, which could be sold for significant amounts of cash on the in-game market.
Some sectors had areas where "Invasions" were staged. Sectors like Aragoth Prime contained a heavily defended Red Dragon base that was surrounded by multiple layers of defense turrets, carriers, battle cruisers, and frigates. Invasions often involved a multitude of clans joined together to attack the base and a huge battle would ensue.
New player zones
Each race/class combination had its own starting sector. When a new character first logged onto the server they automatically appeared in the appropriate sector to begin the tutorial. The tutorial guided players through the basics of navigation, exploration, combat, and trade. Once the first set of missions was complete, the tutorial guided the player to a warp gate connected to their race's home planetary sector.
Leveling up
The maximum level in Earth and Beyond was 150. It could take many months, even a year for casual players to reach the summit. To level, a player must gain experience. Each successive level required more and more experience points. There were three types of activities that reward experience points.
Exploration experience was the first type players saw after leaving their starting sector. Exploration experience is awarded by traveling to undiscovered navigation points on the map. The amount of experience gained from each Nav Point was capped, so lower level players received the most benefit from exploring the universe.
Combat experience was awarded by engaging NPCs in the game environment and defeating them. The amount of experience gained from each encounter was based on the player's level and the level of the NPC that was killed.
When a player destroyed an enemy NPC, loot was dropped. Players could pick up this loot and sell it to NPC vendors for Trade experience. Players could also earn Trade experience by learning how to build their own components and items.
Reception
At the time of its release, the game received "favorable" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.
Earth & Beyond was a nominee for PC Gamer USs "2002 Best Massively Multiplayer Game" award, which ultimately went to Asheron's Call 2: Fallen Kings. It was a runner-up for GameSpots 2002 "Most Disappointing Game on PC" award, losing to Civilization III: Play the World.
References
External links
2002 video games
Massively multiplayer online role-playing games
Inactive massively multiplayer online games
Space massively multiplayer online role-playing games
SAGE (game engine) games
Science fiction video games
Space trading and combat simulators
Video games developed in the United States
Video games scored by Frank Klepacki
Windows games
Windows-only games
Westwood Studios games
Products and services discontinued in 2004
|
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] |
208061
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop
|
Desktop
|
A desktop traditionally refers to:
The surface of a desk (often to distinguish office appliances that fit on a desk, such as photocopiers and printers, from larger equipment covering its own area on the floor)
Desktop may refer to various computer terms:
Desktop computer, a personal computer designed to fit on a desk
Pizza box form factor, a design of computer case
Desktop metaphor in computing, the area behind the "windows" in a graphical user interface for the operating system
Desktop environment, software that provides a comprehensive computer user interface
Remote desktop software, software that allows a personal computer's desktop environment to be run remotely on one system
Client (computing), sometimes referred to as a desktop to distinguish a Client from the Server
Desktop (word processor), a program for Sinclair ZX Spectrum and compatible computers
See also
Laptop
|
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] |
208065
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equatorial
|
Equatorial
|
Equatorial generally means "of or related to an equator".
Equatorial may refer specifically to:
Places
Equatorial region, a region of the Earth surrounding the equator
Equatorial Islands, an alternative name for the Line Islands in the central Pacific Ocean
Equatorial Africa, an ambiguous term for part of Africa near the equator
Equatorial Guinea, a country in Central Africa
Equatorial Sudan, an older name for Equatoria named after the historical Sudan region
French Equatorial Africa, a federation of French colonial possessions: French Gabon, French Congo, Oubangui-Chari, French Chad, and French Cameroon
Astronomy
Equatorial plane, a plane in the celestial sphere defined by the Earth's equator
Equatorial coordinate system, a celestial coordinate system defined by the Earth's equatorial plane
Equatorial orbit, a gravitational orbit in the equatorial plane
Equatorial mount for a telescope
Industry
Equatorial Congo Airlines, a defunct airline named after the Équateur province and the historical Congo region
Other sciences
Equatorial bond, a chemical bond positioned nearly parallel to the mean plane of a ring-structured molecule
Equatorial climate, in climatology and meteorology
See also
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paula%20Rego
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Paula Rego
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Dame Maria Paula Figueiroa Rego (born 26 January 1935) is a Portuguese-British visual artist who is particularly known for her paintings and prints based on storybooks. Rego’s style has evolved from abstract towards representational, and she has favoured pastels over oils for much of her career. Her work often reflects feminism, coloured by folk-themes from her native Portugal.
Rego studied at the Slade School of Fine Art, University College London and was an exhibiting member of the London Group, along with David Hockney and Frank Auerbach. She was the first artist-in-residence at the National Gallery in London. She lives and works in London.
Biography
Early life
Rego was born on 26 January 1935 in Lisbon, Portugal. Her father was an electrical engineer who worked for the Marconi Company and was ardently anti-fascist. Her mother was a competent artist but, as a conventional Portuguese woman, gave her daughter no encouragement towards a career, even though she began drawing at age 4. The family was divided in 1936 when her father was posted to work in the United Kingdom. Rego's parents left her behind in Portugal in the care of her grandmother until 1939. Rego's grandmother was to become a significant figure in her life, as she learned from her grandmother and the family maid many of the traditional folktales that would one day make their way into her art work.
Rego's family were keen Anglophiles, and Rego was sent to the only English-language school in Lisbon's district at the time, Saint Julian's School in Carcavelos, which she attended from 1945 to 1951. St Julian's School was Anglican and this combined with the hostility of Rego's father to the Catholic Church served to create a distance between Rego and full-blooded Catholic belief, although she was nominally a Catholic and lived in a devoutly Catholic country. Rego has described herself as having become a "sort of Catholic", but as a child she possessed a sense of Catholic guilt and a very strong belief that the Devil was real.
In 1951, Rego was sent to the United Kingdom to attend a finishing school called The Grove School, in Sevenoaks, Kent. Unhappy there, Rego attempted in 1952 to start studies in art at the Chelsea School of Art in London, but was advised against this choice by her legal guardian in Britain, David Phillips, who had heard that a young woman had become pregnant while a student there. He suggested to her parents that The Slade School of Fine Art was a more respectable choice and helped her achieve a place there. She attended the Slade School from 1952 to 1956.
At the Slade, Rego began an affair with fellow student Victor Willing, who was already married to another artist Hazel Whittington. Rego had many abortions during their affair starting from when she was 18 years old, because Willing had threatened to return to his wife if Rego kept their child. In 1957, Rego left the UK to live in Ericeira because she had decided to keep their latest baby. After the birth of their first child, Willing joined her there. They were able to marry in 1959 following Willing's divorce from his wife.
Three years later Rego's father bought the couple a house in London, at Albert Street in Camden Town, and Rego's time was spent divided between Britain and Portugal. Her husband had several extra-marital affairs throughout their marriage, and some of his mistresses were depicted in Rego's drawings.
In 1966, Rego's father died, and the family electrical business was taken over by Rego's husband, Victor, although he had himself been diagnosed with multiple sclerosis, had no experience of electrical engineering or management, and spoke only limited Portuguese. Victor's heavy drinking had worried his father-in-law, who had advised the couple to sell the business after his death and return to England. The company failed in 1974 during the Portuguese revolution that overthrew the country's right-wing Estado Novo dictatorship, when its production works were taken over by revolutionary forces, even though Rego's family had been supporters of the political Left. As a result, Rego, Willing and their children moved permanently to London and spent most of their time there until Willing's death in 1988.
Career
Although Rego was commissioned by her father to produce a series of large-scale murals to decorate the works' canteen at his electrical factory in 1954, while she was still a student, Rego's artistic career effectively began in early 1962, when she began exhibiting with The London Group, a long-established artists' organization which had David Hockney and Frank Auerbach among its members. In 1965, she was selected to take part in a group show, Six Artists, at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, ICA, in London. That same year she had her first solo show at the Sociedade Nacional de Belas Artes (SNBA) in Lisbon. She was also the Portuguese representative at the 1969 São Paulo Art Biennial. Between 1971 and 1978 she had seven solo shows in Portugal, in Lisbon and Oporto, and then a series of solo exhibitions in Britain, including at the AIR Gallery in London in 1981, the Arnolfini in Bristol in 1983, and the Edward Totah Gallery in London in 1984, 1985 and 1987.
In 1988, Rego was the subject of a retrospective exhibition at the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation in Lisbon and the Serpentine Gallery in London. This led to her being invited to become the first Associate Artist at the National Gallery, London in 1990, in what was the first of a series of artist-in-residence schemes organized by the gallery. From this emerged two sets of work. The first was a series of paintings and prints on the theme of nursery rhymes, which was taken around Britain and elsewhere by the Arts Council of Great Britain and the British Council from 1991 to 1996. The second was a series of large-scale paintings inspired by the paintings of Carlo Crivelli in the National Gallery, known as Crivelli’s Garden which is now housed in the main restaurant at the gallery.
Other exhibitions include a retrospective at Tate Liverpool in 1997, Dulwich Picture Gallery in 1998, Tate Britain in 2005, and Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery in 2007. A major retrospective of her work was held at the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia in Madrid in 2007, which travelled to the National Museum of Women in the Arts in Washington, D.C. the following year.
In 2008, Rego exhibited at the Marlborough Chelsea in New York, and staged a retrospective of her graphic works at the Ecole Superieure des Beaux-Arts in Nimes, France. As well as showing at Marlborough Fine Art in London in 2010, the art critic Marco Livingstone organised a retrospective of her work at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Monterrey, Mexico, which was later shown at the Pinacoteca de São Paulo in Brazil. In 2011, Rego appeared in the documentary Looking for Lowry with Ian McKellen as an interviewee commenting on her experience with Lowry at the Slade School of Fine Art.
Rego's art work can be seen in many public and private institutions around the world. The artist has 43 works in the collection of the British Council, ten works in the collection of the Arts Council of England, and 46 works at the Tate Gallery, London.
Rego was commissioned by the Royal Mail in 2004 to produce a set of Jane Eyre stamps.
Rego is currently represented by Victoria Miro and Cristea Roberts Gallery.
In 1995, Rego used pastels to revise the story of Snow White in her drawing Swallows the Poisoned Apple. In her work, Snow White is pictured after she has eaten the poisoned apple and appears older and in some type of physical pain. She "lays clutching her skirts, as if trying to cling to life and her femininity which are slipping away". This is done to overall show what a female goes through during the processes of life and aging over the years, as well as showing the "physical and psychological violation" age plays in a female’s life. At the time the artwork was made, Rego was about 60 years old and her age did play a significant part in this artwork.
In March 2017 Rego was the subject of the BBC documentary Paula Rego: Secrets and Stories, directed by her son Nick Willing.
Women's rights and abortion
Rego has spent much of her career focusing on women's rights and abortion rights. She has been a critic of the anti-abortion movement, using the theme of abortion as a focal point in much of her art. Rego opposes the criminalisation of abortion and has said that the anti-abortion movement “criminalises women” and in some instances will lead women to be forced to find potentially deadly “backstreet solutions”. She has also stated that the matter disproportionately affects poor women, whereas for the rich it is easier to find a safe way to have an abortion (irrespective of the law) due to being able to travel abroad for the procedure. Rego created an art series documenting illegal abortions in response to Portugal's 1998 referendum on abortion.
Rego began the series of ten pastels known as Untitled: The Abortion Pastels, in July of 1998. Rego completed this over a period of approximately six months ending in February of 1999. The referendum aimed to legalize abortions, but the law was not passed. Rego expressed a feeling of rage and pointed out the “total hypocrisy” of the outcome. The pastels show images of women in various positions, such as fetal, squatting, etc., either getting ready to have an abortion, in the process of having one, or in pain from the procedure. In a 2002 interview Rego stated:
“The series was born from my indignation… It is unbelievable that women who have an abortion should be considered criminals. It reminds me of the past… I cannot abide the idea of blame in relation to this act. What each woman suffers in having to do it is enough. But all this stems from Portugal’s totalitarian past, from women dressed up in aprons, baking cakes like good housewives. In democratic Portugal today there is still a subtle form of oppression… The question of abortion is part of all that violent context.”
Rego uses two typical tropes of Western art history: “the gaze” and “the reclining nude.” Rego utilizes “the gaze” in conscious ways to challenge the viewer by having the woman or girl look directly at the viewer or away in agony or closing her eyes in pain. The “reclining nude brings up that push and pull between sexual attraction, the act of sex and the physical outcomes like pregnancy and miscarriage that occur as a result of sex.
Personal life
Following several abortions herself, which she has readily publicised, Rego had three children with Victor Willing, two daughters (Caroline 'Cas' and Victoria) and a son, Nick. Nick is a film-maker, who directed a television film, Paula Rego, Secrets & Stories, about his mother in 2017. The Australian sculptor, Ron Mueck, is her son-in-law.
Rego is a supporter of the football club S.L. Benfica, of which her grandfather was a founding member.
Style and influences
Rego is a prolific painter and printmaker, and in earlier years also produced collage work. Her well-known depictions of folk tales and images of young girls, made largely since 1990, bring together methods of painting and printmaking that emphasise strong, clearly drawn forms, in contrast to the looser style of her earlier paintings.
In her earliest works, such as Always at Your Excellency's Service, painted in 1961, Rego was strongly influenced by Surrealism, and particularly the work of Joan Miró. This shows itself not only in the type of imagery that appears in these works, but in the method employed, which is based on the Surrealist idea of automatic drawing, in which the artist attempts to disengage the conscious mind from the making process in order to allow the unconscious mind to direct the making of an image. At times these paintings almost verge on abstraction; however, as exemplified by Salazar Vomiting the Homeland, painted in 1960, when Portugal's right-wing dictator Salazar was in power, even when her work veered toward abstraction, a strong narrative element remains in place.
There are two principal reasons why Rego adopted a semi-abstract style in the 1960s. First, abstraction dominated in avant-garde artistic circles at the time, which had set figurative art on the defensive. But Rego was also reacting against her training at the Slade School of Art, where a very strong emphasis had been placed on anatomical figure drawing. Under the encouragement of her fellow student and later husband Victor Willing, Rego kept alongside her official school sketchbooks a "secret sketchbook" when she was at the Slade, in which she made free-form drawings of a type that would have been frowned upon by her tutors. Rego's apparent dislike of crisp drawing techniques in the 1960s shows itself not only in the style of such works as Faust and her Red Monkey series of the 1980s, which resemble expressionistic comic-book drawing, but in her acknowledged influences at the time, which included Jean Dubuffet and Chaïm Soutine.
A notable change in Rego's style emerged in 1990, following her appointment as the first Associate Artist of the National Gallery in London, under what was effectively an artist-in-residence scheme. The remit of the Associate Artist is to "make new work that in some way connects to the National Gallery Collection." The National Gallery is overwhelmingly an Old Masters collection and Rego seems to have been pulled back towards a much clearer, or tighter, linear style reminiscent of the highly-wrought drawing technique that she was taught at the Slade. The result was a series of works which came to characterise the popular perception of Rego's style, combining strong clear drawing with depictions of equally strong women in sometimes disturbing situations. Works such as Crivelli's Garden have clear links to the paintings by Carlo Crivelli in the National Gallery, but other works made at the time, such as Joseph's Dream and The Fitting, draw from works by Old Masters such as Diego Velázquez, in terms of subject matter and spatial representation.
Rego gave up working with collage in the late 1970s, and began using pastels as a medium in the early 90s. She continues to use pastels to this day, almost to the exclusion of oil paint. Among the most notable works made in pastel are in her Dog Women series, in which women are shown sitting, squatting, scratching and generally behaving as if they were dogs. This antithesis of what is considered feminine behaviour, and many of her other works in which there appears to be either the threat of female violence or its actual manifestation, have caused Rego to be associated with feminism. She has acknowledged reading at a young age Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex, a key feminist text, and that this made a deep impression on her. Her work also seems to chime with the interest in Freudian criticism shown by feminist writers on art in the 1990s, such as Griselda Pollock, with works such as Girl Lifting up her Skirt to a Dog of 1986 and Two Girls and a Dog of 1987 appearing to have disturbing sexual undertones. However, Rego has been known to rebuke critics who read too much sexual content into her work. Another explanation for Rego's depiction of women as unfeminine, animalistic or brutal beings is that this reflects the physical reality of women as human beings in the physical world, rather than the idealised female type in the minds of men.
Solo exhibitions
Sociedade Nacional de Belas-Artes, Lisbon (1965)
Galeria São Mamede, Lisbon (1971)
Galeria Alvarez, Oporto (1972)
Galeria da Emenda, Lisbon (1974)
Módulo Centro Difusor da Arte, Lisbon (1975)
Módulo Centro Difusor da Arte, Oporto (1977)
Galeria III, Lisbon (1978 & 1982)
AIR Gallery, London (1981)
Edward Totah Gallery, London (1982, 1984 & 1985)
Arnolfini, Bristol (1983)
Galerie Espace, Amsterdam (1983)
South Hill Park Arts Centre, Nottingham, England (1984)
The Art Palace, New York (1985)
Selected work 1981‑1986, Aberystwyth Arts Centre (1987)
Retrospective Exhibition, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisbon (1988)
Serpentine Gallery, London (1988)
Nursery Rhymes, Marlborough Graphics Gallery, Galeria III and Galeria Zen (1989), the Cheltenham Literary Festival (1993), Cardiff Literature Festival (1995) and the University Gallery, University of Northumbria at Newcastle (1996)
Tales from the National Gallery, National Gallery, London (1991)
Peter Pan & Other Stories, Marlborough Fine Art, London (1992)
Dog Women, Marlborough Fine Art, London (1994)
Paula Rego, Tate Gallery Liverpool (1997)
Pendle Witches and Peter Pan, Midland Art Centre (1998)
The Sins of Father Amaro, Dulwich Picture Gallery, (1998)
Pra Lá et Pra Cá, Galerie III, Lisbon (1998)
The Children's Crusade, Marlborough Graphics, London (1999)
Open Secrets – Drawings and Etchings by Paula Rego, University Art Gallery, University of Massachusetts, USA (1999)
Celestina’s House, Abbot Hall Art Gallery and the Yale Center for British Art (2001)
Jane Eyre, Marlborough Gallery Inc. (2002)
Corner 2004, Charlottenborg, Copenhagen (2003)
Paula Rego in Focus, Tate Britain (2004)
Paula Rego, Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (2007)
Paula Rego: Obedience and Defiance, MK Gallery, Milton Keynes (2019)
Paula Rego: The largest and most comprehensive retrospective of Paula Rego’s work to date, (2021)
Bibliography
Exhibition catalogues
Il Exposiçao de Artes Plasticas, Fundaçao Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisbon (1961).
Paula Rego, Fundaçao Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisbon, (1961).
de Lacerda, Alberto. Fragmentos de um poema intitulado Paula Rego, Paula Rego, SNBA, LisbonVictor Willing: Six Artists, Institute of Contemporary Art, London, (1965).
Art Portugais - Peinture et Sculpture de Naturalisme à nos jours, Brussels, (1967).
Paula Rego Expoé, Galeria São Mameda, Lisbon, (1971).
Esposiçao Colectiva, Galeria Sâo Mamede, Lisbon, (1972).
Salette Taveres: A Estrutura Semântica na obra de Paula Rego, Expo AICA, SNBA, (1974).
Willing, Victor. Paula Rego: Paintings 1982 - 3 Arnolfini, Bristol; Galerie Espace, Amsterdam, (1983).
Cooke, Lynne. Paula Rego: Paintings 1984 - 5 Edward Totah (1985).
Hicks, Alistair. Paula Rego: Selected Work 1981 - 1986, Aberystwyth Arts Centre, (1986).
Nine Portuguese Painters, John Hansard Gallery, Southampton, (1986).
70 - 80 Arte Portuguesa, Brazil, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, (1987).
Biggs, Lewis and Elliott, David, Current Affairs, Museum of Modern Art, Oxford; Feira do Circo, Forum Picoas, Lisbon, (1987).
McEwen, John. Paula Rego The Nursery Rhymes, South Bank Centre Touring Exhibition (1990).
Peter Pan & Other Stories, Marlborough Fine Art, London, (1993).
Peter Pan - A Suite of 15 etchings and aquatints, Marlborough Graphics London (1993)
Paula Rego: Dog Women, Marlborough Fine Art, London, (1994).
Saligmen, Patricia (ed.). An American Passion - The Susan Kasen Summer and Robert D. Summer Collection of Contemporary British Paintings, (1995).
Paula Rego: The Dancing Ostriches from Disney's Fantasia, Marlborough Fine Art, London and Saatchi Collection, London. Introduction by Sarah Kent, essay by John McEwen (1996)
Desmond Shawe-Taylor, Desmond. Paula Rego, Dulwich Picture Gallery, (1998).
Hyman, Timothy and Malbert, Roger. Carnivalesque, Hayward Gallery, (2000).
Warner, Marina. Metamorphing, The Science Museum, London, (2002).
Paula Rego- Jane Eyre, Yale Center for British Art, New Haven, (2002).
Paula Rego, Serralves Museum, Oporto, (2004).
Books
José Augusto França: Pintura portuguesa no século XX, Livraria Bertrand, Lisbon, (1974)
Rui Mário Gonçalves: Pintura e escultura em Portugal, 1940–1980, Lisbon, Instituto de Cultura, Lisbon (1984)
Alexandre Melo e Joao Pinharanda: Arte Contemporânea Portuguesa, Lisbon (1986)
Bernardo Pinto de Almeida: Breve introdução à pintura portuguesa no século XX, Edição do Author, Oportof (1986)
Nursery Rhymes, Thames and Hudson (1989)
Hector Obalk: Paula Rego, Art Random, Kyoto Shoin International Co. Ltd., Kyoto, Japan (1991)
John McEwen: Paula Rego, Phaidon Press Ltd., London (1992)
Marina Warner, Wonder Tales, Chatto & Windus, London (1994)
"A Portfolio - Nine London Birds, Byam Shaw School of Art, London, introduction by John McEwen (1994)
John McEwen, Paula Rego, Phaidon Press, London (1996)
Blake Morrison, Pendle Witches, Enitharmon Press, London (1996)
John McEwen, Dancing Ostriches, Saatchi Publications (1996)
Paula Rego, Tate Gallery Publications (1997)
Alexandre Melo, Artes Plàsticas em Portugal, Dos Anos 70 aos nossos Dias, Difel, Portugal, pp 28–31 & pp 104 – 107, (1998).
Marco Livingstone, Paula Rego - Grooming, in Art: The Critics' Choice, Aurum Press, London (1998).
Ruth Rosengarten, Getting Away with Murder – Paula Rego and the crime of Father Amaro, Delos Press, Birmingham (1999)
Fiona Bradley (ed.), Victor Willing, August Publishers (2000)
Fiona Bradley, Paula Rego, Tate Publishing (2002)
Maria Manuel Lisboa, Paula Rego’s Map of Memory: National and Sexual Politics, Ashgate Publishing Ltd., Hampshire (2003)
Stephen Stuart-Smith with introduction by Marina Warner, Paula Rego – Jane Eyre, Enitharmon Editions, London (2003)
T.G. Rosenthal, Paula Rego: The Complete Graphic Work I, Thames & Hudson, London (2003)
Ruth Rosengarten, Compreender Paula Rego – 25 Perspectivas, Publico Serralves (2004)
T. G. Rosenthal, Paula Rego: The Complete Graphic Work II, Thames & Hudson, London, (2003).
Ruth Rosengarten, "Narrating the Family Romance: Love and Authority in the Work of Paula Rego", Manchester University Press, (2011).
T. G. Rosenthal, Paula Rego: The Complete Graphic Work, Thames & Hudson, London (2012)
Public collections
Rego's works can be found in a number of public institutions, including:
Abbot Hall Art Gallery, Kendal
Arts Council England
Berardo Collection Museum, Sintra Museum of Modern Art, Portugal
British Council, London
British Museum, London
Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery
The Chapel of Belém Palace, Lisbon
Frissiras Museum, Athens
Leeds Art Gallery
Gulbenkian Foundation, Lisbon
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
National Gallery, London
National Portrait Gallery, London
Murray Edwards College, Cambridge, in the New Hall Art Collection
Rugby Museum and Art Gallery
Tate Gallery, London
Whitworth Art Gallery, Manchester
Yale Center for British Art
Awards and Recognition
Rego's first award was a bursary from the Gulbenkian Foundation, Lisbon in 1962-63 an organisation which later held a retrospective solo-exhibition of her work in 1988.
She further went on to receive honorary degrees - a Master of Arts from the Winchester School of Art in 1992, Doctorate of Letters from the University of St Andrews and the University of East Anglia, both in 1999, the Rhode Island School of Design in 2000, the London Institute in 2002 and the University of Oxford and Roehampton University in 2005.
She was made a Grand Officer of the Order of Saint James of the Sword by the President of Portugal in 1995 and, later, a Grand Cross of the same order in 2004, and was made a Dame of the British Empire in the Queen's Birthday Honours in 2010.
In 2009 a museum dedicated to Rego's work and designed by the architect Eduardo Souto de Moura, the Casa das Histórias Paula Rego, was opened in Cascais, Portugal and several key exhibitions of her work have since been staged here.
Rego also won the MAPFRE Foundation Drawing Prize in Madrid in 2010.
See also
Paula Rego, Secrets & Stories, a 2017 TV documentary
War, a painting
References
Further reading
Paula Rego (London: Tate Publishing, 1997)
John McEwen, Paula Rego (Oxford: Phaidon Press, 1992)
Maria Manuel Lisboa, "Paula Rego's Map of Memory: National and Sexual Politics" (London: Ashgate, 2003)
Fiona Bradley, Paula Rego'' (London: Tate Publishing, 2002)
External links
Casa das Histórias Paula Rego, Museum Page
Marlborough Art Gallery, artists' page
Tate: In the Studio: Paula Rego Printmaking with the artist at The Curwen Studio. 31 July 2008
Art HERStory: Paula Rego
Paula Rego at Web of Stories
1935 births
Living people
20th-century British painters
20th-century British women artists
21st-century British painters
21st-century British women artists
British abortion-rights activists
Alumni of the Slade School of Fine Art
British contemporary artists
British printmakers
British women painters
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint James of the Sword
Grand Officers of the Order of Saint James of the Sword
Modern painters
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
People from Lisbon
Portuguese artists
Portuguese painters
Portuguese women artists
Royal Academicians
Women printmakers
Portuguese emigrants to the United Kingdom
Portuguese contemporary artists
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DuckTales
|
DuckTales
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DuckTales is an American animated television series produced by Disney Television Animation. The original cartoon series premiered on syndication and on Disney Channel on September 18, 1987 and ran for a total of 100 episodes over four seasons, with its final episode airing on November 28, 1990. Based upon Uncle Scrooge and other Duck universe comic books created by Carl Barks, the show follows Scrooge McDuck, his three grandnephews Huey, Dewey, and Louie, and close friends of the group, on various adventures, most of which either involve seeking out treasure or thwarting the efforts of villains seeking to steal Scrooge's fortune or his Number One Dime.
DuckTales has inspired merchandise, including video games, merchandise, and comic books, along with an animated theatrical spin-off film entitled DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp, that was released to theaters across the United States on August 3, 1990. The series is notable for being the first Disney cartoon to be produced for weekday syndication, with its success paving the way for future Disney cartoons, such as Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers and TaleSpin, creating the syndication block The Disney Afternoon. The show's popular theme song was written by Mark Mueller. Also, Launchpad McQuack later returned to appear in another Disney animated series, becoming a main character in Darkwing Duck.
In February 2015, Disney XD announced the revival of the show, with the intention of rebooting the series. The rebooted series premiered on August 12, 2017 and concluded on March 15, 2021.
Premise
When Donald Duck decides to join the US Navy, he enlists his uncle Scrooge McDuck to look after his nephews, Huey, Dewey, and Louie. Although reluctant to do so due to their hyperactivity, along with his continual pursuit of increasing his wealth and maintaining harsh business ethics, he eventually warms up to them upon seeing how smart and resourceful they are and takes them into his manor as well as several adventures. Scrooge McDuck is well known for his characteristic Scottish accent, spats, and top hat. We later learn in the series his family comes from Castle McDuck, and he came to America when he was young learning how to "work smarter not harder". In addition to them, the show features frequent appearances by Gyro Gearloose, an established comic book character, as well as guest appearances by Donald in the first season – this was either a full appearance, or in a cameo scene when Scrooge and his nephews read letters he sends to them, and a few minor appearances by Scrooge's old flame, Glittering Goldie, whose character was adapted from the comic books. The show introduced new characters to the Duck universe; while some were minor including the nanny Mrs. Beakley, whom Scrooge hires to babysit the nephews; Mrs. Beakley's granddaughter Webby; Scrooge's pilot Launchpad McQuack; Doofus Drake, an admirer of Launchpad and a close friend of the nephews; and the McDuck Manor butler, Duckworth. The second season later introduced three new additional characters as part of the show's stories: "caveduck" Bubba Duck and his pet triceratops Tootsie; and Fenton Crackshell, Scrooge's personal accountant who secretly works as a superhero named Gizmoduck.
The show's primary villains consist of those from the comics: Flintheart Glomgold, who seeks to replace Scrooge as the "richest duck in the world"; the Beagle Boys, who seek to rob Scrooge of his fortune and often target his money bin; and Magica De Spell, who seeks to steal his Number One Dime. A few changes were made to these villains – unlike the comics, Flintheart is of Scottish descent and wears a couple of pieces of Scottish attire, including a kilt; Magica, who is Italian in the comics, has an Eastern European accent, always saying "darling" (which shocks Scrooge in an episode when Magica changes into the form of Mrs. Beakly). She has a brother named Poe, who was transformed into a raven; the Beagle Boys have individual personalities and are headed by their mother, Ma Beagle, who sometimes springs them from jail to conduct schemes with her, but always avoids being caught by the police. The animated series also featured a list of minor villains, most of whom sought to either claim Scrooge's wealth or beat him to treasure.
Most of the stories used in the show revolve around one of three common themes – the first focuses on the group's efforts to thwart attempts by various villains to steal Scrooge's fortune or his Number One Dime; the second focuses on a race for treasure; the third focused on specific characters within the show. Although some stories are original or based on Barks' comic book series, others are pastiches on classical stories or legends, including characters based on either fictional or historical persons. DuckTales is well noted for its many references to popular culture, including Shakespeare, Jack the Ripper, Greek mythology, James Bond, Indiana Jones, and Sherlock Holmes. After its first season, the show moved away from globe-trotting stories, with adventures focused mainly within Duckburg.
Cast
Alan Young as Scrooge McDuck
Russi Taylor as Huey, Dewey, and Louie Duck and Webby Vanderquack
Chuck McCann as Duckworth the Butler, Burger Beagle, and Bouncer Beagle
Terry McGovern as Launchpad McQuack (entire series) and Babyface Beagle (season 1)
Frank Welker as Bigtime Beagle (entire series), Baggy Beagle (entire series), Poe (season 1), and Bubba (seasons 2–4)
Hal Smith as Gyro Gearloose and Flintheart Glomgold
Joan Gerber as Mrs. Bentina Beakley, Glittering Goldie and Additional voices
Hamilton Camp as Fenton Crackshell/Gizmoduck (seasons 2–4). Additional voices in season 1
June Foray as Ma Beagle and Magica De Spell
Peter Cullen as Bankjob Beagle and Admiral Grimitz (season 1)
Brian Cummings as Doofus Drake and Bugle Beagle (season 1). Additional voices in season 3
Tony Anselmo as Donald Duck (season 1)
The show also featured a range of additional voice actors who voiced several minor characters, most frequently including the following:
Susan Blu
Corey Burton
Jim Cummings
Miriam Flynn
Kathleen Freeman
Linda Gary
Richard Libertini
Tress MacNeille
Howard Morris
Alan Oppenheimer
Rob Paulsen
Will Ryan
History
Production
Walt Disney Television Animation began production on DuckTales in 1986, intending to have it ready for a premiere in 1987, and its episodes airing within a 4–6 p.m. placement, at a time when more children would be watching television, rather than within a morning timeslot. Seeking to create a cartoon with high quality animation, in comparison with other 1980s cartoons which had much lower budgets, the animation was handled by Wang Film Productions (some 1987 and 1989–1990 episodes only), Cuckoo's Nest Studio, TMS Entertainment (season 1 only), and Burbank Films (1 episode only) having previously been used on two other Disney cartoons in 1985 – The Wuzzles and Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears – both of which had demonstrated better quality cartoons on TV than in previous years. Although the Japanese provided them with more available artists for the cartoon, this also increased production costs, due to the currency exchange rates between the yen and the dollar, though Disney intended to invest heavily in its DuckTaless production, with plans to recuperate its money by having it syndicated via its syndication unit, Buena Vista Television, with a 2.5/3.5 syndicator/station ad split. While this was a concept that worked well with live-action TV reruns, it had only ever been used with inexpensive cartoon series in the past that either recycled theatrical shorts from decades past or only featured limited, low-budget animation, and thus had never been attempted with a high quality animated series, with the heavy investment considered a risky move.
Broadcast
The cartoon premiered worldwide between 18–20 September 1987 (the time and date varying between markets), with a television movie special entitled "The Treasure of the Golden Suns", which was later split up into a five-part serial in future reruns. The first season, aired between 1987–88, consisted of 65 episodes, the "magic number" requirement needed for a show to have weekday syndication (five days a week for thirteen weeks). Disney then commissioned three more seasons – the second season (aired between 1988–89) consisted of two television specials entitled "Time Is Money" and "Super DuckTales", with future reruns splitting them into two five-part serials; the third season (aired between 1989–90) consisted of 18 episodes, with it forming an hour-long syndicated block alongside Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers; and the fourth season (aired during late 1990) consisted of seven episodes (including three unaired episodes meant for the previous season), which was used to form a two-hour-long syndicated block called The Disney Afternoon, consisting of DuckTales and three other half-hour cartoons.
The cartoon continued running within The Disney Afternoon until 1992. Following its departure from the Disney Afternoon, DuckTales reruns remained in syndication until 1995. Reruns continued on the Disney Channel from October 1995 to 2000, where it was at first part of a new two-hour programming block called "Block Party" that aired on weekday late afternoons, with it returning to syndication between 1997 and 1999. Reruns were later shown on Toon Disney between 1999 and late 2004.
Legacy
The show proved an immense success for Disney, who decided to commission other cartoons with a similar level of quality, which included Chip 'n Dale: Rescue Rangers, Darkwing Duck, and TaleSpin. In addition, DuckTales also spawned its own feature-length movie, entitled DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp, which was released to theaters on August 3, 1990, along with a franchise of merchandising, including toys, comic books and video games, a spin-off series, and eventually a revival in 2017, that rebooted the series. In 1990, the same year the original show ended, Russi Taylor-the voice of regular DuckTales characters Huey, Dewey, Louie, and Webby- obtained more voiceover work outside of Disney when she began providing the voices of some recurring characters on The Simpsons.
Cameos and appearances in other shows and films
Huey, Dewey, and Louie all appeared in the 1990 drug prevention video Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue.
Darkwing Duck (1991–92): Aside from Launchpad McQuack being a main character on the show and Gizmoduck appearing sporadically, Scrooge's face appears in the episode "Tiff of the Titans", and Flintheart Glomgold, the Beagle Boys, and Magica De Spell make cameo appearances in the episode "In Like Blunt".
Goof Troop (1992–93): In the episode "The Ungoofables", two of the Beagle Boys appear.
Raw Toonage (1992): Scrooge and Launchpad appear as guest stars, and Webby appears in the opening sequence.
Bonkers (1993–94): In the episode "The 29th Page", the Beagle Boys appear.
Aladdin (1994–95): In the episode "The Day the Bird Stood Still", the Genie transforms into Scrooge.
Quack Pack (1996): Aside from Donald, Ludwig, and the nephews being main characters, the episode "Nosy Neighbors" features the Beagle Boys as an attack dummy.
DuckTales (2017): The original design of Webby makes numerous appearances in the background of the rebooted series as a doll, and is used in a gag in "The Other Bin of Scrooge McDuck!" when Magica DeSpell turned reboot's Webby into a doll.
Black Widow (2021): Clips of the DuckTales intro are shown on a TV in the background as young Natasha Romanoff's family are preparing to have dinner and when her father enters the house, and also during the opening credits sequence in which she and other girls are forced to watch it as part of their training.
Episodes
Home media
VHS releases
10 VHS cassettes, containing two episodes each, were released in the United States.
Also, the episode "Ducky Horror Picture Show" was released with the Goof Troop episode "FrankenGoof" on a VHS cassette entitled Monster Bash in 1993.
UK, Australia and New Zealand VHS releases
10 VHS cassettes, each containing two or three episodes, were released in the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand.
DVD releases
North America (Region 1)
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment has released the complete series on DVD; four volumes have been released in Region 1 featuring all 100 episodes of the series. The first was released on November 8, 2005 (containing episodes 1–27), the second on November 14, 2006 (containing episodes 28–51), and the third volume on November 13, 2007 (containing episodes 52–75). The fourth and final volume was released as a Disney Movie Club exclusive on September 11, 2018 (containing episodes 76–100). The first three volumes were packaged in a box containing 3 slipcases, one for each. The 2013 re-releases of the first three volumes packages the discs into one DVD case.
DuckTales: Destination Adventure!, a DVD compilation release of episodes from the 2017 reboot, contains two episodes from the original series as bonus features: "New Gizmo Kids on the Block" and "Ducky Mountain High". These episodes were available before their inclusion in the Volume 4 release.
The episodes are in the order that they originally aired (except for the five-part serial "Treasure of the Golden Suns", placed at the beginning of Volume 2). None of the DVD sets contain any special features.
International (Region 2)
In the United Kingdom, Disney released one Region 2 volume in 2007, titled DuckTales First Collection. Despite the set being similar to the North American version, the DVD contained only 20 episodes, while having 5 language tracks: English, French, German, Spanish and Italian. Other regional versions were distributed to other countries, but only going up to episode #20. On November 12, 2012, the UK received two further releases of Collection 2 and Collection 3, being a Region version of the 2nd and 3rd volumes from North America. Unlike the first release, these 3-disc sets include a Fastplay mode, and only four language tracks: English, Dutch, German and French, but subtitles have not been added.
There are currently no plans to release the rest of the series, or the seven episodes missing between the first two sets.
Hindi language (Region 2, 4, 5)
In India where Duck Tales was dubbed in Hindi for TV broadcast on Doordarshan and syndication on Star Plus, 60 episodes out of the first 70 episodes from Seasons 1 and 2 were released by Sony DADC India under license from Disney India, on 20 DVD volumes and Video CDs in PAL format. These discs support Region 2, Region 4 and Region 5. However, due to a limited number of copies, they quickly went out of stock. Each DVD contained only 3 episodes. Episodes 08, 10, 11, 22, 23, 24, 36, 55 and 61 are missing from the released set. The remaining episodes starting from episode 70 to 100 ("Super DuckTales" from Season 2, and entire Seasons 3 and 4) are yet to be released in Hindi on DVD.
Video on demand
Season One of DuckTales was released on Amazon Video in 2013 and was free for Amazon Prime members but as of February 28, 2014, DuckTales Season 1 is no longer accessible through Amazon Video or Amazon Prime accounts.
As of December 11, 2015, some episodes from Season 1 have been made available on Netflix in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden. In Denmark, at least, only 20 episodes from season 1 are available on Netflix. The episodes available do follow the correct airdate order but some episodes are simply missing. For instance, the episodes on Netflix do not include a lot of Season 1 episodes, even though they have indeed been dubbed into Danish. Amongst the episodes missing are the Five-Part Miniseries, "Treasure of the Golden Sun", "Duckman of Aquatraz", and "Top Duck".
The entire series is currently available for purchase on Amazon Instant Video in Germany, with the episodes split into eight different seasons.
iTunes and Amazon Instant Video in the United States currently offer the entire series (except the episode "Sphinx for the Memories") for purchase in SD format, split into six volumes at $9.99 per volume.
The series has been available to stream on Disney+ since its launch on November 12, 2019, however some episodes are out of order and the episodes "Sphinx for the Memories" and "Launchpad's Civil War" are missing.
Music
The series theme song was written by Mark Mueller, an ASCAP award-winning pop music songwriter who also wrote the theme song to Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers; Mueller was paid a little over $1000 to write the tune.
Episode musical scores and background cues were written by at least four musicians. The primary and most known composer was Ron Jones, who wrote and conducted orchestral themes for the program. In contrast to how the other composers were creating a "patronizing" and "cute" score for the show, Jones says he composed the music with regard to the audience and its intelligence. "I would not play the score like a kid's show at all. If they went on an adventure I would play it serious like Raiders of the Lost Ark. Jones' score for DuckTales has been praised by fans of the show.
Three other musicians worked on creating incidental music cues for DuckTales. One musician, Stephen Rucker, also was in charge of conducting and composing tracks, much like Jones. The two other musicians, Steve Zuckerman, and Thomas Chase Jones, composed only synthetic cues for the show, and generally kept the tone lighter, as opposed to Jones and Rucker.
In total, there were approximately 85(?) incidental music cues composed for DuckTales. A track was played on different occasions on an episode, appropriate with the current ongoing situation. As of 2019, there has never been an official release of any of the background music on DuckTales.
The DuckTales Theme was sung by Jeff Pescetto. There are four different versions of the theme song. The original version, serving as the show's opening theme, contained one verse, chorus, bridge, and then a chorus. A shorter version of the opening theme was used in The Disney Afternoon lineup with the line, "Everyday they're out there making Duck Tales, woo-ooh", taken out.
A full-length version of the theme song was released on the Disney Afternoon soundtrack, the third volume (which was released in a set with the other two volumes) in The Music of Disney: a Legacy in Song along with the full TaleSpin theme and in the November 2013 release of the Disney Classics collection. Also, it is heard in the end credits of DuckTales: Remastered and is also released on its official soundtrack.
The full version contains a second verse, and it includes a guitar solo, which is performed with a wah-wah pedal to make it sound like duck-like noises. It also has a fadeout ending, unlike the other versions. There is also a rare extended version that was used in the read-along cassettes in 1987. It has a sequence order of verse-chorus-bridge-chorus-instrumental break-chorus.
According to an interview conducted with Jeff Pescetto in 2009, he was originally approached by Mark Mueller to cut a demo version of the theme song for Disney's approval. Although they were impressed with Pescetto's demo, Disney had decided at first to hire pop group The Jets to perform the theme song for broadcast. However, after recording a version with the group, Disney felt that the theme song needed a different vocal style, and instead commissioned Pescetto to perform the theme. After performing on DuckTales, Pescetto would later be asked to sing the vocal themes for Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers (composed by Mueller and produced by Alf Clausen), Darkwing Duck (composed by Steve Nelson and Thom Sharp and produced by Steve Tyrell), and for The Disney Afternoon itself. The Jets, meanwhile, later performed a full-length version of the Rescue Rangers theme song in a music video aired on The Disney Channel in 1989.
Reception
DuckTales received positive reviews, Common Sense Media rated the show a 4 out of 5 stars, stating : "Parents need to know that DuckTales was a huge hit with fans during its four-year run in the '80s and continues to entertain today with quality stories, wild adventures, and classic Disney characters such as Scrooge McDuck and the dynamic trio of Huey, Dewey, and Louie. Because the stories often are set in far-flung places such as Greece, Antarctica, and the Klondike, kids are introduced to basic concepts of geography and diverse world cultures".
In January 2009, IGN listed DuckTales as the 18th best show in the Top 100 Best Animated TV Shows.
Awards and nominations
Theme song
The theme song, written by Mark Mueller, has been widely regarded as one of the most memorable for a television program, with Dan Fletcher of Time magazine noting its lasting impact despite being just a children's song: "Some of the lyrics might not make sense to those older than the age of 10 — we're not sure how life in Duckburg is like a hurricane, or exactly what a 'duck blur' is — but the DuckTales song is still awesome." An article from Vanity Fair noted that the song has a tendency to stick in someone's head, a phenomenon known as an earworm. TVLine lists the theme song among the best animated series themes of all time.
Theatrical film
DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp was released nationwide in the United States on August 3, 1990 by Walt Disney Pictures and Disney MovieToons, Disney TV Animation division and Disney France. The film follows Scrooge McDuck and his nephews as they try to defeat the evil warlock Merlock from taking over the legendary magic lamp.
The film was well-received by critics and audiences, but was considered a financial disappointment by Disney and several planned sequels were abandoned as a result.
Reboot
In February 2015, Disney XD announced a reboot of the original DuckTales TV series. It premiered on August 11, 2017 and ran for three seasons.
In May 2015, Terry McGovern (the original voice of Launchpad McQuack) stated on Facebook that the entire voice cast would be replaced, stating he felt "heartsick" at the news.
Merchandise
Video and computer games
A DuckTales video game was developed by Capcom and released for the Nintendo Entertainment System and Game Boy in 1989. A sequel to the game, DuckTales 2, was released for NES and Game Boy in 1993. A Disney's DuckTales hand-held LCD game from Tiger Electronics was also released in 1990. A DuckTales mobile game was developed by Artefact Games and published by Disney Mobile and released for Mobile Phones on 2011 in Moscow.
A different platform game, DuckTales: The Quest for Gold, was released by Incredible Technologies for computers in 1990. DuckTales: Remastered, an HD remake of Capcom's original game, developed by WayForward Technologies, was released by Disney Interactive for PlayStation Network, Nintendo eShop and Steam on August 13, 2013. It was also released on September 11, 2013 for Xbox Live Arcade. A retail copy for PlayStation 3 was released on August 20, 2013 with a code to download the game and a DuckTales collector pin.
Various DuckTales items appear in the Toy Box of the Disney Infinity franchise. In 1.0, the Money Bin item and Scrooge and Beagle Boy townspeople appear in addition to the "Scrooge's Lucky Dime" power disc. In 2.0, Scrooge's pile of money and a Scrooge portrait are interior items in addition to the iOS-exclusive "Scrooge's Top Hat" power disc. In 3.0, a Launchpad McQuack townsperson was added.
Launchpad was a selectable character for the mobile game titled Disney Snow Sports in 2007.
An app was released by Disney in the late summer/early fall of 2013 called DuckTales: Scrooge's Loot, where the player tries to get Scrooge back his money that was stolen by Flintheart Glomgold, Magica de Spell, and the Beagle Boys.
Scrooge McDuck, Launchpad McQuack, Weddy Vanderquack, Magica De Spell, and Gizmoduck appeared in Disney Emoji Blitz in 2017.
In 2019, Huey, Dewey, and Louie Duck, Scrooge McDuck, Gizmoduck, Donald Duck, and Launchpad McQuack were added to Disney Heroes: Battle Mode. Magica De Spell was added to the game in January 2020.
Clips from the original series were seen in Black Widow.
Books
DuckTales releasing on the Picture Books from the part of Disney Gold and was Published by Kodansha.
Comic books and trade paperbacks
DuckTales
DuckTales had two series of comic books. The first series was published by Gladstone Publishing and ran for 13 issues from 1988 to 1990, and the second series was published by Disney Comics and ran for 18 issues from 1990 to 1991. Disney also published a children's magazine based on the show, which also featured comic stories, one of which was written by Don Rosa. Subsequent comic stories were also printed in the magazine Disney Adventures from 1990 to 1996.
On August 29, 2007, Gemstone released a trade paperback of Scrooge's Quest and on October 7, 2008, it was followed by The Gold Odyssey; together they collect the majority of the Disney Comics run.
Carl Barks' Greatest DuckTales Stories
On May 24 and July 19, 2006, Gemstone published a two-volume trade paperback, Carl Barks' Greatest DuckTales Stories. The trades contain reprints of stories written by Carl Barks which were specifically adapted into television episodes of DuckTales.
Both volumes start with an introduction and compare the original comic story with its DuckTales episode counterpart. Volume 1 also includes a two-page article delving into details on adapting the show from the comic series.
BOOM! Studios revival
On February 17, 2011, BOOM! Studios announced that a new DuckTales comic series would begin May 2011 under its kaboom! imprint. The series was written by Warren Spector (author of the Epic Mickey videogame) with art by Leonel Castellani and Jose Massaroli. It lasted for 6 issues, with the final two crossing over with Darkwing Duck. The BOOM! Studios comic will be reprinted in IDW Publishing's Disney's Afternoon Giant in October 2018.
Before its updated DuckTales comic book, BOOM Kids (later called Kaboom!) featured internationally produced DuckTales comic book stories never before seen in the US in issues 392–399 of the Uncle Scrooge comic book. These issues, published 2010–2011, were collected into two trade paperback volumes.
International
The success of DuckTales led to the translation of the show into many languages. Featured together with Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers in a Sunday morning program titled Walt Disney Presents, the show premiered in the former Soviet Union in 1991, the first American cartoon shown in the region after the Cold War. One year later, Darkwing Duck was also added to this lineup.
However, the show's theme song (written by Mark Mueller and originally sung by Jeff Pescetto) remained in English for several episodes. The first Russian version of the song was replaced midway through the series with an alternate rendition that contained completely different lyrics.
The series screened in New Zealand weekday afternoons on TVNZ. When TV3 started airing in November 1989 they took over the rights to Disney properties previously held by TVNZ, and as a result Ducktales was later repeated on TV3.
The series aired in India on Doordarshan, dubbed in Hindi. The title track for the original series was sung in Hindi by Amit Kumar. The features were dubbed and the episodes have voice cast of Chetan Shasital, Javed Jaffery, Rakshanda Khan and others. In many countries, the theme song was performed by well-known singers (like in Finland, where it was sung by Pave Maijanen, or in Germany, where it was sung by Thomas Anders in English).
In Spanish speaking countries of Latin America, the series was called Pato Aventuras (Duck Adventures). Scrooge McDuck is called "Rico McPato" and the nephews were translated as Hugo, Paco, and Luis, keeping the names of the translated vintage cartoons and comic books. In Spain, while the Latin American dub was used for the first broadcast, a high-quality local dub was produced afterward, keeping the local "Gilito/Juanito/Jaimito/Jorgito" names for the characters. In Brazil, the series was called "Duck Tales: os Caçadores de Aventuras" (Duck Tales: the Adventure Hunters).
In Italy, the series was called Avventure di paperi.
In France, the series was called La bande à Picsou (McDuck's gang). The French name of Scrooge McDuck is Balthazar Picsou. Scrooge's last name Picsou comes from a French expression Pique-Sou emphasizing Scrooge's stingy behavior. Huey, Dewey, and Louie are called Fifi, Riri and Loulou.
In Hungary, the term "DuckTales generation" (Kacsamesék generáció) refers to the people who were born in the early to mid-1980s, because the death of József Antall, the first democratically elected Prime Minister of Hungary, was announced during a DuckTales episode in 1993. This was the generation's first encounter with politics.
In Romania, the series was called Povești cu Mac-Mac (Stories with Mac-Mac). Only the episodes 1–65 were dubbed and aired. Scrooge McDuck was dubbed by a well-known actor, Gheorghe Dinică, until his death (only 5 episodes remained after his death). After Gheorghe Dinică's death, Valentin Uritescu dubbed Scrooge (episodes 50, 57, 60, 64, 65). Also, Angela Filipescu provided the voices of Huey, Dewey, and Louie, Tamara Buciuceanu-Botez provides the voice of Ms. Beakley, Mihaela Mitrache was Webbigail along with the great master Cornel Vulpe as Duckworth. The series was broadcast on Prima TV and first aired on TVR1 in 1994 and the dubbing studio who provide the Romanian version is Ager Film. The intro song was performed by a winner from Mamaia Festival, Alin Cibian.
in Iran, this series was broadcast on IRIB Pooya & Nahal from 2018 to 2019 then the 2017 reboot was broadcast on IRIB Pooya & Nahal in 2019 after The DuckTales 1987 series was broadcast in iran.
In the Philippines, the series was broadcast on GMA Network from 1988 to 1993.
In Uzbekistan, the series was called O'rdaklar sarguzashti (Ducks Adventures).
References
External links
1980s American animated television series
1987 American television series debuts
1988 comics debuts
1990 American television series endings
1990s American animated television series
ABC Kids (TV programming block)
American children's animated action television series
American children's animated adventure television series
American children's animated comedy television series
American children's animated drama television series
American children's animated fantasy television series
Yeti in fiction
Genies in television
Gladstone Publishing titles
The Disney Afternoon
Disney Channel original programming
Disney Comics titles
Disney comics titles
Donald Duck television series
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
Television shows based on comics
Animated television series about ducks
Animated television series about families
Animated television series about brothers
Television series by Disney Television Animation
Three (TV channel) original programming
Tiger handheld games
Treasure hunt television series
English-language television shows
1990s American animated comedy television series
Television shows adapted into comics
Television shows adapted into films
Television shows adapted into video games
Television series created by Jymn Magon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows%20Server%202003
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Windows Server 2003
|
Windows Server 2003 is the first version of Windows Server operating system produced by Microsoft. It is part of the Windows NT family of operating systems and was released on April 24, 2003. Windows Server 2003 is the successor to the Server editions of Windows 2000 and the predecessor to Windows Server 2008. An updated version, Windows Server 2003 R2, was released to manufacturing on December 6, 2005.
Windows Server 2003's kernel was later adopted in the development of Windows Vista and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition.
Overview
Windows Server 2003 is the follow-up to Windows 2000 Server, incorporating compatibility and other features from Windows XP. Unlike Windows 2000, Windows Server 2003's default installation has none of the server components enabled, to reduce the attack surface of new machines. Windows Server 2003 includes compatibility modes to allow older applications to run with greater stability. It was made more compatible with Windows NT 4.0 domain-based networking. Windows Server 2003 brought in enhanced Active Directory compatibility and better deployment support to ease the transition from Windows NT 4.0 to Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP Professional.
Windows Server 2003 is the first server edition of Windows to support the IA64 and x64 architectures.
The product went through several name changes during the course of development. When first announced in 2000, it was known by its codename "Whistler Server"; it was named "Windows 2002 Server" for a brief time in mid-2001, followed by "Windows .NET Server" and "Windows .NET Server 2003". After Microsoft chose to focus the ".NET" branding on the .NET Framework, the OS was finally released as "Windows Server 2003".
Development
Windows Server 2003 was the first Microsoft Windows version which was thoroughly subjected to semi-automated testing for bugs with a software system called PREfast developed by computer scientist Amitabh Srivastava at Microsoft Research. The automated bug checking system was first tested on Windows 2000 but not thoroughly. Amitabh Srivastava's PREfast found 12% of Windows Server 2003's bugs, the remaining 88% being found by human computer programmers. Microsoft employs more than 4,700 programmers who work on Windows, 60% of whom are software testers whose job is to find bugs in Windows source code. Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates stated that Windows Server 2003 was Microsoft's "most rigorously tested software to date."
Microsoft later used Windows Server 2003's kernel in the development of Windows Vista after its reset.
Changes
The following features are new to Windows Server 2003:
Internet Information Services (IIS) v6.0
Significant improvements to Message Queuing
Manage Your Server – a role management administrative tool that allows an administrator to choose what functionality the server should provide
Improvements to Active Directory, such as the ability to deactivate classes from the schema, or to run multiple instances of the directory server (ADAM)
Improvements to Group Policy handling and administration
Provides a backup system to restore lost files
Improved disk management, including the ability to back up from shadows of files, allowing the backup of open files.
Improved scripting and command line tools, which are part of Microsoft's initiative to bring a complete command shell to the next version of Windows
Support for a hardware-based "watchdog timer", which can restart the server if the operating system does not respond within a certain amount of time.
The ability to create a rescue disk was removed in favor of Automated System Recovery (ASR).
Editions
Windows Server 2003 comes in a number of editions, each targeted towards a particular size and type of business. In general, all variants of Windows Server 2003 have the ability to share files and printers, act as an application server, host message queues, provide email services, authenticate users, act as an X.509 certificate server, provide LDAP directory services, serve streaming media, and to perform other server-oriented functions.
Web
Windows Server 2003 Web is meant for building and hosting Web applications, Web pages, and XML web services. It is designed to be used primarily as an IIS web server and provides a platform for developing and deploying XML Web services and applications that use ASP.NET technology. Domain controller and Terminal Services functionality are not included on Web Edition. However, Remote Desktop for Administration is available. Only 10 concurrent file-sharing connections are allowed at any moment. It is not possible to install Microsoft SQL Server and Microsoft Exchange software in this edition without installing Service Pack 1. Despite supporting XML Web services and ASP.NET, UDDI cannot be deployed on Windows Server 2003 Web. The .NET Framework version 2.0 is not included with Windows Server 2003 Web, but can be installed as a separate update from Windows Update.
Windows Server 2003 Web supports a maximum of 2 physical processors and a maximum of 2 GB of RAM. It is the only edition of Windows Server 2003 that does not require any client access license (CAL) when used as the internet facing server front-end for Internet Information Services and Windows Server Update Services. When using it for storage or as a back-end with another remote server as the front-end, CALs may still be required.
Standard
Microsoft Windows Server 2003 Standard is aimed towards small to medium-sized businesses. Standard Edition supports file and printer sharing, offers secure Internet connectivity, and allows centralized desktop application deployment. A specialized variant for the x64 architecture was released in April 2005. The IA-32 variants supports up to four physical processors and up to 4 GB RAM; the x64 variant is capable of addressing up to 32 GB of RAM and also supports Non-Uniform Memory Access.
Enterprise
Windows Server 2003 Enterprise is aimed towards medium to large businesses. It is a full-function server operating system that supports up to 8 physical processors and provides enterprise-class features such as eight-node clustering using Microsoft Cluster Server (MSCS) software and support for up to 64 GB of RAM through PAE. Enterprise Edition also comes in specialized variants for the x64 and Itanium architectures. With Service Pack 2 installed, the x64 and Itanium variants are capable of addressing up to 1 TB and 2 TB of RAM, respectively. This edition also supports Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA). It also provides the ability to hot-add supported hardware. Windows Server 2003 Enterprise is also the required edition to issue custom certificate templates.
Datacenter
Windows Server 2003 Datacenter is designed for infrastructures demanding high security and reliability. Windows Server 2003 is available for IA-32, Itanium, and x64 processors. It supports a maximum of 32 physical processors on IA-32 platform or 64 physical processors on x64 and IA-64 hardware. IA-32 variants of this edition support up to 64 GB of RAM. With Service Pack 2 installed, the x64 variants support up to 1 TB while the IA-64 variants support up to 2 TB of RAM. Windows Server 2003 Datacenter also allows limiting processor and memory usage on a per-application basis.
This edition has better support for storage area networks (SANs): It features a service which uses Windows sockets to emulate TCP/IP communication over native SAN service providers, thereby allowing a SAN to be accessed over any TCP/IP channel. With this, any application that can communicate over TCP/IP can use a SAN, without any modification to the application.
The Datacenter edition, like the Enterprise edition, supports 8-node clustering. Clustering increases availability and fault tolerance of server installations by distributing and replicating the service among many servers. This edition supports clustering with each cluster having its own dedicated storage, or with all cluster nodes connected to a common SAN.
Derivatives
Windows Compute Cluster Server
Windows Compute Cluster Server 2003 (CCS), released in June 2006, is designed for high-end applications that require high performance computing clusters. It is designed to be deployed on numerous computers to be clustered together to achieve supercomputing speeds. Each Compute Cluster Server network comprises at least one controlling head node and subordinate processing nodes that carry out most of the work.
Compute Cluster Server uses the Microsoft Messaging Passing Interface v2 (MS-MPI) to communicate between the processing nodes on the cluster network. It ties nodes together with a powerful inter-process communication mechanism which can be complex because of communications between hundreds or even thousands of processors working in parallel.
The application programming interface consists of over 160 functions. A job launcher enables users to execute jobs to be executed in the computing cluster. MS MPI was designed to be compatible with the reference open source MPI2 specification which is widely used in High-performance computing (HPC). With some exceptions because of security considerations, MS MPI covers the complete set of MPI2 functionality as implemented in MPICH2, except for the planned future features of dynamic process spawn and publishing.
Windows Storage Server
Windows Storage Server 2003, a part of the Windows Server 2003 series, is a specialized server operating system for network-attached storage (NAS). Launched in 2003 at Storage Decisions in Chicago, it is optimized for use in file and print sharing and also in storage area network (SAN) scenarios. It is only available through Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). Unlike other Windows Server 2003 editions that provide file and printer sharing functionality, Windows Storage Server 2003 does not require any CAL.
Windows Storage Server 2003 NAS equipment can be headless, which means that they are without any monitors, keyboards or mice, and are administered remotely. Such devices are plugged into any existing IP network and the storage capacity is available to all users. Windows Storage Server 2003 can use RAID arrays to provide data redundancy, fault-tolerance and high performance. Multiple such NAS servers can be clustered to appear as a single device, which allows responsibility for serving clients to be shared in such a way that if one server fails then other servers can take over (often termed a failover) which also improves fault-tolerance.
Windows Storage Server 2003 can also be used to create a Storage Area Network, in which the data is transferred in terms of chunks rather than files, thus providing more granularity to the data that can be transferred. This provides higher performance to database and transaction processing applications. Windows Storage Server 2003 also allows NAS devices to be connected to a SAN.
Windows Storage Server 2003 R2, as a follow-up to Windows Storage Server 2003, adds file-server performance optimization, Single Instance Storage (SIS), and index-based search. Single instance storage (SIS) scans storage volumes for duplicate files, and moves the duplicate files to the common SIS store. The file on the volume is replaced with a link to the file. This substitution reduces the amount of storage space required, by as much as 70%.
Windows Storage Server 2003 R2 provides an index-based, full-text search based on the indexing engine already built into Windows server. The updated search engine speeds up indexed searches on network shares. This edition also provides filters for searching many standard file formats, such as .zip, AutoCAD, XML, MP3, and .pdf, and all Microsoft Office file formats.
Windows Storage Server 2003 R2 includes built in support for Windows SharePoint Services and Microsoft SharePoint Portal Server, and adds a Storage Management snap-in for the Microsoft Management Console. It can be used to manage storage volumes centrally, including DFS shares, on servers running Windows Storage Server R2.
Windows Storage Server 2003 R2 can be used as an iSCSI target with standard and enterprise editions of Windows Storage Server 2003 R2, incorporating WinTarget iSCSI technology which Microsoft acquired in 2006 by from StringBean software. This will be an add-on feature available for purchase through OEM partners as an iSCSI feature pack, or is included in some versions of WSS as configured by OEMs.
Windows Storage Server 2003 can be promoted to function as a domain controller; however, this edition is not licensed to run directory services. It can be joined to an existing domain as a member server.
Features
Distributed File System (DFS): DFS allows multiple network shares to be aggregated as a virtual file system.
Support for SAN and iSCSI: Computers can connect to a Storage Server over the LAN, and there is no need for a separate fibre channel network. Thus a Storage Area Network can be created over the LAN itself. iSCSI uses the SCSI protocol to transfer data as a block of bytes, rather than as a file. This increases performance of the Storage network in some scenarios, such as using a database server.
Virtual Disc Service: It allows NAS devices, RAID devices and SAN shares to be exposed and managed as if they were normal hard drives.
JBOD systems: JBOD (Just a bunch of discs) systems, by using VDS, can manage a group of individual storage devices as a single unit. There is no need for the storage units to be of the same maker and model.
Software and Hardware RAID: Windows Storage Server 2003 has intrinsic support for hardware implementation of RAID. In case hardware support is not available, it can use software enabled RAID. In that case, all processing is done by the OS.
Multi Path IO (MPIO): It provides an alternate connection to IO devices in case the primary path is down.
Editions
Windows Storage Server 2003 R2 was available in the following editions:
Windows Unified Data Storage Server is a variant of Windows Storage Server 2003 R2 with iSCSI target support standard, available in only the standard and enterprise editions.
Windows Small Business Server
Windows Small Business Server (SBS) is a software suite which includes Windows Server and additional technologies aimed at providing a small business with a complete technology solution.
The Standard edition of SBS includes Microsoft Remote Web Workplace, Windows SharePoint Services, Microsoft Exchange Server, Fax Server, Active Directory, a basic firewall, DHCP server and network address translation capabilities. The Premium edition of SBS adds Microsoft SQL Server 2000 and Microsoft ISA Server 2004.
SBS has its own type of CAL that is different and costs slightly more than CALs for the other editions of Windows Server 2003. However, the SBS CAL encompasses the user CALs for Windows Server, Exchange Server, SQL Server and ISA Server, and hence is less expensive than buying all other CALs individually.
SBS has the following design limitations, mainly affecting Active Directory:
Only one computer in a Windows Server domain can be running SBS
SBS must be the root of the Active Directory forest
SBS cannot trust any other domains
SBS is limited to 75 users or devices depending on the type of CAL
SBS is limited to a maximum of 4 GB of RAM (Random Access Memory)
SBS domains cannot have any child domains
Terminal Services only operates in remote administration mode on SBS, meaning that only two simultaneous RDP sessions are allowed
To remove the limitations from an instance of SBS and upgrade to regular Windows Server, Exchange Server, SQL and ISA Server, there is a Windows Small Business Server 2003 R2 Transition Pack.
Windows Home Server
Windows Home Server is an operating system from Microsoft based on Windows Small Business Server 2003 SP2 (this can be seen in the directory listings of the installation DVD). Windows Home Server was announced on January 7, 2007 at the Consumer Electronics Show by Bill Gates and is intended to be a solution for homes with multiple connected PCs to offer file sharing, automated backups, and remote access.
Windows Home Server began shipment to OEMs on September 15, 2007.
Windows Server for Embedded Systems
Windows Server 2003 for Embedded Systems replaced "Windows 2000 Server for Embedded Systems". Intended use was for building firewall, VPN caching servers and similar appliances. Variants were available with "Server Appliance Software" and with "Microsoft Internet Security and Acceleration Server"
Availability of the original version ended May 28, 2003. Availability of R2 ended March 5, 2006. End of extended support was July 14, 2015 (all variants except Storage Server), and End of Licence was May 28, 2018 (R2 and original). The End of Licence date is the last date that OEM's may distribute systems using this version. All variants continued to receive Critical security updates until the end of extended support:
Release 2 for Embedded Systems was available in 32 and 64 bit variants, Standard (1-4 CPU) and Enterprise (1-8 CPU):
Windows XP Professional x64 Edition
Windows XP Professional x64 Edition was released less than a month after Windows Server 2003 SP1, and used the same kernel and source code tree. While many features of the 32-bit variant of Windows XP were brought over into Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, other limitations imposed by constraints such as only supporting 64-bit drivers, and support for 16-bit programs being dropped led to incompatibilities with the 32-bit Windows XP editions available. It later received a Service Pack update as part of the release of Windows Server 2003 SP2.
Updates
Service Pack 1
On March 30, 2005, Microsoft released Service Pack 1 for Windows Server 2003. Among the improvements are many of the same updates that were provided to Windows XP users with Service Pack 2. Features that are added with Service Pack 1 include:
Security Configuration Wizard: A tool that allows administrators to more easily research, and make changes to, security policies.
Hot Patching: This feature is set to extend Windows Server 2003's ability to take DLL, Driver, and non-kernel patches without a reboot.
IIS 6.0 Metabase Auditing: Allowing the tracking of metabase edits.
Windows Firewall: Brings many of the improvements from Windows XP Service Pack 2 to Windows Server 2003; also with the Security Configuration Wizard, it allows administrators to more easily manage the incoming open ports, as it will automatically detect and select default roles.
Other networking improvements include support for Wireless Provisioning Services, better IPv6 support, and new protections against SYN flood TCP attacks.
Post-Setup Security Updates: A default mode that is turned on when a Service Pack 1 server is first booted up after installation. It configures the firewall to block all incoming connections, and directs the user to install updates.
Data Execution Prevention (DEP): Support for the No Execute (NX) bit which helps to prevent buffer overflow exploits that are often the attack vector of Windows Server exploits.
Windows Media Player version 10
Internet Explorer 6 SV1 (e.g. 'IE6 SP2')
Support for fixed disks bearing data organized using the GUID Partition Table system
A full list of updates is available in the Microsoft Knowledge Base.
Service Pack 2
Service Pack 2 for Windows Server 2003 was released on March 13, 2007. The release date was originally scheduled for the first half of 2006. On June 13, 2006, Microsoft made an initial test version of Service Pack 2 available to Microsoft Connect users, with a build number of 2721. This was followed by build 2805, known as Beta 2 Refresh. The final build is 3790.
Microsoft has described Service Pack 2 as a "standard" service pack release containing previously released security updates, hotfixes, and reliability and performance improvements. In addition, Service Pack 2 contains Microsoft Management Console 3.0, Windows Deployment Services (which replaces Remote Installation Services), support for WPA2, and improvements to IPsec and MSConfig. Service Pack 2 also adds Windows Server 2003 Scalable Networking Pack (SNP), which allows hardware acceleration for processing network packets, thereby enabling faster throughput. SNP was previously available as an out-of-band update for Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1.
Windows Server 2003 R2
Windows Server 2003 R2 is the title of a complementary offering by Microsoft. It consists of a copy of Windows Server 2003 SP1 on one CD and a host of optionally installed new features (reminiscent of Microsoft Plus!) on another. It was released to manufacturing on December 6, 2005 for IA-32 and x64 platforms, but not for IA-64. It was succeeded by Windows Server 2008.
New features of Windows Server 2003 R2 include:
.NET Framework 2.0
Active Directory Federation Services
Microsoft Management Console version 3.0. Additionally, several new snap-ins are included:
Print Management Console, for managing print servers
File Server Resource Manager, for managing disk quotas on file servers
Storage Manager for SANs, for managing LUNs
A new version of Distributed File System that includes remote differential compression technology
Microsoft Virtual Server 2005, a hypervisor and the precursor to Hyper-V
Windows Services for UNIX
Support lifecycle
On July 13, 2010, Windows Server 2003's mainstream support expired and the extended support phase began. During the extended support phase, Microsoft continued to provide security updates; however, free technical support, warranty claims, and design changes are no longer being offered. Extended support lasted until July 14, 2015.
Although Windows Server 2003 is unsupported, Microsoft released an emergency security patch in May 2017 for the OS as well as other unsupported versions of Windows (including Windows Vista and Windows 7 RTM without a service pack), to address a vulnerability that was being leveraged by the WannaCry ransomware attack.
Microsoft in 2020 announced that it would disable the Windows Update service for SHA-1 endpoints and since Windows Server 2003 did not get an update for SHA-2, Windows Update Services are no longer available on the OS as of late July 2020. However as of April 2021, the old updates for Windows Server 2003 are still available on the Microsoft Update Catalog.
Source code leak
On September 23, 2020, the Windows XP Service Pack 1 and Windows Server 2003 source code was leaked onto the imageboard 4chan by an unknown user. Anonymous users from the latter managed to compile the code, as well as a Twitter user who posted videos of the process on YouTube proving that the code was genuine. The latter were struck down on copyright grounds by Microsoft. The leak was incomplete as it was missing the Winlogon source code and some other components. The original leak itself was spread using magnet links and torrent files whose payload originally included Server 2003 and XP source code and which was later updated by additional files among which were previous leaks of Microsoft products, its patents, media about conspiracy theories about Bill Gates by anti-vaccination movements and an assortment of PDF files on different topics.
Microsoft issued a statement stating that it was investigating the leaks.
See also
BlueKeep (security vulnerability)
Comparison of Microsoft Windows versions
Comparison of operating systems
History of Microsoft Windows
List of operating systems
Microsoft Servers
References
External links
Windows Server 2003 on Microsoft TechNet
Windows Server 2003 Downloads on Microsoft TechNet
Windows Server Performance Team Blog
Kernel comparison with Linux 2.6 by David Solomon, Mark Russinovich, and Andreas Polze
2003 software
Products and services discontinued in 2015
Windows Server
IA-32 operating systems
X86-64 operating systems
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] |
208072
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Country%20Song
|
Grammy Award for Best Country Song
|
The Grammy Award for Best Country Song (sometimes known as the Country Songwriter's Award) has been awarded since 1965. The award is given to the songwriter(s) of the song, not to the artist, except if the artist is also the songwriter.
There have been several minor changes to the name of the award:
From 1965 to 1968, it was known as "Best Country & Western Song"
From 1969 to 1983, it was awarded as "Best Country Song"
In 1984, it was awarded as "Best New Country Song "
From 1985 to the present, it has again been awarded as "Best Country Song"
Years reflect the year in which the Grammy Awards were presented, for music released in the previous year.
Recipients
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
References
Grammy Awards for country music
Country Song
Song awards
Songwriting awards
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dundalk
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Dundalk
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Dundalk ( ; , meaning "the fort of Dealgan", a Fir Bolg Chieftain) is the county town (the administrative centre) of County Louth, Ireland. The town is on the Castletown River, which flows into Dundalk Bay on the east coast of Ireland. It is near the border with Northern Ireland, halfway between Dublin and Belfast. It is the eighth largest urban area in Ireland, with a population of 39,004 as of the 2016 census.
Having been inhabited since the Neolithic period, Dundalk was established as a Norman stronghold in the 12th century following the Norman invasion of Ireland, and became the northernmost outpost of The Pale in the Late Middle Ages. The town came to be nicknamed the "Gap of the North" where the northernmost point of the province of Leinster meets the province of Ulster. The modern street layout dates from the early 18th century and owes its form to James Hamilton (later 1st Earl of Clanbrassil). The legends of the mythical warrior hero Cú Chulainn are set in the district and the motto on the town's coat of arms is Mé do rug Cú Chulainn cróga(Irish) "I gave birth to brave Cú Chulainn".
The town developed brewing, distilling, tobacco, textile, and engineering industries during the nineteenth century. It became prosperous and its population grew as it became an important manufacturing and trading centre—both as a hub on the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) network and with its maritime link to Liverpool from the Port of Dundalk. It later suffered from high unemployment and urban decay after these industries closed or scaled back operations both in the aftermath of the Partition of Ireland in 1921 and following the accession of Ireland to the European Economic Community in 1973. New industries have been established in the early part of the 21st century, including pharmaceutical, technology, financial services, and specialist foods.
There is one third-level education institute—Dundalk Institute of Technology. The largest theatre in the town, An Táin Arts Centre, is in the Town Hall, and the restored buildings of the nearby former Dundalk Distillery house both the County Museum Dundalk and the Louth County Library. Sporting clubs include Dundalk Football Club (who play at Oriel Park), Dundalk Rugby Club, Dundalk Golf Club, and several clubs competing in Gaelic games. Dundalk Stadium is a horse and greyhound racing venue and is Ireland's only all-weather horse racing track.
History
Early history and legend
Archaeological studies at Rockmarshall indicate that the Dundalk area was first inhabited circa 3700 BC following the end of the last Ice Age, during the Neolithic period. Visible evidence of this early presence can be seen in the form of the Proleek Dolmen, a portal tomb in the Ballymascanlon area, north of Dundalk, which dates to around 3000 BC. A wedge-shaped gallery grave (known as the "Giant's Grave") is nearby. Other pre-Christian archaeological sites in the Dundalk Municipal District are Rockmarshall Court Tomb, a court cairn, and Aghnaskeagh Cairns, a chambered cairn and portal tomb.
The legends of Cú Chulainn, including the Táin Bó Cúailnge (The Cattle Raid of Cooley), an epic of early Irish literature, are set in the first century AD, before the arrival of Christianity to Ireland. Clochafarmore, the menhir that Cú Chulainn reputedly tied himself to before he died, is located to the west of the town, near Knockbridge.
According to the Annals of the Four Masters, a battle was fought at Faughart (a townland 6 km north of the centre of Dundalk, near the Moyry Pass) between Cormac mac Airt, High King of Ireland and Storno (or Starno), King of Lochlin, in 248. The story is folklore and both characters are ahistorical.
Evidence of settlements from early Christian Ireland are to be found in the high concentration of souterrains in north Louth. The high concentration of souterrains indicates that the area was regularly subject to raids, and the discovery of a type of pottery known as 'souterrain ware', which has only been found in north Louth, County Down and County Antrim, indicates that these areas shared cultural ties separate from the rest of early historic Ireland. The concentration of souterrains drops significantly on crossing the River Fane to the south, indicating that the district was a border area between separate kingdoms.
Saint Brigid is reputed to have been born in 451 AD in Faughart. A shrine to her is located at Faughart. St Brigid's Church in Kilcurry holds what worshippers believe is a relic of the saint—a fragment of her skull, which was brought to the church in 1905 by Sister Mary Agnes of the Dundalk Convent of Mercy.
Middle Ages
Most of what is recorded about the Dundalk area between the fifth century and the foundation of the town as a Norman stronghold in the 12th century comes from the Annals of the Four Masters and the Annals of Tigernach, which were both written hundreds of years after the events they record. According to the annals, the plains of North Louth incorporating what is now Dundalk were known as Magh Muirthemne (the Plain of the Dark Sea). The area, bordered to the northeast by Cuailgne (the Cooley peninsula) and to the south by the Ciannachta, was ruled by a Cruthin kingdom known as Conaille Muirtheimne (who were aligned to the Ulaid) in the early Christian period. According to the annals, a battle was fought at Faughart in 732 by Áed Allán, High King of Ireland against the Ulaid, for which there is no contemporary evidence.
The Annals of Ulster record that in 851, Danish Vikings (the Dubhgall) attempted to attack the Norwegian Viking (Fingall) settlement at Annagassan at the southern end of Dundalk Bay and were heavily defeated. The following year, Norwegian Vikings based in Scotland were sent to attack the Danes in Carlingford Lough but their expedition was unsuccessful. D'Alton's History of Dundalk recounts an apocryphal tale of the "Battle of Dundalk": Sitric, son of Turgesius, ruler of the Danes in Ireland, had offered Callaghan, the King of Munster, his sister in marriage. But it was a trick to take the king prisoner and he was captured and held hostage in Armagh. An army was raised in Munster and marched on Armagh to free the king, but he had been removed to Sitric's ship in Dundalk Bay. However, a fleet from Munster attacked the Danes in the bay from the south. During the sea battle, the Munster admiral, Failbhe Fion, boarded Sitric's ship and freed the king, but was killed by Sitric who put Failbhe Fion's head on a pole. Failbhe Fion's second in command, Fingal, enraged, seized Sitric by the neck and jumped into the sea where they both drowned. Two more Irish captains, seeing this, each grabbed one of Sitric's two brothers and did the same, and the Danes subsequently surrendered.
Prior to the arrival of the Normans, the district can be said to have entirely comprised rural settlements, although there are historical references to a pre-Norman town called Traghbaile (anglicised as Traghbally: Seatown), the name of which could originate from the legend of the death of Baile Mac Buain—hence Traghbaile, meaning 'Baile's Strand'.
By the time of the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169, Magh Muirthemne had been absorbed into the kingdom of Airgíalla (Oriel) under the Ó Cearbhaills. In about 1185, the Norman nobleman Bertram de Verdun erected a manor house at Castletown Mount on the ancient site of Dún Dealgan—a strategic location on the southern borders of Ulster. De Verdon founded his settlement seemingly without resistance from Airgíalla (the Ó Cearbhaills are recorded as having submitted to Henry II), and in 1187 he founded an Augustinian friary under the patronage of St Leonard. He was awarded the lands around what is now Dundalk by Prince John on the death of Murchadh Ó Cearbhaill in 1189. On de Verdun's death in Jaffa in 1192, his lands at Dundalk passed to his son Thomas and then to his second son, Nicholas, when Thomas died. In 1236, Nicholas's daughter Roesia commissioned Castle Roche 10 km north-west of the present-day town, on a large rocky outcrop with a commanding view of the surrounding countryside. It was completed by her son, John, in the 1260s.
The Ulster Irish sided with Edward Bruce, brother of the Scottish king Robert the Bruce after he landed at Larne on 26 May 1315. As his army made its way south through Ulster, they destroyed the de Verdun fortress at Castle Roche and attacked Dundalk on 29 June. The town was almost totally destroyed and its population, both Anglo-Irish and Gaelic, massacred. After taking possession of the town, Bruce proclaimed himself King of Ireland. Following three more years of battles across the north-eastern part of the island, Bruce was killed and his army defeated at the Battle of Faughart by a force led by John de Birmingham, who was created the 1st Earl of Louth as a reward.
Later generations of de Verduns continued to own lands at Dundalk into the 14th century. Following the death of Theobald de Verdun, 2nd Baron Verdun in 1316 without a male heir, the family's landholdings were split. One of Theobold de Verdun's daughters, Joan, married the second Baron Furnivall, Thomas de Furnivall, and his family subsequently acquired much of the de Verdun land at Dundalk. The de Furnivall family's coat of arms formed the basis of the seal of the 'New Town of Dundalk'—a 14th-century seal discovered in the early 20th century, which became the town's coat of arms in 1968. The 'new town' that was established in the 13th century is the present-day town centre; the 'old town of the Castle of Dundalk' being the original de Verdun settlement at Castletown Mount some 2 km to the west. The de Furnivalls then sold their holdings to the Bellew family, another Norman family long established in County Meath. The town was granted its first formal charter as a 'New Town' in the late 14th century under the reign of Richard II of England.
Effectively a frontier town as the northernmost outpost of The Pale, Dundalk continued to grow as the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries progressed. The town was heavily fortified, as it was regularly attacked—with at least 14 separate assaults, sieges or demands for tribute by a resurgent native Irish population recorded between 1300 and 1600 (with more than that number being probable). The O'Neills and O'Donnells of Ulster ransacked the town at least twice and threatened it on at least three other occasions between 1423 and 1444.
English rule
In advance of crowning himself 'King of Ireland' in 1542, Henry VIII extended his policy of Dissolution of the Monasteries to Ireland, and in 1540 the Priory of St Leonard, founded by Bertram de Verdun, was surrendered. During the subsequent Tudor conquest of Ireland, Dundalk remained the northern outpost of English rule. When the conquest was over, it was recorded that the lands and property of Dundalk were in the hands of Sir John Bellew and Sir John Draycot. The town was later used as a base of operations for the English, led by Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy, for their push into Ulster through the 'Gap of the North' (the Moyry Pass) in 1600, during the Nine Years' War.
Following the Flight of the Earls, the subsequent Plantation of Ulster (and the associated suppression of Catholicism) resulted in the Irish Rebellion of 1641. After only token resistance, Dundalk was occupied by an Ulster Irish Catholic army on 31 October. They subsequently tried and failed to take Drogheda and retreated to Dundalk. The Royal Irish Army, who were led by the Duke of Ormond (and known as Ormondists), in turn, laid siege to Dundalk and overran and plundered the town in March 1642, killing many inhabitants. The Royalists continued to occupy the town, during which time they maintained a truce with the Irish Catholic Confederation who had succeeded the rebels of 1641, as the English Civil War developed. In 1647, the town was occupied by the Northern Parliamentary Army of George Monck, who held it for two years before surrendering it back to the Ormondists. It was quickly retaken by the forces of Oliver Cromwell, who had landed in Ireland in August 1649 and sacked Drogheda. After the massacre in Drogheda, Cromwell wrote to the Ormondist commander in Dundalk warning him that his garrison would suffer the same fate if it did not surrender. The Duke of Ormond ordered the commander to have his men burn the town before his retreat but they did not do so, such was their haste to leave. For the remainder of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, the town was again used as a base for operations against the Irish in Ulster.
The Corporation of Dundalk was granted a new charter by Charles II on 4 March 1673, after the Restoration of the monarchy. The forfeiture of property and settlements carried out during the Restoration saw much of the land of Dundalk granted to Marcus Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, who had fought for both sides in the war. Even though the Bellews were seen as Papists, Sir John Bellew appears to have held on to much of his family's land. English politics were soon impacting Ireland again, and in 1689 the Williamite commander, Schomberg landed in Belfast and marched unopposed to Dundalk, but, as the bulk of his forces were raw and undisciplined as well as inferior in numbers to the Jacobite Irish Army, he decided against risking a battle. He entrenched himself at Dundalk and declined to be drawn beyond the circle of his defences. With poor logistics and struck by disease, over 5,000 of his troops died and an opportunity to end the war by taking Dundalk from the Jacobites was missed.
After the end of the Williamite War, the third Viscount Dungannon, Mark Trevor, sold the Dundalk estate to James Hamilton of Tollymore, County Down. Hamilton's son, also James, was created Viscount Limerick in 1719 and then the first Earl of Clanbrassil in 1756. The modern town of Dundalk largely owes its form to Hamilton. The military activity of the 17th century had left much of the town's walls in ruins. With the collapse of the Gaelic aristocracy and the total takeover of the country by the English, Dundalk was no longer a frontier town and no longer had a need for its 15th-century fortifications. Hamilton commissioned the construction of streets leading to the town centre; his ideas stemming from his visits to Continental Europe. In addition to the demolition of the old walls and castles, he had new roads laid out eastwards of the principal streets.
When the first Earl died in 1758, the estates passed to his son, again James, the second Earl of Clanbrassil, who died without an heir in 1798. The second Earl's sister, Lady Anne Hamilton, had married Robert Jocelyn in 1752. The Jocelyns were originally landowners in County Tipperary and Robert Jocelyn was created first Earl of Roden in 1771. On the death of the second Earl of Clanbrassil, the Earls of Roden succeeded to the Dundalk estate. Several portions of the Roden Dundalk estate were sold off under the auspices of the various land acts of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, culminating in the Irish Free State government lands purchase acts of the 1920s. The residue of the estate, mainly freeholds and ground rents, was sold in 2006, thus finally severing the links between the Earls of Roden and the town of Dundalk.
During the 18th century, Ireland was controlled by the minority Anglican Protestant Ascendancy via the Penal Laws, which discriminated against both the majority Irish Catholic population and Dissenters. Mirroring other boroughs around the country, Dundalk Corporation was a 'closed shop', consisting of an electorate of 'freemen', most of whom were absentee landlords of the Ascendancy. The Earl of Clanbrassil controlled the procedures for both the nomination of new freemen and the nomination of parliamentary candidates, therefore disenfranchising the local populace. In the late 18th century, the United Irishmen movement, inspired by the American and French revolutions, led to the Rebellion of 1798. In north Louth, the authorities had successfully suppressed the activities of the United Irishmen prior to the rebellion with the help of informants, and several local leaders had been rounded up and imprisoned in Dundalk Gaol. An attack on the military barracks and gaol was planned for 21 June 1798, in order to free prisoners. The attack failed because of a thunderstorm, which dispersed the gathered United Irish volunteers, and two of the jailed leaders - Anthony Marmion and John Hoey - were subsequently tried for treason and hanged.
After the Acts of Union
Following the Act of Union, which came into force on 1 January 1801, The 19th century saw industrial expansion in the town (see Economy) and the construction of several buildings that are landmarks in the town. The first railway links arrived when the Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway opened a line from Quay Street to Castleblayney in 1849, and by 1860 the company operated a route northwest to Derry. Also in 1849, the Dublin and Belfast Junction Railway opened Dundalk railway station. Following a series of mergers, both lines were incorporated into the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) in 1876.
The established and merchant classes prospered alongside a general population that suffered from poverty. A typhus epidemic struck in the 1810s, potato-crop failures in the 1820s caused famine, and a cholera epidemic struck in the 1830s. During the Great Famine of the 1840s, the town did not suffer to the same extent as the west and south of Ireland. Cereal-based agriculture, new industries, construction projects, and the arrival of the railway all contributed to sparing the town of its worst effects. Nevertheless, so many people died in the Dundalk Union Workhouse that the graveyard was quickly filled. A second graveyard was opened on the Ardee Road—the Dundalk Famine Graveyard—which is known to contain approximately 4,000 bodies. It was closed in 1905 and was left derelict until the 21st Century when local volunteers worked to restore it.
In 1858, a ship, the Mary Stoddart, was wrecked in Dundalk Bay during a storm. In attempting to rescue the crew, Captain James Joseph Kelly and three volunteer crew drowned when the storm overturned their boat. Five of the Mary Stoddart crew were also lost, while 11 were eventually rescued. The Kelly Monument in Roden Place was erected 20 years later as a memorial.
The latter part of the 19th Century was dominated by the Irish Home Rule movement and Dundalk became a focal point of the politics of the time. The Irish National Land League held a demonstration in Dundalk on New Year's Day, 1881, stated by the local press to be the largest gathering ever seen in the town. The town by this point had become increasingly and overtly nationalistic—for example, the Dundalk Democrat & People's Journal newspaper, founded in 1849, had the motto "Ireland for the Irish" on its masthead, and the 'Maid of Erin' monument was erected in the Market Square outside the courthouse to commemorate the centenary of the 1798 rebellion.
As the Home Rule movement developed, the sitting Home Rule League MP, Philip Callan, fell afoul of party leader Charles Stewart Parnell, who travelled to Dundalk to oversee efforts to have Callan unseated. Parnell's candidate, Joseph Nolan, defeated Callan in the election of 1885, after a campaign of voter suppression and intimidation on both sides. Following the split in the Irish Parliamentary Party, the leading anti-Parnellite, Tim Healy, won the North Louth seat in 1892, defeating Nolan (who had stayed loyal to Parnell). The campaign, predicted by Healy to be "the nastiest fight in Ireland", saw running battles and mass brawls in the streets between Parnellites, 'Healyites', and 'Callanites'—supporters of Philip Callan, who was trying to regain his seat.
The local Sinn Féin cumann was founded in 1907 by Patrick Hughes. It struggled to grow beyond a handful of members owing to the existing political factions. In 1910, on the accession of George V to the English throne, the local High Sheriff, accompanied by police and soldiers, led a proclamation to the new king at the Market Square. The ceremony was interrupted by the local Sinn Féin members, who raised a tricolour beside the Maid of Erin monument and chanted "God Save Ireland" during a rendition of "God Save the King"—giving the party visibility in the town for the first time.
Approximately 2,500 men from Louth volunteered for Allied regiments in World War I and it is estimated that 307 men from the Dundalk district died during the war. In the months before the outbreak of the war, the G.N.R. converted nine of its carriages into a mobile 'ambulance train', which could hold 100 wounded soldiers. Ambulance Train 13 was kept in service for the duration of the war before being decommissioned in 1919. The war came to Dundalk right at its end, when the S.S. Dundalk was sunk by a German U-Boat on 14 October 1918 on a voyage from Liverpool back to Dundalk. 20 crew-members were killed, while 12 were rescued.
Meanwhile, the Easter Rising had changed the political landscape. 80 members of the Irish Volunteers had left Dundalk to take part in the Rising, with orders to destroy the bridge at Slane and take up position in Blanchardstown, outside Dublin. The countermanding order of Eoin MacNeill, followed by the realisation that the Rising had commenced anyway, caused confusion. Members of the unit ended up in Castlebellingham, trying to evade the Dundalk RIC. There, they held several RIC men and a British Army officer at gunpoint until one of the Volunteers, believing the army officer was reaching for a hidden weapon, fired, killing RIC constable Charles McGee. The unit subsequently made their way to North County Dublin until the Rising had ended. They went on the run and most were captured. Four were sentenced to death for the murder of Constable McGee but were released in the general amnesty of 1917.
Independence
In the 1918 Irish general election, Louth elected its first Sinn Féin MP when John J. O'Kelly defeated the sitting MP, Richard Hazleton of the Irish Parliamentary Party, in the closest contest of the election—O'Kelly winning by 255 votes. In the run-up to the election, the local newspapers had supported the Irish Party over Sinn Féin and complained afterwards that the area of Drogheda in County Meath that was included in the Louth constituency had tipped the contest in Sinn Féin's favour. Again, the campaign saw reports of widespread violence and intimidation tactics.
There was no strategic military action in north Louth during the Irish War of Independence. Activity consisted of attacks on RIC stations and patrols to seize arms, and acts of sabotage. Arson attacks were a feature of the period in particular. Crown forces committed reprisal attacks in response, hardening support for Sinn Féin. In the aftermath of a shooting of an RIC auxiliary on 17 June 1921, brothers John and Patrick Watters were taken from their home at the Windmill Bar and shot dead. The British authorities subsequently suppressed the Dundalk Examiner newspaper for reporting on the incident, and smashed its printing presses. Volunteers from the area led by Frank Aiken were more active in Ulster, and were responsible for the derailing of a military train at Adavoyle railway station, 14 km north of Dundalk, which killed three soldiers, the train's guard, and dozens of horses.
The Anglo-Irish Treaty turned Dundalk, once again, into a frontier town. Aiken's Fourth Northern Division continued a guerrilla campaign against the new Northern Ireland government and its Ulster Special Constabulary, with sectarian attacks and reprisals carried out by both sides. In the new Irish Free State, the split over the treaty led to the Irish Civil War. Before the outbreak of hostilities, Éamon de Valera toured Ireland making a series of anti-treaty speeches. In the Market Square on 2 April 1922, before a large crowd, he said that those who had negotiated the treaty "had run across to Lloyd George to be spanked like little boys." Aiken attempted to keep his division neutral during the split over the treaty but events in Dublin overtook his border war.
On 16 July 1922, Aiken and all of the anti-treaty elements among his men were arrested and imprisoned at Dundalk military barracks and Dundalk Gaol in a surprise move by the pro-treaty Fifth Northern Division, now part of the National Army. Eleven days later, anti-treaty 'Irregulars' blew a hole in the outer wall of the gaol, freeing Aiken and his men. At 4am on 14 August, Aiken led an attack on the barracks that resulted in its capture with five National Army and two Irregular soldiers killed. Aiken's men killed another dozen National Army soldiers in guerrilla attacks before the town was retaken without resistance on 26 August. Before withdrawing, Aiken called for a truce at a meeting in the centre of Dundalk. From that point, north Louth ceased to be an area of strategic importance in the war. Guerrilla attacks continued—mainly acts of sabotage, particularly against the railway. In January 1923, six anti-treaty prisoners were executed by firing squad in Dundalk for bearing arms against the state.
Border town
The partition of Ireland turned Dundalk into a border town and the Dublin–Belfast main line into an international railway. On 1 April 1923, the Free State government began installing border posts for the purpose of collecting customs duties. Almost immediately, the town started to suffer economic problems. A global post-war slump had been exacerbated by the introduction of the border and tariffs. Businesses in the town saw their trade with the new cross-border areas greatly reduced, and Carroll's tobacco company set about opening a new factory in Liverpool. The Dundalk Distillery was closed within weeks, as its products became nonviable. It reopened temporarily but was closed again in 1926 because its owners, Scottish Distillers, no longer needed the production capacity. The same year, the G.N.R. works reduced its workforce by several hundred; and the Dundalk and Newry Steam Packet Company went into voluntary liquidation and was taken over by B&I. It had been beset by strikes because of wage cuts imposed in both Dundalk and Liverpool by management. With a population of 14,000 at the time, unemployment was reported to be nearly 2,000 and it was reported that: "Up to a few years ago, Dundalk was one of the most prosperous and go-ahead towns in Ireland... [but] it is a matter of common local knowledge that distress to an acute degree is prevalent." The Anglo-Irish trade war, in the midst of a global depression, made things more difficult still. The industrial situation stabilised, however, as the need for self-sufficiency and the protectionist policies adopted allowed local industries to increase employment and prosper.
After the election of Fianna Fáil in 1932, two years of violence and intimidation followed as former Civil War foes in the IRA and National Army clashed at political rallies. The latter formed the Army Comrades Association, and became known as the Blueshirts. A member of the Blueshirts carrying money from a collection in Dundalk was robbed at gunpoint by the IRA. Two local men were subsequently convicted of the robbery. One of the witnesses for the prosecution was a Joseph McGrory from Chapel Sreet. Unidentified men, presumed by Gardaí to be members of the IRA, later threw a bomb into his house, destroying it and seriously injuring his mother who was inside, and two children playing outside. The woman later died from her injuries. Five suspects charged with her murder were later acquitted due to lack of evidence. One of these, IRA Volunteer Richard Goss, was interned at the start of World War II and was released following a successful habeas corpus legal challenge. He was later executed in 1941 for shooting at Gardaí and Defence Forces while trying to evade arrest.
There were three aeroplane crashes in what is now the municipal district during the war. A British Hudson bomber crashed with three fatalities in 1941, and a P-51 Mustang fighter of the US Army Air Forces crashed in September 1944, killing its pilot. The worst of the wartime air crashes occurred on 16 March 1942. 15 allied airmen died when their Consolidated B-24 Liberator bomber crashed into Slieve na Glogh, which rises above the townland of Jenkinstown. On 24 July 1941, the Luftwaffe dropped bombs near the town. There were no casualties and only minor damage was caused.
The town continued to grow in size—in terms of area, population and employment—after "the Emergency" (as World War II was called in Ireland), despite economic shocks such as the dissolution of the G.N.R. in 1958 and the closure of the Rawson shoe factory after a fire in 1967. The accession of Ireland to the European Economic Community in 1973 caused difficulties, however. Subsequent factory closures and job losses in businesses that struggled due to competition, collapsing consumer confidence, and unfavourable exchange rates with cross-border competitors, resulted in an unemployment rate of 26% by 1986.
In addition, the outbreak of the Troubles in Northern Ireland in 1968 and the town's position close to the border saw the town's population swell, as nationalists/Catholics fleeing the violence in Northern Ireland settled in the area. As a result of the ongoing sectarianism in the north, there was sympathy for the cause of the Provisional Irish Republican Army and Sinn Féin, and the town was home to numerous IRA operatives. It was in this period that Dundalk earned the nickname 'El Paso', after the Texan border town of the same name on the border with Mexico. On 1 September 1973, the 27 Infantry Battalion of the Irish Army was established, with its headquarters in Dundalk barracks, as a result of the ongoing violence in the border region of North Louth / South Armagh. The barracks was renamed Aiken Barracks in 1986 in honour of Frank Aiken.
'The Battle of Courtbane' took place on Sunday 29 August 1971, when a British army patrol consisting of two armoured Ferret Scout cars crossed the Irish border into Co. Louth near the village of Courtbane close to Dundalk. Angry locals blocked their retreat and set one of the vehicles on fire. As this was happening, an IRA unit arrived on the scene and a British soldier was killed and another wounded after an exchange of gunfire. The Ulster Volunteer Force carried out the Dundalk Christmas Bombing on 19 December 1975, when a car bomb killed 2 and injured 15. The town was also the scene of several killings connected to the INLA and its propensity to engage in internal feuds and criminal activity.
After the start of the Northern Ireland peace process, and the subsequent Good Friday Agreement, then U.S. president, Bill Clinton, chose Dundalk to make an open-air address in December 2000 in support of the peace process. In his speech in the Market Square, witnessed by an estimated 60,000 people, Clinton spoke of "a new day in Dundalk and a new day in Ireland".
21st century
The town was slow to benefit from a 'peace dividend', and in the first decade of the new millennium the remaining shoe factory, the two Diageo-owned breweries, and the Carroll's tobacco factory were among several factories to close—finally severing the links to the town's industrial past. By 2012, the town was being painted as one of Ireland's "most deprived areas" after the global downturn following the Financial crisis of 2007–2008.
Indigenous industry started to recover, with the Great Northern Brewery being reopened as 'the Great Northern Distillery' in 2015 by John Teeling, who had established and later sold the Cooley Distillery; and locally-driven initiatives led to a flurry of foreign direct investment announcements in the latter half of the 2010s, particularly in the technology and pharmaceutical sectors.
The town's association football club, Dundalk F.C., first formed in 1903 by the workers of the Great Northern Railway, received European-wide recognition when it became the first Irish side to win points in the group stage of European competition in the 2016–17 UEFA Europa League. The club again qualified for the group stage in the 2020–21 season.
Geography
Dundalk is situated where the Castletown River flows into Dundalk Bay on the east coast of Ireland, with the town centre on the south side of the river. It is in County Louth, which shares borders with County Armagh to the north (in Northern Ireland), County Monaghan to the west, and County Meath to the south. It is near the border with Northern Ireland (which is from the town centre by road and at the nearest points by air), and is equidistant between Dublin and Belfast ( from both). The town came to be nicknamed the 'Gap of the North' where the northernmost point of the province of Leinster meets the province of Ulster, although the actual 'gap' is the Moyry Pass 8 km to the north at the border with Northern Ireland. Following the abolition of 'legal towns' under the Local Government Reform Act 2014, Dundalk is part of the wider Dundalk Municipal District for the purposes of local government, which is approximately equivalent to the pre-1898 baronies of Dundalk Lower and Dundalk Upper, i.e. roughly the northern one-third of the county by area including the Cooley peninsula. The former legal town and its environs (approximately the area north of the River Fane (including Blackrock), south of Exit 18 on the M1, bordered by the M1 to the west and the Irish Sea to the east; and incorporating Knockbridge to the west of the M1) is now the 'census town'.
Landscape
The main part of the census town lies at sea level. Dún Dealgan Motte at Castletown is the highest point in the urban area at an elevation of . The municipal district includes the Cooley Mountains, with Slieve Foy the highest of the peaks at an elevation of .
The urban area straddles two geographical areas. A landscape of drumlins and undulating farmland form a crescent around the town's outer limits. This area contains contorted Ordovician and Silurian slates and shales. The flat, low-lying coastal plain of the main part of the urban area consists of alluvial clays, laid down as the sea retreated following the last Ice Age. The subsequent land reclamation was both a natural process and a man-made one—in particular as a result of the drainage schemes undertaken in the eighteenth century by James Hamilton, the first Earl of Clanbrassil. This has meant that the topography of the district has changed extensively since the area was first inhabited and also since the formation of the original Norman settlements.
Street layout
The layout of Dundalk is based around three principal street systems leading to the open, central Market Square. Running north from the square to the bridge over the Castletown River is Clanbrassil Street and Bridge Street; with the Castletown Road running west from Bridge Street towards Castletown Mount—the original Norman settlement of Dundalk. Running east from the square towards the old Quay Street railway station, the army barracks and the Port of Dundalk is Jocelyn Street, Seatown Place and Barrack Street. Running south out of the town to the Dublin Road is Park Street, Dublin Street, and Hill Street.
Climate
Similar to much of northwest Europe, Dundalk experiences an oceanic climate and does not suffer from the extremes of temperature experienced by many other locations at similar latitude. Summers are typically cool and partly cloudy and the winter is typically cold, wet, windy, and mostly cloudy. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from and is rarely below or above .
Demography
Dundalk is the eighth largest urban area in Ireland and the third largest town (behind Drogheda and Swords), with a population of 39,004 as of the 2016 census. Dundalk is the biggest town in Louth, however, because approximately 15% of the population of Drogheda is in County Meath. The population density of the census town of Dundalk was measured at in 2016.
Population statistics
Population by place of birth
Population by ethnic or cultural background
Population by religion
Population by principal economic status
Language
The first language of the majority of 'white Irish' residents of Dundalk is English (a.k.a. Hiberno-English). Approximately 4% of the population speak the Irish language on a daily basis outside of the education system. The Omeath area in Cooley, within the municipal district, was a small Gaeltacht area, with the last speaker of a 'Louth Irish' dialect dying in 1960.
Politics and government
National and European
Dundalk is the county town (the administrative centre) of the county of Louth in Ireland. It is represented at the national level in Dáil Éireann as part the Louth parliamentary constituency, which was created under the terms of the Electoral Act 1923, and first used at the 1923 general election.
Prior to the Act of Union, which came into force on 1 January 1801, Dundalk was a Parliament of Ireland constituency. Following the Act of Union, Dundalk was a UK Parliament constituency until 1885. In 1885, the constituency was combined with the northern part of the County Louth constituency to become North Louth. In 1918, the North Louth constituency was combined with South Louth to form a single County Louth constituency for the whole county—the precursor of the constituency formed following the creation of Dáil Éireann.
Dundalk is represented in the European Parliament within the Midlands–North-West constituency.
Local government
Louth County Council () is the authority responsible for local government in Dundalk. As a county council, it is governed by the Local Government Act 2001. For administrative purposes, the council is sub-divided into three areas, centred around the three main towns in the county—Dundalk, Drogheda and Ardee. The Dundalk Municipal District comprises all of the county to the north of a line running approximately east-to-north west, from the coast to the Monaghan border, across the villages of Castlebellingham and Knockbridge.
The county council has 29 elected members, 13 of whom are from the Dundalk region. Elections are held every five years and are by single transferable vote. For the purpose of elections, the Dundalk Municipal District is sub-divided into two local electoral areas: Dundalk-Carlingford (6 Seats) and Dundalk South (7 Seats).
Coat of arms
The coat of arms of Dundalk was officially granted by the Office of the Chief Herald at the National Library of Ireland in 1968, and is a replication of the seal matrix of the 'New Town of Dundalk', which itself dates to the 14th Century. The seal is based on the coat of arms of the de Furnivall family. Thomas de Furnivall had obtained a large part of the land and property of Dundalk and district in about 1309 by marriage to Joan de Verdun—daughter of Theobald de Verdun, 2nd Baron Verdun, and Matilda Mortimer. A bend between six martlets forms the shield. The ermine boar supporter is derived from the arms of the Ó hAnluain (O'Hanlon) family, Kings of Airthir, the main Gaelic Irish family in the area. The exact origins of the lion passant guardant and the foot soldier with his spear and sword are not known. The lion is represented in the style of those on the Royal Arms adopted by Richard I of England. It has been said that it comes from the Mortimer family, but a lion is not incorporated in the Mortimer family arms. The soldier is presumably related to the town's origins as a Norman stronghold.
Previously, the town's coat of arms was a simpler "three martlets proper on a blue field", dating to at least when the Corporation of Dundalk had been granted a charter by Charles II in 1673. It appears as the Corporation Seal in a town plan dated 1675. The Corporation Seal can be seen carved in stone on the Town Hall, which was built in the mid-1800s. It cannot be stated definitively if there is a link between the 14th century seal and the 17th century seal. However, another Anglo-Norman family, the Dowdalls, were also influential landowners in Dundalk in the Middle Ages, having moved to Louth in the 14th century, and their family coat of arms contains three martlets proper on a field. The townland of Dowdallshill lies to the north of the Castletown River. In December 1929, the town council proposed to remove the "three black crows" from the seal of the town due to its English origins.
This form of the coat of arms continued to be used as the logo of several companies and organisations in the town—for example, the Dundalk Race Company Limited (the company that ran Dundalk Racecourse), the Macardle Moore and Company brewery, and Dealgan Milk Products (a dairy company formed in the town in 1960). It also became the crest of Dundalk Football Club in 1927, prior to the club severing its links with the Great Northern Railway (Ireland). The club's current crest retains the design of three martlets proper but on a red field.
Economy
Industry
Linen was the first industry established in Dundalk in the mid 18th century, but the cambric and damask businesses had failed by the end of the century, with the factories becoming derelict. It would be the next century before new industries established themselves: mills, tanneries, a foundry, a distillery, and breweries. During James Hamilton's improvements to the town during the 18th century, the Port of Dundalk was established and became the eighth largest in Ireland in terms of exports.
The latter half of the nineteenth century saw the population of Dundalk increase by 30% (despite the population of Ireland as a whole dropping in the same period) as the town's industries thrived prior to the partition of Ireland. The Malcolm Brown & Co. Dundalk Distillery was established c.1780 at Roden Place and operated successfully throughout the 19th century. Brewing was also a key industry in the town, with eight breweries in operation by the end of the 1830s. The famine of the 1840s left just two breweries in operation, which merged to become the Macardle Moore & Co. brewery at Cambricville. The Great Northern Brewery opened later, in 1896. The Dundalk Iron Works was established in 1821 and by the end of the century had expanded to become a leading employer in the town under the ownership of A.E. Manisty. The P.J. Carroll tobacco factory, started on a small scale in the 1820s, grew throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Great Northern Railway (Ireland) works established in 1881 became the "backbone of the town".
The town's industries suffered after partition and again from the Anglo-Irish trade war. The imposition of tariffs and duties in April 1923 and the establishment of customs checks on the border affected exports and trade with the Newry district, which was now in a different jurisdiction. The distillery, which the Distillers Company of Scotland had acquired in 1912, was the first major Dundalk industry to close. It reopened temporarily, before it was closed permanently in 1926. The Dundalk Iron Works, also known as A.E. Manisty & Co., went into liquidation in 1928. Protectionism gave the town's industries breathing space, and by 1950 they had recovered from the effects of partition and the trade war. The two breweries were successful, the Dundalk Linen Company was expanding for the first time in decades, and there were 1,800 people working in shoe manufacturing in three factories—Rawson's, Halliday's and Connolly's. 2,000 jobs were by this point dependant on the railway works and 500 jobs were dependent on the Carroll's tobacco factory. The town was also a thriving commercial centre, as the increase in bus traffic brought shoppers in from a wide radius.
This was a peak period, however. The Northern Ireland government's decision to close many of the G.N.R. lines north of the border made the company nonviable, and it was dissolved in 1958. With it went the works in Dundalk. It was replaced by Dundalk Engineering Works Ltd (DEW)—a government-backed initiative to keep the 980 remaining workers in employment. Against that backdrop, Clarks, who had formed a partnership with Halliday's and would take full control of the company in 1971, demanded in 1959 that the town's Athletic Grounds be sold to them for a new factory, or they would pull out of the town altogether. Afraid of the potential loss of 900 jobs, the council agreed to the sale, over considerable opposition. Carroll's also continued to expand and modernise, opening a new factory on the Dublin Road in 1970, which was designed by Ronnie Tallon of Michael Scott & Partners, which subsequently won architectural awards for its design.
As late as 1969, the town was still in a position to boast of its industrial prowess, with the engineering companies at the DEW prospering. The pressures of trade liberalisation introduced by Ireland's accession to the EEC in 1973 caused many of them to falter during the 1970s and 1980s. The most at-risk industry proved to be shoe manufacturing. Rawson's had already gone into liquidation in 1967 after the factory was destroyed by fire, with the loss of 500 jobs. Lower-cost imports made the Clark's factory unprofitable and after years of cutbacks it closed in 1985 with the loss of the remaining 370 jobs. Also closing permanently in 1985 was the Weyenberg Shoe Company factory, which had opened in 1969 and hired many ex-Rawson workers but had never reached full productivity. Only the smallest of the manufacturers—Connolly's, re-branded as Blackthorn—managed to stay in business by specialising its products. It eventually closed in 2001. 1985 proved to be the nadir, also seeing the closure of the Engineering Works. By this stage unemployment in the town had reached 26%, and would reach 27.9% by 1991. Pleas to government for assistance were unsuccessful.
The town was slow to benefit from the Celtic Tiger economy that saw an economic boom in Ireland from the mid-1990s and seemed to stagnate with more closures and job losses. In addition to the surviving breweries and Carroll's, the ECCO (Electronics Components Company Overseas) factory opened by General Electric in 1966 had become the town's leading employer in the 1970s, employing around 1,500 people at its peak with many thousands more working in companies providing goods and services to it. It, too, succumbed to competition and following a long period of decline, closed in 2006. Diageo decided to close both of the town's breweries—Cambricville in 2001, then the Great Northern in 2013 after a decade-long wind down. Also after a long decline, the Carroll's factory closed in 2005. By 2012, the town was being painted as one of Ireland's "most deprived areas" after the global downturn following the Financial crisis of 2007–2008. Indigenous industry started to recover, with the Great Northern Brewery being reopened as 'the Great Northern Distillery' in 2015 by John Teeling, who had established the Cooley Distillery. Locally-driven initiatives led to a flurry of Foreign Direct Investment announcements in the latter half of the 2010s, particularly in the technology and pharmaceutical sectors.
Tourism
Historically, the border region has not seen the same level of tourism as Dublin or the Atlantic coast regions of Ireland, which was primarily the result of the Troubles and an associated lack of marketing. This began to change in the mid-1990s because of the start of the Northern Ireland peace process, and the increase in government investment in tourism made possible by the 'Celtic Tiger' period of economic expansion. The area has since seen a growth in visitor numbers, with 172,000 foreign and 179,000 domestic visitors to Louth recorded in 2017.
The Dundalk / North Louth region is marketed as part of the 'Ireland's Ancient East' campaign. The 'ancient east' encompasses Ireland's coast from the border with Northern Ireland at Carlingford Lough to Kinsale in County Cork; inland as far as the River Shannon. In contrast to the Wild Atlantic Way, which focuses on landscape, the 'Ireland's Ancient East' campaign is more focused on history and heritage. Louth is marketed as the 'Land of Legends', a campaign which also refers to a "rich and ancient history and heritage" and seeks to increase the number of visitors to the region "by capitalising on Co Louth's unique location within Ireland's Ancient East, as the hub for the Boyne Valley and the Cooley, Mourne and Gullion Regions".
Transport
Shipping
Dundalk Port is a cargo import and export facility. There is no passenger traffic.
Shipping services to Liverpool were provided from 1837 by the Dundalk Steam Packet Company. It took over its rivals to become the Dundalk and Newry Steam Packet Company, which shipped cargo, live animals and passengers. It was forced to go into liquidation and allow itself to be taken over by B&I in 1926 following a series of strikes. B&I maintained the Dundalk to Liverpool route as a weekly service until 1968.
Railway
Dundalk is the first station on the southern side of the border along the Belfast–Dublin line. The first railway links arrived when the Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway opened a line from Quay Street to Castleblayney in 1849, and by 1860 the company operated a route northwest to Derry. The line to Quay Street was extended to Newry and Greenore by the Dundalk, Newry and Greenore Railway, owned by the London and North Western Railway, who operated a hotel in Greenore and from where a ferry service operated to Holyhead. It was opened between Greenore and Dundalk in 1873, and extended to Newry in 1876.
Also in 1849, the Dublin and Belfast Junction Railway opened its first station in Dundalk. Following a series of mergers, both the Dublin and Belfast and Dundalk and Enniskillen lines were incorporated into the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) in 1876. After partition, the G.N.R. had a border running through its network, with lines crisscrossing it several times, and the Northern Ireland government wanted to close many of the lines in favour of bus transport. By the 1950s, the G.N.R. company had ceased to be profitable and Dundalk saw its secondary routes closed—first the line to Greenore and Newry in 1951, and then the line to Derry in 1957. The G.N.R. was nationalised on both sides of the border in 1953, and the company was finally dissolved in 1958. The closure of the G.N.R. left Dundalk with only one operational line—the Dublin–Belfast "Enterprise" service (as well as Commuter services to and from Dublin).
The G.N.R. built the current Dundalk railway station in 1894. It was renamed Clarke Station in 1966, in commemoration of Tom Clarke, one of the executed leaders of the Easter Rising of 1916. It houses a small museum in the old first-class waiting room, and has been called, "the finest station on the main Dublin–Belfast line". It was used as a filming location for the Walt Disney Pictures film, Disenchanted in May 2021.
Bus
Dundalk's Bus Station is operated by Bus Éireann and is located on the Long Walk near the town centre. The company runs a town service—Route 174. The company also operates routes from Dundalk to Dublin, Galway, Newry, Clones, Cavan, and towns in between.
The Dundalk-Blackrock route was one of very few bus routes not compulsorily purchased by CIÉ under the Transport Acts of 1932 and 1933. It has been operated by Halpenny Travel since 1920.
Road
The M1–N1/A1 connects Dundalk to Dublin and Belfast. Exits 16, 17, and 18 service Dundalk South, Dundalk Centre and Dundalk North, respectively. The National Secondary Road N52 from Nenagh, County Tipperary travels through the junction for Exit 16 on the M1, runs through the east side of the town, and terminates at the junction for Exit 18 of the M1. The N53 from Castleblayney, County Monaghan, which crosses the border twice, terminates at the junction for Exit 17 on the M1. The R173, which starts and finishes at the junction for Exit 18 of the M1, connects the town to the Cooley peninsula. The R171 connects the town to Ardee, the R177 and A29 connect the town to Armagh, and the R178 connects the town to Virginia, County Cavan via Carrickmacross, Shercock, and Bailieborough.
Architecture
Many of the buildings of architectural note in the town were built during the 19th century. Several buildings on the streets off the Market Square are described as being in the "Dundalk style" —ornate buildings, "testifying to the confidence of Dundalk's merchant class in the latter part of the nineteenth-century".
The Courthouse (completed in 1819) was designed by Edward Parke and John Bowden in the Neoclassical style and modelled on the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens. The Maid of Erin statue, erected in 1898, is located in the Market Square in front of the Court House. The adjacent Town Hall (completed in 1865), is an elaborate Italianate Palazzo Townhall, originally designed by John Murray as a corn exchange. It was sold to the Town Commissioners on completion and now houses An Táin Arts Centre, which comprises a 350-seat main theatre, a 55-seat studio theatre, a visual arts gallery, and two workshop spaces.
The Kelly Monument is located in nearby Roden Place, in front of St Patrick's Church. It was erected in 1879 to commemorate the sinking of the Mary Stoddart in Dundalk Bay in 1858 and those who drowned in attempting a rescue. The Louth County Library is located off Roden Place, in a restored building of what was the Dundalk Distillery. Further up Jocelyn Street, the County Museum Dundalk, documenting the history of County Louth, is housed in another restored building of the former distillery.
Dundalk Gaol was completed in 1855 and closed as a gaol in the 1930s. It was designed by John Neville, who was the county engineer at the time. The Governor's House to the front of the Gaol became the Garda Station, and the two prison wings were later restored and divided between the 'Oriel Centre' and the Louth County Archive. The neighbouring Louth County Infirmary (completed in 1834) was designed by English architect Thomas Smith in a neo-Tudor style with a central entrance-way flanked by two recessed ground floor arcades. It was purchased by Dundalk Grammar School in 2000.
The two oldest buildings in the town centre are Saint Nicholas's Church of Ireland church and Seatown Castle. Saint Nicholas's was originally built c. 1400. It comprises elements of fourteenth- seventeenth- and eighteenth-century church buildings, having been extended, damaged, rebuilt over the centuries, and finally reworked by Francis Johnston. It is known locally as the Green Church due to its green copper spire. It contains an epitaph erected to the memory of Scotland's National Bard, Robert Burns. His sister, Agnes Burns, is buried in the church's graveyard. Seatown Castle is at the junction of Mill Street and Castle Street. It is part of what was a Franciscan friary originally founded in the 13th century. A baptismal font in St. Nicholas's is reputed to have come from the friary.
Further out from the town centre are Dún Dealgan Motte and Castle Roche. The former is also known as Cú Chulainn Castle and Byrne's Folly. It sits on the site of the manor house built in the late 12th century by Bertram de Verdun when the Normans reached the area. The castellated house now located on the site was built in 1780 by a local pirate named Patrick Byrne. It is a National Monument. Castle Roche was built by Bertram's granddaughter, Roesia, and completed by her son, John, in the late 13th century.
A 20th century construction, which has won architectural awards, is the Carroll's tobacco factory on the Dublin Road. It was called "a ground breaking Irish factory design". The design, by Ronnie Tallon, is in the Miesian idiom. The first of the Louis le Brocquy Táin illustrations was commissioned for the factory. It became part of the Dundalk Institute of Technology campus in the 2010s. The 'sails' sculpture to the front was designed by Gerda Frömel.
Many of the churches in the town were also built in the 19th century, including the Presbyterian church (1839), the former Methodist church (1834), and the Roman Catholic churches of St Patrick (1847), St Malachy (1862), St Nicholas (1860), and St Joseph (1890). St Patrick's was designed by Thomas Duff, and modelled on King's College Chapel, Cambridge. It was completed in 1847. Duff also designed the Presbyterian church on Jocelyn Street. The bell tower at St Patrick's was added in 1903, modelled by George Ashlin on that of another English church, Gloucester Cathedral. Ashlin also designed the granite-built St Joseph's Redemptorist monastery and church (finished in 1880 and 1892, respectively).
Public spaces
The largest park in the town centre is Ice House Hill. It is approximately . The site was once part of Dundalk House demesne (the stately home of the Earl of Clanbrassil). Dundalk House itself was demolished in the early 20th century to make way for an extension of the original P.J. Carroll tobacco factory. The original Ice House, built c. 1780, remains in the park and can be viewed from the outside. The smaller St. Helena Park is approximately and was first laid out in the 1800s. The bandstand was erected in the early 1920s. Most of the land which the park is on was reclaimed from the Castletown River. St Leonard's Garden in Seatown is a small park restored in the 1960s from a cemetery that was closed in 1896 and allowed to become overgrown. Within the park are the ruined remains of stone walls from the friary founded by Bertram de Verdun in the 12th century.
The Navvy Bank (from 'navigator') is an artificial embankment constructed in the 1840s to facilitate the entry of shipping to Dundalk Port. It is approximately long and runs from Soldiers Point at the entrance to Dundalk Harbour, to near the present-day quay. It is now a public walkway. Along its route, there is a memorial to those who died in the sinking of the S.S. Dundalk during World War I. At Soldiers Point there is a bronze sculpture called The Sea God Managuan and Voyagers after a Celtic god of the sea.
Adjacent to the town of Dundalk is the village of Blackrock ( from the town centre), which has three public beaches. Blackrock was a fishing village before it became popular as a resort destination in the late 19th century. The promenade and sea wall, originally built in 1851, run along the length of the main beach and main street of the village. There are wetlands on both the north and south sides of the village, which are wildlife sanctuaries. In 2000, to mark the millennium year, a sundial / statue was erected in Blackrock on the promenade. The high gnomon is a bronze sculpture of a female diving figure, which was subsequently named 'Aisling'.
to the south-west of the town, between Haggardstown and Knockbridge, is Stephenstown Pond—a nature park. It was originally commissioned by Matthew Fortescue, owner of the nearby Stephenstown House, which is in ruins. It was designed by William Galt, husband of Agnes Burns.
to the north of the town, within the municipal district, is Ravensdale forest. It is mixed woodland rising steeply to the summit of Black Mountain () with many kilometres of forest roads and tracks. There are three way-marked trails in the forest, the Táin Trail, the Ring of Gullion and the shorter Ravensdale Loop. It is managed by the Irish Forestry Service, Coillte.
Education
Primary schools
Primary schools in Dundalk include some Irish language-medium schools (Gaelscoileanna) like Gaelscoil Dhún Dealgan. There are approximately 20 English-medium national schools in the area, the largest of which include Muire na nGael National School (also known as Bay Estate National School) and Saint Joseph's National School, which (as of early 2020) had an enrollment of over 670 and 570 pupils respectively.
Secondary schools
Secondary schools in the town include Coláiste Lú (an Irish medium secondary school or Gaelcholáiste), De la Salle College, Dundalk Grammar School, St. Mary's College (also known as the Marist), O'Fiaich College, Coláiste Rís, St. Vincent's Secondary School, St. Louis Secondary School, and Coláiste Chú Chulainn.
Tertiary education
Dundalk Institute of Technology (abbreviated to DkIT) is the focal point for higher education and research on the Belfast-Dublin corridor, serving the North Leinster, South Ulster region. It was established in 1970 as the Regional Technical College, offering primarily technician and apprenticeship courses.
The Ó Fiaich Institute of Further Education also offers further education courses.
Culture
Music and arts
Dundalk has two centres for the arts—An Táin Arts Centre, an independent arts space in the former Táin Theatre, Town Hall, Crowe Street; and The Oriel Centre in the former Dundalk Gaol, a regional centre for Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann. The Oriel Centre is a resource centre and performance space, and has facilities for teaching, archives, recording, rehearsal, and performance. The Spirit Store, located at George's Quay in the Port of Dundalk, is a gig venue in the town.
Dundalk Institute of Technology Department of Creative Arts, Media and Music has several groups and ensembles, including the Ceol Oirghiallla Traditional Music Ensemble, the DkIT Choir, the Music Theatre Group, the Oriel Traditional Orchestra, and the Fr. McNally Chamber Orchestra.
The Cross Border Orchestra of Ireland (CBOI) is a youth orchestra based at Coláiste Chu Chulainn, Dundalk. It was started as a peace initiative. Since 1996, it has toured internationally and has played at venues such as Carnegie Hall and the Royal Albert Hall.
The Dundalk Brass Band was established in 1976 and comprises 25-30 members who perform a cross-section of big band and brass music.
The town has two photography clubs, Dundalk Photographic Society and the Táin Photographic Club.
Festivals
The Dundalk Show (also known as the Dundalk Agricultural Show and the Co. Louth Agricultural Show) has run since the 19th century at a number of locations. It was originally held at the Dundalk racecourse in Dowdallshill, before moving to the Fair Green, the grounds of St Mary's College, Bellingham Castle, and latterly Bellurgan Park.
In 2019, the town had its inaugural urban art festival, 'Seek Dundalk'. The street murals painted included Edward Bruce, the engineer Peter Rice, and Cú Chulainn.
Other festivals include the Frostival Winter Festival, held at the end of November, and the St. Gerard Majella Annual Novena, an annual religious festival held over nine days in St. Joseph's Redemptorist Church in Dundalk. It runs from 8 to 16 October. A patron takes place on 15 August at Ladywell Shrine, during the Feast of the Assumption. The Knockbridge Vintage Club also run public events during the year.
The Seatown Patron is held annually on the 29th June (the feast day of Saint Peter, who is the patron saint of Seatown). The patron is celebrated by nighttime bonfires, which is a tradition believed to have originated in medieval times. St. Peter's Well () is located under the now derelict Dundalk Windmill in Seatown.
The Dundalk Maytime Festival was the town's largest festival and ran for 40 years starting in 1965. It started out as a 'Grape and Grain' festival before later centring around amateur drama. It eventually ceased because of difficulties in securing sponsorship.
Within the wider Dundalk Municipal District, festivals and events include: the Arcadian Field Music and Arts Festival—a three-day boutique festival begun in 2016 on the grounds of Bellurgan Park, the Táin March festival, established in 2011—a walking festival held in June, which seeks to commemorate the legendary Cattle Raid of Cooley (Táin Bó Cúailnge), the All-Ireland Poc Fada Championship held every year since 1960 on Annaverna Mountain on the Cooley Peninsula, and the Brigid of Faughart Festival (held annually in the first week of February). The town of Carlingford also has several festivals and events during the year.
Twin towns
Dundalk is twinned with the following towns:
Rezé, France (1990).
Pikeville, Kentucky, United States (2015)
Sport
Dundalk Football Club is a professional association football club. The club competes in the League of Ireland Premier Division, the top tier of Irish football. The club was founded in 1903 as Dundalk G.N.R., the works-team of the Great Northern Railway. They were a junior club until they joined the Leinster Senior League in 1922–23. They were then elected to the Free State League (which later became the League of Ireland) in 1926–27. The club has played at Oriel Park since moving from its original home at the Dundalk Athletic Grounds in 1936.
Gaelic football clubs in the town include Dundalk Gaels GFC, Seán O'Mahony's GFC, Clan na Gael, Na Piarsaigh, Dowdallshill and Dundalk Young Irelands. Young Irelands (representing Louth) contested the first All-Ireland football final in 1888, losing to the Commercials club, representing Limerick.
The two hurling clubs in the town are Knockbridge GAA and Naomh Moninne H.C., who are the leading club in Louth with 22 county titles as of 2020. A founding member of Naomh Moninne, Father Pól Mac Sheáin, introduced the All-Ireland Poc Fada Championship in 1960.
Dundalk R.F.C. is an amateur Irish Rugby football club who compete in Division 1A of the Leinster League. The club first formed in 1877 and became founder members of the Provincial Towns Union, which then merged into what became the Northern Branch of the Irish Rugby Football Union. They moved to their present home ground at Mill Road in 1967.
The Dundalk Racecourse was reopened as Dundalk Stadium in 2007 and now holds both horse racing and greyhound racing meetings. It is Ireland's first all-weather horse racing track. The stadium also hosts the Dundalk International greyhound race.
Golf was first played in Dundalk when a nine-hole course was laid out at Deer Park in 1893. The Dundalk Golf Club was founded in December 1904 at Deer Park, then moved to its present location in Blackrock in 1922. The current layout was designed by Peter Alliss and completed in 1980. The Ballymascanlon Hotel also has a parkland course. Greenore Golf Club (which is within the municipal district) was opened in October 1896 by the London and North Western Railway company, who owned a hotel in Greenore and the Dundalk, Newry and Greenore Railway. The members bought the club when the railway company closed the line and pulled out of Ireland. The modern course layout was designed by Eddie Hackett.
Dundalk has several game angling waters including the Dee, Glyde, Fane, Ballymascanlan and Castletown rivers. All of these rivers flow into the Irish sea at Dundalk Bay. These rivers contain good stocks of wild brown trout as well as salmon and sea trout. There is a Salmon Anglers Association and a Brown Trout Anglers Association. Sea Angling is available in several locations in the wider Municipal District and there is also a Sea Angling Club.
The Dundalk Lawn Tennis and Badminton Club was established in 1913. It is located at the Ramparts in the town centre. The club has nine tennis courts, two Olympic-standard badminton courts and two squash courts. A Dundalk and District Snooker League has been active since the 1940s. It was re-branded as the Dundalk Snooker League in 2010 and plays in the Commercial Club in the town centre. The amateur boxing club, Dealgan ABC, was founded in 1938. The current Dundalk Cricket Club was established in 2009. They play in Hiney Park, the former Dundalk F.C. training ground.
There are several athletics clubs, including St. Gerards A.C., St. Peter's A.C, Dun Dealgan A.C. and Blackrock A.C., and a triathlon club (Setanta Triathlon Club). Cuchulainn Cycling Club was formed in 1935.
The Louth Mavericks American Football Club is based in Dundalk and was established in 2012. They play in AFI Division 1, train at DKIT, and play their matches at Dundalk Rugby Club.
Media
Dundalk's local newspapers are the Dundalk Democrat (established as the Dundalk Democrat and People's Journal in 1849), The Argus (established as the Drogheda Argus and Leinster Journal in 1835), and the Dundalk Leader, a freely distributed newspaper. Online-only news media include Louth Now.
Older long-established publications no longer in print include the Dundalk Examiner and Louth Advertiser (1880–1960), and The Dundalk Herald (1868–1914).
There are no local or regional television services. In radio, Dundalk is serviced by regional stations LMFM (Louth-Meath FM) on 96.5 FM, and iRadio (NE and Midlands) on 106.2 FM. The local radio station is Dundalk FM, broadcasting on 97.7 FM.
See also
List of people from Dundalk
List of townlands of County Louth
History of Dundalk F.C.
List of abbeys and priories in County Louth
Lord Lieutenant of Louth
High Sheriff of Louth
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
Citations
External links
Dundalk Chamber of Commerce
Dundalk Business Improvement District Scheme
County towns in the Republic of Ireland
Port cities and towns in the Republic of Ireland
Railway towns in Ireland
Populated coastal places in the Republic of Ireland
Populated places established in the 12th century
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ScummVM
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ScummVM
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Script Creation Utility for Maniac Mansion Virtual Machine (ScummVM) is a set of game engine recreations. Originally designed to play LucasArts adventure games that use the SCUMM system, it also supports a variety of non-SCUMM games by companies like Revolution Software and Adventure Soft. It was originally written by Ludvig Strigeus. Released under the terms of the GNU General Public License, ScummVM is free software.
ScummVM is a re-implementation of the part of the software used to interpret the scripting languages such games used to describe the game world rather than emulating the hardware the games ran on; as such, ScummVM allows the games it supports to be played on platforms other than those for which they were originally released.
The team behind it also add improvements such as bug-fixes and translations and works with commercial companies such as GOG.com about re-releases.
Features
ScummVM is a program that supports numerous adventure game engines via virtual machines, allowing the user to play supported adventure games on their platform of choice. ScummVM provides none of the original assets for the games it supports, and expects the user to properly own the original game's media so as to use the software legally. The official project website offers games that are freeware that work directly with ScummVM. Atop emulating the games, ScummVM enables players to save and load the state of the emulator at any time, enabling a save system atop whatever the emulated game may provide. It has also begun to work at providing alternate controls for newer devices, such as mobile devices with touch screens, which work atop the original games.
While ScummVM appears to function equivalently as a game emulator, the ScummVM team does not consider it as such. Outside of some subsystems like audio engines which they are forced to rely on emulation, ScummVM recreates game engines from older languages into more portable C++ code, so that the high-level opcodes in a game's assets will execute in the same manner as their original release, while improving the portability of ScummVM to numerous platforms. The ScummVM team consider this an improvement over simply running the older games and their executables through an operating system emulator, such as DOSBox, since ScummVM's implements are more lightweight and require less processing power and memory, allowing use on more limited processing environments like mobile devices.
Ports
Portability is a design goal of the project. Ports of ScummVM are available for Microsoft Windows, macOS and a variety of Unix-like systems including Linux (based on RPM, Debian, or source), members of the BSD family (FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, DragonFly BSD) and Solaris. It has also been ported to console systems. Less mainstream personal computer ports include those to Amiga, Atari-FreeMiNT, Haiku-BeOS-ZETA, RISC OS, and OS/2 (including derivatives such as ArcaOS).
A variety of game consoles have official ports. ScummVM has been ported to gaming machines such as the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Dreamcast, Nintendo 64, GameCube, and Wii, and to handheld consoles including the GCW Zero, GP2X, Nintendo DS, Pandora, PlayStation Portable and the PS Vita. Handheld computer platforms supported include Palm OS Tapwave Zodiac, Symbian (UIQ platform, Nokia 60, 80, and Nokia 7710 90 phone series), Nokia's Internet Tablet OS (used by the Nokia 770, N800 and N810), Apple's iPhone, MotoMAGX, MotoEZX phones and Windows Mobile. Platforms supported by unofficial ScummVM ports include the Microsoft's Xbox gaming console, BlackBerry PlayBook, Zaurus, Gizmondo and GP32 portable device platforms. Mobile phones running Android, webOS or unofficial Samsung's bada OS are also supported.
History
Work on ScummVM started in September 2001 (with the first public release at October and a site launch at November) by computer science student Ludvig Strigeus. Looking to write his own adventure game, he looked to see how the mechanics of an existing game engine, specifically working to create an emulator to play Monkey Island 2. At about the same time, Vincent Hamm was also looking to develop a SCUMM emulator, and though he had done deeper research into understanding how the SCUMM engine worked, found that Strigeus was much further along, and the two joined to craft the emulator. While Strigeus finished the required emulation for Monkey Island 2, Hamm worked separately to prepare the engine for Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis, and once completed, the two found some dis-coordination on their efforts but eventually got the emulator working for both games.
News of ScummVM was picked up by the tech news website Slashdot in November 2001, drawing a large interest to the project, and several other developers became part of the project to help support other games. These developers often turned to the creators of the original games to obtain information in informal ways, to help create the emulation. Further developers helped to support games that did not use SCUMM, such as Adventure Soft's Simon the Sorcerer; there was some debate about changing the name of the program at this point, but they ultimately kept the ScummVM title, believing that SCUMM was the most well-recognized adventure game engine. Strigeus had built support for iMUSE, the sound software used by many LucasArts games, but feared including it due to potential backlash from LucasArts. Other developers on the project advised him that there should be no legal issues and it was eventually included. Though Strigeus and Hamm would leave the project in 2002, by then it had a large enough development team to allow it to grow, led by James "Ender" Brown. Following this shift, the engine's source code was changed from C to C++, and a graphical user interface (GUI) was added.
With increased awareness of the project, LucasArts sent a cease & desist letter to the project, believing they were using some of LucasArts' proprietary code. Brown worked over the next four years with LucasArts' legal representatives to explain the nature of the emulator and the source of their information to demonstrate that what they had created was legal. Brown considered that LucasArts was trying to be accommodating as ScummVM helped to raise interest in these titles. They ultimately came to a legal agreement to allow ScummVM to continue to be developed.
The project would also incorporate other parallel efforts to make game emulators for other adventure games. Games from Sierra Online were of high demand for the project, requiring them to emulate the Adventure Game Interpreter (AGI) and the more advanced Sierra's Creative Interpreter (SCI) engines. AGI support was added in 2006 by incorporating efforts from the Sarien project, but efforts for SCI support were hampered by the parallel project, FreeSCI. Though both ScummVM and FreeSCI aimed to reverse engineer the workings of SCI, FreeSCI had stated they took a more clean-room approach to avoid any legal question about their reverse engineering, and believed the ScummVM project had run afoul of some of Sierra's approaches and thus were hesitant to work together. However, FreeSCI began to languish in interest compared to ScummVM; after a developer took it upon themselves to make the FreeSCI engine work in ScummVM, the FreeSCI saw more participation in their project, and they agreed to merge their efforts into ScummVM. Initial SCI support was subsequently released in a 2010 version of ScummVM.
ScummVM continues to add new games or game engines, though the process to create these is relatively slow. According to the team's project lead Eugene Sandulenko (as of 2017), game engines are chosen for inclusion into ScummVM either if they are given the source code that makes it easy to port into the software's architecture, or if one or more of the team members are passionate about bringing a game engine into the program to do the difficult task of reconstructing the game's code from the compiled versions. The only restriction is that ScummVM will only include 2D game engines, leaving 3D games to be handled by the sister project ResidualVM. The 2.0 version of ScummVM was released in December 2017, adding support for several full motion video games and some very obscure titles, such as Full Pipe and Plumbers Don't Wear Ties. With this release, ScummVM has support for 64 different game engines.
Since around December 2017, ScummVM had been working support for Macromedia Director in coordination with some of the original developers. Macromedia Director was used for many mid-1990s video games such as The Journeyman Project. By August 2021, the first versions of ScummVM with Director support was released, with the team continuing to work on improving performance.
An attempt to bring in Another World by Éric Chahi brought some internal stress within the project in 2004. Another World was not a point-and-click adventure game, and used polygon-based graphics instead of pixel-based ones most adventure games employ, and thus was considered a serious departure from the focus of ScummVM. Though the project was scrapped in a few days after Chahi requested its removal as he was preparing a 15th anniversary remastered for sale, the current leads of the project had to refocus the group and define the ideals that ScummVM should meet.
ScummVM has also had difficulty in bringing games using the Adventure Game Studio (AGS), which is used frequently in indie adventure games, such as the Blackwell series. While the source code for AGS had been put into the open by its developer Chris Jones in 2010, the ScummVM team was met with a large backlash of complaints from developers using the AGS engine for their games, stating they did not want to see their games run in ScummVM. Yet eventually a couple of years later AGS was tested in the development build, with a request to the public to beta test thousands of newly supported games, until all AGS v2.5+ games were officially added to the program, coinciding with its 20th anniversary in October 2021.
ScummVM has been a participant in the Google Summer of Code every year since 2007 except for 2015. A sister project, ResidualVM, was started to implement engines for three-dimensional adventure games, such as Grim Fandango and Myst III: Exile, named as such as these games reflect the residual of those not already covered by ScummVM. By late 2020, it was announced ResidualVM is officially merging with ScummVM. This was completed with the version 2.5 release, coinciding with the program's 20th anniversary in October 2021.
Developer support
According to Sandulenko "there is no typical process" when it comes to collaboration with developers, "Everything is ad-hoc. What we do, we try to search for contact info of people who were working on the titles some developer is interested in, and we’re inquiring access to their original source code, if it still exists somewhere. Then we start working on it at our own pace."
With increased attention, ScummVM has entered into favorable agreements with adventure game developers to help bring their titles into the engine, or in some cases, being given source code and other assets to work from. Revolution Software helped the developers with source code and technical advice for its games, and once ScummVM supported the company's Virtual Theatre engine, Revolution released Lure of the Temptress and Beneath a Steel Sky as freeware and provided assets from its first two Broken Sword games in an open media format. The renewed interest in these games from younger players enabled Revolution to work on two more Broken Sword games. Other developers that have worked closely with ScummVM include:
Adventure Soft: provided the original source code of their adventure games, Simon the Sorcerer, The Feeble Files and Elvira series.
Alcachofa Soft: Emilio de Paz Aragón released the original source code of the adventure game Drascula: The Vampire Strikes Back as freeware.
Creative Reality: Neil Dodwell and David Dew from Creative Reality released the original source code for their adventure Dreamweb, and the CD-ROM and floppy disk versions of the game as freeware, available for download on the ScummVM website.
Gray Design Associates: David P. Gray provided the original source code of the Hugo trilogy
Interactive Binary Illusions: released both the CD-ROM and the floppy disk version of their adventure game, Flight of the Amazon Queen as freeware available for download on the ScummVM website.
Laboratorium Komputerowe Avalon: Janusz Wiśniewski and Miroslaw Liminowicz released the original source code of their adventure game Sołtys as freeware, available for download on the ScummVM website.
Perfect Entertainment: John Young, Colin Smythe and Terry Pratchett provided the original source code of their adventure games, Discworld and Discworld II: Missing Presumed...!?.
Wyrmkeep Entertainment: Joe Pearce provided the original source code of their adventure game, Inherit the Earth: Quest for the Orb.
The digital storefront GOG.com which specializes in selling digital copies of older games, provides support to ScummVM, and sells titles that include the ScummVM engine as part of their distribution. Disney, which owns the rights to LucasArts adventure games, released Maniac Mansion on Steam running off ScummVM.
Development
Operation Stealth and Future Wars support was added by integrating another stand-alone recreation of their engine: cinE. TrollVM has also been integrated into ScummVM adding support for three pre-AGI games: Mickey's Space Adventure, Troll's Tale, and Winnie the Pooh in the Hundred Acre Wood.
Mistic's GPL violations
ScummVM is distributed as free software under the GPL-2.0-or-later license, enabling anyone to use the project as an engine for a game. For example, Revolution Software repackaged their Broken Sword games for a DVD release, using ScummVM with the included sword1 and sword2 engines to support modern computers.
In December 2008, the ScummVM team learned that the recently released Wii ports of three Humongous Entertainment Junior Adventure titles, Freddi Fish and the Case of the Missing Kelp Seeds, Pajama Sam: No Need to Hide When It's Dark Outside, and Spy Fox: Dry Cereal, have all used the ScummVM engine without proper attribution. The games were published on request of Atari through Majesco Entertainment, who turned to Mistic Software to port the games. Mistic had used ScummVM for these, but failed to credit the developers. While the ScummVM team contacted gpl-violations.org for legal advice, Atari instead threatened to sue the ScummVM team, as the terms of Nintendo Wii development kit heavily restricted the use of open source software, including the GPL. A settlement was made in 2009, in which ScummVM would drop the investigation of the GPL violation, on the condition that Mistic would sell or destroy all GPL-violating copies of the games, make a donation to the Free Software Foundation, and pay the legal fees. As a result, this legal dispute significantly limited the availability of the Wii ports of these three titles.
ResidualVM
ResidualVM (formerly Residual) was a cross-platform computer program comprising 3D game engine recreations with a common graphical user interface. It supports Grim Fandango, Myst III: Exile, and The Longest Journey. It merged with ScummVM in October 2020.
ResidualVM was originally designed to play LucasArts adventure games that use the GrimE game engine, and was later adapted to support other ones. Like ScummVM, the VM in ResidualVM stood for virtual machine.
ResidualVM is a reimplementation of the part of the software used to interpret the scripting languages by conducting reverse engineering on the original game rather than emulating the hardware on which the games ran. As such, ResidualVM allows the games it supports to be played on platforms other than those for which they were originally released.
The name of the project comes from the fact that it was originally started to support the residual LucasArts adventure games not supported by ScummVM. The original Lua-based engine used by LucasArts in their 3D adventure games was called GrimE (as opposed to SCUMM), so ResidualVM's title is also a word pun as grime is a type of residue.
The project was started by former ScummVM team leader James Brown, and was first publicly available on August 15, 2003. Progress on the project was initially slow, and as a result the project's main goal of supporting Grim Fandango did not occur until April 25, 2011, when the compatibility of Grim Fandango was upgraded to "completable with a few minor glitches".
The project obtained a domain separate from ScummVM on December 6, 2011. As a result of the new domain name, the project name was changed from Residual to ResidualVM. The logo was changed to reflect the new name on January 25, 2012. The first stable release of ResidualVM was released 9 years after the project started, on December 21, 2012. It merged with ScummVM in October 2021.
Support
ResidualVM was officially available on multiple platforms including Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, AmigaOS 4, and IRIX. In addition, an Android port is available in the source code, and unofficial builds have been made with that source. There is also a port available for the Pandora console, and for FreeBSD, but they are not official as they have not been added to the main branch.
With increased attention, ResidualVM entered into favorable agreements with adventure game developers to help bring their titles into the engine. Cyan Worlds partnered with ResidualVM to release Myst III: Exile on digital platforms.
The digital storefront GOG.com which specialized in selling digital copies of older games, sells Myst III: Exile with the ResidualVM engine as part of its distribution.
ResidualVM Supported games
The stable release supports Grim Fandango and Myst III: Exile, which are completable with a few minor glitches.
In the development branch, there is also support for Escape from Monkey Island, which is completable with a few glitches, and The Longest Journey, which is completable with missing features.
Like ScummVM, ResidualVM contains fixes for bugs present in the original executable. The ResidualVM team discovered a workaround for a bug that causes a critical dialog not to play in Grim Fandango. In addition, the Grim Fandango engine in ResidualVM has fixes for over a dozen other bugs present in the original. There is also a branch of ResidualVM called Grim Mouse, which allows Grim Fandango to be played completely with a mouse as a traditional point and click adventure game.
Supported games
The following games have support built into the current release of ScummVM.
LucasArts games
In order of the games' original release dates:
Maniac Mansion
Zak McKracken and the Alien Mindbenders
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Graphic Adventure
Loom
The Secret of Monkey Island
Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge
Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis
Day of the Tentacle
Sam & Max Hit the Road
Full Throttle
The Dig
The Curse of Monkey Island
Grim Fandango
Sierra On-Line games
The Beast Within: A Gabriel Knight Mystery
The Black Cauldron
Castle of Dr. Brain
Codename: ICEMAN
The Colonel's Bequest
Conquests of Camelot: The Search for the Grail
Conquests of the Longbow: The Legend of Robin Hood
The Dagger of Amon Ra
EcoQuest: The Search for Cetus
EcoQuest II: Lost Secret of the Rainforest
Freddy Pharkas: Frontier Pharmacist
Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers
Gold Rush!
Hi-Res Adventure #0: Mission Asteroid
Hi-Res Adventure #1: Mystery House
Hi-Res Adventure #2: Wizard and the Princess
Hi-Res Adventure #3: Cranston Manor
Hi-Res Adventure #4: Ulysses and the Golden Fleece
Hi-Res Adventure #5: Time Zone
Hi-Res Adventure #6: The Dark Crystal
Hoyle's Official Book of Games: Volume 1, Volume 2 and Volume 3
The Island of Dr. Brain
Jones in the Fast Lane
King's Quest: Quest for the Crown
King's Quest II: Romancing the Throne
King's Quest III: To Heir Is Human
King's Quest IV: The Perils of Rosella
King's Quest V: Absence Makes the Heart Go Yonder!
King's Quest VI: Heir Today, Gone Tomorrow
King's Quest VII: The Princeless Bride
King's Questions
Leisure Suit Larry in the Land of the Lounge Lizards
Leisure Suit Larry Goes Looking for Love (in Several Wrong Places)
Leisure Suit Larry III: Passionate Patti in Pursuit of the Pulsating Pectorals
Leisure Suit Larry 5: Passionate Patti Does a Little Undercover Work
Leisure Suit Larry 6: Shape Up or Slip Out!
Leisure Suit Larry: Love for Sail!
Lighthouse: The Dark Being
Manhunter: New York
Manhunter 2: San Francisco
Mickey's Space Adventure
Mixed-Up Fairy Tales
Mixed-Up Mother Goose
Pepper's Adventures in Time
Phantasmagoria
Phantasmagoria II: A Puzzle of Flesh
Police Quest: In Pursuit of the Death Angel
Police Quest II: The Vengeance
Police Quest III: The Kindred
Police Quest IV: Open Season
Police Quest: SWAT
Quest for Glory: So You Want to Be a Hero
Quest for Glory II: Trial by Fire
Quest for Glory III: Wages of War
Quest for Glory IV: Shadows of Darkness
Rama
Shivers
Slater & Charlie Go Camping
Space Quest: The Sarien Encounter
Space Quest II: Vohaul's Revenge
Space Quest III: The Pirates of Pestulon
Space Quest IV: Roger Wilco and The Time Rippers
Space Quest V: Roger Wilco – The Next Mutation
Space Quest 6: Roger Wilco in The Spinal Frontier
Torin's Passage
Troll's Tale
Winnie the Pooh in the Hundred Acre Wood
Coktel Vision games
Bargon Attack
The Bizarre Adventures of Woodruff and the Schnibble
Fascination
Geisha
Gobliiins
Gobliins 2: The Prince Buffoon
Goblins Quest 3
Lost in Time
Once Upon A Time: Little Red Riding Hood
Playtoons: Bambou le Sauveur de la Jungle
Urban Runner
Ween: The Prophecy
Adventuresoft-Horrorsoft games
Elvira: Mistress of the Dark
Elvira II: The Jaws of Cerberus
The Feeble Files
Personal Nightmare
Simon the Sorcerer
Simon the Sorcerer II: The Lion, the Wizard and the Wardrobe
Simon the Sorcerer's Puzzle Pack
Waxworks
Humongous Entertainment games
Various games by Humongous Entertainment use the SCUMM engine, and are therefore playable with ScummVM.
Backyard Baseball
Backyard Baseball 2001
Backyard Baseball 2003
Backyard Football
Backyard Football 2002
Big Thinkers! First Grade
Big Thinkers! Kindergarten
Blue's 123 Time Activities
Blue's ABC Time Activities
Blue's Art Time Activities
Blue's Birthday Adventure
Blue's Reading Time Activities
Fatty Bear's Birthday Surprise
Fatty Bear's Fun Pack
Freddi Fish and the Case of the Missing Kelp Seeds
Freddi Fish 2: The Case of the Haunted Schoolhouse
Freddi Fish 3: The Case of the Stolen Conch Shell
Freddi Fish 4: The Case of the Hogfish Rustlers of Briny Gulch
Freddi Fish 5: The Case of the Creature of Coral Cove
Freddi Fish and Luther's Maze Madness
Freddi Fish and Luther's Water Worries
Let's Explore the Airport with Buzzy
Let's Explore the Farm with Buzzy
Let's Explore the Jungle with Buzzy
Pajama Sam: No Need to Hide When It's Dark Outside
Pajama Sam 2: Thunder and Lightning Aren't so Frightening
Pajama Sam 3: You Are What You Eat from Your Head to Your Feet
Pajama Sam's Lost & Found
Pajama Sam's Sock Works
Pajama Sam: Games to Play on Any Day
Putt-Putt and Pep's Balloon-O-Rama
Putt-Putt and Pep's Dog on a Stick
Putt-Putt Enters the Race
Putt-Putt Goes to the Moon
Putt-Putt Joins the Circus
Putt-Putt Joins the Parade
Putt-Putt Saves the Zoo
Putt-Putt Travels Through Time
Putt-Putt's Fun Pack
Spy Fox in "Dry Cereal"
Spy Fox 2: "Some Assembly Required"
Spy Fox 3: "Operation Ozone"
Spy Fox in Cheese Chase
Spy Fox in Hold the Mustard
Games by other developers
ScummVM also supports the following non-SCUMM games:
3 Skulls of the Toltecs
The 7th Guest
Amazon: Guardians of Eden
Beavis and Butt-Head in Virtual Stupidity
Beneath a Steel Sky
Blade Runner
Blazing Dragons
Blue Force
Broken Sword: The Shadow of the Templars
Broken Sword II: The Smoking Mirror
Broken Sword 2.5: The Return of the Templars
Bud Tucker in Double Trouble
Chivalry is Not Dead
The Crimson Crown
Cruise for a Corpse
Crusader: No Remorse
Darby the Dragon
Discworld
Discworld II: Missing Presumed...!?
Dragon History
Dráscula: The Vampire Strikes Back
DreamWeb
Duckman: The Graphic Adventures of a Private Dick
Eye of the Beholder
Eye of the Beholder II: The Legend of Darkmoon
Flight of the Amazon Queen
Full Pipe
Future Wars
Gregory and the Hot Air Balloon
The Griffon Legend
Hopkins FBI
Hugo's House of Horrors
Hugo II, Whodunit?
Hugo III, Jungle of Doom!
Hyperspace Delivery Boy!
I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream
Inherit the Earth: Quest for the Orb
The Journeyman Project: Pegasus Prime
The Journeyman Project 2: Buried in Time
The Labyrinth of Time
Lands of Lore: The Throne of Chaos
Leather Goddesses of Phobos 2
The Legend of Kyrandia: Fables and Fiends
The Legend of Kyrandia: Hand of Fate
The Legend of Kyrandia: Malcolm's Revenge
Little Big Adventure
Living Books series
The Longest Journey
The Lost Files of Sherlock Holmes: The Case of the Rose Tattoo
The Lost Files of Sherlock Holmes: The Case of the Serrated Scalpel
Lure of the Temptress
L-Zone
Magic Tales: Liam Finds a Story
Magic Tales: The Princess and the Crab
Magic Tales: Sleeping Cub's Test of Courage
The Manhole
Might and Magic IV: Clouds of Xeen
Might and Magic V: Darkside of Xeen
Might and Magic: Swords of Xeen
Mission Supernova Part 1 and Part 2
Mortville Manor
Myst
Myst III: Exile
The Neverhood
Nightlong: Union City Conspiracy
Nippon Safes Inc.
Oo-Topos
Operation Stealth
Plumbers Don't Wear Ties
The Prince and the Coward
Private Eye
Red Comrades Save the Galaxy
Red Comrades 2: For the Great Justice
Return to Ringworld
Return to Zork
Rex Nebular and the Cosmic Gender Bender
Ringworld: Revenge of the Patriarch
Riven
Rodney's Funscreen
Sfinx
Sołtys
Spaceship Warlock
Starship Titanic
Teenagent
Tony Tough and the Night of Roasted Moths
Toonstruck
Touché: The Adventures of the Fifth Musketeer
Transylvania
U.F.O.s
Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar
Ultima VI: The False Prophet
Ultima VIII: Pagan
Versailles 1685
Voyeur
Zork: Grand Inquisitor
Zork Nemesis
Several Adventure Game Studio games
Several interactive fiction games
Games in development
The following games are only available in unstable daily builds, and are planned for official support in an upcoming version.
The 11th Hour
Clandestiny
Escape from Monkey Island
Sanitarium
Spider-Man: The Sinister Six
Tender Loving Care
Uncle Henry's Playhouse
Notes
See also
Game engine recreation
Z-machine
:Category:ScummVM-supported games
References
External links
2001 software
Adventure game engines
Amiga software
AmigaOS 4 software
BeOS software
BSD software
Cross-platform software
Free and open-source Android software
Free software
Free software programmed in C++
Free software projects
Free virtualization software
Linux software
MacOS games
MorphOS software
OS/2 software
Palm OS software
Pocket PC software
RISC OS software
Solaris software
Unix software
Windows games
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerry
|
Gerry
|
Gerry is both a surname and a masculine or feminine given name. As a given name, it is often a short form (hypocorism) of Gerald or Geraldine. Notable people with the name include:
Surname
Elbridge Gerry (1744–1814), fifth US vice president (1813–1814) for whom the term gerrymander was named
Ann Gerry (1763–1849), wife of Elbridge Gerry
Thomas Russell Gerry (1794–1848), son of Elbridge and Ann Gerry
Elbridge Thomas Gerry (1837–1927), American lawyer and reformer, son of Thomas Gerry
Peter G. Gerry (1879–1957), U.S. Senator from Rhode Island, great grandson of Elbridge Gerry
Edith Stuyvesant Gerry (1873–1958), American philanthropist and wife of Peter Gerry
Elbridge T. Gerry Sr. (1908–1999), American banker and polo player, great-great grandson of the vice president
Robert L. Gerry Jr. (1911–1979), American polo player, brother of Elbridge T. Gerry Sr.
Robert L. Gerry III (born 1937), American businessman, son of Robert L. Gerry Jr.
Alan Gerry (born 1929), American billionaire and founder of Cablevision Industries
Elbridge Gerry (Maine politician) (1813–1886), American lawyer and politician
Eloise Gerry (1885–1970), American forestry research scientist
Nathan Gerry (born 1995), American National Football League player
Robert Gerry (politician) (1858–1931), American politician
Given name
Gerard Gerry Adams (born 1948), Irish republican politician
Gerry Adams Sr. (1926–2003), Irish Republic Army volunteer, father of the Irish politician and alleged abuser of his family
Gerry Adams (fencer) (born 1962), Australian fencer
Doroteo Gerardo Gerry Alanguilan Jr. (1968–2019), Filipino comic book artist and writer
Gerald Gerry Armstrong (activist) (born 1946), critic and former member of the Church of Scientology
Gerard Gerry Armstrong (footballer) (born 1954), Northern Irish footballer
Gerry Barney (born 1939), British designer
Joseph Gaétan Robert Gérald Gerry Boulet (1946–1990), Canadian rock singer
Gerry Bertier (1953–1981), Virginia high school football player
Gerry Brown (disambiguation)
Gerard Gerry Brownlee (born 1956), New Zealand politician
Gerry Byrne (politician) (born 1966), Canadian politician
Gerald Gerry Byrne (footballer, born 1938) (1938–2015), English footballer
Gerald Gerry Cheevers (born 1940), Canadian retired National Hockey League goaltender, member of the Hockey Hall of Fame
Gerry Cinnamon, Scottish musician born Gerald Crosbie in 1985
Gerry Collins (disambiguation)
Gerry Cooney (born 1956), American former boxer
Gerry Davis (disambiguation)
Gerry Dee, Canadian comedian born Gerard Donoghue in 1968
Gerry De Silva (born 1940), general, Commander of the Sri Lanka Army from 1994-1996
Gerry Dick, American journalist and host of Inside Indiana Business
Geraldine Ferraro (1935–2011), American attorney and politician, first female US vice presidential candidate
Gerald Gerry Francis (born 1951), English former footballer and manager
Gerald Gerry Francis (footballer, born 1933), South African-born footballer, first black footballer to play for Leeds United
Pierce Gerry Geran (1896–1981), American ice hockey player
Gerry Glaude (1927–2017), Canadian ice hockey defenceman
Gerald Gerry Goffin (1939–2014), American lyricist, husband of Carole King
Gerry Harris (disambiguation), multiple people
Gerry Harvey (born 1939), Australian entrepreneur
Gerald Gerry Hitchens (1934–1983), English footballer
Gerald Gerry Kearby (1947–2012), entrepreneur of the "dot-com" boom of the late 1990s
Gerard Gerry Kelly (born 1953), Irish republican politician and former Provisional Irish Republican Army volunteer
Gerald Gerry Kelly (broadcaster) (born 1948), Northern Irish broadcaster and journalist
Gerard Gerry Kelly (footballer) (1908–1983), English footballer
Gerry Leonard (born 1961/1962), Irish musician
Gerald Gerry Lindgren (born 1946), American track and field runner
Gerry McMonagle, political figure in Ireland
Gerard Gerry Marsden (born 1942), English musician, frontman of Gerry and the Pacemakers
Gerald Gerry Mulligan (1927–1996), American jazz saxophonist, clarinetist, arranger and composer
Gerry Murphy (disambiguation)
Gerry O'Connor (disambiguation)
Geronimo Gerry Peñalosa (born 1972), Filipino former boxer and WBC and WBO world champion
Gerald Gerry Peyton (born 1956), Irish former football goalkeeper and coach
Gerry Phillips (born 1940), Canadian former politician
Gerald Gerry Rafferty (1947–2011), Scottish singer and songwriter
Gerard Gerry Reynolds (Irish politician) (born 1961), Irish politician
Gerald Gerry Reynolds (British politician) (1927–1969), British politician
Gerardo Roxas (1924–1982), Filipino politician
Gerry Ryan (disambiguation)
Phillip Edward Gerald Gerry Sayer (1905–1942), chief test pilot for Gloster Aircraft
Geraldine Mary Gerry Scott (1944–2007), English television production designer
Virginio Gerry Scotti (born 1956), Italian television presenter
Gerald Gerry Sherry, American football player
Gerald Gerry Spence (born 1929), American semi-retired trial lawyer
Gerald Gerry Steinberg (1945–2015), British politician
Gerard Gerry Sutcliffe (born 1953), British politician
Gerald Gerry Tuttle (1926–2006), American football player
Gerald Gerry Ward (footballer) (1936–1994), English footballer
Gerald Gerry Ward (basketball) (born 1941), American retired National Basketball Association player
Gerry Bubba Watson (born 1978), American golfer
Gerry Williams (footballer) (1877–1901), Australian rules footballer
Fictional characters
Gerry, a character from The Ridonculous Race
See also
Gery (disambiguation)
Geraldine (disambiguation)
Gerhard, a male given name
Geri (disambiguation)
Jerry (given name)
Masculine given names
Hypocorisms
|
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208079
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw
|
Kwakwakaʼwakw
|
The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw (), also known as the Kwakiutl (; "Kwakʼwala-speaking peoples") are one of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Their current population, according to a 2016 census, is 3,665. Most live in their traditional territory on northern Vancouver Island, nearby smaller islands including the Discovery Islands, and the adjacent British Columbia mainland. Some also live outside their homelands in urban areas such as Victoria and Vancouver. They are politically organized into 13 band governments.
Their language, now spoken by only 3.1% of the population, consists of four dialects of what is commonly referred to as Kwakʼwala. These dialects are Kwak̓wala, ʼNak̓wala, G̱uc̓ala and T̓łat̓łasik̓wala.
Name
The name Kwakiutl derives from Kwaguʼł—the name of a single community of Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw located at Fort Rupert. The anthropologist Franz Boas had done most of his anthropological work in this area and popularized the term for both this nation and the collective as a whole. The term became misapplied to mean all the nations who spoke Kwakʼwala, as well as three other Indigenous peoples whose language is a part of the Wakashan linguistic group, but whose language is not Kwakʼwala. These peoples, incorrectly known as the Northern Kwakiutl, were the Haisla, Wuikinuxv, and Heiltsuk.
Many people who others call "Kwakiutl" consider that name a misnomer.
They prefer the name Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw, which means "Kwakʼwala-speaking-peoples".
One exception is the Laich-kwil-tach at Campbell River—they are known as the Southern Kwakiutl, and their council is the Kwakiutl District Council.
History
Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw oral history says their ancestors (ʼnaʼmima) came in the forms of animals by way of land, sea, or underground. When one of these ancestral animals arrived at a given spot, it discarded its animal appearance and became human. Animals that figure in these origin myths include the Thunderbird, his brother Kolas, the seagull, orca, grizzly bear, or chief ghost. Some ancestors have human origins and are said to come from distant places.
Historically, the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw economy was based primarily on fishing, with the men also engaging in some hunting, and the women gathering wild fruits and berries. Ornate weaving and woodwork were important crafts, and wealth, defined by slaves and material goods, was prominently displayed and traded at potlatch ceremonies. These customs were the subject of extensive study by the anthropologist Franz Boas. In contrast to most non-native societies, wealth and status were not determined by how much you had, but by how much you had to give away. This act of giving away your wealth was one of the main acts in a potlatch.
The first documented contact was with Captain George Vancouver in 1792. Disease, which developed as a result of direct contact with European settlers along the West Coast of Canada, drastically reduced the Indigenous Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw population during the late 19th-early 20th century. Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw population dropped by 75% between 1830 and 1880. The 1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic alone killed over half of the people.
Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw dancers from Vancouver Island performed at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
An account of experiences of two founders of early residential schools for Aboriginal children was published in 2006 by the University of British Columbia Press. Good Intentions Gone Awry – Emma Crosby and the Methodist Mission On the Northwest Coast by Jan Hare and Jean Barman contains the letters and account of the life of the wife of Thomas Crosby the first missionary in Lax Kw'alaams (Port Simpson). This covers the period from 1870 to the turn of the 20th century.
A second book was published in 2005 by the University of Calgary Press, The Letters of Margaret Butcher – Missionary Imperialism on the North Pacific Coast edited by Mary-Ellen Kelm. It picks up the story from 1916 to 1919 in Kitamaat Village and details of Butcher's experiences among the Haisla people.
A review article entitled Mothers of a Native Hell about these two books was published in the British Columbia online news magazine The Tyee in 2007.
Restoring their ties to their land, culture and rights, the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw have undertaken much in bringing back their customs, beliefs and language. Potlatches occur more frequently as families reconnect to their birthright, and the community uses language programs, classes and social events to restore the language. Artists in the 19th and 20th centuries, such as Mungo Martin, Ellen Neel and Willie Seaweed have taken efforts to revive Kwakwakaʼwakw art and culture.
Divisions
Each Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw nation has its own clans, chiefs, history, culture and peoples, but remain collectively similar to the rest of the Kwak̓wala-Speaking nations.
Society
Kinship
Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw kinship is based on a bilinear structure, with loose characteristics of a patrilineal culture. It has large extended families and interconnected community life. The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw are made up of numerous communities or bands. Within those communities they are organized into extended family units or na'mima, which means of one kind. Each 'na'mima' had positions that carried particular responsibilities and privileges. Each community had around four 'na'mima', although some had more, some had less.
Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw follow their genealogy back to their ancestral roots. A head chief who, through primogeniture, could trace his origins to that 'na'mima's ancestors delineated the roles throughout the rest of his family. Every clan had several sub-chiefs, who gained their titles and position through their own family's primogeniture. These chiefs organized their people to harvest the communal lands that belonged to their family.
Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw society was organized into four classes: the nobility, attained through birthright and connection in lineage to ancestors, the aristocracy who attained status through connection to wealth, resources or spiritual powers displayed or distributed in the potlatch, commoners, and slaves. On the nobility class, "the noble was recognized as the literal conduit between the social and spiritual domains, birthright alone was not enough to secure rank: only individuals displaying the correct moral behavior [sic] throughout their life course could maintain ranking status."
Property
As in other Northwest Coast peoples, the concept of property was well developed and important to daily life. Territorial property such as hunting or fishing grounds was inherited, and from these properties material wealth was collected and stored.
Economy
A trade and barter subsistence economy formed the early stages of the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw economy. Trade was carried out between internal Kwakwakaʼwakw nations, as well as surrounding Indigenous nations such as the Tsimshian, Tlingit, the Nuu-chah-nulth and Coast Salish peoples.
Over time, the potlatch tradition created a demand for stored surpluses, as such a display of wealth had social implications. By the time of European colonialism, it was noted that wool blankets had become a form of common currency. In the potlatch tradition, hosts of the potlatch were expected to provide enough gifts for all the guests invited. This practice created a system of loan and interest, using wool blankets as currency.
As with other Pacific Northwest nations, the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw highly valued copper in their economy and used it for ornament and precious goods. Scholars have proposed that prior to trade with Europeans, the people acquired copper from natural copper veins along riverbeds, but this has not been proven. Contact with European settlers, particularly through the Hudson's Bay Company, brought an influx of copper to their territories. The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw nations also were aware of silver and gold, and crafted intricate bracelets and jewellery from hammered coins traded from European settlers. Copper was given a special value amongst the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw, most likely for its ceremonial purposes. This copper was beaten into sheets or plates, and then painted with mythological figures. The sheets were used for decorating wooden carvings or kept for the sake of prestige.
Individual pieces of copper were sometimes given names based on their value. The value of any given piece was defined by the number of wool blankets last traded for them. In this system, it was considered prestigious for a buyer to purchase the same piece of copper at a higher price than it was previously sold, in their version of an art market. During potlatch, copper pieces would be brought out, and bids were placed on them by rival chiefs. The highest bidder would have the honour of buying said copper piece. If a host still held a surplus of copper after throwing an expensive potlatch, he was considered a wealthy and important man. Highly ranked members of the communities often have the Kwak'wala word for "copper" as part of their names.
Copper's importance as an indicator of status also led to its use in a Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw shaming ritual. The copper cutting ceremony involved breaking copper plaques. The act represents a challenge; if the target cannot break a plaque of equal or greater value, he or she is shamed. The ceremony, which had not been performed since the 1950s, was revived by chief Beau Dick in 2013, as part of the Idle No More movement. He performed a copper cutting ritual on the lawn of the British Columbia Legislature on February 10, 2013, to ritually shame the Stephen Harper government.
Culture
The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw are a highly stratified bilineal culture of the Pacific Northwest. They are many separate nations, each with its own history, culture and governance. The Nations commonly each had a head chief, who acted as the leader of the nation, with numerous hereditary clan or family chiefs below him. In some of the nations, there also existed Eagle Chiefs, but this was a separate society within the main society and applied to the potlatching only.
The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw are one of the few bilineal cultures. Traditionally the rights of the family would be passed down through the paternal side, but in rare occasions, the rights could pass on the maternal side of their family also. Within the pre-colonization times, the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw were organized into three classes: nobles, commoners, and slaves. The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw shared many cultural and political alliances with numerous neighbours in the area, including the Nuu-chah-nulth, Heiltsuk, Wuikinuxv and some Coast Salish.
Language
The Kwakʼwala language is a part of the Wakashan languages group. Word lists and some documentation of Kwakʼwala were created from the early period of contact with Europeans in the 18th century, but a systematic attempt to record the language did not occur before the work of Franz Boas in the late 19th and early 20th century. The use of Kwakʼwala declined significantly in the 19th and 20th centuries, mainly due to the assimilationist policies of the Canadian government. Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw children were forced to attend residential schools, which enforced English use and discouraged other languages. Although Kwakʼwala and Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw culture have been well-studied by linguists and anthropologists, these efforts did not reverse the trends leading to language loss. According to Guy Buchholtzer, "The anthropological discourse had too often become a long monologue, in which the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw had nothing to say."
As a result of these pressures, there are relatively few Kwakʼwala speakers today. Most remaining speakers are past the age of child-rearing, which is considered a crucial stage for language transmission. As with many other Indigenous languages, there are significant barriers to language revitalization. Another barrier separating new learners from the native speaker is the presence of four separate orthographies; the young are taught U'mista or NAPA, while the older generations generally use Boaz, developed by the American anthropologist Franz Boas.
A number of revitalization efforts are underway. A 2005 proposal to build a Kwakwakaʼwakw First Nations Centre for Language Culture has gained wide support. A review of revitalization efforts in the 1990s showed that the potential to fully revitalize Kwakʼwala still remained, but serious hurdles also existed.
Arts
In the old times, the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw believed that art symbolized a common underlying element shared by all species.
Kwakwakaʼwakw arts consist of a diverse range of crafts, including totems, masks, textiles, jewellery and carved objects, ranging in size from transformation masks to tall totem poles. Cedar wood was the preferred medium for sculpting and carving projects as it was readily available in the native Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw regions. Totems were carved with bold cuts, a relative degree of realism, and an emphatic use of paints. Masks make up a large portion of Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw art, as masks are important in the portrayal of the characters central to Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw dance ceremonies.
Woven textiles included the Chilkat blanket, dance aprons and button cloaks, each patterned with Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw designs. The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw used a variety of objects for jewellery, including ivory, bone, abalone shell, copper, silver and more. Adornments were frequently found on the clothes of important persons.
Music
Kwakwakaʼwakw music is the ancient art of the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw peoples. The music is an ancient art form, stretching back thousands of years. The music is used primarily for ceremony and ritual, and is based on percussive instrumentation, especially log, box, and hide drums, as well as rattles and whistles. The four-day Klasila festival is an important cultural display of song and dance and masks; it occurs just before the advent of the tsetseka, or winter.
Ceremonies and events
Potlatch
The potlatch culture of the Northwest is well known and widely studied. It is still practised among the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw, as is the lavish artwork for which they and their neighbours are so renowned. The phenomenon of the potlatch, and the vibrant societies and cultures associated with it, can be found in Chiefly Feasts: The Enduring Kwakiutl Potlatch, which details the incredible artwork and legendary material that go with the other aspects of the potlatch, and gives a glimpse into the high politics and great wealth and power of the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw chiefs.
When the Canadian government was focused on assimilation of First Nations, it made the potlatch a target of activities to be suppressed. Missionary William Duncan wrote in 1875 that the potlatch was "by far the most formidable of all obstacles in the way of Indians becoming Christians, or even civilized".
In 1885, the Indian Act was revised to include clauses banning the potlatch and making it illegal to practise. The official legislation read,
Oʼwax̱a̱laga̱lis, Chief of the Kwaguʼł "Fort Rupert Tribes", said to anthropologist Franz Boas on October 7, 1886, when he arrived to study their culture:
Eventually the Act was amended, expanded to prohibit guests from participating in the potlatch ceremony. The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw were too numerous to police, and the government could not enforce the law. Duncan Campbell Scott convinced Parliament to change the offence from criminal to summary, which meant "the agents, as justice of the peace, could try a case, convict, and sentence".
Sustaining the customs and culture of their ancestors, in the 21st century the Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw openly hold potlatches to commit to the revival of their ancestors' ways. The frequency of potlatches has increased as occur frequently and increasingly more over the years as families reclaim their birthright.
Hamatsa rituals
Hamatsa is one of four secret societies. The Hamatsa initiation dance for young men has been called a "cannibal" ritual.
Housing and shelter
The Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw built their houses from cedar planks, which are highly water resistant. They were very large, anywhere from long. The houses could hold about 50 people, usually families from the same clan. At the entrance, there was usually a totem pole carved with different animals, mythological figures and family crests.
Clothing and regalia
In summer, men wore no clothing except jewellery. In the winter, they usually rubbed fat on themselves to keep warm. In battle the men wore red cedar armour and helmets, and breech clouts made from cedar. During ceremonies they wore circles of cedar bark on their ankles as well as cedar breech clouts. The women wore skirts of softened cedar, and a cedar or wool blanket on top during the winter.
Transportation
Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw transportation was similar to that of other coastal people. Being an ocean and coastal people, they travelled mainly by canoe. Cedar dugout canoes, each made from one log, would be carved for use by individuals, families and communities. Sizes varied from ocean-going canoes, for long sea-worthy travel in trade missions, to smaller local canoes for inter-village travel. Some boats had buffalo fur inside to keep protection from the cold winters.
Notable Kwakwa̱ka̱ʼwakw
Alfred Scow (1927-2013), first Aboriginal person to graduate from a BC law school, the first Aboriginal lawyer called to the BC bar and the first Aboriginal legally trained judge appointed to the BC Provincial Court
Sonny Assu (b. 1975), interdisciplinary artist
Joe Peters Jr., artist, woodcarver
Beau Dick, artist, woodcarver
Gord Hill, artist, author and Indigenous rights activist
Calvin Hunt (b. 1956), artist
Henry Hunt (1923-1985), artist
Richard Hunt (b. 1951), artist
Tony Hunt Sr. (1942-2017), artist
Charles Joseph, carver from Maʼamtaglia-Tlowitsis tribe
Mungo Martin, woodcarver
David Neel, artist, writer
Ellen Neel, woodcarver
Marianne Nicolson (b. 1969), artist, academic
Spencer O'Brien (b. 1988), snowboarder
Joe Peters Jr. artist, woodcarver (b.1960-1994)
Quesalid, medicine man, writer
Willie Seaweed, woodcarver
James Sewid, writer
Jody Wilson-Raybould, politician
See also
Kwakiutl (statue)
In the Land of the Head Hunters
Sisiutl
Dances of the Kwakiutl
I Heard the Owl Call My Name
Notes
References
Chiefly Feasts: The Enduring Kwakiutl Potlatch Aldona Jonaitis (Editor) U. Washington Press 1991 (also a publication of the American Museum of Natural History)
Bancroft-Hunt, Norman. People of the Totem: The Indians of the Pacific Northwest University of Oklahoma Press, 1988
Boas, Contributions to the Ethnology of the Kwakiutl, Columbia University Contributions to Anthropology, vol. 3, New York: Columbia University Press, 1925.
Fisher, Robin. Contact and Conflict: Indian-European Relations in British Columbia, 1774–1890, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1977.
Goldman, Irving. The Mouth of Heaven: an Introduction to Kwakiutl Religious Thought, New York: Joh Wiley and Sons, 1975.
Hawthorn, Audrey. Kwakiutl Art. University of Washington Press. 1988. .
Jonaitis, Aldona. Chiefly Feasts: the Enduring Kwakiutl Potlatch, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991.
Masco, Joseph. "It is a Strict Law that Bids Us Dance": Cosmologies, Colonialism, Death, and Ritual Authority in the Kwakwakaʼwakw Potlatch, 1849 to 1922, San Diego: University of California.
Reid, Martine and Daisy Sewid-Smith. Paddling to Where I Stand, Vancouver: UBC Press, 2004.
Spradley, James. Guests Never Leave Hungry, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969.
Umista Cultural Society. Creation myth of Kwakwakaʼwakw (December 1, 2007).
Walens, Stanley "Review of the Mouth of Heaven by Irving Goldman," American Anthropologist, 1981.
Wilson, Duff. The Indian History of British Columbia'', 38-40; Sessional Papers, 1873–1880.
External links
Uʼmista Cultural Society - Alert Bay
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208080
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary%20Hume
|
Gary Hume
|
Gary Stewart Hume (born 9 May 1962) is an English artist. Hume's work is strongly identified with the YBA who came to prominence in the early 1990s. Hume lives and works in London and Accord, New York.
Life and career
Hume was born in 1962 in Tenterden, Kent. He attended Homewood School. He graduated from Goldsmiths College in 1988. His work was included in both Freeze, an exhibition organised by Damien Hirst in 1988, and East Country Yard, a warehouse exhibition organised by Henry Bond and Sarah Lucas in 1990.
Hume has become known for depicting everyday subjects using high-gloss industrial paints. His earliest notable works are his "door paintings", life-size representations of hospital doors. These proved a critical success, being shown in Germany and the United States, as well as attracting the attention of collector Charles Saatchi. Hume's work was included in the 1995 exhibition Brilliant!, a showcase of work by YBA artists. In 1997, his work was included in Sensation, a touring show of the Charles Saatchi art collection at the Royal Academy, London.
Hume abandoned doors in the mid-1990s, turning to paintings in household gloss paint on aluminium panel, for these often used appropriated images, including pictures of celebrities (e.g. DJ Tony Blackburn) and animals. Their forms and colours are dramatically simplified, with people being reduced to just two or three colours. Snowman (1996), for example, is made up of three shades of red, showing a circle on top of a larger circle against a lighter background. At first, Hume used mainly bright colours, but later pieces have used more muted tones.
Around 2005, Hume revisited his Door pictures, this time anthropomorphising the doors, arranging them into pairs of lovers and giving them the titles The Couple and The Argument. Hume's “Yellow Window,” from 2002, broke records when sold at auction at Christie's (which is now selling some other pieces of his work from George Michael's collection). The work inspired a later limited edition entitled "1000 Windows," produced for London's Tate Modern in 2013.
Besides his London studio, Hume maintains a second studio in a converted barn on the grounds of a former chicken farm in New York's Catskill Mountains region.
Liberty Grip is a 2008 sculpture in bronze by Hume, modelled in three discrete sections using the arm of a mannequin as a template, and exhibited at White Cube gallery in Bermondsey, London in 2013. The sculpture is today situated on a riverside path on the east side of the North Greenwich in south-east London, where it forms part of The Line, a public sculpture trail that very roughly follows the path of the Prime Meridian as it crosses the River Thames.
Philosophy and approach to painting
In 2012, Hume made an exhibition titled 'Indifferent Owl'. Speaking about his work in 2011, Hume had stated, 'Where I live in New York, there's a wood. I heard an owl in the night. Next day I found one of those "Happy Birthday" balloons caught in the trees. It had almost deflated. I imagined the owl, utterly indifferent, watching the balloon float by as it slowly collapsed. That's how I see life. I'm the owl, totally disengaged as the balloon bobs by…'
Exhibitions
Hume represented Great Britain at the 1999 Venice Biennale, where he showed his Water series, a number of superimposed line drawings of women (again, these were gloss paint on aluminium). His work was the subject of a one-person exhibition at Whitechapel Gallery, London, in 1999. Later monographic shows of Hume's work were organised at the Kestnergesellschaft, Hannover, and the Kunsthaus Bregenz, Austria, in 2004, and Modern Art Oxford mounted a survey show of his Door paintings in 2008.
Recognition
In 1996, Hume was nominated for the Turner Prize, but lost out to Douglas Gordon. He was later awarded Great Britain's 1997 Jerwood Painting Prize. Hume was elected a Royal Academician in 2001.
References
External links
Matthew Marks Gallery - Gary Hume
Images of some of Hume's later works
An interview from The Guardian by Dominic Murphy
Clippings from an interview by David Barrett
BBC Collective Gary Hume gives a video tour of his exhibition Cave Paintings at the White Cube, plus a gallery of images
Gary Hume on Artcyclopedia
Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections
1962 births
Living people
20th-century English painters
English male painters
21st-century English painters
21st-century male artists
Alumni of Goldsmiths, University of London
People from Tenterden
Royal Academicians
Young British Artists
English contemporary artists
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food%20pyramid%20%28nutrition%29
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Food pyramid (nutrition)
|
A food pyramid is a representation of the optimal number of servings to be eaten each day from each of the basic food groups. The first pyramid was published in Sweden in 1974. The 1992 pyramid introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) was called the "Food Guide Pyramid" or "Eating Right Pyramid". It was updated in 2005 to "MyPyramid", and then it was replaced by "MyPlate" in 2011.
Swedish origin
Amid high food prices in 1972, Sweden's National Board of Health and Welfare developed the idea of "basic foods" that were both cheap and nutritious, and "supplemental foods" that added nutrition missing from the basic foods. Anna-Britt Agnsäter, chief of the "test kitchen" for Kooperativa Förbundet (a cooperative Swedish retail chain), held a lecture the next year on how to illustrate these food groups. Attendee Fjalar Clemes suggested a triangle displaying basic foods at the base. Agnsäter developed the idea into the first food pyramid, which was introduced to the public in 1974 in KF's Vi magazine. The pyramid was divided into basic foods at the base, including milk, cheese, margarine, bread, cereals and potato; a large section of supplemental vegetables and fruit; and an apex of supplemental meat, fish and egg. The pyramid competed with the National Board's "dietary circle", which KF saw as problematic for resembling a cake divided into seven slices, and for not indicating how much of each food should be eaten. While the Board distanced itself from the pyramid, KF continued to promote it.
Food pyramids were developed in other Scandinavian countries, as well as West Germany, Japan and Sri Lanka. The United States later developed its first food pyramid in 1992.
Food pyramid published by the WHO and FAO
The World Health Organization, in conjunction with the Food and Agriculture Organization, published guidelines that can be effectively represented in a food pyramid relating to objectives in order to prevent obesity, improper nutrition, chronic diseases and dental caries based on meta-analysis though they represent it as a table rather than as a "pyramid". The structure is similar in some respects to the USDA food pyramid, but there are clear distinctions between types of fats, and a more dramatic distinction where carbohydrates are categorized on the basis of free sugars versus sugars in their natural form. Some food substances are singled out due to the impact on the target issues that the "pyramid" is meant to address. In a later revision, however, some recommendations are omitted as they automatically follow other recommendations while other sub-categories are added. The reports quoted here explain that where there is no stated lower limit in the table below, there is no requirement for that nutrient in the diet.
All percentages are percentages of calories, not of weight or volume. To understand why, consider the determination of an amount of "10% free sugar" to include in a day's worth of calories. For the same amount of calories, free sugars take up less volume and weight, being refined and extracted from the competing carbohydrates in their natural form. In a similar manner, all the items are in competition for various categories of calories.
The representation as a pyramid is not precise, and involves variations due to the alternative percentages of different elements, but the main sections can be represented.
USDA food pyramid
History
The USDA food pyramid was created in 1992 and divided into six horizontal sections containing depictions of foods from each section's food group. It was updated in 2005 with colorful vertical wedges replacing the horizontal sections and renamed MyPyramid. MyPyramid was often displayed with the food images absent, creating a more abstract design.
In an effort to restructure food nutrition guidelines, the USDA rolled out its new MyPlate program in June 2011. My Plate is divided into four slightly different sized quadrants, with fruits and vegetables taking up half the space, and grains and protein making up the other half. The vegetables and grains portions are the largest of the four.
A modified food pyramid was proposed in 1999 for adults aged over 70.
Vegetables
A vegetable is a part of a plant consumed by humans that is generally savory but is not sweet. A vegetable is not considered a grain, fruit, nut, spice, or herb. For example, the stem, root, flower, etc., may be eaten as vegetables. Vegetables contain many vitamins and minerals; however, different vegetables contain different balances of micronutrients, so it is important to eat a wide variety of types. For example, orange and dark green vegetables typically contain vitamin A, dark green vegetables contain vitamin C, and vegetables like broccoli and related plants contain iron and calcium. Vegetables are very low in fats and calories, but ingredients added in preparation can often add these.
Grains
These foods provide complex carbohydrates, which are a good source of energy and provide much nutrition when unrefined. Examples include corn, wheat, pasta, and rice.
Fruits
In terms of food (rather than botany), fruits are the sweet-tasting seed-bearing parts of plants, or occasionally sweet parts of plants which do not bear seeds.
These include apples, oranges, grapes, bananas, etc. Fruits are low in calories and fat and are a source of natural sugars, fiber and vitamins. Processing fruit when canning or making into juices may add sugars and remove nutrients. The fruit food group is sometimes combined with the vegetable food group. Note that a massive number of different plant species produce seed pods which are considered fruits in botany, and there are a number of botanical fruits which are conventionally not considered fruits in cuisine because they lack the characteristic sweet taste, e.g., tomatoes or avocados.
Dairy
Dairy products are produced from the milk of mammals, usually but not exclusively cattle. They include milk, yogurt and cheese. Milk and its derivative products are a rich source of dietary calcium and also provide protein, phosphorus, vitamin A, and vitamin D. However, many dairy products are high in saturated fat and cholesterol compared to vegetables, fruits and whole grains, which is why skimmed products are available as an alternative.
Historically, adults were recommended to consume three cups of dairy products per day. More recently, evidence is mounting that dairy products have greater levels of negative effects on health than previously thought and confer fewer benefits. For example, recent research has shown that dairy products are not related to stronger bones or less fractures; on the contrary, another study showed that milk (and yogurt) consumption results in higher bone mineral density in the hip. Overall, the majority of research suggests that dairy has some beneficial effects on bone health, in part because of milk's other nutrients.
Meat and beans
Meat is the tissue – usually muscle – of an animal consumed by humans. Since most parts of many animals are edible, there is a vast variety of meats. Meat is a major source of protein, as well as iron, zinc, and vitamin B12. Meats, poultry, and fish include beef, chicken, pork, salmon, tuna, shrimp, and eggs.
The meat group is one of the major compacted food groups in the food guide pyramid. Since many of the same nutrients found in meat can also be found in foods like eggs, dry beans, and nuts, such foods are typically placed in the same category as meats, as meat alternatives. These include tofu, products that resemble meat or fish but are made with soy, eggs, and cheeses. For those who do not consume meat or animal products (see Vegetarianism, veganism and Taboo food and drink), meat analogs, tofu, beans, lentils, chickpeas, nuts and other high-protein vegetables are also included in this group. The food guide pyramid suggests that adults eat 2–3 servings per day. One serving of meat is , about the size of a deck of cards.
Oils and sweets
A food pyramid's tip is the smallest part, so the fats and sweets in the top of the Food Pyramid should comprise the smallest percentage of the diet. The foods at the top of the food pyramid should be eaten sparingly because they provide calories, but not much in the way of nutrition. These foods include salad dressings, oils, cream, butter, margarine, sugars, soft drinks, candies, and sweet desserts. On the 1992-2005 pyramid, the fat circle and sugar triangle are scattered throughout the pyramid to represent the naturally-occurring fats and sugars in various foods. The idea of this is to reduce the temptation to eat so much junk food and excessive fats and sugars, as there is already enough fat and sugar in the rest of the diet. For example, the triangles in the Fruit Group represent the fact that sugar is inevitable in that group.
Controversy
thumb|upright=.65|Inside the pyramid
Certain dietary choices that have been linked to heart disease, such as an serving of hamburger daily, were technically permitted under the pyramid. The pyramid also lacked differentiation within the protein-rich group ("Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, Eggs, and Nuts").
In April 1991, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) halted publication of its Eating Right Pyramid, due to objections raised by meat and dairy lobbying groups concerning the guide’s display of their products. Despite the USDA’s explanations that the guide required further research and testing, it was not until one year later—after its content was supported by additional research—that the Eating Right Pyramid was officially released. This time, even the guide’s graphic design was altered to appease industry concerns. This incident was only one of many in which the food industry attempted to alter federal dietary recommendations in their own economic self-interest.
Some of the recommended quantities for the different types of food in the old pyramid have also come under criticism for lack of clarity. For instance, the pyramid recommends two to three servings from the protein-rich group, but this is intended to be a maximum. The pyramid recommends two to four fruit servings, but this is intended to be the minimum.
The fats group as a whole have been put at the tip of the pyramid, under the direction to eat as little as possible, which some people have considered problematic. The guide instructs people to limit fat intake as much as possible, which can cause health problems because fat is essential to overall health. Research suggests that unsaturated fats aid in weight loss, reduce heart disease risk, lower blood sugar, and even lower cholesterol. Also, they are very long sustaining, and help keep blood sugar at a steady level. On top of that, these fats help brain function as well.
Several books have claimed that food and agricultural associations exert undue political power on the USDA. Food industries, such as milk companies, have been accused of influencing the United States Department of Agriculture into making the colored spots on the newly created food pyramid larger for their particular product. The milk section has been claimed to be the easiest to see out of the six sections of the pyramid, making individuals believe that more milk should be consumed on a daily basis compared to the others. Furthermore, the inclusion of milk as a group unto itself implies that is an essential part of a healthy diet, despite the many people who are lactose intolerant or choose to abstain from dairy, and a number of cultures that have historically consumed little if any dairy products. Joel Fuhrman says in his book Eat to Live that U.S. taxpayers must contribute 20 billion on price supports to artificially reduce the price of cattle feed to benefit the dairy, beef and veal industries, and then pay the medical bills for an overweight population. He asks if the USDA is under the influence of the food industry, because a food pyramid based on science would have vegetables at its foundation.
These controversies prompted the creation of pyramids for specific audiences, including a Vegetarian Diet Pyramids.
Alternatives to the USDA pyramid
The Harvard School of Public Health proposes a healthy eating pyramid, which includes calcium and multi-vitamin supplements as well as moderate amounts of alcohol, as an alternative to the Food Guide Pyramid.
The University of Michigan Integrative Medicine’s Healing Foods Pyramid emphasizes plant-based choices, variety and balance. It includes sections for seasonings and water as well as healthy fats.
MyPlate
MyPlate is the current nutrition guide published by the United States Department of Agriculture, depicting a place setting with a plate and glass divided into five food groups. It replaced the USDA's MyPyramid guide on June 2, 2011, concluding 19 years of USDA food pyramid diagrams.
See also
Food and Nutrition Service
Fruits & Veggies – More Matters
Healthy diet
Healthy eating pyramid
History of USDA nutrition guides
Human nutrition
List of nutrition guides
Nutrition education
Overall nutritional quality index
References
External links
USDA Dietary Guidelines
Tufts Researchers Update Their Food Guide Pyramid for Older Adults
Symbols introduced in 1974
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208100
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverdale%20High%20School
|
Riverdale High School
|
'''Riverdale High School can refer to:
Riverdale High School (Archie Comics), the fictional school in Archie Comics
Riverdale High School (Riverdale, Malibu) in Riverdale, California
Riverdale High School (Fort Myers, Florida) in Fort Myers, Florida
Riverdale High School (Riverdale, Georgia) in Riverdale, Georgia
Riverdale High School (Port Byron, Illinois) in Port Byron, Illinois
Riverdale High School (Jefferson, Louisiana) in Jefferson, Louisiana
Riverdale High School (Riverdale, Nebraska) in Riverdale, Nebraska
Riverdale High School (Hancock County, Ohio) in Mount Blanchard, Ohio
Riverdale High School (Portland, Oregon) in Portland, Oregon
Riverdale High School (Murfreesboro, Tennessee) in Murfreesboro, Tennessee
Riverdale High School (Muscoda, Wisconsin) in Muscoda, Wisconsin
Riverdale High School (Pierrefonds, Quebec) in Pierrefonds, Quebec, Canada
Riverdale High School, Dehradun, India in Dallanwala, Dehradun
Riverdale High School (Garia, Kolkata) in Kolkata, West Bengal, India
See also
Riverdale Collegiate Institute, a high school in Toronto, Ontario, Canada
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion%20of%20no%20confidence
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Motion of no confidence
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A motion of no confidence (also variously called a vote of no confidence, no confidence motion, motion of confidence or vote of confidence), is a statement or vote about whether a person in a position of responsibility (government, management, etc.) is still deemed fit to hold that position, such as because they are inadequate in some aspect, fail to carry out their obligations, or make decisions that other members feel as being detrimental. The parliamentary motion demonstrates to the head of state that the elected Parliament either has or no longer has confidence in one or more members of the appointed government. In some countries, a no confidence motion being passed against an individual minister requires the minister to resign. In most cases, if the minister in question is the premier, all other ministers must also resign.
A censure motion is different from a no-confidence motion. Depending on the constitution of the body concerned, "no confidence" may lead to the dismissal of the Council of Ministers or other position-holders and often the dissolution of most of the leadership of the executive branch. On the other hand, "censure" is meant to show disapproval and does not result in the resignation of ministers. The motion of censure may be against an individual minister or a group of ministers. However, depending on a country's constitution, a no-confidence motion may be more directed against the entire cabinet. Again, depending on the applicable rules, censure motions may need to state the reasons for the motion, but specific reasons may not be required for no confidence motions.
Parliamentary systems
There are a number of variations in this procedure between parliaments. In some countries, a motion of no confidence can be directed at the government collectively or at any individual member, including the prime minister. Sometimes, motions of no confidence are proposed even though they have no likelihood of passage simply to pressure a government or to embarrass its own critics, who may for political reasons decide not to vote against it.
In many parliamentary democracies, there are strict time limits for no confidence motions such as being allowed only once every three, four or six months. Thus, the timing of a motion of no confidence is a matter of political judgement. A motion of no confidence on a relatively trivial matter may then prove counterproductive if a more important issue suddenly arises that actually warrants a motion of no confidence. Sometimes, the government chooses to declare that one of its bills is a "motion of confidence" to prevent dissident members of its own party voting against it.
Australia
In the Australian Parliament, a motion of no confidence requires a majority of the members present in the House of Representatives to agree to it. The House of Representatives has 151 members and so requires 76 votes in favour of the motion when all members of the House are present. A straight vote of no confidence in the Australian government and a motion or amendment censuring a government have never been successful in the House of Representatives. However, governments have on eight occasions resigned or advised a dissolution after their defeat on other questions before the House. The last time that a government resigned after being defeated in the House came in October 1941, when the House rejected the budget of Arthur Fadden's minority government.
Specific motions of no confidence or censure against the Prime Minister, ministers, the Leader of the Opposition, Senators and leaders of political parties have been successful on some occasions. Motions of no confidence against the government may be passed in the Senate but have little or no impact in the House. However, the Senate's right to refuse supply helped spark the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis. The convention remains a grey area, as Westminster governments are not normally expected to maintain the confidence of the upper house.
Bangladesh
In the Parliament of Bangladesh, there is no provision to hold motions of no-confidence, as a result of Article 70 of the Constitution of Bangladesh, which prohibits Members of Parliament voting against their party and made the removal of a sitting government unattainable.
Canada
In Canada, a vote of no confidence is a motion that the legislature disapproves and no longer consents to the governing prime minister or provincial premier and the incumbent Cabinet. A vote of no confidence that passes leads to the fall of the incumbent government. Originating as a constitutional convention, it remains an uncodified practice which is not outlined in any standing orders for the House of Commons. A no-confidence motion may be directed against only the incumbent government in the legislature, with votes of no confidence against the legislature's Official Opposition being inadmissible.
At the federal level, a vote of no confidence is a motion presented by a member of the House of Commons that explicitly states the House has no confidence in the incumbent government. The government may also declare any bill or motion to be a question of confidence. Several motions and bills are also considered implicit motions on confidence, and a vote of no confidence may be asserted automatically if such a bill fails to pass. Bills and motions that are considered implicit motions of confidence includes appropriations or supply bills, motions concerning budgetary policy, and the Address in Reply to the Speech from the Throne. The failure to pass those bills may be used as an automatic assertion of a vote of no confidence, but the opposition is not obligated to assert the failure as a no-confidence motion against the government.
If a vote of no confidence passes, the prime minister is required to either resign or request the governor general to dissolve Parliament and call a general election. The governor general may refuse a request for dissolution if an election has recently been held or there is another leader who can likely gain the confidence of the House. If a dissolution request is refused, the prime minister must resign, and the governor general invites the leader of another coalition/party to form a new government. Six motions of no confidence have been passed in the House of Commons: in 1926, 1963, 1974, 1979, 2005, and 2011. All successful votes of no confidence in the 20th century were the result of a loss of supply; votes of no confidence in 2005 and 2011 were the result of explicit confidence motions presented by the opposition.
The confidence convention is also present in the provincial legislatures of Canada, operating much like their federal counterpart. However, the decision to dissolve the legislature and call an election or to see if another coalition/party can form a government is left to the provincial lieutenant governor, not the governor general.
Two Canadian territories, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, operate as a consensus government system in which the premier is chosen by the members of the nonpartisan legislature. If a vote of no confidence against the incumbent government passes, the premier and the cabinet are removed from office, and the legislature elects a new premier. In a consensus governments, confidence motions may be directed against any individual ministers holding office as they are also nominated by members of the legislature.
European Union
The European Parliament can dismiss the European Commission, the executive body of the European Union, through a successful motion of no confidence, which requires a two-thirds vote. A successful vote on the motion leads to the resignation of the entire Commission.
Germany
In Germany, a vote of no confidence in the Federal Chancellor requires the opposition, on the same ballot, to propose a candidate of its own whom it wants the Federal President to appoint as its successor. Thus, a motion of no confidence may be brought forward only if there is a positive majority for the new candidate. The idea was to prevent the state crises that occurred near the end of the German Weimar Republic. Frequently, chancellors were then turned out of office without their successors having enough parliamentary support to govern. Unlike the British system, chancellors do not have to resign in response to the failure of a vote of confidence if it has been initiated by them, rather than by the parliamentary opposition, but they may ask the President to call general elections, a request that the President decides on whether to fulfill.
Greece
The Parliament may, by its decision, withdraw its confidence from the Government or from a member of it. A motion of no confidence can only be submitted six months after the Parliament has rejected a previous one. The motion must be signed by at least one-sixth of the Members and must clearly state the issues to be debated. A motion of no confidence is accepted only if it is approved by the absolute majority of the total number of Members.
India
In India, a motion of no confidence can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha (the lower house of the Parliament of India) and is admitted for discussion when at least 50 percent members support the motion (under Rule 198 of Lok Sabha Rules, 16th edition). If the motion carries, the house debates and votes on the motion. If a majority of the members vote in favour of the motion, it is passed, and the government is bound to vacate the office. Acharya Kripalani moved the first-ever no confidence motion on the floor of the Lok Sabha in August 1963, immediately after the disastrous Sino-Indian War. As of July 2019, 27 nonconfidence motions have been moved. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi faced the most no confidence motions (15), followed by Lal Bahadur Shastri and P. V. Narasimha Rao (three each), Morarji Desai (two) and Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajiv Gandhi, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Narendra Modi (one each). Vajpayee lost the no confidence motion by a margin of one vote (269-270) in April 1999. Prime Minister Desai resigned on 12 July 1979. The most recent no confidence motion was against the Narendra Modi government and accepted by the Speaker but defeated by 325–126.
With the Anti-Defection Law, a vote of no confidence has no relevance when the majority party has an absolute majority since it can whip party members to vote in favour of the government; it is thus impossible to remove the government by a no confidence motion. Hence, the no confidence exercise of the house becomes a no confidence exercise of the party.
Ireland
In Ireland, if a motion of no confidence in the Taoiseach or the government of Ireland is passed by the Dáil Éireann, and the Taoiseach and the government do not resign, the Dáil must be dissolved and a general election must be called.
Israel
The motion of no confidence is outlined in Israeli Basic Law Article 28 and Article 44 of the Knesset's Rule of Procedure.
Italy
In Italy, the government requires the support of both houses of Parliament. A vote of no confidence may be proposed if a tenth of the members of either house sign the proposition and within three days before the appointed date, the vote can be brought into discussion. After the case of Filippo Mancuso in 1995 and the subsequent Constitutional Court sentence in 1996, it is possible to propose an individual vote of no confidence against a single minister, instead of the whole government.
Japan
Article 69 of the 1947 Constitution of Japan provides that "if the House of Representatives passes a non-confidence resolution, or rejects a confidence resolution, the Cabinet shall resign en masse, unless the House of Representatives is dissolved within ten (10) days."
Pakistan
The Constitution of Pakistan has provision for a no confidence motion in all constituents of the Electoral College of the state. The motions can target speakers and deputy speakers of provincial and national assemblies, the Prime Minister, chief ministers of provinces, as well as the Chairman and Deputy Chairman of Senate. Before it can be put for vote on the pertinent house's floor, it must have the backing of at least 20% of the elected members in all cases except those moved against speakers or deputy speakers in which case there is no minimum. After being put to vote, the motion is deemed to be successful only if passed by a majority.
The no confidence procedure has historically been mostly used to remove speakers and deputy speakers. Of the 11 times that the motion has been invoked, nine cases targeted those posts, with four being effective. An incumbent Prime Minister of Pakistan has only been subject to a no confidence vote once, in November 1989, when Benazir Bhutto faced an ultimately-unsuccessful motion by Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi. The same is the case for a provincial Chief Minister, as the only instance of its use is the one moved against Chief Minister of Balochistan, Sanaullah Zehri in January 2018, who resigned before the vote could take place.
Peru
In Peru, both the legislative and the executive branches have the power to bring a motion of no confidence against acting legal members of the other branch. The President of the Cabinet may propose a motion of no confidence against any minister to Congress, which then needs more than half the Congress to approve it. The President of the Republic may dissolve Congress if it has censured or denied its confidence to two Cabinets. The relevant Articles 132-134 are in the 1993 version of the Constitution of Peru.
During the 2019 Peruvian constitutional crisis, President Martín Vizcarra enacted a constitutional process on 29 May 2019 to create a motion of no confidence towards Congress if it refused to co-operate with his proposed actions against corruption.
South Africa
Any MP in the National Assembly may request a motion of no confidence in either the Cabinet, excluding the President, or the President. The Speaker, within the rules of Parliament, must add such a motion to the Order Paper and give it due priority. If a motion of no confidence cannot be scheduled by the last sitting day of the annual sitting, it must be the first item on the Order Paper of the next sitting. In the event of a successful motion, the Speaker automatically assumes the position of acting president.
On 7 August 2017, Speaker Baleka Mbete announced that she would permit a motion of no confidence in Jacob Zuma's government to proceed in the National Assembly via secret ballot. It was the eighth motion to be brought against Zuma in his presidency and the first to be held via secret ballot. After the vote was held the next day, the motion was defeated 198–177, with 25 abstentions. Around 20 governing ANC MPs voted in favour of the measure.
Spain
The Spanish Constitution of 1978 provides for motions of no confidence to be proposed by one tenth of the Congress of Deputies. Following the German model, votes of no confidence in Spain are constructive and so the motion must also include an alternative candidate for Prime Minister. For a motion of no confidence to be successful, it has to be carried by an absolute majority in the Congress of Deputies. At least five days must pass after the motion is registered before it can come up for a vote. Other parties may submit alternative motions within two days of the registration.
Also, the Prime Minister is barred from dissolving the Cortes Generales and calling a general election while a motion of no confidence is pending. If the motion is successful, the incumbent Prime Minister must resign. According to the Constitution, the replacement candidate named in the motion is automatically deemed to have the confidence of the Congress of Deputies and is immediately appointed as Prime Minister by the monarch. If the motion is unsuccessful, its signatories may not submit another motion during the same session.
The current Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez was sworn in on 2 June 2018 after a motion of no-confidence against Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy had been approved on 1 June 2018.
Sweden
A motion of no confidence may be levelled against either the Prime Minister on behalf of the entire Swedish government or against an individual lower-level minister. At least 35 members of parliament (MPs) must support a proposal to initiate such a vote. A majority of MPs (175 members) must vote for a motion of no confidence for it to be successful. An individual minister who loses a confidence vote must resign. If a prime minister loses a no confidence vote, the entire government must resign. The speaker may allow the ousted prime minister to head a transitional or caretaker government until Parliament elects a new prime minister.
Under the principle of negative parliamentarism, a prime ministerial candidate nominated by the Speaker does not need the confidence of a majority of MPs to be elected. However, a majority of MPs must not vote against the candidate, which renders prime ministerial votes similar to no confidence votes. That means that a prime ministerial candidate, to be successful in the parliamentary vote, must have at least a total of 175 votes in favour and/or abstention. If a Speaker fails four times to have a nominee elected, an election must be held within three months of the final vote.
United Kingdom
Traditionally, in the Westminster system, the defeat of a supply bill, which concerns the spending of money, is seen to require automatically for the government to resign or ask for a new election, much like a no confidence vote. A government in a Westminster system that cannot spend money is hamstrung, which is also called a loss of supply.
Prior to 2011, in the British Parliament, a no confidence motion generally first appeared as an early day motion although the vote on the Speech from the Throne was also a confidence motion. However, under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, only a motion explicitly resolving that "this House has no confidence in Her Majesty's Government" is treated as a motion of no confidence.
Semi-presidential systems
In semi-presidential systems, the legislature may occasionally pass motions of no confidence, which removes only the cabinet and the prime minister. The legislature may also have the power to impeach an executive or judicial officer, with another institution or the legislature removing the officer from their office.
Russia
In Russia, the lower house of the Federal Assembly (the State Duma) may by a simple majority (at least 226 votes out of 450) pass a motion of no confidence against the government of Russia as a whole. In that case, the matter goes for consideration of the Russian President, who may choose to dismiss the cabinet, which he can do anyway anytime at his own discretion, or just ignore the Duma's decision. If the Duma passes a second motion of no confidence against the same composition of the cabinet within three months, the President is forced to make a concrete decision on whether to dismiss the government or to dissolve the Duma itself and call for new general elections. The State Duma may not be dissolved on those grounds if it was elected less than a year earlier, if it has already initiated impeachment proceedings against the President himself by bringing respective accusations, if less than six months remain left until presidential elections, or if there is a state of emergency or martial law throughout the whole territory of Russia. In the above-mentioned cases, the President is then effectively forced to dismiss the government.
France
In France, the lower house of French Parliament (the French National Assembly) may by a simple majority vote pass a motion of no confidence against the French government as a whole. In that case, the government is removed from power, and the President of France has to appoint a new Prime Minister of France, who then has to form a new government.
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka, the Parliament of Sri Lanka may pass a motion of no confidence against the Sri Lankan government. In that case, the government is removed from power and the President of Sri Lanka has to appoint a new Prime Minister, who has to form a new government.
History
The first motion of no confidence against an entire government occurred in March 1782 when, following news of the British defeat at Yorktown in the American Revolutionary War the previous October, the Parliament of Great Britain voted that it "can no longer repose confidence in the present ministers". British Prime Minister Lord North responded by asking King George III to accept his resignation. That did not immediately create a constitutional convention. Although it is considered the first formal motion of no-confidence, Sir Robert Walpole's resignation after a defeat on a vote in the House of Commons in 1742 is considered to be the first de facto motion of no-confidence.
During the early 19th century, attempts by prime ministers, such as Robert Peel, to govern in the absence of a parliamentary majority proved unsuccessful, and by the mid-19th century, the power of a motion of no confidence to break a government was firmly established in the UK.
In the United Kingdom, 11 prime ministers have been defeated through a no-confidence motion, but there has been only one such motion since 1925, in 1979 (against James Callaghan).
In modern times, passage of a motion of no confidence is a relatively rare event in two-party democracies. In almost all cases, party discipline is sufficient to allow a majority party to defeat a motion of no confidence, and if faced with possible defections in the government party, the government is likely to change its policies, rather than lose a vote of no confidence. The cases in which a motion of no confidence has passed are generally those in which the government party's slim majority has been eliminated by either by-elections or defections, such as the 1979 vote of no confidence in the Callaghan ministry in the UK which was carried by one vote and forced a general election, which was won by Margaret Thatcher's Conservative Party.
Motions of no confidence are far more common in multi-party systems in which a minority party must form a coalition government. That can mean that there have been many short-lived governments because the party structure allows small parties to defeat a government without the means to create a government. This has widely been regarded as the cause of instability for the French Fourth Republic and the German Weimar Republic. More recent examples have been in Italy between the 1950s and 1990s, Israel, and Japan.
To deal with that situation, the French placed a greater degree of executive power in the office of the French President, who is immune from motions of no confidence, along with a two-round plurality voting system, which makes it easier to form a stable majority government.
In 2008, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper, of the re-elected minority government of Canada, successfully requested Canadian Governor-general Michaëlle Jean to prorogue Parliament. That allowed Harper to delay a potential vote on the non-confidence motion presented by the opposition. (See 2008–2009 Canadian parliamentary dispute.) Three years later, in 2011, Harper's minority government was defeated by a motion of non-confidence, which declared the government to be in contempt of Parliament and led to an election that year.
In 2013, during the Euromaidan pro-European riots, the opposition in Ukraine called for a motion of no confidence against the Cabinet of Ministers, led by the pro-Russian and eurosceptic Prime Minister Mykola Azarov. At least 226 votes were needed to gain a majority in Ukraine's Verkhovna Rada. However, it fell 40 votes short, and Azarov's government prevailed.
On 1 June 2018, in Spain, the government of Mariano Rajoy was ousted after a motion of no confidence passed 180–169 after the sentence of the Gürtel corruption scandal, which involved the ruling party. Pedro Sánchez was sworn in as the new Spanish prime minister. That was the first time in the history of Spain that a vote of no confidence resulted in a change of government.
On 25 September 2018, Swedish Prime Minister Stefan Löfven was ousted after he lost a vote of no confidence in the Riksdag after an election was held on 9 September. The centre-left bloc led by Löfven's Social Democratic Party won only 144 seats in parliament, 31 seats short of an absolute majority and just one seat more than the opposition Alliance for Sweden bloc. The Sweden Democrats, having just won 62 seats, also voted with the main opposition bloc's motion of no confidence.
See also
Constructive vote of no confidence
Interpellation
Motions of no confidence in the United Kingdom
References
Voting
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1819%20in%20literature
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1819 in literature
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This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1819.
Events
January 30 – Romney Literary Society is established as the Polemic Society of Romney, West Virginia.
April – John Keats begins his "Great Year" or "Living Year", during which he is at his most productive, having given up work at Guy's Hospital and moved into a new house, Wentworth Place, on Hampstead Heath on the edge of London. On April 3, Charles Wentworth Dilke lets his house, next door to Keats, to Mrs Brawne, whose daughter Fanny would become the love of Keats's life. Between April 21 and the end of May Keats writes La Belle Dame sans Merci and most of his major odes: Ode to Psyche, Ode on a Grecian Urn, Ode to a Nightingale, Ode on Indolence and Ode on Melancholy. In the summer he writes Lamia; on September 19 he writes his ode To Autumn at Winchester; and on October 19 proposes marriage to Fanny.
April 1 – In London The New Monthly Magazine publishes John Polidori's Gothic fiction The Vampyre, the first significant piece of prose vampire literature in English, attributing it to Lord Byron (who partly inspired it). It is first published in book form later in the year.
June 23 – Washington Irving begins publishing The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. in seven installments — the first including "Rip Van Winkle" and a later one including "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" — simultaneously in New York and London (where Irving is living at this time).
August 16 – The Peterloo Massacre takes place in England, inspiring Percy Bysshe Shelley, in Italy, who, like Keats, has one of his most productive years. After hearing the news on September 5 he writes The Masque of Anarchy and sends it to a newspaper (although it is not published until 1832, after his death), also writing the political sonnet England in 1819 (published 1839), Ode to the West Wind (published 1820), The Cenci: A Tragedy, in Five Acts (printed in Italy, but not first performed publicly until 1922) and Julian and Maddalo (published in his Posthumous Poems of 1824) and beginning his prose work A Philosophical View of Reform.
September 20 – The Carlsbad Decrees are issued throughout the German Confederation, suppressing liberal and nationalist views and censoring the press.
October – In Britain, Richard Carlile is convicted of blasphemy and sent to prison for publishing The Age of Reason by Thomas Paine.
unknown dates
Joseph Perl's epistolary novel Megalleh Temirim ("Revealer of Secrets"), written under the name "Obadiah ben Pethahiah" and published in Vienna, becomes the first novel to be published in the Hebrew language.
The publisher Collins is founded as a printer of religious literature in Glasgow by William Collins.
W. & R. Chambers, established by brothers William Chambers of Glenormiston and Robert Chambers in Edinburgh, begin publishing.
New books
Fiction
Ann Hatton – The Oath of Vengeance
Thomas Hope – Anastasius
Washington Irving – The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent.
E. T. A. Hoffmann
Das Fräulein von Scuderi: Erzählung aus dem Zeitalter Ludwig des Vierzehnten (novella published in Taschenbuch für das Jahr 1820)
The Life and Opinions of the Tomcat Murr with a Fragmentary Biography of the Music Director Johannes Kreisler on Random Sheets of Waste Paper (Lebens-Ansichten des Katers Murr nebst fragmentarischer Biographie des Kapellmeisters Johannes Kreisler in zufälligen Makulaturblättern) (begins publication)
Joseph Perl – Megalleh Temirim
John William Polidori – The Vampyre
Walter Scott (anonymously)
The Bride of Lammermoor
A Legend of Montrose
Children
Maria Hack – Grecian Stories
Washington Irving – "Rip Van Winkle" (short story)
Drama
József Katona – Bánk bán
Alessandro Manzoni – Il Conte di Carmagnola
John Neal – Otho: A Tragedy, in Five Acts
Percy Bysshe Shelley – The Cenci, a Tragedy, in Five Acts
Poetry
Lord Byron – Mazeppa, with "Fragment of a Novel" as a supplement
Thomas Campbell – Specimens of the British Poets
Barry Cornwall – Dramatic Scenes and other Poems
Marceline Desbordes-Valmore – Élégies et romances
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – West-östlicher Divan (West-Eastern Diwan)
John Keats
La Belle Dame sans Merci
Odes (including "Ode to Psyche", "Ode on a Grecian Urn", "Ode to a Nightingale", "Ode on Melancholy" and "To Autumn")
John Neal – The Battle of Niagara: Second Edition, Enlarged, with Other Poems
Percy Bysshe Shelley
The Cenci, a Tragedy, in Five Acts
Ode to the West Wind
The Masque of Anarchy
Men of England
England in 1819
The Witch of Atlas
Julian and Maddalo
Non-fiction
Abbé Faria – Le Sommeil lucide
Jakob Grimm – German Grammar
Georg Hermes – Philosophical Introduction to Christian Theology
Louisa Gurney Hoare – Hints for the Improvement of Early Education and Nursery Discipline
Richard Colt Hoare – A Classical Tour through Italy and Sicily
John Lingard – The History of England, From the First Invasion by the Romans to the Accession of Henry VIII (8 volumes)
Arthur Schopenhauer – The World as Will and Representation
Percy Bysshe Shelley – A Philosophical View of Reform (published 1920)
Births
January 1 – Arthur Hugh Clough, English poet (died 1861)
January 21 – Edward Capern, English postman poet (died 1894)
January 22 – Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle, Italian writer and art critic (died 1897)
February 22 – James Russell Lowell, American poet (died 1891)
April 23 – Bernard Quaritch, German-born English philologist and bookseller (died 1899)
May 27 – Julia Ward Howe, American poet and abolitionist (died 1910)
May 31 – Walt Whitman, American poet (died 1892)
June 12 – Charles Kingsley, English novelist and cleric (died 1875)
July 4 – Marie Sophie Schwartz, Swedish novelist (died 1894)
July 11 – Susan Warner (pseudonym Elizabeth Weatherell), American religious and children's writer (died 1885)
July 24 – Josiah Gilbert Holland, American novelist and poet (died 1881)
August 1 – Herman Melville, American novelist (died 1891)
November 22 – George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans), English novelist, poet and journalist (died 1880)
December 26 – E. D. E. N. Southworth, American writer (died 1899)
December 30 – Theodor Fontane, German novelist (died 1898)
Unknown dates
Butrus al-Bustani, Lebanese writer (died 1883)
Harriet Anne Scott, Scottish novelist (died 1894)
Deaths
January 8 – Valentin Vodnik, Carniolan Slovene poet, writer and priest (born 1758)
January 12
André Morellet, French economist and philosopher (born 1727)
Benedikte Naubert, German historical novelist (born 1752)
February 12 – Juan Ramis, Spanish historian (born 1746)
March 23
August von Kotzebue, German dramatist (born 1761)
Jean-Antoine-Marie Monperlier, French poet and dramatist (born 1788)
April 17 – William Holland, English diarist (born 1746)
October 30 – John Bowles, English political writer and lawyer (born 1751)
November 2 – Théodore-Pierre Bertin, French writer and pioneer of shorthand (born 1751)
November 23 – Quintin Craufurd, Scottish historian (born 1743)
Unknown dates
Abu Rumi, Ethiopian translator of the Bible into Amharic (born c. 1750)
Wang Yun, Chinese poet and playwright (born 1749)
Awards
Chancellor's Gold Medal for Poetry – Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay
Newdigate Prize – H. J. Urquhart
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1818%20in%20literature
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1818 in literature
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This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1818.
Events
January 1 – Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein; or, the Modern Prometheus first appears anonymously in London. Its originality is praised by Walter Scott.
January 8 – Lord Byron, in Venice, sends the final part of Childe Harold to his publisher.
January 11 – Percy Bysshe Shelley's poem "Ozymandias" appears in Leigh Hunt's weekly The Examiner (London; p. 24) under the pen name "Glirastes". Horace Smith's contribution to the same informal sonnet-writing competition, "On a Stupendous Leg of Granite, Discovered Standing by Itself in the Deserts of Egypt, with the Inscription Inserted Below" is published on February 1 under his initials.
January – Samuel Taylor Coleridge delivers a series of lectures on poetry, drama and philosophy, beginning with Shakespeare's Hamlet.
March 12 – Percy Bysshe Shelley, his wife Mary and her stepsister Claire Clairmont leave England for Italy, intending to take Claire's illegitimate child Alba to her father, Lord Byron.
April 11 – John Keats and Samuel Taylor Coleridge take a walk on Hampstead Heath. In a letter to his brother George, Keats writes that they talked of "a thousand things... nightingales, poetry, poetical sensation, metaphysics."
May 11 – The Old Vic is founded as the Royal Coburg Theatre in South London by James King, Daniel Dunn and John Thomas Serres.
June – Last issue of The Portico: A Repository of Science & Literature is published with John Neal as editor.
June–August – Keats with his friend Charles Armitage Brown makes a walking tour of Scotland, Ireland and the English Lake District. On July 11 while in Scotland he visits Burns Cottage, the birthplace of Robert Burns (1759–1796). Before Keats arrives, he writes to a friend "one of the pleasantest means of annulling self is approaching such a shrine as the cottage of Burns — we need not think of his misery — that is all gone — bad luck to it — I shall look upon it all with unmixed pleasure." but his encounter with the cottage's alcoholic custodian returns him to thoughts of misery. On August 2 he climbs to the summit of Ben Nevis, on which he writes a sonnet.
July
Thomas De Quincey begins 16 months as editor of a new weekly newspaper The Westmorland Gazette, published at Kendal in the English Lake District.
The Stephenson Blake type foundry begins operation in Sheffield, England.
July 18 – Walter Scott's historical novel The Heart of Midlothian appears as Tales of My Landlord, 2nd series, by "Jedediah Cleishbotham", in four volumes. A shipload of copies is sent from John Ballantyne (publisher) in Edinburgh to London.
August 28 – The National Library of Iceland is founded as Íslands stiftisbókasafn, at the instigation of a Danish antiquarian, Carl Christian Rafn, and the Icelandic Literary Society.
September 19 – Lord Byron writes to Thomas Moore that he has completed the first canto of Don Juan, begun on July 3.
November – Fanny Brawne first meets John Keats at the home of Charles Armitage Brown.
New books
Fiction
Jane Austen (died 1817)
Northanger Abbey (completed 1803)
Persuasion (so dated, but issued December 1817)
Patrick Brontë (anonymous) – The Maid of Killarney
Selina Davenport – An Angel's Form and a Devil's Heart
Susan Edmonstone Ferrier – Marriage
Franz Grillparzer – Sappho
Ann Hatton – Secrets in Every Mansion
Mary Meeke – The Veiled Protectress
Sydney Owenson – Florence Macarthy: an Irish tale
Thomas Love Peacock (anonymous) – Nightmare Abbey
Anna Maria Porter – The Fast of St. Magdalen: a Romance
Walter Scott (as Jedediah Cleishbotham) – The Heart of Midlothian (Tales of My Landlord, 2nd series)
Mary Shelley (anonymously) – Frankenstein
Louisa Stanhope
The Bandit's Bride
The Nun of Santa Maria di Tindaro
Elizabeth Thomas – Woman, or Minor Maxims; a Sketch
Children
Maria Hack – Winter Evenings
Mary Martha Sherwood (anonymous) – The History of the Fairchild Family; or, The Child's Manual (Part I; Part II in 1842, Part III in 1847)
Drama
William Dimond – The Bride of Abydos
Franz Grillparzer – Sappho
Silvio Pellico – Francesca da Rimini
Poetry
Kristijonas Donelaitis – The Seasons
John Keats – Endymion
Thomas Bowdler – The Family Shakspeare (2nd bowdlerized edition expanded from 1807 edition)
John Neal – Battle of Niagara, a Poem, without Notes; and Goldau, or the Maniac Harper
Percy Bysshe Shelley
Ozymandias
The Revolt of Islam (so dated, but issued December 1817)
Elizabeth Thomas (anonymous) – The Confession, or, The Novice of St Clare, and other Poems
Non-fiction
Elizabeth Beverley – Modern Times, "sermon" prompted by death of Princess Charlotte of Wales
Josef Dobrovský – Geschichte der böhmischen Sprache und Literatur (Dějiny českého jazyka a literatury, History of the Czech Language)
John Evelyn (died 1706) – Diary (selection; diary covers 1641–1697)
Henry Hallam – The View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages
William Hazlitt – Lectures on the English Poets
James Mill – The History of British India
Charles Mills – History of Mohammedanism
Collin de Plancy – Dictionnaire Infernal
Arthur Schopenhauer – The World as Will and Representation (Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung)
Births
January 14 – Zachris Topelius, Swedish-language Finnish novelist (died 1898)
February – Frederick Douglass, African-American abolitionist, author and orator (died 1895)
April 23 – James Anthony Froude, English religious controversialist and historian (died 1894)
May 5 – Karl Marx, German philosopher (died 1883)
May 25 – Jacob Burckhardt, Swiss historian (died 1897)
July 30 – Emily Brontë, English novelist and poet (died 1848)
November 9 (October 28 OS) – Ivan Turgenev, Russian novelist and playwright (died 1883)
Deaths
January 11 – Johann David Wyss, Swiss children's author writing in German (born 1743)
March 6 – John Gifford, English political writer (born 1758)
May 14 – Matthew Lewis, English novelist and dramatist (born 1775)
June 11 – Elizabeth Bonhôte, English novelist, essayist and poet (born 1744)
October 22 – Joachim Heinrich Campe, German linguist and publisher (born 1746)
November 6 – Malcolm Laing, Scottish historian (born 1762)
December 7 – Mary Brunton, Scottish novelist (born 1778)
Awards
Newdigate Prize – T. H. Ormerod
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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208109
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1817%20in%20literature
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1817 in literature
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This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1817.
Events
January 27 – March 18 – Jane Austen begins, but abandons her novel Sanditon ("Three Brothers").
February 12 – Junius Brutus Booth makes his stage debut in the title role of Shakespeare's Richard III at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden in London.
February 20 – Junius Brutus Booth as Iago plays opposite Edmund Kean in the title role of Othello at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London.
March – Percy and Mary Shelley with Claire Clairmont and the latter's new daughter by Lord Byron, Allegra (at this time called Alba), having moved from Bath, begin a year's residence in Marlow, Buckinghamshire, England, where Mary completes Frankenstein and gives birth to her third child, and Percy writes The Revolt of Islam.
April 1 – Blackwood's Magazine is launched as the Edinburgh Monthly Magazine. In October the publisher, William Blackwood, relaunches it as Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine.
August 6 – Gas lighting on stage is introduced in London's English Opera House (extended to the auditorium on September 8). On September 6 it is introduced at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, where it has already been installed in the auditorium and foyer, and the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, as a demonstration.
December 18 – 20 – William Hone successfully defends himself in a London court on charges arising from his publication of political satires.
December 28 – English painter Benjamin Haydon introduces John Keats to William Wordsworth and Charles Lamb at a dinner in London to celebrate progress on his painting Christ's Entry into Jerusalem, in which all feature.
December 31 – Walter Scott's historical novel Rob Roy, written from this spring, is published anonymously by Archibald Constable in Edinburgh, while a shipload of copies is carried from Leith to London for simultaneous publication there by Longman.
December – Jane Austen's first and last completed novels, respectively Northanger Abbey and Persuasion are published together by John Murray in London (dated 1818), six months after the author's death at Winchester. Her brother Henry Austen contributes a biographical note, which first publicly identifies her as the author of her previously anonymous novels. She had earned £684 in her lifetime from her writing.
unknown – J. & J. Harper publishing house is founded in New York City by James Harper and his brother John.
New books
Fiction
Jane Austen
Northanger Abbey
Persuasion
Selina Davenport – Woman's Privilege
Maria Edgeworth
Harrington: a tale
Ormond: a tale
Ann Hatton – Gonzalo de Baldivia
John Neal – Keep Cool
Thomas Love Peacock – Melincourt.
Anna Maria Porter – The Knight of St. John
Walter Scott – Rob Roy
Catherine Selden – Villa Santelle
Elizabeth Thomas – Claudine, or Pertinacity
Drama
Franz Grillparzer – Die Ahnfrau (The Ancestress)
Richard Lalor Sheil – The Apostate
George Soane
The Bohemian: a Tragedy
The Falls of Clyde: a Melodrama
The Inn-Keeper's Daughter
Zachary Zealoushead – Plots and Placement
Poetry
Lord Byron – Manfred: A Dramatic Poem
Thomas Moore – Lalla-Rookh: An Oriental Romance
Henry Neele – Odes and Other Poems
Percy Bysshe Shelley – Hymn to Intellectual Beauty
Robert Southey – Wat Tyler: A Dramatic Poem
Charles Wolfe – The Burial of Sir John Moore at Corunna
Non-fiction
Franz Xaver von Baader – Über die Extase oder das Verzücktsein der magnetischen Schlafredner
William Cobbett – Paper against Gold: the History and Mystery of the Bank of England
Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Biographia Literaria
Nathan Drake – Shakespeare and his Times (2 volumes)
Eliza Fay (posthumously) – Original Letters from IndiaWilliam Hazlitt – Characters of Shakespear's PlaysGeorg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Encyclopedia of the Philosophical SciencesJames Mill – The History of British IndiaDavid Ricardo – On the Principles of Political Economy and TaxationPercy Bysshe Shelley and Mary Shelley – History of a Six Weeks' TourBirths
February 21 – José Zorrilla y Moral, Spanish poet and dramatist (died 1893)
March 19 – Jozef Miloslav Hurban, Slovak writer, radical and minister (died 1886)
May 21 – Hermann Lotze, German philosopher (died 1881)
July 12 – Henry David Thoreau, American poet and philosopher (died 1862)
September 5 – Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Russian poet, dramatist and novelist (died 1875)
September 14 – Theodor Storm, German novelist and poet (died 1888)
December 31 – James T. Fields, American publisher (died 1881)
Deaths
March 23 – José Mariano Beristain, Mexican bibliographer (born 1756)
April 6 – Caleb Bingham, American textbook author (born 1757)
April 25 – Joseph von Sonnenfels, Austrian novelist (born 1732)
May 24 – Juan Meléndez Valdés, Spanish poet (born 1754)
July 14 – Germaine de Staël, French woman of letters (born 1766)
July 18 – Jane Austen, English novelist (born 1775)
August 21 – Tarikonda Venkamamba, Telugu woman poet (born 1730)
December 28 – Charles Burney, English classicist (born 1757)unknown date'' – Joakim Stulić, Croatian lexicographer (born 1730)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1816%20in%20literature
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1816 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1816.
Events
January – The Portico: A Repository of Science & Literature launched in Baltimore with poetry, literary criticism and essays by John Neal and others.
April – Lord Byron leaves England for good to tour continental Europe.
April 14 – Lord Byron's poems "A Sketch from Private Life" and "Fare Thee Well", about his separation from his wife Anne Isabella, are published without authority in The Champion.
May 5 – The first published poem by 20-year-old trainee surgeon John Keats, the sonnet "To Solitude", appears in The Examiner.
May 9 – Lady Caroline Lamb's novel Glenarvon is the first book published independently by Henry Colburn in London. A roman à clef, it contains an unflattering portrait of her ex-lover Lord Byron in the rakish title character of Lord Glenarvon and provokes Purity of Heart; Or, The Ancient Costume: A Tale, in One Volume, Addressed to the Author of Glenarvon, "a virulent, polemical novel" by "An old wife of twenty years", actually clergyman's spouse Elizabeth Thomas.
July – Lord Byron, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Polidori, who have gathered at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva in a rainy Switzerland in this 'Year Without a Summer', tell each other tales. This spawns two classic Gothic narratives, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein and Polidori's The Vampyre (based on Byron's "Fragment of a Novel"). Byron also writes the poem Darkness. In late August Shelley and Godwin return to England, taking with them some of Byron's manuscripts for his publisher.
September 16
Lord Byron's Monody on the Death of the Right Honourable R. B. Sheridan, written at the request of Douglas Kinnaird, is spoken at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London by Mrs. Maria Davison.
Actor William Macready makes his London debut at Covent Garden, as Orestes in The Distressed Mother, a translation of Racine's Andromaque made by Ambrose Philips.
October
Charles Wentworth Dilke and his friend Charles Armitage Brown take up residence at Wentworth Place in Hampstead, then on the northern edge of London.
John Keats writes his sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer".
November 25 – The Chestnut Street Theatre in Philadelphia (United States) becomes the world's first to be lit by gas.
December – John Keats composes the poem "Sleep and Poetry" while staying at the Hampstead house of his friend Leigh Hunt, who introduces him to Shelley.
December 5 – Lord Byron's The Prisoner of Chillon, and Other Poems is published in London. John Murray, his publisher, is able to sell 7,000 copies of this and of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, Canto III (published November 18) to booksellers at a dinner this month.
December 30 – Percy Bysshe Shelley marries his mistress Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin in London, after the suicides on October 9 of her half-sister, Fanny Imlay (by laudanum in Swansea), and on December 10 of his pregnant estranged first wife, Harriet (by drowning in The Serpentine).
unknown dates
Publication in Mexico of José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi's comic picaresque novel The Mangy Parrot: The Life and Times of Periquillo Sarniento written by himself for his children (El Periquillo Sarniento) in installments, generally seen as the first novel written and published in Latin America, although government censorship prevents the final chapters from being published until the 1830s.
Shakespeare's Hamlet is for the first time performed at the castle of Kronborg in Helsingør (Elsinore, Denmark), where it is set.
Therese Huber begins to edit Morgenblatt für gebildete Stände in Tübingen.
New books
Fiction
Thomas Ashe – The Soldier of Fortune
Sarah Burney – Tales of Fancy: The Shipwreck
Benjamin Constant – Adolphe
Selina Davenport – The Original of the Miniature
Stéphanie Félicité, Comtesse de Genlis – Jane of France
Jane Harvey – Brougham Castle
Ann Hatton – Chronicles of an Illustrious House
Barbara Hofland – The Maid of Moscow
Leigh Hunt – The Story of Rimini
Frances Margaretta Jacson (wrongly ascribed to Mary Brunton) – Rhoda
Henry Gally Knight – Ilderim, a Syrian Tale
Caroline Lamb – Glenarvon
Alicia Le Fanu – Strathallan
José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi – The Mangy Parrot
Emma Parker – Self-deception
David William Paynter – Godfrey Ranger
Walter Scott
The Antiquary
The Black Dwarf
Old Mortality
Children
François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil – Jean et Jeannette, ou les Petits aventuriers parisiens (Jean and Jeanette, or Two Little Adventurers in Paris)
E. T. A. Hoffmann – Nussknacker und Mausekönig (The Nutcracker and the Mouse King, basis of ballet The Nutcracker)
Drama
Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Zapolya
Bernhard Severin Ingemann – Reinald Underbarnet (The Miraculous Child Reinald)
Charles Maturin – Bertram; or The Castle of St. Aldobrand
John Tobin – The Faro Table
Poetry
Lord Byron
Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, Canto III
Prometheus
The Siege of Corinth
Samuel Taylor Coleridge – "Christabel"; "Kubla Khan: A Vision" [written 1797]; "The Pains of Sleep"
John Keats – "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer"
Percy Bysshe Shelley
Alastor, or The Spirit of Solitude
Mont Blanc
Non-fiction
Franz Bopp – Über das Conjugationssystem der Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprache (On the Conjugation System of Sanskrit in comparison with that of Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic)
Samuel Taylor Coleridge – The Statesman's Manual; or, The Bible the best guide to political skill and foresight: a lay sermon
John Hoyland – A Historical Survey of the Customs, Habits, and Present State of the Gypsies
Nikolay Karamzin – History of the Russian State (История государства Российского, Istoriya gosudarstva Rossiyskogo; publication begins)
George Sinclair – Hortus gramineus Woburnensis
John Whittaker (printer) – Whittaker Magna Carta
Births
February 18 – Ferdinand Dugué, French poet and playwright (died 1913)
March 1 – Kawatake Mokuami (河竹黙阿弥), Japanese kabuki dramatist (died 1893)
April 1 – Peter Cunningham, British literary scholar and antiquarian (died 1869)
April 21 – Charlotte Brontë, English novelist and poet (died 1855)
June 2 – Grace Aguilar, English novelist (died 1847)
September 16 – Theodore Martin, Scottish poet, biographer and translator (died 1909)
September 20 – Fredrik August Dahlgren, Swedish dramatist and songwriter (died 1895)
November 1 – Friedrich Wilhelm Hackländer, German novelist, dramatist and travel writer (died 1877)
November 28 – Theodosia Trollope (Theodosia Garrow), English poet and translator (died 1865)
Deaths
February 22 – Adam Ferguson, Scottish philosopher (born 1723)
March 3 – Johann August von Starck, German writer and theologian (born 1741
April 28 – Johann Heinrich Abicht, German philosopher (born 1762)
July 7 – Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Irish playwright and politician (born 1751)
July 23 – Elizabeth Hamilton, Irish-born Scottish essayist, poet and novelist (born c. 1756)
September 9 – Eliza Fay, English letter-writer and traveller (born 1755 or 1756)
October 27 – Santō Kyōden (real name Iwase Samuru), Japanese fiction writer, poet and artist (born 1761)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1815%20in%20literature
|
1815 in literature
|
This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1815.
Events
January 2 – Lord Byron marries Anna Isabella Milbanke at Seaham, County Durham.
April 7 – Lord Byron and Walter Scott meet for the first time, in the offices of publisher John Murray, 50 Albemarle Street in London.
May – First publication of the North American Review.
June 15 – The Duchess of Richmond's ball is held in Brussels on the night before the Battle of Quatre Bras (and three nights before the Battle of Waterloo) by Charlotte, Duchess of Richmond for her son, the writer Lord William Lennox. It subsequently features in literary works by Lord Byron, William Makepeace Thackeray, Charles Lever, Georgette Heyer, Bernard Cornwell and Julian Fellowes.
December 23
Jane Austen's novel Emma is published anonymously by John Murray in London dated 1816. About 1500 copies sell over the next 5 years.
Polish scholar and adventurer Count Jan Potocki, believing that he is becoming a werewolf, shoots himself with a silver bullet, leaving his novel The Manuscript Found in Saragossa incomplete.
Thomas Love Peacock's first novel Headlong Hall is published anonymously by Thomas Hookham in London, dated 1816.
First complete publication of the Old English epic poem Beowulf, in a Latin translation by Icelandic-Danish scholar Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin.
The second volume of the first edition of the Brothers Grimm's Grimms' Fairy Tales is dated this year but published late in 1814.
New books
Fiction
Jane Austen (anonymously) – Emma (dated 1816)
Sarah Green – The Fugitive
Elizabeth Gunning
The Man of Fashion: a Tale of Modern Times
The Victims of Seduction
Ann Hatton ("Ann of Swansea") – Secret Avengers
Mary Hays – The Brothers, or Consequences
E. T. A. Hoffmann – The Devil's Elixirs (Die Elixiere des Teufels)
Barbara Hofland – A Father as He Should Be
Christian Isobel Johnstone (anonymously) – Clan-Albin: A National Tale
Elizabeth Meeke ("Mrs Meeke") – Spanish Campaigns, or The Jew
Thomas Love Peacock – Headlong Hall
Mary Pilkington
Celebrity
The Unfortunate Choice
Jane Porter – The Pastor's Fireside
Regina Marie Roche – Edinburg; a Novel
Walter Scott (anonymously) – Guy Mannering
Catharina Smith – Barozzi or the Venetian Sorceress: A Romance of the Sixteenth Century
Elizabeth Thomas ("Mrs Bridget Bluemantle" – identification unconfirmed) – The Baron of Falconberg, or Childe Harolde in prose
Children and young people
Arabella Argus – The Adventures of a Donkey
Drama
Barbarina Brand – Ina, a tragedy in five acts
Bernhard Severin Ingemann – Blanca
James Sheridan Knowles – Caius Gracchus
Jane Scott – The Gipsy Girl
Eugène Scribe and Delestre Poirson – Une Nuit de la Garde nationale
Poetry
Pierre-Jean de Béranger – Chansons I
Lord Byron – Hebrew Melodies
Walter Scott – The Field of Waterloo
Percy Bysshe Shelley – Alastor, or The Spirit of Solitude
William Wordsworth – The White Doe of Rylstone
Non-fiction
Simón Bolívar – Letter to Jamaica (September 6)
George Cavendish – The Life and Death of Cardinal Wolsey
Alexander von Humboldt – Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of the New Continent during the Years 1799–1804 (first edition in French, seven volumes up to 1826)
Les Jeux des Jeunes Garçons
John Malcolm – The History of Persia, from the Most Early Period to the Present Time
Thomas Malthus – An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent
Births
February 19 – Elizabeth Missing Sewell, English novelist and educationist (died 1906)
April 24 – Anthony Trollope, English novelist (died 1882)
April 25 – Richard William Church, English biographer and cleric (died 1890)
May 5 – Eugène Marin Labiche, French dramatist (died 1888)
July 17 – Thekla Knös, Swedish poet (died 1880)
August 1 – Marițica Bibescu, Wallachian poet and literary patron (died 1859)
October 4 – Franz Jakob Clemens, German philosopher (died 1862)
November 5 – Martins Pena, Brazilian dramatist (died 1848)
November 17 – Eliza Farnham, American novelist and reformer (died 1864)
December 10 – Augusta Ada King (née Byron), Countess of Lovelace, English mathematician and writer on computing (died 1852)
December 20 – James Legge, Scottish sinologist, missionary and translator (died 1897)
unknown date – Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai, Tamil scholar and poet (died 1876)
Deaths
January 21 – Matthias Claudius (Asmus), German poet (born 1740)
January 30 – Hans Christian Amberg, Danish lexicographer (born 1749)
March 4 – Frances Abington, née Barton, English actress (born 1737)
April 13 – Thomas Bayly Howell, English legal writer (born 1767)
November 2 – Gottlieb Christoph Harless, German bibliographer (born 1738)
November 11 – Pierre-Louis Ginguené, French writer and critic (born 1748)
November 17 – Dorothea Viehmann, German fairy-story teller (born 1755)
December 20 – Giovanni Meli, Sicilian poet (born 1740)
December 23 – Jan Potocki, Polish polymath (born 1761)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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208113
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1814%20in%20literature
|
1814 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1814.
Events
January 14 (January 2 O.S.) – The Imperial Public Library in Saint Petersburg opens to the public.
January 26 – Actor Edmund Kean makes his London début in the leading rôle of Shylock at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane.
February 1 – Lord Byron's semi-autobiographical tale in verse The Corsair is published by John Murray in London and sells 10,000 copies on this day and over 25,000 in the first month, going through seven editions. His Lara sells 6,000 copies on publication in the summer. Walter Scott is to say of Byron's poetry: "He beat me out of the field in description of the stronger passions and in deep-seated knowledge of the human heart."
July 7 – Walter Scott's Waverley, his first work of fiction and a major early historical novel in English, is published anonymously by Archibald Constable in Edinburgh, a week after Scott finishes it. It sells out in two days.
July 28–September 13 – English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley abandons his pregnant wife and runs away to France and Switzerland with the 16-year-old Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, accompanied by her stepsister Jane Clairmont, also 16.
August 24 – Burning of Washington (War of 1812): The British burn the original Library of Congress, at this time housed in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.
September 12–15 – Battle of Baltimore (War of 1812): American lawyer Francis Scott Key, witnessing the bombardment of Baltimore, Maryland, from a British ship, writes "Defence of Fort McHenry". His brother-in-law arranges to have the poem published in a broadside with a recommended tune on September 17; on September 20 both the Baltimore Patriot and The American print it. The song quickly becomes popular – seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire reprint it. In 1931, it is adopted as "The Star-Spangled Banner" as the national anthem of the United States.
September 21 After arrangements have been made for the United States Library of Congress, destroyed in August's Burning of Washington, to be re-stocked by purchase of the personal library of ex-President Thomas Jefferson, Jefferson writes to Samuel H. Smith, saying that there is "no subject to which a Member of Congress may not have occasion to refer".
November 29 – In London, The Times newspaper is printed using a revolutionary steam press for the first time. It runs at a rate of 1100 copies per hour.
Late – The first edition of the second volume of the Brothers Grimm's Grimms' Fairy Tales appears, dated 1815.
unknown dates
The earliest known printed Arabic language version of One Thousand and One Nights begins publication in Calcutta by the British East India Company.
Alfred de Vigny enrols as an officer in the Maison du Roi, the King's guard of Louis XVIII of France.
New books
Fiction
Jane Austen (anonymously) – Mansfield Park
Fanny Burney – The Wanderer: or, Female Difficulties (last novel)
Mary Brunton – Discipline
Adelbert von Chamisso – Peter Schlemihls wundersame Geschichte (Peter Schlemihl's Miraculous Story)
Selina Davenport – The Hypocrite
Maria Edgeworth – Patronage
Pierce Egan – The Mistress of Royalty
Jane Harvey
Auberry Stanhope
Ethelia: a Tale
Ann Hatton – Conviction
Laetitia Matilda Hawkins – Rossane; or A Father's Labour Lost
William Henry Hitchener – The Towers of Ravenswold
Christian Isobel Johnstone – The Saxon and the Gaël
Mary Meeke – Conscience
Lady Morgan – O'Donnell
Anna Maria Porter – The Recluse of Norway
Regina Maria Roche – Trecothick Bower
Walter Scott – Waverley
Louisa Stanhope – Madelina: A Tale Founded on Facts
Takizawa Bakin (Kyokutei Bakin, 曲亭 馬琴) – Nansō Satomi Hakkenden (南總里見八犬傳, The Eight Dog Chronicles, publication begins)
Elizabeth Thomas – The Prison-House
Jane West – Alicia de Lacy
Children
Maria Elizabeth Budden – Always Happy!!: Or, Anecdotes of Felix and his Sister Serena. A Tale
Barbara Hofland – Emily and Her Friends
Mary Martha Sherwood – The History of Little Henry and his Bearer
Drama
Leigh Hunt – The Descent of Liberty
René Charles Guilbert de Pixérécourt – The Dog of Montarges
Robert Francis Jameson – Love and Gout
Richard Lalor Sheil – Adelaide, or the Emigrants
Poetry
Lord Byron
The Corsair
Lara
Henry Cary – translation of Dante's Divine Comedy (complete in blank verse)
Adam Oehlenschlager – Helge
William Wordsworth – The Excursion
Non-fiction
Elizabeth Craven – Letters from the Right Honorable Lady Craven to his Serene Highness the Margrave of Anspach during her travels through France, Germany and Russia in 1785 and 1786
Thomas Hartwell Horne – Introduction to the Study of Bibliography
Legh Richmond – The Dairyman's Daughter (religious tract about Elizabeth Wallbridge)
Percy Bysshe Shelley – A Refutation of Deism
Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert – Die Symbolik der Traüme (The Symbolism of Dreams)
Births
January 15 – Pierre-Jules Hetzel (P. J. Stahl), French publisher and young people's writer (died 1886)
January 17 – Mrs. Henry Wood (Ellen Price), English novelist (died 1887)
February 18 – Samuel Fenton Cary, American author and prohibitionist (died 1900)
March 9 (February 25 O.S.) – Taras Shevchenko, Ukrainian poet (died 1861)
March 13 – Edward Backhouse Eastwick, Anglo-Indian orientalist and translator (died 1883)
June 8 – Charles Reade, English novelist and dramatist (died 1884)
July 23 – George W. M. Reynolds, English popular novelist (died 1879)
August 28 – Sheridan le Fanu, Irish Gothic writer (died 1873)
September 17 – Ferenc Pulszky, Hungarian writer and politician (died 1897)
October 3 – Mikhail Lermontov, Russian poet (died 1841)
November 6 – William Wells Brown, African-American writer (died 1884)
December 27 – Jules Simon, French philosopher (died 1896)
Deaths
January 4 – Johann Georg Jacobi, German poet (born 1740)
January 21 – Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, French novelist and travel writer (born 1737)
January 27 – Johann Gottlieb Fichte, German philosopher (born 1762)
February 24 – Julien Louis Geoffroy, French literary critic (born 1743)
February 27 – Margaret Bingham, English poet and painter (born 1740)
April 12 – Charles Burney, English music historian and musician (born 1726)
July 25 – Charles Dibdin, English novelist, playwright and actor (born 1745)
September 5 – Gottfried Gabriel Bredow, German historian (born 1773)
October 4 – Samuel Jackson Pratt, English poet, playwright and novelist (born 1749)
November 10 – Abbé Aubert, French dramatist, poet and journalist (born 1731)
December 2 – Marquis de Sade, French philosopher, writer and politician (born 1740)
Awards
Newdigate Prize – John Leycester Adolphus
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1813%20in%20literature
|
1813 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1813.
Events
January 23 – Remorse, a new play by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, begins a three-week run at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London.
January 28 – Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice is first published (as "by the author of Sense and Sensibility") in London. A second edition follows in November.
February 3 – Leigh Hunt is imprisoned for a libel of the Prince Regent in The Examiner (1812). He continues his literary work in prison and will be visited there by Lord Byron, Thomas Moore, Charles and Mary Lamb, Charles Cowden Clarke, Maria Edgeworth, William Hazlitt, Jeremy Bentham, Lord Brougham and Benjamin Haydon.
May 10 – The eccentric English amateur actor Robert Coates makes his London debut in his favourite role, Romeo, at the Theatre Royal, Haymarket.
June 17–18 – The German poet and playwright Theodor Körner, fighting with the Königlich Preußisches Freikorps von Lützow in the German campaign against Napoleon (War of the Sixth Coalition), composes the sonnet "Abschied vom Leben" (Farewell to Life) while lying severely wounded.
June – Following the death of Jean-François Cailhava de L'Estandoux, the historian and publicist Joseph François Michaud takes up Seat 29 of the Académie française.
July – The first award of the Chancellor's Gold Medal for poetry at the University of Cambridge in England goes to George Waddington for "Columbus".
August 25 – Theodor Körner composes the patriotic lyric "Schwertlied" (Sword Song) on the night before his death in action, aged 21.
October 2 – The Philomathean Society of the University of Pennsylvania is founded. It is the oldest continuously existing literary society in the United States.
Autumn – Robert Southey becomes Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom after Walter Scott declines the post.
New books
Fiction
Jane Austen – Pride and Prejudice
Eaton Stannard Barrett – The Heroine, or: Adventures of a fair romance reader
Willem Bilderdijk – Kort verhaal van eene aanmerklijke luchtreis, en nieuwe planeetontdekking (Short Account of a Remarkable Aerial Voyage and Discovery of a New Planet)
Adelbert von Chamisso – Peter Schlemihl
Barbara Hofland – The Daughter-in-Law
Regina Maria Roche – The Monastery of St. Columb
Shikitei Sanba (式亭 三馬) – Ukiyoburo (浮世風呂, publication completed)
Drama
Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Remorse
Robert Francis Jameson – The Students of Salamanca
Jean-Antoine-Marie Monperlier – Les Chevaliers de Malte
Amandus Gottfried Adolf Müllner – Die Schuld
Jane M. Scott – The Forest Knight
Matthäus Casimir von Collin – Der Tod Friedrichs des Streitbaren
Poetry
Lord Byron – The Giaour
Alessandro Manzoni – Inni sacri
Mary Russell Mitford – Narrative Poems on the Female Character
Percy Bysshe Shelley – Queen Mab: A Philosophical Poem
Non-fiction
Charles Bucke – The Philosophy of Nature, or, the Influence of Scenery on the Mind and Heart
Humphry Davy – Elements of Agricultural Chemistry in a Course of Lectures
Joseph-Philippe-François Deleuze – Histoire critique de magnétisme animal
Pierce Egan – Boxiana; or Sketches of Pugilism
Johann Friedrich Herbart – Lehrbuch zur Einleitung in die Philosophie (Introductory Textbook in Philosophy)
Robert Owen – A New View of Society
James Cowles Prichard – Researches into the Physical History of Man
Arthur Schopenhauer – On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (Über die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde)
Percy Bysshe Shelley – A Vindication of Natural Diet
Robert Southey – The Life of Nelson
Germaine de Staël – De l'Allemagne (On Germany)
Births
January 23
Camilla Collett, Norwegian writer (died 1895)
Charles Harpur, Australian poet (died 1868)
February 11 - Otto Ludwig, German novelist and playwright (died 1865)
March 11 – William Watkiss Lloyd, English polymath (died 1863)
March 18 – Christian Friedrich Hebbel, German poet and dramatist (died 1863)
May 5 – Søren Kierkegaard, Danish philosopher (died 1855)
May 20 – William Smith, English lexicographer (died 1893)
October 17 – Georg Büchner, German dramatist, poet and writer (died 1837)
Uncertain dates
Harriet Jacobs, African-American memoirist and abolitionist (died 1897)
Liu Xizai (刘熙载), Chinese scholar and literary critic (died 1881)
Deaths
January 1 – Gioacchino Navarro, Maltese priest and poet (born 1748)
January 20 – Christoph Martin Wieland, German poet (born 1733)
February 4 – James Whitelaw, Irish historian (born 1749)
April 22 – Henry Clifford, English legal writer (born 1768)
June 26 – Jean-François Cailhava de L'Estandoux, French dramatist, poet and critic (born 1731)
August 10 – Mary Anne Burges, Scottish religious allegorist (born 1763)
August 11 – Henry James Pye, English Poet Laureate (born 1745)
August 26 – Theodor Körner, German poet and dramatist (killed in action, born 1791)
October 11 – Robert Kerr, Scottish science writer and translator (born 1755)
November 12 – J. Hector St. John de Crèvecœur, French-American writer (born 1735)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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208116
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1812%20in%20literature
|
1812 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1812.
Events
January 2 – Samuel Taylor Coleridge's lecture on Hamlet is given as part of a series of lectures on drama and Shakespeare; it has influenced Hamlet studies ever since.
January 15 – Lord Byron takes his seat in the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
March 20 – First two cantos of Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage are published in London by John Murray. This sells out in five days, giving rise to Byron's comment "I awoke one morning and found myself famous."
May–July – The library of the Duke of Roxburghe (died 1804) is auctioned in London. On June 17 a presumed first edition of Boccaccio's Decameron, printed by Christopher Valdarfer of Venice in 1471, is sold to the Marquis of Blandford for £2,260, the highest price ever given for a book at that time. This is followed by a social meeting of bibliophiles under the chairmanship of 2nd Earl Spencer, the origin of the Roxburghe Club, formed by Thomas Frognall Dibdin.
June 24–December 14 – The French invasion of Russia will form the climax of Tolstoy's 1869 novel War and Peace and feature several other works of literature.
October 10 – The rebuilt Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London opens.
December 9–20 – Leigh Hunt is tried and convicted of libel for calling the Prince Regent "a violator of his word, a libertine over head and ears in debt and disgrace" in The Examiner on March 22.
December 26 – Novelist Frederick Marryat is promoted to lieutenant after distinguished service at sea in the War of 1812.
New books
Fiction
Sarah Burney – Traits of Nature
Maria Edgeworth:
The Absentee
Emilie de Coulanges
Vivian
Jean-Baptiste Benoît Eyriès – Fantasmagoriana
The Brothers Grimm – Grimm's Fairy Tales, volume 1 (Kinder- und Hausmärchen)
Ann Hatton – The Fortress del Vechii
Frances Margaretta Jacson (misascribed to Mary Brunton) – Things by their Right Names
Charles Maturin – The Milesian Chief
Rebecca Rush – Kelroy
George Soane – The Eve of San Marco
Louisa Stanhope – The Confessional of Valombre
Elizabeth Thomas – The Vindictive Spirit
Jane West – The Loyalists: An Historical Novel
Children and young people
Barbara Hofland – The History of a Clergyman's Widow and Her Young Family
Johann David Wyss – The Swiss Family Robinson
Drama
Joanna Baillie – Orra
Theodor Körner
Die Braut (The Bride)
Der grüne Domino (The Green Domino)
Der Nachtwächter (The Night Watchman)
Zriny
Adam Oehlenschläger – Stærkodder
August von Kotzebue – Der arme Poet (The Poor Poet)
Poetry
Anna Laetitia Barbauld – Eighteen Hundred and Eleven
Lord Byron – Childe Harold's Pilgrimage
Percy Bysshe Shelley – The Devil's Walk: A Ballad
James and Horace Smith (anonymously) – Rejected Addresses
William Tennant – Anster Fair
Non-fiction
John Galt – Cursory Reflections on Political and Commercial Topics
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel – Die objektive Logik
Sir Richard Colt Hoare – The Ancient History of South Wiltshire
Mirza Abu Taleb Khan – Masir Talib fi Bilad Afranji (The Travels of Taleb in the Regions of Europe)
James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale – The Depreciation of the Paper-currency of Great Britain Proved
John Nichols – The Literary Anecdotes of the 18th Century, volume 1
Percy Bysshe Shelley – Declaration of Rights
Births
February 7 – Charles Dickens, English novelist and editor (died 1870)
February 15 – Chandos Wren-Hoskyns (Chandos Hoskyns), English agricultural author and landowner (died 1876)
February 19 – Zygmunt Krasiński, Polish poet (died 1859)
May 7 – Robert Browning, English poet (died 1889)
May 12 – Edward Lear, English nonsense poet, caricaturist and painter (died 1888)
June 9 – Camilla Dufour Crosland, English writer and poet (died 1895)
June 18 – Ivan Goncharov, Russian novelist and critic (died 1891)
June 27 – Andrei Mocioni, Hungarian/Romanian journalist and literary patron (died 1880)
July 5 – Antonio García Gutiérrez, Spanish dramatist (died 1884)
August 22 – Geraldine Jewsbury, English novelist and woman of letters (died 1880)
September 16 – Anna Louisa Geertruida Bosboom-Toussaint, Dutch novelist (died 1886)
October 29 – Louise Granberg, Swedish playwright (died 1907)
December 3 – Hendrik Conscience, Flemish novelist (died 1883)
December 23 – Samuel Smiles, Scottish self-help author (died 1904)
Deaths
February 13 – Jacques Marie Boutet, French dramatist and actor (born 1745)
February 24 – Hugo Kołłątaj, Polish historian and philosopher (born 1750)
March 18 – John Horne Tooke, English controversialist and cleric (born 1736)
March 24 – Johann Jakob Griesbach, German Biblical commentator (born 1745)
May 12 – Martha Ballard, American diarist (born c. 1734)
July 14 – Christian Gottlob Heyne, German librarian and classicist (born 1729)
October 28 – Susanna Duncombe, English poet and painter (born 1725)
November 11 – Platon Levshin, Russian church historian (born 1737)
November 16 – John Walter, English founder of The Times, London (born c. 1738)
December 22 – Pierre Henri Larcher, French classicist and archeologist (born 1726)
unknown date – Zalkind Hourwitz, Polish essayist (born 1738)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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208117
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1811%20in%20literature
|
1811 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1811.
Events
March 25 – The University of Oxford expels the first-year undergraduate Percy Bysshe Shelley after he and Thomas Jefferson Hogg refuse to answer questions on The Necessity of Atheism, a pamphlet they have published anonymously. Earlier this year, Shelley, as "A Gentleman of the University of Oxford", has published in London Poetical Essay on the Existing State of Things, containing a 172-line anti-monarchy, anti-war poem in support of Peter Finnerty (jailed this year for libel against Lord Castlereagh) and dedicated to Harriet Westbrook. Shelley's Gothic fiction St. Irvyne; or, The Rosicrucian: A Romance, published under the same designation and dated this year was actually issued in December 1810.
June – Walter Scott buys a farm at Abbotsford, Scotland, and commences building his future residence, Abbotsford House.
October 30 – Jane Austen publishes her first novel: Sense and Sensibility ("by a lady") at her own expense in three volumes, priced at 15 shillings, in Thomas Egerton's Military Library (Whitehall, London).
November 4 – Lord Byron meets Thomas Campbell and Thomas Moore at the home of Samuel Rogers, where the company discusses literary topics.
November 21 – German poet Heinrich von Kleist shoots his terminally ill lover Henriette Vogel and then himself, on the shore of the Kleiner Wannsee near Potsdam.
unknown dates
Friedrich Koenig, with the assistance of Andreas Friedrich Bauer, produces the first steam printing press, in London.
The first complete publication of the Bible in the Ume Sami language appears.
New books
Fiction
Jane Austen – Sense and Sensibility
Mary Brunton – Self-Control
Charlotte Dacre – The Passions
Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué – Undine
Johann Peter Hebel – Schatzkästlein des rheinischen Hausfreundes
Rachel Hunter – The Schoolmistress
Heinrich von Kleist – Michael Kohlhaas
Mary Meeke – Stratagems Defeated
Lady Morgan – The Missionary: An Indian Tale
Emma Parker – Elfrida, Heiress of Belgrove
Percy Bysshe Shelley – St. Irvyne; or, The Rosicrucian
Elizabeth Thomas – Mortimer Hall
Drama
Marianne Chambers – Ourselves
Poetry
Anna Maria Porter – Ballad Romances, and Other Poems
Thomas Pringle – The Institute: a Heroic Poem
Mary Russell Mitford – Christina, the Maid of the South Seas
Non-fiction
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – Aus meinem Leben: Dichtung und Wahrheit (The Autobiography of Goethe: Truth and Poetry from my own Life)
Barthold G. Niebuhr – Roman History
John Roberton – On Diseases of the Generative System
Percy Bysshe Shelley – The Necessity of Atheism
Births
January 9 – Gilbert Abbott à Beckett, English humorist (died 1856)
February 1 – Arthur Henry Hallam, English poet (died 1833)
February 19 – Jules Sandeau, French dramatist and novelist (died 1883)
February 27 – Alexandru Hrisoverghi, Moldavian poet and translator (died 1837)
June 14 – Harriet Beecher Stowe, American novelist and abolitionist (died 1896)
July 9 – Fanny Fern, American journalist, novelist and children's writer (died 1872)
July 18 – William Makepeace Thackeray, English novelist and satirist (died 1863)
August 31 – Théophile Gautier, French poet and novelist (died 1872)
September 17 – August Blanche, Swedish writer and statesman (died 1868)
October 19 – Andreas Munch, Norwegian poet (died 1884)
Deaths
January 10 – Joseph Chénier, French poet and dramatist (born 1764)
March 7 – Juraj Fándly, Slovak non-fiction writer, entomologist and priest (born 1750)
May 7 – Richard Cumberland, English dramatist (born 1732)
July 28 – Heinrich Joseph von Collin, Austrian dramatist (born 1771)
September 14 – James Grahame, Scottish poet (born 1765)
September 30 – Thomas Percy, English ballad collector and bishop (born 1729)
November 21 – Heinrich von Kleist, German poet (suicide, born 1777)
December 19 – Marjorie Fleming, Scottish child writer (born 1803 in literature)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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208119
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1810%20in%20literature
|
1810 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1810.
Events
February – The eccentric English amateur actor Robert Coates makes his début in a favourite role: Romeo, at the Theatre Royal, Bath.
April 10 – Percy Bysshe Shelley matriculates at University College, Oxford. His atheistic Gothic novella Zastrozzi: A Romance, written while still a schoolboy at Eton, is published this year under his initials in London. Its successor, St. Irvyne; or, The Rosicrucian: A Romance, is published as "By a Gentleman of the University of Oxford" in December (dated 1811) in London by J. J. Stockdale. In September, Shelley publishes through Stockdale Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire, co-written with his sister Elizabeth before he came up to Oxford, but withdrawn due to plagiarism of one poem. In November he and a friend, Thomas Jefferson Hogg, publish the burlesque Posthumous Fragments of Margaret Nicholson; Being Poems found amongst the Papers of that Noted Female who attempted the Life of the King in 1786 "Edited by John Fitzvictor" in Oxford.
unknown dates
Germaine de Staël's study of Germany De l'Allemagne is published in Paris but suppressed by order of Napoleon.
A collection, The British Novelists, with an introductory essay and prefaces by Anna Laetitia Barbauld, appears in 50 volumes in London from F. C. & J. Rivington.
New books
Fiction
Catherine Cuthbertson – The Forest of Montalbano
Sarah Green – The Festival of St. Jago
Lady Mary Hamilton – The Duc de Popoli
Ann Hatton – Cambrian Pictures
Robert Huish – The Mysteries of Ferney Castle
Emma Parker – A Soldier's Offspring
Jane Porter – The Scottish Chiefs
Jan Potocki – The Manuscript Found in Saragossa (Manuscrit trouvé à Saragosse, 2nd version)
Regina Marie Roche – The Houses of Osma and Almeria; or, Convent of St. Ildefonso: a Tale
Percy Bysshe Shelley – Zastrozzi
Louisa Stanhope
Di Montranzo
The Novice of Corpus Domini
Catherine George Ward – The Daughter of St Omar
Jane West – The Refusal
Drama
Joanna Baillie – Family Legend
James Sheridan Knowles – Leo; or, The Gipsy
Adam Oehlenschläger – Axel og Valborg
Heinrich von Kleist – The Prince of Homburg (Prinz Friedrich von Homburg oder die Schlacht bei Fehrbellin, written)
Poetry
George Crabbe – The Borough
Mary Russell Mitford – Poems
Walter Scott – The Lady of the Lake
Percy Bysshe Shelley
with Elizabeth Shelley – Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire
with Thomas Jefferson Hogg – Posthumous Fragments of Margaret Nicholson
Non-fiction
Lucy Aikin – Epistles on Women, Exemplifying their Character and Condition in Various Ages and Nations, with Miscellaneous Poems
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – Zur Farbenlehre (Theory of Colours)
Mirza Abu Taleb Khan (tr. Charles Stewart) – Travels of Mirza Abu Taleb Khan in Asia, Africa and Europe
Germaine de Staël – De l'Allemagne
William Wordsworth – Guide to the Lakes
Births
February 10 – Giulietta Pezzi, Italian novelist, journalist, and poet (died 1878)
May 10 – E. Cobham Brewer, English lexicographer (died 1897)
May 11 – Caroline Fox, English diarist (died 1870)
May 23 – Margaret Fuller American feminist writer (drowned 1850)
August 6 – William Ticknor, American publisher (died 1864)
August 31 – František Doucha, Czech writer and translator (died 1884)
September 22 – John Brown, Scottish physician and essayist (died 1882)
September 29 – Elizabeth Gaskell, English novelist (died 1865)
December 11 – Alfred de Musset, French poet (died 1857)
Deaths
February 9 – Richard Chandler, English antiquary (born 1738)
February 22 – Charles Brockden Brown, American novelist (born 1771; tuberculosis)
March 14 – Ludwig Timotheus Spittler, German historian (born 1752)
April 3 – Twm o'r Nant, Welsh-language dramatist and poet (born 1739)
May 1 – Christoph Meiners, German philosopher (born 1747)
May 17 – Robert Tannahill, Scottish poet (born 1774)
December 15 – Sarah Trimmer, English children's writer and critic (born 1741)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew%20Hopkins
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Matthew Hopkins
|
Matthew Hopkins ( 1620 – 12 August 1647) was an English witch-hunter whose career flourished during the English Civil War. He claimed to hold the office of Witchfinder General, although that title was never bestowed by Parliament. His activities mainly took place in East Anglia.
Hopkins' witch-finding career began in March 1644 and lasted until his retirement in 1647. He and his associates were responsible for more people being hanged for witchcraft than in the previous 100 years, and were solely responsible for the increase in witch trials during those years. He is believed to have been responsible for the executions of over 100 alleged witches between the years 1644 and 1646.
It has been estimated that all of the English witch trials between the early 15th and late 18th centuries resulted in fewer than 500 executions for witchcraft. Therefore, presuming the number executed as a result of investigations by Hopkins and his colleague John Stearne is at the lower end of the estimates, their efforts accounted for about 20% of the total. In the 14 months of their crusade Hopkins and Stearne sent to the gallows more accused people than all the other witch-hunters in England of the previous 160 years.
Early life
Little is known of Matthew Hopkins before 1644, and there are no surviving contemporary documents concerning him or his family. He was born in Great Wenham, Suffolk and was the fourth son of six children. His father, James Hopkins, was a Puritan clergyman and vicar of St John's of Great Wenham, in Suffolk. The family at one point held title "to lands and tenements in Framlingham 'at the castle. His father was popular with his parishioners, one of whom in 1619 left money to purchase Bibles for his then three children James, John and Thomas.
Thus Matthew Hopkins could not have been born before 1619, and could not have been older than 28 when he died, but he may have been as young as 25. Although James Hopkins had died in 1634, when the iconoclast William Dowsing, commissioned in 1643 by the Parliamentarian Earl of Manchester "for the destruction of monuments of idolatry and superstition", visited the parish in 1645 he noted that "there was nothing to reform". Hopkins' brother John became Minister of South Fambridge in 1645 but was removed from the post one year later for neglecting his work. Hopkins states in his book The Discovery of Witches (1647) that he "never travelled far ... to gain his experience".
In the early 1640s, Hopkins moved to Manningtree, Essex, a town on the River Stour, about from Wenham. According to tradition, Hopkins used his recently acquired inheritance of a hundred marks to establish himself as a gentleman and to buy the Thorn Inn in Mistley. From the way that he presented evidence in trials, Hopkins is commonly thought to have been trained as a lawyer, but there is scant evidence to suggest this was the case.
Witch-hunting
Following the Lancaster Witch Trials (1612–1634), William Harvey, physician to King Charles I of England, had been ordered to examine the four women accused, and from this there came a requirement to have material proof of being a witch. The work of Hopkins and John Stearne was not necessarily to prove any of the accused had committed acts of maleficium, but to prove that they had made a covenant with the Devil. Prior to this point, any malicious acts on the part of witches were treated identically to those of other criminals, until it was seen that, according to the then-current beliefs about the structure of witchcraft, they owed their powers to a deliberate act of their choosing.
Witches then became heretics to Christianity, which became the greatest of their crimes and sins. Within continental and Roman Law witchcraft was crimen exceptum: a crime so foul that all normal legal procedures were superseded. Because the Devil was not going to "confess", it was necessary to gain a confession from the human involved.
The witch-hunts undertaken by Stearne and Hopkins mainly took place in East Anglia, in the counties of Suffolk, Essex, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, with a few in the counties of Northamptonshire and Bedfordshire. They extended throughout the area of strongest Puritan and Parliamentarian influences which formed the powerful and influential Eastern Association from 1644 to 1647, which was centred on Essex. Both Hopkins and Stearne would have required some form of letters of safe conduct to be able to travel throughout the counties.
According to his book The Discovery of Witches, Hopkins began his career as a witch-finder after he overheard women discussing their meetings with the Devil in March 1644 in Manningtree. In fact, the first accusations were made by Stearne, and Hopkins was appointed as his assistant. Twenty-three women were accused of witchcraft and were tried at Chelmsford in 1645. With the English Civil War under way, this trial was conducted not by justices of assize, but by justices of the peace presided over by the Earl of Warwick. Four died in prison and nineteen were convicted and hanged. During this period, excepting Middlesex and chartered towns, no records show any person charged of witchcraft being sentenced to death other than by the judges of the assizes.
Hopkins and Stearne, accompanied by the women who performed the pricking, were soon travelling over eastern England, claiming to be officially commissioned by Parliament to uncover and prosecute witches. Together with their female assistants, they were well paid for their work, and it has been suggested that this was a motivation for his actions. Hopkins states that "his fees were to maintain his company with three horses", and that he took "twenty shillings a town". The records at Stowmarket show their costs to the town to have been £23 (£ as of ) plus his travelling expenses.
The cost to the local community of Hopkins and his company were such that, in 1645, a special local tax rate had to be levied in Ipswich. Parliament was well aware of Hopkins and his team's activities, as shown by the concerned reports of the Bury St Edmunds witch trials of 1645. Before the trial, a report was carried to the Parliament"as if some busie men had made use of some ill Arts to extort such confession"that a special Commission of Oyer and Terminer was granted for the trial of these witches. After the trial and execution the Moderate Intelligencer, a parliamentary paper published during the English Civil War, in an editorial of 4–11 September 1645 expressed unease with the affairs in Bury.
Methods of investigation
Methods of investigating witchcraft heavily drew inspiration from the Daemonologie of King James, which was directly cited in Hopkins' The Discovery of Witches. Although torture was nominally unlawful in England, Hopkins often used techniques such as sleep deprivation to extract confessions from his victims. He would also cut the arm of the accused with a blunt knife, and if she did not bleed, she was said to be a witch. Another of his methods was the swimming test, based on the idea that as witches had renounced their baptism, water would reject them. Suspects were tied to a chair and thrown into water: all those who "swam" (floated) were considered to be witches. Hopkins was warned against the use of "swimming" without receiving the victim's permission first. This led to the legal abandonment of the test by the end of 1645.
Hopkins and his assistants also looked for the Devil's mark. This was a mark that all witches or sorcerers were thought to possess that was said to be dead to all feeling and would not bleed – although it was sometimes a mole, birthmark or an extra nipple or breast. If the suspected witch had no such visible marks invisible ones could be discovered by pricking. Therefore, "witch prickers" were employed, who pricked the accused with knives and special needles looking for such marks, normally after the suspect had been shaved of all body hair. It was believed that the witch's familiar, an animal such as a cat or dog, would drink the witch's blood from the mark, as a baby drinks milk from the nipple.
Opposition
Hopkins and his company ran into opposition very soon after the start of their work, but one of his main antagonists was John Gaule, vicar of Great Staughton in Huntingdonshire. Gaule had attended a woman from St Neots who was held in gaol charged with witchcraft until such time as Hopkins could attend. Upon hearing that the woman had been interviewed, Hopkins wrote a letter to a contact asking whether he would be given a "good welcome". Gaule hearing of this letter wrote his publication Select Cases of Conscience touching Witches and Witchcrafts; London, (1646)dedicated to Colonel Walton of the House of Commonsand began a programme of Sunday sermons to suppress witch-hunting.
In Norfolk both Hopkins and Stearne were questioned by justices of the assizes about the torturing and fees. Hopkins was asked if methods of investigation did not make the finders themselves witches, and if with all his knowledge did he not also have a secret, or had used "unlawful courses of torture". By the time this court session resumed in 1647 Stearne and Hopkins had retired, Hopkins to Manningtree and Stearne to Bury St Edmunds.
Colonial impact
Hopkins' witch-hunting methods were outlined in his book The Discovery of Witches, which was published in 1647. These practices were recommended in law books. During the year following the publication of Hopkins' book, trials and executions for witchcraft began in the New England colonies with the hanging of Alse Young of Windsor, Connecticut on May 26, 1647, followed by the conviction of Margaret Jones. As described in the journal of Governor John Winthrop, the evidence assembled against Margaret Jones was gathered by the use of Hopkins' techniques of "searching" and "watching".
Jones' execution was the first in a witch-hunt that lasted in New England from 1648 until 1663. About eighty people throughout New England were accused of practising witchcraft during that period, of whom fifteen women and two men were executed. Some of Hopkins' methods were once again employed during the Salem Witch Trials, which occurred primarily in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692–93. These trials resulted in 19 executions for witchcraft, one man, Giles Corey, pressed to death for refusing to plead, and 150 imprisonments.
Death and legacy
Matthew Hopkins died at his home in Manningtree, Essex, on 12 August 1647, probably of pleural tuberculosis. He was buried a few hours after his death in the graveyard of the Church of St Mary at Mistley Heath. In the words of historian Malcolm Gaskill, Matthew Hopkins "lives on as an anti-hero and bogeyman – utterly ethereal, endlessly malleable". According to historian Rossell Hope Robbins, Hopkins "acquired an evil reputation which in later days made his name synonymous with fingerman or informer paid by authorities to commit perjury".
What historian James Sharpe has characterised as a "pleasing legend" grew up around the circumstances of Hopkins' death, according to which he was subjected to his own swimming test and executed as a witch, but the parish registry at Mistley confirms his burial there.
References
Notes
Footnotes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Animated/Audio Story of Hopkins and his demise
History of the Essex Witch Trials
Witch-Finder General by George Knowles
Diary of Witchfinder General trials published online
1647 deaths
17th-century deaths from tuberculosis
People from Babergh
Witch hunters
Year of birth uncertain
Year of birth unknown
Tuberculosis deaths in England
Witch trials in England
|
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] |
208129
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Chicago
|
USS Chicago
|
Four United States Navy ships have been named USS Chicago, after the city of Chicago, Illinois.
was a protected cruiser launched in 1885 and active in World War I as a submarine tender, then a barracks ship, finally being renamed Alton in 1928 and lost at sea while under tow in 1936.
was a heavy cruiser commissioned in 1931 and active in World War II, until lost at the Battle of Rennell Island in January 1943.
was a heavy cruiser, commissioned in 1945; later converted to an guided missile cruiser and redesignated CG-11, then struck in 1984.
is a nuclear attack submarine commissioned in 1986,
United States Navy ship names
|
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208131
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powdered%20sugar
|
Powdered sugar
|
Powdered sugar, also called confectioners' sugar, 10X sugar or icing sugar, is a finely ground sugar produced by milling granulated sugar into a powdered state. It usually contains between 2% and 5% of an anti-caking agent – such as corn starch, potato starch or tricalcium phosphate – to absorb moisture, prevent clumping, and improve flow. Although most often produced in a factory, a proxy for powdered sugar can be made by processing ordinary granulated sugar in a coffee grinder, or by crushing it by hand in a mortar and pestle.
Use
Powdered sugar is used in industrial food production when a quick-dissolving sugar is required. Home cooks use it principally to make icing or frosting and other cake decorations. It is often dusted onto baked goods to add a subtle sweetness and delicate decoration.
Powdered sugar is available in varying degrees of fineness, most commonly XXX, XXXX, and 10X: the greater the number of Xs, the finer the particles. Finer particles absorb more moisture, which results in caking. Because of anticaking agents, it cannot always be used as a substitute for granulated sugar. Canadian regulations limit powdered sugar to 5% starch or an anticaking agent.
Other varieties
Caster sugar
Caster sugar (also referred to as superfine, bar, or baker's sugar) has a larger particle size than powdered sugar, approximately half that of granulated sugar, and has no added starch. It is commonly used in baking and cold mixed drinks because it dissolves faster than granulated white sugar. Caster sugar can be easily prepared at home by grinding white sugar in a food processor to make it finer. The most common food caster sugar is used in is meringue.
Snow powder
Snow powder (or snow sugar) is a non-melting form of icing sugar used for visual appeal on cakes or pastries that require refrigeration. It usually contains glucose, starch, and anti-binding agents (such as titanium dioxide, which gives it a vibrant white color), and retains its structure and look even when dusted onto baked goods that are slightly wet like fruit bars and tarts. It will not melt even if it is sprinkled on whipped cream or ice cream. It is mostly used for decorative purposes.
Snow sugar is less sweet than regular powdered sugar because glucose is around 20% less sweet than table sugar, which also contains fructose. Fructose tastes more than twice as sweet as glucose.
Citations
General sources
External links
Sugar substitutes
Sugar
Powders
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Necessity%20of%20Atheism
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The Necessity of Atheism
|
"The Necessity of Atheism" is an essay on atheism by the English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, printed in 1811 by Charles and William Phillips in Worthing while Shelley was a student at University College, Oxford.
An enigmatically signed copy of the short tract was sent to all the heads of Oxford colleges at the University. At that time the content was so shocking to the authorities that he was rusticated for contumacy in his refusing to deny authorship, together with his friend and fellow student, Thomas Jefferson Hogg, who may have been co-author. A revised and expanded version of the text was included as one of the notes to Shelley's poem Queen Mab in 1813, and some reprints with the title The Necessity of Atheism are based on this rather than the 1811 pamphlet.
Synopsis
The tract starts with the following rationale of the author's goals:
Shelley made a number of claims in Necessity, including that one's beliefs are involuntary, and, therefore, that atheists do not choose to be so and should not be persecuted. Towards the end of the pamphlet he writes: "the mind cannot believe in the existence of a God." Shelley signed the pamphlet, Thro' deficiency of proof, AN ATHEIST, which gives an idea of the empiricist nature of Shelley's beliefs. According to Berman, Shelley also believed himself to have "refuted all the possible types of arguments for God's existence," but Shelley himself encouraged readers to offer proofs if they possess them.
Opinion is divided upon the characterisation of Shelley's beliefs, at the time of the writing of Necessity. At the very beginning of his note on the line "There is no God" in Canto VII of Queen Mab, published just two years later and based on Necessity, Shelley qualifies his definition of atheism:
Shelley also quotes the Dutch pantheist Baruch Spinoza later in the Note, but there is no explicit statement of pantheistic views.
Shelley scholar Carlos Baker states that "the title of his college pamphlet should have been The Necessity of Agnosticism rather than The Necessity of Atheism," while historian David Berman argues that Shelley was an atheist, both because he characterised himself as such, and because "he denies the existence of God in both published works and private letters" during the same period.
Authorship
Although The Necessity of Atheism is often attributed solely to Shelley, historian of atheism David Berman says that Shelley "was probably assisted by his friend T.J. Hogg".
Format
The original pamphlet was described by Percy Vaughan as "a single foolscap sheet folded in octavo, consisting of half-title (with blank reverse), title page... (with blank reverse), Advertisement (with blank reverse), and text occupying pages 7-13. At the foot of page 13 is the imprint, "Phillips, Printers, Worthing," and the reverse of the page is blank. A blank leaf completes the sheet."
Publication history
The pamphlet was first published on 13 or 14 February 1811.
Very few copies of the original 16-page 1811 pamphlet survive, as most were destroyed after publication. Only six are known to exist in libraries today (Nicolas Walter knew of five in 1998; a sixth was discovered at Edinburgh University in 2015):
Bodleian Library, Oxford University (bound with three other pamphlets by Shelley). This (imperfect, lacking the half-title page) copy had been Shelley's gift to bookseller Thomas Hookham, but eventually found its way via Leigh Hunt to Shelley's son Sir Percy Shelley, whose wife Lady Jane Shelley gave it to the Bodleian.
British Library, London (part of the retricted-access Ashley Library Printed books, microfilm available. This copy was retained by the Oxford booksellers Munday & Slatter (later Slatter & Rose). John Rose kept it until his death in 1897, when it was purchased by Thomas J Wise, whose Ashley Library ended up in the British Library)
St. John's College, University of Cambridge
Edinburgh University Library
Robert H. Taylor Collection, Princeton University Library, New Jersey, United States (a copy apparently retained by the family of John Rose, the original printer of the pamphlet)
Miriam Lutcher Stark Library, Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas (bought for $9,300 in 1939, a decision investigated by the Texas House of Representatives in 1943<ref>Ratchford, Fannie E. and Manly, Walter, "Shelley Meets the Texas Legislature", Southwest Review", Vol. 30, No. 2, Winter 1945, pp. 161–166.</ref>).
Reprints
The first reprint of the 1811 pamphlet appeared in a collection of Shelley's work and used the copy now in the Bodleian Library:
1880. The Necessity of Atheism, in The Prose Works. Volume I. Edited by Harry Buxton Forman. London: Reeves and Turner. pp. 299–309. The first reprint. Annotated. The editor states that he obtained his copy from Sir Percy and Lady Shelley. Online.
The second reprint used the copy now in the British Library:
1906. The Necessity of Atheism. Edited by Thomas J Wise and Percy Vaughan. "Issued for the Rationalist Press Association Limited by arrangement with the Shelley Society." London: Watts & Co. pp. 13. A typographical imitation, with an introduction by Wise and Vaughan. The first separately published reprint.
Subsequent reprints include:
1950. The Necessity of Atheism, in Shelley, Trelawny, and Henley: a study of three Titans. Edited by Samuel J. Looker. "A facsimile of the original edition printed at Worthing." 13pp.
1952. The Necessity of Atheism, and Declaration of Rights. Charlottesville, Virginia: The Patrick Henry Literary Society. 8pp. Limited edition of 500 copies.
1965. The Necessity of Atheism, by an Atheist, in Shelley & Zastrozzi: self-revelation of a neurotic, by Dr. Eustace Chesser. London: Gregg/Archive.
1968. The Necessity of Atheism, together with excerpts of revolutionary verse. Edited by David Tribe. National Secular Society/Oxford University Humanist Group. 9pp.
1972. The Necessity of Atheism, in Selected Essays on Atheism. New York: Arno Press/New York Times.
1976. The Necessity of Atheism. Introductory note by Mahadevaprasad Saha. First Indian Edition. Calcutta.
1992. The Necessity of Atheism. Oxford: Bodleian Library. 13pp. Reprinted from the Bodleian Library's copy, presented in a wallet.
1993. The Necessity of Atheism, in The Necessity of Atheism And Other Essays. Freethought Library. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books.
1998. The Necessity of Atheism. Edited and annotated by Nicolas Walter. Freethinker's Classics #2. London: G.W. Foote & Co. Ltd. Includes a reprint of the introduction to the 1906 Watts & Co. edition. Based on the British Library copy.
References
Bibliography
Abbey, Lloyd. Destroyer and Preserver: Shelley's Poetic Skepticism. Lincoln: U of Nebraska P, 1979.
Albery, John, et al., Shelley and Univ. 1810–1811, University College, Oxford, 20 June 1992. (Papers delivered by the Master and three Fellows of University College at a seminar to commemorate the bicentenary of Shelley's birth.)
Barnard, Ellsworth. Shelley's Religion. New York: Russell & Russell, 1964.
Berman, David. A History of Atheism in Britain. London: Routledge, 1988.
Brazell, James. Shelley and the Concept of Humanity: A Study of His Moral Vision. Salzburg: Inst. fur Englische Sprache und Literatur, Univ. Salzburg, 1972.
Cooper, Andrew M. Doubt and Identity in Romantic Poetry. New Haven: Yale UP, 1988.
Dumain, Ralph. "The Autodidact Project: Percy Bysshe Shelley". 2007. Online link: http://www.autodidactproject.org/other/shelley-athe6.html
Dumain, Ralph. "It must be Shelley." Reason & Society, 26 June 2007.
Evans, F. B. "Shelley, Godwin, Hume, and the Doctrine of Necessity." Studies in Philology, (1940), 37: 632‑640.
Fuller, David. "Shelley and Jesus." Durham University Journal, 85.54 (2) (1993): 211–223.
Gingerich, S.F. "Shelley's Doctrine of Necessity versus Christianity". PMLA, Vol. 33, No. 3 (1918), pp. 444–473.
Hiroshi, Harata. "Shelley and The Necessity of Atheism: His True Voice and its Background." Bulletin of Holly Spirit Junior College, 15, 28–39, 1987-03-30.
Hoffmann, R. Joseph. "The Necessity of Atheism, The Indispensability of Doubt." The New Oxonian, 27 August 2010.
Hogle, Jerrold E. Shelley's process: radical transference and the development of his major works. Oxford University Press, 1988.
Jager, Colin. "Shelley After Atheism". Studies in Romanticism, Vol. 49, No. 4, Winter 2010. pp. 611–631. Online link: https://www.jstor.org/stable/23056023
Jones, Frederick L. "Hogg and the Necessity of Atheism." PMLA, Vol. 52, No. 2 (Jun. 1937), pp. 423–426.
Joukovsky, Nicholas A. "Robert Parker's 'Letters on Atheism': An Early Response to Shelley's The Necessity of Atheism." Review of English Studies, Vol. 63, iss. 261, September 2012. pp. 608–633.
Peterfreund, Stuart. "An Early Response to Shelley's 'The Necessity of Atheism'." Keats-Shelley Journal, Vol. 36, (1987), pp. 26–31.
Pulos, C.E. The Deep Truth: A Study of Shelley's Skepticism. Lincoln, NE: U of Nebraska P, 1954.
Reiman, Donald H. Intervals of Inspiration: The Skeptical Tradition and the Psychology of Romanticism. Greenwood, FL: Penkevill, 1988.
Shelley, Brian. Shelley and Scripture: The Interpreting Angel. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1994.
Shelley, Percy Bysshe, The Necessity of Atheism and Other Essays. Prometheus Books (The Freethought Library), 1993. .
Shelley, Percy Bysshe, The Necessity of Atheism. Edited and annotated by Nicolas Walter. London, G.W. Foote & Co. Ltd (Freethinker's Classics #2), 1998, 2016. .
Sloan, Gary. "Shelley: Angelic Atheist." Liberator, 13 October 2003.
Vaughan, Percy. Early Shelley Pamphlets. London: Watts & Co, 1905. Online.
White, Newman Ivey. "Poet of Revolution." Book Review: Shelley. Time, 16 December 1940.
Wroe, Ann. "The Necessity of Atheism: two hundred years young." The Keats-Shelley Review, Vol. 26, issue 1, 2012. pp. 42–54.
External links
The Necessity of Atheism (1811) (1880 reprint)
Note to "There is no God", Canto VII, Note 13, from Queen Mab (1813), from Selected Prose Works of Shelley. London: Watts & Co., 1915.
Text of Canto VII, Note 13, on the line "There is no God" from Queen Mab (1813); also includes the fragment On Life and the essay On a Future State, neither of which were part of The Necessity of Atheism or the note on Queen Mab''
1810s works
1811 books
Books about atheism
English non-fiction books
History of Oxford
Philosophy books
University College, Oxford
Works by Percy Bysshe Shelley
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%20chromosome
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X chromosome
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The X chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes (allosomes) in many organisms, including mammals (the other is the Y chromosome), and is found in both males and females. It is a part of the XY sex-determination system and XO sex-determination system. The X chromosome was named for its unique properties by early researchers, which resulted in the naming of its counterpart Y chromosome, for the next letter in the alphabet, following its subsequent discovery.
Discovery
It was first noted that the X chromosome was special in 1890 by Hermann Henking in Leipzig. Henking was studying the testicles of Pyrrhocoris and noticed that one chromosome did not take part in meiosis. Chromosomes are so named because of their ability to take up staining (chroma in Greek means color). Although the X chromosome could be stained just as well as the others, Henking was unsure whether it was a different class of object and consequently named it X element, which later became X chromosome after it was established that it was indeed a chromosome.<ref>David Bainbridge, 'The X in Sex: How the X Chromosome Controls Our Lives, pages 3-5, Harvard University Press, 2003 .</ref>
The idea that the X chromosome was named after its similarity to the letter "X" is mistaken. All chromosomes normally appear as an amorphous blob under the microscope and take on a well defined shape only during mitosis. This shape is vaguely X-shaped for all chromosomes. It is entirely coincidental that the Y chromosome, during mitosis, has two very short branches which can look merged under the microscope and appear as the descender of a Y-shape.
It was first suggested that the X chromosome was involved in sex determination by Clarence Erwin McClung in 1901. After comparing his work on locusts with Henking's and others, McClung noted that only half the sperm received an X chromosome. He called this chromosome an accessory chromosome, and insisted (correctly) that it was a proper chromosome, and theorized (incorrectly) that it was the male-determining chromosome.
Inheritance pattern
Luke Hutchison noticed that a number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral generation follows the Fibonacci sequence. A male individual has an X chromosome, which he received from his mother, and a Y chromosome, which he received from his father. The male counts as the "origin" of his own X chromosome (), and at his parents' generation, his X chromosome came from a single parent (). The male's mother received one X chromosome from her mother (the son's maternal grandmother), and one from her father (the son's maternal grandfather), so two grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome (). The maternal grandfather received his X chromosome from his mother, and the maternal grandmother received X chromosomes from both of her parents, so three great-grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome (). Five great-great-grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome (), etc. (Note that this assumes that all ancestors of a given descendant are independent, but if any genealogy is traced far enough back in time, ancestors begin to appear on multiple lines of the genealogy, until eventually, a population founder appears on all lines of the genealogy.)
Humans
Function
The X chromosome in humans spans more than 153 million base pairs (the building material of DNA). It represents about 800 protein-coding genes compared to the Y chromosome containing about 70 genes, out of 20,000–25,000 total genes in the human genome.
Each person usually has one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell. Females typically have two X chromosomes, whereas males typically have one X and one Y chromosome. Both males and females retain one of their mother's X chromosomes, and females retain their second X chromosome from their father. Since the father retains his X chromosome from his mother, a human female has one X chromosome from her paternal grandmother (father's side), and one X chromosome from her mother. This inheritance pattern follows the Fibonacci numbers at a given ancestral depth.
Genetic disorders that are due to mutations in genes on the X chromosome are described as X linked. If the X chromosome has a genetic disease gene, it always causes illness in male patients, since men have only one X chromosome and therefore only one copy of each gene. Females, instead, may stay healthy and only be carrier of genetic illness, since they have another X chromosome and possibility to have healthy gene copy. For example, hemophilia and red-green colorblindness run in family this way.
The X chromosome carries hundreds of genes but few, if any, of these have anything to do directly with sex determination. Early in embryonic development in females, one of the two X chromosomes is permanently inactivated in nearly all somatic cells (cells other than egg and sperm cells). This phenomenon is called X-inactivation or Lyonization, and creates a Barr body. If X-inactivation in the somatic cell meant a complete de-functionalizing of one of the X-chromosomes, it would ensure that females, like males, had only one functional copy of the X chromosome in each somatic cell. This was previously assumed to be the case. However, recent research suggests that the Barr body may be more biologically active than was previously supposed.
The partial inactivation of the X-chromosome is due to repressive heterochromatin that compacts the DNA and prevents the expression of most genes. Heterochromatin compaction is regulated by Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2).
Genes
Number of genes
The following are some of the gene count estimates of human X chromosome. Because researchers use different approaches to genome annotation their predictions of the number of genes on each chromosome varies (for technical details, see gene prediction). Among various projects, the collaborative consensus coding sequence project (CCDS) takes an extremely conservative strategy. So CCDS's gene number prediction represents a lower bound on the total number of human protein-coding genes.
Gene list
The following is a partial list of genes on human chromosome X. For complete list, see the link in the infobox on the right.
Structure
It is theorized by Ross et al. 2005 and Ohno 1967 that the X chromosome is at least partially derived from the autosomal (non-sex-related) genome of other mammals, evidenced from interspecies genomic sequence alignments.
The X chromosome is notably larger and has a more active euchromatin region than its Y chromosome counterpart. Further comparison of the X and Y reveal regions of homology between the two. However, the corresponding region in the Y appears far shorter and lacks regions that are conserved in the X throughout primate species, implying a genetic degeneration for Y in that region. Because males have only one X chromosome, they are more likely to have an X chromosome-related disease.
It is estimated that about 10% of the genes encoded by the X chromosome are associated with a family of "CT" genes, so named because they encode for markers found in both tumor cells (in cancer patients) as well as in the human testis (in healthy patients).
Role in disease
Numerical abnormalities
Klinefelter syndrome:
Klinefelter syndrome is caused by the presence of one or more extra copies of the X chromosome in a male's cells.
Males with Klinefelter syndrome typically have one extra copy of the X chromosome in each cell, for a total of two X chromosomes and one Y chromosome (47,XXY). It is less common for affected males to have two or three extra X chromosomes (48,XXXY or 49,XXXXY) or extra copies of both the X and Y chromosomes (48,XXYY) in each cell. The extra genetic material may lead to tall stature, learning and reading disabilities, and other medical problems. Each extra X chromosome lowers the child's IQ by about 15 points, which means that the average IQ in Klinefelter syndrome is in general in the normal range, although below average. When additional X and/or Y chromosomes are present in 48,XXXY, 48,XXYY, or 49,XXXXY, developmental delays and cognitive difficulties can be more severe and mild intellectual disability may be present.
Klinefelter syndrome can also result from an extra X chromosome in only some of the body's cells. These cases are called mosaic 46,XY/47,XXY.
Triple X syndrome (also called 47,XXX or trisomy X):
This syndrome results from an extra copy of the X chromosome in each of a female's cells. Females with trisomy X have three X chromosomes, for a total of 47 chromosomes per cell. The average IQ of females with this syndrome is 90, while the average IQ of unaffected siblings is 100. Their stature on average is taller than normal females. They are fertile and their children do not inherit the condition.
Females with more than one extra copy of the X chromosome (48, XXXX syndrome or 49, XXXXX syndrome) have been identified, but these conditions are rare.
Turner syndrome:
This results when each of a female's cells has one normal X chromosome and the other sex chromosome is missing or altered. The missing genetic material affects development and causes the features of the condition, including short stature and infertility.
About half of individuals with Turner syndrome have monosomy X (45,X), which means each cell in a woman's body has only one copy of the X chromosome instead of the usual two copies. Turner syndrome can also occur if one of the sex chromosomes is partially missing or rearranged rather than completely missing. Some women with Turner syndrome have a chromosomal change in only some of their cells. These cases are called Turner syndrome mosaics (45,X/46,XX).
X-linked recessive disorders
Sex linkage was first discovered in insects, e.g., T. H. Morgan's 1910 discovery of the pattern of inheritance of the white eyes mutation in Drosophila melanogaster. Such discoveries helped to explain x-linked disorders in humans, e.g., haemophilia A and B, adrenoleukodystrophy, and red-green color blindness.
Other disorders
XX male syndrome is a rare disorder, where the SRY region of the Y chromosome has recombined to be located on one of the X chromosomes. As a result, the XX combination after fertilization has the same effect as a XY combination, resulting in a male. However, the other genes of the X chromosome cause feminization as well.
X-linked endothelial corneal dystrophy is an extremely rare disease of cornea associated with Xq25 region. Lisch epithelial corneal dystrophy is associated with Xp22.3.
Megalocornea 1 is associated with Xq21.3-q22
Adrenoleukodystrophy, a rare and fatal disorder that is carried by the mother on the x-cell. It affects only boys between the ages of 5 and 10 and destroys the protective cell surrounding the nerves, myelin, in the brain. The female carrier hardly shows any symptoms because females have a copy of the x-cell. This disorder causes a once healthy boy to lose all abilities to walk, talk, see, hear, and even swallow. Within 2 years after diagnosis, most boys with Adrenoleukodystrophy die.
Role in mental abilities and intelligence
The X-chromosome has played a crucial role in the development of sexually selected characteristics for over 300 million years. During that time it has accumulated a disproportionate number of genes concerned with mental functions. For reasons that are not yet understood, there is an excess proportion of genes on the X-chromosome that are associated with the development of intelligence, with no obvious links to other significant biological functions. In other words, a significant proportion of genes associated with intelligence are passed on to male offspring from the mother alone and to female offspring from both mother and father. There has also been interest in the possibility that haploinsufficiency for one or more X-linked genes has a specific impact on development of the Amygdala and its connections with cortical centres involved in social–cognition processing or the ‘social brain'.
Cytogenetic band
Research
In March 2020 researchers reported that their review supports the unguarded X hypothesis: according to this hypothesis one reason for why the average lifespan of males is not as long as that of females – by 18% on average according to the study – is that they have a Y chromosome which cannot protect an individual from harmful genes expressed on the X chromosome, while a duplicate X chromosome, as present in female organisms, can ensure harmful genes are not expressed.
In July 2020 scientists reported the first complete and gap-less assembly of a human X chromosome.
See also
List of X-STR markers
Sex linkage
X-inactivation
Pseudoautosomal region
Y chromosome
References
Earlier versions of this article contain material from the National Library of Medicine, a part of the National Institutes of Health (USA,) which, as a US government publication, is in the public domain.''
External links
Chromosomes
Chromosome X
Cytogenetics
Sex-determination systems
Sexual dimorphism
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] |
208145
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotch%20bonnet
|
Scotch bonnet
|
Scotch bonnet (also known as Bonney peppers, or Caribbean red peppers) is a variety of chili pepper named for its resemblance to a tam o' shanter hat. It is ubiquitous in West Africa as well as the Caribbean. Like the closely related habanero, Scotch bonnets have a heat rating of 100,000–350,000 Scoville units. For comparison, most jalapeño peppers have a heat rating of 2,500 to 8,000 on the Scoville scale. However, completely sweet varieties of Scotch bonnet called cachucha peppers are grown on some of the Caribbean islands.
These peppers are used to flavor many different dishes and cuisines worldwide and are often used in hot sauces and condiments. The Scotch bonnet has a sweeter flavor and stouter shape, distinct from its habanero relative with which it is often confused, and gives jerk dishes (pork/chicken) and other Caribbean dishes their unique flavor. Scotch bonnets are mostly used in Maldivian, West African, Antiguan, Kittitian/Nevisian, Anguilan, Dominican, St. Lucian, Martinican, Guadeloupean, St Vincentian, Grenadian, Trinidadian, Jamaican, Barbadian, Guyanese, Surinamese, Haitian and Cayman cuisines and pepper sauces, though they often show up in other Caribbean recipes. It is also used in Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama for Caribbean-styled recipes such as rice and beans, rondón, saus, beef patties, and ceviche. Scotch bonnet is also prominent in the cuisine of the Maldives where it is called githeyo mirus.
Fresh, ripe Scotch bonnets can change from green to yellow to scarlet red; some varieties of this pepper can ripen to orange, yellow, peach, or even a chocolate brown.
See also
Bajan pepper sauce
Caribbean cuisine
Cuisine of Jamaica
Cuisine of Trinidad
Jamaican jerk spice
List of Capsicum cultivars
Nagabon
References
External links
Capsicum cultivars
Caribbean cuisine
Chili peppers
Flora of Jamaica
|
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208146
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icterid
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Icterid
|
Icterids () or New World blackbirds make up a family, the Icteridae (), of small to medium-sized, often colorful, New World passerine birds. Most species have black as a predominant plumage color, often enlivened by yellow, orange, or red. The species in the family vary widely in size, shape, behavior, and coloration. The name, meaning "jaundiced ones" (from the prominent yellow feathers of many species) comes from the Ancient Greek ikteros via the Latin ictericus. This group includes the New World blackbirds, New World orioles, the bobolink, meadowlarks, grackles, cowbirds, oropendolas, and caciques.
Despite the similar names, the first groups are only distantly related to the Old World common blackbird (a thrush) or the Old World orioles.
The Icteridae are not to be confused with the Icteriidae, a family created in 2017 and consisting of one species — the yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens).
Characteristics
Most icterid species live in the tropics, although many species also occur in temperate regions, such as the red-winged blackbird and the long-tailed meadowlark. The highest densities of breeding species are found in Colombia and southern Mexico. They inhabit a range of habitats, including scrub, swamp, forest, and savanna. Temperate species are migratory, with many species that nest in the United States and Canada moving south into Mexico and Central America.
Icterids are variable in size, and often display considerable sexual dimorphism, with brighter coloration and greater size in males being typical. While such dimorphism is widely known in passerines, the sexual dimorphism by size is uniquely extreme in icterids. For example, the male great-tailed grackle is 60% heavier than the female. The smallest icterid species is the orchard oriole, in which the female averages 15 cm in length (6 in) and in weight, while the largest is the Amazonian oropendola, the male of which measures and weighs about . This variation is greater than in any other passerine family (unless the kinglet calyptura belongs with the cotingas, which would then have greater variation). One unusual morphological adaptation shared by the icterids is gaping, where the skull is configured to allow them open their bills strongly rather than passively, allowing them to force open gaps to obtain otherwise hidden food.
Icterids have adapted to taking a wide range of foods. Oropendolas and caciques use their gaping motion to open the skins of fruit to obtain the soft insides, and have long bills adapted to the process. Others such as cowbirds and the bobolink have shorter, stubbier bills for crushing seeds. The Jamaican blackbird uses its bill to pry amongst tree bark and epiphytes, and has adopted the evolutionary niche filled elsewhere in the Neotropics by woodcreepers. Orioles drink nectar.
The nesting habits of these birds are also variable, including pendulous woven nests in the oropendolas and orioles. Many icterids are colonial, nesting in colonies of up to 100,000 birds. Some cowbird species engage in brood parasitism; females lay their eggs in the nests of other species, in a similar fashion to some cuckoos.
Some species of icterid have become agricultural pests; for example, red-winged blackbirds in the United States are considered the worst vertebrate pests on some crops, such as rice. The cost of controlling blackbirds in California was $30 per acre in 1994. Not all species have been as successful, and a number of species are threatened with extinction. These include insular forms such as the Jamaican blackbird, yellow-shouldered blackbird, and St Lucia oriole, all threatened by habitat loss; and the tricolored blackbird of California, which is threatened by habitat loss and destruction of nests.
Folklore
Cacique and oropendola species are called paucar or similar names in Peru. As paucares are considered very intelligent, Native Americans feed the brains to their children to make them fast learners. As the male plays no part in nesting and care of the young, a man who does not work may be called a "male paucar".
Systematics
For more details, see List of icterid species.
FAMILY ICTERIDAE
Prehistoric icterid genera that have been described from Pleistocene fossil remains are Pandanaris from Rancho La Brea and Pyelorhamphus from Shelter Cave.
References
(1999): New World Blackbirds. Christopher Helm, London.
(2002): A robust phylogeny of the oropendolas: Polyphyly revealed by mitochondrial sequence data. Auk 119(2): 335–348. DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2002)119[0335:ARPOTO]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext
. English version (not containing the word paucar).
Further reading
External links
New World Blackbirds (Icteridae) - videos, photos and sounds at the Internet Bird Collection
Icteridae - Tree of Life Web Project
Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Lucerne
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Lake Lucerne
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Lake Lucerne (, literally "Lake of the four forested settlements" (in English usually translated as forest cantons), , ) is a lake in central Switzerland and the fourth largest in the country.
The lake has a complicated shape, with several sharp bends and four arms. It starts in the south–north bound Reuss Valley between steep cliffs above the Urnersee from Flüelen towards Brunnen to the north before it makes a sharp bend to the west where it continues into the Gersauer Becken. Here is also the deepest point of the lake with . Even further west of it is the Buochser Bucht, but the lake sharply turns north again through the narrow opening between the Unter Nas (lower nose) of the Bürgenstock to the west and the Ober Nas (upper nose) of the Rigi to the east to reach the Vitznauer Bucht. In front of Vitznau below the Rigi the lake turns sharply west again to reach the center of a four-arm cross, called the Chrütztrichter (Cross Funnel). Here converge the Vitznauer Bucht with the Küssnachtersee from the north, the Luzernersee from the west, and the Horwer Bucht and the Stanser Trichter to the south, which is to be found right below the northeast side of the Pilatus and the west side of the Bürgenstock. At the very narrow pass between the east dropper of the Pilatus (called Lopper) and Stansstad the lake reaches its southwestern arm at Alpnachstad on the steep southern foothills of the Pilatus, the Alpnachersee. The lake drains its water into the Reuss in Lucerne from its arm called Luzernersee (which literally translates as Lake of Lucerne).
The entire lake has a total area of 114 km² (44 sq mi) at an elevation of a.s.l., and a maximum depth of . Its volume is 11.8 km³. Much of the shoreline rises steeply into mountains up to 1,500 m above the lake, resulting in many picturesque views including those of the mountains Rigi and Pilatus.
The Reuss enters the lake at Flüelen, in the part called Urnersee (Lake of Uri, in the canton of Uri) and exits at Lucerne. The lake also receives the Muota at Brunnen, the Engelberger Aa at Buochs, and the Sarner Aa at Alpnachstad.
It is possible to circumnavigate the lake by train and road, though the railway route circumvents the lake even on the north side of the Rigi via Arth-Goldau. Since 1980, the A2 motorway leads through the Seelisberg Tunnel in order to reach the route to the Gotthard Pass in just half an hour in Altdorf, Uri right south of the beginning of the lake in Flüelen.
Steamers and other passenger boats ply between the different villages and towns on the lake. It is a popular tourist destination, both for native Swiss and foreigners, and there are many hotels and resorts along the shores. In addition, the meadow of the Rütli, traditional site of the founding of the Swiss Confederation, is on the Urnersee shore. A 35 km commemorative walkway, the Swiss Path, was built around the Lake of Uri to celebrate the country's 700th anniversary in 1991.
Archaeologists surveying the lake-bed (during the construction of a pipeline) from 2019 to 2021 found the remains of a Bronze Age village with artifacts dating to around 1000 BC. Later, the new findings indicated that the area was settled 2,000 years earlier than historians previously thought.
Name
The name of Vierwaldstättersee is first used in the 16th century. Before the 16th century, the entire lake was known as Luzerner See "Lake Lucerne", as remains the English (and partly Italian, as Lago di Lucerna) usage.
The (three) "Waldstätte(n)" (lit.: "forested sites/settlements", in English usually translated as forest cantons) since the 14th century were the confederate allies of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden. The notion of "Four Waldstätten" (Vier Waldstätten), with the addition of the canton of Lucerne, is first recorded in the 1450s, in an addition to the "Silver Book" of Egloff Etterlin of Lucerne.
The nine different parts of the lake have individual designations:
Urnersee ("Lake of Uri"): The first part of the lake, at the mouth of the Reuss between Flüelen and Brunnen.
Gersauer Becken ("Basin of Gersau") next to Gersau below the Rigi massif is the deepest part of the lake.
Buochser Bucht ("Bay of Buochs"): The bay of Bouchs, where the Engelberger Aa enters the lake.
Vitznauer Bucht ("Bay of Vitznau"): The part between the Bürgenstock and Rigi.
Alpnachersee ("Lake of Alpnach"): the almost separate, southern arm below the southern mountainside of Pilatus near Alpnach.
Stanser Trichter ("Funnel of Stans"): The part north of the Pilatus, west of Bürgenstock, and in front of Hergiswil and Stansstad.
Küssnachtersee ("Lake of Küssnacht"): The most northern arm, west of the Rigi with Küssnacht SZ at its northern end.
Chrütztrichter ("Cross Funnel"): The meeting point of Stanser Trichter, Luzernersee, Küssnachtersee, and Vitznauer Bucht.
Luzernersee ("Lake of Lucerne"): in German usage now limited to the bay at Lucerne as far as Meggenhorn, with its effluence of the Reuss.
Geography
Lake Lucerne borders on the three original Swiss cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden (which today is divided into the cantons of Obwalden and Nidwalden), as well as the canton of Lucerne, thus the name Vierwaldstättersee (lit.: Lake of the Four Forested Settlements). Many of the oldest communities of Switzerland are along the shore, including Küssnacht, Weggis, Vitznau, Gersau, Brunnen, Altdorf, Buochs, and Treib.
Lake Lucerne is singularly irregular and appears to lie in four different valleys, all related to the conformation of the adjoining mountains. The central portion of the lake lies in two parallel valleys whose direction is from west to east, the one lying north, the other south of the ridge of the Bürgenstock. These are connected through a narrow strait, scarcely one kilometre wide, between the two rocky promontories called respectively Unter Nas and Ober Nas (Lower and Upper Nose). It is not unlikely that the southern of these two divisions of the lake—called Buochser Bucht—formerly extended to the west over the isthmus whereon stands the town of Stans, thus forming an island of the Bürgenstock. The west end of the main branch of the lake, whence a comparatively shallow bay extends to the town of Lucerne, is intersected obliquely by a deep trench whose south-west end is occupied by the branch called Alpnachersee, while the north-east branch forms the long arm of Küssnacht, Küssnachtersee. These both lie in the direct line of a valley that stretches with scarcely a break in between the Uri Alps and the Emmental Alps. At the eastern end of the Gersauer Becken, where the containing walls of the lake-valley are directed from east to west, it is joined at an acute angle by the arm of Uri, or the Urnersee, lying in the northern prolongation of the deep cleft that gives a passage to the Reuss, between the Uri Alps and the Glarus Alps.
The Urnersee occupies the northernmost and deep portion of the great cleft of the Reuss Valley, which has cut through the Alpine ranges from the St Gotthard Pass to the neighbourhood of Schwyz. From its eastern shore the mountains rise in almost bare walls of rock to a height of from above the water. The two highest summits are the Fronalpstock and the Rophaien (2078 m). Between them the steep glen or ravine of the Riemenstaldener Tal descends to Sisikon, the only village with Flüelen right on the shore on that side of the Urnersee. On the opposite or western shore, the mountains attain still greater dimensions. The Niederbauen Chulm is succeeded by the Oberbauenstock, and farther south, above the ridge of the Scharti, appear the snowy peaks of the Gitschen and the Uri Rotstock (2,928 m). In the centre opens the Reuss Valley, backed by the rugged summits of the Urner and Glarner Alps.
The breadth of these various sections of the lake is very variable, but is usually between one and two miles (3 km). The lake's surface, whose mean height above the sea is 434 metres, is the lowest point of the cantons of Uri, Obwalden and Nidwalden. Originally the lake was susceptible to variations in level and flooding along its shoreline. Between 1859 and 1860, the introduction of a needle dam in the Reuss in the city of Lucerne, just upstream from the Spreuerbrücke, allowed the lake level to be stabilised.
The culminating point of the lake's drainage basin, as well as Central Switzerland, is the Dammastock at 3,630 metres above sea level.
Settlements
Navigation
The lake is navigable, and has formed an important part of Switzerland's transport system for many centuries, and at least since the opening of the first track across the Gotthard Pass in 1230. This trade grew with the opening of a new mail coach road across the pass in 1830. This road had its northern terminus at Flüelen at the extreme eastern end of the lake, and the lake provided the only practical onward link to Lucerne, and hence the cities of northern Switzerland and beyond.
Whilst the development of Switzerland's road and rail networks has relieved the lake of much of its through traffic, it continues to be used by a considerable number of vessels, both private and public. Much of this usage is tourist or leisure oriented, but the lake continues to provide practical public and cargo transport links between the smaller lakeside communities.
Passenger boats of the Schifffahrtsgesellschaft des Vierwaldstättersees (SGV) provide services on the lake, including many run by historic paddle steamers. The SGV serves 32 places along the shore of the lake, with interchange to both main line and mountain railways at various points. Under separate management, the Autofähre Beckenried-Gersau provides a car ferry service between Beckenried, on the south bank of the lake, and Gersau on the north.
Cargo barges, to a local design known as Nauen, are still used on the lake. Some have been converted for use as party boats. Other barges are used by the gravel dredging industry that operates on the lake, using large dredgers to obtain sand and gravel for use in the construction industry.
Cultural references
Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata derives its name from an 1832 description of the first movement by poet and music critic Ludwig Rellstab, who compared it to moonlight shining upon Lake Lucerne.
Gioacchino Rossini uses this in his William Tell Overture Section A: Sunrise over the Alps.
Rowing
Lake Lucerne has twice been used as a venue for the European Rowing Championships: in 1908 and then in 1926. The nearby Rotsee has since 1933 been used for rowing regattas instead.
Tourism
On the way south, the English discovered the mountains of central Switzerland. Several spa and bathing resorts such as Weggis or Gersau were created. In 1871, the very first rack railway in Europe, the Vitznau-Rigi Railway, was opened. In 1889 the steepest cog railway in the world was built from Alpnachstad to Mount Pilatus. Mark Twain described an ascent to the Rigi, which led to the blossoming of Swiss tourism in the United States in the 19th century. One of the largest steamship fleets in Europe operates with five steamships on Lake Lucerne.
In the area surrounding the lake and on terraces at medium height (for example Morschach and Seelisberg) there are numerous places for tourists. The Rigi, Pilatus, the Bürgenstock, the Stanserhorn, the Buochserhorn, and the two legends, the Urirotstock and the Fronalpstock are attractive panoramic mountains near Lake Lucerne. Most of them can be reached by mountain railways, some of which have their valley station near boat stations on the lake.
There are numerous locations on the lake that are important in Swiss cultural and tourism history: Rütli, Tellsplatte, Tell Chapel, Carving Tower of Stansstad, Neu-Habsburg, Schillerstein, Treib, Astrid Chapel (Küssnacht) and Meggenhorn Castle.
Watersports
Different sports are possible in some separate areas due to the water and wind conditions. The lake is accessible from boat and yacht harbors, to lake resorts and pools (e.g. the Lido pool in Lucerne, built in 1929 by Arnold Berger). Therefore, the lake can be easily accessible from both shores. The See-Club Luzern was founded in 1881, which is now Switzerland's largest rowing club, as well as the Reuss Luzern rowing club (Ruderclub Reuss Luzern) in 1904. The Lucerne Yacht Club (Yachtclub Luzern) has existed since 1941 and has been running since 1966 a boathouse and buoy field on Churchill-Quai in Lucerne.
The Brunnen water sports club (Wassersportclub Brunnen), founded in 1958, held on Lake Lucerne in the first years of its existence international motorboat races and water ski championships. In 1965 the association chose a new name for the club: Lake Lucerne Water Sports Club (Wassersport-Club Vierwaldstättersee). The Central Switzerland Motorboat Club (Motorbootclub Zentralschweiz) was established in 1980 and the Hergiswil Water Sports Club (Wassersportclub Hergiswil) in 1986. SchweizMobil has created a canoe tour across Lake Lucerne between Brunnen and Gersau. Due to the wind in the Reuss Valley, the southern part of Lake Uri between the campground at Gruonbachstrand in Flüelen and Isleten is a center of windsurfing.
Diving
There are about ten places where you can dive without a boat in Lake Lucerne. The water is rather chilly all year round and therefore mostly very clear. In Lake Uri, at Sisikon, one can dive to a fragmented steep vertical wall, at the northern portal of the Schieferneggtunnel. The Lediwrack Bruno lies in front of Brunnen at a depth of 15 meters. Other well-known diving spots are in front of Vitznau, Weggis, Gersau and Hergiswil.
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
Waterlevels Lake Lucerne at Brunnen
Waterlevels Lake Lucerne at Lucerne
Lake Lucerne Region
Nidwalden Tourism
Lucerne
Lucerne
Lucerne
Lucerne
Lucerne
Lucerne
LLucerne
Tourist attractions in the canton of Uri
Tourist attractions in Nidwalden
Nidwalden–Uri border
Nidwalden–Obwalden border
Lucerne–Nidwalden border
Lucerne–Schwyz border
Schwyz–Uri border
Nidwalden–Schwyz border
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10
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10
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10 (ten) is an even natural number following 9 and preceding 11. Ten is the base of the decimal numeral system, by far the most common system of denoting numbers in both spoken and written language. It is the first double-digit number. The reason for the choice of ten is assumed to be that humans have ten fingers (digits).
Anthropology
Usage and terms
A collection of ten items (most often ten years) is called a decade.
The ordinal adjective is decimal; the distributive adjective is denary.
Increasing a quantity by one order of magnitude is most widely understood to mean multiplying the quantity by ten.
To reduce something by one tenth is to decimate. (In ancient Rome, the killing of one in ten soldiers in a cohort was the punishment for cowardice or mutiny; or, one-tenth of the able-bodied men in a village as a form of retribution, thus causing a labor shortage and threat of starvation in agrarian societies.)
Ten is used as a theoretical highest number in topics that require a rating ("a mark out of ten"), by contrast having 0 or 1 as the lowest number, and 5 being average.
Other
The number of kingdoms in Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
The house number of 10 Downing Street.
The number of Provinces in Canada.
Number of dots in a tetractys.
The number of the French department Aube.
The number in tarot decks that corresponds to either Chance, Fortune, or the Wheel of Fortune, depending on the deck variant.
In mathematics
Ten is a composite number with 4 divisors, its proper divisors being , and . Ten is the smallest noncototient, a number that cannot be expressed as the difference between any integer and the total number of coprimes below it.
Ten is the second discrete semiprime (2 × 5) and the second member of the (2 × q) discrete semiprime family. Ten has an aliquot sum σ(n) of 8 and is accordingly the first discrete semiprime to be in deficit. All subsequent discrete semiprimes are in deficit. The aliquot sequence for 10 comprises five members (10,8,7,1,0) with this number being the second composite member of the 7-aliquot tree.
Ten is the smallest semiprime that is the sum of all the distinct prime numbers from its lower factor through its higher factor (10 = 2 + 3 + 5 = 2 . 5) Only three other small semiprimes (39, 155, and 371) share this attribute.
Ten is a semi-meandric number.
Ten is the sum of the first three prime numbers, of the four first positive integers (1 + 2 + 3 + 4), of the square of the two first odd numbers and also of the first four factorials (0! + 1! + 2! + 3!). Ten is the eighth Perrin number, preceded in the sequence by 5, 5, 7.
A polygon with ten sides is a decagon, and 10 is a decagonal number. Because 10 is the product of a power of 2 (namely 21) with nothing but distinct Fermat primes (specifically 5), a regular decagon is a constructible polygon.
Ten is also a triangular number, a centered triangular number, and a tetrahedral number.
Ten is the number of n queens problem solutions for n = 5.
Ten is the smallest number whose status as a possible friendly number is unknown.
Ten factorial seconds is exactly equal to 6 weeks.
According to a conjecture, ten is the average sum of the proper divisors of the natural numbers if the size of the numbers approaches infinity .
Ten is the smallest number whose fourth power can be written as a sum of two squares in two different ways. (802 + 602 and 962 + 282)
In numeral systems
Decimal system
As is the case for any base in its system, ten is the first two-digit number in decimal and thus the lowest number where the position of a numeral affects its value. Any integer written in the decimal system can be multiplied by ten by adding a zero to the end (e.g. 855 × 10 = 8550).
Roman numerals
The Roman numeral for ten is X (which looks like two Vs [the Roman numeral for 5] put together); it is thought that the V for five is derived from an open hand (five digits displayed), and X for ten from both hands. Incidentally, the Chinese word numeral for ten, is also a cross: .
Positional numeral systems other than decimal
The digit '1' followed by '0' is how the value of p is written in base p. (E.g. 16 in hexadecimal is 10.)
List of basic calculations
In science
The SI prefix for 10 is "deca-".
The meaning "10" is part of the following terms:
decapoda, an order of crustaceans with ten feet.
decane, a hydrocarbon with 10 carbon atoms.
Also, the number 10 plays a role in the following:
The atomic number of neon.
The number of hydrogen atoms in butane, a hydrocarbon.
The number of spacetime dimensions in some superstring theories.
The metric system is based on the number 10, so converting units is done by adding or removing zeros (e.g. 1 centimeter = 10 millimeters, 1 decimeter = 10 centimeters, 1 meter = 100 centimeters, 1 dekameter = 10 meters, 1 kilometer = 1,000 meters).
Astronomy
The New General Catalogue object NGC 10, a magnitude 12.5 spiral galaxy in the constellation Sculptor.
Messier object M10, a magnitude 6.4 globular cluster in the constellation Ophiuchus.
In religion and philosophy
References in the Bible, Judaism and Christianity:
The Ten Commandments of Exodus and Deuteronomy are considered a cornerstone of Judaism and Christianity.
People traditionally tithed one-tenth of their produce. The practice of tithing is still common in Christian churches today, though it is disputed in some circles as to whether or not it is required of Christians.
In Deuteronomy 26:12, the Torah commands Jews to give one-tenth of their produce to the poor (Maaser Ani). From this verse and from an earlier verse (Deut. 14:22) there derives a practice for Jews to give one-tenth of all earnings to the poor.
Ten Plagues were inflicted on Egypt in .
Jews observe the annual Ten Days of Repentance beginning on Rosh Hashanah and ending on Yom Kippur.
In Jewish liturgy, Ten Martyrs are singled out as a group.
There are said to be Ten Lost Tribes of Israel (those other than Judah and Benjamin).
There are Ten Sephirot in the Kabbalistic Tree of Life.
In Judaism, ten men are the required quorum, called a minyan, for prayer services.
In Genesis 28:23-32, Abraham pleads on behalf of Sodom and Gomorrah, asking to save the cities if there are enough righteous people there. He starts at 10 per city, and ends with 10 total in all cities.
Interpretations of Genesis in Talmudic and Midrashic teachings suggest that on the first day, God drew forth ten primal elements from the abyss in order to construct all of Creation: Heaven (or Fire), Earth, Chaos, Void, Light, Darkness, Wind (or Spirit), Water, Day, and Night. See also Bereshit (parsha).
Jesus tells the Parable of the Ten Virgins in .
In Pythagoreanism, the number 10 played an important role and was symbolized by the tetractys.
In Hinduism, Lord Vishnu appeared on the earth in 10 incarnations, popularly known as Dashaavathar.
In Sikhism, there are ten human Gurus.
In money
Most countries issue coins and bills with a denomination of 10 (See e.g. 10 dollar note). Of these, the U.S. dime, with the value of ten cents, or one tenth of a dollar, derives its name from the meaning "one-tenth" − see Dime (United States coin)#Denomination history and etymology.
In music
The interval of a major tenth is an octave plus a major third.
The interval of a minor tenth is an octave plus a minor third.
"Ten lords a-leaping" is the gift on the tenth day of Christmas in the carol "The Twelve Days of Christmas".
In sports and games
Decathlon is a combined event in athletics consisting of ten track and field events.
In association football, the number 10 is traditionally worn by the team's advanced playmaker. This use has led to "Number 10" becoming a synonym for the player in that particular role, even if he or she does not wear that number.
In gridiron football, a team has a limited number of downs to advance the ball ten yards or more from where it was on its last first down; doing this is referred to as gaining another first down.
In auto racing, driving a car at ten-tenths is driving as fast as possible, on the limit.
In basketball, each quarter runs for 10 minutes under FIBA, WNBA, and NCAA women's rules.
In blackjack, the Ten, Jack, Queen and King are all worth 10 points.
In boxing, if the referee counts to 10 whether the boxer is unconscious or not, it will declare a winner by knockout.
In cricket, a team's innings ends once it has lost 10 wickets.
In men's field lacrosse, each team has 10 players on the field at any given time, except in penalty situations.
Ten-ball is a pool game played with a cue ball and ten numbered balls.
In most rugby league competitions, the number 10 is worn by one of the two starting props. One exception to this rule is the Super League, which uses static squad numbering.
In rugby union, the starting fly-half wears the 10 shirt.
In ten-pin bowling, 10 pins are arranged in a triangular pattern and there are 10 frames per game.
In technology
Ten-codes are commonly used on emergency service radio systems.
Ten refers to the "meter band" on the radio spectrum between 28 and 29.7 MHz, used by amateur radio.
ASCII and Unicode code point for line feed.
In MIDI, Channel 10 is reserved for unpitched percussion instruments.
In the Rich Text Format specification, all language codes for regional variants of the Spanish language are congruent to 10 mod 256.
In macOS, the F10 function key tiles all the windows of the current application and grays the windows of other applications.
The IP addresses in the range 10.0.0.0/8 (meaning the interval between 10.0.0.0 and 10.255.255.255) is reserved for use by private networks by .
Age 10
This is generally the age when a child enters the preteen stage and also a denarian (someone within the age range of 10–19).
The ESRB recommends video games with an E10+ rating to children aged 10 and up.
In other fields
Blake Edwards' 1979 movie 10.
Series on HBO entitled 1st & Ten which aired between December 1984 and January 1991.
Series on ESPN and ESPN2 entitled 1st and 10 which launched on ESPN in October 2003 to 2008 and moved to ESPN2 since 2008.
In astrology, Capricorn is the 10th astrological sign of the Zodiac.
In Chinese astrology, the 10 Heavenly Stems, refer to a cyclic number system that is used also for time reckoning.
A 1977 short documentary film Powers of Ten depicts the relative scale of the Universe in factors of ten (orders of magnitude).
CBS has a game show called Power of 10, where the player's prize goes up and down by either the previous or next power of ten.
"Ten Chances" is one of the pricing games on The Price is Right.
There are ten official inkblots in the Rorschach inkblot test.
The traditional Snellen chart uses 10 different letters.
Ten is an Australian television network. The Sydney member of the network has the three-letter call-sign TEN and used to broadcast in analogue on VHF Channel 10.
Number Ten (also called Ella) is a character in the book series Lorien Legacies. The sixth book, The Fate of Ten, is named after her.
A Cartoon Network franchise Ben 10, which has a number on its title.
See also
List of highways numbered 10
References
External links
Integers
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] |
208153
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cons
|
Cons
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In computer programming, ( or ) is a fundamental function in most dialects of the Lisp programming language. constructs memory objects which hold two values or pointers to values. These objects are referred to as (cons) cells, conses, non-atomic s-expressions ("NATSes"), or (cons) pairs. In Lisp jargon, the expression "to cons x onto y" means to construct a new object with (cons x y). The resulting pair has a left half, referred to as the (the first element, or contents of the address part of register), and a right half (the second element, or contents of the decrement part of register), referred to as the .
It is loosely related to the object-oriented notion of a constructor, which creates a new object given arguments, and more closely related to the constructor function of an algebraic data type system.
The word "cons" and expressions like "to cons onto" are also part of a more general functional programming jargon. Sometimes operators that have a similar purpose, especially in the context of list processing, are pronounced "cons". (A good example is the :: operator in ML, Scala, F# and Elm or the : operator in Haskell, which adds an element to the beginning of a list.)
Use
Although cons cells can be used to hold ordered pairs of data, they are more commonly used to construct more complex compound data structures, notably lists and binary trees.
Ordered pairs
For example, the Lisp expression constructs a cell holding 1 in its left half (the so-called field) and 2 in its right half (the field). In Lisp notation, the value looks like:
(1 . 2)
Note the dot between 1 and 2; this indicates that the S-expression is a "dotted pair" (a so-called "cons pair"), rather than a "list."
Lists
In Lisp, lists are implemented on top of cons pairs. More specifically, any list structure in Lisp is either:
An empty list , which is a special object usually called .
A cons cell whose is the first element of the list and whose is a list containing the rest of the elements.
This forms the basis of a simple, singly linked list structure whose contents can be manipulated with , , and . Note that is the only list that is not also a cons pair. As an example, consider a list whose elements are 1, 2, and 3. Such a list can be created in three steps:
Cons 3 onto , the empty list
Cons 2 onto the result
Cons 1 onto the result
which is equivalent to the single expression:
(cons 1 (cons 2 (cons 3 nil)))
or its shorthand:
(list 1 2 3)
The resulting value is the list:
(1 . (2 . (3 . nil)))
i.e.
*--*--*--nil
| | |
1 2 3
which is generally abbreviated as:
(1 2 3)
Thus, can be used to add one element to the front of an existing linked list. For example, if x is the list we defined above, then will produce the list:
(5 1 2 3)
Another useful list procedure is , which concatenates two existing lists (i.e. combines two lists into a single list).
Trees
Binary trees that only store data in their leaves are also easily constructed with . For example, the code:
(cons (cons 1 2) (cons 3 4))
results in the tree:
((1 . 2) . (3 . 4))
i.e.
*
/ \
* *
/ \ / \
1 2 3 4
Technically, the list (1 2 3) in the previous example is also a binary tree, one which happens to be particularly unbalanced. To see this, simply rearrange the diagram:
*--*--*--nil
| | |
1 2 3
to the following equivalent:
*
/ \
1 *
/ \
2 *
/ \
3 nil
Use in conversation
Cons can refer to the general process of memory allocation, as opposed to using destructive operations of the kind that would be used in an imperative programming language. For example:
I sped up the code a bit by putting in side effects instead of having it cons ridiculously.
Functional implementation
Since Lisp has first-class functions, all data structures, including cons cells, can be implemented using functions. For example, in Scheme:
(define (cons x y)
(lambda (m) (m x y)))
(define (car z)
(z (lambda (p q) p)))
(define (cdr z)
(z (lambda (p q) q)))
This technique is known as Church encoding. It re-implements the cons, car, and cdr operations, using a function as the "cons cell". Church encoding is a usual way of defining data structures in pure lambda calculus, an abstract, theoretical model of computation that is closely related to Scheme.
This implementation, while academically interesting, is impractical because it renders cons cells indistinguishable from any other Scheme procedure, as well as introduces unnecessary computational inefficiencies.
However, the same kind of encoding can be used for more complex algebraic data types with variants, where it may even turn out to be more efficient than other kinds of encoding.
This encoding also has the advantage of being implementable in a statically typed language that doesn't have variants, such as Java, using interfaces instead of lambdas.
See also
Lisp (programming language)
CAR and CDR
Constructor (computer science)
Algebraic data type
Hash consing
References
External links
SDRAW, Common Lisp code for drawing draws cons cell structures. From David S. Touretzky.
Functional programming
Lisp (programming language)
Articles with example Lisp (programming language) code
Articles with example Scheme (programming language) code
Composite data types
Data types
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208154
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dozen
|
Dozen
|
A dozen (commonly abbreviated doz or dz) is a grouping of twelve.
The dozen may be one of the earliest primitive integer groupings, perhaps because there are approximately a dozen cycles of the Moon, or months, in a cycle of the Sun, or year. Twelve is convenient because it has a maximal number of divisors among the numbers up to its double, a property only true of 1, 2, 6, 12, 60, 360, and 2520.
The use of twelve as a base number, known as the duodecimal system (also as dozenal), originated in Mesopotamia (see also sexagesimal). Counting in base-12 can easily be accomplished on one's hands by counting each finger bone with one's thumb. Using this method, one hand can count to twelve, and two hands (with the second hand as a placeholder for representing units of twelve) can count to 144. Twelve dozen (122 = 144) are known as a gross; and twelve gross (123 = 1,728, the duodecimal 1,000) are called a great gross, a term most often used when shipping or buying items in bulk. A great hundred, also known as a small gross, is 120 or ten dozen.
A baker's dozen, also known as a big or long dozen, is a grouping of 13. Varying by country, some products are packaged or sold by the dozen, often foodstuff (a dozen eggs). Dozen may also be used to express a large quantity as in "several dozen" (e.g., dozens of people came to the party).
Etymology
The English word dozen comes from the old form douzaine, a French word meaning "a group of twelve" ("Assemblage de choses de même nature au nombre de douze" (translation: A group of twelve things of the same nature), as defined in the eighth edition of the Dictionnaire de l'Académie française). This French word is a derivation from the cardinal number douze ("twelve", from Latin duodĕcim) and the collective suffix -aine (from Latin -ēna), a suffix also used to form other words with similar meanings such as quinzaine (a group of fifteen), vingtaine (a group of twenty), centaine (a group of one hundred), etc. These French words have synonymous cognates in Spanish: docena, quincena, veintena, centena, etc. English dozen, French douzaine, Catalan dotzena, Portuguese "dúzia", Persian dowjin "دوجین", Arabic durzen "درزن", Turkish "düzine", German Dutzend, Dutch dozijn, Italian dozzina and Polish tuzin, are also used as indefinite quantifiers to mean "about twelve" or "many" (as in "a dozen times", "dozens of people").
A confusion may arise with the Anglo-Norman dizeyne (French dixaine or dizaine) a tithing, or group of ten households — dating from the earlier English system of grouping households into tens and hundreds for the purposes of law, order and mutual surety (see Tithing). In some texts this 'dizeyne' may be rendered as 'dozen'.
Baker's dozen
A baker's dozen, devil's dozen, long dozen, or long measure is 13, one more than a standard dozen. The broadest use of baker's dozen today is simply a group of thirteen objects (often baked goods). The term has meant different things over the last few centuries.
In the United Kingdom when selling certain goods, bakers were obliged to sell goods by the dozen at a specific weight or quality (or a specific average weight). During this time, bakers who sold a dozen units that failed to meet this requirement could be penalized with a fine. Therefore, to avoid risking this penalty, some bakers included an extra unit to be sure the minimum weight was met, bringing the total to 13 units or what is now commonly known as a baker's dozen.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term "baker's dozen" originated in the late 16th century and is "apparently so called after the former practice among bakers of including a thirteenth loaf when selling a dozen to a retailer, the extra loaf representing the retailer's profit."
According to the 1811 Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, by Francis Grose, "a Baker's Dozen is Thirteen; that number of rolls being allowed to the purchaser of a dozen". However, contrary to most sources, according to the anonymous 1785 version of that dictionary, which was probably also by Grose, "a Baker's Dozen is Fourteen, that number of rolls being allowed to the purchaser of a dozen".
The term has also been defined in a jocular way, as "twelve of today's and one of yesterday's."
The 13th loaf added to the dozen is called the vantage loaf.
See also
Lagniappe
Fourteener (poetry)
Seed-counting machine
References
External links
History of the term Baker's dozen The Phrase Finder
Integers
Units of amount
12 (number)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12%20%28number%29
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12 (number)
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12 (twelve) is the natural number following 11 and preceding 13. Twelve is a superior highly composite number, divisible by 2, 3, 4, and 6.
It is the number of years required for a full cycle of Jupiter, historically considered to be the brightest "wandering star". It is central to many systems of timekeeping, including the Western calendar and units of time of day, and frequently appears in the world's major religions.
Name
Twelve is the largest number with a single-syllable name in English. Early Germanic numbers have been theorized to have been non-decimal: evidence includes the unusual phrasing of eleven and twelve, the former use of "hundred" to refer to groups of 120, and the presence of glosses such as "tentywise" or "ten-count" in medieval texts showing that writers could not presume their readers would normally understand them that way. Such uses gradually disappeared with the introduction of Arabic numerals during the 12th-century Renaissance.
Derived from Old English, and are first attested in the 10th-century Lindisfarne Gospels' Book of John. It has cognates in every Germanic language (e.g. German zwölf), whose Proto-Germanic ancestor has been reconstructed as , from ("two") and suffix or of uncertain meaning. It is sometimes compared with the Lithuanian , although is used as the suffix for all numbers from 11 to 19 (analogous to "-teen"). Every other Indo-European language instead uses a form of "two"+"ten", such as the Latin . The usual ordinal form is "twelfth" but "dozenth" or "duodecimal" (from the Latin word) is also used in some contexts, particularly base-12 numeration. Similarly, a group of twelve things is usually a "dozen" but may also be referred to as a "dodecad" or "duodecad". The adjective referring to a group of twelve is "duodecuple".
As with eleven, the earliest forms of twelve are often considered to be connected with Proto-Germanic or ("to leave"), with the implicit meaning that "two is left" after having already counted to ten. The Lithuanian suffix is also considered to share a similar development. The suffix has also been connected with reconstructions of the Proto-Germanic for ten.
As mentioned above, 12 has its own name in Germanic languages such as English (dozen), Dutch (dozijn), German (Dutzend), and Swedish (dussin), all derived from Old French dozaine. It is a compound number in many other languages, e.g. Italian dodici (but in Spanish and Portuguese, 16, and in French, 17 is the first compound number), Japanese 十二 jūni.
Written representation
In prose writing, twelve, being the last single-syllable numeral, is sometimes taken as the last number to be written as a word, and 13 the first to be written using digits.
This is not a binding rule, and in English language tradition, it is sometimes recommended to spell out numbers up to and including either nine, ten or twelve, or even ninety-nine or one hundred. Another system spells out all numbers written in one or two words (sixteen, twenty-seven, fifteen thousand, but 372 or 15,001).
In German orthography, there used to be the widely followed (but unofficial) rule of spelling out numbers up to twelve (zwölf). The Duden (the German standard dictionary) mentions this rule as outdated.
Mathematical properties
Twelve is a composite number, the smallest number with exactly six divisors, its divisors being 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12. Twelve is also a highly composite number, the next one being twenty-four.
Twelve is the smallest abundant number, since it is the smallest integer for which the sum of its proper divisors (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 = 16) is greater than itself. Twelve is a sublime number, a number that has a perfect number of divisors, and the sum of its divisors is also a perfect number. Since there is a subset of 12's proper divisors that add up to 12 (all of them but with 4 excluded), 12 is a semiperfect number.
If an odd perfect number is of the form 12k + 1, it has at least twelve distinct prime factors.
A twelve-sided polygon is a dodecagon. A twelve-faced polyhedron is a dodecahedron. Regular cubes and octahedrons both have 12 edges, while regular icosahedrons have 12 vertices. Twelve is a pentagonal number. The densest three-dimensional lattice sphere packing has each sphere touching 12 others, and this is almost certainly true for any arrangement of spheres (the Kepler conjecture). Twelve is also the kissing number in three dimensions.
Twelve is the smallest weight for which a cusp form exists. This cusp form is the discriminant Δ(q) whose Fourier coefficients are given by the Ramanujan -function and which is (up to a constant multiplier) the 24th power of the Dedekind eta function. This fact is related to a constellation of interesting appearances of the number twelve in mathematics ranging from the value of the Riemann zeta function at −1 i.e. ζ(−1) = −, the fact that the abelianization of SL(2,Z) has twelve elements, and even the properties of lattice polygons.
There are twelve Jacobian elliptic functions and twelve cubic distance-transitive graphs.
There are 12 Latin squares of size 3 × 3.
The duodecimal system (1210 [twelve] = 1012), which is the use of 12 as a division factor for many ancient and medieval weights and measures, including hours, probably originates from Mesopotamia.
In base thirteen and higher bases (such as hexadecimal), twelve is represented as C. In base 10, the number 12 is a Harshad number.
12 is a pronic number, and a Pell number.
List of basic calculations
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; background: white"
|-
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|}
In nature
Notably, twelve is the number of full lunations in a solar year, and the number of years for a full cycle of Jupiter (the brightest of the ancient "wandering stars"), hence the number of months in a solar calendar, as well as the number of signs in the Western and the Chinese zodiac.
Religion
The number twelve carries religious, mythological and magical symbolism, generally representing perfection, entirety, or cosmic order in traditions since antiquity.
Ancient Greek religion
The Twelve Olympians are the principal gods of the pantheon, they were preceded by twelve Titans, and Hercules carries out twelve labours.
Several sets of twelve cities are identified in history as a dodecapolis, the most familiar being the Etruscan League. In ancient Rome, the twelve lictors carried fasces of twelve rods.
Judaism and Christianity
The significance is especially pronounced in the Hebrew Bible.
Ishmael - the first-born son of Abraham - has 12 sons/princes (Genesis 25:16), and Jacob also has 12 sons, who are the progenitors of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. This is reflected in Christian tradition, notably in the twelve Apostles. When Judas Iscariot is disgraced, a meeting is held (Acts) to add Saint Matthias to complete the number twelve once more.
The Book of Revelation contains much numerical symbolism, and many of the numbers mentioned have 12 as a divisor. mentions a woman—interpreted as the people of Israel, the Church and the Virgin Mary—wearing a crown of twelve stars (representing each of the twelve tribes of Israel). Furthermore, there are 12,000 people sealed from each of the twelve tribes of Israel (the Tribe of Dan is omitted while Manasseh is mentioned), making a total of 144,000 (which is the square of 12 multiplied by a thousand).
According to the New Testament, Jesus had twelve Apostles.
The "Twelve Days of Christmas" count the interval between Christmas and Epiphany.
Eastern Orthodoxy observes twelve Great Feasts.
Hinduism
There are twelve Jyotirlinga(Self-formed Lingas) of Lord Shiva in Hindu temples across India according to the Shaiva tradition.
The Sun god Surya has 12 names.
The Monkey god Hanuman has 12 names.
There are 12 Petals in Anahata or "heart chakra".
There are frequently said to be 12 Âdityas.
Others
The chief Norse god, Odin, has twelve sons.
In the King Arthur legend, Arthur is said to subdue 12 rebel princes and to win 12 great battles against Saxon invaders.
In Twelver Shi'a Islam, there are twelve Imams, legitimate successors of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. These twelve early leaders of Islam are—Ali, Hasan, Husayn, and nine of Husayn's descendants. Sura 12 in the Quran is sura Yusuf, narrating the story of the sons of Jacob.
Law
The number of twelve jurors in jury trials is depicted by Aeschylus in the Eumenides. In the play, the innovation is brought about by the goddess Athena, who summons twelve citizens to sit as jury.
In English Common Law, the tradition of twelve jurors harks back to the 10th-century law code introduced by Aethelred the Unready.
Timekeeping
The lunar year is 12 lunar months. Adding 11 or 12 days completes the solar year.
Most calendar systems – solar or lunar – have twelve months in a year.
The Chinese use a 12-year cycle for time-reckoning called Earthly Branches.
There are twelve hours in a half day, numbered one to twelve for both the ante meridiem (a.m.) and the post meridiem (p.m.). 12:00 p.m. is midday or noon, and 12:00 a.m. is midnight.
The basic units of time (60 seconds, 60 minutes, 24 hours) are evenly divisible by twelve into smaller units.
In numeral systems
In science
The atomic number of magnesium in the periodic table.
The Standard Model identifies twelve types of elementary fermions.
The human body has twelve cranial nerves.
The duodenum (from Latin duodecim, "twelve") is the first part of the small intestine, that is about twelve inches (30 cm) long. More precisely, this section of the intestine was measured not in inches but in fingerwidths. In fact, in German the name of the duodenum is Zwölffingerdarm, in Dutch the name is twaalfvingerige darm and in Bulgarian the name is дванадесетопръстик, all meaning "twelve-finger bowel".
Force 12 on the Beaufort wind force scale corresponds to the maximum wind speed of a hurricane.
The human body has twelve thoracic vertebrae.
In sports
In both soccer and American football, the number 12 can be a symbolic reference to the fans because of the support they give to the 11 players on the field. Texas A&M University reserves the number 12 jersey for a walk-on player who represents the original "12th Man", a fan who was asked to play when the team's reserves were low in a college American football game in 1922. Similarly, Bayern Munich, Hammarby, Feyenoord, Atlético Mineiro, Flamengo, Seattle Seahawks, Portsmouth and Cork City do not allow field players to wear the number 12 on their jersey because it is reserved for their supporters. It also serves as the jersey number for some of the National Football League's best and most well-known quarterbacks, such as Tom Brady and Aaron Rodgers.
In Canadian football, 12 is the maximum number of players that can be on the field of play for each team at any time.
In cricket, another sport with eleven players per team, teams may select a "12th man", who may replace an injured player for the purpose of fielding (but not batting or bowling).
In women's lacrosse, each team has 12 players on the field at any given time, except in penalty situations.
In rugby league, one of the starting second-row forwards wears the number 12 jersey in most competitions. An exception is in the Super League, which uses static squad numbering.
In rugby union, one of the starting centres, most often but not always the inside centre, wears the 12 shirt.
In an NBA game, a quarter lasts 12 minutes.
In technology
ASCII and Unicode code point for form feed.
The number of function keys on most PC keyboards (F1 through F12).
The number of keys in any standard digital telephone (1 through 9, 0, * and #).
Microsoft's Rich Text Format specification assigns numbers congruent to 12 mod 256 to variants of the French language.
In the arts
Film
Films with the number twelve or its variations in their titles include: 1212 Angry Men (1957 and 1997)Cheaper by the DozenOcean's Twelve12 MonkeysThe Dirty DozenThe Twelve Chairs (1970, 1971 and 1976)12 RoundsTwelveTwelve Years a SlaveTelevision
The number twelve plays a significant role in the television franchise Battlestar Galactica. The characters come from the Twelve Colonies of Kobol and worship the twelve gods of Kobol. In the re-imagined series, there are also twelve models of humanoid Cylons.Twelve Angry Men, the original 1954 live performance on the anthology television series Studio One"Number 12 Looks Just Like You" is an episode of the television show The Twilight Zone.Schoolhouse Rock! portrayed an alien child using base-twelve arithmetic in the short "Little Twelvetoes".12 oz. Mouse was an animated television show on Adult Swim.
The News 12 Networks are a group of American regional cable news television channels covering New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut.
is a French game show broadcast on TF1 with Oliver Minne at midday CEST.
In Star Twinkle PreCure, the Star Palace is home to the twelve Star Princesses, one for each sign of the Zodiac.
Theatre
Twelfth Night is a comedy by William Shakespeare.
The Vision of the Twelve Goddesses is a Jacobean masque by Samuel Daniel.
Twelve Angry Men, by Reginald Rose, adapted from his own teleplay (see above).
Literature
"The Twelve" is a poem by Aleksandr Blok.
Twelve is a novel by Nick McDonell.
The Twelve Chairs is a satirical novel by the Soviet authors Ilf and Petrov.
Cheaper by the Dozen is a 1946 novel by Frank Bunker Gilbreth Jr. and Ernestine Gilbreth Carey.
The Twelve Dancing Princesses is a folk tale.
The Aeneid, an epic poem by Virgil is divided into two halves composed of twelve books.
Paradise Lost, an epic poem by John Milton is divided into twelve books perhaps in imitation of the Aeneid.
Miguel de Cervantes wrote twelve Novelas ejemplares.
The number twelve is a key feature in the plot of the novel Murder on the Orient Express by Agatha Christie.
Music
Music theory
Twelve is the number of pitch classes in an octave, not counting the duplicated (octave) pitch. Also, the total number of major keys, (not counting enharmonic equivalents) and the total number of minor keys (also not counting equivalents). This applies only to twelve tone equal temperament, the most common tuning used today in western influenced music.
The twelfth is the interval of an octave and a fifth. Instruments such as the clarinet which behave as a stopped cylindrical pipe overblow at the twelfth.
The twelve-tone technique (also dodecaphony) is a method of musical composition devised by Arnold Schoenberg. Music using the technique is called twelve-tone music.
The twelve-bar blues is one of the most prominent chord progressions in popular music.
12-inch record, see Phonograph record#78 rpm disc sizes.
Pop music
The 12-inch single is a vinyl record format.
Twelfth Night is a progressive rock band. 12 Play is an R. Kelly album.
The Number 12 Looks Like You is a mathcore band.
"12", a song from the album Brave Murder Day by Katatonia.12 is a studio album by German singer Herbert Grönemeyer.Twelve is an album by Patti Smith.Twelve Deadly Cyns...and Then Some is an album by Cyndi Lauper.
D12 a rap group also known as the Dirty Dozen.
12 Stones is an American Christian rock band.
"12 Hundred" is a song by band Mushroomhead of their Savior Sorrow album.12 is the 12th studio album by Keller Williams.
"12" ("Dodeka" in Greek) is one of the most well-known hits by Anna Vissi.
"Twelve drummers drumming" is the gift on the twelfth day of Christmas in the carol "The Twelve Days of Christmas".
Twelve Girls Band are an all female Chinese musical group . 12 (American Song Book) is an album by Italian singer Mina.
"Revelation #12" is a song by American rock band Marilyn Manson.
12 is the maximum score a competing entry can receive by each country in the Eurovision Song Contest.
Art theory
There are twelve basic hues in the color wheel: three primary colors (red, yellow, blue), three secondary colors (orange, green & purple) and six tertiary colors (names for these vary, but are intermediates between the primaries and secondaries).
Games
In the game of craps, a dice roll of two sixes (value 12) on the come-out roll constitutes a "craps" and the shooter (dice thrower) loses immediately.
Twelve is a character in the Street Fighter video game series.
In Mario Kart Wii and Mario Kart 8, the starting grid carries twelve characters in each race.
Games such as Backgammon have a long history of 12 points on each side of the gaming board, as evidenced in the XII scripta board in the museum at Ephesus.
In other fields
There are 12 troy ounces in a troy pound (used for precious metals).
Twelve of something is called a dozen.
In the former British currency system, there were twelve pence in a shilling.
In Greek mythology, the number of Labours of Heracles was increased from ten to make twelve.
In English, twelve is the number of greatest magnitude that has just one syllable, and also the last one to contain a single syllable.
12 is the last number featured on the analogue clock, and also the starting point of the transition from A.M. to P.M. hours or vice-versa.
There are twelve months within a year, with the last one being December.
The level of grades in which one must attend school typically ends at 12 (although some jurisdictions may include a thirteenth grade depending on the country).
Twelve hours form half a day, and twelve hours away from another lead to the same time but with a different period (ex. Twelve hours away from 6:00AM leads to 6:00PM).
There are normally twelve pairs of ribs in the human body.
The Twelve Tables or Leges Duodecim Tabularum, more informally simply Duodecim Tabulae, was the ancient legislation underlying Roman law.
In the United States, twelve people are appointed to sit on a jury for felony trials in all but four states, and in federal and Washington, D.C. courts. The number of jurors gave the title to the play (and subsequent films) Twelve Angry Men''.
Twelve men have walked on Earth's moon.
The United States is divided into twelve Federal Reserve Districts (Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Richmond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco); American paper currency has serial numbers beginning with one of twelve different letters, A through L, representing the Federal Reserve Bank from which the currency originated.
According to UFO conspiracy theory, Majestic 12 is a secret committee, allegedly set up by U.S. President Harry S. Truman to investigate the Roswell UFO incident and cover up future extraterrestrial contact.
12 is the number of the French department Aveyron.
King Arthur's Round Table had 12 knights plus King Arthur himself.
12 inches in a foot.
Alcoholics Anonymous has 12 steps, 12 traditions and 12 concepts for world service.
Wilhelm Heinrich Schüßler developed a list of 12 biochemical cell salts, also known as tissue salts.
The age of consent in the Philippines.
See also
The Twelfth
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Books
Journal articles
.
External links
Integers
Numerology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11%20%28number%29
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11 (number)
|
11 (eleven) is the natural number following 10 and preceding 12. It is the first repdigit. In English, it is the smallest positive integer requiring three syllables.
Name
Eleven derives from the Old English which is first attested in Bede's late 9th-century Ecclesiastical History of the English People. It has cognates in every Germanic language (for example, German ), whose Proto-Germanic ancestor has been reconstructed as , from the prefix (adjectival "one") and suffix of uncertain meaning. It is sometimes compared with the Lithuanian , although is used as the suffix for all numbers from 11 to 19 (analogous to "-teen").
The Old English form has closer cognates in Old Frisian, Saxon, and Norse, whose ancestor has been reconstructed as . This has formerly been considered derived from Proto-Germanic ("ten"); it is now sometimes connected with or ("left; remaining"), with the implicit meaning that "one is left" after having already counted to ten.
Eleven is the only two-digit number that, when spelt in English, does not contain the letter T.
In languages
While, as mentioned above, 11 has its own name in Germanic languages such as English, German, or Swedish, and some Latin based languages such as Spanish, Portuguese, and French, it is the first compound number in many other languages: Italian , Chinese , Korean or .
In mathematics
11 is a prime number. The next prime is 13, with which it comprises a twin prime.
An 11-sided polygon is called a hendecagon or undecagon.
There are 11 regular and semiregular convex uniform tilings in the second dimension, and 11 planigons that correspond to these 11 regular and semiregular tilings.
There are 11 orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems (to within a conformal symmetry) in which the 3-variable Helmholtz equation can be solved using the separation of variables technique.
See also 11-cell.
11 of the thirty-five hexominoes can be folded to form (i.e., can serve as a net for) a cube. 11 of the sixty-six octiamonds can be folded to form a regular octahedron.
11 is the fourth Sophie Germain prime, the third safe prime, the fourth Lucas prime, the first repunit prime, the second good prime, and the second unique prime. Although it is necessary for n to be prime for 2n − 1 to be a Mersenne prime, the converse is not true: 211 − 1 = 2047 which is 23 × 89.
11 raised to the nth power is the nth row of Pascal's Triangle. (This works for any base, but the number eleven must be changed to the number represented as 11 in that base; for example, in duodecimal this must be done using thirteen.)
11 is a Heegner number, meaning that the ring of integers of the field has the property of unique factorization. A consequence of this is that there exists at most one point on the elliptic curve x3 = y2 + 11 that has positive-integer coordinates. In this case, this unique point is (15, 58).
On the seven-segment display of a calculator, 11 is both a strobogrammatic prime and a dihedral prime.
In Decimal
It is the smallest two-digit prime number.
If a number is divisible by 11, reversing its digits will result in another multiple of 11. As long as no two adjacent digits of a number added together exceed 9, then multiplying the number by 11, reversing the digits of the product, and dividing that new number by 11, will yield a number that is the reverse of the original number. (For example: 142,312 × 11 = 1,565,432 → 2,345,651 ÷ 11 = 213,241.)
Multiples of 11 by one-digit numbers all have matching double digits: 00 (=0), 11, 22, 33, 44, etc.
Divisibility Tests
A simple test to determine if an integer is divisible by 11 is to take every digit of the number located in odd position and add them up, then take the remaining digits and add them up. If the difference between the two sums is a multiple of 11, including 0, then the number is divisible by 11. For instance, if the number is 65,637 then (6 + 6 + 7) - (5 + 3) = 19 - 8 = 11, so 65,637 is divisible by 11. This technique also works with groups of digits rather than individual digits, so long as the number of digits in each group is odd, although not all groups have to have the same number of digits. For instance, if one uses three digits in each group, one gets from 65,637 the calculation (065) - 637 = -572, which is divisible by 11.
Another test for divisibility is to separate a number into groups of two consecutive digits (adding a leading zero if there is an odd number of digits), and then add up the numbers so formed; if the result is divisible by 11, the number is divisible by 11. For instance, if the number is 65,637, 06 + 56 + 37 = 99, which is divisible by 11, so 65,637 is divisible by eleven. This also works by adding a trailing zero instead of a leading one: 65 + 63 + 70 = 198, which is divisible by 11. This also works with larger groups of digits, providing that each group has an even number of digits (not all groups have to have the same number of digits).
Multiplying 11
An easy way of multiplying numbers by 11 in base 10 is:
If the number has:
1 digit - Replicate the digit (so 2 × 11 becomes 22).
2 digits - Add the 2 digits together and place the result in the middle (so 47 × 11 becomes 4 (11) 7 or 4 (10+1) 7 or (4+1) 1 7 or 517).
3 digits - Keep the first digit in its place for the result's first digit, add the first and second digits together to form the result's second digit, add the second and third digits together to form the result's third digit, and keep the third digit as the result's fourth digit. For any resulting numbers greater than 9, carry the 1 to the left. Example 1: 123 × 11 becomes 1 (1+2) (2+3) 3 or 1353. Example 2: 481 × 11 becomes 4 (4+8) (8+1) 1 or 4 (10+2) 9 1 or (4+1) 2 9 1 or 5291.
4 or more digits - Follow the same pattern as for 3 digits.
List of basic calculations
In Other Bases
In base 13 and higher bases (such as hexadecimal), 11 is represented as B, where ten is A. In duodecimal, however, 11 is sometimes represented as E or ↋, and ten as T, X, or ↊.
In science
11 is the atomic number of the element sodium.
In chemistry, Group 11 of the Periodic Table of the Elements (IUPAC numbering) consists of the three coinage metals copper, silver, and gold known from antiquity, and roentgenium, a recently synthesized superheavy element.
The number of spacetime dimensions in M-theory.
Astronomy
Apollo 11 was the first manned spacecraft to land on the Moon.
The approximate periodicity of a sunspot cycle is 11 years.
Messier object M11, a magnitude 7.0 open cluster in the constellation Scutum, also known as the Wild Duck Cluster.
The New General Catalogue object NGC 11, a spiral galaxy in the constellation Andromeda.
The 11th moon of Jupiter is Himalia.
In religion
Christianity
After Judas Iscariot was disgraced, the remaining apostles of Jesus were sometimes described as "the Eleven" (; and ); this occurred even after Matthias was added to bring the number to twelve, as in Acts 2:14: Peter stood up with the eleven (New International Version). The New Living Translation says Peter stepped forward with the eleven other apostles, making clear that the number of apostles was now twelve.
Saint Ursula is said to have been martyred in the third or fourth century in Cologne with a number of companions, whose reported number "varies from five to eleven". A legend that Ursula died with eleven thousand virgin companions has been thought to appear from misreading XI. M. V. (Latin abbreviation for "Eleven martyr virgins") as "Eleven thousand virgins".
Babylonian
In the Enûma Eliš the goddess Tiamat creates eleven monsters to take revenge for the death of her husband, Apsû.
In music
The interval of an octave and a fourth is an 11th. A complete 11th chord has almost every note of a diatonic scale.
The number of thumb keys on a bassoon, not counting the whisper key. (A few bassoons have a 12th thumb key.)
In the mockumentary This Is Spinal Tap, Spinal Tap's amplifiers go up to eleven.
In Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring, there are 11 consecutive repetitions of the same chord.
In Tool's song "Jimmy" and in Negativland's song "Time Zones", the number 11 is heard numerous times in the lyrics.
"Eleven pipers piping" is the gift on the 11th day of Christmas in the carol "The Twelve Days of Christmas."
In Green Grow the Rushes, O, Eleven is for "the eleven who went to heaven."
"The Eleven" is a song by The Grateful Dead.
In "Time Enough For Rocking When We're Old" by The Magnetic Fields, a lyric references "when our pheromones go up to eleven."
Eleven Records is the record label of Jason Webley, and many of Webley's works feature the number 11.
Eleven is an album by:
Come
incognito
Martina McBride
22-Pistepirkko
Eleven
Harry Connick Jr.
Tina Arena
Jeff Lorber and Mike Stern
Reamonn
Wagon Cookin'
Mr. Fogg
The Birdland Big Band
Pearl Django
Daniel Peña
The Knux
Igor Lumpert
In sports
There are 11 players on an association football (soccer) team on the field at a time.
An American football team also has 11 players on the field at one time during play. #11 is worn by quarterbacks, kickers, punters and wide receivers in American football's NFL.
There are 11 players on a bandy team on the ice at a time.
In cricket, a team has 11 players on the field. The 11th player is usually the weakest batsman, at the tail-end. He is primarily in the team for his bowling abilities.
There are 11 players in a field hockey team. The player wearing 11 will usually play on the left-hand side, as in soccer.
In NASCAR Racing, Denny Hamlin won in his 11th race of the closest Daytona 500 in No. 11 car for a margin of 0.01 seconds.
In most rugby league competitions (but not the Super League, which uses static squad numbering), one of the starting second-row forwards wears the number 11.
In rugby union, the starting left wing wears the number 11 shirt.
In the military
The number of guns in a gun salute to U.S. Army, Air Force and Marine Corps Brigadier Generals, and to Navy and Coast Guard Rear Admirals Lower Half.
The Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) designator given to US Army Infantry Officer as well as to enlisted personnel (AKA 11 MOS Series, or 11B, 11C, 11D, 11H, 11M, etc.)
The number of General Orders for Sentries in the Marine Corps and United States Navy.
A page in the Service Record Book of an enlisted Marine for writing down disciplinary actions.
World War I ended with an Armistice on November 11, 1918, which went into effect at 11:00 am—the 11th hour on the 11th day of the 11th month of the year. Armistice Day is still observed on November 11 of each year, although it is now called Veterans Day in the United States and Remembrance Day in the Commonwealth of Nations and parts of Europe.
In computing
In Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Konqueror for KDE, Google Chrome and Internet Explorer for Windows, the function key F11 key toggles full screen viewing mode. In macOS, F11 hides all open windows.
The windowing system for Unix computers is known as X11.
Computers of the PDP-11 series from Digital Equipment Corporation were informally referred to as "elevens".
Windows 11
In Canada
The stylized maple leaf on the Flag of Canada has 11 points.
The loonie is a hendecagon, an 11-sided polygon.
Clocks depicted on Canadian currency, like the Canadian fifty-dollar bill, show 11:00.
In other fields
Sector 11 in the North American Industry Classification System is the code for Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing and Hunting industries.
Being only one hour before 12:00, the eleventh hour means the last possible moment to take care of something, and often implies a situation of urgent danger or emergency (see Doomsday clock).
In astrology, Aquarius is the 11th astrological sign of the Zodiac.
In Basque, ("eleven") has the double meaning of "infinite", probably from amaigabe, "endless", as in ("I told you infinite/eleven times to come!").
English-speaking surveyors have developed several slang terms for 11 to distinguish it from its rhyme "seven": "punk," "top," & "railroad"
American Airlines Flight 11, a Boston-Los Angeles flight which crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City, New York after being hijacked by terrorists on September 11, 2001.
The number 11 bus is a low-cost way of sightseeing in London.
In the game of blackjack, an Ace can be counted as either one or 11, whichever is more advantageous for the player.
11 is the number of the French department Aude.
Three films – Ben-Hur (1959), Titanic (1997), and The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003) – have each won 11 Academy Awards, including Best Picture of their respective years.
Ocean's Eleven is the name of two American films.
In the anime series Code Geass, Japan is known as Area 11 of the Brittanian Empire.
Eleven is the name of a character in the 2016 Netflix original series Stranger Things, portrayed by Millie Bobby Brown.''
See also
11:11
11:11 (numerology)
XI
References
External links
Integers
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] |
208157
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3
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3
|
3 (three) is a number, numeral and digit. It is the natural number following 2 and preceding 4, and is the smallest odd prime number and the only prime preceding a square number. It has religious or cultural significance in many societies.
Evolution of the Arabic digit
The use of three lines to denote the number 3 occurred in many writing systems, including some (like Roman and Chinese numerals) that are still in use. That was also the original representation of 3 in the Brahmic (Indian) numerical notation, its earliest forms aligned vertically. However, during the Gupta Empire the sign was modified by the addition of a curve on each line. The Nāgarī script rotated the lines clockwise, so they appeared horizontally, and ended each line with a short downward stroke on the right. In cursive script the three strokes were eventually connected to form a glyph resembling a with an additional stroke at the bottom: ३.
The Indian digits spread to the Caliphate in the 9th century. The bottom stroke was dropped around the 10th century in the western parts of the Caliphate, such as the Maghreb and Al-Andalus, when a distinct variant ("Western Arabic") of the digit symbols developed, including modern Western 3. In contrast, the Eastern Arabs retained and enlarged that stroke, rotating the digit once more to yield the modern ("Eastern") Arabic digit "٣".
In most modern Western typefaces, the digit 3, like the other decimal digits, has the height of a capital letter, and sits on the baseline. In typefaces with text figures, on the other hand, the glyph usually has the height of a lowercase letter "x" and a descender: "". In some French text-figure typefaces, though, it has an ascender instead of a descender.
A common graphic variant of the digit three has a flat top, similar to the letter Ʒ (ezh). This form is sometimes used to prevent falsifying a 3 as an 8. It is found on UPC-A barcodes and standard 52-card decks.
Mathematics
3 is:
a rough approximation of (3.1415...) and a very rough approximation of e (2.71828..) when doing quick estimates.
the number of non-collinear points needed to determine a plane and a circle.
the first odd prime number and the second smallest prime.
the first Fermat prime ().
the first Mersenne prime ().
the second Sophie Germain prime.
the second Mersenne prime exponent.
the second factorial prime ().
the second Lucas prime.
the second triangular number. It is the only prime triangular number.
the fourth unique Fibonacci number and the fifth in the sequence.
the smallest number of sides that a simple (non-self-intersecting) polygon can have.
the only known number n such that n!-1 and n!+1 are prime.
Three is the only prime which is one less than a perfect square. Any other number which is for some integer n is not prime, since it is . This is true for 3 as well (with ), but in this case the smaller factor is 1. If n is greater than 2, both and are greater than 1 so their product is not prime.
A natural number is divisible by three if the sum of its digits in base 10 is divisible by 3. For example, the number 21 is divisible by three (3 times 7) and the sum of its digits is 2 + 1 = 3. Because of this, the reverse of any number that is divisible by three (or indeed, any permutation of its digits) is also divisible by three. For instance, 1368 and its reverse 8631 are both divisible by three (and so are 1386, 3168, 3186, 3618, etc.). See also Divisibility rule. This works in base 10 and in any positional numeral system whose base divided by three leaves a remainder of one (bases 4, 7, 10, etc.).
Three of the five Platonic solids have triangular faces – the tetrahedron, the octahedron, and the icosahedron. Also, three of the five Platonic solids have vertices where three faces meet – the tetrahedron, the hexahedron (cube), and the dodecahedron. Furthermore, only three different types of polygons comprise the faces of the five Platonic solids – the triangle, the square, and the pentagon.
There are only three distinct 4×4 panmagic squares.
According to Pythagoras and the Pythagorean school, the number 3, which they called triad, is the noblest of all digits, as it is the only number to equal the sum of all the terms below it, and the only number whose sum with those below equals the product of them and itself.
The trisection of the angle was one of the three famous problems of antiquity.
Gauss proved that every integer is the sum of at most 3 triangular numbers.
Numeral systems
There is some evidence to suggest that early man may have used counting systems which consisted of "One, Two, Three" and thereafter "Many" to describe counting limits. Early peoples had a word to describe the quantities of one, two, and three but any quantity beyond was simply denoted as "Many". This is most likely based on the prevalence of this phenomenon among people in such disparate regions as the deep Amazon and Borneo jungles, where western civilization's explorers have historical records of their first encounters with these indigenous people.
List of basic calculations
Science
The Roman numeral III stands for giant star in the Yerkes spectral classification scheme.
Three is the atomic number of lithium.
Three is the ASCII code of "End of Text".
Three is the number of dimensions that humans can perceive. Humans perceive the universe to have three spatial dimensions, but some theories, such as string theory, suggest there are more.
Three is the number of elementary fermion generations according to the Standard Model of particle physics.
The triangle, a polygon with three edges and three vertices, is the most stable physical shape. For this reason it is widely utilized in construction, engineering and design.
The ability of the human eye to distinguish colors is based upon the varying sensitivity of different cells in the retina to light of different wavelengths. Humans being trichromatic, the retina contains three types of color receptor cells, or cones.
There are three primary colors in the additive and subtractive models.
Protoscience
In European alchemy, the three primes () were salt (), sulfur () and mercury ().
The three doshas (weaknesses) and their antidotes are the basis of Ayurvedic medicine in India.
Pseudoscience
Three is the symbolic representation for Mu, Augustus Le Plongeon's and James Churchward's lost continent.
In Pythagorean numerology the number 3 is the digit that represents the communication. It encourages the expansion of creativity, sociability between people and movement.
Philosophy
Philosophers such as Aquinas, Kant, Hegel, C. S. Peirce, and Karl Popper have made threefold divisions, or trichotomies, which have been important in their work.
Hegel's dialectic of Thesis + Antithesis = Synthesis creates three-ness from two-ness.
Religion
Many world religions contain triple deities or concepts of trinity, including:
The Hindu Trimurti
The Hindu Tridevi
The Three Jewels of Buddhism
The Three Pure Ones of Taoism
The Christian Holy Trinity
The Triple Goddess of Wicca
Christianity
The threefold office of Christ is a Christian doctrine which states that Christ performs the functions of prophet, priest, and king.
The ministry of Jesus lasted approximately three years.
During the Agony in the Garden, Christ asked three times for the cup to be taken from him.
Jesus rose from the dead on the third day after his death.
The devil tempted Jesus three times.
Saint Peter thrice denied Jesus and thrice affirmed his faith in Jesus.
The Magi – wise men who were astronomers/astrologers from Persia – gave Jesus three gifts.
There are three Synoptic Gospels and three epistles of John.
Paul the Apostle went blind for three days after his conversion to Christianity.
Judaism
Noah had three sons: Ham, Shem and Japheth
The Three Patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac and Jacob
The prophet Balaam beat his donkey three times.
The prophet Jonah spent three days and nights in the belly of a large fish
Three divisions of the Written Torah: Torah (Five Books of Moses), Nevi'im (Prophets), Ketuvim (Writings)
Three divisions of the Jewish people: Kohen, Levite, Yisrael
Three daily prayers: Shacharit, Mincha, Maariv
Three Shabbat meals
Shabbat ends when three stars are visible in the night sky
Three Pilgrimage Festivals: Passover, Shavuot, Sukkot
Three matzos on the Passover Seder table
The Three Weeks, a period of mourning bridging the fast days of Seventeenth of Tammuz and Tisha B'Av
Three cardinal sins for which a Jew must die rather than transgress: idolatry, murder, sexual immorality
Upsherin, a Jewish boy's first haircut at age 3
A Beth din is composed of three members
Potential converts are traditionally turned away three times to test their sincerity
In the Jewish mystical tradition of the Kabbalah, it is believed that the soul consists of three parts, with the highest being neshamah ("breath"), the middle being ruach ("wind" or "spirit") and the lowest being nefesh ("repose"). Sometimes the two elements of Chayah ("life" or "animal") and Yechidah ("unit") are additionally mentioned.
In the Kabbalah, the Tree of Life (Hebrew: Etz ha-Chayim, עץ החיים) refers to a latter 3-pillar diagrammatic representation of its central mystical symbol, known as the 10 Sephirot.
Buddhism
The Triple Bodhi (ways to understand the end of birth) are Budhu, Pasebudhu, and Mahaarahath.
The Three Jewels, the three things that Buddhists take refuge in.
Shinto
The Imperial Regalia of Japan of the sword, mirror, and jewel.
Daoism
The Three Treasures (), the basic virtues in Taoism.
The Three Dantians
Three Lines of a Trigram
Three Sovereigns: Heaven Fu Xi (Hand – Head – 3º Eye), Humanity Shen Nong (Unit 69), Hell Nüwa (Foot – Abdomen – Umbiculus).
Hinduism
The Trimurti: Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer.
The three Gunas found in Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy.
The three paths to salvation in the Bhagavad Gita named Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Jnana Yoga.
Zoroastrianism
The three virtues of Humata, Hukhta and Huvarshta (Good Thoughts, Good Words and Good Deeds) are a basic tenet in Zoroastrianism.
Norse mythology
Three is a very significant number in Norse mythology, along with its powers 9 and 27.
Prior to Ragnarök, there will be three hard winters without an intervening summer, the Fimbulwinter.
Odin endured three hardships upon the World Tree in his quest for the runes: he hanged himself, wounded himself with a spear, and suffered from hunger and thirst.
Bor had three sons, Odin, Vili, and Vé.
Other religions
The Wiccan Rule of Three.
The Triple Goddess: Maiden, Mother, Crone; the three fates.
The sons of Cronus: Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades.
The Slavic god Triglav has three heads.
Esoteric tradition
The Theosophical Society has three conditions of membership.
Gurdjieff's Three Centers and the Law of Three.
Liber AL vel Legis, the central scripture of the religion of Thelema, consists of three chapters, corresponding to three divine narrators respectively: Nuit, Hadit and Ra-Hoor-Khuit.
The Triple Greatness of Hermes Trismegistus is an important theme in Hermeticism.
As a lucky or unlucky number
Three (, formal writing: , pinyin sān, Cantonese: saam1) is considered a good number in Chinese culture because it sounds like the word "alive" ( pinyin shēng, Cantonese: saang1), compared to four (, pinyin: sì, Cantonese: sei1), which sounds like the word "death" ( pinyin sǐ, Cantonese: sei2).
Counting to three is common in situations where a group of people wish to perform an action in synchrony: Now, on the count of three, everybody pull! Assuming the counter is proceeding at a uniform rate, the first two counts are necessary to establish the rate, and the count of "three" is predicted based on the timing of the "one" and "two" before it. Three is likely used instead of some other number because it requires the minimal amount counts while setting a rate.
There is another superstition that it is unlucky to take a third light, that is, to be the third person to light a cigarette from the same match or lighter. This superstition is sometimes asserted to have originated among soldiers in the trenches of the First World War when a sniper might see the first light, take aim on the second and fire on the third.
The phrase "Third time's the charm" refers to the superstition that after two failures in any endeavor, a third attempt is more likely to succeed. This is also sometimes seen in reverse, as in "third man [to do something, presumably forbidden] gets caught".
Luck, especially bad luck, is often said to "come in threes".
Sports
In American and Canadian football, a field goal is worth three points.
In association football:
For purposes of league standings, since the mid-1990s almost all leagues have awarded three points for a win.
A team that wins three trophies in a season is said to have won a treble.
A player who scores three goals in a match is said to have scored a hat-trick.
In baseball:
A batter strikes out upon the third strike in any single batting appearance.
Each team's half of an inning ends once the defense has recorded three outs (unless the home team has a walk-off hit in the ninth inning or any extra inning).
In scorekeeping, "3" denotes the first baseman.
In basketball:
Three points are awarded for a basket made from behind a designated arc on the floor.
The "3 position" is the small forward.
In bowling, three strikes bowled consecutively is known as a "turkey".
In cricket, a bowler who is credited with dismissals of batsmen on three consecutive deliveries has achieved a "hat-trick".
In Gaelic games (Gaelic football for men and women, hurling, and camogie), three points are awarded for a goal, scored when the ball passes underneath the crossbar and between the goal posts.
In ice hockey:
Scoring three goals is called a "hat trick" (usually not hyphenated in North America).
A team will typically have three forwards on the ice at any given time.
In professional wrestling, a pin is when one holds the opponent's shoulders against the mat for a count of three.
In rugby union:
A successful penalty kick for goal or drop goal is worth three points.
In the French variation of the bonus points system, a team receives a bonus point in the league standings if it wins a match while scoring at least three more tries than its opponent.
The starting tighthead prop wears the jersey number 3.
In rugby league:
One of the two starting centres wears the jersey number 3. (An exception to this rule is the Super League, which uses static squad numbering.)
A "threepeat" is a term for winning three consecutive championships.
A triathlon consists of three events: swimming, bicycling, and running.
In many sports a competitor or team is said to win a Triple Crown if they win three particularly prestigious competitions.
In volleyball, once the ball is served, teams are allowed to touch the ball three times before being required to return the ball to the other side of the court, with the definition of "touch" being slightly different between indoor and beach volleyball.
Film
A number of film versions of the novel The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas: (1921, 1933, 1948, 1973, 1992, 1993 & 2011).
3 Days of the Condor (1975), starring Robert Redford, Faye Dunaway, Cliff Robertson, and Max von Sydow.
Three Amigos (1986), comedy film starring Steve Martin, Chevy Chase, and Martin Short.
Three Kings (1999), starring George Clooney, Mark Wahlberg, Ice Cube, and Spike Jonze.
3 Days to Kill (2014), starring Kevin Costner.
Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2017), starring Frances McDormand, Woody Harrelson, Sam Rockwell.
See also
Cube (algebra) – (3 superscript)
Third
Triad
List of highways numbered 3
References
Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers London: Penguin Group. (1987): 46–48
External links
Tricyclopedic Book of Threes by Michael Eck
Threes in Human Anatomy by Dr. John A. McNulty
The Number 3
The Positive Integer 3
Prime curiosities: 3
Integers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7
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7
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7 (seven) is the natural number following 6 and preceding 8. It is the only prime number preceding a cube.
The seven Classical planets resulted in seven being the number of days in a week. It is often considered lucky in Western culture and is often seen as highly symbolic. Unlike Western culture, in Vietnamese culture, the number seven is sometimes considered unlucky.
It is the first number whose pronunciation contains more than one syllable, not counting 0.
Evolution of the Arabic digit
In the beginning, Indians wrote 7 more or less in one stroke as a curve that looks like an uppercase vertically inverted. The western Ghubar Arabs' main contribution was to make the longer line diagonal rather than straight, though they showed some tendencies to making the digit more rectilinear. The eastern Arabs developed the digit from a form that looked something like our 6 to one that looked like an uppercase V. Both modern Arab forms influenced the European form, a two-stroke form consisting of a horizontal upper stroke joined at its right to a stroke going down to the bottom left corner, a line that is slightly curved in some font variants. As is the case with the European digit, the Cham and Khmer digit for 7 also evolved to look like their digit 1, though in a different way, so they were also concerned with making their 7 more different. For the Khmer this often involved adding a horizontal line to the top of the digit. This is analogous to the horizontal stroke through the middle that is sometimes used in handwriting in the Western world but which is almost never used in computer fonts. This horizontal stroke is, however, important to distinguish the glyph for seven from the glyph for one in writing that uses a long upstroke in the glyph for 1. In some Greek dialects of early 12th century the longer line diagonal was drawn in a rather semicircular transverse line.
On the seven-segment displays of pocket calculators and digital watches, 7 is the digit with the most common graphic variation (1, 6 and 9 also have variant glyphs). Most calculators use three line segments, but on Sharp, Casio, and a few other brands of calculators, 7 is written with four line segments because, in Japan, Korea and Taiwan 7 is written with a "hook" on the left, as ① in the following illustration.
While the shape of the character for the digit 7 has an ascender in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the character usually has a descender, as, for example, in .
Most people in Continental Europe, and some in Britain and Ireland as well as Latin America, write 7 with a line in the middle ("7"), sometimes with the top line crooked. The line through the middle is useful to clearly differentiate the digit from the digit one, as the two can appear similar when written in certain styles of handwriting. This form is used in official handwriting rules for primary school in Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Poland, other Slavic countries, France, Italy, Belgium, Finland, Romania, Germany, Greece, and Hungary.
Mathematics
Seven, the fourth prime number, is not only a Mersenne prime (since ) but also a double Mersenne prime since the exponent, 3, is itself a Mersenne prime. It is also a Newman–Shanks–Williams prime, a Woodall prime, a factorial prime, a lucky prime, a happy number (happy prime), a safe prime (the only Mersenne safe prime), and the fourth Heegner number.
Seven is the lowest natural number that cannot be represented as the sum of the squares of three integers. (See Lagrange's four-square theorem#Historical development.)
Seven is the aliquot sum of one number, the cubic number and is the base of the 7-aliquot tree.
7 is the only number D for which the equation has more than two solutions for n and x natural. In particular, the equation is known as the Ramanujan–Nagell equation.
7 is the only dimension, besides the familiar 3, in which a vector cross product can be defined.
7 is the lowest dimension of a known exotic sphere, although there may exist as yet unknown exotic smooth structures on the 4-dimensional sphere.
divided by 7 is exactly . Therefore, when a vulgar fraction with 7 in the denominator is converted to a decimal expansion, the result has the same six-digit repeating sequence after the decimal point, but the sequence can start with any of those six digits. For example, and
In fact, if one sorts the digits in the number 142,857 in ascending order, 124578, it is possible to know from which of the digits the decimal part of the number is going to begin with. The remainder of dividing any number by 7 will give the position in the sequence 124578 that the decimal part of the resulting number will start. For example, 628 ÷ 7 = ; here 5 is the remainder, and would correspond to number 7 in the ranking of the ascending sequence. So in this case, . Another example, , hence the remainder is 2, and this corresponds to number 2 in the sequence. In this case, .
A seven-sided shape is a heptagon. The regular n-gons for n ≤ 6 can be constructed by compass and straightedge alone, but the regular heptagon cannot. Figurate numbers representing heptagons (including seven) are called heptagonal numbers. Seven is also a centered hexagonal number.
There are seven frieze groups, the groups consisting of symmetries of the plane whose group of translations is isomorphic to the group of integers.
There are seven fundamental types of catastrophes.
When rolling two standard six-sided dice, seven has a 6 in 6 (or ) probability of being rolled (1–6, 6–1, 2–5, 5–2, 3–4, or 4–3), the greatest of any number. The opposite sides of a standard six-sided dice always add to 7.
The Millennium Prize Problems are seven problems in mathematics that were stated by the Clay Mathematics Institute in 2000. Currently, six of the problems remain unsolved.
Basic calculations
In science
Seven colors in a rainbow: ROYGBIV
Seven Continents
Seven Seas
Seven climes
The neutral pH balance
Number of music notes in a scale
Number of spots most commonly found on ladybugs
Number of atoms found in Nitrogen (N)
In Psychology
Seven, plus or minus two as a model of working memory.
Seven psychological types called the Seven Rays in the teachings of Alice A. Bailey
In Western Culture, Seven is consistently listed as people's favorite number.
When guessing numbers 1-10 the number 7 is most likely to be picked.
Seven-year itch: happiness in marriage said to decline after 7 years
In Culture
In literature
Seven Dwarfs
Sports with 7 players per side
Kabaddi
Rugby sevens
Water Polo
Netball
Handball
Flag Football
Ultimate Frisbee
See also
Symbolism of the number 7
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
Seven days of the Week
Septenary (numeral system)
Septenary (Theosophy)
Year Seven (School)
Se7en (disambiguation)
Sevens (disambiguation)
Luck
One-seventh area triangle
Diatonic scale
List of highways numbered 7
Notes
References
Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers London: Penguin Group (1987): 70–71
Integers
7 (number)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon%20Lee
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Brandon Lee
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Brandon Bruce Lee (February 1, 1965 – March 31, 1993) was an American actor and martial artist. Establishing himself as a rising action star in the early 1990s, he landed his breakthrough role as Eric Draven in the dark fantasy film The Crow (1994). Lee's career, however, was cut short by his accidental death during The Crows production.
Lee was the son of martial artist and film star Bruce Lee, who died when he was eight years old. The younger Lee, who followed in his father's footsteps, trained in martial arts and studied acting at Emerson College and the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute. He started his career with leading roles in the Hong Kong action film Legacy of Rage (1986) and the straight-to-video Laser Mission (1989). Lee also appeared in two spin-offs of the 1970s series Kung Fu, the television film Kung Fu: The Movie (1986) and the pilot Kung Fu: The Next Generation (1987).
Transitioning to Hollywood productions, Lee first starred in the Warner Bros buddy cop film Showdown in Little Tokyo (1991), co-starring Dolph Lundgren. While it did not do well with audiences and critics upon its release, it later became a cult film. This was followed by a leading role in Rapid Fire (1992) produced by 20th Century Fox. Though the film was not well-received, critics praised Lee's onscreen presence. After being cast to headline The Crow, Lee had filmed nearly all of his scenes when he was fatally wounded on set by a prop gun. Lee posthumously received praise for his performance, while the film became a critical and commercial success. His career has drawn parallels with his father, having both died young prior to the release of their breakthrough film.
Early life
Brandon was born on February 1, 1965, at East Oakland Hospital in Oakland, California, the son of martial artist and actor Bruce Lee (1940–1973) and Linda Lee Cadwell (née Emery). From a young age, Lee learned martial arts from his father, who was a well known practitioner and a martial arts movie star. Lee said the family lived between Hong Kong and the United States, due to his father's career. While visiting his father's sets, Lee became interested in acting. Lee's father died suddenly in 1973, leaving a legacy that made him an icon of martial arts and cinema.
Afterwards, Lee's family moved back to California. Lee began studying with Dan Inosanto, one of his father's students, when he was 9. Later in his youth, Lee also trained with Richard Bustillo and Jeff Imada. Imada said that when Lee was in his teens, he struggled with his identity, and having to train in dojos which included large photos of his father troubled him. According to Imada, this led Lee to leave martial arts in favor of soccer. Both would reconnect later in their film careers, with Imada working as stunt and fight coordinator in several of Lee's upcoming films. Meanwhile, Lee was a rebellious high school student. In 1983, four months prior to his graduation, Lee was asked to leave the Chadwick School for misbehavior. That year Lee received his GED from Miraleste High School.
Lee pursued his studies in New York City, where he took acting lessons at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute. Lee went on to Emerson College in Boston, Massachusetts, where he majored in theater. During this time, Lee appeared in several stage productions. He was part of the Eric Morris American New Theatre, with them he acted in John Lee Hancock's play Full Fed Beast.
Career
1985 to 1990: Early roles
Lee returned to Los Angeles in 1985 and worked as a script reader. During this period, he was approached by casting director Lynn Stalmaster and successfully auditioned for his first credited acting role in Kung Fu: The Movie. It was a feature-length television movie that was a follow-up to the 1970s television series Kung Fu, with David Carradine returning as the lead. On set Lee reconnected with his former instructor Jeff Imada who worked in the stunt department. Imada said Lee had to be talked into accepting the role, since the martial arts nature of the film did not appeal to Lee, who avoided any connection with his father's genre of film. In the film, the character of Kwai Chang Caine (Carradine) has a conflict with his illegitimate son (Lee). Kung Fu: The Movie first aired on ABC on February 1, 1986. Lee said that he felt there was some justice in being cast for this role in his first feature, since the TV show's pilot had been conceived for his father.
That year saw the release of Ronny Yu's Hong Kong action crime thriller Legacy of Rage. This was Lee's first leading film role. Yu said that Lee and him did not get along during shooting. In the film, Lee plays a young man blamed for a crime he did not commit. It was the only film Lee made in Hong Kong, and in Cantonese. Lee was nominated for a Hong Kong Film Award for Best New Performer in this role. The film was a critical success at the 1987 Cannes Film Festival, and was a commercial success in Japan.
In 1987, Lee starred in another spin-off of Kung Fu, the unsold television pilot Kung Fu: The Next Generation. On June 19, it aired on CBS Summer Playhouse, a program that specialized in rejected pilots and allowed the audience to call in to vote for a show to be picked up as a series. The plot centered on the grandson and great-grandson (Lee) of the main character from the original series. The pilot was poorly received and not picked up as a series.
In 1988, Lee had a role in "What's In a Name", an episode of the American television series Ohara, starring Pat Morita, He portrayed the main villain, the son of a yakuza. Jeff Imada, who worked as stunt coordinator, said that Lee was recommended not to do the role due to the nature of the character. However, Lee saw it as a chance to expand his acting range, and took the role.
In 1990, Laser Mission was released. Filmed in Namibia, Lee stars as mercenary on a mission. Distributed by Turner Home Entertainment, it was a commercial success on home video. The film was generally panned by critics, although a few considered it an amusing action B movie.
In the 1980s, Lee started to train again with Dan Inosanto. Inosanto said that Lee would bring a camera to the training facilities to see which techniques looked good on screen. Also around this time, Margaret Loesch, Marvel's CEO from 1984 to 1990, had a meeting with Lee and his mother through comic book writer Stan Lee (no relation). Stan Lee felt that Brandon would be ideal in the role of super-hero Shang-Chi in a film or television adaptation.
1991 to 1993: Hollywood breakthrough
In April 1991, Lee was in Universal Pictures' list of contenders to play his father in the biopic Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story (1993). He turned the role down, finding it awkward to play his father, and too strange to approach the romance between his parents. The role went to Jason Scott Lee (no relation), who said he was initially intimidated by his role as Bruce Lee but that he overcame his fear after speaking to Brandon. According to Jason, Brandon told him the following in regards to the role: "He said I wouldn't survive in this part if I treated his father like a god. He said his father was, after all, a man who had a profound destiny, but he was not a god. He was a man who had a temper, a lot of anger, who found mediocrity offensive. Sometimes he was rather merciless." Director Rob Cohen said he spent hours talking to Brandon during preparations.
On August 23, 1991, Mark L. Lester's Showdown in Little Tokyo premiered, which Warner Bros. produced and distributed. Lee starred opposite Dolph Lundgren in the buddy cop action film. Lee secured his role on October 13, 1990, to make his American feature. It was meant to start shooting after his casting but was delayed until the following January. In the film, Lee and Lundgren play cops who are partnered to investigate yakuzas. In the US, the domestic gross was $2,275,557. The movie faced largely negative reviews; retrospectively, however, some critics find it entertaining for its genre.
While visiting Sweden, Lee was among the cameos in the locally made genre film Sex, Lögner och Videovåld (2002), filmed between 1990 and 1993. The film was completed in 2000.
Lee's next film was 20th Century Fox's Rapid Fire, which premiered on August 22, 1992, and was directed by Dwight H. Little. Lee plays a student named Jake Lo who witnesses a murder and is put in a witness protection program. The film came about when producer Robert Lawrence started working with Lee and noticed his potential to be an action leading man in Hollywood after screening Lee's earlier project Legacy of Rage. Lee was involved with the story development, and connected with the plot point where his character loses his father. Jeff Imada, the film's stunt coordinator, witnessed Lee bringing a book of work by his father to emotionally prepare himself in the scene where the character loses his dad. Imada also said Lee put on muscle for the role. Lee and Imada are credited for the fight choreography, the fighting style contain elements of Lee father's Jeet Kune Do. Lee was allowed to add some touches of his own humor to the script. On playing the character of Jake Lo, Lee said "I always saw that character as not being gung-ho to get himself involved in those situations. I wanted to keep that throughout the film, that sarcastic edge. So he's not just becoming Joe Action Hero." In the US, the film is debuted at No.3 at the box office, making $4,815,850. After its 19 weeks run in cinemas, it made a total of $14,356,479. Most critics did not like the film, but many of them found Lee charismatic. A minority of critics found Rapid Fire to be slick, well acted, and a serviceable action film. Also that year, it was reported that Lee signed a three-picture deal with 20th Century Fox and a multi-picture deal with Carolco Pictures. That year, according to John Lee Hancock, Lee read the first draft of The Little Things (2021).
In the fall, while doing publicity for Rapid Fire, Lee landed the lead role in the Alex Proyas' The Crow, an adaptation of a comic book by the same name. It tells the story of Eric Draven (Lee), a rock musician raised from the dead by a supernatural crow to avenge his own death as well as the rape and murder of his fiancée by a dangerous gang in his city. According to producer Jeff Most, Lee had good insight on the character and liked the lyrical lines within the script, but did not want the dialogue to spread aimlessly. Hence, Lee focused on the brevity and rhythm of the lines of dialogue to make the character threatening. In preparation for the fight sequence, Most said that director Proyas and Lee studied martial arts movies. Also according to Most, Lee did not want metaphysical characters besides his own in the film. Costumer Roberta Bile said that Lee modelled Draven after singer Chris Robinson. Lee convinced the team to hire Jeff Imada who became the stunt coordinator; he and Imada oversaw the fight choreography.
Imada and Lee agreed that the character of Eric Draven would not do conventional martial arts moves; his movements would be unique, as he is a character without formal martial arts training who was given supernatural abilities upon resurrection. With this in mind, they added aerobics to Draven's fighting style. Both Imada and Most said Lee was pleased to incorporate his martial arts to the design of the character, without it being part of the story. Imada said that in order to look like a rocker and not an action hero, Lee went on a strict diet weeks before shooting in order to remove a lot of bulk, and would even weigh the food he ate. Lee also focused on cardiovascular exercise with a stairmaster, did repetitions on lighter weights to elongate and stretch his muscles, and did aerobics to lose body fat rapidly. During pre-production, Imada said that in order to get into character for the resurrection, Lee bought bags of ice in which he submerged himself, because Lee hypothesized that the feeling of resurrection must be freezing cold. The resurrection scene was shot the first night of production, during the winter. Imada was surprised that Lee requested the bags of ice because of the weather, and the fact that he was already barefoot and bare-naked. Key hairstylist Michelle Johnson said that in rain scenes Lee would soak himself prior to filming the scenes, where he would act without a shirt in cold weather. The film crew was impressed with his performance and dedication.
On March 31, 1993, while filming The Crow, Lee was accidentally wounded on set by defective blank ammunition and later died in hospital during surgery.
1993 to present: Posthumous success
After Lee's death in 1993, his fiancée Eliza Hutton and his mother supported director Proyas' decision to complete The Crow. At the time of Lee's death, only eight days were left before completion of the movie. A majority of the film had already been completed with Lee, and he was only required to shoot scenes for three more days. To complete the film, stunt doubles Chad Stahelski and Jeff Cadiente served as stand-ins; special effects were used to give them Lee's face. Lee's on-set death paved the way for deceased actors to complete or have new performances, since pioneering CGI techniques were used to complete The Crow. A month later, it was reported that Lee's previous films Laser Mission, Showdown in Little Tokyo, and Rapid Fire saw a surge in video sales. On April 28, Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story premiered at the Mann’s Chinese Theatre in Hollywood. The film is dedicated to Brandon with the quote: "The key to immortality is first living a life worth remembering." The event was considered a celebration of both Brandon and his father Bruce. Brandon's mother Linda and sister Shannon attended the premiere. Linda found the film to be excellent and a great tribute to her whole family.
In 1994, The Crow opened at number one in the United States in 1,573 theaters grossing $11.7 million, averaging $7,485 per theater. The film ultimately grossed $50.7 million, above its $23 million budget, 24th among all films released in the U.S. that year and 10th among R-rated films released that year. It was the most successful film of Lee's career, and is considered a cult classic. The film is dedicated to him and his fiancée Eliza Hutton. The Crow has an approval rating of 82 percent on Rotten Tomatoes based on 55 reviews; critical consensus there is: "Filled with style and dark, lurid energy, The Crow is an action-packed visual feast that also has a soul in the performance of the late Brandon Lee." The Crow has a score of 71 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 14 critics, indicating "Generally favorable reviews". Reviewers praised the action and visual style. Rolling Stone called it a "dazzling fever dream of a movie"; Caryn James, writing for The New York Times, called it "a genre film of a high order, stylish and smooth"; Roger Ebert called it "a stunning work of visual style". The Los Angeles Times also praised the film. Lee's death was alleged to have a melancholic effect on viewers; Desson Howe of The Washington Post wrote that Lee "haunts every frame" and James Berardinelli called the film "a case of 'art imitating death', and that specter will always hang over The Crow".
Jessica Seigel of the Chicago Tribune found that Lee never quite left the shadow of his father and that The Crow did not live up to Lee's full unexploited potential. Amber McKee of the Park Record considered it a good film but an eerie conclusion to Lee's career, since he had wanted to escape the action genre and move on to dramatic roles. Berardinelli called it an appropriate epitaph to Lee, Howe called it an appropriate sendoff, and Ebert stated that not only was this Lee's best film, it was also better than any of his father's.The Crow retained a loyal following many years after its release. Due to the source material and Lee's fate, it is often described as a goth cult film.
In 1998, Legacy of Rage was released in the US, and Australia the next year. The film has been described as stylistic and fast-paced, with a good performance by Lee.
Death
On March 31, 1993, Lee was filming a scene for the film The Crow in which his character is shot and killed by thugs. In the scene, Lee's character walks into his apartment and discovers his fiancée being beaten and raped, and a thug played by actor Michael Massee fires a Smith & Wesson Model 629 .44 Magnum revolver at Lee's character as he walks into the room.
In the film shoot preceding the fatal scene, the gun that was used as a prop (a real revolver) was loaded with improperly made dummy rounds, improvised from live cartridges that had the powder charges removed by the special effects crew, so in close-ups the revolver would show normal-looking ammunition. However, the crew neglected to remove the primers from the cartridges, and at some point before the fatal event, one of the rounds had been fired. Although there were no powder charges, the energy from the ignited primer was enough to separate the bullet from the casing and push it part-way into the gun barrel, where it got stuck—a dangerous condition known as a squib load.
During the fatal scene, which called for the revolver to be fired at Lee from a distance of , the dummy cartridges were replaced with blank rounds, which contained a powder charge and the primer, but no solid bullet, allowing the gun to be fired with sound and flash effects without the risk of an actual projectile. However, the gun was not properly checked and cleared before the blank was fired, and the dummy bullet previously lodged in the barrel was then propelled forward by the blank's propellant and shot out the muzzle with almost the same force as if the round were live, striking Lee in the abdomen.
After Massee pulled the trigger and shot Lee, Lee fell backwards instead of forwards as he was supposed to. When the director said "cut", Lee did not stand up and the crew thought he was either still acting or kidding around. Jeff Imada, who immediately checked Lee, noticed something wrong when he came close and noted Lee was unconscious and breathing heavily. Medic Clyde Baisey went over and shook Lee to see if he was dazed by hitting his head during the fall, but did not think Lee had been shot since there was no visible bleeding. Baisey took Lee's pulse, which was regular, but within two to three minutes it slowed down dramatically, and stopped.
Lee was rushed to the New Hanover Regional Medical Center in Wilmington, North Carolina. Attempts to save him were unsuccessful and after six hours of emergency surgery, Lee was pronounced dead on March 31, 1993 at 1:03 pm. He was 28 years old. The shooting was ruled an accident due to negligence. Lee's death led to the re-emergence of conspiracy theories surrounding his father's similarly early death. Lee was buried next to his father at the Lake View Cemetery in Seattle, Washington. A private funeral attended by 50 took place in Seattle on April 3. The following day, 200 of Lee's family and business associates attended a memorial service at actress Polly Bergen's house in Los Angeles. Among the attendees were Kiefer Sutherland, Lou Diamond Phillips, David Hasselhoff, Steven Seagal, David Carradine, and Melissa Etheridge.
In August 1993, Lee's mother, Linda Lee Cadwell, filed a lawsuit against the filmmakers alleging negligence in the death of her son. The suit was settled two months later under undisclosed terms.
In an interview just prior to his death, Lee quoted a passage from Paul Bowles' book The Sheltering Sky which he had chosen for his wedding invitations; it is now inscribed on his tombstone:
Martial arts and philosophy
Lee was trained from a young age by his father Bruce in martial arts. During this time, martial artist Bob Wall, a friend and collaborator of Bruce, observed that Lee hit with power and had good footwork. At age eight, after his father's death, Bruce's disciple Dan Inosanto trained Lee. According to Jeff Imada who at the time was helping with children's classes at Inosanto's Kali Institute, the fact that he was the son of one of its founders was kept quiet; Lee had difficulty focusing due to seeing his father's photos taking so much space in his studio. Imada said Lee stopped training in his mid-teens to play soccer. Richard Bustillo also trained Lee during his teens and said that Lee worked hard and was always respectful. Lee said that with his training Arnis with Inosanto he specialized in both Kali and Escrima and lasted three to four years.
In 1986, Lee said that he was training in Yee Chuan Tao, a relaxation-based martial art, with a trainer named Mike Vendrell. Lee said that it consisted of exercises such as slow sparring, Chi sao practice; they also worked on a wooden dummy, as well as Vendrell swinging a staff at him while he would duck or jump over. He said later that the exercise helped him be less tense.
Also in the 1980s, Lee returned to Dan Inosanto's Academy. Lee said he did a few amateur fights but did not seek to compete in tournaments. He would bring a camera to Inosanto's studio, both would choreograph fights for Lee's films and would allow him to see how various moves played out on screen. During this time, Lee also trained in weapon-based martial arts such as Eskrima and Silat. In 1991, Lee was certified by the Thai Boxing Association. While his main goal was dramatic acting, he credited his skill in martial arts to have helped him to get roles that require it.
During the filming of The Crow, Lee said he did cardiovascular exercises to the point of exhaustion using a jump rope, running, riding a LifeCycle, or using a StairMaster, after which he would train at Inosanto's academy where he took Muay Thai classes.
According to Lee's mother, years prior to his death Lee became consumed with his father's written philosophy, taking lengthy notes. When asked which martial arts he practiced, he responded:
In August 1992, Bruce Lee biographer John Little asked Brandon Lee what his philosophy in life was, and he replied, "Eat—or die!" Brandon later spoke of the martial arts and self-knowledge:
Personal life
Lee's paternal great-grandfather was Ho Kom-Tong, a Chinese philanthropist who was the half-brother of businessman and philanthropist Sir Robert Ho Tung. Lee's mother, Linda Emery, has Swedish and German ancestry. Lee's father has been said to have "proudly told everyone" about his newborn son Brandon's diverse features, describing him as perhaps the only Chinese person with blond hair and grey eyes. He was the brother of Shannon Lee.
According to Chuck Norris, a friend and collaborator of Lee's father, his son, Eric Norris, and Lee were childhood friends. John Lee Hancock said he had a friendship with Lee, who would read all of his scripts. Lee was also a friend of Chad Stahelski, his double after his death during The Crow. The two trained together at the Inosanto Martial Arts Academy.
In 1990, Lee met Eliza Hutton at director Renny Harlin's office, where she was working as his personal assistant. Lee and Hutton moved in together in early 1991 and became engaged in October 1992. They planned to get married in Ensenada, Mexico, on April 17, 1993, a week after Lee was to complete filming on The Crow.
Filmography
Awards and nominations
See also
The Captive – 1915 film during which Charles Chandler was shot with a rifle
Jon-Erik Hexum – actor killed by accidental self-inflicted blank cartridge gunshot to the head
Halyna Hutchins – cinematographer and journalist killed by gunshot from a prop gun on a film set
List of film and television accidents
Citations
Works cited
Baiss, Bridget (2004). The Crow: The Story Behind The Film. London: Titan Books.
Crick, Robert Alan (2015). The Big Screen Comedies of Mel Brooks. London and North Carolina: McFarland.
Little, John (1996). The Warrior Within: The philosophies of Bruce Lee to better understand the world around you and achieve a rewarding life. Contemporary Books. .
Stevenson, Jack (2015). Scandinavian Blue: The Erotic Cinema of Sweden and Denmark in the 1960s and 1970s. London and North Carolina: McFarland.
Further reading
Dyson, Cindy (2001). They Died Too Young: Brandon Lee. Philadelphia: Chelsea House.
Pilato, Herbie J. (1993). The Kung Fu Book of Caine: The Complete Guide to TV's First Mystical Eastern Western. Boston: Charles A. Tuttle. .
External links
1965 births
1993 deaths
20th-century American male actors
Accidental deaths in North Carolina
Action choreographers
American Jeet Kune Do practitioners
American male actors of Chinese descent
American male film actors
American male television actors
American Muay Thai practitioners
American people of Dutch-Jewish descent
American Wing Chun practitioners
American wushu practitioners
Burials in Washington (state)
Chinese Jeet Kune Do practitioners
Chinese people of Dutch-Jewish descent
Deaths by firearm in North Carolina
Emerson College alumni
Filmed accidental deaths
Filmed deaths of entertainers
Firearm accident victims in the United States
Hong Kong male film actors
Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute alumni
Male actors from Oakland, California
Male actors from California
People from Alameda County, California
People from Oakland, California
Wing Chun practitioners from Hong Kong
Family of Bruce Lee
|
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208161
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4
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4
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4 (four) is a number, numeral and digit. It is the natural number following 3 and preceding 5. It is the smallest composite number, and is considered unlucky in many East Asian cultures.
In mathematics
Four is the smallest composite number, its proper divisors being and .
4 is the smallest squared prime (p2) and the only even number in this form. 4 is also the only square one more than a prime number.
A number is a multiple of 4 if its last two digits are a multiple of 4. For example, 1092 is a multiple of 4 because .
In addition, 2 + 2 = 2 × 2 = 22 = 4. Continuing the pattern in Knuth's up-arrow notation, , and so on, for any number of up arrows. (That is, for every positive integer n, where is the hyperoperation.)
A four-sided plane figure is a quadrilateral (quadrangle), sometimes also called a tetragon. It can be further classified as a rectangle, oblong, square, kite, or rhombus.
A solid figure with four faces as well as four vertices is a tetrahedron, and 4 is the smallest possible number of faces (as well as vertices) of a polyhedron. The regular tetrahedron is the simplest Platonic solid. A tetrahedron, which can also be called a 3-simplex, has four triangular faces and four vertices. It is the only self-dual regular polyhedron.
Four-dimensional space is the highest-dimensional space featuring more than three convex regular figures:
Two-dimensional: infinitely many convex regular polygons.
Three-dimensional: five convex regular polyhedra (the five Platonic solids).
Four-dimensional: six convex regular polychora.
Five-dimensional and every higher-dimensional: three regular convex polytopes (regular simplexes, hypercubes, cross-polytopes).
Four-dimensional differential manifolds have some unique properties. There is only one differential structure on except when , in which case there are uncountably many.
The smallest non-cyclic group has four elements; it is the Klein four-group. Four is also the order of the smallest non-trivial groups that are not simple.
Four is the only integer n for which the (non trivial) alternating group A is not simple.
Four is the maximum number of dimensions of a real associative division algebra (the quaternions), by a theorem of Ferdinand Georg Frobenius.
The four-color theorem states that a planar graph (or, equivalently, a flat map of two-dimensional regions such as countries) can be colored using four colors, so that adjacent vertices (or regions) are always different colors. Three colors are not, in general, sufficient to guarantee this. The largest planar complete graph has four vertices.
Lagrange's four-square theorem states that every positive integer can be written as the sum of at most four square numbers. Three are not always sufficient; for instance cannot be written as the sum of three squares.
Each natural number divisible by 4 is a difference of squares of two natural numbers, i.e. .
Four is the highest degree general polynomial equation for which there is a solution in radicals.
List of basic calculations
Evolution of the Arabic digit
Brahmic numerals represented 1, 2 and 3 with as many lines. 4 was simplified by joining its four lines into a cross that looks like the modern plus sign. The Shunga would add a horizontal line on top of the digit, and the Kshatrapa and Pallava evolved the digit to a point where the speed of writing was a secondary concern. The Arabs' 4 still had the early concept of the cross, but for the sake of efficiency, was made in one stroke by connecting the "western" end to the "northern" end; the "eastern" end was finished off with a curve. The Europeans dropped the finishing curve and gradually made the digit less cursive, ending up with a digit very close to the original Brahmin cross.
While the shape of the character for the digit 4 has an ascender in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the glyph usually has a descender, as, for example, in .
On the seven-segment displays of pocket calculators and digital watches, as well as certain optical character recognition fonts, 4 is seen with an open top.
Television stations that operate on channel 4 have occasionally made use of another variation of the "open 4", with the open portion being on the side, rather than the top. This version resembles the Canadian Aboriginal syllabics letter ᔦ. The magnetic ink character recognition "CMC-7" font also uses this variety of "4".
In religion
Buddhism
Four Noble Truths – Dukkha, Samudaya, Nirodha, Magga
Four sights – observations which affected Prince Siddhartha deeply and made him realize the sufferings of all beings, and compelled him to begin his spiritual journey—an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and an ascetic
Four Great Elements – earth, water, fire, and wind
Four Heavenly Kings
Four Foundations of Mindfulness – contemplation of the body, contemplation of feelings, contemplation of mind, contemplation of mental objects
Four Right Exertions
Four Bases of Power
Four jhānas
Four arūpajhānas
Four Divine Abidings – loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity
Four stages of enlightenment – stream-enterer, once-returner, non-returner, and arahant
Four main pilgrimage sites – Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Kusinara
Judeo-Christian symbolism
The Tetragrammaton is the four-letter name of God.
Ezekiel has a vision of four living creatures: a man, a lion, an ox, and an eagle.
The four Matriarchs (foremothers) of Judaism are Sarah, Rebekah, Leah, and Rachel.
The Four Species (lulav, hadass, aravah and etrog) are taken as one of the mitzvot on the Jewish holiday of Sukkot. (Judaism)
The Four Cups of Wine to drink on the Jewish holiday of Passover. (Judaism)
The Four Questions to be asked on the Jewish holiday of Passover. (Judaism)
The Four Sons to be dealt with on the Jewish holiday of Passover. (Judaism)
The Four Expressions of Redemption to be said on the Jewish holiday of Passover. (Judaism)
The four Gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. (Christianity)
The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse ride in the Book of Revelation. (Christianity)
The Four holy cities of Judaism: Jerusalem, Hebron, Safed, and Tiberius
Hinduism
There are four Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
In Puruṣārtha, there are four aims of human life: Dharma, Artha, Kāma, Moksha.
The four stages of life Brahmacharya (student life), Grihastha (household life), Vanaprastha (retired life) and Sannyasa (renunciation).
The four primary castes or strata of society: Brahmana (priest/teacher), Kshatriya (warrior/politician), Vaishya (landowner/entrepreneur) and Shudra (servant/manual laborer).
The swastika symbol is traditionally used in Hindu religions as a sign of good luck and signifies good from all four directions.
The god Brahma has four faces.
There are four yugas: Satya, Dvapara, Treta and Kali
Islam
Eid al-Adha lasts for four days, from the 10th to the 14th of Dhul Hijja.
The four holy cities of Islam: Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem and Damascus.
The four tombs in the Green Dome: Muhammad, Abu Bakr, Umar ibn Khattab and Isa ibn Maryam (Jesus).
There are four Rashidun or Rightly Guided Caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib.
The Four Arch Angels in Islam are: Jibraeel (Gabriel), Mikaeel (Michael), Izraeel (Azrael), and Israfil (Raphael)
There are four months in which war is not permitted: Muharram, Rajab, Dhu al-Qi'dah and Dhu al-Hijjah.
There are four Sunni schools of fiqh: Hanafi, Shafi`i, Maliki and Hanbali.
There are four major Sunni Imams: Abū Ḥanīfa, Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i, Malik ibn Anas and Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
There are four books in Islam: Taurait, Zaboor, Injeel, Quran.
Waiting for four months is ordained for those who take an oath for abstention from their wives.
The waiting period of the woman whose husband dies, is four months and ten days.
When Abraham said: "My Lord, show me how You give life to the dead," Allah said: "Why! Do you have no faith?" Abraham replied: "Yes, but in order that my heart be at rest." He said: "Then take four birds, and tame them to yourself, then put a part of them on every hill, and summon them; they will come to you flying. [Al-Baqara 2:260]
The respite of four months was granted to give time to the mushriks in Surah At-Tawba so that they should consider their position carefully and decide whether to make preparation for war or to emigrate from the country or to accept Islam.
Those who accuse honorable women (of unchastity) but do not produce four witnesses, flog them with eighty lashes, and do not admit their testimony ever after. They are indeed transgressors. [An-Noor 24:4]
Taoism
Four Symbols of I Ching
Other
In a more general sense, numerous mythological and cosmogonical systems consider Four corners of the world as essentially corresponding to the four points of the compass.
Four is the sacred number of the Zia, an indigenous tribe located in the U.S. state of New Mexico.
The Chinese, the Koreans, and the Japanese are superstitious about the number four because it is a homonym for "death" in their languages.
In Slavic mythology, the god Svetovid has four heads.
In politics
Four Freedoms: four fundamental freedoms that Franklin D. Roosevelt declared ought to be enjoyed by everyone in the world: Freedom of Speech, Freedom of Religion, Freedom from Want, Freedom from Fear.
Gang of Four: Popular name for four Chinese Communist Party leaders who rose to prominence during China's Cultural Revolution, but were ousted in 1976 following the death of Chairman Mao Zedong. Among the four was Mao's widow, Jiang Qing. Since then, many other political factions headed by four people have been called "Gangs of Four".
In computing
Four bits (half a byte) are sometimes called a nibble.
In science
A tetramer is an oligomer formed out of four sub-units.
In astronomy
Four terrestrial (or rocky) planets in the Solar System: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
Four giant gas/ice planets in the Solar System: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
Four of Jupiter's moons (the Galilean moons) are readily visible from Earth with a hobby telescope.
Messier object M4, a magnitude 7.5 globular cluster in the constellation Scorpius.
The Roman numeral IV stands for subgiant in the Yerkes spectral classification scheme.
In biology
Four is the number of nucleobase types in DNA and RNA – adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine (uracil in RNA).
Many chordates have four feet, legs or leglike appendages (tetrapods).
The mammalian heart consists of four chambers.
Many mammals (Carnivora, Ungulata) use four fingers for movement.
All insects with wings except flies and some others have four wings.
Insects of the superorder Endopterygota, also known as Holometabola, such as butterflies, ants, bees, beetles, fleas, flies, moths, and wasps, undergo holometabolism—complete metamorphism in four stages—from (1) embryo (ovum, egg), to (2) larva (such as grub, caterpillar), then (3) pupa (such as the chrysalis), and finally (4) the imago.
In the common ABO blood group system, there are four blood types (A, B, O, AB).
Humans have four canines and four wisdom teeth.
The cow's stomach is divided in four digestive compartments: reticulum, rumen, omasum and abomasum.
In chemistry
Valency of carbon (that is basis of life on the Earth) is four. Also because of its tetrahedral crystal bond structure, diamond (one of the natural allotropes of carbon) is the hardest known naturally occurring material. It is also the valence of silicon, whose compounds form the majority of the mass of the Earth's crust.
The atomic number of beryllium
There are four basic states of matter: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma.
In physics
Special relativity and general relativity treat nature as four-dimensional: 3D regular space and one-dimensional time are treated together and called spacetime. Also, any event E has a light cone composed of four zones of possible communication and cause and effect (outside the light cone is strictly incommunicado).
There are four fundamental forces (electromagnetism, gravitation, the weak nuclear force, and the strong nuclear force).
In statistical mechanics, the four functions inequality is an inequality for four functions on a finite distributive lattice.
In logic and philosophy
The symbolic meanings of the number four are linked to those of the cross and the square. "Almost from prehistoric times, the number four was employed to signify what was solid, what could be touched and felt. Its relationship to the cross (four points) made it an outstanding symbol of wholeness and universality, a symbol which drew all to itself". Where lines of latitude and longitude intersect, they divide the earth into four proportions. Throughout the world kings and chieftains have been called "lord of the four suns" or "lord of the four quarters of the earth", which is understood to refer to the extent of their powers both territorially and in terms of total control of their subjects' doings.
The Square of Opposition, in both its Aristotelian version and its Boolean version, consists of four forms: A ("All S is R"), I ("Some S is R"), E ("No S is R"), and O ("Some S is not R").
In regard to whether two given propositions can have the same truth value, there are four separate logical possibilities: the propositions are subalterns (possibly both are true, and possibly both are false); subcontraries (it is possible that both are true, but not that both are false); contraries (it is possible that both are false, but not that both are true); or contradictories (it is not possible that both are true, and it is not possible that both are false).
Aristotle held that there are basically four causes in nature: the material, the formal, the efficient,and the final.
The Stoics held with four basic categories, all viewed as bodies (substantial and insubstantial): (1) substance in the sense of substrate, primary formless matter; (2) quality, matter's organization to differentiate and individualize something, and coming down to a physical ingredient such as pneuma, breath; (3) somehow holding (or disposed), as in a posture, state, shape, size, action, and (4) somehow holding (or disposed) toward something, as in relative location, familial relation, and so forth.
Immanuel Kant expounded a table of judgments involving four three-way alternatives, in regard to (1) Quantity, (2) Quality, (3) Relation, (4) Modality, and, based thereupon, a table of four categories, named by the terms just listed, and each with three subcategories.
Arthur Schopenhauer's doctoral thesis was On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason.
Franz Brentano held that any major philosophical period has four phases: (1) Creative and rapidly progressing with scientific interest and results; then declining through the remaining phases, (2) practical, (3) increasingly skeptical, and (4) literary, mystical, and scientifically worthless—until philosophy is renewed through a new period's first phase. (See Brentano's essay "The Four Phases of Philosophy and Its Current State" 1895, tr. by Mezei and Smith 1998.)
C. S. Peirce, usually a trichotomist, discussed four methods for overcoming troublesome uncertainties and achieving secure beliefs: (1) the method of tenacity (policy of sticking to initial belief), (2) the method of authority, (3) the method of congruity (following a fashionable paradigm), and (4) the fallibilistic, self-correcting method of science (see "The Fixation of Belief", 1877); and four barriers to inquiry, barriers refused by the fallibilist: (1) assertion of absolute certainty; (2) maintaining that something is absolutely unknowable; (3) maintaining that something is absolutely inexplicable because absolutely basic or ultimate; (4) holding that perfect exactitude is possible, especially such as to quite preclude unusual and anomalous phenomena (see "F.R.L." [First Rule of Logic], 1899).
Paul Weiss built a system involving four modes of being: Actualities (substances in the sense of substantial, spatio-temporally finite beings), Ideality or Possibility (pure normative form), Existence (the dynamic field), and God (unity). (See Weiss's Modes of Being, 1958).
Karl Popper outlined a tetradic schema to describe the growth of theories and, via generalization, also the emergence of new behaviors and living organisms: (1) problem, (2) tentative theory, (3) (attempted) error-elimination (especially by way of critical discussion), and (4) new problem(s). (See Popper's Objective Knowledge, 1972, revised 1979.)
John Boyd (military strategist) made his key concept the decision cycle or OODA loop, consisting of four stages: (1) observation (data intake through the senses), (2) orientation (analysis and synthesis of data), (3) decision, and (4) action. Boyd held that his decision cycle has philosophical generality, though for strategists the point remains that, through swift decisions, one can disrupt an opponent's decision cycle.
Richard McKeon outlined four classes (each with four subclasses) of modes of philosophical inquiry: (1) Modes of Being (Being); (2) Modes of Thought (That which is); (3) Modes of Fact (Existence); (4) Modes of Simplicity (Experience)—and, corresponding to them, four classes (each with four subclasses) of philosophical semantics: Principles, Methods, Interpretations, and Selections. (See McKeon's "Philosophic Semantics and Philosophic Inquiry" in Freedom and History and Other Essays, 1989.)
Jonathan Lowe (E.J. Lowe) argues in The Four-Category Ontology, 2006, for four categories: kinds (substantial universals), attributes (relational universals and property-universals), objects (substantial particulars), and modes (relational particulars and property-particulars, also known as "tropes"). (See Lowe's "Recent Advances in Metaphysics," 2001, Eprint)
Four opposed camps of the morality and nature of evil: moral absolutism, amoralism, moral relativism, and moral universalism.
In technology
The resin identification code used in recycling to identify low-density polyethylene.
Most furniture has four legs – tables, chairs, etc.
The four color process (CMYK) is used for printing.
Wide use of rectangles (with four angles and four sides) because they have effective form and capability for close adjacency to each other (houses, rooms, tables, bricks, sheets of paper, screens, film frames).
In the Rich Text Format specification, language code 4 is for the Chinese language. Codes for regional variants of Chinese are congruent to .
Credit card machines have four-twelve function keys.
On most phones, the 4 key is associated with the letters G, H, and I, but on the BlackBerry cellular phone, it is the key for D and F.
On many computer keyboards, the "4" key may also be used to type the dollar sign ($) if the shift key is held down.
It is the number of bits in a nibble, equivalent to half a byte
In internet slang, "4" can replace the word "for" (as "four" and "for" are pronounced similarly). For example, typing "4u" instead of "for you".
In Leetspeak, "4" may be used to replace the letter "A".
The TCP/IP stack consists of four layers.
In transport
Many internal combustion engines are called four-stroke engines because they complete one thermodynamic cycle in four distinct steps: Intake, compression, power, and exhaust.
Most vehicles, including motor vehicles, and particularly cars/automobiles and light commercial vehicles have four road wheels.
"Quattro", meaning four in the Italian language, is used by Audi as a trademark to indicate that all-wheel drive (AWD) technologies are used on Audi-branded cars. The word "Quattro" was initially used by Audi in 1980 in its original 4WD coupé, the Audi Quattro. Audi also has a privately held subsidiary company called quattro GmbH.
List of highways numbered 4
In sports
In the Australian Football League, the top level of Australian rules football, each team is allowed 4 "interchanges" (substitute players), who can be freely substituted at any time, subject to a limit on the total number of substitutions.
In baseball:
There are four bases in the game: first base, second base, third base, and home plate; to score a run, an offensive player must complete, in the sequence shown, a circuit of those four bases.
When a batter receives four pitches that the umpire declares to be "balls" in a single at-bat, a base on balls, informally known as a "walk", is awarded, with the batter sent to first base.
For scoring, number 4 is assigned to the second baseman.
Four is the most runs that can be scored on any single at bat, whereby all three baserunners and the batter score (the most common being via a grand slam).
In basketball, the number four is used to designate the power forward position, often referred to as "the four spot" or "the four".
In cricket, a four is a specific type of scoring event, whereby the ball crosses the boundary after touching the ground at least one time, scoring four runs. Taking four wickets in four consecutive balls is typically referred to as a double hat trick (two consecutive, overlapping hat tricks).
In rowing, a four refers to a boat for four rowers, with or without coxswain. In rowing nomenclature, 4− represents a coxless four and 4+ represents a coxed four.
In rugby league:
A try is worth 4 points.
One of the two starting centres wears the jersey number 4. (An exception to this rule is the Super League, which uses static squad numbering.)
In rugby union:
One of the two starting locks wears the jersey number 4.
In the standard bonus points system, a point is awarded in the league standings to a team that scores at least 4 tries in a match, regardless of the match result.
In other fields
The phrase "four-letter word" is used to describe many swear words in the English language.
Four is the only number whose name in English has the same number of letters as its value.
Four (, formal writing: , pinyin sì) is considered an unlucky number in Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese cultures mostly in Eastern Asia because it sounds like the word "death" (, pinyin sǐ). To avoid complaints from people with tetraphobia, many numbered product lines skip the "four": e.g. Nokia cell phones (there was no series beginning with a 4 until the Nokia 4.2), Palm PDAs, etc. Some buildings skip floor 4 or replace the number with the letter "F", particularly in heavily Asian areas. See tetraphobia and Numbers in Chinese culture.
In Pythagorean numerology (a pseudocience) the number 4 represents security and stability.
The number of characters in a canonical four-character idiom.
In the NATO phonetic alphabet, the digit 4 is called "fower".
In Astrology, Cancer is the 4th astrological sign of the Zodiac.
In Tarot, The Emperor is the fourth trump or Major Arcana card.
In Tetris, a game named for the Greek word for 4, every shape in the game is formed of 4 blocks each.
4 represents the number of Justices on the Supreme Court of the United States necessary to grant a writ of certiorari (i.e., agree to hear a case; it is one less than the number necessary to render a majority decision) at the court's current size.
Number Four is a character in the book series Lorien Legacies.
In the performing arts, the fourth wall is an imaginary barrier which separates the audience from the performers, and is "broken" when performers communicate directly to the audience.
In music
In written music, common time is constructed of four beats per measure and a quarter note receives one beat.
In popular or modern music, the most common time signature is also founded on four beats, i.e., 4/4 having four quarter note beats.
The common major scale is built on two sets of four notes (e.g., CDEF, GABC), where the first and last notes create an octave interval (a pair-of-four relationship).
The interval of a perfect fourth is a foundational element of many genres of music, represented in music theory as the tonic and subdominant relationship. Four is also embodied within the circle of fifths (also known as circle of fourths), which reveals the interval of four in more active harmonic contexts.
The typical number of movements in a symphony.
The number of completed, numbered symphonies by Johannes Brahms.
The number of strings on a violin, a viola, a cello, double bass, a cuatro and a ukulele, and the number of string pairs on a mandolin.
"Four calling birds" is the gift on the fourth day of Christmas in the carol "The Twelve Days of Christmas".
Groups of four
Big Four (disambiguation)
Four basic operations of arithmetic: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.
Greek classical elements (fire, air, water, earth).
Four seasons: spring, summer, autumn, winter.
The Four Seasons (disambiguation)
A leap year generally occurs every four years.
Approximately four weeks (4 times 7 days) to a lunar month (synodic month = 29.53 days). Thus the number four is universally an integral part of primitive sacred calendars.
Four weeks of Advent (and four Advent candles on the Advent wreath).
Four cardinal directions: north, south, east, west.
Four Temperaments: sanguine, choleric, melancholic, phlegmatic.
Four Humors: blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm.
Four Great Ancient Capitals of China.
Four-corner method.
Four Asian Tigers, referring to the economies of Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore
Cardinal principles.
Four cardinal virtues: justice, prudence, temperance, fortitude.
Four suits of playing cards: hearts, diamonds, clubs, spades.
Four nations of the United Kingdom: England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland.
Four provinces of Ireland: Munster, Ulster, Leinster, Connacht.
Four estates: politics, administration, judiciary, journalism. Especially in the expression "Fourth Estate", which means journalism.
Four Corners is the only location in the United States where four states come together at a single point: Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona.
Four Evangelists – Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John
Four Doctors of Western Church – Saint Gregory the Great, Saint Ambrose, Saint Augustine, and Saint Jerome
Four Doctors of Eastern Church – Saint John Chrysostom, Saint Basil the Great, and Gregory of Nazianzus and Saint Athanasius
Four Galilean moons of Jupiter – Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto
The Gang of Four was a Chinese communist political faction.
The Fantastic Four: Mr. Fantastic, The Invisible Woman, The Human Torch, The Thing.
The Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Leonardo, Michelangelo, Donatello, Raphael
The Beatles were also known as the "Fab Four": John Lennon, Ringo Starr, George Harrison, Paul McCartney.
Gang of Four is a British post-punk rock band formed in the late 1970s.
Four rivers in the Garden of Eden (Genesis 2:10–14): Pishon (perhaps the Jaxartes or Syr Darya), Gihon (perhaps the Oxus or Amu Darya), Hiddekel (Tigris), and P'rat (Euphrates).
There are also four years in a single Olympiad (duration between the Olympic Games). Many major international sports competitions follow this cycle, among them the FIFA World Cup and its women's version, the FIBA World Championships for men and women, and the Rugby World Cup.
There are four limbs on the human body.
Four Houses of Hogwarts in the Harry Potter series: Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, Ravenclaw, Slytherin.
Four known continents of the world in the A Song of Ice and Fire series: Westeros, Essos, Sothoryos, Ulthos.
Each Grand Prix in Nintendo's Mario Kart series is divided into four cups and each cup is divided into four courses. The Mushroom Cup, Flower Cup, Star Cup, and Special Cup make up the Nitro Grand Prix, while the Shell Cup, Banana Cup, Leaf Cup, and the Lightning Cup make up the Retro Grand Prix.
See also
List of highways numbered 4
References
Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers London: Penguin Group. (1987): 55–58
External links
Marijn.Org on Why is everything four?
A few thoughts on the number four, by Penelope Merritt at samuel-beckett.net
The Number 4
The Positive Integer 4
Prime curiosities: 4
Integers
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] |
208169
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States-General
|
States-General
|
The word States-General, or Estates-General, may refer to:
Currently in use
Estates-General on the Situation and Future of the French Language in Quebec, the name of a commission set up by the government of Quebec on June 29, 2000
States General of the Netherlands (Staten-Generaal) is the bicameral parliament of present-day Netherlands. It evolved from the pre-democratic government of the Seventeen Provinces, out of which the Dutch Republic (officially named United Provinces) emerged.
Historically
Estates General (France) (before 1789)
Estates-General of 1789 (France)
States-General of the Batavian Republic (Dutch republic immediately prior to the French Revolution)
Estates General of French Canada (1967–69)
Junta de Braços (States-General of Catalonia), a consultative body of the Generalitat of Catalonia during the early modern age.
See also
The Estates
Estates of the realm
Parliament of Scotland
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6
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6
|
6 (six) is the natural number following 5 and preceding 7. It is a composite number and the smallest perfect number.
In mathematics
Six is the smallest positive integer which is neither a square number nor a prime number; it is the second smallest composite number, behind 4; its proper divisors are , and .
Since 6 equals the sum of its proper divisors, it is a perfect number; 6 is the smallest of the perfect numbers. It is also the smallest Granville number, or -perfect number.
As a perfect number:
6 is related to the Mersenne prime 3, since . (The next perfect number is 28.)
6 is the only even perfect number that is not the sum of successive odd cubes.
6 is the root of the 6-aliquot tree, and is itself the aliquot sum of only one other number; the square number, .
Six is the only number that is both the sum and the product of three consecutive positive numbers.
Unrelated to 6's being a perfect number, a Golomb ruler of length 6 is a "perfect ruler". Six is a congruent number.
Six is the first discrete biprime (2 × 3) and the first member of the (2 × q) discrete biprime family.
Six is a unitary perfect number, a primary pseudoperfect number, a harmonic divisor number and a superior highly composite number, the last to also be a primorial.
There are no Graeco-Latin squares with order 6. If n is a natural number that is not 2 or 6, then there is a Graeco-Latin square with order n.
There is not a prime such that the multiplicative order of 2 modulo is 6, that is,
By Zsigmondy's theorem, if is a natural number that is not 1 or 6, then there is a prime such that . See for such .
The ring of integer of the sixth cyclotomic field , which is called Eisenstein integer, has 6 units: ±1, ±ω, ±ω2, where .
The smallest non-abelian group is the symmetric group S3 which has 3! = 6 elements.
S6, with 720 elements, is the only finite symmetric group which has an outer automorphism. This automorphism allows us to construct a number of exceptional mathematical objects such as the S(5,6,12) Steiner system, the projective plane of order 4 and the Hoffman-Singleton graph. A closely related result is the following theorem: 6 is the only natural number n for which there is a construction of n isomorphic objects on an n-set A, invariant under all permutations of A, but not naturally in one-to-one correspondence with the elements of A. This can also be expressed category theoretically: consider the category whose objects are the n element sets and whose arrows are the bijections between the sets. This category has a non-trivial functor to itself only for .
Six similar coins can be arranged around a central coin of the same radius so that each coin makes contact with the central one (and touches both its neighbors without a gap), but seven cannot be so arranged. This makes 6 the answer to the two-dimensional kissing number problem. The densest sphere packing of the plane is obtained by extending this pattern to the hexagonal lattice in which each circle touches just six others.
6 is the largest of the four all-Harshad numbers.
A six-sided polygon is a hexagon, one of the three regular polygons capable of tiling the plane. Figurate numbers representing hexagons (including six) are called hexagonal numbers. Because 6 is the product of a power of 2 (namely 21) with nothing but distinct Fermat primes (specifically 3), a regular hexagon is a constructible polygon.
Six is also an octahedral number. It is a triangular number and so is its square ().
There are six basic trigonometric functions.
There are six convex regular polytopes in four dimensions.
The six exponentials theorem guarantees (given the right conditions on the exponents) the transcendence of at least one of a set of exponentials.
All primes above 3 are of the form 6n ± 1 for n ≥ 1.
6 is a pronic number.
List of basic calculations
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; background: white"
|-
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{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; background: white"
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|}
Greek and Latin word parts is classical Greek for "six". Thus:
"Hexadecimal" combines with the Latinate to name a number base of 16
A hexagon is a regular polygon with six sides
is a French nickname for the continental part of Metropolitan France for its resemblance to a regular hexagon
A hexahedron is a polyhedron with six faces, with a cube being a special case
Hexameter is a poetic form consisting of six feet per line
A "hex nut" is a nut with six sides, and a hex bolt has a six-sided head
The prefix "" also occurs in the systematic name of many chemical compounds, such as hexane which has 6 carbon atoms ().
The prefix sex-
Sex- is a Latin prefix meaning "six". Thus:
Senary is the ordinal adjective meaning "sixth"
People with sexdactyly have six fingers on each hand
The measuring instrument called a sextant got its name because its shape forms one-sixth of a whole circle
A group of six musicians is called a sextet
Six babies delivered in one birth are sextuplets
Sexy prime pairs – Prime pairs differing by six are sexy, because sex is the Latin word for six.
The SI prefix for 10006 is exa- (E), and for its reciprocal atto- (a).
Evolution of the Arabic digit
The evolution of our modern digit 6 appears rather simple when compared with the other digits. The modern 6 can be traced back to the Brahmi numerals of India, which are first known from the Edicts of Ashoka circa 250 BCE. It was written in one stroke like a cursive lowercase e rotated 90 degrees clockwise. Gradually, the upper part of the stroke (above the central squiggle) became more curved, while the lower part of the stroke (below the central squiggle) became straighter. The Arabs dropped the part of the stroke below the squiggle. From there, the European evolution to our modern 6 was very straightforward, aside from a flirtation with a glyph that looked more like an uppercase G.
On the seven-segment displays of calculators and watches, 6 is usually written with six segments. Some historical calculator models use just five segments for the 6, by omitting the top horizontal bar. This glyph variant has not caught on; for calculators that can display results in hexadecimal, a 6 that looks like a "b" is not practical.
Just as in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the character for the digit 6 usually has an ascender, as, for example, in .
This digit resembles an inverted 9. To disambiguate the two on objects and documents that can be inverted, the 6 has often been underlined, both in handwriting and on printed labels.
In music
In artists
("The Six" in English) was a group consisting of the French composers , , , , and in the 1920s
Bands with the number six in their name include Six Organs of Admittance, 6 O'Clock Saints, Electric Six, Eve 6, Los Xey ( is Basque for "six"), Out On Blue Six, Six In Six, Sixpence None the Richer, Slant 6, Vanity 6, and You Me At Six
#6 is the pseudonym of American musician Shawn Crahan, when performing with the band Slipknot
In instruments
A standard guitar has six strings
Most woodwind instruments have six basic holes or keys (e.g., bassoon, clarinet, pennywhistle, saxophone); these holes or keys are usually not given numbers or letters in the fingering charts
In music theory
There are six whole tones in an octave.
There are six semitones in a tritone.
In works
"Six geese a-laying" were given as a present on the sixth day in the popular Christmas carol, "The Twelve Days of Christmas."
Divided in six arias, Hexachordum Apollinis is generally regarded as one of the pinnacles of Johann Pachelbel's oeuvre.
The theme of the sixth album by Dream Theater, Six Degrees of Inner Turbulence, was the number six: the album has six songs, and the sixth song — that is, the complete second disc — explores the stories of six individuals suffering from various mental illnesses.
Aristotle gave six elements of tragedy, the first of which is Mythos.
In religion
In Judaism:
Six points on a Star of David
Six orders of the Mishnah
Six symbolic foods placed on the Passover Seder Plate
God took six days to create the world in the Old Testament Book of Genesis; humankind was created on day 6. In the City of God, Augustine of Hippo suggested (book 11, chapter 30) that God's creation of the world took six days because 6 is a perfect number.
The Jewish holiday of Shavuot starts on the sixth day of the Hebrew month of Sivan
Seraphs have six wings.
In Islam:
There are Six articles of belief
Fasting six days of Shawwal, together with the month of Ramadan, is equivalent to fasting the whole year
In Hindu theology, a trasarenu is the combination of six celestial (atoms).
In Taoism:
Six Lines of a Hexagram
Six Ministries of Huang Di
In science
Astronomy
Messier object M6, a magnitude 4.5 open cluster in the constellation Scorpius, also known as the Butterfly Cluster
The New General Catalogue object NGC 6, a spiral galaxy in the constellation Andromeda
The Roman numeral VI:
Stands for subdwarfs in the Yerkes spectral classification scheme
(Usually) stands for the sixth-discovered satellite of a planet or minor planet (e.g. Jupiter VI)
6 Hebe
Biology
The cells of a beehive are six-sided.
Insects have six legs.
Six kingdoms in the taxonomic rank below domain (biology); Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea/Archaeabacteria, and Bacteria/Eubacteria. See Kingdom (biology).
The six elements most common in biomolecules are called the CHNOPS elements; the letters stand for the chemical abbreviations of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. See CHON.
Chemistry
A benzene molecule has a ring of six carbon atoms.
6 is the atomic number of carbon.
The sixfold symmetry of snowflakes arises from the hexagonal crystal structure of ordinary ice.
A hexamer is an oligomer made of six subunits.
Medicine
There are six tastes in traditional Indian medicine (Ayurveda): sweet, sour, salty, bitter, pungent, and astringent. These tastes are used to suggest a diet based on the symptoms of the body.
Phase 6 is one of six pandemic influenza phases.
Physics
In the Standard Model of particle physics, there are six types of quarks and six types of leptons.
In statistical mechanics, the six-vertex model has six possible configurations of arrows at each vertex
There are six colors in the RGB color wheel: (primary) red, blue, green, (secondary) cyan, magenta, and yellow. (See Tertiary color)
In three-dimensional Euclidean space, there are six unknown support reactions for a statically determinate structure: one force in each of the three dimensions, and one moment through each of three possible orthogonal planes.
In sports
The Original Six teams in the National Hockey League are Toronto, Chicago, Montreal, New York, Boston, and Detroit. They are the oldest remaining teams in the league, though not necessarily the first six; they comprised the entire league from 1942 to 1967.
Number of players:
In association football (soccer), the number of substitutes combined by both teams, that are allowed in the game.
In box lacrosse, the number of players per team, including the goaltender, that are on the floor at any one time, excluding penalty situations.
In ice hockey, the number of players per team, including the goaltender, that are on the ice at any one time during regulation play, excluding penalty situations. (Some leagues reduce the number of players on the ice during overtime.)
In volleyball:
Six players from each team on each side play against each other.
Standard rules only allow six total substitutions per team per set. (Substitutions involving the libero, a defensive specialist who can only play in the back row, are not counted against this limit.)
Six-man football is a variant of American or Canadian football, played by smaller schools with insufficient enrollment to field the traditional 11-man (American) or 12-man (Canadian) squad.
Scoring:
In both American and Canadian football, 6 points are awarded for a touchdown.
In Australian rules football, 6 points are awarded for a goal, scored when a kicked ball passes between the defending team's two inner goalposts without having been touched by another player.
In cricket, six runs are scored for the batting team when the ball is hit to the boundary or the ground beyond it without having touched the ground in the field.
In basketball, the ball used for women's full-court competitions is designated "size 6".
In most rugby league competitions (but not the Super League, which uses static squad numbering), the jersey number 6 is worn by the starting (Southern Hemisphere term) or (Northern Hemisphere term).
In rugby union, the starting blindside flanker wears jersey number 6. (Some teams use "left" and "right" flankers instead of "openside" and "blindside", with 6 being worn by the starting left flanker.)
In technology
On most phones, the 6 key is associated with the letters M, N, and O, but on the BlackBerry it is the key for J and K, and on the BlackBerry 8700 series and Curve 8900 with full keyboard, it is the key for F
The "6-meter band" in amateur radio includes the frequencies from 50 to 54 MHz
6 is the resin identification code used in recycling to identify polystyrene
In calendars
In the ancient Roman calendar, Sextilis was the sixth month. After the Julian reform, June became the sixth month and Sextilis was renamed August
Sextidi was the sixth day of the décade in the French Revolutionary calendar
In the arts and entertainment
Games
The number of sides on a cube, hence the highest number on a standard die
The six-sided tiles on a hex grid are used in many tabletop and board games.
The highest number on one end of a standard domino
Comics and cartoons
The Super 6, a 1966 animated cartoon series featuring six different super-powered heroes.
Literature
The Power of Six is a book written by Pittacus Lore, and the second in the Lorien Legacies series.
Number 6 is a character in the book series Lorien Legacies
TV
Number Six (Tricia Helfer), is a family of fictional characters from the reimagined science fiction television series, Battlestar Galactica
Number 6, the main protagonist in The Prisoner played by Patrick McGoohan, and portrayed by Jim Caviezel in the remake.
Six is a character in the television series Blossom played by Jenna von Oÿ.
Six is the nickname of Kal Varrik, a central character in the television series Dark Matter, played by Roger Cross.
Six is a History channel series that chronicles the operations and daily lives of SEAL Team Six.
Six Feet Under, an HBO series that ran from 2005 to 2011.
Movies
Number 6 (Teresa Palmer) is a character in the movie I Am Number Four (2011).
The 6th Day (2000), starring Arnold Schwarzenegger.
The Sixth Sense (1999), written and directed by M. Night Shyamalan and starring Haley Joel Osment and Bruce Willis.
Girl 6 (1996), directed by Spike Lee.
Musicals
Six is a modern retelling of the lives of the six wives of Henry VIII presented as a pop concert.
Anthropology
The name of the smallest group of Cub Scouts and Guiding's equivalent Brownies, traditionally consisting of six people and is led by a "sixer".
A coffin is traditionally buried six feet under the ground; thus, the phrase "six feet under" means that a person (or thing, or concept) is dead
There are said to be no more than six degrees of separation between any two people on Earth.
In Western astrology, Virgo is the 6th astrological sign of the Zodiac
The Six Dynasties form part of Chinese history
Six is a lucky number in Chinese culture.
The Birmingham Six were a British miscarriage of justice, held in prison for 16 years.
"Six" is used as an informal slang term for the British Secret Intelligence Service, MI6.
In other fields
Six pack is a common form of packaging for six bottles or cans of drink (especially beer), and by extension, other assemblages of six items.
In Pythagorean numerology (a pseudoscience), the number 6 is the digit of balance, harmony and organization of the home and family
The fundamental flight instruments lumped together on a cockpit display are often called the Basic Six or six-pack.
The number of dots in a braille cell.
See also Six degrees (disambiguation).
Extrasensory perception is sometimes called the "sixth sense".
Six Flags is an American company running amusement parks and theme parks in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico.
In the U.S. Army "Six" as part of a radio call sign is used by the commanding officer of a unit, while subordinate platoon leaders usually go by "One". (For a similar example see also: Rainbow Six.)
See also
List of highways numbered 6
References
The Odd Number 6, JA Todd, Math. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 41 (1945) 66–68
A Property of the Number Six, Chapter 6, P Cameron, JH v. Lint, Designs, Graphs, Codes and their Links
Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers London: Penguin Group. (1987): 67 - 69
External links
The Number 6
The Positive Integer 6
Prime curiosities: 6
Integers
6 (number)
|
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] |
208174
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8
|
8
|
8 (eight) is the natural number following 7 and preceding 9.
In mathematics
8 is:
a composite number, its proper divisors being , , and . It is twice 4 or four times 2.
a power of two, being 2 (two cubed), and is the first number of the form , being an integer greater than 1.
the first number which is neither prime nor semiprime.
the base of the octal number system, which is mostly used with computers. In octal, one digit represents three bits. In modern computers, a byte is a grouping of eight bits, also called an octet.
a Fibonacci number, being plus . The next Fibonacci number is . 8 is the only positive Fibonacci number, aside from 1, that is a perfect cube.
the only nonzero perfect power that is one less than another perfect power, by Mihăilescu's Theorem.
the order of the smallest non-abelian group all of whose subgroups are normal.
the dimension of the octonions and is the highest possible dimension of a normed division algebra.
the first number to be the aliquot sum of two numbers other than itself; the discrete biprime , and the square number .
A number is divisible by 8 if its last three digits, when written in decimal, are also divisible by 8, or its last three digits are 0 when written in binary.
There are a total of eight convex deltahedra.
A polygon with eight sides is an octagon. Figurate numbers representing octagons (including eight) are called octagonal numbers.
A polyhedron with eight faces is an octahedron. A cuboctahedron has as faces six equal squares and eight equal regular triangles.
A cube has eight vertices.
Sphenic numbers always have exactly eight divisors.
The number 8 is involved with a number of interesting mathematical phenomena related to the notion of Bott periodicity. For example, if O(∞) is the direct limit of the inclusions of real orthogonal groups
,
then
.
Clifford algebras also display a periodicity of 8. For example, the algebra Cl(p + 8,q) is isomorphic to the algebra of 16 by 16 matrices with entries in Cl(p,q). We also see a period of 8 in the K-theory of spheres and in the representation theory of the rotation groups, the latter giving rise to the 8 by 8 spinorial chessboard. All of these properties are closely related to the properties of the octonions.
The spin group Spin(8) is the unique such group that exhibits the phenomenon of triality.
The lowest-dimensional even unimodular lattice is the 8-dimensional E8 lattice. Even positive definite unimodular lattices exist only in dimensions divisible by 8.
A figure 8 is the common name of a geometric shape, often used in the context of sports, such as skating. Figure-eight turns of a rope or cable around a cleat, pin, or bitt are used to belay something.
List of basic calculations
Etymology
English eight, from Old English eahta, æhta, Proto-Germanic *ahto
is a direct continuation of Proto-Indo-European *oḱtṓ(w)-, and as such cognate with Greek and Latin octo-, both of which stems are reflected by the English prefix oct(o)-, as in the ordinal adjective octaval or octavary, the distributive adjective is octonary.
The adjective octuple (Latin octu-plus) may also be used as a noun, meaning "a set of eight items"; the diminutive octuplet is mostly used to refer to eight siblings delivered in one birth.
The Semitic numeral is based on a root *θmn-, whence Akkadian smn-, Arabic ṯmn-, Hebrew šmn- etc.
The Chinese numeral, written (Mandarin: bā; Cantonese: baat), is from Old Chinese *priāt-, ultimately from Sino-Tibetan b-r-gyat or b-g-ryat which also yielded Tibetan brgyat.
It has been argued that, as the cardinal number is the highest number of items that can universally be cognitively processed as a single set, the etymology of the numeral eight might be the first to be considered composite, either as "twice four" or as "two short of ten", or similar.
The Turkic words for "eight" are from a Proto-Turkic stem *sekiz, which has been suggested as originating as a negation of eki "two", as in "without two fingers" (i.e., "two short of ten; two fingers are not being held up");
this same principle is found in Finnic *kakte-ksa, which conveys a meaning of "two before (ten)". The Proto-Indo-European reconstruction *oḱtṓ(w)- itself has been argued as representing an old dual, which would correspond to an original meaning of "twice four".
Proponents of this "quaternary hypothesis" adduce the numeral , which might be built on the stem new-, meaning "new" (indicating the beginning of a "new set of numerals" after having counted to eight).
Evolution of the Arabic digit
The modern digit 8, like all modern Arabic numerals other than zero, originates with the Brahmi numerals.
The Brahmi digit for eight by the 1st century was written in one stroke as a curve └┐ looking like an uppercase H with the bottom half of the left line and the upper half of the right line removed.
However, the digit for eight used in India in the early centuries of the Common Era developed considerable graphic variation, and in some cases took the shape of a single wedge, which was adopted into the Perso-Arabic tradition as ٨ (and also gave rise to the later Devanagari form ८); the alternative curved glyph also existed as a variant in Perso-Arabic tradition, where it came to look similar to our digit 5.
The digits as used in Al-Andalus by the 10th century were a distinctive western variant of the glyphs used in the Arabic-speaking world, known as ghubār numerals (ghubār translating to "sand table"). In these digits, the line of the 5-like glyph used in Indian manuscripts for eight came to be formed in ghubār as a closed loop, which was the 8-shape that became adopted into European use in the 10th century.
Just as in most modern typefaces, in typefaces with text figures the character for the digit 8 usually has an ascender, as, for example, in .
The infinity symbol ∞, described as a "sideways figure eight", is unrelated to the digit 8 in origin; it is first used (in the mathematical meaning "infinity") in the 17th century, and it may be derived from the Roman numeral for "one thousand" CIƆ, or alternatively from the final Greek letter, ω.
In science
Physics
In nuclear physics, the second magic number.
In particle physics, the eightfold way is used to classify sub-atomic particles.
In statistical mechanics, the eight-vertex model has 8 possible configurations of arrows at each vertex.
Astronomy
Messier object M8, a magnitude 5.0 nebula in the constellation of Sagittarius.
The New General Catalogue object NGC 8, a double star in the constellation Pegasus.
Since the demotion of Pluto to a dwarf planet on 24 August 2006, in our Solar System, eight of the bodies orbiting the Sun are considered to be planets.
Chemistry
The atomic number of oxygen.
The most stable allotrope of a sulfur molecule is made of eight sulfur atoms arranged in a rhombic form.
The maximum number of electrons that can occupy a valence shell.
The red pigment lycopene consists of eight isoprene units.
Geology
A disphenoid crystal is bounded by eight scalene triangles arranged in pairs. A ditetragonal prism in the tetragonal crystal system has eight similar faces whose alternate interfacial angles only are equal.
Biology
All spiders, and more generally all arachnids, have eight legs. Orb-weaver spiders of the cosmopolitan family Areneidae have eight similar eyes.
The octopus and its cephalopod relatives in genus Argonauta have eight arms (tentacles).
Compound coelenterates of the subclass or order Alcyonaria have polyps with eight-branched tentacles and eight septa.
Sea anemones of genus Edwardsia have eight mesenteries.
Animals of phylum Ctenophora swim by means of eight meridional bands of transverse ciliated plates, each plate representing a row of large modified cilia.
The eight-spotted forester (genus Alypia, family Zygaenidae) is a diurnal moth having black wings with brilliant white spots.
The ascus in fungi of the class Ascomycetes, following nuclear fusion, bears within it typically eight ascospores.
Herbs of genus Coreopsis (tickseed) have showy flower heads with involucral bracts in two distinct series of eight each.
In human adult dentition there are eight teeth in each quadrant. The eighth tooth is the so-called wisdom tooth.
There are eight cervical nerves on each side in man and most mammals.
Psychology
There are eight Jungian cognitive functions, according to the MBTI models by John Beebe and Linda Berens.
Timothy Leary identified a hierarchy of eight levels of consciousness.
In technology
A byte is eight bits.
Many (mostly historic) computer architectures are eight-bit, among them the Nintendo Entertainment System.
Standard-8 and Super-8 are 8 mm film formats.
Video8, Hi8 and Digital8 are related 8 mm video formats.
On most phones, the 8 key is associated with the letters T, U, and V, but on the BlackBerry it is the key for B, N, and X.
An eight may refer to an eight-cylinder engine or automobile. A V8 engine is an internal combustion engine with eight cylinders configured in two banks (rows) of four forming a "V" when seen from the end.
A figure-eight knot (so named for its configuration) is a kind of stopper knot.
The number eight written in parentheses is the code for the musical note in Windows Live Messenger.
In a seven-segment display, when an 8 is illuminated, all the display bulbs are on.
In measurement
The SI prefix for 10008 is yotta (Y), and for its reciprocal, yocto (y).
In liquid measurement (United States customary units), there are eight fluid ounces in a cup, eight pints in a gallon and eight tablespoonfuls in a gill.
There are eight furlongs in a mile.
The clove, an old English unit of weight, was equal to eight pounds when measuring cheese.
An eight may be an article of clothing of the eighth size.
Force eight is the first wind strength attributed to a gale on the Beaufort scale when announced on a Shipping Forecast.
In culture
Currency
Sailors and civilians alike from the 1500s onward referred to evenly divided parts of the Spanish dollar as "pieces of eight", or "bits".
Architecture
Various types of buildings are usually eight-sided (octagonal), such as single-roomed gazebos and multi-roomed pagodas (descended from stupas; see religion section below).
Eight caulicoles rise out of the leafage in a Corinthian capital, ending in leaves that support the volutes.
In religion, folk belief and divination
Hinduism
Also known as Ashtha, Aṣṭa, or Ashta in Sanskrit, it is the number of wealth and abundance.
The goddess of wealth and prosperity, Lakshmi, has eight forms known as Ashta Lakshmi and worshipped as: "Maha-lakshmi, Dhana-lakshmi, Dhanya-lakshmi, Gaja-lakshmi,Santana-lakshmi, Veera-lakshmi, Vijaya-lakshmi and Vidhya-lakshmi"
There are eight nidhi, or seats of wealth, according to Hinduism.
There are eight guardians of the directions known as Astha-dikpalas.
There are eight Hindu monasteries established by the saint Madhvacharya in Udupi, India popularly known as the Ashta Mathas of Udupi.
Buddhism
The Dharmacakra, a Buddhist symbol, has eight spokes. The Buddha's principal teaching—the Four Noble Truths—ramifies as the Noble Eightfold Path and the Buddha emphasizes the importance of the eight attainments or jhanas.
In Mahayana Buddhism, the branches of the Eightfold Path are embodied by the Eight Great Bodhisattvas: (Manjusri, Vajrapani, Avalokiteśvara, Maitreya, Ksitigarbha, Nivaranavishkambhi, Akasagarbha, and Samantabhadra). These are later (controversially) associated with the Eight Consciousnesses according to the Yogacara school of thought: consciousness in the five senses, thought-consciousness, self-consciousness, and unconsciousness-"consciousness" or "store-house consciousness" (alaya-vijñana). The "irreversible" state of enlightenment, at which point a Bodhisattva goes on "autopilot", is the Eight Ground or bhūmi. In general, "eight" seems to be an auspicious number for Buddhists, e.g., the "eight auspicious symbols" (the jewel-encrusted parasol; the goldfish (always shown as a pair, e.g., the glyph of Pisces); the self-replenishing amphora; the white kamala lotus-flower; the white conch; the eternal (Celtic-style, infinitely looping) knot; the banner of imperial victory; the eight-spoked wheel that guides the ship of state, or that symbolizes the Buddha's teaching). Similarly, Buddha's birthday falls on the 8th day of the 4th month of the Chinese calendar.
Judaism
The religious rite of brit milah (commonly known as circumcision) is held on a baby boy's eighth day of life.
Hanukkah is an eight-day Jewish holiday that starts on the 25th day of Kislev.
Shemini Atzeret (Hebrew: "Eighth Day of Assembly") is a one-day Jewish holiday immediately following the seven-day holiday of Sukkot.
Christianity
The spiritual Eighth Day, because the number 7 refers to the days of the week (which repeat themselves).
The number of Beatitudes.
1 Peter 3:20 states that there were eight people on Noah's Ark.
The Antichrist is the eighth king in the Book of Revelation.
Islam
In Islam, eight is the number of angels carrying the throne of Allah in heaven.
The number of gates of heaven.
Taoism
Ba Gua
Ba Xian
Ba Duan Jin
Other
In Wicca, there are eight Sabbats, festivals, seasons, or spokes in the Wheel of the Year.
In Ancient Egyptian mythology, the Ogdoad represents the eight primordial deities of creation.
In Scientology there are eight dynamics of existence.
There is also the Ogdoad in Gnosticism.
As a lucky number
The number eight is considered to be a lucky number in Chinese and other Asian cultures. Eight (; accounting ; pinyin bā) is considered a lucky number in Chinese culture because it sounds like the word meaning to generate wealth (; Pinyin: fā). Property with the number 8 may be valued greatly by Chinese. For example, a Hong Kong number plate with the number 8 was sold for $640,000. The opening ceremony of the Summer Olympics in Beijing started at 8 seconds and 8 minutes past 8 pm (local time) on 8 August 2008.
In Pythagorean numerology (a pseudoscience) the number 8 represents victory, prosperity and overcoming.
is also considered a lucky number in Japan, but the reason is different from that in Chinese culture. Eight gives an idea of growing prosperous, because the letter () broadens gradually.
The Japanese thought of as a holy number in the ancient times. The reason is less well-understood, but it is thought that it is related to the fact they used eight to express large numbers vaguely such as (literally, eightfold and twentyfold), (literally, eight clouds), (literally, eight millions of Gods), etc. It is also guessed that the ancient Japanese gave importance to pairs, so some researchers guess twice as , which is also guessed to be a holy number in those times because it indicates the world (north, south, east, and west) might be considered a very holy number.
In numerology, 8 is the number of building, and in some theories, also the number of destruction.
In astrology
In astrology, Scorpio is the 8th astrological sign of the Zodiac.
In the Middle Ages, 8 was the number of "unmoving" stars in the sky, and symbolized the perfection of incoming planetary energy.
In music and dance
A note played for one-eighth the duration of a whole note is called an eighth note, or quaver.
An octave, the interval between two musical notes with the same letter name (where one has double the frequency of the other), is so called because there are eight notes between the two on a standard major or minor diatonic scale, including the notes themselves and without chromatic deviation. The ecclesiastical modes are ascending diatonic musical scales of eight notes or tones comprising an octave.
There are eight notes in the octatonic scale.
There are eight musicians in a double quartet or an octet. Both terms may also refer to a musical composition for eight voices or instruments.
Caledonians is a square dance for eight, resembling the quadrille.
Albums with the number eight in their title include 8 by the Swedish band Arvingarna, 8 by the American rock band Incubus, The Meaning of 8 by Minnesota indie rock band Cloud Cult and 8ight by Anglo-American singer-songwriter Beatie Wolfe.
Dream Theater's eighth album Octavarium contains many different references to the number 8, including the number of songs and various aspects of the music and cover artwork.
"Eight maids a-milking" is the gift on the eighth day of Christmas in the carol "The Twelve Days of Christmas".
The 8-track cartridge is a musical recording format.
"#8" is the stage name of Slipknot vocalist Corey Taylor.
"Too Many Eights" is a song by Athens, Georgia's Supercluster.
Eight Seconds, a Canadian musical group popular in the 1980s with their most notable song "Kiss You (When It's Dangerous)".
"Eight Days a Week" is a #1 single for the music group The Beatles.
Figure 8 is the fifth studio album by singer-songwriter Elliott Smith, released in the year 2000, an album released by Julia Darling in 1999, and an album released by Outasight in 2011.
Ming Hao from the k-pop group Seventeen goes by the name "The8".
"8 (circle)" is the eighth song on the album 22, A Million by the American band Bon Iver.
"8" is the eighth song on the album When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go? by Billie Eilish.
Russian NSBM band M8l8th have 8's in their name instead of the o's (see 88)
In film and television
8 Guys is a 2003 short film written and directed by Dane Cook.
8 Man (or Eightman): 1963 Japanese manga and anime superhero.
8 Mile is a 2002 film directed by Curtis Hanson.
8mm is a 1999 film directed by Joel Schumacher.
8 Women (Original French title: 8 femmes) is a 2001 film directed by François Ozon.
Eight Below is a 2006 film directed by Frank Marshall.
Eight Legged Freaks is a 2002 film directed by Ellory Elkayem.
Eight Men Out is a 1988 film directed by John Sayles.
Jennifer Eight, also known as Jennifer 8, is a 1992 film written and directed by Bruce Robinson.
Eight Is Enough is an American television comedy-drama series.
In Stargate SG-1 and Stargate Atlantis, dialing an 8-chevron address will open a wormhole to another galaxy.
The Hateful Eight is a 2015 American western mystery film written and directed by Quentin Tarantino.
Kate Plus 8 is an American reality television show.
In sports and other games
Eight-ball pool is played with a cue ball and 15 numbered balls, the black ball numbered 8 being the middle and most important one, as the winner is the player or side that legally pockets it after first pocketing its numerical group of 7 object balls (for other meanings see Eight ball (disambiguation)).
In chess, each side has eight pawns and the board is made of 64 squares arranged in an eight by eight lattice. The eight queens puzzle is a challenge to arrange eight queens on the board so that none can capture any of the others.
In the game of eights or Crazy Eights, each successive player must play a card either of the same suit or of the same rank as that played by the preceding player, or may play an eight and call for any suit. The object is to get rid of all one's cards first.
In association football, the number 8 has historically been the number of the Central Midfielder.
In Australian rules football, the top eight teams at the end of the Australian Football League regular season qualify for the finals series (i.e. playoffs).
In baseball:
The center fielder is designated as number 8 for scorekeeping purposes.
The College World Series, the final phase of the NCAA Division I tournament, features eight teams.
In rugby union, the only position without a proper name is the Number 8, a forward position.
In rugby league:
Most competitions (though not the Super League, which uses static squad numbering) use a position-based player numbering system in which one of the two starting props wears the number 8.
The Australia-based National Rugby League has its own 8-team finals series, similar but not identical in structure to that of the Australian Football League.
In rowing, an "eight" refers to a sweep-oar racing boat with a crew of eight rowers plus a coxswain.
In the 2008 Games of the XXIX Olympiad held in Beijing, the official opening was on 08/08/08 at 8:08:08 p.m. CST.
In The Stanley Parable Demonstration, there is an eight button that, when pressed, says the word eight.
In Mario Kart:
The Crazy Eight item in Mario Kart 8 allows the player to use eight items at once.
The number of characters in the starting grid in most games except for Mario Kart Wii and Mario Kart 8.
In foods
Nestlé sells a brand of chocolates filled with peppermint-flavoured cream called After Eight, referring to the time 8 p.m.
There are eight vegetables in V8 juice.
In literature
Eights may refer to octosyllabic, usually iambic, lines of verse.
The drott-kvaett, an Old Icelandic verse, consisted of a stanza of eight regular lines.
In Terry Pratchett's Discworld series, eight is a magical number and is considered taboo. Eight is not safe to be said by wizards on the Discworld and is the number of Bel-Shamharoth. Also, there are eight days in a Disc week and eight colours in a Disc spectrum, the eighth one being octarine.
Lewis Carroll's poem The Hunting of the Snark has 8 "fits" (cantos), which is noted in the full name "The Hunting of the Snark – An Agony, in Eight Fits."
Eight apparitions appear to Macbeth in Act 4 scene 1 of Shakespeare's Macbeth as representations of the eight descendants of Banquo.
In slang
An "eighth" is a common measurement of marijuana, meaning an eighth of an ounce. It is also a common unit of sale for psilocybin mushrooms. Also, an eighth of an ounce of cocaine is commonly referred to as an "8-ball."
The numeral "8" is sometimes used in informal writing and Internet slang to represent the syllable "ate", as in writing "H8" for "hate", or "congratul8ions" for "congratulations". Avril Lavigne's song "Sk8er Boi" uses this convention in the title.
"Section 8" is common U.S. slang for "crazy", based on the U.S. military's Section 8 discharge for mentally unfit personnel.
The Housing Choice Voucher Program, operated by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, is commonly referred to as the Section 8 program, as this was the original section of the Act which instituted the program.
In Colombia and Venezuela, "volverse un ocho" (meaning to tie oneself in a figure 8) refers to getting in trouble or contradicting oneself.
In China, "8" is used in chat speak as a term for parting. This is due to the closeness in pronunciation of "8" (bā) and the English word "bye".
See also
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
List of highways numbered 8
References
External links
The Octonions, John C. Baez
Integers
8 (number)
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon%20Man%20%28novel%29
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Marathon Man (novel)
|
Marathon Man is a 1974 conspiracy thriller novel by William Goldman. It was Goldman's most successful thriller novel, and his second suspense novel.
In 1976 it was made into a film of the same name, with a screenplay by Goldman, starring Dustin Hoffman, Laurence Olivier, and Roy Scheider and directed by John Schlesinger.
Plot synopsis
A former Nazi SS dentist at Auschwitz, Dr. Christian Szell, now residing in Paraguay, has been living on the proceeds of diamonds he extorted from prisoners there. The diamonds are kept at a bank in New York by his father. The sales and transfers of proceeds are facilitated by a secret US agency called "The Division" for whom Szell has provided information about other escaped Nazis. When his brother dies in a car accident, Szell must come to New York himself to retrieve the diamonds, as there is no one else he can trust with them.
Meanwhile, at Columbia University, Thomas Babington "Tom" Levy, known by his brother as "Babe" (the first and middle names are a reference to Thomas Babington Macaulay, and the nickname is a reference to Babe Ruth) is a postgraduate student in history and an aspiring marathon runner. He is haunted by the suicide of his brilliant academic father, H.V. Levy, who was one of the victims of McCarthyism, when Babe was ten. Babe's PhD dissertation aims to clear his father's name of alleged Communist affiliations. Unbeknownst to Babe, his elder brother by ten years (and best friend), Henry David "Hank" Levy (after Henry David Thoreau), known by Babe as "Doc", works in The Division under the name "Scylla" and has been helping to move Szell's diamonds as part of his duties.
When Szell arrives in New York he meets with Doc. Suspecting Doc of planning to rob him when he retrieves the diamonds, Szell stabs him and leaves him for dead. Mortally wounded, Doc makes his way to Babe's apartment and dies in his brother's arms. When Szell finds out about this he believes Doc may have told Babe about the plan to rob him. Szell's two henchmen abduct Babe. Szell tortures Babe by drilling into his teeth without anesthetic and repeatedly asking the question, "Is it safe?", referring to Szell's appointment to collect his diamonds from the bank. Babe does not know what the question means nor the interrogator's identity until Szell explains after torturing him.
When Szell finally concludes Babe knows nothing, he orders his people to dispose of the young man. Though in great pain, Babe escapes and thanks to his training as a marathoner outruns his pursuers. Seeking revenge for the killing of Doc, Babe arranges a rendezvous at which Szell's people, who hope to eliminate him, are killed instead. He then intercepts Szell at his bank, a confrontation that ultimately leads to Szell's death.
Background
Goldman says he was inspired by the idea of bringing a major Nazi to the biggest Jewish city in the world. He wrote the book after the death of his beloved editor Hiram Haydn, who had edited all of his books from 1960 to 1974, and feels he never would have written something as commercial as Marathon Man had Haydn been alive.
Goldman later expressed dissatisfaction with the novel, but it went on to be his most successful book to that date.
Development
Goldman wrote the novel in 1973 while living on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. His concept began with the antagonist. Initially he wanted to write a story about Josef Mengele needing to travel to the United States for medical care, but he realized that he did not want to write a villain character who had frail health. After reading articles about Nazis stealing golden teeth from prisoners and accumulating wealth, Goldman created a villain who came to the United States to get his diamonds. He named the character after George Szell, a conductor. Goldman made Szell a dentist after considering memories of negative dental experiences as a child. Because Goldman was an American, he chose New York City as the setting of his work.
He decided to make the hero "a total innocent" who would be "as virginal as [he] could". Goldman's concept behind Babe was "what if someone close to you was something totally different from what you thought?" This refers to Babe's relationship with Doc/Scylla. He wanted Babe to be weaker than Szell. Goldman created a weaker hero because "If the worst guy in the world gets in the ring with the toughest guy in the world, that's Stallone territory, and I can't write that. I don't mean I am pristine and above it all—obviously I could write it—anyone can write it—because anyone can write anything badly."
Goldman stated that once he had the basic concept behind the story, he was "essentially mixing and matching, figuring out the surprises, hoping they would work". Goldman developed the idea of Babe having a toothache and Szell drilling into that tooth. When he discussed the scene with a periodontist, the periodontist told him that it would be more painful if the torturer drilled into a healthy tooth.
Goldman says he wrote at least two versions of the novel.
Publication
Evarts Ziegler, Goldman's agent, later recalled "going in we felt we had a home run in both fields, book and movie." They signed with Delacorte because Goldman wanted to control hard and soft cover rights. The deal amounted to $2 million for three books (Marathon Man, Magic, and Tinsel). The film rights to Marathon Man were sold for $450,000.
Adaptations
BBC Radio 4 aired a radio adaptation of the novel.
A film adaptation starring Dustin Hoffman as Babe, Roy Scheider as Doc and Laurence Olivier as Szell was released in 1976.
Sequel
The novel led to a sequel, Brothers (1986).
Notes
References
Goldman, William. William Goldman: Four Screenplays with Essays. Hal Leonard Corporation, 1995. , 9781557831989.
External links
"Marathon Man Supplemental Liner Notes." (Archive) Film Score Monthly CD (FSMCD). Volume 13, No. 5.
1974 American novels
American thriller novels
Books with cover art by Paul Bacon
Novels by William Goldman
American novels adapted into films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20World%20warbler
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New World warbler
|
The New World warblers or wood-warblers are a group of small, often colorful, passerine birds that make up the family Parulidae and are restricted to the New World. They are not closely related to Old World warblers or Australian warblers. Most are arboreal, but some, like the ovenbird and the two waterthrushes, are primarily terrestrial. Most members of this family are insectivores.
This group likely originated in northern Central America, where the greatest number of species and diversity between them is found. From there, they spread north during the interglacial periods, mainly as migrants, returning to the ancestral region in winter. Two genera, Myioborus and Basileuterus, seem to have colonized South America early, perhaps before the two continents were linked, and together constitute most warbler species of that region.
The scientific name for the family, Parulidae, originates from the fact that Linnaeus in 1758 named the northern parula as a tit, Parus americanus, and as taxonomy developed, the genus name was modified first to Parulus and then to Parula. The family name derives from the name for the genus.
Taxonomy
The family Parulidae was introduced for the New World warblers in 1947 by American ornithologist Alexander Wetmore and colleagues with Parula as the type genus.
The family was formerly thought to be sister to a clade containing the yellow-breasted chat in its own family Icteriidae, the wrenthrush in its own family Zeledoniidae, the two Cuban warblers in the family Teretistridae and the 109 species in the family Icteridae. However, more recent studies recover them as sister to a clade containing just the yellow-breasted chat and the Icteridae, with the clade containing all three families being sister to a clade containing the chat-tanagers in Calyptophilidae, the wrenthrush, and the Phaenicophilidae.
A molecular phylogenetic study of the Parulidae published in 2010 found that the species formed several major clades that did not align with the traditional genera. This led to a major reorganization of the species within the family to create monotypic genera. The changes have generally followed the recommendations of the authors of the study except in a few cases where the proposed genera were split to separate basal species from their proposed conspecifics.
A large clade that included the 29 species then placed in the genus Dendroica, also included four species of Parula, one of the three species of Wilsonia and the monotypic genera Catharopeza and Setophaga. All members of the clade apart from the basal Catharopeza were placed in the expanded genus Setophaga Swainson, 1827, which under the rules of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, had priority over Dendroica Gray, 1842, Wilsonia Bonaparte, 1838, and Parula Bonaparte, 1838.
The species that had traditionally been placed in Basileuterus formed two clades. One group retains the genus name as it includes the golden-crowned warbler, the type species for the genus. The other larger group, now with 18 species, is placed in the resurrected genus Myiothlypis Cabanis, 1850, as it contains the type species, the black-crested warbler.
The genus Myioborus containing the whitestarts remained unchanged after the reorganization but six genera were no longer used: Dendroica, Ergaticus, Euthlypis, Parula, Wilsonia and Phaeothlypis.
Extant Genera
The family Parulidae now contains 120 species divided into 18 genera.
Former species
Some species that were previously placed in the Parulidae have been moved to other families:
Olive warbler (Peucedramus taeniatus) – now in own family Peucedramidae
Yellow-breasted chat (Icteria virens) – now in own family Icteriidae
Three species in the genus Granatellus – now in the family Cardinalidae
Red-breasted chat (Granatellus venustus)
Grey-throated chat (Granatellus sallaei)
Rose-breasted chat (Granatellus pelzelni)
Wrenthrush (Zeledonia coronata) – now in own family Zeledoniidae
Two species endemic to Hispaniola – now in family Phaenicophilidae
Green-tailed warbler (Microligea palustris)
White-winged warbler (Xenoligea montana)
Two species endemic to Cuba in the genus Teretistris – now in own family Teretistridae
Yellow-headed warbler (Teretistris fernandinae)
Oriente warbler (Teretistris fornsi)
Description
All the warblers are fairly small. The smallest species is Lucy's warbler (Oreothlypis luciae), with a weight of around 6.5 g (0.23 oz) and an average length of . The Parkesia waterthrushes, the ovenbird, the russet-crowned warbler, and Semper's warbler, all of which can exceed and 21 g (0.74 oz), may be considered the largest.
The migratory species tend to lay larger clutches of eggs, typically up to six, since the hazards of their journeys mean that many individuals will have only one chance to breed. In contrast, the laying of two eggs is typical for many tropical species, since the chicks can be provided with better care, and the adults are likely to have further opportunities for reproduction.
Many migratory species, particularly those which breed further north, have distinctive male plumage at least in the breeding season, since males need to reclaim territory and advertise for mates each year. This tendency is particularly marked in the large genus Setophaga (formerly Dendroica). In contrast, resident tropical species, which pair for life, show little if any sexual dimorphism, but exceptions occur. The Parkesia waterthrushes and ovenbird are strongly migratory, but have identical male and female plumage, whereas the mainly tropical and sedentary yellowthroats are dimorphic. The Granatellus chats also show sexual dimorphism, but due to recent genetic work, have been moved into the family Cardinalidae (New World buntings and cardinals).
References
Further reading
Curson, Quinn and Beadle, 1994. New World Warblers. 252 p.
Harrison, Hal H. 1984. Wood Warblers’ World. New York : Simon and Schuster, 335 p., 24 p. of plates : ill. (some col.) ; 25 cm.
Lovette, I. J. and E. Bermingham. 2002. What is a wood-warbler? Molecular characterization of a monophyletic Parulidae. The Auk. 119(3): 695–714. PDF fulltext
Morse, Douglass H. 1989. American Warblers : an Ecological and Behavioral Perspective. Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press, xii, 406 p. : ill., maps.
External links
New World warblers (Parulidae) information, including 81 species with videos and 100 with photographs at the Internet Bird Collection
"Chasing Down Warblers" National Geographic News story on seeing 30 warbler species in May 2002
|
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] |
208180
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El%20Nath
|
El Nath
|
El Nath may refer to:
Alpha Arietis
Beta Tauri
El-Nath, a town in the popular MMORPG, MapleStory
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucky%20number
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Lucky number
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In number theory, a lucky number is a natural number in a set which is generated by a certain "sieve". This sieve is similar to the Sieve of Eratosthenes that generates the primes, but it eliminates numbers based on their position in the remaining set, instead of their value (or position in the initial set of natural numbers).
The term was introduced in 1956 in a paper by Gardiner, Lazarus, Metropolis and Ulam. They suggest also calling its defining sieve, "the sieve of Josephus Flavius" because of its similarity with the counting-out game in the Josephus problem.
Lucky numbers share some properties with primes, such as asymptotic behaviour according to the prime number theorem; also, a version of Goldbach's conjecture has been extended to them. There are infinitely many lucky numbers. However, if Ln denotes the n-th lucky number, and pn the n-th prime, then Ln > pn for all sufficiently large n.
Because of these apparent connections with the prime numbers, some mathematicians have suggested that these properties may be found in a larger class of sets of numbers generated by sieves of a certain unknown form, although there is little theoretical basis for this conjecture. Twin lucky numbers and twin primes also appear to occur with similar frequency.
The sieving process
Continue removing the nth remaining numbers, where n is the next number in the list after the last surviving number. Next in this example is 9.
One way that the application of the procedure differs from that of the Sieve of Eratosthenes is that for n being the number being multiplied on a specific pass, the first number eliminated on the pass is the n-th remaining number that has not yet been eliminated, as opposed to the number 2n. That is to say, the list of numbers this sieve counts through is different on each pass (for example 1, 3, 7, 9, 13, 15, 19... on the third pass), whereas in the Sieve of Eratosthenes, the sieve always counts through the entire original list (1, 2, 3...).
When this procedure has been carried out completely, the remaining integers are the lucky numbers (those that happen to be prime are in bold):
1, 3, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21, 25, 31, 33, 37, 43, 49, 51, 63, 67, 69, 73, 75, 79, 87, 93, 99, 105, 111, 115, 127, 129, 133, 135, 141, 151, 159, 163, 169, 171, 189, 193, 195, 201, 205, 211, 219, 223, 231, 235, 237, 241, 259, 261, 267, 273, 283, 285, 289, 297, 303, 307, 319, 321, 327, ... .
The lucky number which removes n from the list of lucky numbers is: (0 if n is a lucky number)
0, 2, 0, 2, 3, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 3, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 3, 2, 7, 2, 0, 2, 3, 2, 0, 2, 9, 2, 3, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 3, 2, 0, 2, 7, 2, 3, 2, 0, 2, 13, 2, 3, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 3, 2, 15, 2, 9, 2, 3, 2, 7, 2, 0, 2, 3, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 3, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 3, 2, 0, 2, 7, 2, 3, 2, 21, 2, ...
Lucky primes
A "lucky prime" is a lucky number that is prime. They are:
3, 7, 13, 31, 37, 43, 67, 73, 79, 127, 151, 163, 193, 211, 223, 241, 283, 307, 331, 349, 367, 409, 421, 433, 463, 487, 541, 577, 601, 613, 619, 631, 643, 673, 727, 739, 769, 787, 823, 883, 937, 991, 997, ... .
It has been conjectured that there are infinitely many lucky primes.
See also
Lucky numbers of Euler
Fortunate number
Happy number
Harshad number
Gambling
Lottery
Keno
References
Further reading
External links
Lucky Numbers by Enrique Zeleny, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
Integer sequences
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dione%20%28moon%29
|
Dione (moon)
|
{{Infobox planet
| name = Dione
| mpc_name = Saturn IV
| pronounced =
| named_after = Διώνη Diōnē
| adjectives = Dionean
| image = Dione in natural light (cropped).jpg
| caption = Dione photographed in natural light by theCassini spacecraft in 2008
| discoverer = Giovanni Cassini
| discovered = March 21, 1684
| semimajor =
| eccentricity =
| period =
| inclination = 0.019° (to Saturn's equator)
| satellite_of = Saturn
| dimensions = 1128.8 × 1122.6 × 1119.2 km
| surface_area =
| mean_diameter =
| mean_radius =
| mass = (1.834 Earths)
| density =
| surface_grav = m/s2
| escape_velocity = km/s
| rotation = (synchronous)
| axial_tilt = zero
| albedo = (geometric)
| magnitude = 10.4
| single_temperature = 87 K (−186°C)
}}
Dione () is a moon of Saturn. It was discovered by Italian astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1684. It is named after the Titaness Dione of Greek mythology. It is also designated Saturn IV.
Name
Giovanni Domenico Cassini named the four moons he discovered (Tethys, Dione, Rhea and Iapetus) Sidera Lodoicea ("the stars of Louis") to honor king Louis XIV. Cassini found Dione in 1684 using a large aerial telescope he set up on the grounds of the Paris Observatory. The satellites of Saturn were not named until 1847, when William Herschel's son John Herschel published Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope, suggesting that the names of the Titans (sisters and brothers of Cronus) be used.
Orbit
Dione orbits Saturn with a semimajor axis about 2% less than that of the Moon. However, reflecting Saturn's greater mass (95 times that of Earth), Dione's orbital period is one tenth that of the Moon. Dione is currently in a 1:2 mean-motion orbital resonance with moon Enceladus, completing one orbit of Saturn for every two orbits completed by Enceladus. This resonance maintains Enceladus's orbital eccentricity (0.0047), providing a source of heat for Enceladus's extensive geological activity, which shows up most dramatically in its cryovolcanic geyser-like jets. The resonance also maintains a smaller eccentricity in Dione's orbit (0.0022), tidally heating it as well.
Dione has two co-orbital, or trojan, moons, Helene and Polydeuces. They are located within Dione's Lagrangian points and , 60 degrees ahead of and behind Dione respectively. A leading co-orbital moon twelve degrees ahead of Helene was reported by Stephen P. Synnott in 1982.Guinness Book of Astronomy, Patrick Moore,
Guinness Publishing, second edition, 1983 pp 110, 114
Physical characteristics and interior
At in diameter, Dione is the 15th largest moon in the Solar System, and is more massive than all known moons smaller than itself combined. Based on its density, Dione’s interior is likely a combination of silicate rock and water ice in nearly equal parts by mass.
Shape and gravity observations collected by Cassini suggest a roughly 400 km radius rocky core surrounded by a roughly 160 km envelope of H2O, mainly in the form of water ice, but with some models suggesting that the lowermost part of this layer could be in the form of an internal liquid salt water ocean (a situation similar to that of its orbital resonance partner, Enceladus). Downward bending of the surface associated with the 1.5 km high ridge Janiculum Dorsa can most easily be explained by the presence of such an ocean.Overlooked Ocean Worlds Fill the Outer Solar System. John Wenz, Scientific American. 4 October 2017. Neither moon has a shape close to hydrostatic equilibrium; the deviations are maintained by isostasy. Dione's ice shell is thought to vary in thickness by less than 5%, with the thinnest areas at the poles, where tidal heating of the crust is greatest.
Though somewhat smaller and denser, Dione is otherwise very similar to Rhea. They both have similar albedo features and varied terrain, and both have dissimilar leading and trailing hemispheres. Dione's leading hemisphere is heavily cratered and is uniformly bright. Its trailing hemisphere, however, contains an unusual and distinctive surface feature: a network of bright ice cliffs.
Scientists recognise Dionean geological features of the following types:
Chasmata (chasms; long, deep, steep-sided depressions or canyons)
Dorsa (ridges)
Fossae (long narrow depressions)
Craters
Catenae (crater chains)
Ice cliffs (formerly 'wispy terrain')
When the Voyager space probe photographed Dione in 1980, it showed what appeared to be wispy features covering its trailing hemisphere. The origin of these features was mysterious, because all that was known was that the material has a high albedo and is thin enough that it does not obscure the surface features underneath. One hypothesis was that shortly after its formation Dione was geologically active, and some process such as cryovolcanism resurfaced much of its surface, with the streaks forming from eruptions along cracks in the Dionean surface that fell back as snow or ash. Later, after the internal activity and resurfacing ceased, cratering continued primarily on the leading hemisphere and wiped out the streak patterns there.
This hypothesis was proven wrong by the Cassini probe flyby of December 13, 2004, which produced close-up images. These revealed that the 'wisps' were, in fact, not ice deposits at all, but rather bright ice cliffs created by tectonic fractures (chasmata). Dione has been revealed as a world riven by enormous fractures on its trailing hemisphere.
The Cassini orbiter performed a closer flyby of Dione at on October 11, 2005, and captured oblique images of the cliffs, showing that some of them are several hundred metres high.
Linear features
Dione features linear 'virgae' that are up to hundreds of km long but less than 5 km wide. These lines run parallel to the equator and are only apparent at lower latitudes (at less than 45° north or south); similar features are noted on Rhea. They are brighter than everything around them and appear to overlay other features such as ridges and craters, indicating they are relatively young. It has been proposed that these lines are of exogenic origin, as the result of the emplacement of material across the surface by low‐velocity impacts of material sourced from Saturn's rings, co‐orbital moons, or closely approaching comets.
Craters
Dione's icy surface includes heavily cratered terrain, moderately cratered plains, lightly cratered plains, and areas of tectonic fractures. The heavily cratered terrain has numerous craters greater than in diameter. The plains areas tend to have craters less than in diameter. Some of the plains are more heavily cratered than others. Much of the heavily cratered terrain is located on the trailing hemisphere, with the less cratered plains areas present on the leading hemisphere. This is the opposite of what some scientists expected; Shoemaker and Wolfe proposed a cratering model for a tidally locked satellite with the highest cratering rates on the leading hemisphere and the lowest on the trailing hemisphere. This suggests that during the period of heavy bombardment, Dione was tidally locked to Saturn in the opposite orientation. Because Dione is relatively small, an impact causing a 35 kilometer crater could have spun the satellite. Because there are many craters larger than , Dione could have been repeatedly spun during its early heavy bombardment. The pattern of cratering since then and the bright albedo of the leading side suggests that Dione has remained in its current orientation for several billion years.
Like Callisto, Dione's craters lack the high-relief features seen on the Moon and Mercury; this is probably due to slumping of the weak icy crust over geologic time.
Atmosphere
On April 7, 2010, instruments on board the unmanned Cassini probe, which flew by Dione, detected a thin layer of molecular oxygen ions () around Dione, so thin that scientists prefer to call it an exosphere rather than a tenuous atmosphere. The density of molecular oxygen ions determined from the Cassini plasma spectrometer data ranges from 0.01 to 0.09 per cm3.
The Cassini probe instruments were unable to directly detect water from the exosphere due to high background levels, but it seems that highly charged particles from the planet's powerful radiation belts could split the water in the ice into hydrogen and oxygen.
Exploration
Dione was first imaged by the Voyager space probes. It has also been probed five times from close distances by the Cassini orbiter. There was a close targeted flyby, at a distance of on 11 October 2005; another flyby was performed on 7 April 2010 also at a distance of 500 km. A third flyby was performed on 12 December 2011 at a distance of . The following flyby was on 16 June 2015 at a distance of , and the last Cassini flyby was performed on 17 August 2015 at a distance of .Spacecraft Makes Final Close Flyby of Saturn Moon Dione Today. Space.com Calla Cofield. August 17, 2015.
In May 2013, it was announced that NASA's spacecraft Cassini had provided scientists with evidence that Dione is more active than previously realized. Using topographic data, NASA teams deduced that crustal depression associated with a prominent mountain ridge on the leading hemisphere is best explained if there was a global subsurface liquid ocean like that of Enceladus. The ridge Janiculum Dorsa has a height of 1 to 2 km (0.6 to 1.2 miles); Dione's crust seems to pucker 0.5 km (0.3 miles) under it, suggesting that the icy crust was warm when the ridge formed, probably due to the presence of a subsurface liquid ocean, which increases tidal flexing.
Gallery
See also
Dione in fiction
Former classification of planets
Helene – moon at Dione's leading Lagrangian point,
Polydeuces – moon at Dione's trailing Lagrangian point,
References
External links
Dione Profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
The Planetary Society: Dione
Cassini images of Dione
Images of Dione at JPL's Planetary Photojournal
3D shape model of Dione (requires WebGL)
Dione global and polar basemaps (December 2011) from Cassini'' images
Dione atlas (Sept. 2011) from Cassini images
Dione nomenclature and Dione map with feature names from the USGS planetary nomenclature page
Google Dione 3D, interactive map of the moon
16840321
Discoveries by Giovanni Domenico Cassini
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan%20Santini%20Aichel
|
Jan Santini Aichel
|
Jan Blažej Santini Aichel (3 February 1677 – 7 December 1723) was a Czech architect of Italian descent, whose major works represent the unique Baroque Gothic style - the special combination of the Baroque and Gothic styles.
Biography
He was born on the day of Saint Blaise as the oldest son to a respectable family of a Prague stonemasons Santini Aichel (his grandfather Antonio Aichel moved from Italy to Prague in the 1630s) and was baptized in the St. Vitus Cathedral as Johann Blasius Aichel. He was born with a physical disability – paralysis of a half of his body. This prevented him from a successful follow-up to his father's career. He only served his time of apprenticeship (as did his brother Franz), but he also studied painting from the imperial and royal painter Christian Schröder.
Around 1696 he started to travel and gain experience. After his journey through Austria he arrived in Rome, Italy, where he had the possibility to meet with the work of a radical architect, Francesco Borromini. Borromini's influence is apparent in his predilection for star-shaped forms and complex symbolism. Many of his buildings are airy and elegant, yet he was considered a maverick genius by his contemporaries and exerted little influence on subsequent generations of Bohemian architects. It was in Italy where Santini incorporated into his name his father's name, Santini.
In 1700 Santini started to design independently and to build, which ensured his own income, he then became a member of one craft guild and founded his own construction company.
Santini married Schröder's daughter (Veronica Elisabeth) in 1707. They had four children, but all three sons died from tuberculosis at an early age; the only child left was Anna Veronika (born 1713). Santini's wife died seven years later and he remarried a South Bohemian noblewoman, Antonia Ignatia Chrapická of Mohliškovice whereby Santini was ennobled. Daughter Jana Ludmila and son Jan Ignác Rochus were born from this marriage.
Santini acquired the style of Jean Baptiste Mathey and after his death also finished several works of him. In 1705, he bought Valkounský house (no. 211) in Nerudova street for 3000 gold coins in cash and rebuilt it. Santini became a well-known person, but unfortunately, he died at a fairly young age of 46 and some of his works therefore remained unfinished.
The asteroid 37699 Santini-Aichl is named in his honour.
Works
Monastery Church of the Assumption of Our Lady and Saint John the Baptist in Sedlec u Kutné Hory (reconstruction, 1703–1708, World Heritage Site)
Chapel of Saint Anne in Panenské Břežany (1705–1707)
Pilgrimage Church of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary and Cistercian Provost Office in Mariánská Týnice (1707–1710)
Convent of the Cistercian Monastery in Plasy (reconstruction, 1711–1723)
Monastery Church of the Assumption of Virgin Mary, St Wolfgang and St Benedict in Kladruby (1711)
Monastery Church of the Nativity of Virgin Mary in Želiv (reconstruction, 1714–1720)
Pilgrimage Church of the Name of Virgin Mary in Křtiny (1718)
Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk on Zelená hora in Žďár nad Sázavou (1719–1727, World Heritage Site)
Karlova Koruna Chateau in Chlumec nad Cidlinou (1721–1723)
Church of Saint Wenceslaus in Zvole (reconstruction)
Church of Saints Peter and Paul in Horní Bobrová (1714)
Church of the Visitation of Virgin Mary in Obyčtov
Church of the Assumption of Virgin Mary in Netín
Provost Church of St Peter and Paul in Rajhrad (1721)
Initial architect for the rebuilding of Zbraslav chateau
Design and constructions of the Kalec chateau
Reconstruction of Valkounsky House (No.211-III) in Prague - Malá Strana (after 1705)
Gallery
References
2. HORYNA, Mojmír J. B. Santini-Aichel – Život a dílo. Karolinum, Praha 1998, .
3. KALINA, Pavel. In opere gotico unicus: The Hybrid Architecture of Jan Blazej Santini-Aichel and Patterns of Memory in Post-Reformation Bohemia.Praha: UMENI-ART 58.1 (2010): 42-+.
4. YOUNG, Michael. Santini-Aichel'S Design for the Baroque Convent at the Cistercian. New York: Columbia, 1994.
External links
1677 births
1723 deaths
Architects from Prague
Czech Baroque architects
Czech people of Italian descent
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bingo%20%28American%20version%29
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Bingo (American version)
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In the United States, bingo is a game of chance in which each player matches numbers printed in different arrangements on cards with the numbers the game host (caller) draws at random, marking the selected numbers with tiles. When a player finds the selected numbers are arranged on their card in a row, they call out "Bingo!" to alert all participants to a winning card, which prompts the game host (or an associate assisting the host) to examine the card for verification of the win. Players compete against one another to be the first to have a winning arrangement for the prize or jackpot. After a winner is declared, the players clear their number cards of the tiles and the game host begins a new round of play.
Alternative methods of play try to increase participation by creating excitement. Since its invention in 1929, modern bingo has evolved into multiple variations, with each jurisdiction's gambling laws regulating how the game is played. There are also nearly unlimited patterns that may be specified for play. Some games require only one number to be matched, while cover-all games award the jackpot for covering an entire card. There are even games that award prizes to players for matching no numbers or achieving no pattern.
Bingo played in the US (75-ball bingo) is not to be confused with bingo played in the UK (90-ball bingo), as the tickets and the calling are slightly different.
Bingo cards
The most common Bingo cards are flat pieces of cardboard or disposable paper which contain 25 squares arranged in five vertical columns and five side to side rows. Each space in the grid contains a number, except the middle square, which is designated a "Free" space.
A typical Bingo game utilizes the numbers 1 through 75. The five columns of the card are labeled 'B', 'I', 'N', 'G', and 'O' from left to right. The center space is usually marked "Free" or "Free Space", and is considered automatically filled. The range of printed numbers that can appear on the card is normally restricted by column, with the 'B' column only containing numbers between 1 and 15 inclusive, the 'I' column containing only 16 through 30, 'N' containing 31 through 45, 'G' containing 46 through 60, and 'O' containing 61 through 75.
The number of all possible Bingo cards with these standard features is P(15,5) × P(15,5) × P(15,5) × P(15,5) × P(15,4) = 552,446,474,061,128,648,601,600,000 or approximately 5.52×1026.
In U-Pick 'Em bingo and other variants of bingo, players are issued three 25 number cards which contain all 75 numbers that may be drawn. Players then mark which numbers they wish to play and then daub those numbers according to the numbers drawn. In addition, double-action cards have two numbers in each square.
A player wins by completing a row, column, or diagonal. The most chips one can place on a Bingo board without having a Bingo is 19, not counting the free space. In order for this to happen, only one empty cell can reside in each row and each column, and at least one empty cell must be in each diagonal, for instance:
In addition to a straight line, other patterns may be considered a valid bingo in special games. For example, in the illustration above, the 2×2 square of marked squares in the upper-right-hand corner would be considered a "postage stamp". Another common special game requires players to cover the four corners. There are several other patterns, such as a Roving 'L', which requires players to cover all B's and top or bottom row or all O's and top or bottom row. Another common pattern is a blackout, covering all 24 numbers and the free space.
Equipment
The numbers that are called in a game of bingo may be drawn utilizing a variety of methods to randomly generate the ball call. With the expansion of computer technology in bingo, electronic random number generators (RNG) are now commonplace in most jurisdictions. However, some jurisdictions require mechanical ball draws which may utilize a randomly shuffled deck of bingo calling cards, a mechanical ball blower that mixes ping pong balls with blown air or a cage which is turned to mix small wooden balls. All methods essentially generate a random string of numbers which players match to their bingo cards that have numbers on them.
Culture
Single games often have multiple bingos; for example, the players first play for a single line; after that, play goes on until a full card is called; then, play continues for a consolation full card.
Players often play multiple cards for each game; 30 is not an unusual number. Because of the large numbers of cards played by each player, most halls have the players sit at tables to which they often fasten their cards with adhesive tape. To mark cards faster the players usually use special markers called daubers. At commercial halls, after calling the number the caller then displays the next number on a television monitor; bingo cannot be called until that number is called aloud, however.
Bingo is often used as an instructional tool in American schools and in teaching English as a foreign language in many countries. Typically, the numbers are replaced with beginning reader words, pictures, or unsolved math problems. Custom bingo creation programs now allow teachers and parents to create bingo cards using their own content.
Terminology
Ready/Waiting/Cased/Set/Down/Chance/Shot/Pat/Open – A player who only needs one number in order to complete the Bingo pattern is considered to have a Shot or be Ready, Waiting, Cased, Set, or Down, or to "have a chance".
Breaking the Bubble or "Possible" – The bubble is the minimum number of balls required to complete the Bingo pattern. This is the earliest point any player could have a valid bingo. Example: Winning pattern is 1 hard way bingo, a straight line without the free space. The minimum number of called numbers is five (four if each number is under "N") although it is not considered Breaking the Bubble or possible until one number in each column or four/five numbers in a single column have been called.
Jumping the Gun/Premature Bingo/Social Error – One who calls bingo before having a valid bingo. The most common situation is someone calling bingo using the next number in the screen before it has been called.
Wild numbers – Many bingo halls will have certain games with a wild number. Wild numbers allow bingo players to start with multiple called numbers. Typically the first ball drawn is the determining factor.
Standard – All numbers ending with the second digit of the first number. Example: First ball is 22. All numbers ending in a 2 including B2 is considered a called number.
Forwards/backwards – All numbers beginning or ending with the wild number. Example: First ball is 22. All numbers beginning or ending with a 2 is considered a called number. If the first number ends with an 8, 9, or 0, another number may be drawn as there are no numbers starting with an 8 or 9 and only 9 numbers starting with a 0. Some halls will also redraw a number ending with a 7 as there are only six numbers beginning with a 7.
False Alarm or Just Practicing – Tongue-in-cheek term used when one calls bingo but is mistaken. This could be because of mishearing the caller or stamping the wrong number by mistake. One who calls a "falsie" genuinely believes he/she has a bingo.
This is also known as a "social error". Another term used for this is a "bongo".
Hard Way Bingo – A hard-way bingo is a bingo pattern in a straight line without the use of the free space.
Reach - In Japan, a player will yell "Reach" when he/she is one space away from a bingo.
History
A game of chance named lotto was being played in Italy by about 1530. In 18th-century a home version (called Tombola) was created in Naples with the addition of cards, tokens and the calling out of numbers. In the nineteenth century a game like this was widely played in Germany to teach children spelling, animal names and multiplication tables.
The French game Le Lotto appeared in 1778, featuring 27 squares in a layout of three rows and nine columns. Five squares in each row had numbers ranging from 1 through 90, which led to the modern design.
In the early 1920s, Hugh J. Ward created and standardized the game at carnivals in and around Pittsburgh and the Western Pennsylvania area. He copyrighted it and published a rule book in 1933.
The game was further popularized by Edwin Lowe. While at a traveling carnival near Atlanta in December 1929 the toy merchandiser saw people eagerly playing a game called "Beano" following Ward's rules, with dried beans, a rubber stamp, and cardboard sheets. Lowe took the game to New York where friends liked playing it. The Lowe-produced Bingo game had two versions, a 12-card set for $1.00 and a $2.00 set with 24 cards. By the 1940s there were Bingo games throughout the US.
The origin of the name Bingo is unknown but may date to the middle 1920s. There are claims that one of Lowe's friends was so excited to have won that she yelled out "Bingo" instead of "Beano," or that the word echoes the sound of a bell.
The business of bingo
In the US, the game is primarily staged by churches or charity organizations. Their legality and stakes vary by state regulation. In some states, bingo halls are rented out to sponsoring organizations, and such halls often run games almost every day. Church-run games, however, are normally weekly affairs held on the church premises. These games are usually played for modest stakes, although the final game of a session is frequently a coverall game that offers a larger jackpot prize for winning within a certain quantity of numbers called, and a progressive jackpot is one that may increase per session until it is won.
Commercial bingo games in the US are primarily offered by casinos (and then only in the state of Nevada), and by Native American bingo halls, which are often housed in the same location as Native American-run casinos. In Nevada, bingo is offered mainly by casinos that cater to local gamblers, and not the famous tourist resorts. They usually offer one-hour sessions, on the odd hours, e.g. 9am, 11am, 1pm daily, typically from 9am through 11pm, with relatively modest stakes except for coverall jackpots. Station Casinos, a chain of locals-oriented casinos in Las Vegas, offers a special game each session, called "Jumbo" that ties all of its properties together with a large progressive jackpot. Most Bingo parlors in Las Vegas use hand held machines on which the games are played, except the Station Casino, the Fiesta Casino which has paper bingo cards and no machines. Native American games are typically offered for only one or two sessions a day, and are often played for higher stakes than charity games in order to draw players from distant places. Some also offer a special progressive jackpot game that may tie together players from multiple bingo halls.
As well as bingo played in house, the larger commercial operators play some games linked by telephone across several, perhaps dozens, of their clubs. This increases the prize money, but reduces the chance of winning; both due to the greater number of players.
Bingo halls are sometimes linked together (as by Loto Quebec in Canada) in a network to provide alternative winning structures and bigger prizes.
Bingo is also the basis for online games sold through licensed lotteries. Tickets are sold as for other numbers games, and the players get receipts with their numbers arranged as on a regular bingo card. The daily or weekly draw is normally broadcast on television. These games offer higher prizes and are more difficult to win.
The bingo logic is frequently used on scratch card games. The numbers are pre-drawn for each card and hidden until the card is scratched. In lotteries with online networks the price is electronically confirmed to avoid fraud based on physical fixing.
Some gay bars and other LGBT-oriented organizations in both Canada and the United States also stage bingo events, commonly merged with a drag show and billed as "Drag Bingo" or "Drag Queen Bingo". "Drag Bingo" events were first launched in Seattle in the early 1990s as a fundraiser for local HIV/AIDS charities. They have since expanded to many other cities across North America, supporting a diverse range of charities.
Bingo has gone beyond a fundraising role and is often featured in bars and nightclubs as a social and entertainment event, with both numbered and music bingo variations, attracting a loyal following of regular players. Many venues promote a bingo event to attract customers at off-peak times, such as weeknights and Sundays, which are traditionally slower for such businesses. The games are called by drag and non-drag hosts alike and often include ancillary activities such as cabaret shows, contests and other themed activities that add interest and encourage audience participation. Customers are invited to play for a chance to win cash and other prizes.
With one bingo hall for every 6,800 residents, Cheektowaga, New York is believed to have the highest concentration of bingo halls in the United States. The suburb of Buffalo's large Polish-American Catholic population is believed to be a factor for bingo's outsized popularity in Western New York, which has five times as many bingo halls per capita as the rest of the state.
Variations
U-Pick'Em bingo
A common form of bingo which allows players to mark the numbers they wish to monitor for a win. While this game closely resembles Keno, a game invented in China which predates the Han Dynasty, it is recognized as a variant of bingo and is permitted in almost all jurisdictions.
Shotgun Bingo
Also known as Quickie Bingo, Turbo Bingo and similar names, these games are often played in between regular games with cards sold separately from the main game package. Players typically only play one or two cards and the numbers are called as quickly as the bingo balls come out.
Quick Shot bingo
A game where numbers are pre-drawn and players purchase sealed bingo cards which are then matched against the pre-drawn numbers. If a specified pattern is achieved, then the player usually wins a prize according to a prize table. Some versions are played until a player achieves a top level prize and then new numbers are drawn and the game begins anew. This type of bingo may be played over days, weeks or months depending on the difficulty of achieving a top level prize.
Bonanza bingo
Typically 43 to 48 numbers are pre-drawn at the beginning of a bingo session. The numbers pre-drawn can be odd, even or the first 43 numbers that pop out the machine. Players purchase cards and mark out all even, odd or pre-drawn numbers. At a designated time, the caller asks if anyone has bingo. If no one does, the caller then draws one ball at a time until someone shouts bingo. This game is sometimes played as a "progressive" game, where the jackpot increases if no one hits bingo before the desired number of balls are called. If no one has achieved bingo before or on the desired ball count then the game is played again in another session in which the desired ball count increases by one and the jackpot is increased also. The player who hits bingo after the desired ball count does not win the jackpot but does win a consolation prize. If a player does hit bingo in the right number of numbers then they win all the money in the jackpot. The ball count goes back to 43 after the jackpot is won and the ball count increases by one until the jackpot is won again.
Facebook bingo
Bingo on Facebook differs from traditional online or land based bingo games. Most games feature 'power-ups' which give individual players an advantage on winning the game when using such power-ups. Players can also collect, buy and share virtual items with friends on the Facebook platform. This adds to the community element which is otherwise not experienced in other forms of online and land-based bingo.
Horse racing bingo
Up to 15 players are randomly issued a number from 1 to 15 which corresponds with the top row of the bingo flashboard. Numbers are then drawn and the first person to have all five numbers in their column be drawn wins. This is a fast-paced and exciting form of bingo typically played in fraternal organizations.
Table bingo
With the expansion of Tribal gaming across the US, there are numerous versions of bingo which now emulate the fast action of casino like table games but utilize the principals of bingo where players mark and monitor matrices cards with chips. Casino games like Roulette, Acey Duecy and Money Wheel have bingo counterparts that are permitted to be played under bingo licenses in many parts of the country.
Electronic bingo
The advent of computer technology in bingo has blurred the lines between traditional slot machines and bingo slot machines. To the average person, bingo-based slot machines are physically indistinguishable from an RNG based slot machine typically seen in Atlantic City or Las Vegas. These devices are commonly called Class II machines, because the federal Indian Gaming Regulatory Act separated bingo, including electronic and mechanical aids, where players play against each other, from Class III slot machines, where player play against the house.
As a result of the passage of SB1180 in 2017, the State of Arizona now allows technological aids for bingo games that functions only as an electronic substitute for bingo cards. These technological aids are not defined by Arizona law or regulation, but one such electronic technological aid consists of a system which includes a network linking player interfaces to a number drawing device (ball-draw server) and an electronic substitute for a "live" cashier. The player interfaces themselves do not contain random number generators or allow a player to directly deposit cash. Rather, the Arizona technological aid system allows a player to deposit money into a unique individual player's account, pay for the games played out of that account, and at the end of play redeposit the value of any unused games that player may have purchased or won back into that account. The system does not allow the player to print a redemption ticket or receive anything of value directly from the player interface. In Arizona this system is only legally available for use by fraternal organizations, by service organization such as the VFW, American Legion or Amvets, or non-profits such as hospice or volunteer fire departments.
Music Bingo
Music Bingo is growing in popularity and is finding its way into bars, pubs and other events as bingo is already a familiar concept and when integrated with music, also results in fun and collaboration among players (singing along to the songs that are randomly played). Music bingo was first introduced as a game show in 1958 and continues to expand today.
Death bingo
An inverted game where a player that gets a bingo is eliminated and knocked out of the game. The winner is the player who fills out the most spaces on their board before getting a bingo.
Other forms
Buzzword bingo (also called bullshit bingo)
Bovine bingo (also called Bossy bingo), in which a bovine's defecation is used to draw the numbers
Online bingo
Roadkill bingo
Lingo, a game show incorporating Bingo mechanics and five-letter words
Slingo, an online game that blends slots and bingo
Pinoy Bingo Night, a game show in the Philippines with Kris Aquino on ABS-CBN.
Bingo America, a bingo-based viewer-participation game show on GSN
National Bingo Night, a bingo-based viewer participation game show on ABC that ended in 2007
Themed variants of the traditional game include drag queen bingo, punk rock bingo, and beach blanket bingo.
See also
Bingo (card game)
Online bingo, Bingo played on the Internet
Keno
Screeno, Bingo played by movie audience members
Lottery
Lotería
Pakapoo
References
External links
BBC article on Bingo Calling
Bingo
Gambling games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Bronson
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Charles Bronson
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Charles Bronson (born Charles Dennis Buchinsky; November 3, 1921 – August 30, 2003) was an American actor who was often cast in roles of police officers, gunfighters, or vigilantes in revenge-oriented plot lines. He had long-term collaborations with film directors Michael Winner and J. Lee Thompson and appeared in 15 films with his second wife, Jill Ireland.
At the height of his fame in the early 1970s, he was the world's No. 1 box office attraction, commanding $1 million per film.
Early life and war service
Bronson was born Charles Dennis Buchinsky, the eleventh of fifteen children, into a Roman Catholic family of Lithuanian descent in Ehrenfeld, Pennsylvania, in the coal region of the Allegheny Mountains north of Johnstown, Pennsylvania. His father, Valteris P. Bučinskis, a Lipka Tatar, who later adjusted his name to Walter Buchinsky to sound more American, was from Druskininkai in southern Lithuania. Bronson's mother, Mary (née Valinsky), whose parents were from Lithuania, was born in the coal mining town of Tamaqua, Pennsylvania.
Bronson did not speak any English at home during his childhood in Pennsylvania, like many children he grew up with. He recalled that even back when he was in the army, his accent was strong enough to make his comrades think he came from another country (despite Bronson having been born in the US). Besides English, he could also speak Lithuanian, Russian and Greek.
In a 1973 interview, Bronson said that he did not know his father very well and "I'm not even sure if I loved him or hated him." He said that all he could remember was that when his mother said that his father was coming home, the children would hide. When Bronson was 10 years old, his father died and he went to work in the coal mines, first in the mining office and then in the mine. He later said he earned one dollar for each ton of coal that he mined. In another interview, he said that he had to work double shifts to earn $1 a week. Bronson later recounted that he and his brother engaged in dangerous work removing "stumps" between the mines, and that cave-ins were common.
The family suffered extreme poverty during the Great Depression, and Bronson recalled going hungry many times. His mother could not afford milk for his younger sister, so she was fed warm tea instead. His family was so poor that he once had to wear his sister's dress to school for lack of clothing. Bronson was the first member of his family to graduate from high school.
Bronson worked in the mine until he enlisted in the United States Army Air Forces in 1943 during World War II. He served in the 760th Flexible Gunnery Training Squadron, and in 1945 as a Boeing B-29 Superfortress aerial gunner with the Guam-based 61st Bombardment Squadron within the 39th Bombardment Group, which conducted combat missions against the Japanese home islands. He flew 25 missions and received a Purple Heart for wounds received in battle.
Acting career
Acting training (1946–1951)
After the end of World War II, Bronson worked at many odd jobs until joining a theatrical group in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He later shared an apartment in New York City with Jack Klugman while both were aspiring to play on the stage. In 1950, he married and moved to Hollywood, where he enrolled in acting classes and began to find small roles.
Early film roles (1951–1954)
Until 1954, Bronson's credits were all as Charles Buchinsky. His first film role – an uncredited one – was as a sailor in You're in the Navy Now in 1951, directed by Henry Hathaway. Other early screen appearances were in The Mob (1951); The People Against O'Hara (1951), directed by John Sturges; Bloodhounds of Broadway (1952); Battle Zone (1952); Pat and Mike (1952), as a boxer and mob enforcer; Diplomatic Courier (1952), another for Hathaway; My Six Convicts (1952); The Marrying Kind (1952); and Red Skies of Montana (1952).
In 1952, Bronson boxed in a ring with Roy Rogers in Rogers' show Knockout. He appeared on an episode of The Red Skelton Show as a boxer in a skit with Skelton playing "Cauliflower McPugg". He appeared with fellow guest star Lee Marvin in an episode of Biff Baker, U.S.A., an espionage series on CBS starring Alan Hale Jr. In the following year, he had small roles in Miss Sadie Thompson (1953); House of Wax (1953), directed by Andre DeToth; The Clown (1953); Torpedo Alley (1953); and Riding Shotgun, starring Randolph Scott and again directed by DeToth.
In 1954, during the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) proceedings, he changed his surname from Buchinsky to Bronson at the suggestion of his agent, who feared that an Eastern European surname might damage his career. Still as Buchinsky, he had a notable support part as an Apache, "Hondo", in the film Apache (1954) for director Robert Aldrich, followed by roles in Tennessee Champ (1954) for MGM, and Crime Wave (1954) directed by de Toth.
As Charles Bronson (1954–1958)
His first film as Charles Bronson was Vera Cruz (1954), again working for Aldrich. Bronson then made a strong impact as the main villain in the Alan Ladd western Drum Beat, directed by Delmer Daves, as a murderous Modoc warrior, Captain Jack (based on a real person), who relishes wearing the tunics of soldiers he has killed. He was in Target Zero (1955), Big House, U.S.A. (1955), and had a significant role in the Daves western Jubal (1956), starring Glenn Ford.
He had the lead role in the episode "The Apache Kid" of the syndicated crime drama The Sheriff of Cochise, starring John Bromfield; Bronson was subsequently cast twice in 1959 after the series was renamed U.S. Marshal. He guest-starred in the short-lived CBS situation comedy, Hey, Jeannie! and in three episodes of Alfred Hitchcock Presents: "And So Died Riabouchinska" (1956), "There Was an Old Woman" (1956), and "The Woman Who Wanted to Live" (1962).
In 1957, Bronson was cast in the Western series Colt .45 as an outlaw named Danny Arnold in the episode "Young Gun". He had a support role in Sam Fuller's Run of the Arrow (1957). In 1958, Bronson appeared as Butch Cassidy on the TV western Tales of Wells Fargo in the episode titled "Butch Cassidy".
Leading man (1958–1960)
Bronson scored the lead in ABC's detective series Man with a Camera (1958–1960), in which he portrayed Mike Kovac, a former combat photographer freelancing in New York City.
He was cast in leading man roles in some low budget films, notably, Machine-Gun Kelly (1958), a biopic of a real life gangster directed by Roger Corman. He also starred in Gang War (1958), When Hell Broke Loose (1958), and Showdown at Boot Hill (1959).
On television, he played Steve Ogrodowski, a naval intelligence officer, in two episodes of the CBS military sitcom/drama, Hennesey, starring Jackie Cooper, and he played Rogue Donovan, an escaped murderer in Yancy Derringer (episode: "Hell and High Water"). Bronson starred alongside Elizabeth Montgomery in a Twilight Zone episode ("Two"; 1961). He appeared in five episodes of Richard Boone's Have Gun – Will Travel (1957–63).
Bronson had a support role in an expensive war film, Never So Few (1959), directed by John Sturges. Bronson was cast in the 1960 episode "Zigzag" of Riverboat, starring Darren McGavin. That same year, he was cast as "Dutch Malkin" in the episode "The Generous Politician" of The Islanders. Bronson appeared as Frank Buckley in the TV western Laramie in the 1960 episode "Street of Hate."
Leading support actor in Hollywood (1960–1968)
In 1960, he garnered attention in John Sturges' The Magnificent Seven, in which he was cast as one of seven gunfighters taking up the cause of the defenseless. During filming, Bronson was a loner who kept to himself, according to Eli Wallach. He received $50,000 for this role. This role made him a favorite actor of many in the former Soviet Union, such as Vladimir Vysotsky.
The following year, Bronson could be seen, again in the role of a boxer, in an episode of One Step Beyond (S3E16, titled "The Last Round"), aired January 10, 1961. AIP put Bronson in the romantic lead of Master of the World (1961), supporting Vincent Price. He had a support role in MGM's A Thunder of Drums (1961) but a bigger part in X-15 (1961).
In 1961, Bronson was nominated for an Emmy Award for his supporting role in an episode entitled "Memory in White" of CBS's General Electric Theater, hosted by Ronald Reagan. In 1962, he appeared alongside Elvis Presley in Kid Galahad. In 1963, he co-starred in the series Empire.
Sturges cast Bronson for another Hollywood production, The Great Escape (1963), as claustrophobic Polish prisoner of war Flight Lieutenant Danny Velinski, nicknamed "The Tunnel King" (coincidentally, Bronson really was claustrophobic because of his childhood work in a mine). The film was a huge hit and Bronson had one of the leads, but he still found himself playing a villain in 4 for Texas (1963) for Robert Aldrich.
During the 1963–64 television season Bronson portrayed Linc, the stubborn wagon master in the ABC western series The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters. In 1964, Bronson guest-starred in an episode of the western TV series Bonanza as Harry Starr ("The Underdog").
Bronson had the lead in Guns of Diablo (1965), a Western. In the 1965–1966 season, he guest-starred in an episode of The Legend of Jesse James. In 1965, Bronson was cast as Velasquez, a demolitions expert, in the third-season episode "Heritage" on ABC's WW II drama Combat!.
He had a relatively minor role in Battle of the Bulge (1965) and was billed fourth in MGM's The Sandpiper (1966), which the popularity of stars Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor propelled to a big success. He was billed third in This Property Is Condemned (1966).
In 1967, he guest-starred as Ralph Schuyler, an undercover government agent in the episode "The One That Got Away" on ABC's The Fugitive.
That year Aldrich gave Bronson an excellent role in The Dirty Dozen (1967), where he played an Army death row convict conscripted into a suicide mission. It was a massive box office success but Bronson was only the third lead. He seemed unable to make the transition to star of major studio films in Hollywood. In Villa Rides (1968) he supported Robert Mitchum and Yul Brynner, playing the real-life Rodolfo Fierro.
Stardom in Europe (1968–1972)
Bronson made a serious name for himself in European films. He was making Villa Rides when approached by the producers of a French film Adieu l'ami looking for an American co-star for Alain Delon. Bronson's agent Paul Kohner later recalled the producer pitched the actor "on the fact that in the American film industry all the money, all the publicity, goes to the pretty boy hero types. In Europe... the public is attracted by character, not face."
The film was a big success in Europe. Even more popular was Once Upon a Time in the West (1968) where Bronson played Harmonica. The director, Sergio Leone, once called him "the greatest actor I ever worked with", and had wanted to cast Bronson for the lead in 1964's A Fistful of Dollars. Bronson turned him down and the role launched Clint Eastwood to film stardom. The film was the biggest hit of 1969 in France.
Bronson appeared in a French action film, Guns for San Sebastian (1968) alongside Anthony Quinn. In Britain, he was cast in the lead of Lola (1969), playing a middle-aged man in love with a 16-year-old girl. He then made a buddy comedy with Tony Curtis in Turkey, You Can't Win 'Em All (1970).
Bronson then played the lead in a French thriller, Rider on the Rain (1970) which was a big hit in France. It won a Hollywood Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
Bronson starred in some French-Italian action films, Violent City (1970) and Cold Sweat (1970), the latter directed by Terence Young. He was in a French thriller, Someone Behind the Door (1971) alongside Anthony Perkins, then starred in another directed by Young, the French-Spanish-Italian Western, Red Sun (1971). The Valachi Papers (1972) was a third with Young; Bronson played Joseph Valachi.
That year, this overseas fame earned him a special Golden Globe Henrietta Award for "World Film Favorite – Male" together with Sean Connery.
Return to the U.S. and stardom (1972–1974)
In 1972, Bronson began a string of successful action films for United Artists, beginning with Chato's Land (1972), although he had done several films for UA before this in the 1960s (The Magnificent Seven, etc.).
Chato's Land was the first film Bronson made with director Michael Winner. Winner was reunited with Bronson in The Mechanic (1972) and The Stone Killer (1973). Bronson worked with Sturges on Chino (1973), then did Mr. Majestyk (1974) with Richard Fleischer based on a book by Elmore Leonard.
One film UA brought into the domestic mainstream was Violent City, an Italian-made film originally released overseas in 1970, but not issued in the U.S. until 1974 under the title The Family.
By 1973, Bronson was considered to be the world's top box office attraction, and commanded $1 million per film.
Death Wish series and departure from United Artists (1974–1980)
Bronson's most famous role came at age 52, in Death Wish, his most popular film, with director Michael Winner. He played Paul Kersey, a successful New York architect who turns into a crime-fighting vigilante after his wife is murdered and his daughter sexually assaulted. This movie spawned four sequels over the next two decades, all starring Bronson.
Bronson starred in two films directed by Tom Gries: Breakout (1975), and Breakheart Pass (1975), a Western adapted from a novel by Alistair MacLean, which was a box office disappointment. He also starred in the directorial debut of Walter Hill, Hard Times (1975), playing a Depression-era street fighter making his living in illegal bare-knuckled matches in Louisiana. He earned good reviews. Bronson reached his pinnacle in box-office drawing power in 1975, when he was ranked 4th, behind only Robert Redford, Barbra Streisand, and Al Pacino.
Bronson did a Western comedy for UA, From Noon till Three (1976) but it was not well received. At Warner Bros he made St. Ives (1976), his first film with director J. Lee Thompson. He played Dan Shomron in Raid on Entebbe (1977), then was reunited with Thompson in The White Buffalo (1977), produced by Dino de Laurentiis for UA. UA also released Telefon (1977), directed by Don Siegel.
Bronson went on to make two films for ITC, Love and Bullets (1979) and Borderline (1980). He was reunited with Thompson on Caboblanco (1980), and played Albert Johnson in Death Hunt (1981), opposite Lee Marvin.
Cannon Films era (1982–1989)
In the years between 1976 and 1994, Bronson commanded high salaries to star in numerous films made by smaller production companies, most notably Cannon Films, for whom some of his last films were made.
Bronson was paid $1.5 million by Cannon to star in Death Wish II (1982), directed by Michael Winner. In the story, architect Paul Kersey (Bronson) moves to Los Angeles with his daughter. After she is murdered at the hands of several gang members, Kersey once again becomes a vigilante. The film was a big success at the box office.
Cannon Films promptly hired Bronson for 10 to Midnight (1983), in which he played a cop chasing a serial killer. The film marks the fourth collaboration between Bronson and director J. Lee Thompson. The supporting cast includes Lisa Eilbacher, Andrew Stevens, Gene Davis, Geoffrey Lewis, and Wilford Brimley.
ITC Entertainment hired Thompson and Bronson for The Evil That Men Do (1984), co-starring Theresa Saldana and Joseph Maher. The film was adapted by David Lee Henry and John Crowther from the novel of the same name by R. Lance Hill. Bronson plays a former assassin, who comes out of retirement to avenge the death of his journalist friend.
Cannon reunited Bronson and Winner for Death Wish 3 (1985). It is the last to be directed by Winner. Kersey returns to battle with New York street punk gangs while receiving tacit support from an NYPD lieutenant (Ed Lauter).
In Murphy's Law (1986), directed by Thompson, Bronson plays Jack Murphy, a hardened, antisocial LAPD detective who turns to alcohol to numb the pain of harsh reality. His ex-wife, played by Angel Tompkins, has become a stripper and his career is going nowhere. His world is turned upside down when an ex-convict, played by Carrie Snodgress, frames him for putting her in prison earlier in his career.
Bronson next appeared in the TV movie Act of Vengeance (1986), directed by John Mackenzie, playing real-life union leader Joseph Yablonski. It premiered on April 21, 1986.
More typical of this period were four Cannon action films: Assassination (1987) directed by Peter Hunt, and three with Thompson: Death Wish 4: The Crackdown (1988), Messenger of Death (1989) and Kinjite: Forbidden Subjects (1989).
Final years
Bronson's appeared in 1991's The Indian Runner, directed by Sean Penn, followed by the TV movies Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus (1991) and The Sea Wolf (1993).
Bronson's last starring role in a theatrically released film was 1994's Death Wish V: The Face of Death. His final films were a trilogy of TV movies which were Family of Cops (1995), Breach of Faith: A Family of Cops 2 (1997) and Family of Cops 3 (1999).
Screen persona and technique
At the time of his death, film critic Stephen Hunter said that Bronson "oozed male life-force, stoic toughness, capability, strength." and "always projected the charisma of ambiguity: Was he an ugly handsome man or a handsome ugly man? You were never sure, so further study was obligatory." Hunter said, "he never became a great actor, but he knew exactly how to dominate a scene quietly." Bronson "was the man with the name ending in a vowel ... who never left the position, never complained, never quit, never skulked. He simmered, he sulked, he bristled with class resentments, but he hung in there, got the job done and expected no thanks. His nobility was all the more palpable for never having to be expressed in words."
Bronson told critic Roger Ebert in 1974 that "I'm only a product like a cake of soap, to be sold as well as possible." He said that in the action pictures he was producing at the time, there was not much time for acting. He said: "I supply a presence. There are never any long dialogue scenes to establish a character. He has to be completely established at the beginning of the movie, and ready to work."
Director Michael Winner said that Bronson did not have to "go into any big thing about what he does or how he does it" because he had a "quality that the motion-picture camera seems to respond to. He has a great strength on the screen, even when he's standing still or in a completely passive role. There is a depth, a mystery – there is always the sense that something will happen."
Missed roles
Sergio Leone offered Bronson the part of "Man with No Name" in A Fistful of Dollars. Bronson declined, arguing that the script was bad. Bronson was again approached for a starring role in the sequel For a Few Dollars More but he passed, citing that the sequel's script was like the first film. Bronson was offered both the roles of Tuco and Angel Eyes in The Good, the Bad and the Ugly. Bronson wanted to accept but he had to decline both, as he was in England filming The Dirty Dozen. Bronson would later star in Leone's Once Upon a Time in the West (1968).
Ingmar Bergman wanted to make a film with Bronson but the actor turned him down. "Everything is weakness and sickness with Bergman," he said.
He was considered for the role of Snake Plissken in Escape from New York (1981), but director John Carpenter thought he was too tough looking and too old for the part, and decided to cast Kurt Russell instead.
Bronson auditioned for the role of Superman for the 1978 film adaptation, but producer Ilya Salkind turned him down for being too earthy and decided to cast Christopher Reeve.
Personal life
Character and personality
Bronson was scarred by his early deprivation and his early struggle as an actor. A 1973 newspaper profile said that he was so shy and introverted he could not watch his own films. Bronson was described as "still suspicious, still holds grudges, still despises interviews, still hates to give anything of himself, still can't believe it has really happened to him." He was embittered that it took so long for him to be recognized in the U.S., and after achieving fame he refused to work for a noted director who had snubbed him years before.
Critic Roger Ebert wrote in 1974 that Bronson does not volunteer information, does not elaborate, and has no theories about his films. He wrote that Bronson threatened to "get" Time magazine critic Jay Cocks, who had written a negative review he viewed as a personal attack, and that unlike other actors who projected violence on film, Bronson seemed violent in person.
Marriages
His first marriage was to Harriet Tendler, whom he met when both were fledgling actors in Philadelphia. They had two children, Suzanne and Tony, before divorcing in 1965. She was 18 years old when she met the 26-year-old Charlie Buchinsky at a Philadelphia acting school in 1947. Two years later, with the grudging consent of her father, a successful, Jewish dairy farmer, Tendler wed Buchinsky, a Catholic and a former coal miner. Tendler supported them both while she and Charlie pursued their acting dreams. On their first date, he had four cents in his pocket — and went on, now as Charles Bronson, to become one of the highest paid actors in the country.
Bronson was married to English actress Jill Ireland from October 5, 1968, until her death in 1990. He had met her in 1962, when she was married to Scottish actor David McCallum. At the time, Bronson (who shared the screen with McCallum in The Great Escape) reportedly told him, "I'm going to marry your wife". The Bronsons lived in a grand Bel Air mansion in Los Angeles with seven children: two by his previous marriage, three by hers (one of whom was adopted), and two of their own, Zuleika and Katrina, the latter of whom was also adopted. After they married, she often played his leading lady, and they starred in fifteen films together.
To maintain a close family, they would load up everyone and take them to wherever filming was taking place, so that they could all be together. They spent time in a colonial farmhouse on in West Windsor, Vermont, where Ireland raised horses and provided training for their daughter Zuleika so that she could perform at the higher levels of horse showing. The family frequented Snowmass, Colorado in the 1980s and early 1990s for the winter holidays.
On May 18, 1990, aged 54, after a long battle with breast cancer, Jill Ireland died of the disease at their home in Malibu, California. In the 1991 television film Reason for Living: The Jill Ireland Story, Bronson was portrayed by actor Lance Henriksen. In December 1998, Bronson was married for a third time to Kim Weeks, a former employee of Dove Audio who had helped record Ireland in the production of her audiobooks. The couple were married for five years until Bronson's death in 2003.
Death
Bronson's health deteriorated in his later years, and he retired from acting after undergoing hip-replacement surgery in August 1998. Bronson died at age 81 on August 30, 2003, at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles.
Although pneumonia and Alzheimer's disease have been cited as his cause of death, neither appears on his death certificate, which cites "respiratory failure", "metastatic lung cancer", with, secondarily, "chronic obstructive pulmonary disease" and "congestive cardiomyopathy" as the causes of death. He was interred at Brownsville Cemetery in West Windsor, Vermont.
Filmography
References
External links
New publication with private photos of the shooting & documents of 2nd unit cameraman Walter Riml
Photos of the filming The Great Escape
1921 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American people of Lithuanian descent
American people of Tatar descent
Burials in Vermont
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from lung cancer
Deaths from respiratory failure
Male Spaghetti Western actors
Male Western (genre) film actors
Male actors from Malibu, California
Male actors from Pennsylvania
Military personnel from Pennsylvania
People from Cambria County, Pennsylvania
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II
United States Army Air Forces soldiers
Western (genre) television actors
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estates%20General%20%28France%29
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Estates General (France)
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In France under the Ancien Régime, the Estates General ( ) or States-General was a legislative and consultative assembly of the different classes (or estates) of French subjects. It had a separate assembly for each of the three estates (clergy, nobility and commoners), which were called and dismissed by the king. It had no true power in its own right as, unlike the English parliament, it was not required to approve royal taxation or legislation. It served as an advisory body to the king, primarily by presenting petitions from the various estates and consulting on fiscal policy.
The Estates General first met in 1302 and 1303 in relation to King Philip IV's conflict with the papacy. They met intermittently until 1614 and only once afterward, in 1789, but were not definitively dissolved until after the French Revolution. The Estates General were distinct from the parlements (the most powerful of which was the Parliament of Paris), which started as appellate courts but later used their powers to decide whether to publish laws to claim a legislative role.
The Estates General had similarities with institutions in other European polities, generally known as the Estates, such as the States General of the Netherlands, the Parliament of England, the Estates of Parliament of Scotland, the Sejm of Poland-Lithuania, the Cortes of Portugal or Spain, the Imperial Diet (Reichstag) of the Holy Roman Empire, the Diets () of the "Lands", the Parliamentum Publicum of Hungary, and the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates. Unlike some of these institutions, however, France's Estates General were only summoned at irregular intervals by the king, and never grew into a permanent legislative body.
Origin
The first national assembly of the Estates General was in 1302, summoned by King Philip IV, to address a conflict with Pope Boniface VIII. The letters summoning the assembly of 1302 are published by Georges Picot in his collection of Documents inédits pour servir à l'histoire de France. During Philip's reign the Estates General were subsequently assembled several times to give him aid by granting subsidies. Over time, subsidies came to be the most frequent motive for their convocation.
The composition and powers of the Estates General remained the same: they always included representatives of the First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (the nobility), and Third Estate (commoners: all others), and monarchs always summoned them either to grant subsidies or to advise the Crown, to give aid and counsel. Their composition, however, as well as their effective powers, varied greatly at different times.
In their primitive form in the 14th and the first half of the 15th centuries, the Estates General had only a limited elective element. The lay lords and the ecclesiastical lords (bishops and other high clergy) who made up the Estates General were not elected by their peers, but directly chosen and summoned by the king. In the order of the clergy, however, certain ecclesiastical bodies, e.g. abbeys and chapters of cathedrals, were also summoned to the assembly. Since these bodies, being persons in the moral but not in the physical sense, could not appear in person, their representative had to be chosen by the monks of the convent or the canons of the chapter.
Only representatives of the Third Estate were chosen by election. Originally, all commoners were not called upon to seek representation in the estates. Only the bonnes villes, or the privileged towns, were called upon. They were represented by elected procureurs, who were frequently the municipal officials of the town, but deputies were also elected for the purpose. The country districts, the plat pays, were not represented. Even within the bonnes villes, the franchise was quite narrow.
Rise and fall of power
The effective powers of the Estates General likewise varied over time. In the 14th century they were considerable. The king could not, in theory, levy general taxation. Even in the provinces attached to the domain of the Crown, he could levy it only where he had retained the haute justice over the inhabitants, but not on the subjects of lords having the haute justice. The privileged towns generally had the right of taxing themselves. To collect general taxes, the king required consent of the lay and ecclesiastical lords, and of the towns. This amounted to needing authorization from the Estates General, which granted these subsidies only temporarily and for fairly short periods. As a result, they were summoned frequently and their power over the Crown became considerable.
In the second half of the 14th century, however, certain royal taxes, levied throughout the Crown's domain, tended to become permanent and independent of the vote of the estates. This result drew from many causes, particularly, the Crown endeavoured to transform and change the nature of the "feudal aid" to levy a general tax by right, on its own authority, in such cases as those in which a lord could demand feudal aid from his vassals. For instance, the Crown thus raised the necessary taxes for twenty years to pay the ransom of King John II of France without a vote of the Estates General, although the assembly met several times during this period. Custom confined this tendency. During the second half of the 15th century, the chief taxes, the taille, aids and gabelle became definitely permanent for the benefit of the Crown. In some cases there was formal consent of the Estates General, as in 1437 in the case of the aids.
The critical periods of the Hundred Years' War favoured the Estates General, though at the price of great sacrifices. Under the reign of King John II, from 1355 to 1358, the Estates General had controlled not only the voting but, through their commissaries, the administration of and jurisdiction over the taxes. In the first half of the reign of Charles VII, they had been summoned almost every year and had dutifully voted subsidies for the Crown. But when the struggle was over, they renounced the power of the purse.
At the estates of 1484, however, after the death of Louis XI, the Duke of Orleans sought to obtain the regency during the minority of Charles VIII. The Estates sided with Charles's sister Anne de Beaujeu and refused.
Deputies of the three orders united their efforts in the hope of regaining the right of periodically sanctioning taxation. They voted the taille for two years only, at the same time reducing it to the amount it had reached at the end of the reign of Charles VII. They demanded, and obtained, the promise of the Crown that they should be summoned again before the two years had ended. But this promise was not kept, and the Estates General were not summoned again until 1560. During this 76-year interim, successive kings expanded the role of the centralised state through various means. In the mid-16th century, public officials (officiers) explored the option of forming a fourth order of their own kind but their attempts went nowhere, largely because of the attractiveness of becoming nobility to many of them.
Revival in 1560–1614
The Estates General was revived in the second half of the 16th century because of scarcity of money and the quarrels and Wars of Religion. There would be estates at Orleans in 1560, followed by those of Pontoise in 1561, and those of Blois in 1576 and 1588. Those of 1588 ended with a coup d'état effected by Henry III, and the States summoned by the League, which sat in Paris in 1593 and whose chief object was to elect a Catholic king, were not a success. The Estates General again met in Paris in 1614, on the occasion of the disturbances that followed the death of Henry IV; however, though their minutes bear witness to their sentiments of exalted patriotism, dissensions between the three orders rendered them weak. They dissolved before completing their work and were not summoned again until 1789.
As to the question whether the Estates General formed one or three chambers for the purposes of their working, from the constitutional point of view the point was never decided. What the king required was to have the consent, the resolution of the three estates of the realm; it was in reality of little importance to him whether their resolutions expressed themselves in common or separately. At the Estates General of 1484 the elections were made in common for the three orders, and the deputies also arrived at their resolutions in common. But after 1560 the rule was that each order deliberate separately; the royal declaration of 23 June 1789 (at the outbreak of the French Revolution) even stated that they formed three distinct chambers. But Necker's report to the conseil du roi according to which the convocation of 1789 was decided, said (as did the declaration of 23 June), that on matters of common interest the deputies of the three orders could deliberate together, if each of the others decided by a separate vote in favour of this, and if the king consented.
The working of the Estates General led to an almost exclusive system of deliberation by committees. There were, it is true, solemn general sessions, called séances royales, because the king presided; but at these there was no discussion. At the first, the king or his chancellor announced the object of the convocation, and set forth the demands or questions put to them by the Crown; at the other royal sessions each order made known its answers or observations by the mouth of an orateur elected for the purpose. But almost all useful work was done in the sections, among which the deputies of each order were divided. At the estates of 1484 they were divided into six nations or sections, corresponding to the six généralités then existing. Subsequently, the deputies belonging to the same gouvernement formed a group or bureau for deliberating and voting purposes. Certain questions, however, were discussed and decided in full assembly; sometimes, too, the estates nominated commissaries in equal numbers for each order. But in the ancient Estates General there was never any personal vote. The unit represented for each of the three orders was the bailliage or sénéchaussé and each bailliage had one vote, the majority of the deputies of the bailliage deciding in what way this vote should be given.
At the estates of the 16th century voting was by gouvernements, each gouvernement having one vote, but the majority of the bailliages composing the gouvernement decided how it should be given.
The Estates General, when they gave counsel, had in theory only a consultative faculty. They had the power of granting subsidies, which was the chief and ordinary cause of their convocation. But it had come to be a consent with which the king could dispense, as permanent taxation became established. In the 16th century, however, the estates again claimed that their consent was necessary for the establishment of new taxation, and, on the whole, the facts seemed to be in favour of this view at the time. However, in the course of the 17th century the principle gained recognition that the king could tax on his own sole authority. Thus were established in the second half of the 17th century, and in the 18th, the direct taxes of the capitation and of the dixième or vingtième, and many indirect taxes. It was sufficient for the law creating them to be registered by the cours des aides and the parlements. It was only in 1787 that the parlement of Paris declared that it could not register the new taxes, the land-tax and stamp duty (subvention territoriale and impôt du timbre), as they did not know whether they would be submitted to by the country, and that the consent of the representatives of the tax-payers must be asked.
The Estates General had legally no share in the legislative power, which belonged to the king alone. The Estates of Blois demanded in 1576 that the king be bound to turn into law any proposition voted in identical terms by each of the three orders; but Henry III would not grant this demand, which would not even have left him a right of veto. In practice, however, the Estates General contributed largely to legislation. Those who sat in them had at all times the right of presenting complaints (doléances), requests and petitions to the king; in this, indeed, consisted their sole initiative. They were usually answered by an ordonnance, and it is chiefly through these that we are acquainted with the activity of the estates of the 14th and 15th centuries.
In the latest form, and from the estates of 1484 onwards, this was done by a new and special procedure. The Estates had become an entirely elective assembly, and at the elections (at each step of the election if there were several) the electors drew up a cahier de doléances (statement of grievances), which they requested the deputies to present. This even appeared to be the most important feature of an election. The deputies of each order in every bailliage also brought with them a cahier des doléances, arrived at, for the third estate, by a combination of statements drawn up by the primary or secondary electors. On the assembly of the estates the cahiers of the bailliages were incorporated into a cahier for each gouvernement, and these again into a cahier general or general statement, which was presented to the king, and which he answered in his council. When the three orders deliberated in common, as in 1484, there was only one cahier général; when they deliberated separately, there were three, one for each order. The drawing up of the cahier general was looked upon as the main business (le grand cause) of the session.
By this means the Estates General furnished the material for numerous ordonnances, though the king did not always adopt the propositions contained in the cahiers, and often modified them in forming them into an ordonnance. These latter were the ordonnances de reforme (reforming ordinances), treating of the most varied subjects, according to the demands of the cahiers. They were not, however, for the most part very well observed. The last of the type was the grande ordonnance of 1629 (Code Michau), drawn up in accordance with the cahiers of 1614 and with the observations of various assemblies of notables that followed them.
The peculiar power of the Estates General was recognized, but was of a kind that could not often be exercised. It was, essentially, a constituent power. The ancient public law of France contained a number of rules called "the fundamental laws of the realm" (lois fondamentales du royaume), though most of them were purely customary. Chief among these were rules that determined the succession to the Crown and rules forbidding alienation of the domain of the Crown. The king, supreme though his power might be, could not abrogate, modify or infringe them. But it was admitted that he might do so by the consent of the Estates General. The Estates could give the king a dispensation from a fundamental law in a given instance; they could even, in agreement with the king, make new fundamental laws. The Estates of Blois of 1576 and 1588 offer entirely convincing precedents in this respect. It was universally recognized that in the event of the line of Hugh Capet becoming extinct, it would be the function of the States-General to elect a new king.
The Estates General of 1614 proved the last for over a century and a half. A new convocation had indeed been announced to take place on the majority of Louis XIII, and letters were even issued in view of the elections, but this ended in nothing. Absolute monarchy progressively became definitely established, and appeared incompatible with the institution of the Estates General. Liberal minds, however, in the entourage of Louis, duc de Bourgogne, who were preparing a new plan of government in view of his expected accession to the French throne in succession to Louis XIV, thought of reviving the institution. It figures in the projects of Saint-Simon and Fénelon though the latter would have preferred to begin with an assembly of non-elected notables. But though St Simon stood high in the favor of the regent Orléans, the death of Louis XIV did not see a summoning of the Estates.
1789
At the time of the revolution, the First Estate comprised 100,000 Catholic clergy and owned 5–10% of the lands in France—the highest per capita of any estate. All property of the First Estate was tax exempt.
The Second Estate comprised the nobility, which consisted of 400,000 people, including women and children. Since the death of Louis XIV in 1715, the nobles had enjoyed a resurgence in power. By the time of the revolution, they had almost a monopoly over distinguished government service, higher offices in the church, army, and parliaments, and most other public and semi-public honors. Under the principle of feudal precedent, they were not taxed.
The Third Estate comprised about 25 million people: the bourgeoisie, the peasants, and everyone else in France. Unlike the First and Second Estates, the Third Estate were compelled to pay taxes. The bourgeoisie found ways to evade them and become exempt. The major burden of the French government fell upon the poorest in French society: the farmers, peasantry, and working poor. The Third Estate had considerable resentment toward the upper classes.
In 1789, the Estates General was summoned for the first time since 1614. As François Fénelon had promoted in the 17th century, an Assembly of Notables in 1787 (which already displayed great independence) preceded the Estates General session. According to Fénelon's model of 1614, the Estates General would consist of equal numbers of representatives of each Estate. During the Revolution, the Third Estate demanded, and ultimately received, double representation, which they already had achieved in the provincial assemblies. When the Estates General convened in Versailles on 5 May 1789, however, it became clear that the double representation was something of a sham: voting was to occur "by orders", which meant that the collective vote of the 578 representatives of the Third Estate would be weighed the same as that of each of the other, less numerous Estates.
Royal efforts to focus solely on taxes failed totally. The Estates General reached an immediate impasse, debating (with each of the three estates meeting separately) its own structure rather than the nation's finances. On 28 May 1789, Abbé Sieyès moved that the Third Estate, now meeting as the Communes (), proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so, completing the process on June 17. They voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People". They invited the other orders to join them, but emphasized that they intended to conduct the nation's affairs with or without them.
King Louis XVI of France tried to resist. When he shut down the Salle des États where the Assembly met, the Assembly moved its deliberations to a nearby tennis court. They swore the Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789), under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a constitution. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did forty-seven members of the nobility. By 27 June the royal party had overtly given in. But military forces began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailles. Messages of support for the Assembly poured in from Paris and other French cities. On 9 July the Assembly reconstituted itself as the National Constituent Assembly.
List
Reign of Philip IV (1285-1314)
1302, at Notre-Dame de Paris
1303, at the Louvre Palace in Paris
1308, at Poitiers then Tours
1312, at Lyon
1313, at Paris
1314, at the Palais de la Cité in Paris
Reign of Philip V (1316-1322)
1317, in Paris
1320; in Pontoise
1321, in Poitiers
Reign of Charles IV (1322-1328)
1322
1326, at Meaux
Reign of Philip VI (1328-1350)
1343
1346, at Paris and Toulouse
Reign of John II (1350-1364)
1355-1356, in Paris and Toulouse
1356, at Paris
1357, at Paris
1358, at Compiègne
1359
November 1363, at Amiens
Reign of Charles V (1364-1380)
December 1369, at the Palais de la Cité in Paris
Reign of Charles VI (1380-1422)
1380-81, several meetings in Paris and Compiègne whose qualification as Estates-General is disputed
1413, at the Hôtel Saint-Pol in Paris
1420, at the Hôtel Saint-Pol in Paris
Reign of Charles VII (1422-1461)
1439, at Orléans
1448, at Bourges
Reign of Louis XI (1461-1483)
1468, at Tours
Reign of Charles VIII (1483-1498)
1484, at Tours
Reign of Charles IX (1560-1574)
1560-1561, at Orléans (convened by François II)
1561, at Pontoise
Reign of Henry III (1574-1589)
1576-1577, at the Château de Blois
1588-1589, at the Château de Blois
Reign of Henry IV (1589-1610)
1593, at the Louvre Palace in Paris (meeting organized by the Catholic League)
Reign of Louis XIII (1610-1645)
1614-1615, at the Hôtel du Petit-Bourbon (by then a dependency of the Louvre Palace) in Paris
Reign of Louis XVI (1774-1792)
1789, at the Hôtel des Menus Plaisirs [fr] in Versailles
See also
States General of the Netherlands
Estates General of French Canada
The Estates
States provincial (France)
Citations
References
1302 establishments in Europe
1300s establishments in France
1789 disestablishments in France
Historical legislatures in France
Kingdom of France
Political history of the Ancien Régime
Tricameral legislatures
|
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208204
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boat-billed%20heron
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Boat-billed heron
|
The boat-billed heron (Cochlearius cochlearius), colloquially known as the boatbill, is an atypical member of the heron family, and was formerly placed in a monotypic family, the Cochlearidae. It lives in mangrove swamps from Mexico south to Peru and Brazil. It is a nocturnal bird, and breeds semicolonially in mangrove trees, laying two to four bluish-white eggs in a twig nest.
Taxonomy
In 1760 the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the boat-billed heron in his Ornithologie based on a specimen collected in French Guiana. He used the French name La Cuillière and the Latin Cochlearius. Brisson placed the species in a new genus Cochlearius (with the same name as that of the species). When in 1766 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the twelfth edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson. One of these was the boat-billed heron. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Cancroma cochlearia and cited Brisson's work.
Although Brisson coined Latin names, these do not conform to the binomial system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). However, Brisson also introduced names for genera and these are accepted by the ICZN. The boat-billed heron is now placed in Brisson's genus and has the tautonym Cochlearius cochlearius. The name Cochlearius is from the Latin cocleare, coclearis or cochlearium for a "spoon in the form of a snail shell".
There are five subspecies:
C. c. zeledoni (Ridgway, 1885) – west Mexico
C. c. phillipsi Dickerman, 1973 – east Mexico, Belize
C. c. ridgwayi Dickerman, 1973 – south Mexico to Honduras
C. c. panamensis Griscom, 1926 – Costa Rica and Panama
C. c. cochlearius (Linnaeus, 1766) – north and central South America
Description
The boat-billed heron grows to about long. Adults are pale grey to white in color, with chestnut-colored abdomens and black flanks. The massive, broad, scoop-like bill, which gives rise to this species' name, is mainly black. This bird is also adorned with a crest which is thought to be used in mate attraction as it is larger in males. The sexes are similar in appearance, the main differences being that females are slightly smaller, grayer in appearance, and have shorter crests than males. Newly hatched nestlings have green-yellow skin, with their upperparts covered in gray down feathers. Their upper bill is black and they have green-yellow legs. Juveniles are darker in color than adults and lack a crest.
Distribution and habitat
Boat-billed herons range from Mexico to Peru, Brazil, and northeastern Argentina. They are nonmigratory birds that tend to live in seasonal lagoons and estuaries, and nest in mangroves.
Behaviour and ecology
Breeding
Boat-billed herons breed during the rainy season and have been recorded as producing two clutches during this time, laying their first clutch in February during the end of the dry season. Their clutch sizes range from two to four eggs, with more eggs being laid during the first nesting period than the second. They usually nest in colonies, but have been observed nesting solitarily. Human disturbance can lead to a decrease in reproductive success, as herons tend to avoid human contact and will abandon nests if necessary.
Food and feeding
Boat-billed herons feed on shrimp and small fish such as Dormitator latifrons, a species of sleeper goby. They tend to forage in vegetative streams, shallow water, and lagoons. When foraging in streams, they use low-hanging branches and mangrove roots to stand over the water. In ponds they will walk slowly through the water up to deep or will forage near the water's edge. In order to capture prey they will lunge at fish or scoop the surface of the water with their bills which are uniquely shaped for this method of capture. Additionally, they have been observed using two different feeding techniques; standing and slowly stalking prey, or disturbing the water and chasing prey.
Boat-billed herons will forage nocturnally, and have been seen leaving the roost 30 minutes after sundown to feed. It has been observed that they do not feed when a light source is present such as daylight, moonlight, or artificial light. One study hypothesized that in order to forage for food in the dark and in shallow, muddy water, their bills are sensitive to touch which helps them feel for their prey.
References
Further reading
A Guide to the Birds of Costa Rica by Stiles and Skutch
External links
Photos of the boat-billed heron
Ardeidae
Heron, boat-billed
Heron, boat-billed
Heron, boat-billed
Heron, boat-billed
Heron, boat-billed
Heron, boat-billed
Heron, boat-billed
Birds described in 1766
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States%20General%20of%20the%20Netherlands
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States General of the Netherlands
|
{{Infobox legislature
| name = States General
| native_name =
| transcription_name =
| legislature =
| coa_pic = Coat of arms of the Staten Generaal.svg
| coa_res = 150px
| house_type = Bicameral
| body =
| houses = • Senate• House of Representatives
| leader1_type = President of the Senate
| leader1 = Jan Anthonie Bruijn
| party1 = VVD
| election1 = 2 July 2019
| leader2_type = Speaker of the House of Representatives
| leader2 = Vera Bergkamp
| party2 = D66
| election2 = 7 April 2021
| members = Senate: 75 House of Representatives: 150
| house1 = Senate
| house2 = House of Representatives
| structure1 = Senate_(Netherlands)_2021.svg
| structure1_res = 250px
| structure2 = 2021 Dutch House of Representatives.svg
| structure2_res = 250px
| political_groups1 = Government
VVD (12)
CDA (9)
D66 (7)
CU (4)Opposition (43) GL (8)
PvdA (6)
PVV (5)
SP (4)
PvdD (3)
FVD (3)
50+ (2)
SGP (2)
OPNL (1)
Nanninga (7)
Otten (2)
| political_groups2 =Government VVD (34)
D66 (24)
CDA (14)
CU (5)Opposition (72) PVV (17)
SP (9)
PvdA (9)
GL (8)
FVD (5)
PvdD (6)
Volt (3)
JA21 (3)
SGP (3)
DENK (3)
BBB (1)
BIJ1 (1)
Independent (5)
| committees1 =
| committees2 =
| joint_committees =
| voting_system1 = Indirect election
| voting_system2 = Party-list proportional representation
| last_election1 = 27 May 2019
| last_election2 = 17 March 2021
| session_room = Den Haag Binnenhof & Skyline 2.jpg
| session_res = 300px
| meeting_place = BinnenhofThe Hague, Netherlands
| website =
| footnotes =
}}
The States General of the Netherlands' ( ) is the supreme bicameral legislature of the Netherlands consisting of the Senate () and the House of Representatives (). Both chambers meet at the Binnenhof in The Hague.
The States General originated in the 15th century as an assembly of all the provincial states of the Burgundian Netherlands. In 1579, during the Dutch Revolt, the States General split as the northern provinces openly rebelled against Philip II, and the northern States General replaced Philip II as the supreme authority of the Dutch Republic in 1581. The States General were replaced by the National Assembly after the Batavian Revolution of 1795, only to be restored in 1814, when the country had regained its sovereignty. The States General was divided into a Senate and a House of Representatives in 1815, with the establishment of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. After the constitutional amendment of 1848, members of the House of Representatives were directly elected, and the rights of the States General were vastly extended, practically establishing parliamentary democracy in the Netherlands.
Since 1918, the members of the House of Representatives are elected for four years using party-list proportional representation, while the 75 members of the Senate are elected by the States-Provincial every four years. On exceptional occasions, the two houses form a joint session known as the United Assembly. The President of the Senate serves as President of the States General during a United Assembly. Jan Anthonie Bruijn (VVD) has been President of the Senate since 2019.
Etymology
The archaic Dutch word staten originally related to the feudal classes ("estates", or in Dutch) in which medieval European societies were stratified; the clergy, the nobility and the commons. The word eventually came to mean the political body in which the respective estates were represented. Each province in the Habsburg Netherlands had its own staten. These representative bodies (and not their constituent estates) in turn were represented in the assembly that came to be known as (a plurale tantum), or (General States). The English word "states" may have a similar meaning as the Dutch word staten, as in e.g. States of Jersey. The English phrases "States General" is probably a literal translation of the Dutch word. Historically, the same term was used for the name of other national legislatures as, for example, the Catalan and Valencian Generalitat and the Estates General of France during the Ancien Régime.
Several geographic place names are derived from the States General. In 1609, Henry Hudson established Dutch trade in Staten Island, New York City and named the island after the States General. Isla de los Estados, now an Argentine island, was also named after this institution, the Spanish name being a translation of the Dutch name. Abel Tasman originally gave the name Staten Landt to what would become New Zealand. Staaten River is a river in the Cape York Peninsula, Australia.
History
Burgundian and Habsburg rule
Historically, the convocation of the States General consisted of delegates from the States of the several provinces, like the States of Brabant, and dated from about the middle of the 15th century, under the rule of the Dukes of Burgundy. The first important session was the Estates General of 1464 that met on 9 January 1464 in Bruges, Flanders, on the initiative of the States of Holland, the States of Flanders, and the States of Brabant, with the initially reluctant agreement of Philip the Good. Later, regular sessions were held at Coudenberg in Brussels, Brabant. The next important event was the convocation of the States General by the ducal Council for 3 February 1477 after the death of Charles the Bold. In this session the States General forced the grant of the Great Privilege by Mary of Burgundy in which the right of the States General to convene on their own initiative was recognised. The main function of the States General in these early years was to form a platform for the central government to discuss matters of general importance with the States of the provinces, especially the special subsidies known as beden or aides. Legislative and executive functions were still reserved for the Sovereign in these years
Dutch Republic
At the start of the Dutch Revolt the States General (who were then not continually in session) remained loyal to the overlord of the Habsburg Netherlands, Philip II of Spain (who did not have the title of King in the Netherlands, but held the title of duke and count in the several provinces, and was just a Lord of the Netherlands). In 1576 the States General as a whole, however, openly rebelled against the Spanish crown. In 1579 the States General split as a number of southern provinces, united in the Union of Arras returned to obedience, while other provinces, united in the Union of Utrecht continued the rebellion. After the Act of Abjuration in 1581 the northern States General replaced Philip II as the supreme authority of the northern Netherlands, which then became known as the United Provinces.
This was a confederation in which most government functions remained with the provincial States (and local authorities, like the Vroedschappen). These delegated representatives to the States General as a kind of ambassadors acting with a mandate limited by instruction and obligatory consultation (). The States General, in which the voting was by province, each of the seven provinces having one vote, took on many executive functions after the Council of State of the Netherlands had temporarily come under English influence, due to the Treaty of Nonsuch. The States General for this reason since 1593 remained continually in session until their dissolution in 1795. The presidency rotated weekly among the senior representatives of the provinces. Under the Union of Utrecht treaty the States General formally was the sovereign power, representing the Republic in foreign affairs and making treaties with foreign monarchs. As such the honorific title of the States General collectively was (mightiest, or very mighty, lords).
Due to the vagaries of the Eighty Years' War in which territories were lost and (partially) reconquered, not all territories that had originally signed up for the Union of Utrecht remained represented in the States General. The States of Brabant and of Flanders lost their representation after 1587 as most of their territory had been conquered by the Army of Flanders, and it was not restored after part of that territory (together with parts of the Duchy of Limburg) was reconquered by the Dutch Republic. The Drenthe territory was never directly represented in the States General.
Twenty per cent of the new Republic's territory, known as the Generality Lands, was so under the direct rule of the Generality (). The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company were also under its general'' supervision; for this reason Staten Island in New York City (originally New Amsterdam) and Staten Island, Argentina (Discovered by Dutchman Jacob le Maire), are among places named after the .
The "southern" States General after 1579 were a continuation of the States General as they had been under the Habsburg Netherlands. After the (re)conquest of most of the territory of the States of Brabant and of Flanders these States again sent representatives to these States General for the Southern Netherlands, together with the "obedient" provinces of the Union of Arras. The southern States General only occasionally came in session, however. The last regular session was in 1634, when Philip IV of Spain dissolved them.
The States General in both The Hague and Brussels came to an end after 1795; the South was annexed by France, and the North saw the proclamation of the Batavian Republic and the subsequent convocation of the National Assembly (1 March 1796).
Kingdom of the Netherlands
The name was resurrected in the title of subsequent Dutch parliaments in and after 1814, after the end of the annexation to the First French Empire by Napoleon I of France in 1813. These had, however, little resemblance to the States General under the Republic. Beginning with the Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands the States General was a unicameral legislature, without executive functions, in which the 55 representatives no longer represented the States-Provincial (though those newly constituted entities elected them, now acting as electoral colleges), but the entire people of the Netherlands and without (the Netherlands had become a unitary state under the Batavian Republic and the federal structure of the Dutch Republic was not restored). The States General became a bicameral legislature under the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, in which the 50 members of the Senate were appointed for life by the new King from the resurrected , representative bodies of the aristocracy, and the 110 members of the House of Representatives (55 for the North and 55 for the South) were elected by the States-Provincial (in their new form).
After the Belgian Revolution of 1830 under the Kingdom of the Netherlands the States General remained bicameral, but after the revision of the Constitution of the Netherlands in 1848, the (now 39) members of the Senate were elected by the States-Provincial, and the members of the House of Representatives were directly elected in electoral districts (one for every 45,000 electors, so the number of members of that House became variable for a while). The House of Representatives became more powerful at the same time, as it received the important rights of inquiry and amendment, while its budgetary rights were strengthened. Formally, the position of the States General was strengthened, because henceforth the ministers of the Crown became politically accountable to them, making the role of the King largely ceremonial.
With the constitutional revision of 1888 the number of members of the House of Representatives was fixed at 100, while the Senate was enlarged to 50 members. The suffrage was enlarged at the same time, but still limited to male citizens possessing a certain wealth. Universal male suffrage would be granted in 1917 and women would receive suffrage in 1919. At this occasion, the electoral system was changed to proportional representation. The States General were suspended from 1940 to 1945, during the German occupation. In 1956 the number of members of the Senate was enlarged to 75, and that of the House of Representatives to 150.
Functions
The States General meets in joint session at least once a year, at the opening of the parliamentary year, when the king gives his Speech from the Throne on Prince's Day. On special occasions, such as when a States Generate vote on a marriage of a member of the royal house, an inauguration of the monarch, or the death of a member of the royal house, both houses also meet in a joint session (), with the President of the Senate presiding. They take place in the Ridderzaal (Hall of Knights) in the Binnenhof, except for the inauguration of the monarch, which occurs in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam. The rest of the time, the two chambers sit separately.
Constitutionally, all functions of the parliament are given to both houses, except for the rights of initiative and amendment, which only the has. The Joint Session also appoints the monarch if there is no heir to the throne and the regent is unable to exercise his or her powers.
An important question is whether the relationship between cabinet and parliament should be dualistic or monistic. That is, whether ministers and leaders of governing parliamentary parties should prepare important political decisions. According to the dualistic position, members of parliament of governing parties should remain independent of the cabinet. The term 'monism' is used to refer to a stance that important decisions should be prepared by the people of the governing coalition in order to promote political stability.
Oldest living members of the States General
Notes
References
See also
External links
Senate
House of Representatives
Dutch political institutions
Government of the Netherlands
Political history of the Dutch Republic
Habsburg Netherlands
Netherlands
Netherlands
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoebill
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Shoebill
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The shoebill (Balaeniceps rex) also known as whalehead, whale-headed stork, or shoe-billed stork, is a very large stork-like bird. It derives its name from its enormous shoe-shaped bill. It has a somewhat stork-like overall form and has previously been classified with the storks in the order Ciconiiformes based on this morphology. However, genetic evidence places it with pelicans and herons in the Pelecaniformes. The adult is mainly grey while the juveniles are browner. It lives in tropical east Africa in large swamps from South Sudan to Zambia.
Taxonomy and systematics
The shoebill was known to ancient Egyptians but was not classified until the 19th century, after skins and eventually live specimens were brought to Europe. John Gould described it in 1850, giving it the name Balaeniceps rex. The genus name comes from the Latin words balaena "whale", and caput "head", abbreviated to -ceps in compound words.
Traditionally considered as allied with the storks (Ciconiiformes), it was retained there in the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy which lumped a massive number of unrelated taxa into their "Ciconiiformes". Based on osteological evidence, the suggestion of a pelecaniform affinity was made in 1957 by Patricia Cottam. Microscopic analysis of eggshell structure by Konstantin Mikhailov in 1995 found that the eggshells of shoebills closely resembled those of other Pelecaniformes in having a covering of thick microglobular material over the crystalline shells. In 2003, the shoebill was again suggested as closer to the pelicans (based on anatomical comparisons) or the herons (based on biochemical evidence). A 2008 DNA study reinforces their membership of the Pelecaniformes.
So far, two fossil relatives of the shoebill have been described: Goliathia from the early Oligocene of Egypt and Paludavis from the Early Miocene of the same country. It has been suggested that the enigmatic African fossil bird Eremopezus was a relative too, but the evidence for that is unconfirmed. All that is known of Eremopezus is that it was a very large, probably flightless bird with a flexible foot, allowing it to handle either vegetation or prey.
Description
The shoebill is a tall bird, with a typical height range of and some specimens reaching as much as . Length from tail to beak can range from and wingspan is . Weight has reportedly ranged from . A male will weigh on average around and is larger than a typical female of . The signature feature of the species is its huge, bulbous bill, which is straw-coloured with erratic greyish markings. The exposed culmen (or the measurement along the top of the upper mandible) is , the third longest bill among extant birds after pelicans and large storks, and can outrival the pelicans in bill circumference, especially if the bill is considered as the hard, bony keratin portion. As in the pelicans, the upper mandible is strongly keeled, ending in a sharp nail. The dark coloured legs are fairly long, with a tarsus length of . The shoebill's feet are exceptionally large, with the middle toe reaching in length, likely assisting the species in its ability to stand on aquatic vegetation while hunting. The neck is relatively shorter and thicker than other long-legged wading birds such as herons and cranes. The wings are broad, with a wing chord length of , and well-adapted to soaring.
The plumage of adult birds is blue-grey with darker slaty-grey flight feathers. The breast presents some elongated feathers, which have dark shafts. The juvenile has a similar plumage colour, but is a darker grey with a brown tinge. When they are first born, shoebills have a more modestly-sized bill, which is initially silvery-grey. The bill becomes more noticeably large when the chicks are 23 days old and becomes well developed by 43 days.
Flight pattern
Its wings are held flat while soaring and, as in the pelicans and the storks of the genus Leptoptilos, the shoebill flies with its neck retracted. Its flapping rate, at an estimated 150 flaps per minute, is one of the slowest of any bird, with the exception of the larger stork species. The pattern is alternating flapping and gliding cycles of approximately seven seconds each, putting its gliding distance somewhere between the larger storks and the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus). When flushed, shoebills usually try to fly no more than . Long flights of the shoebill are rare, and only a few flights beyond its minimum foraging distance of have been recorded.
Distribution and habitat
The shoebill is distributed in freshwater swamps of central tropical Africa, from southern Sudan and South Sudan through parts of eastern Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, western Tanzania and northern Zambia. The species is most numerous in the West Nile sub-region and South Sudan (especially the Sudd, a main stronghold for the species); it is also significant in wetlands of Uganda and western Tanzania. More isolated records have been reported of shoebills in Kenya, the Central African Republic, northern Cameroon, south-western Ethiopia, Malawi. Vagrant strays to the Okavango Basin, Botswana and the upper Congo River have also been sighted. The distribution of this species seems to largely coincide with that of papyrus and lungfish. They are often found in areas of flood plain interspersed with undisturbed papyrus and reedbeds. When shoebill storks are in an area with deep water, a bed of floating vegetation is a requirement. They are also found where there is poorly oxygenated water. This causes the fish living in the water to surface for air more often, increasing the likelihood a shoebill stork will successfully capture it. The shoebill is non-migratory with limited seasonal movements due to habitat changes, food availability and disturbance by humans.
Petroglyphs from Oued Djerat, eastern Algeria, show that the shoebill occurred during the Early Holocene much more to the north, in the wetlands that covered the present-day Sahara Desert at that time.
The shoebill occurs in extensive, dense freshwater marshes. Almost all wetlands that attract the species have undisturbed Cyperus papyrus and reed beds of Phragmites and Typha. Although their distribution largely seems to correspond with the distribution of papyrus in central Africa, the species seems to avoid pure papyrus swamps and is often attracted to areas with mixed vegetation. More rarely, the species has been seen foraging in rice fields and flooded plantations.
Behaviour and ecology
The shoebill is noted for its slow movements and tendency to stay still for long periods, resulting in descriptions of the species as "statue-like". They are quite sensitive to human disturbance and may abandon their nests if flushed by humans. However, while foraging, if dense vegetation stands between it and humans, this wader can be fairly tame. The shoebill is attracted to poorly oxygenated waters such as swamps, marshes and bogs where fish frequently surface to breathe. Exceptionally for a bird this large, the shoebill often stands and perches on floating vegetation, making them appear somewhat like a giant jacana, although the similarly sized and occasionally sympatric Goliath heron (Ardea goliath) is also known to stand on aquatic vegetation. Shoebills, being solitary, forage at or more from one another even where relatively densely populated. This species stalks its prey patiently, in a slow and lurking fashion. While hunting, the shoebill strides very slowly and is frequently motionless. Unlike some other large waders, this species hunts entirely using vision and is not known to engage in tactile hunting. When prey is spotted, it launches a quick violent strike. However, depending on the size of the prey, handling time after the strike can exceed 10 minutes. Around 60% of strikes yield prey. Frequently water and vegetation is snatched up during the strike and is spilled out from the edges of the mandibles. The activity of hippopotamus may inadvertently benefit the shoebill, as submerged hippos occasionally force fish to the surface.
Shoebills are largely piscivorous but are assured predators of a considerable range of wetland vertebrates. Preferred prey species have reportedly included marbled lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) and Senegal bichir (Polypterus senegalus) and various Tilapia species and catfish, the latter mainly in the genus Clarias. Other prey eaten by this species has included frogs, water snakes, Nile monitors (Varanus niloticus) and baby crocodiles. More rarely, turtles, snails, rodents and small waterfowl have reportedly been eaten. There is a single unconfirmed report of shoebills feeding on lechwe (Kobus leche) calves. Given its sharp-edged beak, huge bill and wide gape, the shoebill can hunt large prey, often targeting prey bigger than is taken by other large wading birds. Fish eaten by this species are commonly in the range of long and weigh around , though lungfish of as much as have been attacked. Snakes preyed upon are commonly from long. In the Bangweulu Swamps of Zambia, the main prey items fed to young by the parents were the catfish Clarias gariepinus (syn. C. mossambicus) and water snakes. In Uganda, lungfish and catfish were mainly fed to the young. The big beak is sometimes used to dig into pond-bottom mud to extract lungfish from their aestivation burrows.
Breeding
The solitary nature of shoebills extends to their breeding habits. Nests typically occur at less than three nests per square kilometre, unlike herons, cormorants, pelicans and storks which predominantly nest in colonies. The breeding pair of shoebills vigorously defends a territory of from conspecifics. In the extreme north and south of the species' range, nesting starts right after the rains end. In more central regions of the range, it may nest near the end of the wet season in order for the eggs to hatch around the beginning of the following wet season. Both parents engage in building the nest on a floating platform after clearing out an area of approximately across. The large, flattish nesting platform is often partially submerged in water and can be as much as deep. The nest itself is about wide. Both the nest and platform are made of aquatic vegetation. From one to three white eggs are laid. These eggs measure high by and weigh around . Incubation lasts for approximately 30 days. Both parents actively brood, shade, guard and feed the nestling, though the females are perhaps slightly more attentive. Food items are regurgitated whole from the gullet straight into the bill of the young. Shoebills rarely raise more than one chick, but will hatch more. The younger chicks usually die and are intended as "back-ups" in case the eldest chick dies or is weak. Fledging is reached at around 105 days and the young birds can fly well by 112 days. However, they are still fed for possibly a month or more after this. It will take the young shoebills three years before they become fully sexually mature.
Shoebills are elusive when nesting, so cameras must be placed to observe them from afar to collect behavioral data. There is an advantage for birds that are early breeders, as the chicks are tended for a longer period.
Voice
The shoebill is normally silent, but they perform bill-clattering displays at the nest. When engaging in these displays, adult birds have also been noted to utter a cow-like moo as well as high-pitched whines. Both nestlings and adults engage in bill-clattering during the nesting season as a means of communication. When young are begging for food, they call out with a sound uncannily like human hiccups. In one case, a flying adult bird was heard uttering hoarse croaks, apparently as a sign of aggression at a nearby marabou stork (Leptoptilos crumeniferus).
Diet
Shoebills feed predominantly on aquatic prey such as lungfish, bichirs, tilapia, and water snakes.
Status and conservation
The population is estimated at between and individuals, the majority of which live in swamps in South Sudan, Uganda, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Zambia. There is also a viable population in the Malagarasi wetlands in Tanzania. BirdLife International has classified it as Vulnerable with the main threats being habitat destruction, disturbance and hunting. The bird is listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Habitat destruction and degradation, hunting, disturbance and illegal capture are all contributing factors to the decline of this species. Agriculture cultivation and pasture for cattle have also caused significant habitat loss. Indigenous communities that surround Shoebill habitats capture their eggs and chicks for human consumption and for trade. Frequent fires in southern Sudan and deliberate fires for grazing access contribute to habitat loss. Lastly, swamps in Sudan are being drained for construction of a nearby canal that allows for artificial control of nearby waterways.
Relationship to humans
This species is considered to be one of the five most desirable birds in Africa by birdwatchers. They are docile with humans and show no threatening behavior. Researchers were able to observe a bird on its nest at a close distance (within ).
In popular culture
The Loftwing birds from "The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword" are modeled after shoebills.
References
Further reading
External links
Articles containing video clips
Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa
Fauna of East Africa
Pelecaniformes
Birds described in 1850
Taxa named by John Gould
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanford%20and%20Son
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Sanford and Son
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Sanford and Son is an American sitcom television series that ran on the NBC television network from January 14, 1972, to March 25, 1977. It was based on the British sitcom Steptoe and Son, which originally aired on BBC One in the United Kingdom from 1962 to 1974.
Known for its edgy racial humor, running gags, and catchphrases, the series was adapted by Norman Lear and considered NBC's answer to CBS's All in the Family. Sanford and Son has been hailed as the precursor to many other African-American sitcoms. It was a ratings hit throughout its six-season run, finishing in the Nielsens top ten for five of those seasons.
While the role of Fred G. Sanford was known for his bigotry and cantankerousness, the role of Lamont Sanford was that of Fred's long-suffering, conscientious, peacemaker son. At times, both characters involved themselves in schemes, usually as a means of earning cash quickly to pay off their various debts. Other colorful and unconventional characters on the show included Aunt Esther, Grady Wilson, Bubba Bexley, and Rollo Lawson.
Plot
Sanford and Son stars Redd Foxx as Fred G. Sanford, a widower and junk dealer living at 9114 South Central Avenue in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, and Demond Wilson as his son Lamont Sanford. In his youth, Fred moved to South Central Los Angeles from his hometown of St. Louis.
After the show's premiere in 1972, newspaper ads touted Foxx as NBC's answer to Archie Bunker, the bigoted white protagonist of All in the Family. Both shows were adapted by Norman Lear from BBC programs. Sanford and Son was adapted from Steptoe and Son and All in the Family from Till Death Us Do Part.
An earlier pilot for an American version of Steptoe and Son was produced by Joseph E. Levine in 1965. Starring Lee Tracy and Aldo Ray as Albert and Harold Steptoe, it was unscreened, and did not lead to a series. The pilot was released on DVD in the UK in 2018.
Characters
Main
Fred Sanford
Redd Foxx played Fred G. Sanford, portraying him as a sarcastic, streetwise, irascible schemer whose frequent get-rich-quick ideas routinely backfired. His son Lamont longs for independence, but loves his father too much to move out and leave the trouble-prone Fred unsupervised. Though each owns an equal share in the business (technically Fred is the boss), Lamont often finds himself doing all the work and demanding his father complete tasks and duties, which he almost never does. Fred often insults his son, usually calling him "dummy". Lamont returns the favor, referring to Fred as an "old fool". Despite their disagreements, the two share a close bond and regularly come to each other's aid. An episode in the second season featured a plot in which Fred and Lamont had a heated argument over the business; Lamont quit and went to work for one of his father's business competitors. Meanwhile, Fred filled Lamont's position with a slacker who squandered Fred's money on a worthless item. When Lamont quits his new job and Fred fires the slacker, the two decide to reform their partnership, though each is too proud to admit he could not make it without the other.
According to Fred, his wife Elizabeth died around 1950. In a running gag in the series, during times of distress, Fred looks up (as to heaven) with his hand across his chest, faking a heart attack and saying, "This is the big one, Elizabeth! I'm coming to join ya, honey," but nobody ever falls for this transparent ruse. Fred raised Lamont alone and missed Elizabeth deeply. According to Fred, his son was named for Lamont Lomax, a pitcher from the Homestead Grays. In one episode, Lamont asks why he had no middle name; Fred tells him that Lamont is his middle name: Elizabeth and he never came up with a first name. However, in the third episode of the first season, Lamont was revealed to be named "Lamont Grady Sanford".
Foxx's real name was John Elroy Sanford; the character of Fred Sanford was named after his real-life brother.
Lamont Sanford
Demond Wilson played Lamont Sanford, who is depicted at times as the greedier of the two. In one episode, for example, he refuses to sell two coffins for less than what he thinks they were worth, despite the fact that even possessing them upsets his superstitious father. Lamont sometimes receives his comeuppance for being disdainful of his father's habits and ways. (One example of this is the time Lamont is upbraided by a Nigerian woman who considers his attitude towards Fred to be disrespectful.) There are moments when Lamont is shown to be naive and foolish, such as the episode where he invites his new "friends" over to play poker. His street-savvy father immediately recognizes that they are card sharps, out to cheat Lamont after they gain his confidence by letting him win a few smaller-stakes games. After Lamont has lost all of his money, Fred turns the tables on the scammers by pretending to be ignorant of poker himself, agreeing to play a few hands and then taking all of their money by means of a marked deck of cards and special glasses that allow him to see what he is dealing. A similar predicament befalls Lamont in the second season when he gets involved in an unethical deal by purchasing a possibly valuable Regency commode from a woman for a rock-bottom price, then selling it back to her husband at 10 times the price. He then takes an offer from a third party for quadruple that price while Fred tries over and over again to warn him that he is doing something immoral. Lamont becomes so angry that he threatens to lock Fred in his bedroom. Finally, due to some investigation on Fred's part, Lamont is shown to have been scammed, the pot is a fake, and the culprits have made off with several hundred dollars of Lamont's money.
Recurring
Esther Anderson
Esther Anderson (LaWanda Page), also known as Aunt Esther, is the Bible-toting sister of Fred's late wife Elizabeth. Esther is a staunchly religious, rather humorless individual, though she is very kind and loving towards her nephew Lamont. Fred and Esther dislike each other intensely. Fred's trademark response to Esther's entrance is to make an exaggerated grimace followed by colorful insults ("I thought I already flushed my toilet"). Esther first appeared in early 1973, in the series' 29th episode, ("The Big Party"), and would eventually replace her sister Ethel (Beah Richards), the first main in-law character.
Grady Wilson
Grady Wilson (Whitman Mayo) is Fred's good-natured, simple-minded best friend, who appears regularly on the show. Grady's catchphrase is "Good Googley Goo". He utters this when something good happens or he is in a pleasant mood. Grady is Fred's "sidekick" and often is involved in various get-rich-quick schemes concocted by Fred. In the episode "Hello Cousin Emma, Goodbye Cousin Emma", it is revealed that Grady grew up on the south side of Chicago and in his youth was a lady's man with the nickname "The Sheik of Drexel Avenue." The character eventually was spun off into his own eponymous TV series in December 1975.
Bubba Bexley
Bubba Bexley (Don Bexley) is another of Fred's friends who appears frequently, alternating with Grady as Fred's best friend. Bubba is known for his infectious belly-laugh and jovial personality. Bubba is primarily a straight man to set up punchlines for Fred. His loud greeting of "Hey Fred!" drives Fred and Lamont crazy. His function in several episodes is to encourage Fred's get-rich-quick schemes, as when he tells Fred to fake having whiplash after he is hit by a white man in a Cadillac while driving the truck. In the episode "Lamont Goes African", Bubba reveals that he is originally from Memphis, Tennessee.
Rollo Lawson
Rollo (pronounced "Rah-lo") Lawson (Nathaniel Taylor) is Lamont's best friend. Fred will often make disrespectful remarks towards Rollo, usually stating that he thinks Rollo is a criminal, as Rollo had spent time in jail. At one time, when Rollo introduced Lamont to his African cultural heritage, Fred thought it was a scam and noted that "If there was money to be made, Rollo would become an Eskimo."
Donna Harris
Donna Harris (Lynn Hamilton) is Fred's on-again, off-again girlfriend who later becomes his fiancée. She is employed as a practical nurse. Donna is an amiable, even-tempered lady who takes in stride Fred's shenanigans and occasional trysts. She also appears to be more sophisticated in contrast to Fred's rather blunt and boorish personality.
Julio Fuentes
Julio Fuentes (Gregory Sierra) is the Sanfords' Puerto Rican next-door neighbor who befriends Lamont. When Julio and his family move in next to the Sanfords, Fred takes an immediate dislike to them and remarks, "There goes the neighborhood." Despite Julio's friendliness, Fred often makes insulting ethnic jokes about Julio and openly wishes he would return to Puerto Rico, despite the fact that Julio is originally from New York City.
Ah Chew
Ah Chew (Pat Morita) is a Japanese-American friend of Lamont whom Fred belittles every chance he gets. Fred insults Ah Chew on numerous occasions using clichéd Oriental jokes. Fred actually befriends Ah Chew in a later episode because he wants to use him as a cook when he opens "Sanford and Rising Son", a Japanese restaurant in the Sanford house. Despite this arrangement, Fred still hurls verbal abuse at Ah Chew. In the fifth-season episode "Sergeant Gork", Morita portrays Colonel Hiakowa, in a flashback where Fred tells Roger, Lamont's fiancée's son, of his supposed heroism in World War II.
Officer Howard "Hoppy" Hopkins
Officer Howard "Hoppy" Hopkins (Howard Platt) is a police officer who occasionally shows up at the Sanfords' residence. Often, Hoppy incorrectly uses 'jive' slang, which Smitty corrects — e.g., "cold" instead of "cool" or "right up" instead of "right on." Conversely, the ever-professional Hoppy delivers a speech filled with police jargon and big words, which confuses Fred and/or Lamont thus turning to Smitty, who would translate Hoppy's speech into jive. Later in the series' run, the officers often appear individually. Unlike Ah Chew and Julio, Hoppy remains free of Fred's usual insults. In one episode, "This Little TV Went to Market", Officer "Jonesy" Jones (Bernie Hamilton) appears with Hoppy in place of Smitty. In the sixth-season episode "The Hawaii Connection", Smitty appears with his slow-witted new partner, Percy (Pat Paulsen). In "The Reverend Sanford", comic Freeman King appears as a police officer named Jim, presumably standing in for Smitty, but without Hoppy or any other partner.
Officer "Smitty" Smith
Officer "Smitty" Smith (Hal Williams) is a police officer who occasionally shows up at the Sanfords' residence, always accompanied by another officer as his partner who delivers punchlines to Williams' straight-man set-up lines. He typically has to interpret for Fred when his cop partner uses police jargon, or correct his unhip white partner as to the proper jive pronunciation.
Officer "Swanny" Swanhauser
Officer "Swanny" Swanhauser (Noam Pitlik) is originally Officer Smitty's Caucasian partner who is replaced early in the second season with Officer Hopkins. Swanny has basically the same personality as Hoppy, but his demeanor is somewhat more serious and humorless. Like Hoppy, Swanny never is insulted racially by Fred.
May Hopkins
May Hopkins (Nancy Kulp) is Officer Hopkins' prim and proper mother who appeared in the fifth season. She is a retired store detective who rents a room at the Sanford Arms next door. Landlord Fred often insults her when she pays a visit. Much like her son, Mrs. Hopkins incorrectly uses jive slang, but the more experienced Hoppy corrects her.
Janet Larson
Janet Larson (Marlene Clark) is a divorcee Lamont begins dating in the fifth season. Janet also has a young son, Roger (Edward Crawford). The Larsons appear occasionally until Lamont and Janet break up in the sixth and final season, due to the return of Janet's ex-husband.
Melvin
Melvin (Slappy White) is an old buddy of Fred's who appears in the first season. He appears in one second-season episode as well.
Leroy & Skillet
Leroy & Skillet (Leroy Daniels & Ernest 'Skillet' Mayhand) are a rambunctious pair of Fred's friends who like to play poker, billiards or joke around. They appear in the second and third seasons.
Otis Littlejohn
Otis Littlejohn (Matthew "Stymie" Beard) is a friend of Grady's who appears in the third and fourth seasons.
George "Hutch" Hutton
George "Hutch" Hutton (Arnold Johnson) is an elderly tenant of the Sanford Arms who befriends Fred. When they first meet, Hutch admits to serving a lengthy sentence in prison to avoid his ugly sister-in-law. This immediately endears him to Fred. Fred is then disgusted when Hutch joins Aunt Esther's Bible study group. He appears in the fifth season.
Dr. Caldwell
Dr. Caldwell (Davis Roberts) is the Sanford's entertaining family doctor who shows up in several early episodes. He often enters the Sanford residence with an alarming cough, and his credentials as a doctor are highly questionable. Asked if he is really a doctor he claims "On Monday, Wednesday and Friday, I'm a doctor. The other days I work in the post office". His other reply to being asked if he really is a doctor is that it depends on who's asking. If you're asking him, he says he is a doctor, but when asked who says he's not a doctor, his reply is "the state of California." He has also replied that he's a doctor "in some states." His diagnoses are based upon little to no examination and has also claimed to specialize in whiplash. He usually doesn't know the answers to any of the questions proposed to him and also agrees with opposing statements. He asks Fred "Do you know how many doctors are afraid to say 'I don't know'", to which the doctor replies "I don't know." He calls his practice "Caldwell & Caldwell" simply because the phone is in his father's name.
Nelson B. Davis
Nelson B. Davis (James Wheaton) is a mortician who dropped by the Sanford residence several times in the second season, at one point to look at some caskets that Lamont picked up an auction. With a deep voice and a spooky laugh, he would often make odd quips in reference to his unusual profession: "It's been a slow week, business is dead" and "I must to return to my place, I'm a working stiff." Once he told Lamont that "Burial insurance is something that everybody digs."
Reverend Trimble
Reverend Trimble (Alvin Childress) is the soft-spoken minister of the Central Avenue Baptist Church who dropped by in the first two seasons, usually to officiate a wedding. The running joke was that every time he officiated a wedding for the Sanford family, the family usually ended up in a screaming match over petty disagreements which escalated into a war that left everyone fleeing the house in anger while the Reverend stood by in stunned silence.
Various
Frank Nelson appears as various comic foils to Fred in the fifth and sixth seasons using his catchphrase, "ee-Yesssss?"
Fritzi Burr appeared as various comic foils to Fred from the fourth season to the sixth. Burr was sister-in-law to co-producer Saul Turteltaub.
Norma Miller appeared in 3 episodes, usually as an unsightly woman to Fred, and Brianna Lotti was originally cast in this role, but she turned down the role to star in the 1970's American Sitcom "In the Family".
Danny Wells appeared in multiple episodes playing various fast-talking characters of low morals.
Roy Stuart played in 3 episodes. His best known TV character was Corporal Boyle on Gomer Pyle, USMC.
Ron Glass was in 2 memorable episodes. Glass went on to star in TV's Barney Miller.
Dick Van Patten appeared as Mr. Hamblin, a repossessor sent to the Sanford residence by a collection agency, in the first season.
Special guests
Special guests in the show included B.B. King, George Foreman, Della Reese and Lena Horne.
Episodes
Reception and cancellation
Sanford and Son was enormously popular during most of its run, and was one of the top 10 highest-rated series on American television from its first season (1972) through the 1975–76 season.
Sanford and Son put enough of a dent into the middling audience of ABC's The Brady Bunch to drive it off the air in 1974. Sanford and Son peaked at #2 in the Nielsen ratings during the 1972–73 season and the 1974–75 season, and the series was second only to All in the Family in ratings during those years. By the 1974–75 season, Sanford and Son'''s lead-in helped the entire NBC Friday night lineup place in the coveted bracket of the Top 15 shows (Chico and the Man, following Sanford and Son at 8:30 p.m., ranked #3 for the season, while the police dramas The Rockford Files and Police Woman, which aired later in the evening, ranked at #12 and #15 respectively).
The show's ratings dipped substantially in its final season, though it was still quite popular at the time of its cancellation.
In 2007, Time magazine included the show on its list of the "100 Best TV Shows of All Time".
RatingsSanford and Son was a ratings hit through its six-season run on NBC. Despite airing in the so-called Friday night death slot, it managed to peak at No. 2 in the ratings (behind All in the Family, and ranked less than one ratings point behind All in the Family during the 1974–75 season).
Production notes
The series was produced by Norman Lear's and Bud Yorkin's Tandem Productions, which was also responsible for All in the Family. The two shows were both based on popular British sitcoms and both were pioneers of edgy, racial humor that reflected the changing politics of the time. Both series also featured outspoken, working-class protagonists with overt prejudices. However, Sanford and Son differed from All in the Family and other Norman Lear shows of the era in that it lacked the element of drama. Sanford and Son helped to redefine the genre of black situation comedy. Because of Lear's commitments to his other concurrent series, and the distance between NBC Studios in Burbank (where Sanford and Son was taped) and the Hollywood locations of other Tandem shows (such as All in the Family, Maude, The Jeffersons and One Day at a Time, which were recorded at CBS Television City or Metromedia Square), he did not have as much day-to-day involvement with Sanford and Son as with the other Tandem series, leaving the show-running to Yorkin.
In the midst of taping episodes for the 1973–74 season, Redd Foxx walked off the show in a salary dispute, though he cited health issues. His character was written out of the series for the remaining six episodes of the season, and it was explained that Fred Sanford was away in St. Louis attending his cousin's funeral, with friend Grady (Whitman Mayo) in charge of the home. Foxx, who had been earning $19,000 per episode, sought a 25% ownership stake in the series, and Tandem Productions fought back with a $10 million lawsuit. The dispute was resolved in June 1974, with Foxx receiving $25,000 per episode (to equal Carroll O'Connor's All in the Family pay), plus 25% of the producers’ net profits. Although Foxx was still absent for production of the first three shows of Season 4, NBC aired his return as the season premiere and delayed showing the previously taped episodes.
In 1977, rival network ABC lured Foxx away with a large sum to host his own variety show, The Redd Foxx Comedy Hour, ending Sanford and Son, which had been gradually declining in the ratings. The media reported that the dispute between Foxx and NBC was over the lack of a dressing-room window.
An exterior shot of the NBC Burbank lot was featured in the Season 5 episode "Steinberg and Son". The storefront, seen only in the opening credits, stood at 10659 West Magnolia Boulevard in North Hollywood, nearly 16 miles from the Sanfords' fictitious 9114 South Central Avenue address in Watts. This same storefront, minus the "Sanford and Son" sign, can also be seen in Emergency! in a 1973 episode titled "Alley Cat".
The pickup truck depicted in the series is a 1951 Ford F1. It was purchased at auction after the series ended and was later leased back to NBC for the spin-off shows Sanford Arms and Sanford. It has changed hands a few times over the years, eventually purchased by a real-life junk dealer, Donald Dimmitt of Dimmitts Auto Salvage, in Argos, Indiana. In 2014, the truck was purchased from Dimmitts by Tim Franko and Jeff Canter, owners of BlueLine Classics, a classic car dealership in North Royalton, Ohio, who restored the truck to its true condition as seen on the TV series and currently display it in the dealership's showroom. It has since been on display in locations within Cleveland.
Theme music
Titled "The Streetbeater", the theme music was composed by Quincy Jones through A&M Records and released on record in 1973. Although the song did not reach Billboard status, it has maintained mainstream popularity and is featured on Jones' greatest-hits album. The song has also has been featured on series such as Scrubs and The Simpsons.
Spin-offs and 1980–1981 revival
After the series was canceled in 1977, a short-lived continuation featuring the supporting characters titled Sanford Arms aired. Whitman Mayo starred in a short-lived spin-off series, Grady, during the 1975–1976 season.
In 1980–1981, Foxx attempted to revive the show with another short-lived series titled Sanford, but Demond Wilson refused to reprise his role as Lamont Sanford for the new series.
Home media
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released all six seasons of Sanford and Son on Region 1 DVD between August 2002 and June 2005, with a Complete Series'' box set following in 2008.
References
External links
1972 American television series debuts
1977 American television series endings
1970s American black sitcoms
1970s American sitcoms
American television series based on British television series
English-language television shows
Fictional duos
NBC original programming
Steptoe and Son
Television duos
Television series about widowhood
Television series by Sony Pictures Television
Television shows filmed in California
Television shows set in Los Angeles
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan%20Aiken
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Joan Aiken
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Joan Delano Aiken (4 September 1924 – 4 January 2004) was an English writer specialising in supernatural fiction and children's alternative history novels. In 1999 she was awarded an MBE for her services to children's literature. For The Whispering Mountain, published by Jonathan Cape in 1968, she won the Guardian Children's Fiction Prize, a once-in-a-lifetime book award judged by a panel of British children's writers, and she was a commended runner-up for the Carnegie Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book by a British writer. She won an Edgar Allan Poe Award (1972) for Night Fall.
Biography
Aiken was born in Mermaid Street in Rye, Sussex, on 4 September 1924. Her father was the American Pulitzer Prize–winning poet Conrad Aiken (1889–1973). Her older brother was the writer and research chemist John Aiken (1913–1990), and her older sister was the writer Jane Aiken Hodge (1917–2009). Their mother, Canadian-born Jessie MacDonald (1889–1970), was a Master's graduate from Radcliffe College, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Jessie and Conrad's marriage was dissolved in 1929, and Jessie married the English writer Martin Armstrong in 1930. Conrad Aiken went on to marry twice more. Together with her brother John and her sister Jane, Joan Aiken wrote Conrad Aiken Remembered (1989), a short appreciation of their father.
Aiken was taught at home by her mother until the age of twelve and from 1936 to 1940 at Wychwood School for girls in North Oxford. She did not attend university. Writing stories from an early age, she finished her first full-length novel when she was sixteen and had her first short story for adults accepted for publication when she was seventeen. In 1941 her first children's story was broadcast on the BBC's Children's Hour.
Aiken worked for the United Nations Information Centre (UNIC) in London between 1943 and 1949. In September 1945 she married Ronald George Brown, a journalist who was also working at UNIC. They had two children before he died in 1955.
After her husband's death, Aiken joined the magazine Argosy, where she worked in various editorial capacities and, she later said, learned her trade as a writer. The magazine was one of many in which she published short stories between 1955 and 1960. During this time she also published her first two collections of children's stories and began work on a children's novel, initially titled Bonnie Green, which was later published in 1962 as The Wolves of Willoughby Chase. By then she was able to write full-time from home, producing two or three books a year for the rest of her life, mainly children's books and thrillers, as well as many articles, introductions and talks on children's literature and on the work of Jane Austen.
Aiken married the New York landscape painter and teacher Julius Goldstein in 1976. They divided their time between her home, the Hermitage in Petworth, Sussex, and New York. He died in 2001.
In September 1999, Aiken was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire.
Aiken died at home at the age of 79 in 2004. She was survived by her two children.
Writings
Joan Aiken produced more than a hundred books, including more than a dozen collections of fantasy stories, plays and poems, and modern and historical novels for adults and children. She was a lifelong fan of ghost stories, particularly those of M. R. James, Fitz James O'Brien and Nugent Barker. As well as writing under her own name, she used the pen name Nicholas Dee for several short stories.
Some of her books focus on spine-chilling or supernatural events, including The Windscreen Weepers (stories, 1969), The Shadow Guests (novel, 1980), A Whisper in the Night (stories, 1982), and A Creepy Company (stories, 1993, with variant contents in its US and UK editions). She set her adult supernatural novel The Haunting of Lamb House at Lamb House in Rye (now a National Trust property). This ghost story recounts in fictional form an alleged haunting experienced by two former residents of the house, Henry James and E. F. Benson, both of whom also wrote ghost stories.
Many of Aiken's most popular books, including the Wolves Chronicles (also known as The Wolves of Willoughby Chase series or the James III series), are set in an elaborate alternative history of Britain in which James II was never deposed in the Glorious Revolution, but supporters of the House of Hanover continually agitate against the monarchy. These books also toy with the geography of London, adding a Canal District among other features. Wolves have invaded the country from Europe via the newly built Channel Tunnel. The novels share a varying cast and a variety of interlinked child protagonists – initially Bonnie Green, but subsequently her itinerant friend Simon, Simon's intrepid Cockney friend Dido Twite (the heroine of most of the books), Dido's half-sister Is and Owen Hughes (son of Dido's Royal Navy ally Captain Hughes).
In a review of Midwinter Nightingale for the School Library Journal, Susan Patron praised the characterisations and the suspenseful plot and noted that "although the titles in the 'Wolves' series may be read independently", readers may want to read the earlier books first.
Aiken's series of children's books about Arabel and Mortimer were illustrated by Quentin Blake. Others were illustrated by Jan Pieńkowski and Pat Marriott. Pieńkowski won the foremost British award for children's book illustration, the Greenaway Medal, for The Kingdom Under the Sea and Other Stories (Jonathan Cape, 1971), a collection of "unique fairy tales from Eastern Europe and Russia" retold by Aiken.
Aiken participated in the Puffin Book Club's annual Children's Literature Summer Camp, run by Colony Holidays, predecessor to ATE Superweeks, along with other popular children's authors such as Ian Serraillier and Clive King.
Aiken's many novels for adults include several that continue or complement novels by Jane Austen. These include Mansfield Revisited and Jane Fairfax.
Selected works
Wolves Chronicles
The Wolves Chronicles vary in length from less than 150 pages to more than 250 pages. Here the novels are listed in narrative order, and their central characters.
Main series
The Whispering Mountain (1968), a prequel to the series
The Wolves of Willoughby Chase (featuring Bonnie Green, Sylvia Green and Simon) (1962)
Black Hearts in Battersea (featuring Dido Twite and Simon) (1964)
Nightbirds on Nantucket (Dido Twite) (1966)
The Stolen Lake (Dido Twite) (1981)
Limbo Lodge (U.S. title: Dangerous Games) (Dido Twite) (1999)
The Cuckoo Tree (Dido Twite) (1971)
Dido and Pa (featuring Dido and Is Twite) (1986)
Is (U.S. title: Is Underground) (Is Twite) (1992)
Cold Shoulder Road (Is Twite) (1995)
Midwinter Nightingale (featuring Dido Twite and Simon) (2003)
The Witch of Clatteringshaws (featuring Dido Twite and Simon) (2005)
Related novels
Midnight Is a Place (1976)
This novel evidently takes place in the same fictional world as the series. Blastburn, the fictional setting of this work, features as the location of Mrs. Brisket's orphanage in The Wolves of Willoughby Chase, but does not otherwise bring elements of the other books. Its setting and time period resemble and satirise the height of the Victorian manufacturing years, rather than the Georgian setting of the other books. "Joan Aiken follows all the conventions of Dickensian fiction with just a little extra to satisfy jaded contemporary tastes. The Grimsby mansion at Midnight Court houses not one, but two unjustly disinherited orphans ...".
Arabel and Mortimer series
Arabel's Raven (1972)
Escaped Black Mamba (1973)
The Bread Bin (1974)
Mortimer's Tie (1976)
Mortimer and the Sword Excalibur (1979)
The Spiral Stair (1979)
The Mystery of Mr Jones's Disappearing Taxi (1982)
Mortimer's Portrait on Glass (1982)
Mortimer's Cross (1983)
Mortimer Says Nothing (three stories) (1985)
Arabel and Mortimer (1992)
Mortimer's Mine (1994)
Mayhem in Rumbury (1995)
Paget family
The Smile of the Stranger (1978)
The Lightning Tree (1980); U.S. title, The Weeping Ash
The Young Lady from Paris (1982); U.S. title, The Girl from Paris
Felix trilogy
Go Saddle the Sea (1978)
Bridle the Wind (1983)
The Teeth of the Gale (1988)
"Jane Austen" novels
Mansfield Revisited (1984)
Jane Fairfax: The Secret Story of the Second Heroine in Jane Austen's Emma (1990)
Eliza’s Daughter (1994)
Emma Watson: The Watsons Completed (1996)
The Youngest Miss Ward (1998)
Lady Catherine's Necklace (2000)
Other books
All You've Ever Wanted and Other Stories (1953)
More Than You Bargained For and Other Stories (1955)
The Kingdom and The Cave (1960)
The Silence of Herondale (1964)
The Fortune Hunters (1965)
A Necklace of Raindrops (1968)
Night Fall (1969)
Smoke from Cromwell's Time and Other Stories (1970)
The Embroidered Sunset (1970)
The Green Flash (1971)
The Kingdom Under the Sea and Other Stories (1971)
A Cluster of Separate Sparks (1972)
A Harp of Fishbones (1972)
The Butterfly Picnic (1973)
Dark Interval (1974)
Beware of the Bouquet (1975)
The Crystal Crow (1975)
Voices in an Empty House (1975)
Castle Barebane (1976)
A Bundle of Nerves (1976)
The Five-Minute Marriage (1977)
The Faithless Lollybird and Other Stories (1977)
Last Movement (1978)
Tale of a One-Way Street (1978)
Foul Matter (1983)
A Whisper in the Night (1984)
Past Eight O'Clock (1986)
Deception (1988); U.S. title, If I Were You
Return to Harken House (1988)
Blackground (1989)
The Moon's Revenge (1990)
Morningquest (1992)
The Cockatrice Boys (1996)
The Scream (2002)
The Monkey's Wedding and Other Stories (2011)
Explanatory notes
General bibliography
Cano, Marina. Jane Austen and Performance. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017. Chapter 7, "Women's Rewritings", looks at Aiken's Austen sequels. .
References
Citations
Citated works
External links
Obituary, Daily Telegraph, 6 January 2004
Joan Aiken – a partial bibliography
Joan Aiken at Fantastic Fiction
Retrospective: The Endless Imagination of Joan Aiken at Books For Keeps
1924 births
2004 deaths
20th-century British short story writers
20th-century English women writers
20th-century English novelists
British alternative history writers
British women short story writers
Edgar Award winners
English children's writers
English fantasy writers
English horror writers
English women novelists
Ghost story writers
Guardian Children's Fiction Prize winners
The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction people
Members of the Detection Club
Members of the Order of the British Empire
People from Rye, East Sussex
Women historical novelists
Women horror writers
Women mystery writers
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
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] |
208213
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumper%20%28computing%29
|
Jumper (computing)
|
In electronics and particularly computing, a jumper is a short length of conductor used to close, open or bypass part of an electronic circuit. They are typically used to set up or configure printed circuit boards, such as the motherboards of computers. The process of setting a jumper is often called strapping.
A strapping option is a hardware configuration setting usually sensed only during power-up or bootstrapping of a device (or even a single chip).
Design
Jumper pins (points to be connected by the jumper) are arranged in groups called jumper blocks, each group having at least one pair of contact points. An appropriately sized conductive sleeve called a jumper, or more technically, a shunt jumper, is slipped over the pins to complete the circuit.
A two-pin jumper only allows to choose between two Boolean states, whereas a three-pin jumper allows to select between three states.
Jumpers must be electrically conducting; they are usually encased in a non-conductive block of plastic for convenience. This also avoids the risk that an unshielded jumper will accidentally short out something critical (particularly if it is dropped on a live circuit).
Jumper shunts can be categorized by their pitch (uniform distance between pins measured from center to center). Some common pitches are:
Use
When a jumper is placed over two or more jumper pins, an electrical connection is made between them, and the equipment is thus instructed to activate certain settings accordingly. For example, with older PC systems, CPU speed and voltage settings were often made by setting jumpers.
Some documentation may refer to setting the jumpers to on, off, closed, or open. When a jumper is on or covering at least two pins it is a closed jumper, when a jumper is off, is covering only one pin, or the pins have no jumper it is an open jumper.
Jumperless designs have the advantage that they are usually fast and easy to set up, often require little technical knowledge, and can be adjusted without having physical access to the circuit board. With PCs, the most common use of jumpers is in setting the operating mode for ATA drives (master, slave, or cable select), though this use is declining with the rise of SATA drives. Jumpers have been used since the beginning of printed circuit boards.
Permanent parts of a circuit
Some printed wiring assemblies, particularly those using single-layer circuit boards, include short lengths of wire soldered between pairs of points. These wires are called wire bridges or jumpers, but unlike jumpers used for configuration settings, they are intended to permanently connect the points in question. They are used to solve layout issues of the printed wiring, providing connections that would otherwise require awkward (or in some cases, impossible) routing of the conductive traces. In some cases a resistor of 0 ohms is used instead of a wire, as these may be installed by the same robotic assembly machines that install real resistors and other components.
Jumpers setting configuration options not normally meant to be user-configurable can also be implemented as solder jumpers, typically two (or more) pads positioned closely together or even with interwoven shapes. Typically non-conductive by default they can be easily changed into a closed connection due to deliberately placed solder bridge on top of them. If the closed state is the default state, the PCB designer can superimpose a thin trace, which would be cut (with a knife) to open the jumper.
See also
DIP switch
Jump wire
Pin header
Fuse
Busbar
References
External links
Computer hardware tuning
|
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208215
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geochronology
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Geochronology
|
Geochronology is the science of determining the age of rocks, fossils, and sediments using signatures inherent in the rocks themselves. Absolute geochronology can be accomplished through radioactive isotopes, whereas relative geochronology is provided by tools such as paleomagnetism and stable isotope ratios. By combining multiple geochronological (and biostratigraphic) indicators the precision of the recovered age can be improved.
Geochronology is different in application from biostratigraphy, which is the science of assigning sedimentary rocks to a known geological period via describing, cataloging and comparing fossil floral and faunal assemblages. Biostratigraphy does not directly provide an absolute age determination of a rock, but merely places it within an interval of time at which that fossil assemblage is known to have coexisted. Both disciplines work together hand in hand, however, to the point where they share the same system of naming strata (rock layers) and the time spans utilized to classify sublayers within a stratum.
The science of geochronology is the prime tool used in the discipline of chronostratigraphy, which attempts to derive absolute age dates for all fossil assemblages and determine the geologic history of the Earth and extraterrestrial bodies.
Dating methods
Radiometric dating
By measuring the amount of radioactive decay of a radioactive isotope with a known half-life, geologists can establish the absolute age of the parent material. A number of radioactive isotopes are used for this purpose, and depending on the rate of decay, are used for dating different geological periods. More slowly decaying isotopes are useful for longer periods of time, but less accurate in absolute years. With the exception of the radiocarbon method, most of these techniques are actually based on measuring an increase in the abundance of a radiogenic isotope, which is the decay-product of the radioactive parent isotope. Two or more radiometric methods can be used in concert to achieve more robust results. Most radiometric methods are suitable for geological time only, but some such as the radiocarbon method and the 40Ar/39Ar dating method can be extended into the time of early human life and into recorded history.
Some of the commonly used techniques are:
Radiocarbon dating. This technique measures the decay of carbon-14 in organic material and can be best applied to samples younger than about 60,000 years.
Uranium–lead dating. This technique measures the ratio of two lead isotopes (lead-206 and lead-207) to the amount of uranium in a mineral or rock. Often applied to the trace mineral zircon in igneous rocks, this method is one of the two most commonly used (along with argon–argon dating) for geologic dating. Monazite geochronology is another example of U–Pb dating, employed for dating metamorphism in particular. Uranium–lead dating is applied to samples older than about 1 million years.
Uranium–thorium dating. This technique is used to date speleothems, corals, carbonates, and fossil bones. Its range is from a few years to about 700,000 years.
Potassium–argon dating and argon–argon dating. These techniques date metamorphic, igneous and volcanic rocks. They are also used to date volcanic ash layers within or overlying paleoanthropologic sites. The younger limit of the argon–argon method is a few thousand years.
Electron spin resonance (ESR) dating
Fission-track dating
Cosmogenic nuclide geochronology
A series of related techniques for determining the age at which a geomorphic surface was created (exposure dating), or at which formerly surficial materials were buried (burial dating). Exposure dating uses the concentration of exotic nuclides (e.g. 10Be, 26Al, 36Cl) produced by cosmic rays interacting with Earth materials as a proxy for the age at which a surface, such as an alluvial fan, was created. Burial dating uses the differential radioactive decay of 2 cosmogenic elements as a proxy for the age at which a sediment was screened by burial from further cosmic rays exposure.
Luminescence dating
Luminescence dating techniques observe 'light' emitted from materials such as quartz, diamond, feldspar, and calcite. Many types of luminescence techniques are utilized in geology, including optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), cathodoluminescence (CL), and thermoluminescence (TL). Thermoluminescence and optically stimulated luminescence are used in archaeology to date 'fired' objects such as pottery or cooking stones and can be used to observe sand migration.
Incremental dating
Incremental dating techniques allow the construction of year-by-year annual chronologies, which can be fixed (i.e. linked to the present day and thus calendar or sidereal time) or floating.
Dendrochronology
Ice cores
Lichenometry
Varves
Paleomagnetic dating
A sequence of paleomagnetic poles (usually called virtual geomagnetic poles), which are already well defined in age, constitutes an apparent polar wander path (APWP). Such a path is constructed for a large continental block. APWPs for different continents can be used as a reference for newly obtained poles for the rocks with unknown age. For paleomagnetic dating, it is suggested to use the APWP in order to date a pole obtained from rocks or sediments of unknown age by linking the paleopole to the nearest point on the APWP. Two methods of paleomagnetic dating have been suggested: (1) the angular method and (2) the rotation method. The first method is used for paleomagnetic dating of rocks inside of the same continental block. The second method is used for the folded areas where tectonic rotations are possible.
Magnetostratigraphy
Magnetostratigraphy determines age from the pattern of magnetic polarity zones in a series of bedded sedimentary and/or volcanic rocks by comparison to the magnetic polarity timescale. The polarity timescale has been previously determined by dating of seafloor magnetic anomalies, radiometrically dating volcanic rocks within magnetostratigraphic sections, and astronomically dating magnetostratigraphic sections.
Chemostratigraphy
Global trends in isotope compositions, particularly carbon-13 and strontium isotopes, can be used to correlate strata.
Correlation of marker horizons
Marker horizons are stratigraphic units of the same age and of such distinctive composition and appearance, that despite their presence in different geographic sites, there is certainty about their age-equivalence. Fossil faunal and floral assemblages, both marine and terrestrial, make for distinctive marker horizons. Tephrochronology is a method for geochemical correlation of unknown volcanic ash (tephra) to geochemically fingerprinted, dated tephra. Tephra is also often used as a dating tool in archaeology, since the dates of some eruptions are well-established.
Geological hierarchy of chronological periodization
Geochronology: From largest to smallest:
Supereon
Eon
Era
Period
Epoch
Age
Chron
Differences from chronostratigraphy
It is important not to confuse geochronologic and chronostratigraphic units. Geochronological units are periods of time, thus it is correct to say that Tyrannosaurus rex lived during the Late Cretaceous Epoch. Chronostratigraphic units are geological material, so it is also correct to say that fossils of the genus Tyrannosaurus have been found in the Upper Cretaceous Series. In the same way, it is entirely possible to go and visit an Upper Cretaceous Series deposit – such as the Hell Creek deposit where the Tyrannosaurus fossils were found – but it is naturally impossible to visit the Late Cretaceous Epoch as that is a period of time.
See also
Astronomical chronology
Age of the Earth
Age of the universe
Chronological dating, archaeological chronology
Absolute dating
Relative dating
Phase (archaeology)
Archaeological association
Geochronology
Closure temperature
Geologic time scale
Geological history of Earth
Thermochronology
List of geochronologic names
General
Consilience, evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions
References
Further reading
Smart, P.L., and Frances, P.D. (1991), Quaternary dating methods - a user's guide. Quaternary Research Association Technical Guide No.4
Lowe, J.J., and Walker, M.J.C. (1997), Reconstructing Quaternary Environments (2nd edition). Longman publishing
Mattinson, J. M. (2013), Revolution and evolution: 100 years of U-Pb geochronology. Elements 9, 53–57.
Geochronology bibliography Talk:Origins Archive
External links
International Commission on Stratigraphy
BGS Open Data Geochronological Ontologies
Radiometric dating
|
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] |
208217
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diacetylene
|
Diacetylene
|
Diacetylene (also known as butadiyne) is the organic compound with the formula C4H2. It is the simplest compound containing two triple bonds. It is first in the series of polyynes, which are of theoretical but not of practical interest.
Occurrence
Diacetylene has been identified in the atmosphere of Titan and in the protoplanetary nebula CRL 618 by its characteristic vibrational spectrum. It is proposed to arise by a reaction between acetylene and the ethynyl radical (C2H), which is produced when acetylene undergoes photolysis. This radical can in turn attack the triple bond in acetylene and react efficiently even at low temperatures. Diacetylene has also been detected on the Moon.
Preparation
This compound may be made by the dehydrohalogenation of 1,4-dichloro-2-butyne by potassium hydroxide (in alcoholic medium) at ~70°C:
ClCH2C≡CCH2Cl + 2 KOH → HC≡C−C≡CH + 2 KCl + 2 H2O
The bis(trimethylsilyl)-protected derivative may be prepared by the Hay coupling of (trimethylsilyl)acetylene:
2 Me3Si−C≡CH → Me3Si−C≡C−C≡C−SiMe3
See also
Acetylene
Diiodobutadiyne
Butenyne
Hydrocarbon
References
Further reading
Conjugated diynes
|
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208218
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loxaulax
|
Loxaulax
|
Loxaulax is a genus of extinct mammal from the Lower Cretaceous of southern England. It was a member of the also extinct order Multituberculata, and lived alongside the dinosaurs. It lies within the suborder "Plagiaulacida" and family Eobaataridae. The genus Loxaulax was named by Simpson G.G. in 1928 based on one species.
Fossil remains of the species Loxaulax valdensis consist of a tooth found in Valanginian (Lower Cretaceous) strata belong to the Wadhurst Clay Formation of the Cliff End bonebed in Hastings, England. More recently, "Butler and Ford reported some IoW (Isle of Wight) Wealden mammal teeth several decades ago from the Wessex Formation. They identified one of the teeth as belonging to the multituberculate Loxaulax but weren't sure about the others. Other IoW Wealden mammal teeth have been found since but have yet to be written up," (with thanks to Darren Naish).
Representatives from the Isle of Wight Museum say that sieving is underway at one fossil location. This suggests new mammal finds are not unlikely.
Fossil remains of the species Loxaulax herreroi were found in the Barremian-age Camarillas Formation of Galve, Spain.
References
Simpson (1928), A catalogue of the Mesozoic mammalia in the geological department of the British Museum. London: British Museum (Nat Hist).
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
External links
Mesozodic Mammals: Plagiaulacidae, Albionbaataridae, Eobaataridae & Arginbaataridae
Multituberculates
Early Cretaceous mammals of Europe
Barremian life
Cretaceous Spain
Fossils of Spain
Cretaceous England
Fossils of England
Camarillas Formation
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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] |
208221
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monobaatar
|
Monobaatar
|
Monobaatar is a genus of extinct mammal from the Lower Cretaceous of Mongolia. It was within the also extinct order Multituberculata, and lived during the "age of the dinosaurs". It is also within the suborder "Plagiaulacida" and has been tentatively referred to the family Eobaataridae, though it probably is not a member.
The genus Monobaatar (Kielan-Jaworowska, Dashzeveg & Trofimov, 1987) is known from the species Monobaatar mimicus, which itself is very poorly known. Fossil remains come from the Lower Cretaceous of Mongolia.
References
Kielan-Jaworowska et al. (1987), "Early Cretaceous multituberculates from Mongolia and a comparison with Late Jurassic forms." Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 23(1-2), p. 3-47.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Hurum J.H. (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals." Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Plagiaulacidae, Albionbaataridae, Eobaataridae & Arginbaataridae, an Internet directory.
Multituberculates
Cretaceous mammals
Extinct mammals of Asia
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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208233
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandvika
|
Sandvika
|
Sandvika () is the administrative centre of the municipality of Bærum in Norway. It was declared a city by the municipal council in Bærum on 4 June 2003.
Sandvika is situated approximately west of Oslo. It is the main transportation hub for Western Bærum, and has a combined bus and railway station. Sandvika is also one of the stops along the route of the Airport Express Train. Sandvika also has Scandinavia's largest super mall, Sandvika Storsenter, with 190 stores and a total area of . On 13 March 2013, the previously pedestrianized main street was opened for car traffic and on-street parking.
Sandvika used to be home to the BI Norwegian Business School, which moved to new surroundings in Nydalen, Oslo in August 2005. The building was, after some refurbishing, converted into the home of Sandvika High School.
Another school in Sandvika is Norges Realfagsgymnas NRG (Norwegian school of maths and science), a combined secondary school and high school. It lies in Skytterdalen and offers education in maths and science.
The nearby island of Kalvøya is a place for recreation. The Boat Sport House is located on Kalvøya, and is used by Bærum KK and Bærum RK. It also hosted one of the best known Norwegian music festivals Kalvøyafestivalen.
A small islet in Sandviksbukta, outside Sandvika, is called Danmark. Danes who live in the area join together every year on 5 June Denmark's national day to celebrate. It has been debate on the Danish flag on "Danmark", but currently it still is there.
In art and music
Claude Monet visited in early 1895. During his stay he painted several views of the town and the surrounding landscape, with the mountain ridge Kolsås featuring in many of the paintings either in the background or as the primary subject. Perhaps the most well known of the paintings from this visit is 'Sandviken Village in Snow' which features the Løkke bridge in the foreground with Kolsås in the background. The bridge still stands in Sandvika.
Gallery
References
Cities and towns in Norway
Bærum
Populated places in Viken
|
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] |
208239
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto-configuration
|
Auto-configuration
|
Auto-configuration is the automatic configuration of devices without manual intervention, without any need for software configuration programs or jumpers. Ideally, auto-configuring devices should just "plug and play". Auto-configuration has been made common because of the low cost of microprocessors and other embedded controller devices.
Configurations may be stored in NVRAM, loaded by a host processor, or negotiated at system initialization time. In some cases, hot pluggable devices may be able to renegotiate their configuration.
Example of auto-configuring devices:
USB
Example of auto-configuring devices and protocols:
DHCP
Zeroconf
See also
Autoconfig, Amiga system for automatically setting up hardware peripherals
FPGA
Universal Plug and Play
Computer peripherals
Computer configuration
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Harrison%20Ainsworth
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William Harrison Ainsworth
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William Harrison Ainsworth (4 February 18053 January 1882) was an English historical novelist born at King Street in Manchester. He trained as a lawyer, but the legal profession held no attraction for him. While completing his legal studies in London he met the publisher John Ebers, at that time manager of the King's Theatre, Haymarket. Ebers introduced Ainsworth to literary and dramatic circles, and to his daughter, who became Ainsworth's wife.
Ainsworth briefly tried the publishing business, but soon gave it up and devoted himself to journalism and literature. His first success as a writer came with Rookwood in 1834, which features Dick Turpin as its leading character. A stream of 39 novels followed, the last of which appeared in 1881. Ainsworth died in Reigate on 3 January 1882, and was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery.
Biography
Early life
Ainsworth was born on 4 February 1805 in the family house at 21 King Street, Manchester, to Thomas Ainsworth, a prominent Manchester lawyer, and Ann (Harrison) Ainsworth, the daughter of the Rev. Ralph Harrison, the Unitarian minister at Manchester Cross Street Chapel. On 4 October 1806, Ainsworth's brother, Thomas Gilbert Ainsworth, was born. Although the family home was eventually destroyed, it was a three-storey Georgian home in a well-to-do community. The area influenced Ainsworth with its historical and romantic atmosphere, which existed until the community was later replaced by commercial buildings. Besides the community, Ainsworth read romantic works as a child and enjoyed stories dealing with either adventure or supernatural themes. Of these, Dick Turpin was a favourite of Ainsworth. During his childhood, he adopted Jacobean ideas and held Tory ideas in addition to his Jacobite sympathies, even though his community was strict Whig and Nonconformist. During this time, Ainsworth began to write prolifically.
The Ainsworth family moved to Smedly Lane, north of Manchester in Cheetham Hill, during 1811. They kept the old residence in addition to the new, but resided in the new home most of the time. The surrounding hilly country was covered in woods, which allowed Ainsworth and his brother to act out various stories. When not playing, Ainsworth was tutored by his uncle, William Harrison. In March 1817, he was enrolled at Manchester Grammar School, which was described in his novel Mervyn Clitheroe. The work emphasised that his classical education was of good quality but was reinforced with strict discipline and corporal punishment. Ainsworth was a strong student and was popular among his fellow students. His school days were mixed; his time within the school and with his family was calm even though there were struggles within the Manchester community, the Peterloo massacre taking place in 1819. Ainsworth was connected to the event because his uncles joined in protest at the incident, but Ainsworth was able to avoid most of the political after-effects. During the time, he was able to pursue his own literary interests and even created his own little theatre within the family home at King Street. Along with his friends and brother, he created and acted in many plays throughout 1820.
During 1820, Ainsworth began to publish many of his works under the name "Thomas Hall". The first work, a play called The Rivals, was published on 5 March 1821 in Arliss's Pocket Magazine. Throughout 1821, the magazine printed seventeen other works of Ainsworth's under the names "Thomas Hall", "H A" or "W A". The genre and forms of the work greatly varied, with one being a claim to have found plays of a 17th-century playwright "William Aynesworthe", which ended up being his own works. This trick was later exposed. In December 1821, Ainsworth submitted his play Venice, or the Fall of the Foscaris to The Edinburgh Magazine. They printed large excerpts from the play before praising Ainsworth as a playwright as someone that rivalled even George Gordon Byron. During this time, Ainsworth was also contributing works to The European Magazine in addition to the other magazines, and they published many of his early stories. Eventually, he left Manchester Grammar School in 1822 while constantly contributing to magazines.
After leaving school, Ainsworth began to study for the law and worked under Alexander Kay. The two did not get along, and Ainsworth was accused of being lazy. Although Ainsworth did not want to pursue a legal career, his father pushed him into the field. Instead of working, Ainsworth spent his time reading literature at his home and various libraries, including the Chetham Library. He continued to work as an attorney in Manchester and spent his time when not working or reading at the John Shaw's Club. By the end of 1822, Ainsworth was writing for The London Magazine, which allowed him to become close to Charles Lamb, to whom he sent poetry for Lamb's response. After receiving a favourable reception for one set of works, Ainsworth had them published by John Arliss as Poems by Cheviot Ticheburn. He travelled some during 1822, and visited his childhood friend James Crossley in Edinburgh during August. There, Crossley introduced Ainsworth to William Blackwood, the owner of Blackwood's Magazine, and, through Blackwood, he was introduced to many Scottish writers.
Early career
Besides Crossley, another close friend to Ainsworth was John Aston, a clerk who worked in his father's legal firm. In 1823, Ainsworth and Crossley began to write many works together, including the first novel Sir John Chiverton that was based around Hulme Hall in Manchester. Ainsworth wrote to Thomas Campbell, editor of The New Monthly Magazine, about publishing the work: but Campbell lost the letter. At the request of Ainsworth, Crossley travelled to London to meet Campbell and discuss the matter before visiting in November. Although the novel was not yet published, in December 1823, Ainsworth was able to get G. and W. Whittaker to publish a collection of his stories as December Tales. During 1824, Ainsworth set about producing his own magazine, The Boeotian, which was first published on 20 March but ended after its sixth issue on 24 April.
Ainsworth's father died on 20 June 1824 and Ainsworth became a senior in the law firm and began to focus on his legal studies. To this end he left for London at the end of 1824 to study under Jacob Phillips, a barrister at King's Bench Walk. Ainsworth lived at Devereux Court, a place that was favoured by Augustan writers. During his stay, he visited Lamb, but felt let down by the real Lamb. Ainsworth attended Lamb's circle, and met many individuals including Henry Crabb Robinson and Mary Shelley. During the summer of 1825, Ainsworth returned on a trip to Manchester in order to meet Crossley before travelling to the Isle of Man. He continued to write, and a collection of his poems called The Works of Cheviot Tichburn, with the types of John Leigh was published. He also had two works published in The Literary Souvenir, a magazine published by John Ebers.
On 4 February 1826, Ainsworth came of age and on 8 February was made a solicitor of the Court of King's Bench. During this time, he befriended Ebers, who also owned the Opera House, Haymarket. Ainsworth would constantly visit shows at the house, and he fell in love with Ebers's daughter Fanny during his visits. The relationship with the Ebers family continued, and John published a pamphlet of Ainsworth's called Considerations on the best means of affording Immediate Relief to the Operative Classes in the Manufacturing Districts. The work, addressed to Robert Peel, discussed the economic situation in Manchester along with the rest of Britain. By June, Ainsworth left politics and focused on poetry with the publication of Letters from Cokney Lands. While these were printed he continued to work on his novel Sir John Chiverton and sought to have it published.
The novel was published by Ebers in July 1826. Ebers became interested in Ainsworth's novel early on and started to add discussions about it in The Literary Souvenir in order to promote the work. Although the work was jointly written and sometimes claimed by Aston as solely his, many of the reviews described the novel as Ainsworth's alone. The novel also brought Ainsworth to the attention of historical novelist Walter Scott, who later wrote about the work in various articles; the two later met in 1828. During that year, J. G. Lockhartt published Scott's private journals and instigated the notion that the novel was an imitation of Scott. Sir John Chiverton is neither a true historical novel nor is it a gothic novel. It was also seen by Ainsworth as an incomplete work and he later ignored it when creating his bibliography. The novel does serve as a precursor to Ainsworth's first major novel, Rookwood.
Ainsworth's relationship with the Ebers family grew, and he married Fanny on 11 October 1826 with little warning to his family or friends. Ebers promised to pay a dowry of 300 pounds, but the funds were never given and this caused a strain in the relationship between Ainsworth and his father-in-law. Ainsworth continued in Ebers's circle and attended many social events. He was encouraged by Ebers to sell his partnership in the Ainsworth law firm along with starting a publishing business. Ainsworth followed this advice, and the business had early success. In 1827, Fanny gave birth to a girl who took her name. Soon after, Ebers went bankrupt and Ainsworth lost a large sum as a consequence. Ainsworth published a few popular works, including The French Cook, an annual magazine called Mayfair, and some others. By 1829, Ebers took over Ainsworth's publishing business, and Fanny gave birth to another daughter, Emily, soon after. Ainsworth gave up on publishing and resumed working in law. When a third daughter, Anne, was born in 1830, Ainsworth's family began to feel financially strained. Ainsworth returned to writing and he contributed to Fraser's Magazine, but it is uncertain how many works were actually his. However, he was working on his novel Rookwood.
Career as a novelist
By 1829, Ainsworth was neither a lawyer nor a publisher; indeed he did not have any employment at all. He longed for his youthful days in Manchester and pondered writing another novel. By the summer, he had begun to travel. It was during this time that he began to develop the idea of Rookwood, and began searching for information on the subject. While researching for the novel in 1830, Ainsworth was living at Kensal Lodge. He worked on some theatrical pieces and spent the rest of his time working in the legal profession. He soon became friends with William Sergison, and the two travelled to Italy and Switzerland during that summer. During their travels, they visited the tomb of Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Keats, along with witnessing other notable scenes in the lives of the British Romantic poets. Sergison was also the owner of a residence in Sussex, upon which Ainsworth drew in his novel. After the two returned to London, Ainsworth began working for Fraser's Magazine, which was launched in 1830. The group included many famous literary figures of the day, including Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey, Thomas Carlyle, James Hogg and William Makepeace Thackeray. It was not until a visit to Chesterfield towards the end of 1831 that he was fully inspired to begin writing the novel, which he did self-confessedly "in the bygone style of Mrs Radcliffe".
Although he began writing the novel, Ainsworth suffered from more of his father-in-law's financial problems and was unable to resume work on it until 1833. During the autumn of that year he managed to complete large portions of the novel while staying in Sussex, near Sergison's home. The novel was published in April 1834 by Richard Bentley and contained illustrations by George Cruikshank. After working five years in the legal profession, Ainsworth gave it up and dedicated himself to writing. Rookwood garnered wide critical and financial success, and pleased his associates at Fraser's Magazine. He started to dress as a dandy, and he was introduced to the Salon of Margaret Power, Countess of Blessington. Her Salon was a group of men and literary women, and would include many others but many in London believed that Blessington had a damaged reputation. However, this did not stop Ainsworth from meeting many famous British authors from the Salon. While part of her circle, he wrote for her collection of stories called The Book of Beauty, published in 1835. Ainsworth continued in various literary circles, but his wife and daughters did not; he stayed in Kensal Lodge while they lived with Ebers. During this time, Ainsworth met Charles Dickens and introduced the young writer to the publisher John Macrone and the illustrator Cruikshank. Ainsworth also introduced Dickens to John Forster at Kensal Lodge, initiating a close friendship between the two.
From 1835 until 1838, Ainsworth and Dickens were close friends and often travelled together. Rookwood was published in multiple editions, with a fourth edition in 1836 including illustrations by Cruikshank, which started the working relationship between the two. In 1835, Ainsworth began writing another novel, called Crichton. He devoted much of his time to it to the point of not having time for many of his literary friends. Its publication was temporarily delayed while Ainsworth was searching for an illustrator, with Thackeray being a possible choice. However, Ainsworth felt the illustrations were unsatisfactory, so he switched to Daniel Maclise, who was also later dropped. Coinciding with the search for an illustrator and hurrying to complete the novel, Ainsworth was asked to write for the magazine The Lions of London, but could not find the time to work on both projects and so attempted to finish the novel. The situation changed after Macrone, the original intended publisher, died. Ainsworth turned to Bentley as a publisher. Ainsworth eventually published his third novel in 1837. A fifth edition of Rookwood appeared in 1837, and its success encouraged Ainsworth to work on another novel about a famous outlaw, the story of Jack Sheppard.
Ainsworth's next novel, Jack Sheppard, was serially published in Bentley's Miscellany (January 1839February 1840). Dickens's Oliver Twist also ran in the magazine (February 1837April 1839). A controversy over these Newgate novels developed between the two men, culminating in Dickens' retirement from the magazine editorship. His departure made way for Ainsworth to replace him at the end of 1839. Jack Sheppard was published in a three volume edition by Bentley in October 1839, and eight different theatrical versions of the story were staged in autumn 1839. Ainsworth followed Jack Sheppard with two novels: Guy Fawkes and The Tower of London. Both ran through 1840, and Ainsworth celebrated the conclusion of The Tower of London with a large dinner party to celebrate the works.
With the 1840 novels finished, Ainsworth began to write Old St. Paul's, A Tale of the Plague and the Fire. The work ran in The Sunday Times from 3 January 1841 to 26 December 1841, which was an achievement as he became one of the first writers to have a work appear in a national paper in such a form. His next works, Windsor Castle and The Miser's Daughter, appeared in 1842. The first mention of Windsor Castle comes in a letter to Crossley, 17 November 1841, in which Ainsworth admits to writing a novel about Windsor Castle and the events surrounding Henry VIII's first and second marriages. The Miser's Daughter was published first, starting with the creation of Ainsworth's Magazine, an independent project that Ainsworth started after leaving Bentley's Miscellany. To create the magazine, Ainsworth teamed with Cruikshank, who served as the illustrator. Cruikshank moved his efforts from his own magazine, The Omnibus, to the new magazine, and an advertisement for it appeared in December 1841, saying that the first issue would be published on 29 January 1842. The opening of the magazine was welcomed by contemporary members of the press, which only increased as the magazine proved to be successful. Ainsworth's Magazine marked the height of his career.
Ainsworth's Magazine
Ainsworth hoped to start publishing Windsor Castle in his magazine by April, but he was delayed when his mother died on 15 March 1842. John Forster wrote to Ainsworth to offer assistance in writing the novel, but there is no evidence that Ainsworth accepted. The work was soon finished and started appearing in the magazine by July 1842, where it ran until June 1843. George Cruikshank, illustrator for The Miser's Daughter, took over as illustrator for Windsor Castle after the first one finished its run. A play version of The Miser's Daughter by Edward Stirling appeared in October 1842, with another version by T. P. Taylor in November. During this time, Ainsworth had many well-known contributors to his magazine, including the wife of Robert Southey, Robert Bell, William Maginn in a posthumous publication, and others. By the end of 1843, Ainsworth had sold his stake in Ainsworth's Magazine to John Mortimer while remaining as editor. The next work that Ainsworth included in his magazine was Saint James's or the Court of Queen Anne, An Historical Romance, which ran from January 1844 until December 1844. The work was illustrated by Cruikshank, the last time that Ainsworth and Cruikshank collaborated on a novel.
In 1844, Ainsworth helped in the building of the monument to Walter Scott in Edinburgh. He spent his year visiting many people, including members of the British nobility. The popularity of his magazine decreased over that year due to a lack of quality works, except for a series by Leigh Hunt, A Jar of Honey from Mount Hybla. Even Ainsworth's own work, St James's, was damaged because it was written in haste. During this time, Ainsworth began one of his best novels, Auriol, but it was never finished. It was published in part between 1844 and 1845 as Revelations of London. Hablot Browne, using the name "Phiz", illustrated the work and became the main illustrator for the magazine. The novel was being produced until Ainsworth and Mortimer fought in early 1845 and Ainsworth resigned as editor. Soon afterwards, Ainsworth bought The New Monthly Magazine and started asking contributors to Ainsworth's Magazine to join him at the new periodical. He issued an advertisement saying that there would be contributors of "high rank", which caused Thackeray to attack him in Punch for favouring the nobility. However, Thackeray later contributed to the magazine, along with others including Hunt, E V Keanley, G P R James, Horace Smith, and Edward Bulwer-Lytton. Ainsworth reprinted many of his own works in the magazine along with his own portrait, the latter provoking a mock portrait of the back of Ainsworth's head in Punch as the only angle that Ainsworth had not yet published for the public.
In 1845, two of Ainsworth's friends and contributors died, Laman Blanchard and Richard Barham. Later in the year, Ainsworth was able to regain control over Ainsworth's Magazine and continued to republish many of his earlier works. He spent much of his time recruiting contributors to the two magazines, and published a new work in 1847, James the Second but claimed only to be the "editor" of the work. By 1847, he was able to purchase the copyright of many of his earlier works in order to reissue them. During this time, he was working on what would be his best novel, The Lancashire Witches. By the end of 1847, the plan of the novel was finished and the work was to be published in The Sunday Times.
Later life
In April 1872, a version of The Miser's Daughter, called Hilda, was produced for the Adelphi Theatre by Andrew Halliday. On 6 April 1872, Cruikshank submitted a letter to The Times, claiming that he was upset about his name being left out of the credits for the play. Additionally, he claimed that the idea for the novel came from himself and not from Ainsworth. This provoked a controversy between the two.
Style and success
His first success as a writer came with Rookwood in 1834, which features Dick Turpin as its leading character. In 1839 he published another novel featuring a highwayman, Jack Sheppard. From 1840 to 1842 he edited Bentley's Miscellany, from 1842 to 1853, Ainsworth's Magazine and subsequently The New Monthly Magazine.
His Lancashire novels cover altogether 400 years and include The Lancashire Witches, 1848, Mervyn Clitheroe, 1857, and The Leaguer of Lathom. Jack Sheppard, Guy Fawkes, 1841, Old St Paul's, 1841, Windsor Castle, 1843, and The Lancashire Witches are regarded as his most successful novels. He was very popular in his lifetime and his novels sold in large numbers, but his reputation has not lasted well. As John William Cousin argues, he depends for his effects on striking situations and powerful descriptions, but has little humour or power of delineating character. S.T. Joshi has characterized his output as an "appalling array of dreary and unreadable historical novels". E. F. Bleiler has praised Windsor Castle as "the most enjoyable" of Ainsworth's novels. Bleiler also stated "All in all, Ainsworth was not a great writer--his contemporaries included men and women who did things better--but he was a clean stylist and his work can be entertaining".
Historians have criticised the mingling of fact and fiction in his novels, noting that his romanticised treatment of Dick Turpin became rapidly accepted (popularly) as historical fact, while his novelisation of the 1612 Lancashire witch trials similarly distorted real events into a Gothic form.
Legacy
Ainsworth was largely forgotten by critics after his death. In 1911, S. M. Ellis commented: "It is certainly remarkable that, during the twenty-eight years which have elapsed since the death of William Harrison Ainsworth, no full record has been published of the exceptionally eventful career of one of the most picturesque personalities of the nineteenth century."
Ainsworth's 1854 novel, The Flitch of Bacon, led to the modern revival of the flitch of bacon custom at Great Dunmow in Essex, whereby married couples who have lived together without strife are awarded a side of bacon. Ainsworth himself encouraged the revival by providing the prizes for the ceremony in 1855. The Dunmow Flitch Trials, in turn, were the basis for the 1952 film Made in Heaven starring Petula Clark. Ainsworth also appears as a character in the historical novel Shark Alley: The Memoirs of a Penny-a-Liner by Stephen Carver (2016), in which the Newgate Controversy is dramatized.
Works
References
Citations
Carver, Stephen. The Life and Works of the Lancashire Novelist William Harrison Ainsworth, 1805–1882. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 2003.
Ellis, S. M. William Harrison Ainsworth and His Friends. London: Garland Publishing, Inc. 1979 [1911].
Worth, George. William Harrison Ainsworth. New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc. 1972.
External links
Works by William Harrison Ainsworth via The University of Adelaide Libraries
Selected poems by William Harrison Ainsworth
Biography of Ainsworth at the Literary Encyclopedia
List of web links and list of works by Ainsworth
Ainsworth's Magazine, fulltext
Stephen Carver, William Harrison Ainsworth: The Life and Adventures of the Lancashire Novelist In Fukui Daigaku Kyouiku Chiiki Kagakubu no Kenkyu Kiyou vol I, 59 (Japan 2003): 1–23.
1805 births
1882 deaths
People from Cheetham Hill
19th-century English novelists
Burials at Kensal Green Cemetery
English historical novelists
Writers of historical fiction set in the early modern period
English male novelists
People educated at Manchester Grammar School
Writers from Manchester
Victorian novelists
Writers of Gothic fiction
|
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] |
208243
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinobaatar
|
Sinobaatar
|
Sinobaatar is a genus of extinct mammal from the Lower Cretaceous of China. It is categorized within the also extinct order Multituberculata and among these it belongs to the plagiaulacid lineage (a possible infraorder). Sinobaatar was a small herbivore during the Mesozoic era, commonly called "the age of the dinosaurs". The genus was named by Hu Y. and Wang Y. in 2002. Three species have been described.
It has been found in Lower Cretaceous strata of the Yixian Formation in Liaoning, China. According to Hu & Wang (2002),
"[t]he dental features of Sinobaatar show again that eobaatarids are obviously intermediate between Late Jurassic multituberculates and the later forms".
Many Multituberculata are only known from teeth, but the type specimen of Sinobaatar is a reasonably complete skeleton.
Sinobaatar was eaten, at least on occasion, by the feathered dinosaur Sinosauropteryx prima (Hurum et al. 2006).
Etymology
The name Sinobaatar is a Latin and Mongolian mixture of "Sino–" and "Bataar" (Baghatur) and means "Chinese hero". The type species name is in honor of Lingyuan City.
References
Hurum, Jørn H.; Luo, Zhe-Xi & Kielan-Jaworowska, Zofia (2006): Were mammals originally venomous? Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 51(1): 1–11. PDF fulltext
Kielan-Jaworowska, Zofia & Hurum, Jørn H. (2001): Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals. Paleontology 44: 389–429.
Kusuhashi, Hu, Wang, Setoguchi & Matsuoka (2009): Two eobaatarid (Multituberculata; Mammalia) genera from the Lower Cretaceous Shahai and Fuxin Formations, Northeastern China. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 29(4): 1264–1288.
Hu & Wang (2002): Sinobaatar gen. nov.: First multituberculate from the Jehol Biota of Liaoning, Northeast China. Chinese Science Bulletin 47(11): 933–938.
Much of the above material has been derived from Mesozoic Mammals: Plagiaulacidae, Albionbaataridae, Eobaataridae & Arginbaataridae
Cretaceous mammals
Multituberculates
Prehistoric animals of China
Yixian fauna
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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