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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross
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Gross
|
Gross may refer to:
Finance
Gross Cash Registers, a defunct UK company with a high profile in the 1970s
Gross (economics), is the total income before deducting expenses
Science and measurement
Gross (unit), a counting unit equal to 144 items
Gross weight
Gross heating value, see Heat of combustion
Places
Gross, Illinois, an unincorporated community
Gross, Kansas, an unincorporated community
Gross mine, a gold mine in Russia
Gross, Nebraska, a village
Gross Hills, Ellsworth Land, Antarctica
33800 Gross, an asteroid
Other uses
Gross (surname)
Gross!, a television show on Discovery Channel
In golf, the gross score is the number of strokes taken before accounting for any handicap allowances
"In gross", legally associated with a legal person as opposed to a piece of land; as in:
Easement in gross as opposed to easement appurtenant
Hereditary in gross service, as opposed to serjeanty
Profit in gross as opposed to profit appurtenant
Villein in gross (tied to the lord) as opposed to villein regardant (tied to the manor)
See also
Gros (disambiguation)
Grosz (disambiguation)
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] |
208250
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20the%20Ripper
|
John the Ripper
|
John the Ripper is a free password cracking software tool. Originally developed for the Unix operating system, it can run on fifteen different platforms (eleven of which are architecture-specific versions of Unix, DOS, Win32, BeOS, and OpenVMS). It is among the most frequently used password testing and breaking programs as it combines a number of password crackers into one package, autodetects password hash types, and includes a customizable cracker. It can be run against various encrypted password formats including several crypt password hash types most commonly found on various Unix versions (based on DES, MD5, or Blowfish), Kerberos AFS, and Windows NT/2000/XP/2003 LM hash. Additional modules have extended its ability to include MD4-based password hashes and passwords stored in LDAP, MySQL, and others.
Sample output
Here is a sample output in a Debian environment.
$ cat pass.txt
user:AZl.zWwxIh15Q
$ john -w:password.lst pass.txt
Loaded 1 password hash (Traditional DES [24/32 4K])
example (user)
guesses: 1 time: 0:00:00:00 100% c/s: 752 trying: 12345 - pookie
The first line is a command to expand the data stored in the file "pass.txt". The next line is the contents of the file, i.e. the user (AZl) and the hash associated with that user (zWwxIh15Q). The third line is the command for running John the Ripper utilizing the "-w" flag. "password.lst" is the name of a text file full of words the program will use against the hash, pass.txt makes another appearance as the file we want John to work on.
Then we see output from John working. Loaded 1 password hash — the one we saw with the "cat" command — and the type of hash John thinks it is (Traditional DES). We also see that the attempt required one guess at a time of 0 with a 100% guess rate.
Attack types
One of the modes John can use is the dictionary attack. It takes text string samples (usually from a file, called a wordlist, containing words found in a dictionary or real passwords cracked before), encrypting it in the same format as the password being examined (including both the encryption algorithm and key), and comparing the output to the encrypted string. It can also perform a variety of alterations to the dictionary words and try these. Many of these alterations are also used in John's single attack mode, which modifies an associated plaintext (such as a username with an encrypted password) and checks the variations against the hashes.
John also offers a brute force mode. In this type of attack, the program goes through all the possible plaintexts, hashing each one and then comparing it to the input hash. John uses character frequency tables to try plaintexts containing more frequently used characters first. This method is useful for cracking passwords that do not appear in dictionary wordlists, but it takes a long time to run.
See also
Brute-force search
Brute-force attack
Crack (password software)
Computer hacking
Hacking tool
Openwall Project
Password cracking
References
External links
Password cracking software
Free security software
Cross-platform software
Cryptanalytic software
Year of introduction missing
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingolstadt
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Ingolstadt
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Ingolstadt ( , , Austro-Bavarian: ) is a city in Bavaria, Germany, on the banks of the Danube, in the centre of Bavaria. In 2016, it had 133,638 citizens, making it the fifth largest city in Bavaria. It is part of the Munich Metropolitan Region.
The Illuminati, an Age of Enlightenment secret society, was founded in Ingolstadt in the late 18th century.
Ingolstadt is a setting in the novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, where the scientist Victor Frankenstein creates his monster.
It is the site of the headquarters of the German automobile manufacturer Audi, the defence division of aircraft manufacturer Airbus (formerly Cassidian Air Systems), and electronic stores Media Markt and Saturn.
Ingolstadt Central Station has been connected to Nuremberg by a high-speed rail link since May 2006. Ingolstadt also has a second passenger station at Ingolstadt Nord.
Geography
Covering an urban area of , Ingolstadt is geographically Bavaria's fourth-largest city after Munich, Nuremberg and Augsburg. At its largest point the city is about from east to west and from north to south about . The city boundary has a length of .
The city boundary is about away from the geographic centre of Bavaria in Kipfenberg. The old town is approximately above sea level and the highest point, located in the district of Pettenhofen, is . The lowest point of the Schutter confluence with the Danube is at above sea level. Ingolstadt uses Central European Time as throughout Germany; the average time lag is 14 minutes.
The city is expanding at the northern and southern banks of the Danube in a wide flat bowl. The Ingolstadt basin borders the Jura foothills, located south and is to the north of the Donau-Isar-Hügelland. In the southwest is the Donaumoos while in the east the lowland forests of the Danube reach into the urban area. It is the second largest hardwood floodplain on the Danube. The Sandrach, the former Southern main branch of the Danube, partly forms the Southern city border. In the north, the Schutter flows through from the west reaching the Danube near to the Altstadt.
History and culture
Ingolstadt was first mentioned in a document of Charlemagne on 6 February 806 as "Ingoldes stat", the place of Ingold. Circa 1250, Ingolstadt was granted city status.
Ingolstadt was the capital of the Duchy of Bavaria-Ingolstadt between 1392 and 1447. Ingolstadt was then united with Bavaria-Landshut. Louis VII, Duke of Bavaria ordered the building of the New Castle as well as the Church of Our Lady (Münster zur Schönen Unseren Lieben Frau), also known as "Upper Parish" (Obere Pfarr), whose form was strongly influenced by French Gothic architecture.
In 1472 Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria founded the University of Ingolstadt which became the Ludwig-Maximilians-University. In 1800 it was moved to Landshut and in 1826 eventually to Munich. The University of Ingolstadt was an important defender of the Roman Catholic Church during the Reformation era, led by such notable scholars as Johann Eck.
Ingolstadt is where William IV, Duke of Bavaria wrote and signed the Bavarian Reinheitsgebot in 1516.
In the Battle of Ingolstadt in May 1525, the Black Company – a unit of Franconian farmers and knights fighting on the side of the peasants during the German Peasants' War – took their last stand at Ingolstadt against the Swabian League, all eventually being defeated and killed.
On 30 April 1632, the German field marshal Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly died at Ingolstadt during a Swedish siege of the city. The field marshal had been badly wounded in a previous engagement with the Swedes under King Gustavus Adolphus. Ingolstadt proved to be the first fortress in Germany that held out for the entire length of the Swedish siege, and the Swedes eventually withdrew.
The remains of Gustavus Adolphus' horse can be seen in the City Museum. The horse was shot from under the king by one of the cannons inside the fortress, a cannon known as "The Fig". When the Swedes withdrew, the city preserved the remains of the king's horse, eventually putting the on display. It has remained thus for almost 400 years. In 1748, Adam Weishaupt, the founder of the Order of Illuminati, was born in Ingolstadt. After the French invasion in 1799 the fortress was demolished and the university was relocated to Landshut.
Originally a fortress city, Ingolstadt is enclosed by a medieval defensive wall. The Bavarian fortress (1537–1930) now holds the museum of the Bavarian army. During World War I, future French president Charles de Gaulle was detained there as a prisoner of war. A sappers' drill ground lies next to the river, and two military air bases are located nearby, one used for testing aircraft. The long military tradition of the city is reflected in today's civil and cultural life. Former "off-limit" military training areas have been converted into well-used public parks.
Adolf Scherzer composed the "Bayerischen Defiliermarsch". Mary Shelley's Frankenstein was set at the Ingolstädter Alte Anatomie (Old Anatomy Building), now a museum for medical history. Marieluise Fleißer set her play Pioneers in Ingolstadt (1928) in the city.
In 1945, the car manufacturer Auto Union first arrived in the city. The company's original factories in Chemnitz and Zwickau (both then in Soviet controlled East Germany) were shattered during the war, and were seized by the Soviets as reparations. Auto Union executives initially started a spare parts operation in Ingolstadt in the immediate post war period, with a view to relocating the entire company to the region. With the help of Marshall Plan aid, Auto Union was formally re-founded in Ingolstadt in 1949, ultimately evolving into the modern-era Audi company, after it was taken over by Volkswagen in 1964. Today, Audi is the region's largest employer and now dominates the economy of the city.
Demographics
Population development since 1450:
Cityscape
Main sights
As one of five ducal residences of medieval Bavaria—besides Landshut, Munich, Straubing and Burghausen—the city of Ingolstadt features many Gothic buildings, such as the Herzogskasten ('old ducal castle', ca. 1255) and the New Castle, which was built from 1418 onwards. The largest church is the Gothic hall church of Our Lady (Liebfrauenmunster), which was begun in 1425. The church was built to serve as a second parish church besides Saint Maurice as well as the burial place for Louis and his family and intended to be the official burial place for the future Dukes of Bavaria-Ingolstadt. Its peculiar and rare angle of footprint was emulated in the 20th century built Cathedral of Newark. Also the churches of Saint Maurice (1235) and of the Gnadenthal and Franciscans monasteries date from the Gothic era. The Kreuztor (1385) is one of the remaining gates of the old city wall and to this day the key landmark of the city. The Gothic Old City Hall was constructed in the 14th century, and later altered several times.
The Baroque era is represented by the Old Anatomy Building of the university (1723–1736, designed by Gabriel de Gabrieli) and the church St. Maria de Victoria, which was built by the Asam brothers (1732–1736). The church of the Augustinians of Johann Michael Fischer (1736) was completely destroyed in World War II.
Many buildings of the neo-classical fortification of Leo von Klenze have been preserved, such as the Reduit Tilly and the towers Baur and Triva.
As well as being the home of the headquarters of the car manufacturer Audi, the town is also home to Audi's museum mobile, which is open to the public and presents historic exhibits and offers guided tours.
Parks and natural areas
Ingolstadt is a green city with numerous parks, green spaces and forests. The most prominent of these is the "Glacis", formerly an open space in front of the city walls, now surrounding the historic city center. It functions as a "green belt" and a buffer area between traffic, residential areas and schools. It is possible to traverse it using spacious paths for pedestrians and cyclists, with a good view of the site of the former fortifications, including a well-preserved section of the ditch. Spanning about of the Glacis is , the biggest park in the city. It contained the former and was the site of the Landesgartenschau in 1992. Klenzepark is south of the Danube river, opposite the Ingolstadt old town. In the warm seasons about 100,000 visitors use the park every month, mostly young people. While about 75% of the park visitors come from Ingolstadt and the surrounding area, the remaining approximately 25% travel from more distant places.
The biggest forest in Ingolstadt is the Auwald ("riverside forest", also called "Schüttel"). It is found on both the northern and southern banks of the Danube, and is one of the biggest well-preserved river forests in Germany, extending mainly from Neuburg to Ingolstadt with extensions to the city center. The forest serves as a natural reserve, with parts containing unique vegetation or acting as a wildlife reserve.
The Danube river runs through Ingolstadt, flowing west to east. In the area of Ingolstadt, the Danube is between 80 and 100 meters wide, and flows past Ingolstadt's old town.
Schools
Ingolstadt School of Management
Ingolstadt is home to the Ingolstadt School of Management, which is the department of business administration and economics of the Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt. In national rankings, the business school regularly scores among the top ten. The faculty maintains a large network of partner universities for international educational exchange.
The Ingolstadt School of management offers bachelor's and master's degrees in business administration. Among the academic programs offered are also an executive MBA and doctoral degrees.
Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt
Technische Hochschule Ingolstadt (THI) is a university for technology, computer sciences and business administration. With approximately 6,000 students, it is the biggest educational institution in Ingolstadt.
Several scholarship programmes supported by companies such as Siemens and Conti Temic (Continental AG) provide gifted students with financial assistance during their studies. These students deepen their practical experience by working at these organizations.
THI offers several undergraduate and graduate programmes. Every programme is listed under the top 10 in Germany.
Sports
The sports life of the city is based on the 83 registered sports clubs. The biggest sports club is the MTV 1881 Ingolstadt, with over 3000 registered members in 16 branches. In total, the sports clubs in Ingolstadt have more than 41,000 members.
Ingolstadt is especially known for ice hockey and association football. ERC Ingolstadt, founded in 1964, plays in the German Ice Hockey League since the 2002-03 season. With the exception of its season of debut and 2007–08, the club has reached the national play-offs every year , and has reached the semi-finals three times. They won the German Ice Hockey League Championship in 2014.
The football club FC Ingolstadt 04 came into existence in 2004 after the merger of the football branches of MTV Ingolstadt and ESV Ingolstadt. In the 2007-08 season, it was promoted from the third highest division at the time, Regionalliga Süd to 2. Bundesliga. In the 2008-09 season, it was relegated at the penultimate place, but was promoted again in 2010-11 and remained in 2. Bundesliga till 2015. In 2015, Ingolstadt won the 2. Bundesliga and were promoted to the country's highest league, the Bundesliga. During their first season in the Bundesliga, Ingolstadt finished in 11th place. They were relegated to 2. Bundesliga by the end of the 2016-17 season.
Literary references
Ingolstadt is one of the many settings in Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein. Primarily, Victor Frankenstein attends university in Ingolstadt. It is also widely regarded as the place that the un named monster was created. The musical version of the novel, Frankenstein – A New Musical has many scenes set in Ingolstadt.
Ingolstadt is also a pivotal location in The Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson.
The sixth scene of "Mother Courage and Her Children" by "Bertolt Brecht" is set in Ingolstadt, when count Tilly died in 1632, during the "Thirty Years War"
Rainer Werner Fassbinder's 1971 film Pioneers in Ingolstadt is set in the town.
The X-Files episode "The Post-Modern Prometheus" makes a reference to the University of Ingolstadt. This was an allusion to Frankenstein, as the episode contained numerous Frankenstein references, and the full title of Frankenstein is "Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus".
In the Terra Ignota series, Ingolstadt is the capital of Gordian, one of the world's seven Hives.
Twin towns – sister cities
Ingolstadt is twinned with:
Aurangabad, India
Carrara, Italy
Central AO (Moscow), Russia
Moscow, Russia
Foshan, China
Grasse, France
Győr, Hungary
Kirkcaldy, Scotland, United Kingdom
Kragujevac, Serbia
Manisa, Turkey
Murska Sobota, Slovenia
Opole, Poland
Organizations and clubs
MTV 1881 Ingolstadt, Ingolstadt's major sports club
FC Ingolstadt 04, Footballclub in 2. Bundesliga (II)
Grün-Weiß Ingolstadt, Footballclub in Kreisklasse (IX)
Ingolstadt Schanzer, Baseball team in 2. Bundesliga (II)
ERC Ingolstadt, Ice hockey team in DEL (I)
The Bavarian Illuminati
Ingolstadt Dukes American football in GFL (I)
Notable people
Philipp Apian (1531–1589), mathematician
Adam Weishaupt (1748–1830), philosopher
Marieluise Fleißer (1901–1974), author and playwright
Michael Heltau (born 1933), German-Austrian actor
Erich Kellerhals (1939–2017), businessman
Horst Seehofer (born 1949), politician
Eva Bulling-Schröter (born 1956), politician
Stefan Klingele (born 1967), conductor
Reinhard Brandl (born 1977), politician
See also
University of Ingolstadt
References
External links
Ingolstadt Official website of the city (in German)
Virtual tour through Ingolstadt (in German, but more images than text)
Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingolstadt
University of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschule)
Museum of the Bavarian Army (in German)
Audi
A history of Ingolstadt by Kurt Scheurer (in German)
A biography of Marieluise Fleißer (in German)
Pioniere in Ingolstadt by Marieluise Fleißer (in
Cities in Bavaria
Populated places on the Danube
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] |
208252
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15%20%28number%29
|
15 (number)
|
15 (fifteen) is the natural number following 14 and preceding 16.
Mathematics
15 is:
a lucky number.
a triangular number.
a hexagonal number.
a pentatope number.
along with 13, one of two numbers within the teen numerical range (13-19) not to use a single-digit number in the prefix of its name (the first syllable preceding the teen suffix); instead, it uses the adjective form of five (fifth) as the prefix.
the 5th bell number (i.e. the number of partitions for a set of size 4).
a composite number; its proper divisors being , and .
the number of supersingular primes.
a repdigit in binary (1111) and quaternary (33). In hexadecimal, as well as all higher bases, 15 is represented as F.
the smallest number that can be factorized using Shor's quantum algorithm.
the magic constant of the unique order-3 normal magic square:
There are 15 perfect matchings of the complete graph K6 and 15 rooted binary trees with four labeled leaves, both of these being among the types of object counted by double factorials.
With only two exceptions, all prime quadruplets enclose a multiple of 15, with 15 itself being enclosed by the quadruplet (11, 13, 17, 19).
Because 15 is the product of distinct Fermat primes, 3 and 5, a regular polygon with 15 sides is constructible with compass and unmarked straightedge, and cos is expressible in terms of square roots.
If a positive definite quadratic form with integer matrix represents all positive integers up to 15, then it represents all positive integers via the 15 and 290 theorems.
15 contains the decimal digits 1 and 5, and is the result of adding together the integers from 1 to 5 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15)
Science
The atomic number of phosphorus.
Group 15 of the periodic table are sometimes known as the pnictogens.
Religion
Sunnism
The Hanbali Sunni madhab states that the age of fifteen of a solar or lunar calendar is when one's taklif (obligation or responsibility) begins and is the stage whereby one has his deeds recorded.
Judaism
In the Hebrew numbering system, the number 15 is not written according to the usual method, with the letters that represent "10" and "5" (י-ה, yodh and heh), because those spell out one of the Jewish names of God. Instead, the date is written with the letters representing "9" and "6" (ט-ו, teth and vav)
Passover begins on the 15th day of the Hebrew month of Nisan
Sukkot begins on the 15th day of the Hebrew month of Tishrei
Tu Bishvat is a Jewish holiday occurring on the 15th of the Hebrew month of Shevat
Modern use
15 is designated as an emergency number in Pakistan, for mobile phones, similar to the international GSM emergency number 112; if 112 is used in Pakistan, then the call is routed to 15. 112 can be used in an emergency even if the phone is locked and does not have a SIM card in it.
Sports
In all four of the major Gaelic games—hurling, Gaelic football for men and women, and camogie—each team has 15 players on the field at any given time.
In both major forms of gridiron football (American and Canadian), standard games are played in 15-minute quarters.
In rugby union:
Each team has 15 players on the field at any given time, unless one or more players are removed for a serious rules infraction.
The jersey number 15 is worn by the starting fullback.
In tennis, the number 15 represents the first point gained in a game.
In NCAA Division I women's college basketball, teams are allowed to provide scholarships to no more than 15 players at any given time.
In Australian rules football, games in the AFL Women's league consist of 15-minute quarters.
Age 15
The age of a quinceañera, a Latina girl celebrating her 15th birthday. Thus, Spanish bingo callers might refer to the number 15 as la niña bonita (the beautiful girl).
The age for obtaining a driver's (or learner's) permit in certain jurisdictions, including some, where the legal age for a driver's license is 16.
In the UK a minor can be sent to prison to await trial at the age of 15.
In some countries it is the legal age for sexual intercourse.
In the UK it is the legal age to watch a BBFC "15" rated film in a cinema or purchase a "15" rated film or video game.
The drinking age in Ethiopia.
The age of majority in Indonesia, Myanmar, Iran and Yemen.
Music
"Fifteen" is a song composed by Taylor Swift on her album Fearless
In other fields
Fifteen is:
The 15 puzzle.
The number of minutes in one quarter of an hour; 15 minutes past or before an hour is often known as quarter past and quarter to, respectively.
See also
List of highways numbered 15
References
Further reading
Wells, D. The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers London: Penguin Group. (1987): 91–93
External links
– discussing hexadecimals
– discussing the Celtic number as used in Lincolnshire
Integers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16%20%28number%29
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16 (number)
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16 (sixteen) is the natural number following 15 and preceding 17. 16 is a composite number, and a square number, being 42 = 4 × 4. It is the smallest number with exactly five divisors, its proper divisors being , , and .
In English speech, the numbers 16 and 60 are sometimes confused, as they sound very similar.
Sixteen is the fourth power of two. For this reason, 16 was used in weighing light objects in several cultures. The British have 16 ounces in one pound; the Chinese used to have 16 liangs in one jin. In old days, weighing was done with a beam balance to make equal splits. It would be easier to split a heap of grains into sixteen equal parts through successive divisions than to split into ten parts. Chinese Taoists did finger computation on the trigrams and hexagrams by counting the finger tips and joints of the fingers with the tip of the thumb. Each hand can count up to 16 in such manner. The Chinese abacus uses two upper beads to represent the 5s and 5 lower beads to represent the 1s, the 7 beads can represent a hexadecimal digit from 0 to 15 in each column.
Mathematics
Sixteen is an even number and a square of four.
Sixteen is the fourth power of two.
Sixteen is the only integer that equals mn and nm, for some unequal integers m and n (m = 4, n = 2, or vice versa). It has this property because 22 = 2 × 2. It is also equal to 32 (see tetration).
Sixteen is the base of the hexadecimal number system, which is used extensively in computer science.
Sixteen is the largest known integer n for which 2n+1 is prime.
It is first Erdős–Woods number.
Science
The atomic number of sulfur
Group 16 of the periodic table are the chalcogens
In technology
In some computer programming languages, the size in bits of certain data types
16-bit computing
A 16-bit integer can represent up to 65,536 values.
Religion
Hinduism
Saint Markandeya is said to have been granted to live to 16 years of age. When he turned sixteen, the god of death, Yama, came to look for him and fastened a noose around the saint. The saint hugged the idol of lord Shiva that he worshipped (which can be still found in the Amritaghateswarar-Abirami Temple in Thirukkadaiyur, Tamil Nadu, India.) As the noose was wrapped around both the saint and lord Shiva, this made the lord angry and he appeared in his fierce form and vanquished the lord of death, causing a brief catastrophe in the world where no one died. Eventually, lord Yama was revived and the saint Markandeya was made immortal to be of age sixteen forever.
Languages
Grammar
In Spanish and Portuguese, 16 is the first compound number (Spanish: dieciséis, European Portuguese: dezasseis, Brazilian Portuguese: dezesseis); the numbers 11 (Spanish: once, Portuguese: onze) through 15 (Spanish: quince, Portuguese: quinze) have their own names.
Age 16
Sixteen is the minimum age for being allowed an official beginner's driver's license with parental consent in many U.S. states and in Canada. In Australia, Iceland, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, and the Isle of Man, it is the age one can begin to get a learner's license.
A "sweet sixteen" is celebrated by many sixteen-year-old girls in the United States. It is a coming of age celebration that traditionally marks a girl's transition into womanhood.
16 is the minimum age that one can leave school in many states of the United States and Canada (however, restrictions apply and vary depending on state or province).
In the United States, sixteen-year-old girls earn the right to privacy laws surrounding OBGYN practices
In the United States and Canada, 16 is the most common age of sexual consent, as well as the age in the United Kingdom.
Sixteen is the minimum age to get married with parental consent in many countries, and without parental consent in Scotland.
Sixteen is the legal drinking age in Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria and Portugal.
Minimum age at which one can buy, rent, purchase, buy tickets to, or view a 16+ rated film in the Canadian province of Quebec. It is also the minimum age at which one can accompany a minor under-13 while buying, renting, or purchasing tickets to a 13+ rated movie in the province of Quebec.
Minimum age at which one can donate blood (with parental consent) in many U.S. states
Minimum age at which one can obtain an adult passport (which lasts ten years) in the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia.
Minimum age at which one can join the Armed Forces in the United Kingdom (deployment is only allowed at age 18)
Sixteen is the voting age in Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, the Isle of Man, and Nicaragua.
Sixteen is the age of majority in Cambodia, Cuba, Kyrgyzstan, and Vietnam.
In sports
Many leagues and tournaments have 16 teams or individual participants, for example:
FIFA World Cup finals from 1934 through 1978 (although for various reasons, only 15 competed in the 1938 and 1950 finals)
FIFA Women's World Cup finals from 1999 through 2011
The season-ending playoffs in the NASCAR Cup Series
The National League of Major League Baseball from 1998 to 2012
The Amount of games in a National Football League season.
In both the NBA and NHL, 16 teams qualify for the respective league playoffs; it is also the number of wins needed to win the title (both leagues have four playoff rounds, with four wins in seven games needed to win each round).
In AFL Women's, the top-level league of women's Australian rules football, each team has 16 players on the field at any given time (as opposed to the 18 of almost all other competitions in the sport, most notably the parent Australian Football League for men).
In other fields
16 steps make up the average bar of music in a 4/4 musical arrangement. The Roland TR-808, for instance, has 16 buttons that light up representing 16 16th notes making up a drum pattern.
Sixteen, Kentucky, a community in the United States
King of France (August 1754 – 21 January 1793) Louis XVI of France
There are 16 ounces in an avoirdupois pound
There are 16 pawns in a chess set and each player in a chess game starts with sixteen pieces
The Sixteen is an English choir performing early religious music
In the video game No Man's Sky, 16 is central to the plot as it is the number of minutes before the Atlas simulation resets.
Sixteen is a Polish band that represented Poland in the 1998 Eurovision Song Contest
The Cadillac Sixteen
There are 16 different personality types in the Myers-Briggs classification system
A note played for one-sixteenth the duration of a whole note is called a sixteenth note or a semiquaver
In the 16-bit era, 16-bit microprocessor ran 16-bit applications
Sixteen Kingdoms, part of Chinese history
The fighter jet, the F-16 Fighting Falcon
16 mm film was originally an amateur movie format, but is now used by professionals
"16" is a song by American band Green Day
The M16 rifle
The number 16 is the symbol of the Day of solidarity with political prisoners and victims of the Lukashenka regime in Belarus, which is commemorated on 16th of every months by demonstrations and flash mobs worldwide
A sixteen is a slang term for a verse in a hip hop song, which are often written in 16-bar stanzas.
Android 16, a fictional character in the Dragon Ball manga and anime series
The amount of waking hours in a day in an "8 hours of sleep" schedule
In the story of the Sleeping Beauty, a spell is placed on the princess that when she reaches her 16th birthday, she will "prick her finger on the spindle of a spinning wheel and die"
16 is the number of the French department Charente
Many bank card numbers are 16 digits long
There is a No Doubt song titled "Sixteen" on the album Tragic Kingdom
The metalcore band Demon Hunter has a song titled "Sixteen" on their Storm the Gates of Hell album
In Belgium, 16 is colloquially used to refer to the Belgian government or Prime Minister, especially in media, because of the official seat of the Belgian federal government being located on 16, rue de la Loi in Brussels. The full address is also sometimes used, in a similar way as 10, Downing Street in England.
The number of rays in the Vergina Sun, symbol by Philip's Argead dynasty, possible religious symbol representing the Olympian gods.
There are sixteen petals on the Imperial Seal of Japan.
There were sixteen lands created by Ahura Mazda, according to Avestan geography, which were then followed by sixteen negative counter-creations of Angra Mainyu.
References
External links
Integers
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] |
208259
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20%20%28number%29
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20 (number)
|
20 (twenty; Roman numeral XX) is the natural number following 19 and preceding 21. A group of twenty units may also be referred to as a score.
In mathematics
20 is a pronic number.
20 is a tetrahedral number as 1, 4, 10, 20.
20 is the basis for vigesimal number systems.
20 is the third composite number to be the product of a squared prime and a prime, and also the second member of the (22)q family in this form.
20 is the smallest primitive abundant number.
An icosahedron has 20 faces. A dodecahedron has 20 vertices.
20 can be written as the sum of three Fibonacci numbers uniquely, i.e. 20 = 13 + 5 + 2.
The product of the number of divisors and the number of proper divisors of 20 is exactly 20.
20 is the number of moves (quarter or half turns) required to optimally solve a Rubik's Cube in the worst case.
In science
The atomic number of calcium.
The third magic number in physics.
The International Astronomical Union shower number for Coma Berenicids.
Biology
The number of proteinogenic amino acids that are encoded by the standard genetic code.
In some countries, the number 20 is used as an index in measuring visual acuity. 20/20 indicates normal vision at 20 feet, although it is commonly used to mean "perfect vision". (Note that this applies only to countries using the Imperial system. The metric equivalent is 6/6.) When someone is able to see only after an event how things turned out, that person is often said to have had "20/20 hindsight".
As an indefinite number
A 'score' is a group of 20 (often used in combination with a cardinal number, i.e. fourscore to mean 80), but also often used as an indefinite number (e.g. the newspaper headline "Scores of Typhoon Survivors Flown to Manila").
In sports
Twenty20 is a form of limited overs cricket where each team plays only 20 overs.
A standard dartboard is laid out as 20 sectors.
The Kentucky Derby currently has a maximum field of 20 horses.
In rugby union, 20 national teams currently qualify for each edition of the men's Rugby World Cup.
In chess, 20 is the number of legal moves for each player in the starting position.
In Australian rules football, most games consist of four 20-minute quarters.
Under NCAA men's basketball rules, games consist of 20-minute halves.
Ice hockey games are played in three 20-minute periods.
Age 20
In many disciplines of developmental psychology, adulthood starts at age 20.
Formerly the age of majority in Japan and in Japanese tradition.
Age 20 is the age at which Levites in the time of King David were allowed "to do the work for the service of the house of the Lord", the Temple in Jerusalem (see First Chronicles Chapter 23, verses 24 and 27). In the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, following the Babylonian captivity, it was Levites from the age of 20 upwards who were assigned "to oversee the work of the house of the LORD" (Ezra Chapter 3, verse 8).
Music
In other fields
+20 is the code for international direct dial phone calls to Egypt.
CB slang for a place, being short for the ten-code "10–20" meaning "What is your location?"
20/20 is a primetime newsmagazine program on ABC, which in turn is taken from the expression for normal eyesight (20/20 vision).
020 is the ISO 3166-1 numeric 3 digit country code for Andorra.
The UIC Country Code for Russia identifying member countries of the International Union of Railways (UIC).
20 is the value of the letter J when computing the check digit in the serial number of an intermodal (shipping) container, as defined by ISO 6346.
In Hebrew numerals, the letter Kaph (כ) represents twenty; see also gematria, the Hebrew system of numerology. Similarly the Arabic letter kāf (ك) represents twenty in the Abjad numerals.
The number of questions in the game Twenty Questions.
See also
List of highways numbered 20
References
External links
Integers
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208260
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main-Kinzig-Kreis
|
Main-Kinzig-Kreis
|
Main-Kinzig-Kreis is a Kreis (district) in the east of Hesse, Germany. Neighboring districts are Wetteraukreis, Vogelsbergkreis, Fulda, Bad Kissingen, Main-Spessart, Aschaffenburg, Offenbach and the district-free cities of Offenbach and Frankfurt.
History
The district was created in 1974 by merging the former districts of Hanau, Schlüchtern, Gelnhausen and the former urban district of Hanau. It is basically the former territory of the county of Hesse-Hanau.
Geography
The district is named after the two primary rivers: the Main flows along the south-west corner of the district. The Kinzig, a tributary of the Main, flows through the district.
According to the Institut Géographique National from 1 January 2007 until July 2013 the geographic centre of the European Union was located on a wheat field outside of Gelnhausen.
Economy
In 2017 (latest data available) the GDP per inhabitant was €34,185. This places the district 15th out of 26 districts (rural and urban) in Hesse (overall average: €45,107).
Towns and municipalities
Coat of arms
The coat of arms is a combination of the coat of arms of the previous districts which were merged in 1974. The swan in top comes from the defunct Hanau district, and is the old crest of the Counts of Hanau. The eagle in the left is taken from the town of Gelnhausen. The bars in the right are taken from the coat of arms of the Lords of Hutten, who owned the area around Bad Soden and Salmünster, formerly part of the defunct Schlüchtern district.
Partnerships
The oldest partnership was inherited from the previous district Hanau, and was formed in 1972 with the Croatian municipality of Kutina – however it took till the 20th anniversary in 1992 that this partnership was officially signed. In 1986 the district parliament decided to start a developing project with the Diriamba region in Nicaragua.
Since 1990 the district has a partnership with the Thuringian district Gotha. Also in 1990 first contacts with the Russian Rayon Istra were started, which resulted in an official partnership in 1992. In 1993 the partnership with the Hungarian Komárom-Esztergom County was signed, with the first contacts also dating back to 1990.
A friendship was signed in 1997 with the Russian city Troitsk, together with the partnership of the city Wächtersbach with Troitsk. In 2000 a treaty of friendship was signed with the Italian province Belluno, as well as a partnership with the Israeli city Ramat Gan.
Main-Kinzig-Kreis is twinned with:
Ramat Gan, Israel since 1990
Kutina, Croatia
References
External links
Districts of Hesse
Vogelsberg
Spessart
|
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] |
208261
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Hundred (disambiguation)
|
A hundred is the natural number following 99 and preceding 101.
Hundred may also refer to:
Units and divisions
Hundred (word) formerly also equal to 120 or other values
Hundred (unit) sometimes equal to 120 or other values
Hundredweight (cwt.), the most common of these units
Hundred (county division), a largely historical division of a county or similar larger administrative unit.
Places
Hundred, West Virginia, US
Other uses
Hundred (novel series), a Japanese light novel series
Hundreds (video game), a 2013 puzzle video game
"Hundred", a song by the Fray from How to Save a Life
"Hundred", a song by Khalid from Free Spirit
"Hundred", an episode of the TV series One Tree Hill
Hundred (TV series), an Indian series by Hotstar
The Hundred (cricket), a professional 100-ball cricket tournament in the UK, from summer 2021
One Hundred Above the Park, a residential high-rise in St. Louis, Missouri, United States
See also
100 (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic%20antenna
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Parabolic antenna
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A parabolic antenna is an antenna that uses a parabolic reflector, a curved surface with the cross-sectional shape of a parabola, to direct the radio waves. The most common form is shaped like a dish and is popularly called a dish antenna or parabolic dish. The main advantage of a parabolic antenna is that it has high directivity. It functions similarly to a searchlight or flashlight reflector to direct the radio waves in a narrow beam, or receive radio waves from one particular direction only. Parabolic antennas have some of the highest gains, meaning that they can produce the narrowest beamwidths, of any antenna type. In order to achieve narrow beamwidths, the parabolic reflector must be much larger than the wavelength of the radio waves used, so parabolic antennas are used in the high frequency part of the radio spectrum, at UHF and microwave (SHF) frequencies, at which the wavelengths are small enough that conveniently-sized reflectors can be used.
Parabolic antennas are used as high-gain antennas for point-to-point communications, in applications such as microwave relay links that carry telephone and television signals between nearby cities, wireless WAN/LAN links for data communications, satellite communications and spacecraft communication antennas. They are also used in radio telescopes.
The other large use of parabolic antennas is for radar antennas, in which there is a need to transmit a narrow beam of radio waves to locate objects like ships, airplanes, and guided missiles, and often for weather detection. With the advent of home satellite television receivers, parabolic antennas have become a common feature of the landscapes of modern countries.
The parabolic antenna was invented by German physicist Heinrich Hertz during his discovery of radio waves in 1887. He used cylindrical parabolic reflectors with spark-excited dipole antennas at their focus for both transmitting and receiving during his historic experiments.
Design
The operating principle of a parabolic antenna is that a point source of radio waves at the focal point in front of a paraboloidal reflector of conductive material will be reflected into a collimated plane wave beam along the axis of the reflector. Conversely, an incoming plane wave parallel to the axis will be focused to a point at the focal point.
A typical parabolic antenna consists of a metal parabolic reflector with a small feed antenna suspended in front of the reflector at its focus, pointed back toward the reflector. The reflector is a metallic surface formed into a paraboloid of revolution and usually truncated in a circular rim that forms the diameter of the antenna. In a transmitting antenna, radio frequency current from a transmitter is supplied through a transmission line cable to the feed antenna, which converts it into radio waves. The radio waves are emitted back toward the dish by the feed antenna and reflect off the dish into a parallel beam. In a receiving antenna the incoming radio waves bounce off the dish and are focused to a point at the feed antenna, which converts them to electric currents which travel through a transmission line to the radio receiver.
Parabolic reflector
The reflector can be of sheet metal, metal screen, or wire grill construction, and it can be either a circular "dish" or various other shapes to create different beam shapes. A metal screen reflects radio waves as well as a solid metal surface as long as the holes are smaller than one-tenth of a wavelength, so screen reflectors are often used to reduce weight and wind loads on the dish. To achieve the maximum gain, it is necessary that the shape of the dish be accurate within a small fraction of a wavelength, to ensure the waves from different parts of the antenna arrive at the focus in phase. Large dishes often require a supporting truss structure behind them to provide the required stiffness.
A reflector made of a grill of parallel wires or bars oriented in one direction acts as a polarizing filter as well as a reflector. It only reflects linearly polarized radio waves, with the electric field parallel to the grill elements. This type is often used in radar antennas. Combined with a linearly polarized feed horn, it helps filter out noise in the receiver and reduces false returns.
Since a shiny metal parabolic reflector can also focus the sun's rays, and most dishes could concentrate enough solar energy on the feed structure to severely overheat it if they happened to be pointed at the sun, solid reflectors are always given a coat of flat paint.
Feed antenna
The feed antenna at the reflector's focus is typically a low-gain type such as a half-wave dipole or more often a small horn antenna called a feed horn. In more complex designs, such as the Cassegrain and Gregorian, a secondary reflector is used to direct the energy into the parabolic reflector from a feed antenna located away from the primary focal point. The feed antenna is connected to the associated radio-frequency (RF) transmitting or receiving equipment by means of a coaxial cable transmission line or waveguide.
At the microwave frequencies used in many parabolic antennas, waveguide is required to conduct the microwaves between the feed antenna and transmitter or receiver. Because of the high cost of waveguide runs, in many parabolic antennas the RF front end electronics of the receiver is located at the feed antenna, and the received signal is converted to a lower intermediate frequency (IF) so it can be conducted to the receiver through cheaper coaxial cable. This is called a low-noise block downconverter. Similarly, in transmitting dishes, the microwave transmitter may be located at the feed point.
An advantage of parabolic antennas is that most of the structure of the antenna (all of it except the feed antenna) is nonresonant, so it can function over a wide range of frequencies, that is a wide bandwidth. All that is necessary to change the frequency of operation is to replace the feed antenna with one that works at the new frequency. Some parabolic antennas transmit or receive at multiple frequencies by having several feed antennas mounted at the focal point, close together.
Types
Parabolic antennas are distinguished by their shapes:
Paraboloidal or dish – The reflector is shaped like a paraboloid truncated in a circular rim. This is the most common type. It radiates a narrow pencil-shaped beam along the axis of the dish.
Shrouded dish – Sometimes a cylindrical metal shield is attached to the rim of the dish. The shroud shields the antenna from radiation from angles outside the main beam axis, reducing the sidelobes. It is sometimes used to prevent interference in terrestrial microwave links, where several antennas using the same frequency are located close together. The shroud is coated inside with microwave absorbent material. Shrouds can reduce back lobe radiation by 10 dB.
Cylindrical – The reflector is curved in only one direction and flat in the other. The radio waves come to a focus not at a point but along a line. The feed is sometimes a dipole antenna located along the focal line. Cylindrical parabolic antennas radiate a fan-shaped beam, narrow in the curved dimension, and wide in the uncurved dimension. The curved ends of the reflector are sometimes capped by flat plates, to prevent radiation out the ends, and this is called a pillbox antenna.
Shaped-beam antennas – Modern reflector antennas can be designed to produce a beam or beams of a particular shape, rather than just the narrow "pencil" or "fan" beams of the simple dish and cylindrical antennas above. Two techniques are used, often in combination, to control the shape of the beam:
Shaped reflectors – The parabolic reflector can be given a noncircular shape, and/or different curvatures in the horizontal and vertical directions, to alter the shape of the beam. This is often used in radar antennas. As a general principle, the wider the antenna is in a given transverse direction, the narrower the radiation pattern will be in that direction.
"Orange peel" antenna – Used in search radars, this is a long narrow antenna shaped like the letter "C". It radiates a narrow vertical fan shaped beam.
Arrays of feeds – In order to produce an arbitrary shaped beam, instead of one feed horn, an array of feed horns clustered around the focal point can be used. Array-fed antennas are often used on communication satellites, particularly direct broadcast satellites, to create a downlink radiation pattern to cover a particular continent or coverage area. They are often used with secondary reflector antennas such as the Cassegrain.
Parabolic antennas are also classified by the type of feed, that is, how the radio waves are supplied to the antenna:
Axial, prime focus, or front feed – This is the most common type of feed, with the feed antenna located in front of the dish at the focus, on the beam axis, pointed back toward the dish. A disadvantage of this type is that the feed and its supports block some of the beam, which limits the aperture efficiency to only 55–60%.
Off-axis or offset feed – The reflector is an asymmetrical segment of a paraboloid, so the focus, and the feed antenna, are located to one side of the dish. The purpose of this design is to move the feed structure out of the beam path, so it does not block the beam. It is widely used in home satellite television dishes, which are small enough that the feed structure would otherwise block a significant percentage of the signal. Offset feed can also be used in multiple reflector designs such as the Cassegrain and Gregorian, below.
Cassegrain – In a Cassegrain antenna, the feed is located on or behind the dish, and radiates forward, illuminating a convex hyperboloidal secondary reflector at the focus of the dish. The radio waves from the feed reflect back off the secondary reflector to the dish, which reflects them forward again, forming the outgoing beam. An advantage of this configuration is that the feed, with its waveguides and "front end" electronics does not have to be suspended in front of the dish, so it is used for antennas with complicated or bulky feeds, such as large satellite communication antennas and radio telescopes. Aperture efficiency is on the order of 65–70%
Gregorian – Similar to the Cassegrain design except that the secondary reflector is concave, (ellipsoidal) in shape. Aperture efficiency over 70% can be achieved.
Feed pattern
The radiation pattern of the feed antenna has to be tailored to the shape of the dish, because it has a strong influence on the aperture efficiency, which determines the antenna gain (see Gain section below). Radiation from the feed that falls outside the edge of the dish is called "spillover" and is wasted, reducing the gain and increasing the backlobes, possibly causing interference or (in receiving antennas) increasing susceptibility to ground noise. However, maximum gain is only achieved when the dish is uniformly "illuminated" with a constant field strength to its edges. So the ideal radiation pattern of a feed antenna would be a constant field strength throughout the solid angle of the dish, dropping abruptly to zero at the edges. However, practical feed antennas have radiation patterns that drop off gradually at the edges, so the feed antenna is a compromise between acceptably low spillover and adequate illumination. For most front feed horns, optimum illumination is achieved when the power radiated by the feed horn is 10 dB less at the dish edge than its maximum value at the center of the dish.
Polarization
The pattern of electric and magnetic fields at the mouth of a parabolic antenna is simply a scaled up image of the fields radiated by the feed antenna, so the polarization is determined by the feed antenna. In order to achieve maximum gain, the feed antenna in the transmitting and receiving antenna must have the same polarization.
For example, a vertical dipole feed antenna will radiate a beam of radio waves with their electric field vertical, called vertical polarization. The receiving feed antenna must also have vertical polarization to receive them; if the feed is horizontal (horizontal polarization) the antenna will suffer a severe loss of gain.
To increase the data rate, some parabolic antennas transmit two separate radio channels on the same frequency with orthogonal polarizations, using separate feed antennas; this is called a dual polarization antenna. For example, satellite television signals are transmitted from the satellite on two separate channels at the same frequency using right and left circular polarization. In a home satellite dish, these are received by two small monopole antennas in the feed horn, oriented at right angles. Each antenna is connected to a separate receiver.
If the signal from one polarization channel is received by the oppositely polarized antenna, it will cause crosstalk that degrades the signal-to-noise ratio. The ability of an antenna to keep these orthogonal channels separate is measured by a parameter called cross polarization discrimination (XPD). In a transmitting antenna, XPD is the fraction of power from an antenna of one polarization radiated in the other polarization. For example, due to minor imperfections a dish with a vertically polarized feed antenna will radiate a small amount of its power in horizontal polarization; this fraction is the XPD. In a receiving antenna, the XPD is the ratio of signal power received of the opposite polarization to power received in the same antenna of the correct polarization, when the antenna is illuminated by two orthogonally polarized radio waves of equal power. If the antenna system has inadequate XPD, cross polarization interference cancelling (XPIC) digital signal processing algorithms can often be used to decrease crosstalk.
Dual reflector shaping
In the Cassegrain and Gregorian antennas, the presence of two reflecting surfaces in the signal path offers additional possibilities for improving performance. When the highest performance is required, a technique called "dual reflector shaping" may be used. This involves changing the shape of the sub-reflector to direct more signal power to outer areas of the dish, to map the known pattern of the feed into a uniform illumination of the primary, to maximize the gain. However, this results in a secondary that is no longer precisely hyperbolic (though it is still very close), so the constant phase property is lost. This phase error, however, can be compensated for by slightly tweaking the shape of the primary mirror. The result is a higher gain, or gain/spillover ratio, at the cost of surfaces that are trickier to fabricate and test. Other dish illumination patterns can also be synthesized, such as patterns with high taper at the dish edge for ultra-low spillover sidelobes, and patterns with a central "hole" to reduce feed shadowing.
Gain
The directive qualities of an antenna are measured by a dimensionless parameter called its gain, which is the ratio of the power received by the antenna from a source along its beam axis to the power received by a hypothetical isotropic antenna. The gain of a parabolic antenna is:
where:
is the area of the antenna aperture, that is, the mouth of the parabolic reflector. For a circular dish antenna, , giving the second formula above.
is the diameter of the parabolic reflector, if it is circular
is the wavelength of the radio waves.
is a dimensionless parameter between 0 and 1 called the aperture efficiency. The aperture efficiency of typical parabolic antennas is 0.55 to 0.70.
It can be seen that, as with any aperture antenna, the larger the aperture is, compared to the wavelength, the higher the gain. The gain increases with the square of the ratio of aperture width to wavelength, so large parabolic antennas, such as those used for spacecraft communication and radio telescopes, can have extremely high gain. Applying the above formula to the 25-meter-diameter antennas often used in radio telescope arrays and satellite ground antennas at a wavelength of 21 cm (1.42 GHz, a common radio astronomy frequency), yields an approximate maximum gain of 140,000 times or about 52 dBi (decibels above the isotropic level). The largest parabolic dish antenna in the world is the Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical radio Telescope in southwest China which has an effective aperture of about 300 meters. The gain of this dish at 3 GHz is roughly 90 million, or 80 dBi.
Aperture efficiency eA is a catchall variable which accounts for various losses that reduce the gain of the antenna from the maximum that could be achieved with the given aperture. The major factors reducing the aperture efficiency in parabolic antennas are:
Feed spillover - Some of the radiation from the feed antenna falls outside the edge of the dish and so doesn't contribute to the main beam.
Feed illumination taper - The maximum gain for any aperture antenna is only achieved when the intensity of the radiated beam is constant across the entire aperture area. However the radiation pattern from the feed antenna usually tapers off toward the outer part of the dish, so the outer parts of the dish are "illuminated" with a lower intensity of radiation. Even if the feed provided constant illumination across the angle subtended by the dish, the outer parts of the dish are farther away from the feed antenna than the inner parts, so the intensity would drop off with distance from the center. So the intensity of the beam radiated by a parabolic antenna is maximum at the center of the dish and falls off with distance from the axis, reducing the efficiency.
Aperture blockage - In front-fed parabolic dishes where the feed antenna is located in front of the dish in the beam path (and in Cassegrain and Gregorian designs as well), the feed structure and its supports block some of the beam. In small dishes such as home satellite dishes, where the size of the feed structure is comparable with the size of the dish, this can seriously reduce the antenna gain. To prevent this problem these types of antennas often use an offset feed, where the feed antenna is located to one side, outside the beam area. The aperture efficiency for these types of antennas can reach 0.7 to 0.8.
Shape errors - random surface errors in the shape of the reflector reduce efficiency. The loss is approximated by Ruze's Equation.
For theoretical considerations of mutual interference (at frequencies between 2 and c. 30 GHz - typically in the Fixed Satellite Service) where specific antenna performance has not been defined, a reference antenna based on Recommendation ITU-R S.465 is used to calculate the interference, which will include the likely sidelobes for off-axis effects.
Radiation pattern
In parabolic antennas, virtually all the power radiated is concentrated in a narrow main lobe along the antenna's axis. The residual power is radiated in sidelobes, usually much smaller, in other directions. Because in parabolic antennas the reflector aperture is much larger than the wavelength, due to diffraction there are usually many narrow sidelobes, so the sidelobe pattern is complex. There is also usually a backlobe, in the opposite direction to the main lobe, due to the spillover radiation from the feed antenna that misses the reflector.
Beamwidth
The angular width of the beam radiated by high-gain antennas is measured by the half-power beam width (HPBW), which is the angular separation between the points on the antenna radiation pattern at which the power drops to one-half (-3 dB) its maximum value. For parabolic antennas, the HPBW θ is given by:
where k is a factor which varies slightly depending on the shape of the reflector and the feed illumination pattern. For an ideal uniformly illuminated parabolic reflector and θ in degrees, k would be 57.3 (the number of degrees in a radian). For a "typical" parabolic antenna k is approximately 70.
For a typical 2 meter satellite dish operating on C band (4 GHz), this formula gives a beamwidth of about 2.6°. For the Arecibo antenna at 2.4 GHz the beamwidth is 0.028°. It can be seen that parabolic antennas can produce very narrow beams, and aiming them can be a problem. Some parabolic dishes are equipped with a boresight so they can be aimed accurately at the other antenna.
It can be seen there is an inverse relation between gain and beam width. By combining the beamwidth equation with the gain equation, the relation is:
Radiation pattern formula
The radiation from a large paraboloid with uniform illuminated aperture is essentially equivalent to that from a circular aperture of the same diameter D in an infinite metal plate with a uniform plane wave incident on the plate.
The radiation-field pattern can be calculated by applying Huygens' principle in a similar way to a rectangular aperture. The electric field pattern can be found by evaluating the Fraunhofer diffraction integral over the circular aperture. It can also be determined through Fresnel zone equations.
where . Using polar coordinates . Taking account of symmetry,
and using first-order Bessel function gives the electric field pattern ,
where is the diameter of the antenna's aperture in meters, is the wavelength in meters, is the angle in radians from the antenna's symmetry axis as shown in the figure, and is the first-order Bessel function. Determining the first nulls of the radiation pattern gives the beamwidth . The term whenever . Thus,
.
When the aperture is large the angle is very small, so is approximately equal to . This gives the common beamwidth formulas,
History
The idea of using parabolic reflectors for radio antennas was taken from optics, where the power of a parabolic mirror to focus light into a beam has been known since classical antiquity. The designs of some specific types of parabolic antenna, such as the Cassegrain and Gregorian, come from similarly named analogous types of reflecting telescope, which were invented by astronomers during the 15th century.
German physicist Heinrich Hertz constructed the world's first parabolic reflector antenna in 1888. The antenna was a cylindrical parabolic reflector made of zinc sheet metal supported by a wooden frame, and had a spark-gap excited 26 cm dipole as a feed antenna along the focal line. Its aperture was 2 meters high by 1.2 meters wide, with a focal length of 0.12 meters, and was used at an operating frequency of about 450 MHz. With two such antennas, one used for transmitting and the other for receiving, Hertz demonstrated the existence of radio waves which had been predicted by James Clerk Maxwell some 22 years earlier. However, the early development of radio was limited to lower frequencies at which parabolic antennas were unsuitable, and they were not widely used until after World War 2, when microwave frequencies began to be exploited.
Italian radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi used a parabolic reflector during the 1930s in investigations of UHF transmission from his boat in the Mediterranean. In 1931 a 1.7 GHz microwave relay telephone link across the English Channel using 10 ft. (3 meter) diameter dishes was demonstrated. The first large parabolic antenna, a 9 m dish, was built in 1937 by pioneering radio astronomer Grote Reber in his backyard, and the sky survey he did with it was one of the events that founded the field of radio astronomy.
The development of radar during World War II provided a great impetus to parabolic antenna research, and saw the evolution of shaped-beam antennas, in which the curve of the reflector is different in the vertical and horizontal directions, tailored to produce a beam with a particular shape. After the war very large parabolic dishes were built as radio telescopes. The 100 meter Green Bank Radio Telescope at Green Bank, West Virginia, the first version of which was completed in 1962, is currently the world's largest fully steerable parabolic dish.
During the 1960s dish antennas became widely used in terrestrial microwave relay communication networks, which carried telephone calls and television programs across continents. The first parabolic antenna used for satellite communications was constructed in 1962 at Goonhilly in Cornwall, England to communicate with the Telstar satellite. The Cassegrain antenna was developed in Japan in 1963 by NTT, KDDI and Mitsubishi Electric. The advent in the 1970s of computer design tools such as NEC capable of calculating the radiation pattern of parabolic antennas has led to the development of sophisticated asymmetric, multireflector and multifeed designs in recent years.
See also
Cassegrain antenna
Feed horn
Offset dish antenna
Parabolic reflector
Radio telescope
Satellite dish
Satellite television
Simulsat (a quasi parabolic antenna which is spherical in one plane and parabolic in another)
References
External links
WiFi: Parabolic Dish with BiQuad feeder
Online Satellite Finder Based on Google Maps
Antenna types: Parabolic Antenna for WiFi
Online pointing utility using google maps, and each satellite channel list: http://www.dishpointer.com/
Animation of Propagation from a Parabolic Dish Antenna from YouTube
Parabolic reflector antenna tutorial Theory and practice
Applet of gain of parabolic antenna.
https://www.plutodirect.co.uk
Radio frequency antenna types
Antennas (radio)
Satellite broadcasting
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rideau%20Canal
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Rideau Canal
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The Rideau Canal, also known unofficially as the Rideau Waterway, connects Canada's capital city of Ottawa, Ontario, to Lake Ontario and the Saint Lawrence River at Kingston. It is 202 kilometres long. The name Rideau, French for "curtain", is derived from the curtain-like appearance of the Rideau River's twin waterfalls where they join the Ottawa River. The canal system uses sections of two rivers, the Rideau and the Cataraqui, as well as several lakes. Parks Canada operates the Rideau Canal.
The canal was opened in 1832 as a precaution in case of war with the United States. It remains in use today primarily for pleasure boating, with most of its original structures intact. The locks on the system open for navigation in mid-May and close in mid-October. It is the oldest continuously operated canal system in North America. In 2007 it was registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
History
Plan
After the War of 1812, information was received about the United States' plans to invade the British colony of Upper Canada from upstate New York by following the St. Lawrence River. This would have severed the lifeline between Montreal and the major naval base at Kingston. To protect against such an attack in the future, the British began construction or reinforcement of a number of defences including Citadel Hill in Halifax, La Citadelle in Quebec City, and Fort Henry in Kingston.
To ensure safe passage between Montreal and Kingston, a new route was planned that would proceed westward from Montreal along the St. Lawrence, north along the Ottawa River to the mouth of the Rideau River, later the site of Bytown (now Ottawa), then southwest via canal to Kingston and out into Lake Ontario. The Rideau would form the last portion of this route, along with shorter canals at Grenville, Chute-à-Blondeau and Carillon to bypass rapids and other hazards along the route.
Construction
The construction of the canal was supervised by Lieutenant-Colonel John By of the Royal Engineers. Private contractors such as future sugar refining entrepreneur John Redpath, Thomas McKay, Robert Drummond, Thomas Phillips, Andrew White and others were responsible for much of the construction, and the majority of the actual work was done by thousands of Irish, Scottish, French-Canadian labourers. Colonel John By decided to create a slackwater canal system instead of constructing new channels. This was a better approach as it required fewer workers, was more cost effective, and would have been easier to build.
The canal work started in the fall of 1826, and it was completed by the spring of 1832. The first full steamboat transit of the canal was made by Robert Drummond's steamboat, Rideau (aka "Pumper"), leaving Kingston on May 22, 1832 with Colonel By and family on board, and arriving in Bytown on May 29, 1832.
The final cost of the canal's construction was £822,804 when all the costs, including land acquisition, were accounted for (January 1834). Because of the unexpected cost overruns, John By was recalled to London and was retired; he received no accolades or recognition for his tremendous accomplishment.
Commercial use
Since the canal was completed, no further military engagements have taken place between Canada and the United States. Although the Rideau was not put to defensive use, it played a pivotal role in the early development of Canada and encouraged shipping, trade, and settlement of Upper Canada by tens of thousands of immigrants.
The canal was easier to navigate than the St. Lawrence River because of significant rapids in the river between Montreal and Kingston. As a result, the Rideau Canal became a busy commercial artery between Montreal and the Great Lakes. It was also used by tens of thousands of immigrants from the British Isles heading westward into Upper Canada in this period.
It was a major route for shipping heavy goods (timber, minerals, grain) from Canada's hinterland east to Montreal. Hundreds of barge loads of goods were shipped each year along the Rideau; in 1841, for instance, some 19 steamboats, 3 self-propelled barges, and 157 unpowered or tow barges used the Rideau Canal. The canal had to compete with the Erie Canal through New York State. Some of the shipments that might have been made from Kingston east, instead were taken to the opposite side of the St. Lawrence River to Oswego, New York. There they traveled by the Oswego Canal to reach the Erie and, via the Hudson River, New York City markets.
Businessmen in Kingston studied the issue. They considered building another canal to Lake Simcoe and on to the French River and Georgian Bay, thereby enabling traffic on the upper Great Lakes to use canals all the way to Montreal and avoid shipping through the entire lakes system. This plan eventually emerged as the Trent-Severn Waterway. It had originally been surveyed as a military route but never built. A simpler plan was to route around the dangerous parts of the St. Lawrence to allow direct shipping from Kingston to Montreal, and this was soon underway.
By 1849, the rapids of the St. Lawrence had been tamed by a series of locks, and commercial shippers were quick to switch to this more direct route. But commercial use of the Rideau largely ended after the Prescott and Bytown Railway was opened in December 1854. It provided faster service than shipping by the canal.
Further work improving the direct route continued along the St. Lawrence River. In the 1950s it was developed as the current Saint Lawrence Seaway, which allowed ocean-going ships access to the Great Lakes.
Current use
After the arrival of railway routes into Ottawa, most use of the canal was for pleasure craft. The introduction of the outboard motor led to an increase in small pleasure craft and increasing use of inland waterways like the Rideau and Trent-Severn. Today the Rideau forms part of the Great Loop, a major waterway route connecting a large area of the eastern United States and Canada.
Construction deaths
As many as one thousand of the workers died during the construction of the canal. Most deaths were from disease, principally complications from malaria (P. vivax), which was endemic in Ontario within the range of the Anopheles mosquito, and other diseases of the day. Accidents were fairly rare for a project of this size; in 1827 there were seven accidental deaths recorded. Inquests were held for each accidental death. The men, women and children who died were buried in local cemeteries, either burial grounds set up near work sites or existing local cemeteries. Funerals were held for the workers and the graves marked with wooden markers (which have since rotted away—leading to a misconception that workers were buried in unmarked graves).
Some of the dead remain unidentified as they had no known relatives in Upper Canada. Memorials have been erected along the canal route, most recently the Celtic Cross memorials in Ottawa, Kingston and Chaffeys Lock. The first memorial on the Rideau Canal acknowledging deaths among the labour force was erected in 1993 by the Kingston and District Labour Council and the Ontario Heritage Foundation at Kingston Mills.
Three canal era cemeteries are open to the public today: Chaffey's Cemetery and Memory Wall at Chaffey's Lock—this cemetery was used from 1825 to the late 19th century; the Royal Sappers and Miners Cemetery (originally called the Military and Civilian Cemetery and then as the Old Presbyterian Cemetery) near Newboro—used from 1828 to the 1940s; and McGuigan Cemetery near Merrickville—used from the early 19th century (c. 1805) to the late 1890s.
Recognition
The Rideau Canal was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1925, and marked with a federal plaque the next year, and again in 1962 and 2013.
The canal has been featured on postage stamps issued by Canada Post. Two 45-cent stamps—'Rideau Canal, Summer Boating at Jones Falls' and 'Rideau Canal, Winter Skating by Parliament'—were issued on June 17, 1998, as part of the Canals and Recreational Destinations series. The stamps were designed by Carey George and Dean Martin, based on paintings by Vincent McIndoe.
In 2014, the canal appeared on a $2.50 international rate stamp as part of a Canada Post set honoring World Heritage Sites. The same design was reprised on a 2016 domestic-rate stamp.
In 1993, British Waterways and Parks Canada agreed to twin the canal with the Caledonian Canal in Scotland.
In 2000 the Rideau Waterway was designated a Canadian Heritage River in recognition of its outstanding historical and recreational values.
In 2007 it was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site recognizing it as a work of human creative genius. The Rideau Canal was recognized as the best preserved example of a slack water canal in North America demonstrating the use of European slackwater technology in North America on a large scale. It is the only canal dating from the great North American canal-building era of the early 19th century that remains operational along its original line with most of its original structures intact. It was also recognized as an extensive, well preserved and significant example of a canal which was used for military purposes linked to a significant stage in human history – that of the fight to control the north of the American continent.
A plaque was erected by the Ontario Archaeological and Historic Sites Board at Jones Falls Lockstation commemorating Lieutenant Colonel John By, Royal Engineer, the superintending engineer in charge of the construction of the Rideau Canal. The plaque notes the Rideau Canal, built as a military route and incorporating 47 locks, 16 lakes, two rivers, and a , dam at Jones Falls (Jones Falls Dam), was completed in 1832.
Other plaques to the canal erected by the Ontario Heritage Trust are at Kingston Mills, Smiths Falls, and Rideau Lakes.
Waterway
The of the Rideau Canal incorporate sections of the Rideau and Cataraqui rivers, as well as several lakes, including the Lower, Upper and Big Rideau lakes. About of the route is man-made. Communities along the waterway include Ottawa, Manotick, Kars, Burritts Rapids, Merrickville, Smiths Falls, Rideau Ferry, Portland, Westport, Newboro, Seeleys Bay and Kingston. Communities connected by navigable waterways to the Rideau Canal include Kemptville and Perth.
Since World War I and the construction of more extensive rail lines into rural Ontario, only pleasure craft make use of the Rideau Canal. It takes 3–5 days to travel one way through the Rideau Canal system by motor boat. Boat tours of the canal are offered in Ottawa, Kingston, Merrickville, and Chaffeys Lock. A cruise line operates the ship Kawartha Voyageur. Recreational boaters can use it to travel between Ottawa and Kingston.
Most of the locks are still hand-operated. There are a total of 45 locks at 23 stations along the canal, plus two locks (locks 33 and 34) at the entrance to the Tay Canal (leading to Perth). Furthermore, there are four blockhouses and some of the original 16 defensible lockmasters residences along the waterway. The original Commissariat Building and foundation of the Royal Engineers' barracks remain at the Ottawa Lock Station. The waterway is home to many species of birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals and fish.
In 1973–74 a new Smiths Falls Combined Lock, 29a, was built a few dozen metres to the north of the original flight of three locks (locks 28–30). The original locks were bypassed but left in place.
Locks
The Rideau Canal uses a lock system that is still fully functioning. The gates that let boats in and out of the locks last approximately 12–15 years. When the canal was constructed, the gates were made at the lock sites by carpenters and blacksmiths, but presently they are made in Smiths Falls, Ontario, and sometimes it takes up to two months to build a set of gates. The gates used on the Rideau Canal are made of Douglas Fir and are mitre-shaped to ensure a tight seal due to water pressure. The average Rideau Canal lock lift uses 1.3 million litres () of water.
Rideaumax
In normal operations the canal can handle boats up to in length, in width, and in height with a draft of up to (boats drafting over are asked to contact the Rideau Canal Office of Parks Canada prior to their trip). In special circumstances a boat up to in length by in width can be handled.
Blockhouses
Four blockhouses were built from 1826 to 1832 to provide protection for the canal was under the control of the British Forces:
Merrickville Blockhouse – used briefly during 1837 Rebellion, it became a residence for the lockmaster, upper floor removed in 1909 and restored in 1960 as a museum
Kingston Mills Blockhouse – used in 1837–1838, then enlarged to use as a residence, more alterations made in 1909 and restored to 1830 layout in the 1960s
Newboro Blockhouse – built by the British Ordnance Department, it was also used briefly for its intended military role in the 1830s and then converted to home for lockmaster; restored in 1960s to original blockhouse configuration.
Rideau Narrows Blockhouse – built by William H. Tett it was also altered in the 19th century to become lockmaster's residence and restored from 1967 to 1970 to its original layout.
A fifth blockhouse at Burritts Rapids was partially built in 1832 before work was stopped with only the foundation and walls completed, then rebuilt in 1914–1915 and finally demolished to be replaced by the current lock station in 1969.
Commissariat Building
The Commissariat Building is the oldest stone building still standing in Ottawa. It was built in 1827 as a storehouse for the British Military in Upper Canada. The building has three floors, a secure vault, two sets of staircases, and a block and tackle on the front for hauling goods into the upper floors. After being divided into workshops and residential apartments, the Commissariat Building has housed the Bytown Museum since 1917.
Parliament Hill was intended to be the site of a fortress, to be called Citadel Hill, where the canal ended at the Ottawa River.
Skateway
In winter, a section of the Rideau Canal passing through central Ottawa becomes officially the world's largest and second longest skating rink. The cleared length is and has the equivalent surface area of 90 Olympic ice hockey rinks. It runs from the Hartwells Lockstation at Carleton University to the locks between the Parliament Buildings and the Château Laurier, including Dow's Lake in between. It serves as a popular tourist attraction and recreational area and is also the focus of the Winterlude festival in Ottawa. Beaver Tails, a fried dough pastry, are sold along with other snacks and beverages, in kiosks on the skateway.
In January 2008, Winnipeg, Manitoba, achieved the record of the world's longest skating rink at a length of 8.54 kilometres but with a width of only 2 to 3 metres wide on its Assiniboine River and Red River at The Forks. In response, the Rideau Canal was rebranded as "the world's largest skating rink". The Rideau Canal Skateway was added to the Guinness Book of World Records in 2005 for being the largest naturally frozen ice rink in the world.
The Skateway is open 24 hours a day. The length of the season depends on the weather, but typically the Rideau Canal Skateway opens in January and closes in March. Because of global warming, the region's average winter temperature has risen at an accelerating rate since the 1970s, which has gradually pushed back the opening day of skating and shortened the skating season. In 1971–1972, the Skateway's second winter, the skating season was 90 days long, which is the longest season so far. 2015–2016 was the shortest Rideau Canal Skateway season, being a mere 34 days long (and with only 18 skating days).
Although some residents of Ottawa used the canal as an impromptu skating surface for years, the official use of the canal as a skateway and tourist attraction is a more recent innovation. As recently as 1970, however, city government of Ottawa considered paving over the canal to make an expressway. The federal government's ownership of the canal, however, prevented the city from pursuing this proposal. When Doug Fullerton was appointed chair of the National Capital Commission, he proposed a recreational corridor around the canal, including the winter skateway between Carleton University and Confederation Park. The plan was implemented on January 18, 1971, despite opposition by city council. A small section of ice near the National Arts Centre was cleared by NCC employees with brooms and shovels, and 50,000 people skated on the canal the first weekend. Today the skating area of the canal is larger because of the equipment available for ice resurfacing and 24/7 maintenance crews. The skateway now has an average of one million visits per year. City councillor and author Clive Doucet credits this transformation of the canal with reinvigorating the communities of the Glebe, Old Ottawa East and Old Ottawa South.
Preparation and maintenance
The preparation for the Skateway starts as early as mid-October. At the end of the boating season, the water is drained at the Ottawa locks near Parliament by Parks Canada. Facilities on the ice such as shelters, chalets, and access ramps for vehicles are then installed. Next, "beams are placed at the locks, and the water is raised to skating level." After this step, the essentials are added such as stairs to access the ice, and hookups for both plumbing and electricity. The ice cap that forms as the canal freezes becomes the Rideau Canal Skateway. When the canal has built up a sufficient ice thickness, snow is removed from the ice surface and it is flooded in order to make the ice even more thick and smooth. Samples of ice are tested for quality and thickness. When it is safe to skate on, the Rideau Canal Skateway is opened for the season.
The Rideau Canal Skateway is maintained by the NCC (National Capital Commission). The ice is maintained by crews 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The snow and ice shavings are cleared off the surface every day and the ice surface is flooded each night with a "water dispersion machine" (weather permitting) to fill in any cracks caused by the contracting and expanding ice. There are approximately 20 holes along the side of the Skateway that flood the ice surface to make it smoother for skaters.
Two types of ice can form on the Rideau Canal Skateway, which are "white ice" and "clear ice". White ice has a milky appearance with air bubbles, and is formed when snow and water mix and then freeze. White ice can also be formed by mechanically flooding the ice surface with water to increase the thickness of the ice cap. The other type of ice is called "clear ice", which has a colourless appearance and is formed when ice crystals build up below the frozen surface in cold temperatures. If snow accumulates on the ice it can negatively impact the conditions for skating. Snow depresses the ice surface and slows down the formation of ice crystals beneath the surface.
Ice conditions can be classified as very good, good, fair or poor. They are updated twice daily by the NCC. The ideal ("very good") conditions mean there are "a limited number of pressure cracks", the ice is very hard and durable overall, the ice surface is clean and smooth, there are a "limited number of rough areas", and there is a "very good gliding surface."
See also
Tay Canal – a branch canal of the Rideau
Capital Pathway – the recreational pathway along the Rideau Canal
Trent-Severn Waterway – Central Ontario Canal System
Welland Canal – Niagara region Canal System
Saint Lawrence Seaway – Ontario–Quebec waterway system
References
Further reading
External links
Official Parks Canada Site: Rideau Canal National Historic Site of Canada
Rideau Canal Waterway
Actual Specifications, beam, draft, etc.
History of the canal – Bytown Museum and the National Research Council Canada
Eyewitness: Thomas Burrowes on the Rideau Canal, online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website
Friends of the Rideau
Rideau Heritage Route – Tourism
Rideau Canal Skateway
Heritage Passages: Bytown and the Rideau Canal
Rideau Canal Tourism
World Heritage Sites in Canada
Canals in Ontario
Parks in Ontario
Canadian Heritage Rivers
National Historic Sites in Ontario
Tourist attractions in Ottawa
Tourist attractions in Kingston, Ontario
1832 establishments in Canada
Canals opened in 1832
Heritage sites in Ontario
|
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] |
208269
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communes%20of%20the%20Haut-Rhin%20department
|
Communes of the Haut-Rhin department
|
The following is a list of the 366 communes of the French department of Haut-Rhin.
The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2020):
CA Colmar Agglomération
CA Mulhouse Alsace Agglomération
CA Saint-Louis Agglomération
Communauté de communes du Centre du Haut-Rhin
Communauté de communes Pays Rhin-Brisach
Communauté de communes du Pays de Ribeauvillé
Communauté de communes du Pays de Rouffach, Vignobles et Châteaux
Communauté de communes de la Région de Guebwiller
Communauté de communes du Ried de Marckolsheim (partly)
Communauté de communes Sud Alsace Largue
Communauté de communes Sundgau
Communauté de communes de Thann-Cernay
Communauté de communes du Val d'Argent
Communauté de communes de la Vallée de la Doller et du Soultzbach
Communauté de communes de la Vallée de Kaysersberg
Communauté de communes de la Vallée de Munster
Communauté de communes de la Vallée de Saint-Amarin
References
Haut-Rhin
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capo
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Capo
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A capo (short for capodastro, capo tasto or capotasto , Italian for "head of fretboard") is a device a musician uses on the neck of a stringed (typically fretted) instrument to transpose and shorten the playable length of the strings—hence raising the pitch. It is a common tool for players of guitars, mandolins, mandolas, banjos, ukuleles and bouzoukis. The word derives from the Italian capotasto, which means the nut of a stringed instrument. The earliest known use of capotasto is by Giovanni Battista Doni who, in his Annotazioni of 1640, uses it to describe the nut of a viola da gamba. The first patented capo was designed by James Ashborn of Wolcottville, Connecticut year 1850.
Musicians commonly use a capo to raise the pitch of a fretted instrument so they can play in a different key using the same fingerings as playing open (i.e., without a capo). In effect, a capo uses a fret of an instrument to create a new nut at a higher note than the instrument's actual nut.
There are various capo designs, but most commercial capos consist of a rubber-covered bar that clamps to the instrument's neck in some way to hold down the strings. Capos come in different sizes and shapes for different instruments and fretboard curvatures. Factors that vary by type of capo are ease of use, size, degree of interference with the player's hands, and ability to hold down strings uniformly without affecting tuning. All types of capo should be applied after a fresh tuning by laying the barre, descending from above, and directly behind the fret, so that all of the strings have uniform position and pressure. If the strings are bent or mispositioned, the instrument sounds out of tune in the new key. Some types of capo can mar the neck of the guitar if applied incorrectly.
Use
Song arrangements may cite capo position just as they cite alternative tunings. When referencing fingerings for a song that uses a capo, the player determines whether the chart references absolute finger positions, or positions relative to the capo. In tablature, for example, a note played on the fifth fret of an instrument capoed at the second fret can be listed as "5" (absolute) or "3" (relative to capo). Similarly, a D-shaped chord can be referred to as "D" (based on the shape relative to the capo), or E (based on the absolute audible chord produced). Neither method strongly prevails over the other. For this reason, the phrase "chord-shape" is commonly used to clarify that the fingering shape and not the audible pitch is being referred to.
With this concept in mind, if two players want to play a chord progression in a more interesting way, one can play first position chord-shapes with no capo, while the second player places the capo further up the fretboard and plays different voicings of the same chords. This creates a fuller sound than two guitars playing in unison. For example, if they play a simple I IV V chord progression together in E the first guitarist plays E A B7 while the second plays the same progression capoed at the fourth fret using C F G7 chord-shapes.
Playing with a capo creates the same musical effect as retuning all strings up the same number of steps. However, using a capo only affects the open note of each string. Every other fret remains unaffected (e.g., the seventh fret of an E-string still plays a B note for any capo position at or below the seventh fret), and thus a performer does not need to adjust for or relearn the entire fretboard as they might with retuning. The scale length of the strings of an instrument affects the timbre of the strings, and thus the use of a capo may alter the tone of the instrument.
Musicians also use capos to bring a guitar tuned below standard up to standard tuning. Manufacturers sometimes recommend tuning a twelve-string guitar a whole-step or more below standard to offset the additional stress of the additional strings. A capo can raise it to standard tuning. However, through improved manufacturing techniques, many modern 12-strings are tuned to standard pitch.
In different music styles
Some guitar styles—such as flamenco, Irish traditional music, and British and American folk music—frequently use a capo. Others—such as classical and jazz—rarely use a capo. Many rock and roll musicians who are influenced by folk and blues, such as Richard Thompson, Ry Cooder, Ian Anderson, Steve Earle, George Harrison, Tom Petty, Bob Dylan, Noel Gallagher, Steve Rothery, Johnny Marr, and others also use the capo. In many cases, they have extended its use past the traditional purpose of changing the key, and broken new ground, employing it in new ways. An example of using a partial capo to produce alternative sounds can be heard from guitar artist Antoine Dufour.
Mechanisms and styles
A strap-on capo's rubber-covered bar is held to the strings by a strap attached to either end of the bar. A strap-on capo commonly features either an elastic strap, or an adjustable fabric strap.
Modern variations on the strap-on capo include a semi-flexible plastic "strap" connected to the bar on one side and adjustable on the other side by a ratchet system. Strap-on capos differ from other capos in that most other capos contain only rigid parts, and most other styles do not wrap entirely around the neck of the instrument. This full wrap provides fairly even pressure of the capo bar across all strings. The strap-on capo is commonly a low-cost capo option, and is one of the earlier designs. Because they stretch to create a tight fit, the straps on these capos can be prone to stretch-fatigue and wear.
One common modern capo style is the spring-clamp capo (sometimes called "trigger-style" after the Dunlop trademarked Trigger capo). The most common of this type of capo has two bars: a rubber-covered bar to barre the strings, and another that presses against the back of the instrument neck to hold the first bar to the strings. The second bar is commonly curved to match the contour of the back of the neck. The two bars attach on a pivot at one end, and a spring presses them together.
Each bar has a 'grip' attached at a right angle to the bar; the two grips, when squeezed together by the user, pull the two bars apart, allowing the user to quickly release the capo's grip, apply or adjust the capo, then release the grips, allowing the spring to pull the bars together again. The look of the grips, and the action of squeezing them is akin to a gun's trigger, leading to the name of this capo. These are the most common design referred to as "quick-release" capos.
Though other styles also use that term, the spring clamp capo, because it can be operated by one hand in one single squeezing motion, is typically the quickest capo to apply or move on the instrument; other capos can be quicker and easier to remove from the instrument. One disadvantage to the spring clamp capo is that the pressure of the spring is not adjustable. The spring applies its maximum pressure to hold the strings down, which could have an effect on the tuning of some guitars if not applied properly. These capos can typically be applied either to the treble or bass side of the instrument, depending on the player's preference. Three of the most recognizable models of spring clamp capos are manufactured by Dunlop, Kyser and Thalia.
Manufacturers have tried to create the ideal capo. One of the more recognized capos is the Shubb capo. A musician applies the Shubb capo by holding it in place and closing a lever. The unique aspect of this capo is that the lever presses against a second arm that presses against the back of the instrument neck. The amount of pressure the lever exerts is adjustable by a screw, so that the capo can exert the minimal amount of pressure required to fret the strings.
Proponents claim this has the least impact on tuning. The Shubb capo has the disadvantage of requiring two hands to properly apply or move, and its adjustment is more complicated than some other capos. However, because of the lever design, the capo can be removed very quickly by simply releasing the lever. This is particularly true if the capo is applied from the treble side of the instrument, which facilitates quick removal.
Variations
Numerous other capos types are variations on the designs above:
A screw-on capo has some form of surface that presses against the back of the neck of the instrument to hold the bar in place against the strings. This back surface is held to the neck by a screw tightened to apply direct pressure. One form of this capo is effectively a rubber-covered bar built into a C-clamp.
A rolling capo facilitates quick key changes in the middle of tunes or sets. A roller holds down the strings and another roller behind the neck holds it in place, so the player can roll the capo along the neck. People who prefer it feel it improves on fixed capos, as they can move it with the fretting hand without interrupting a performance. There are two such rolling capos. the Bennett Glider, from a 1974 US Patent, is still made in the U.S., and in an inexpensive "knock-off" version by a Chinese company. The more advanced Sixth Finger capo, patented in 2013, is presently hand-made in Spain, and is difficult to find due to limited production.
Fifth-string capo: The five-string banjo, with its short fifth string, poses a particular problem for using the capo. For many years now Shubb has had available a fifth-string capo, consisting of a narrow metal strip fixed to the side of the neck of the instrument, with a sliding stopper for the string. Other options are to use model railroad spikes to hold the string down at higher frets or simply to retune the string to fit with the pitch of the other strings with the capo applied.
Decorative variations
For centuries capos have been utilitarian devices, but in recent years capo manufacturers have started to focus on enhancing capo aesthetics. The G7th Capo Company released the Performance 2 Celtic Special Edition design, Kyser's Capos come in many different colors and patterns & Thalia Capos took it a step further and now offers hundreds of exotic wood and shell inlays on their capos, designed to match the various tonewoods and inlays found on fine guitars.
Partial capo
Though most capos are designed to raise all strings, partial capos specifically capo only some of the strings. This may appear to have a similar effect to alternate tunings, but there are differences. A common example is a capo that covers the top five strings of a guitar and omitting the bass E string. When played at the second fret, this appears to create a drop D tuning (in which the bass E string is detuned to a D) raised one full tone in pitch. In fact, these are often marketed as "drop D capos". However, the same difference applies with a drop D capo as with a regular capo; namely, only the open tuning of the strings is affected, and thus, when used at the second fret, an E chord using the D shape has the "Drop D sound" with a low E note. However, a G-shape chord can be played as well, as the fretted E string is not as affected as it would be if the string was retuned.
Partial capos are a relatively recent design. Until their creation, some innovative players used their standard capos (or altered capos) to cover only some of the strings of their instruments. The above-mentioned drop D design was previously achieved, for example, by applying a spring clamp capo to the treble side of the fretboard but leaving the bass E string uncovered. Similarly, users of the Shubb capo altered their capos by cutting off some of the rubber-covered bar's length or by altering the rubber covering to leave certain strings unaffected. The Thalia Capo's interchangeable fretpads can provide a partial fretpad set as an accessory that converts a standard Thalia capo into a partial capo. This design has two different configurations, depending on how the musician places the capo on the fretboard. Installing from the bass side of the neck capos strings 3-4-5. Installing from the treble side capos strings 2-3-4.
Other common partial capo designs press the second fret of the third, fourth and fifth strings (producing the effect of DADGAD tuning raised two semitones), or on the second fret of the second, third and fourth strings (open A major). Again, this creates no change of fingering above the capo.
American guitarist Dominic Frasca uses single string "mini capos" that attach by drilling through the neck of his customized 10-string guitar. These are similar to the single-string "capos" many Eastern instruments use, in which the player hooks a string under the head of a "nail" to capo it. This is a common capo practice during the performance of a musical piece, so that the tuning at the end of the piece sounds different from the one at the beginning.
This is a common method to capo the fifth string of a five-string banjo. The fifth string begins at the corresponding fret and players often need to capo it individually.
Notes
References
Guitar parts and accessories
|
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208273
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20canals%20in%20the%20United%20States
|
List of canals in the United States
|
The following is a list of canals in the United States:
Transportation canals in operation
This list includes active canals and artificial waterways that are maintained for use by boats. While some abandoned canals and drainage canals have stretches that can be paddled in a small craft like a canoe, these are not included in this list.
The United States also constructed the Panama Canal on territory it controlled.
Abandoned transportation canals
Irrigation, industrial, and drainage canals
Arizona
Central Arizona Project
Salt River Project Canals
Arizona Canal
California
All-American Canal
Back Channel
Beardsley Canal
Buena Vista Canal
California Aqueduct
Calloway Canal
Carrier Canal
Coachella Canal
Colorado River Aqueduct
Contra Costa Canal
Corning Canal
Delta–Mendota Canal
Eastside Canal
Folsom South Canal
Friant-Kern Canal
Glenn Colusa Canal
Inter-California Canal
Kern Island Canal
Los Angeles Aqueduct
Madera Canal
Orland South Canal
Orland North Canal
Pioneer Canal
Putah South Canal
Stine Canal
Tehama Colusa Canal
Florida
Hillsboro Canal
Miami Canal
North New River Canal
Tamiami Canal
West Palm Beach Canal
Hawaii
Waiolama Canal, Hilo
Idaho
New York Canal
Illinois
North Shore Channel (popular for canoeing and kayaking)
Louisiana
17th Street Canal
Carondelet Canal
Florida Canal
London Avenue Canal
New Orleans Outfall Canals
Orleans Canal
Washington-Palmetto Canal
Massachusetts
Holyoke Canal System
Lowell Power Canal System
Michigan
Edison Sault Power Canal
Nebraska
Loup Canal
New Jersey
Cape May Canal
Delaware and Raritan Canal
Dundee Canal
Morris Canal
Point Pleasant Canal
Raritan Water Power Canal
Washington Canal
Texas
American Canal
Franklin Canal
Riverside Canal (El Paso) (Texas)
Texas Irrigation Canals
Natural inlets called canals
Lynn Canal and Portland Canal in Alaska and Hood Canal in Washington are natural inlets that use the name canal.
Canals by state
These are man made canals in each state that have been given a name and may consist of a narrow irrigation or drainage ditch to a large ship, municipal water and/or irrigation canal. States with extensive agricultural acreage may have many hundred to thousands of canals. USGS Topographical map numbers and latitudes and longitudes of each canal, usable as inputs into Google, Bing, etc. maps, are usually given.
References
See also
List of canals
Sheep Creek
Canals
United States
Canals
Canals
|
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] |
208275
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communes%20of%20the%20Marne%20department
|
Communes of the Marne department
|
The following is a list of the 613 communes in the French department of Marne.
The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2020):
CU Grand Reims
Communauté d'agglomération de Châlons-en-Champagne
Communauté d'agglomération Épernay, Coteaux et Plaine de Champagne
Communauté d'agglomération Saint-Dizier, Der et Blaise (partly)
Communauté de communes de l'Argonne Champenoise
Communauté de communes de la Brie Champenoise
Communauté de communes Côtes de Champagne et Val de Saulx
Communauté de communes de la Grande Vallée de la Marne
Communauté de communes de la Moivre à la Coole
Communauté de communes des Paysages de la Champagne
Communauté de communes Perthois-Bocage et Der
Communauté de communes de la Région de Suippes
Communauté de communes de Sézanne-Sud Ouest Marnais
Communauté de communes du Sud Marnais
Communauté de communes Vitry, Champagne et Der
References
Marne
|
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208282
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sommesous
|
Sommesous
|
Sommesous is a commune in the Marne department in north-eastern France.
It was the birthplace of Pierre Louis Prieur (1756-1827), French politician.
See also
Communes of the Marne department
References
Sommesous
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewisite
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Lewisite
|
Lewisite (L) is an organoarsenic compound. It was once manufactured in the U.S., Japan, Germany and the Soviet Union for use as a chemical weapon, acting as a vesicant (blister agent) and lung irritant. Although the substance is colorless and odorless in its pure form, impure samples of lewisite are a yellow, brown, violet-black, green, or amber oily liquid with a distinctive odor that has been described as similar to geraniums.
Chemical reactions
The compound is prepared by the addition of arsenic trichloride to acetylene in the presence of a suitable catalyst:
AsCl3 + C2H2 → ClCHCHAsCl2 (Lewisite)
Lewisite, like other arsenous chlorides, hydrolyses in water to form hydrochloric acid and chlorovinylarsenous oxide (a less-powerful blister agent):
ClCHCHAsCl2 + 2 H2O → ClCHCHAs(OH)2 + 2 HCl
This reaction is accelerated in alkaline solutions, and forms acetylene and trisodium arsenate.
Lewisite reacts with metals to form hydrogen gas. It is combustible, but difficult to ignite.
Mechanism of action
Lewisite is a suicide inhibitor of the E3 component of pyruvate dehydrogenase. As an efficient method to produce ATP, pyruvate dehydrogenase is involved in the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA. The latter subsequently enters the TCA cycle. Peripheral nervous system pathology usually arises from Lewisite exposure as the nervous system essentially relies on glucose as its only catabolic fuel.
It can easily penetrate ordinary clothing and latex rubber gloves. Upon skin contact it causes immediate stinging, burning pain and itching that can last for 24 hours. Within minutes, a rash develops and the agent is absorbed through the skin. Large, fluid-filled blisters (similar to those caused by mustard gas exposure) develop after approximately 12 hours and cause pain for 2–3 days. These are severe chemical burns and begin with small blisters in the red areas of the skin within 2–3 hours and grow worse, encompassing the entire red area, for the ensuing 12–18 hours after initial exposure. Liquid lewisite has faster effects than lewisite vapor. Sufficient absorption can cause deadly liver necrosis.
Those exposed to lewisite can develop refractory hypotension (low blood pressure) known as Lewisite shock, with some features of arsenic toxicity. Lewisite damages capillaries, which then become leaky, reducing blood volume required to maintain blood pressure, a condition called hypovolemia. When the blood pressure is low, the kidneys may not receive enough oxygen and can be damaged.
Inhalation, the most common route of exposure, causes burning pain and irritation throughout the respiratory tract, nosebleed (epistaxis), laryngitis, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, difficult breathing (dyspnea), and in severe cases of exposure, can cause fatal pulmonary edema, pneumonitis, or respiratory failure. Ingestion results in severe pain, nausea, vomiting, and tissue damage. The results of eye exposure can range from stinging, burning pain and strong irritation to blistering and scarring of the cornea, along with blepharospasm, lacrimation, and edema of the eyelids and periorbital area. The eyes can swell shut, which can keep the eyes safe from further exposure. The most severe consequences of eye exposure to lewisite are globe perforation and blindness. Generalised symptoms also include restlessness, weakness, hypothermia and low blood pressure.
It is possible that Lewisite is carcinogenic: arsenic is categorized as a respiratory carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, though it has not been confirmed that lewisite is a carcinogen.
Lewisite causes damage to the respiratory tract at levels lower than the odor detection threshold. Early tissue damage causes pain.
Hydrolysis leads to chlorovinylarsonous acid, CVAA.
Treatment
British anti-lewisite, also called dimercaprol, is the antidote for lewisite. It can be injected to prevent systemic toxicity, but will not prevent injury to the skin, eyes, or mucous membranes. Chemically, dimercaprol binds to the arsenic in lewisite. It is contraindicated in those with peanut allergies.
Other treatment for lewisite exposure is primarily supportive. First aid of lewisite exposure consists of decontamination and irrigation of any areas that have been exposed. Other measures can be used as necessary, such as airway management, assisted ventilation, and monitoring of vital signs. In an advanced care setting, supportive care can include fluid and electrolyte replacement. Because the tube may injure or perforate the esophagus, gastric lavage is contraindicated.
Long-term effects
From one acute exposure, someone who has inhaled lewisite can develop chronic respiratory disease; eye exposure to lewisite can cause permanent visual impairment or blindness.
Chronic exposure to lewisite can cause arsenic poisoning (due to its arsenic content) and development of a lewisite allergy. It can also cause long-term illnesses or permanent damage to organs, depending on where the exposure has occurred, including conjunctivitis, aversion to light (photophobia), visual impairment, double vision (diplopia), tearing (lacrimation), dry mucous membranes, garlic breath, burning pain in the nose and mouth, toxic encephalopathy, peripheral neuropathy, seizures, nausea, vomiting, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), bronchitis, dermatitis, skin ulcers, basal cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma.
Chemical composition
Lewisite can be a mixture of molecules with a different number of vinylchloride groups on the arsenic chloride: lewisite itself (2-chlorovinylarsonous dichloride), along with bis(2-chlorovinyl)arsinous chloride (lewisite 2) and tris(2-chlorovinyl)arsine (lewisite 3). In addition, there are sometimes isomeric impurities: lewisite itself is mostly trans-2-chlorovinylarsonous dichloride, but the cis stereoisomer and the constitutional isomer (1-chlorovinylarsonous dichloride) may also be present.
Experimental and computational studies both find that the trans-2-chloro isomer is the most stable, and that the carbon–arsenic bond has a conformation in which the lone pair on the arsenic is approximately aligned with the vinyl group.
History
Lewisite was synthesized in 1904 by Julius Arthur Nieuwland during studies for his PhD. In his thesis, he described a reaction between acetylene and arsenic trichloride, which led to the formation of lewisite. Exposure to the resulting compound made Nieuwland so ill he was hospitalized for several days.
Lewisite is named after the US chemist and soldier Winford Lee Lewis (1878–1943). In 1918, John Griffin, Julius Arthur Nieuwland's thesis advisor, drew Lewis's attention to Nieuwland's thesis at Maloney Hall, a chemical laboratory at The Catholic University of America, Washington D.C. Lewis then attempted to purify the compound through distillation but found that the mixture exploded on heating until it was washed with HCl.
Lewisite was developed into a secret weapon at a facility located in Cleveland, Ohio (The Cleveland Plant) at East 131st Street and Taft Avenue, and given the name "G-34", which had previously been the code for mustard gas, in order to confuse its development with mustard gas. On November 1, 1918, production began at a plant in Willoughby, Ohio.
It was not used in World War I, but Britain experimented with it in the 1920s as the "Dew of Death".
After World War I, the US became interested in lewisite because it was not flammable. Up until World War II, it had the military symbol of "M1", after which it was changed to "L". Field trials with lewisite during World War II demonstrated that casualty concentrations were not achievable under high humidity, due to the rate of hydrolysis and the characteristic odor of the chemical, and lacrymation forced troops to don masks and avoid contaminated areas. The United States produced about 20,000 tons of lewisite, keeping it on hand primarily as an antifreeze for mustard gas, or to penetrate protective clothing in special situations.
Lewisite was replaced by the mustard gas variant HT (a 60:40 mixture of sulfur mustard and O-Mustard), and was declared obsolete in the 1950s. Lewisite poisoning can be treated effectively with British anti-lewisite (dimercaprol). Most stockpiles of lewisite were neutralised with bleach and dumped into the Gulf of Mexico. Some remained at the Deseret Chemical Depot located outside Salt Lake City, Utah, but, as of January 18, 2012, all U.S stockpiles had been destroyed.
Producing or stockpiling lewisite was banned by the Chemical Weapons Convention. When the convention entered force in 1997, the parties declared world-wide stockpiles of 6,747 tonnes of lewisite. As of December 2015, 98% of the stockpiles had been destroyed.
In 2001, lewisite was found in a World War I weapons dump in Washington, D.C.
Controversy over Japanese deposits of lewisite in China
In mid-2006, China and Japan were negotiating disposal of stocks of lewisite in northeastern China, left by Japanese military during World War II. People had died over the preceding twenty years from accidental exposure to these stockpiles.
See also
Blue Cross (chemical warfare)
References
Arsenical vesicants
Organoarsenic chlorides
Organochlorides
Alkene derivatives
Arsenic(III) compounds
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banknote
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Banknote
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A banknote—also called a bill (North American English), paper money, or simply a note—is a type of negotiable promissory note, made by a bank or other licensed authority, payable to the bearer on demand.
Banknotes were originally issued by commercial banks, which were legally required to redeem the notes for legal tender (usually gold or silver coin) when presented to the chief cashier of the originating bank. These commercial banknotes only traded at face value in the market served by the issuing bank. Commercial banknotes have primarily been replaced by national banknotes issued by central banks or monetary authorities.
National banknotes are often – but not always – legal tender, meaning that courts of law are required to recognize them as satisfactory payment of money debts. Historically, banks sought to ensure that they could always pay customers in coins when they presented banknotes for payment. This practice of "backing" notes with something of substance is the basis for the history of central banks backing their currencies in gold or silver. Today, most national currencies have no backing in precious metals or commodities and have value only by fiat. With the exception of non-circulating high-value or precious metal issues, coins are used for lower valued monetary units, while banknotes are used for higher values.
Code of Hammurabi Law 100 ( 1755–1750 BC) stipulated repayment of a loan by a debtor to a creditor on a schedule with a maturity date specified in written contractual terms. Law 122 stipulated that a depositor of gold, silver, or other chattel/movable property for safekeeping must present all articles and a signed contract of bailment to a notary before depositing the articles with a banker, and Law 123 stipulated that a banker was discharged of any liability from a contract of bailment if the notary denied the existence of the contract. Law 124 stipulated that a depositor with a notarized contract of bailment was entitled to redeem the entire value of their deposit, and Law 125 stipulated that a banker was liable for replacement of deposits stolen while in their possession.
In China during the Han dynasty, promissory notes appeared in 118 BC and were made of leather. Rome may have used a durable lightweight substance as promissory notes in 57 AD which have been found in London. However, Carthage was purported to have issued bank notes on parchment or leather before 146 BC. Hence Carthage may be the oldest user of lightweight promissory notes. The first known banknote was first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots were in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang dynasty (618–907), as merchants and wholesalers desired to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions. During the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), banknotes were adopted by the Mongol Empire. In Europe, the concept of banknotes was first introduced during the 13th century by travelers such as Marco Polo, with European banknotes appearing in 1661 in Sweden.
Counterfeiting, the forgery of banknotes, is an inherent challenge in issuing currency. It is countered by anticounterfeiting measures in the printing of banknotes. Fighting the counterfeiting of banknotes and cheques has been a principal driver of security printing methods development in recent centuries.
History
Paper currency first developed in Tang dynasty China during the 7th century, although true paper money did not appear until the 11th century, during the Song dynasty. The usage of paper currency later spread throughout the Mongol Empire or Yuan dynasty China. European explorers like Marco Polo introduced the concept in Europe during the 13th century. Napoleon issued paper banknotes in the early 1800s. Cash paper money originated as receipts for value held on account "value received", and should not be conflated with promissory "sight bills" which were issued with a promise to convert at a later date.
The perception of banknotes as money has evolved over time. Originally, money was based on precious metals. Banknotes were seen by some as an I.O.U. or promissory note: a promise to pay someone in precious metal on presentation (see representative money). But they were readily accepted - for convenience and security - in London, for example, from the late 1600s onwards. With the removal of precious metals from the monetary system, banknotes evolved into pure fiat money.
Early Chinese paper money
The first banknote-type instrument was used in China in the 7th century, during the Tang dynasty (618–907). Merchants would issue what are today called promissory notes in the form of receipts of deposit to wholesalers to avoid using the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions. Before the use of these notes, the Chinese used coins that were circular, with a rectangular hole in the middle. Coins could be strung together on a rope. Merchants, if they were rich enough, found that the strings were too heavy to carry around easily, especially for large transactions. To solve this problem, coins could be left with a trusted person, with the merchant being given a slip of paper (the receipt) recording how much money they had deposited with that person. When they returned with the paper to that person, their coins would be returned.
True paper money, called "jiaozi", developed from these promissory notes by the 11th century, during the Song dynasty. By 960, the Song government was short of copper for striking coins, and issued the first generally circulating notes. These notes were a promise by the ruler to redeem them later for some other object of value, usually specie. The issue of credit notes was often for a limited duration, and at some discount to the promised amount later. The jiaozi did not replace coins but was used alongside them.
The central government soon observed the economic advantages of printing paper money, issuing a monopoly for the issue of these certificates of deposit to several deposit shops. By the early 12th century, the amount of banknotes issued in a single year amounted to an annual rate of 26 million strings of cash coins. By the 1120s the central government started to produce its own state-issued paper money (using woodblock printing).
Even before this point, the Song government was amassing large amounts of paper tribute. It was recorded that each year before 1101, the prefecture of Xin'an (modern Shexian, Anhui) alone would send 1,500,000 sheets of paper in seven different varieties to the capital at Kaifeng. In 1101, the Emperor Huizong of Song decided to lessen the amount of paper taken in the tribute quota, because it was causing detrimental effects and creating heavy burdens on the people of the region. However, the government still needed masses of paper product for the exchange certificates and the state's new issuing of paper money. For the printing of paper money alone, the Song government established several government-run factories in the cities of Huizhou, Chengdu, Hangzhou, and Anqi.
The workforce employed in these paper money factories was quite large; it was recorded in 1175 that the factory at Hangzhou alone employed more than a thousand workers a day. However, the government issues of paper money were not yet nationwide standards of currency at that point; issues of banknotes were limited to regional areas of the empire, and were valid for use only in a designated and temporary limit of three years.
The geographic limitation changed between 1265 and 1274, when the late southern Song government issued a nationwide paper currency standard, which was backed by gold or silver. The range of varying values for these banknotes was perhaps from one string of cash to one hundred at the most. Ever after 1107, the government printed money in no less than six ink colors and printed notes with intricate designs and sometimes even with mixture of a unique fiber in the paper to combat counterfeiting.
The founder of the Yuan dynasty, Kublai Khan, issued paper money known as Jiaochao. The original notes were restricted by area and duration, as in the Song dynasty, but in the later years, facing massive shortages of specie to fund their rule, the paper money began to be issued without restrictions on duration. Venetian merchants were impressed by the fact that the Chinese paper money was guaranteed by the State.
European explorers and merchants
According to a travelogue of a visit to Prague in 960 by Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, small pieces of cloth were used as a means of trade, with these cloths having a set exchange rate versus silver.
Around 1150, the Knights Templar would issue notes to pilgrims. Pilgrims would deposit valuables with a local Templar preceptory before embarking for the Holy Land and receive a document indicating the value of their deposit. They would then use that document upon arrival in the Holy Land to receive funds from the treasury of equal value.
In the 13th century, Chinese paper money of Mongol Yuan became known in Europe through the accounts of travelers, such as Marco Polo and William of Rubruck. Marco Polo's account of paper money during the Yuan dynasty is the subject of a chapter of his book, The Travels of Marco Polo, titled "How the Great Kaan Causeth the Bark of Trees, Made into Something Like Paper, to Pass for Money All Over his Country."
In medieval Italy and Flanders, because of the insecurity and impracticality of transporting large sums of cash over long distances, money traders started using promissory notes. In the beginning these were personally registered, but they soon became a written order to pay the amount to whoever had it in their possession. These notes are seen as a predecessor to regular banknotes by some but are mainly thought of as proto bills of exchange and cheques. The term "bank note" comes from the notes of the bank ("nota di banco") and dates from the 14th century; it originally recognized the right of the holder of the note to collect the precious metal (usually gold or silver) deposited with a banker (via a currency account). In the 14th century, it was used in every part of Europe and in Italian city-state merchants colonies outside of Europe. For international payments, the more efficient and sophisticated bill of exchange ("lettera di cambio"), that is, a promissory note based on a virtual currency account (usually a coin no longer physically existing), was used more often. All physical currencies were physically related to this virtual currency; this instrument also served as credit.
Birth of European banknotes
The shift toward the use of these receipts as a means of payment took place in the mid-17th century, as the price revolution, when relatively rapid gold inflation was causing a re-assessment of how money worked. The goldsmith bankers of London began to give out the receipts as payable to the bearer of the document rather than the original depositor. This meant that the note could be used as currency based on the security of the goldsmith, not the account holder of the goldsmith-banker. The bankers also began issuing a greater value of notes than the total value of their physical reserves in the form of loans, on the assumption that they would not have to redeem all of their issued banknotes at the same time. This pivotal shift changed the simple promissory note into an agency for the expansion of the monetary supply itself. As these receipts were increasingly used in the money circulation system, depositors began to ask for multiple receipts to be made out in smaller, fixed denominations for use as money. The receipts soon became a written order to pay the amount to whoever had possession of the note. These notes are credited as the first modern banknotes.
The first short-lived attempt at issuing banknotes by a central bank was in 1661 by Stockholms Banco, a predecessor of Sweden's central bank Sveriges Riksbank. These replaced the copper-plates being used instead as a means of payment. This banknote issue was brought about by the peculiar circumstances of the Swedish coin supply. Cheap foreign imports of copper had forced the Crown to steadily increase the size of the copper coinage to maintain its value relative to silver. The heavy weight of the new coins encouraged merchants to deposit it in exchange for receipts. These became banknotes when the manager of the Bank decoupled the rate of note issue from the bank currency reserves. Three years later, the bank went bankrupt, after rapidly increasing the artificial money supply through the large-scale printing of paper money. A new bank, the Riksens Ständers Bank was established in 1668, but did not issue banknotes until the 19th century.
Permanent issue of banknotes
The modern banknote rests on the assumption that money is determined by a social and legal consensus. A gold coin's value is simply a reflection of the supply and demand mechanism of a society exchanging goods in a free market, as opposed to stemming from any intrinsic property of the metal. By the late 17th century, this new conceptual outlook helped to stimulate the issue of banknotes. The economist Nicholas Barbon wrote that money "was an imaginary value made by a law for the convenience of exchange."
A temporary experiment of banknote issue was carried out by Sir William Phips as the Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1690 to help fund the war effort against France. The other Thirteen Colonies followed in Massachusetts' wake and began issuing bills of credit, an early form of paper currency distinct from banknotes, to fund military expenditures and for use as a common medium of exchange. By the 1760s, these bills of credit were used in the majority of transactions in the Thirteen Colonies.
The first bank to initiate the permanent issue of banknotes was the Bank of England. Established in 1694 to raise money for the funding of the war against France, the bank began issuing notes in 1695 with the promise to pay the bearer the value of the note on demand. They were initially handwritten to a precise amount and issued on deposit or as a loan. There was a gradual move toward the issuance of fixed denomination notes, and by 1745, standardized printed notes ranging from £20 to £1,000 were being printed. Fully printed notes that did not require the name of the payee and the cashier's signature first appeared in 1855.
The Scottish economist John Law helped establish banknotes as a formal currency in France, after the wars waged by Louis XIV left the country with a shortage of precious metals for coinage.
In the United States there were early attempts at establishing a central bank in 1791 and 1816, but it was only in 1862 that the federal government of the United States began to print banknotes.
Central bank issuance of legal tender
Originally, the banknote was simply a promise to the bearer that they could redeem it for its value in specie, but in 1833 the second in a series of Bank Charter Acts established that banknotes would be considered as legal tender during peacetime.
Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were the common form of currency throughout England, outside London. The Bank Charter Act of 1844, which established the modern central bank, restricted authorisation to issue new banknotes to the Bank of England, which would henceforth have sole control of the money supply in 1921. At the same time, the Bank of England was restricted to issue new banknotes only if they were 100% backed by gold or up to £14 million in government debt. The Act gave the Bank of England an effective monopoly over the note issue from 1928.
Issue of banknotes
Generally, a central bank or treasury is solely responsible within a state or currency union for the issue of banknotes. However, this is not always the case, and historically the paper currency of countries was often handled entirely by private banks. Thus, many different banks or institutions may have issued banknotes in a given country. Commercial banks in the United States had legally issued banknotes before there was a national currency; however, these became subject to government authorization from 1863 to 1932. In the last of these series, the issuing bank would stamp its name and promise to pay, along with the signatures of its president and cashier on a preprinted note. By this time, the notes were standardized in appearance and not too different from Federal Reserve Notes.
In a small number of countries, private banknote issue continues to this day. For example, by virtue of the complex constitutional setup in the United Kingdom, certain commercial banks in two of the state's four constituent countries (Scotland and Northern Ireland) continue to print their own banknotes for domestic circulation, even though they are not fiat money or declared in law as legal tender anywhere. The UK's central bank, the Bank of England, prints notes which are legal tender in England and Wales; these notes are also usable as money (but not legal tender) in the rest of the UK (see Banknotes of the pound sterling).
In the two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China, arrangements are similar to those in the UK; in Hong Kong, three commercial banks are licensed to issue Hong Kong dollar notes, and in Macau, banknotes of the Macanese pataca are issued by two different commercial banks. In Luxembourg, the Banque Internationale à Luxembourg was entitled to issue its own Luxembourgish franc notes until the introduction of the Euro in 1999.
As well as commercial issuers, other organizations may have note-issuing powers; for example, until 2002 the Singapore dollar was issued by the Board of Commissioners of Currency Singapore, a government agency which was later taken over by the Monetary Authority of Singapore.
As with any printing, there is also a chance for banknotes to have printing errors. For U.S. banknotes, these errors can include board break errors, butterfly fold errors, cutting errors, dual denomination errors, fold over errors, and misalignment errors.
Advantages and disadvantages
Prior to the introduction of banknotes, precious or semiprecious metals minted into coins to certify their substance were widely used as a medium of exchange. The value that people attributed to coins was originally based upon the value of the metal unless they were token issues or had been debased. Banknotes were originally a claim for the coins held by the bank, but due to the ease with which they could be transferred and the confidence that people had in the capacity of the bank to settle the notes in coin if presented, they became a popular means of exchange in their own right. They now make up a very small proportion of the "money" that people think that they have as demand deposit bank accounts and electronic payments have negated the need to carry notes and coins.
Banknotes have a natural advantage over coins in that they are lighter to carry, but they are also less durable than coins. Banknotes issued by commercial banks had counterparty risk, meaning that the bank may not be able to make payment when the note was presented. Notes issued by central banks had a theoretical risk when they were backed by gold and silver. Both banknotes and coins are subject to inflation. The durability of coins means that even if metal coins melt in a fire or are submerged under the sea for hundreds of years they still have some value when they are recovered. Gold coins salvaged from shipwrecks retain almost all of their original appearance, but silver coins slowly corrode.
Other costs of using bearer money include:
Discounting to face value: Before national currencies and efficient clearing houses, banknotes were only redeemable at face value at the issuing bank. Even a branch bank could discount notes of other branches of the same bank. The discounts usually increased with distance from the issuing bank. The discount also depended on the perceived safety of the bank. When banks failed, the notes were usually partly redeemed out of reserves, but sometimes became worthless. The problem of discounting within a country does not exist with national currencies; however, under floating exchange rates currencies are valued relative to one another in the foreign exchange market.
Counterfeiting paper notes has always been a problem, especially since the introduction of color photocopiers and computer image scanners. Numerous banks and nations have incorporated many types of countermeasures in order to keep the money secure. However, extremely sophisticated counterfeit notes known as superdollars have been detected in recent years.
Manufacturing or issue costs. Coins are produced by industrial manufacturing methods that process the precious or semi-precious metals, and require additions of alloy for hardness and wear resistance. By contrast, bank notes are printed paper (or polymer), and typically have a higher cost of issue, especially in larger denominations, compared with coins of the same value.
Wear costs. Banknotes don't lose economic value by wear, since, even if they are in poor condition, they are still a legally valid claim on the issuing bank. However, banks of issue do have to pay the cost of replacing banknotes in poor condition, and paper notes wear out much faster than coins.
Cost of transport. Coins can be expensive to transport for high value transactions, but banknotes can be issued in large denominations that are lighter than the equivalent value in coins.
Cost of acceptance. Coins can be checked for authenticity by weighing and other forms of examination and testing. These costs can be significant, but good quality coin design and manufacturing can help reduce these costs. Banknotes also have an acceptance cost – the expense of checking the banknote's security features and confirming acceptability of the issuing bank.
The different advantages and disadvantages of coins and banknotes imply that there may be an ongoing role for both forms of bearer money, each being used where its advantages outweigh its disadvantages.
Materials used for banknotes
Paper banknotes
Most banknotes are made from cotton paper with a weight of 80 to 90 grams per square meter. The cotton is sometimes mixed with linen, abaca, or other textile fibres. Generally, the paper used is different from ordinary paper: it is much more resilient, resists wear and tear (the average life of a banknote is two years), and also does not contain the usual agents that make ordinary paper glow slightly under ultraviolet light. Unlike most printing and writing paper, banknote paper is infused with polyvinyl alcohol or gelatin, instead of water, to give it extra strength. Early Chinese banknotes were printed on paper made of mulberry bark. Mitsumata (Edgeworthia chrysantha) and other fibers are used in Japanese banknote paper (a kind of Washi).
Most banknotes are made using the mould made process in which a watermark and thread is incorporated during the paper forming process. The thread is a simple looking security component found in most banknotes. It is however often rather complex in construction comprising fluorescent, magnetic, metallic and micro print elements. By combining it with watermarking technology the thread can be made to surface periodically on one side only. This is known as windowed thread and further increases the counterfeit resistance of the banknote paper. This process was invented by Portals, part of the De La Rue group in the UK. Other related methods include watermarking to reduce the number of corner folds by strengthening this part of the note. Varnishing and coatings reduce the accumulation of dirt on the note for longer durability in circulation.
Another security feature is based on windows in the paper which are covered by holographic foils to make it very hard to copy. Such technology is applied as a portrait window for the higher denominations of the Europa series (ES2) of the euro banknotes. Windows are also used with the Hybrid substrate from Giesecke+Devrient which is composed of an inner layer of paper substrate with thin outer layers of plastic film for high durability.
History of counterfeiting and security measures
When paper bank notes were first introduced in England, they resulted in a dramatic rise in counterfeiting. The attempts by the Bank of England and the Royal Mint to stamp out currency crime led to new policing strategies, including the increased use of entrapment.
The characteristics of banknotes, their materials and production techniques (as well as their development over history) are topics that normally aren't thoroughly examined by historians, even though now there are a number of works detailing how bank notes were actually constructed. This is mostly due to the fact that historians prioritize the theoretical understanding of how money worked rather than how it was produced. The first great deterrent against counterfeiting was the death penalty for forgers, but this wasn't enough to stop the rise of counterfeiting. Over the eighteenth century, far fewer banknotes were circulating in England compared to the boom of bank notes in the nineteenth century; because of this, improving note-making techniques wasn't considered a compelling issue.
In the eighteenth century, banknotes were produced mainly through copper-plate engraving and printing and they were single-sided. Notes making technologies remained basically the same during the eighteenth century The first banknotes were produced through the so-called intaglio printing, a technique that consisted of engraving a copper plate by hand and then covering it in ink to print the bank notes. Only with this technique it was possible, at that time, to force the paper into the lines of the engraving and to make suitable banknotes. Another factor that made it harder to counterfeit banknotes was the paper, since the type of paper used for banknotes was rather different from the paper commercially available at that time. Despite this, some forgers managed to successfully forge notes by getting involved with and consulting paper makers, in order to make a similar kind of paper by themselves. Furthermore, watermarked paper was also used since banknotes first appeared; it involved the sewing of a thin wire frame into paper mould. Watermarks for notes were first used in 1697 by a Berkshire paper maker whose name was Rice Watkins. Watermarks, together with a special paper type, were supposed to make it harder and more expensive to forge banknotes, since more complex and expensive paper making machines were needed in order to make them.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century (the so-called Bank Restriction Period, 1797-1821), the dramatically increased demand of bank notes slowly forced the banks to refine the technologies employed. In 1801, watermarks, which previously were straight lines, became wavy, thanks to the idea of a watermark mould maker whose name was William Brewer. This made even harder the counterfeiting of bank notes, at least in the short term, since in 1803 the number of forged bank notes fell to just 3000, compared to 5000 of the previous year In the same period, bank notes also started to become double-sided and with more complex patterns, and banks asked skilled engravers and artists to help them make their notes harder to counterfeit (episode labelled by historians as "the search for the inimitable banknote").
The ease with which paper money can be created, by both legitimate authorities and counterfeiters, has led both to a temptation in times of crisis such as war or revolution to produce paper money which was not supported by precious metal or other goods, thus leading to Hyperinflation and a loss of faith in the value of paper money, e.g. the Continental Currency produced by the Continental Congress during the American Revolution, the Assignats produced during the French Revolution, the paper currency produced by the Confederate States of America and the individual states of the Confederate States of America, the financing of World War I by the Central Powers (by 1922 1 gold Austro-Hungarian krone of 1914 was worth 14,400 paper Kronen), the devaluation of the Yugoslav Dinar in the 1990s, etc. Banknotes may also be overprinted to reflect political changes that occur faster than new currency can be printed.
In 1988, Austria produced the 5000 Schilling banknote (Mozart), which is the first foil application (Kinegram) to a paper banknote in the history of banknote printing. The application of optical features is now in common use throughout the world. Many countries' banknotes now have embedded holograms.
Polymer banknotes
In 1983, Costa Rica and Haiti issued the first Tyvek and the Isle of Man issued the first Bradvek polymer (or plastic) banknotes; these were printed by the American Banknote Company and developed by DuPont. These early plastic notes were plagued with issues such as ink wearing off and were discontinued. In 1988, after significant research and development in Australia by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Reserve Bank of Australia, Australia produced the first polymer banknote made from biaxially-oriented polypropylene (plastic), and in 1996, it became the first country to have a full set of circulating polymer banknotes of all denominations completely replacing its paper banknotes. Since then, other countries to adopt circulating polymer banknotes include Bangladesh, Brazil, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Guatemala, Dominican Republic, Indonesia, Israel, Malaysia, Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Romania, Samoa, Singapore, the Solomon Islands, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom, Uruguay, Vietnam, and Zambia, with other countries issuing commemorative polymer notes, including China, Kuwait, the Northern Bank of Northern Ireland, Taiwan and Hong Kong. Another country indicating plans to issue polymer banknotes is Nigeria. In 2005, Bulgaria issued the world's first hybrid paper-polymer banknote.
Polymer banknotes were developed to improve durability and prevent counterfeiting through incorporated security features, such as optically variable devices that are extremely difficult to reproduce.
Other materials
Over the years, a number of materials other than paper have been used to print banknotes. This includes various textiles, including silk, and materials such as leather.
Silk and other fibers have been commonly used in the manufacture of various banknote papers, intended to provide both additional durability and security. Crane and Company patented banknote paper with embedded silk threads in 1844 and has supplied paper to the United States Treasury since 1879. Banknotes printed on pure silk "paper" include "emergency money" Notgeld issues from a number of German towns in 1923 during a period of fiscal crisis and hyperinflation. Most notoriously, Bielefeld produced a number of silk, leather, velvet, linen and wood issues. These issues were produced primarily for collectors, rather than for circulation. They are in demand by collectors. Banknotes printed on cloth include a number of Communist Revolutionary issues in China from areas such as Xinjiang, or Sinkiang, in the United Islamic Republic of East Turkestan in 1933. Emergency money was also printed in 1902 on khaki shirt fabric during the Boer War.
Cotton fibers together with 25% linen is the material of the banknotes in the United States. Leather banknotes (or coins) were issued in a number of sieges, as well as in other times of emergency. During the Russian administration of Alaska, banknotes were printed on sealskin. A number of 19th century issues are known in Germanic and Estonia, including the places of Dorpat, Pernau, Reval, Werro and Woiseck. In addition to the Bielefeld issues, other German leather Notgeld from 1923 is known from Borna, Osterwieck, Paderborn and Pößneck.
Other issues from 1923 were printed on wood, which was also used in Canada in 1763–1764 during Pontiac's Rebellion, and by the Hudson's Bay Company. In 1848, in Bohemia, wooden checkerboard pieces were used as money.
Even playing cards were used for currency in France in the early 19th century, and in French Canada from 1685 until 1757, the Colony of Louisiana, Dutch Guiana, and in the Isle of Man in the beginning of the 19th century, and again in Germany after World War I.
Most recently, Bisphenol S (BPS), has been frequently used in the production of banknotes worldwide. BPS is an endocrine disruptor that is subject to human dermal absorption through handling banknotes.
Vertical orientation
Vertical currency is a type of currency in which the orientation has been changed from the conventional horizontal orientation to a vertical orientation. Dowling Duncan, a self-touted multidisciplinary design studio, conducted a study in which they determined people tend to handle and deal with money vertically rather than horizontally, especially when the currency is processed through ATM and other money machines. They also note how money transactions are conducted vertically not horizontally. Bermuda, Cape Verde, Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, Israel, Switzerland, and Venezuela have adopted vertically oriented currency, although Israel and Cape Verde have now reverted to horizontal orientation.
Since 1979, Sri Lanka has printed the reverse of its banknotes vertically. Between 1993 and 2013, Brazil has printed banknotes of 5000 and 50000 cruzeiros reais and the first Brazilian real series of banknotes has the obverse in traditional horizontal layout, while the reverse is in vertical format. The 2018 Hong Kong dollar banknotes series too has the obverse in traditional horizontal layout, while the reverse is in vertical format.
Early Chinese banknotes were also vertical, due to the direction of Chinese writing.
The 2018 Canadian $10 bill featuring a portrait of Canadian civil rights pioneer Viola Desmond is presented in a vertical format. The Northern Irish £5 and £10 notes issued by Ulster Bank for 2019 will also be presented in this way.
Vending machines and banknotes
In the late 20th century, vending machines were designed to recognize banknotes of the smaller values long after they were designed to recognize coins distinct from slugs. This capability has become inescapable in economies where inflation has not been followed by introduction of progressively larger coin denominations (such as the United States, where several attempts to make dollar coins popular in general circulation have largely failed). The existing infrastructure of such machines presents one of the difficulties in changing the design of these banknotes to make them less counterfeitable, that is, by adding additional features so easily discernible by people that they would immediately reject banknotes of inferior quality, for every machine in the country would have to be updated.
Destruction
A banknote is removed from circulation because of everyday wear and tear from its handling. Banknotes are passed through a banknote sorting machine for determining authenticity and fitness for circulation, or may be classified unfit for circulation if they are worn, dirty, soiled, damaged, mutilated or torn. Unfit notes are returned to the central bank for secure online destruction by high-speed banknote sorting machines using a cross-cut shredder device similar to a paper shredder with security level P-5 (pieces smaller than 30 mm²) according to the standard DIN 66399–2. This small size decomposes a banknote into typically more than 500 tiny pieces and rules out reconstruction like a jigsaw puzzle because the shreds from many banknotes are commingled.
A subsequent briquettor compresses shredded paper material into a small cylindrical or rectangular form for the disposal (e. g. landfill or burning) Before the 1990s, unfit banknotes were destroyed by incineration with a higher risk of manipulations.
When a Federal Reserve Bank of the United States receives a cash deposit from a commercial bank or another financial institution, it checks the individual notes to determine whether they are fit for future circulation. About one-third of the notes that the Fed receives are unfit, and the Fed destroys them. US dollar banknotes last an average of more than five years.
Contaminated banknotes are also decommissioned and removed from circulation, primarily to prevent the spread of diseases. A Canadian government report indicates:
In the US, the nickname "Fed Shreds" refers to paper money which has been shredded after becoming unfit for circulation. Although these shredded banknotes are generally landfilled, they are sometimes sold or given away in small bags as souvenirs or as briquettes.
Polymer banknotes may be shredded and then melted down and recycled to form plastic products like building components, plumbing fittings, or compost bins.
Intelligent banknote neutralisation systems
Intelligent banknote neutralisation systems (IBNS) are security systems which render banknotes unusable by marking them permanently as stolen with a degradation agent. Marked (stained) banknotes cannot be brought back into circulation easily and can be linked to the crime scene. Today's most used degradation agent is a special security ink which cannot be removed from the banknote easily and not without destroying the banknote itself, but other agents also exist. Today IBNSs are used to protect banknotes in automated teller machines, retail machines, and during cash-in-transit operations.
Dynamic Intelligent Currency Encryption
Dynamic Intelligent Currency Encryption (DICE) is a security technology introduced in 2014 by British company EDAQS, which devaluates banknotes remotely that are illegal or have been stolen. The technology is based on identifiable banknotes - that could be an RFID chip or a barcode - and connects to a digital security system to verify the validity of the banknote. The company claims that the banknotes are unforgeable and contribute to solve cash-related problems as well as fight crime and terrorism. In another note, the DICE benefits cover and solve almost all cash-related issues that are seen by governments to be a motivation for the progressive abolition of cash.
Confiscation and asset forfeiture
In the United States there are many laws that allow the confiscation of cash and other assets from the bearer if there is suspicion that the money came from an illegal activity. Because a significant amount of U.S. currency contains traces of cocaine and other illegal drugs, it is not uncommon for innocent people searched at airports or stopped for traffic violations to have cash in their possession sniffed by dogs for drugs and then have the cash seized because the dog smelled drugs on the money. It is then up to the owner of the money to prove where the cash came from at his own expense. Many people simply forfeit the money. In 1994, the United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit, held in the case of UNITED STATES of America v. U.S. CURRENCY, $30,060.00 (39 F.3d 1039 63 USLW 2351, No. 92-55919) that the widespread presence of illegal substances on paper currency in the Los Angeles area created a situation where the reaction of a drug-sniffing dog would not create probable cause for civil forfeiture.
Paper money collecting as a hobby
Banknote collecting, or notaphily, is a slowly growing area of numismatics. Although generally not as widespread as coin and stamp collecting, the hobby is slowly expanding. Prior to the 1990s, currency collecting was a relatively small adjunct to coin collecting, but currency auctions and greater public awareness of paper money have caused more interest in rare banknotes and consequently their increased value. The most valuable banknote is the $1000 bill issued in 1890 that was sold at an auction for $2,255,000.
Trades
For years, the mode of collecting banknotes was through a handful of mail order dealers who issued price lists and catalogs. In the early 1990s, it became more common for rare notes to be sold at various coin and currency shows via auction. The illustrated catalogs and "event nature" of the auction practice seemed to fuel a sharp rise in overall awareness of paper money in the numismatic community. The emergence of currency third party grading services (similar to services that grade and "slab", or encapsulate, coins) also may have increased collector and investor interest in notes. Entire advanced collections are often sold at one time, and to this day single auctions can generate millions in gross sales. Today, eBay has surpassed auctions in terms of highest volume of sales of banknotes. However, rare banknotes still sell for much less than comparable rare coins. This disparity is diminishing as paper money prices continue to rise. A few rare and historical banknotes have sold for more than a million dollars.
There are many different organizations and societies around the world for the hobby, including the International Bank Note Society (IBNS), which currently assert to have around 2,000 members in 90 countries.
Novelty
The universal appeal and instant recognition of bank notes has resulted in a plethora of novelty merchandise that is designed to have the appearance of paper currency. These items cover nearly every class of product. Cloth material printed with bank note patterns is used for clothing, bed linens, curtains, upholstery and more. Acrylic paperweights and even toilet seats with bank notes embedded inside are also common. Items that resemble stacks of bank notes and can be used as a seat or ottoman are also available.
Manufacturers of these items must take into consideration when creating these products whether the product could be construed as counterfeiting. Overlapping note images and/or changing the dimensions of the reproduction to be at least 50% smaller or 50% larger than the original are some ways to avoid the risk of being considered a counterfeit. But in cases where realism is the goal, other steps may be necessary. For example, in the stack of bank notes seat mentioned earlier, the decal used to create the product would be considered counterfeit. However, once the decal has been affixed to the resin stack shell and cannot be peeled off, the final product is no longer at risk of being classified as counterfeit, even though the resulting appearance is realistic.
See also
Notes and references
Bibliography
External links
Counterfeit money was a major problem in the 1850s - Pantagraph (Bloomington, Illinois newspaper)
Accounting source documents
Paper products
Watermarking
Written communication
Ancient inventions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/17%20%28number%29
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17 (number)
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17 (seventeen) is the natural number following 16 and preceding 18. It is a prime number.
Seventeen is the sum of the first four prime numbers.
In mathematics
Seventeen is the seventh prime number. The next prime is nineteen, with which it forms a twin prime.
Seventeen is a permutable prime and a supersingular prime.
Seventeen is the third Fermat prime, as it is of the form 2 + 1, specifically with n = 2. Since 17 is a Fermat prime, regular heptadecagons can be constructed with a compass and unmarked ruler. This was proven by Carl Friedrich Gauss
and ultimately led him to choose mathematics over philology for his studies.
There are exactly 17 two-dimensional space (plane symmetry) groups. These are sometimes called wallpaper groups, as they represent the seventeen possible symmetry types that can be used for wallpaper.
Like 41, the number 17 is a prime that yields primes in the polynomial n2 + n + p, for all positive n < p − 1.
Either 16 or 18 unit squares can be formed into rectangles with perimeter equal to the area; and there are no other natural numbers with this property. The Platonists regarded this as a sign of their peculiar propriety; and Plutarch notes it when writing that the Pythagoreans "utterly abominate" 17, which "bars them off from each other and disjoins them".
Seventeen is the minimum possible number of givens for a sudoku puzzle with a unique solution. This was long conjectured, and was proved in 2012–14.
There are 17 orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems (to within a conformal symmetry) in which the three-variable Laplace equation can be solved using the separation of variables technique.
Seventeen is the sixth Mersenne prime exponent, yielding 131071.
Seventeen is the first number that can be written as the sum of a positive cube and a positive square in two different ways; that is, the smallest n such that x3 + y2 = n has two different solutions for x and y positive integers ((1,4) or (2,3)). The next such number is 65.
Seventeen is the minimum number of vertices on a graph such that, if the edges are coloured with three different colours, there is bound to be a monochromatic triangle. (See Ramsey's theorem.)
Seventeen is the only prime number which is the sum of four consecutive primes (2,3,5,7). Any other four consecutive primes summed would always produce an even number, thereby divisible by 2 and so not prime.
The sequence of residues (mod n) of a googol and googolplex, for n = 1, 2, 3, ..., agree up until n = 17.
In science
The atomic number of chlorine.
The Brodmann area defining the primary visual processing area of mammalian brains.
Group 17 of the periodic table is called the halogens.
The number of elementary particles with unique names in the Standard Model of physics.
In languages
Grammar
In Catalan, 17 is the first compound number (disset). The numbers 11 (onze) through 16 (setze) have their own names.
In French, 17 is the first compound number (dix-sept). The numbers 11 (onze) through 16 (seize) have their own names.
In Italian, 17 is also the first compound number (diciassette), whereas sixteen is sedici.
Age 17
In most countries across the world, it is the last age at which one is considered a minor under law.
In the UK, the minimum age for taking driving lessons, and to drive a car or a van
In the US and Canada, it is the age at which one may purchase, rent, or reserve M-rated video games without parental consent
In some US states, and some jurisdictions around the world, 17 is the age of sexual consent
In most US states, Canada and in the UK, the age at which one may donate blood (without parental consent)
In many countries and jurisdictions, the age at which one may obtain a driver's license
In the US, the age at which one may watch, rent, or purchase R-rated movies without parental consent
The U.S. TV Parental Guidelines system sets 17 as the minimum age one can watch programs with a TV-MA rating without parental guidance.
In the US, the age at which one can enlist in the armed forces with parental consent
In the US, the age at which one can apply for a private pilot licence for powered flight (however, applicants can obtain a student pilot certificate at age 16)
In Greece and Indonesia, the voting age
In Chile and Indonesia, the minimum driving age.
In Tajikistan, North Korea and Timor-Leste, it is Age of majority
In culture
Music
Bands
17 Hippies, a German band
Seventeen (세븐틴), a South Korean boy band
Heaven 17, an English new wave band
East 17, an English boy band
Albums
17 (XXXTentacion album)
17 (Motel album)
17 (Ricky Martin album)
Chicago 17, a 1984 album by Chicago
Seventeen Days, a 2005 album by 3 Doors Down
Seventeen Seconds, a 1980 album by The Cure
17 Carat, a 2015 EP by Seventeen
Songs
"17 Again", a song by Tide Lines
"17" (Sky Ferreira song)
"17" (Yourcodenameis:Milo song)
"17 Again", a song by Eurythmics
"17 år", a song by Veronica Maggio
"17 Crimes", a song by AFI
"17 Days", a song by Prince
"17", a song by Dan Bălan
"17", a song by Jethro Tull
"17", a song by Kings of Leon
"17", a song by Milburn
"17", a song by Rick James from Reflections
"17", a B-side by Shiina Ringo on the "Tsumi to Batsu" single
"17", a song by The Smashing Pumpkins from the album Adore
"17", a song by Youth Lagoon from the album The Year of Hibernation
"17 Days", a song by Prince & the Revolution, B side from the 1984 "When Doves Cry" single
"Seventeen" (Jet song)
"Seventeen" (Ladytron song)
"Seventeen" (Winger song)
"Seventeen", a song by ¡Forward, Russia! from Give Me a Wall
"Seventeen", a song by Jimmy Eat World from Static Prevails
"Seventeen", a song by Marina & the Diamonds from the US edition of The Family Jewels
"Seventeen", a song by Mat Kearney from the iTunes edition of Young Love
"Seventeen", a song from the Repo! The Genetic Opera soundtrack
"Seventeen", the original title of the song "I Saw Her Standing There" by The Beatles
"Seventeen", a song by the Sex Pistols from Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols
"Seventeen Forever", a song by Metro Station
"At Seventeen", a song by Janis Ian
"Edge of Seventeen", a song by Stevie Nicks
"Seventeen Ain't So Sweet", a song by The Red Jumpsuit Apparatus from Don't You Fake It
"Only 17", a song by Rucka Rucka Ali
"Opus 17 (Don't You Worry 'Bout Me)", a song by Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons
"(She's) Sexy + 17", a song by Stray Cats from Rant N' Rave with the Stray Cats
"Hello, Seventeen", a song by 12012
"Section 17 (Suitcase Calling)", a song by The Polyphonic Spree
"Day Seventeen: Accident?", a song by Ayreon
"Seventeen", a song by Alessia Cara
"Seventeen", a song performed by Marina and the Diamonds
"Seventeen" and "Seventeen (Reprise)", songs in the musical Heathers
"Seventeen" and "Seventeen (Reprise)", songs in the musical Tuck Everlasting
Other
Seventeen (musical), a 1951 American musical
The ratio 18:17 was a popular approximation for the equal tempered semitone during the Renaissance
Film
Seventeen (1916), an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Booth Tarkington
Number 17 (1928), a British-German film
Number Seventeen (1932), directed by Alfred Hitchcock
Seventeen (1940), a second adaptation of the Tarkington novel
Number 17 (1949), a Swedish film
Stalag 17 (1953), directed by Billy Wilder
Try Seventeen (2002), directed by Jeffrey Porter
In 2004, Volatile Films released a feature-length film titled The Significance of Seventeen starring Cindy Taylor; one theme addressed by the film is the high incidence of the number 17 and its function as 'the most random number' as described by MIT.
In the film Three Days of the Condor, the title character played by Robert Redford works in section 17 of the CIA. 17 Again (2009), directed by Burr Steers
Anime and manga
Android 17, a character from the Dragon Ball series
Detective Konawaka from the Paprika anime has a strong dislike for the number 17
Games
The computer game Half-Life 2 takes place in and around City 17
The visual novel Ever 17: The Out of Infinity strongly revolves around the number 17
Print
The title of Seventeen, a magazine
The title of Just Seventeen, a former magazine
The number 17 is a recurring theme in the works of novelist Steven Brust. All of his chaptered novels have either 17 chapters or two books of 17 chapters each. Multiples of 17 frequently appear in his novels set in the fantasy world of Dragaera, where the number is considered holy.
In The Illuminatus! Trilogy, the symbol for Discordianism includes a pyramid with 17 steps because 17 has "virtually no interesting geometric, arithmetic, or mystical qualities". However, for the Illuminati, 17 is tied with the "23/17 phenomenon".
In the Harry Potter universe
17 is the coming of age for wizards. It is equivalent to the usual coming of age at 18
17 is the number of Sickles in one Galleon in the British wizards' currency
Religion
According to Plutarch's Moralia, the Egyptians have a legend that the end of Osiris' life came on the seventeenth of a month, on which day it is quite evident to the eye that the period of the full moon is over. Now, because of this, the Pythagoreans call this day "the Barrier," and utterly abominate this number. For the number seventeen, coming in between the square sixteen and the oblong rectangle eighteen, which, as it happens, are the only plane figures that have their perimeters equal their areas, bars them off from each other and disjoins them, and breaks up the epogdoon by its division into unequal intervals.
In the Yasna of Zoroastrianism, seventeen chapters were written by Zoroaster himself. These are the Gathas.
The number of the raka'ahs that Muslims perform during Salat on a daily basis.
The number of surat al-Isra in the Qur'an.
In sports
17 is the number of the longest winning streak in NHL history, which the Pittsburgh Penguins achieved in 1993.
Larry Ellison's victorious 2013 Americas Cup Oracle racing yacht bears the name "17".
17 is the number of the record for most NBA championships in NBA History, which the Boston Celtics (and as of 2020, the Los Angeles Lakers) achieved.
17 is the number of individual laws mentioned in the Laws of the Game (association football).
17 is the number of games played by each NFL team as of 2021.
Since the start of the 2014 season, Formula One drivers have been able to choose their own car number, however, following the fatal accident of Jules Bianchi, who drove car #17, the number was retired.
In other fields
Seventeen is:
Described at MIT as 'the least random number', according to the Jargon File. This is supposedly because in a study where respondents were asked to choose a random number from 1 to 20, 17 was the most common choice.
This study has been repeated a number of times.
The number of guns in a 17-gun salute to U.S. Army, Air Force and Marine Corps Generals, and Navy and Coast Guard admirals.
The number of flames emanating from the grenade cap-badge of the Grenadier Guards.
During World War II, the four-engined heavy bomber as flown by the USAAF and other Allies and known as "The Flying Fortress", was also known as the B-17
The maximum number of strokes of a Chinese radical
The number of syllables in a haiku (5 + 7 + 5)
In the Nordic countries the seventeenth day of the year is considered the heart and/or the back of winter
"Highway 17" or "Route 17": See List of highways numbered 17 and List of public transport routes numbered 17
Seventeen, also known as Lock Seventeen, an unincorporated place in Clay Township, Tuscarawas County, Ohio
Seventeen was the former name of a yacht prior to being commissioned in the US Navy as the
In Italian culture, the number 17 is considered unlucky. When viewed as the Roman numeral, XVII, it is then changed anagrammatically to VIXI, which in the Latin language translates to "I lived", the perfect implying "My life is over." (c.f. "Vixerunt''", Cicero's famous announcement of an execution.) Renault sold its "R17" model in Italy as "R177." See Cesana Pariol in the sport section about the name of curve 17.
The fear of the number 17 is called 'heptadecaphobia' or 'heptakaidekaphobia'
Some species of cicadas have a life cycle of 17 years (i.e. they are buried in the ground for 17 years between every mating season)
The number of special significance to Yellow Pig's Day and Hampshire College Summer Studies in Mathematics
The number to call police in France
Force 17, a special operations unit of the Palestinian Fatah movement
The number of the French department Charente-Maritime
The declared percentage alcohol content (by volume) of Baileys Irish Cream - an Irish whiskey and cream based liqueur, made by Gilbeys of Ireland
The flight number of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 which was shot down on 17 July 2014 with first test flight of plane is on 17 July 1997 exactly 17 years.
The record number of concerts performed in a single year at Madison Square Garden by the band Phish in 2017
The number of deaths and injured people on February 14, 2018, shooting at the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting.
References
External links
Properties of 17
Mathematical properties of 17 at yellowpigs.net
17
is 17 the most random number at the wayback machine.
Number 17 at the Database of Number Correlations
Prime Curios for the number 17
Integers
|
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] |
208291
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20communes%20of%20France
|
Lists of communes of France
|
The following lists give the communes of France within each department:
Metropolitan France
French overseas departments and territories
Overseas departments (département d'outre-mer or DOM):
Overseas collectivities (collectivité d'outre-mer or COM):
See also
Administrative divisions of France
List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants
List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants (2006 census)
List of communes in France (2008 version)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19%20%28number%29
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19 (number)
|
19 (nineteen) is the natural number following 18 and preceding 20. It is a prime number.
Mathematics
19 is the 8th prime number, the seventh Mersenne prime exponent, and the second base-10 repunit prime exponent. 19 is the maximum number of fourth powers needed to sum up to any natural number, and in the context of Waring's problem, 19 is the fourth value of g(k). In addition, 19 is a Heegner number and a centered hexagonal number. 19 is also a centered triangular number, being the smallest such number that is also prime. 19 is also the second Keith number and also the first Keith prime. Moreover, there exists only one nontrivial normal magic hexagon: the one composed of 19 cells.
Science
19 is the atomic number of potassium.
19 years is very close to 235 lunations. See Metonic cycle.
COVID-19 is the shortened name of Coronavirus disease 2019, the cause of the global pandemic that began in 2019.
Religion
Islam
The number of angels guarding Hell ("Hellfire") ("Saqar") according to the Qur'an: "Over it are nineteen" (74:30), after which the Qur'an describes this number as being "a trial for those who disbelieve" (74:31), a sign for people of the scripture to be "convinced" (74:31) and that believers "will increase in faith" (74:31) due to it...
The Number of Verse and Sura together in the Qur'an which announces Jesus son of Maryam's (Mary's) birth (Qur'an 19:19).
A group called United Submitter International claim the Quran has mathematical structure based on the number 19. The gematrical value of WAHD = 6+1+8+4=19, Wahd means 'One' (God) to the first verse (1:1), known as Bas-malah, consists of 19 Arabic letters or the Quran consists of 114 (19x6) surat etc.
Baháʼí faith
In the Bábí and Baháʼí Faiths, a group of 19 is called a Váhid, a Unity (Arabic: واحد wāhid, "one"). The numerical value of this word in the Abjad numeral system is 19.
The Baháʼí calendar is structured such that a year contains 19 months of 19 days each (along with the intercalary period of Ayyám-i-Há), as well as a 19-year cycle and a 361-year (19x19) supercycle.
The Báb and his disciples formed a group of 19.
There were 19 Apostles of Bahá'u'lláh.
Celtic paganism
19 is a sacred number of the goddess Brigid because it is said to represent the 19-year cycle of the Great Celtic Year and the amount of time it takes the Moon to coincide with the winter solstice.
Music
"19" is a 1985 song by Paul Hardcastle, including sampled soundbites taken from a documentary about the Vietnam War in which 19 is claimed to have been the average age of United States soldiers killed in the conflict. The song was parodied by British satirist Rory Bremner under the pseudonym 'The Commentators,' as N-n-nineteen, Not Out, the title referring to the batting average of David Gower, the England cricket captain, during his side's risible performance against the West Indies in 1984 when they lost 5–0.
"I Was Only Nineteen" by the Australian group Redgum reached number one on the Australian charts in 1983. In 2005 a hip hop version of the song was produced by The Herd.
19 is the name of Adele's 2008 debut album, so named since she was 19 years old at the time.
"Hey Nineteen" is a song by American jazz rock band Steely Dan, on the 1980 album Gaucho.
Nineteen has been used as an alternative to twelve for a division of the octave into equal parts. This idea goes back to Salinas in the sixteenth century, and is interesting in part because it gives a system of meantone tuning, being close to 1/3 comma meantone. See 19 equal temperament.
Some organs use the 19th harmonic to approximate a minor third.
Literature
Stephen King's eight-book epic The Dark Tower saga employs the number 19 in books The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger, The Dark Tower V: Wolves of the Calla, The Dark Tower VI: Song of Susannah, The Dark Tower VII: The Dark Tower, and The Wind Through the Keyhole as a mysterious and important number. They refer to the "ka-tet of 19", "Directive Nineteen," many names add up to 19, 19 seems to permeate every aspect of Roland and his traveler's lives. In addition, the number ends up being a powerful key.
In Jodi Picoult's bestselling book Nineteen Minutes, the number 19 is referenced multiple times. It is most commonly referenced when referring to the main subject of the book, the school shooting rampage that took place over a span of 19 minutes.
The novel S. by Doug Dorst uses 19 and its multiples throughout. S is the 19th letter of the alphabet.
Games
The game of Go is played on a grid of 19×19 lines (though variants can be played on grids of other sizes).
Though the maximum score for a cribbage hand is 29, there is no combination of cards that adds up to 19 points. Many cribbage players, therefore, jokingly refer to a zero-point hand as "a 19 hand."
In Ecuadorian card game "40", when counting the number of cards gathered in a hand, the limit is 19, after which the count starts at 6 and represents the points achieved during that hand.
Age 19
In four countries, 19 is the age of majority.
In two countries, 19 is the minimum legal drinking age.
In three countries, 19 is the minimum legal smoking age.
In sports
In golf, the '19th hole' is the clubhouse bar and in match play, if there is a tie after 18 holes, an extra hole(s) is played. In miniature golf it is an extra hole on which the winner earns an instant prize.
Other fields
The 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution gave American women the right to vote.
The Vietnam War spanned over 19 years, from November 1955 to April 1975.
References
External links
Number 19 at the Database of Number Correlations
Prime Curios for the number 19
Integers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18%20%28number%29
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18 (number)
|
18 (eighteen) is the natural number following 17 and preceding 19.
In mathematics
Eighteen is a composite number, its divisors being 1, 2, 3, 6 and 9. Three of these divisors (3, 6 and 9) add up to 18, hence 18 is a semiperfect number. Eighteen is the first inverted square-prime of the form p·q2.
In base ten, it is a Harshad number.
It is an abundant number, as the sum of its proper divisors is greater than itself (1+2+3+6+9 = 21). It is known to be a solitary number, despite not being coprime to this sum.
It is the number of one-sided pentominoes.
It is the only number where the sum of its written digits in base 10 (1+8 = 9) is equal to half of itself (18/2 = 9).
In science
Chemistry
Eighteen is the atomic number of argon.
Group 18 of the periodic table is called the noble gases.
The 18-electron rule is a rule of thumb in transition metal chemistry for characterising and predicting the stability of metal complexes.
In religion and literature
The Hebrew word for "life" is חי (chai), which has a numerical value of 18. Consequently, the custom has arisen in Jewish circles to give donations and monetary gifts in multiples of 18 as an expression of blessing for long life.
In Judaism, in the Talmud; Pirkei Avot (5:25), Rabbi Yehudah ben Teime gives the age of 18 as the appropriate age to get married ("Ben shmonah esra lechupah", at eighteen years old to the Chupah (marriage canopy)). (See Coming of age, Age of majority).
Shemoneh Esrei (sh'MOH-nuh ES-ray) is a prayer that is the center of any Jewish religious service. Its name means "eighteen". The prayer is also known as the Amidah.
In Ancient Roman custom the number 18 can symbolise a blood relative.
Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22 was originally named Catch-18 because of the Hebrew meaning of the number, but was amended to the published title to avoid confusion with another war novel, Mila 18.
There are 18 chapters in the Bhagavad Gita, which is contained in the Mahabharata, which has 18 books. The Kurukshetra War which the epic depicts, is between 18 armies (11 on the Kuru side, 7 on the Pandava). The war itself lasts for 18 days. In the other Hindu epic, the Ramayana, the war between Rama and the demons also lasted 18 days.
In Babism the first 18 disciples of the Báb were known as the Letters of the Living.
As lucky or unlucky number
In Chinese tradition, 18 pronounced 十八 (shí bā) and is considered a lucky number due to similarity with 實發 (shì fā) 'definitely get rich', 'to get rich for sure'.
According to applications of numerology in Judaism, the letters of the word chai ("living") add up to 18. Thus, 18 is considered a lucky number and many gifts for B'nai Mitzvot and weddings are in $18 increments.
Age 18
In most countries, 18 is the age of majority, in which a minor becomes a legal adult. It is also the voting age, marriageable age, drinking age and smoking age in most countries, though sometimes these ages are different than the age of majority.
In the United States, 18 is the:
Age for sexual consent in eleven states and under federal law.
Minimum age to purchase firearms in thirty-eight states with the exception of handguns (21 under federal law).
Marriageable age without parental consent except for Nebraska (19), Mississippi and Puerto Rico (21).
The minimum age at which one can purchase, rent, or buy tickets to NC-17-rated films or buy video games with an AO rating.
In sports
In association football (soccer), "the 18" is a slang term for the penalty area.
In Australian rules football (except in AFL Women's), each team has 18 players on the field during play.
There are 18 holes on a regulation golf course.
In Nippon Professional Baseball (Japanese baseball), No.18 is known as Ace number.
In other fields
Eighteen is also:
A 2005 movie directed by Richard Bell and starring Brendan Fletcher and Alan Cumming.
A 2002 album by electronic artist Moby.
"18 and Life" is a 1989 single by Skid Row
The number of chapters into which James Joyce's epic novel Ulysses is divided.
Russ Wheeler's car number in the film Days of Thunder.
The number of wheels on the most common type of North American tractor-trailer truck, which are hence often called 18-wheelers.
The number of the French department Cher and the Turkish province Bitlis.
DVD-18 is double-sided, double-layered DVD format.
A Canon error message, see E18 error.
Android 18, a fictional character in the Dragon Ball manga and anime series.
18th Street gang, a Hispanic American gang.
The Hindu epic Mahabharata has eighteen sections, involves eighteen armies and is about a war fought over eighteen days.
In the Chinese mythos, Hell has 18 levels.
In Chinese folklore, the Shaolin temple had a group of 18 bronze Monks. Initiates could only be considered full graduates of Shaolin martial arts if they could defeat them in combat.
In Neo-Nazi circles 18 is the numerical sign for Adolf Hitler (1 standing for A and 8 standing for H). It is also the number for the UK-based terrorist group Combat 18.
In 1990 Megadeth released "Hangar 18" as a single from Rust in Peace.
Eighteen Visions (often abbreviated to 18V), an alternative metal/metalcore band from Orange County, California.
Eighteen Eighteen, a South African Rap artist.
"I'm Eighteen", Alice Cooper's first Top Ten hit single, from their 1971 album Love It to Death.
A surname, recorded in East Anglia in the 18th century.
In English speech, commonly confused with the number , as they sound similar when spoken
See also
Numeral system
Notes
Integers
|
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208296
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screamer
|
Screamer
|
The screamers are three South American bird species placed in family Anhimidae. They were thought to be related to the Galliformes because of similar bills, but are more related to ducks (family Anatidae), and most closely related to the magpie goose. The clade is exceptional within the living birds in lacking uncinate processes of ribs. The three species are: The horned screamer (Anhima cornuta); the southern screamer or crested screamer (Chauna torquata); and the northern screamer or black-necked screamer (Chauna chavaria).
Systematics and evolution
Screamers have a poor fossil record. A putative Eocene specimen is known from Wyoming, while the more modern Chaunoides antiquus is known from the late Oligocene to early Miocene in Brazil. Anhimids are most similar to presbyornithids, with which they form a clade to the exclusion of the rest of Anseriformes. Given the presence of lamelae in the otherwise fowl-like beaks of screamers, it is even possible that they evolved from presbyornithid-grade birds, reverting from a filter-feeding lifestyle to an herbivorous one.
Distribution and habitat
The three species occur only in South America, ranging from Colombia to northern Argentina. The horned screamer was once present on the Caribbean island of Trinidad, but is now extirpated from there. They are large, bulky birds, with a small downy head, long legs and large feet which are only partially webbed. They have large spurs on their wings which are used in fights over mates and territorial disputes; these can break off in the breast of other screamers, and are regularly renewed. Unlike ducks, they have a partial moult and are able to fly throughout the year. They live in open areas and marshes with some grass and feed on water plants. One species, the southern screamer, is considered a pest as it raids crops and competes with farm birds.
Behaviour and ecology
Screamers lay between 2 and 7 white eggs, with four or five being typical. The young, like those of most Anseriformes, can run as soon as they are hatched. The chicks are usually raised in or near water as they can swim better than they can run. This helps them to avoid predators. Like ducks, screamer chicks imprint early in life. This, coupled with their unfussy diet, makes them amenable to domestication. They can be excellent guard animals, due to their loud screams when encountering anything new and potentially threatening.
Status and conservation
Both the southern and the horned screamer remain widespread and are overall fairly common. In contrast, the northern screamer is relatively rare and consequently considered near threatened. They are seldom hunted, in spite of their conspicuous nature, because their flesh has a spongy texture and is riddled with air-sacs, making it highly unpalatable. The main threats are habitat destruction and increased intensification of agriculture.
Footnotes
References
Carboneras, C. (1992). Family Anhimidae (Screamers). pp. 528–535 in; del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol 1, Ostrich to Ducks Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
External links
Screamer videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Exotic pets
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary%20production
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Primary production
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In ecology, primary production is the synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also occurs through chemosynthesis, which uses the oxidation or reduction of inorganic chemical compounds as its source of energy. Almost all life on Earth relies directly or indirectly on primary production. The organisms responsible for primary production are known as primary producers or autotrophs, and form the base of the food chain. In terrestrial ecoregions, these are mainly plants, while in aquatic ecoregions algae predominate in this role. Ecologists distinguish primary production as either net or gross, the former accounting for losses to processes such as cellular respiration, the latter not.
Overview
Primary production is the production of chemical energy in organic compounds by living organisms. The main source of this energy is sunlight but a minute fraction of primary production is driven by lithotrophic organisms using the chemical energy of inorganic molecules.
Regardless of its source, this energy is used to synthesize complex organic molecules from simpler inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide () and water (H2O). The following two equations are simplified representations of photosynthesis (top) and (one form of) chemosynthesis (bottom):
+ H2O + light → CH2O + O2
+ O2 + 4 H2S → CH2O + 4 S + 3 H2O
In both cases, the end point is a polymer of reduced carbohydrate, (CH2O)n, typically molecules such as glucose or other sugars. These relatively simple molecules may be then used to further synthesise more complicated molecules, including proteins, complex carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, or be respired to perform work. Consumption of primary producers by heterotrophic organisms, such as animals, then transfers these organic molecules (and the energy stored within them) up the food web, fueling all of the Earth's living systems.
Gross primary production and net primary production
Gross primary production (GPP) is the amount of chemical energy, typically expressed as carbon biomass, that primary producers create in a given length of time. Some fraction of this fixed energy is used by primary producers for cellular respiration and maintenance of existing tissues (i.e., "growth respiration" and "maintenance respiration"). The remaining fixed energy (i.e., mass of photosynthate) is referred to as net primary production (NPP).
NPP = GPP - respiration [by plants]
Net primary production is the rate at which all the autotrophs in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy. As noted, it is equal to the difference between the rate at which the plants in an ecosystem produce useful chemical energy (GPP) and the rate at which they use some of that energy during respiration. Net primary production is available to be directed toward growth and reproduction of primary producers. As such it is available for consumption by herbivores.
Both gross and net primary production are typically expressed in units of mass per unit area per unit time interval. In terrestrial ecosystems, mass of carbon per unit area per year (g C m−2 yr−1) is most often used as the unit of measurement. Note that a distinction is sometimes drawn between "production" and "productivity", with the former the quantity of material produced (g C m−2), the latter the rate at which it is produced (g C m−2 yr−1), but these terms are more typically used interchangeably.
Terrestrial production
On the land, almost all primary production is now performed by vascular plants, with a small fraction coming from algae and non-vascular plants such as mosses and liverworts. Before the evolution of vascular plants, non-vascular plants likely played a more significant role. Primary production on land is a function of many factors, but principally local hydrology and temperature (the latter covaries to an extent with light, specifically photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), the source of energy for photosynthesis). While plants cover much of the Earth's surface, they are strongly curtailed wherever temperatures are too extreme or where necessary plant resources (principally water and PAR) are limiting, such as deserts or polar regions.
Water is "consumed" in plants by the processes of photosynthesis (see above) and transpiration. The latter process (which is responsible for about 90% of water use) is driven by the evaporation of water from the leaves of plants. Transpiration allows plants to transport water and mineral nutrients from the soil to growth regions, and also cools the plant. Diffusion of water vapour out of a leaf, the force that drives transpiration, is regulated by structures known as stomata. These structures also regulate the diffusion of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the leaf, such that decreasing water loss (by partially closing stomata) also decreases carbon dioxide gain. Certain plants use alternative forms of photosynthesis, called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) and C4. These employ physiological and anatomical adaptations to increase water-use efficiency and allow increased primary production to take place under conditions that would normally limit carbon fixation by C3 plants (the majority of plant species).
As shown in the animation, the boreal forests of Canada and Russia experience high productivity in June and July and then a slow decline through fall and winter. Year-round, tropical forests in South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and Indonesia have high productivity, not surprising with the abundant sunlight, warmth, and rainfall. However, even in the tropics, there are variations in productivity over the course of the year. For example, the Amazon basin exhibits especially high productivity from roughly August through October - the period of the area's dry season. Because the trees have access to a plentiful supply of ground water that builds up in the rainy season, they grow better when the rainy skies clear and allow more sunlight to reach the forest.
Oceanic production
In a reversal of the pattern on land, in the oceans, almost all photosynthesis is performed by algae, with a small fraction contributed by vascular plants and other groups. Algae encompass a diverse range of organisms, ranging from single floating cells to attached seaweeds. They include photoautotrophs from a variety of groups. Eubacteria are important photosynthetizers in both oceanic and terrestrial ecosystems, and while some archaea are phototrophic, none are known to utilise oxygen-evolving photosynthesis. A number of eukaryotes are significant contributors to primary production in the ocean, including green algae, brown algae and red algae, and a diverse group of unicellular groups. Vascular plants are also represented in the ocean by groups such as the seagrasses.
Unlike terrestrial ecosystems, the majority of primary production in the ocean is performed by free-living microscopic organisms called phytoplankton. Larger autotrophs, such as the seagrasses and macroalgae (seaweeds) are generally confined to the littoral zone and adjacent shallow waters, where they can attach to the underlying substrate but still be within the photic zone. There are exceptions, such as Sargassum, but the vast majority of free-floating production takes place within microscopic organisms.
The factors limiting primary production in the ocean are also very different from those on land. The availability of water, obviously, is not an issue (though its salinity can be). Similarly, temperature, while affecting metabolic rates (see Q10), ranges less widely in the ocean than on land because the heat capacity of seawater buffers temperature changes, and the formation of sea ice insulates it at lower temperatures. However, the availability of light, the source of energy for photosynthesis, and mineral nutrients, the building blocks for new growth, play crucial roles in regulating primary production in the ocean. Available Earth System Models suggest that ongoing ocean bio-geochemical changes could trigger reductions in ocean NPP between 3% and 10% of current values depending on the emissions scenario.
Light
The sunlit zone of the ocean is called the photic zone (or euphotic zone). This is a relatively thin layer (10–100 m) near the ocean's surface where there is sufficient light for photosynthesis to occur. For practical purposes, the thickness of the photic zone is typically defined by the depth at which light reaches 1% of its surface value. Light is attenuated down the water column by its absorption or scattering by the water itself, and by dissolved or particulate material within it (including phytoplankton).
Net photosynthesis in the water column is determined by the interaction between the photic zone and the mixed layer. Turbulent mixing by wind energy at the ocean's surface homogenises the water column vertically until the turbulence dissipates (creating the aforementioned mixed layer). The deeper the mixed layer, the lower the average amount of light intercepted by phytoplankton within it. The mixed layer can vary from being shallower than the photic zone, to being much deeper than the photic zone. When it is much deeper than the photic zone, this results in phytoplankton spending too much time in the dark for net growth to occur. The maximum depth of the mixed layer in which net growth can occur is called the critical depth. As long as there are adequate nutrients available, net primary production occurs whenever the mixed layer is shallower than the critical depth.
Both the magnitude of wind mixing and the availability of light at the ocean's surface are affected across a range of space- and time-scales. The most characteristic of these is the seasonal cycle (caused by the consequences of the Earth's axial tilt), although wind magnitudes additionally have strong spatial components. Consequently, primary production in temperate regions such as the North Atlantic is highly seasonal, varying with both incident light at the water's surface (reduced in winter) and the degree of mixing (increased in winter). In tropical regions, such as the gyres in the middle of the major basins, light may only vary slightly across the year, and mixing may only occur episodically, such as during large storms or hurricanes.
Nutrients
Mixing also plays an important role in the limitation of primary production by nutrients. Inorganic nutrients, such as nitrate, phosphate and silicic acid are necessary for phytoplankton to synthesise their cells and cellular machinery. Because of gravitational sinking of particulate material (such as plankton, dead or fecal material), nutrients are constantly lost from the photic zone, and are only replenished by mixing or upwelling of deeper water. This is exacerbated where summertime solar heating and reduced winds increases vertical stratification and leads to a strong thermocline, since this makes it more difficult for wind mixing to entrain deeper water. Consequently, between mixing events, primary production (and the resulting processes that leads to sinking particulate material) constantly acts to consume nutrients in the mixed layer, and in many regions this leads to nutrient exhaustion and decreased mixed layer production in the summer (even in the presence of abundant light). However, as long as the photic zone is deep enough, primary production may continue below the mixed layer where light-limited growth rates mean that nutrients are often more abundant.
Iron
Another factor relatively recently discovered to play a significant role in oceanic primary production is the micronutrient iron. This is used as a cofactor in enzymes involved in processes such as nitrate reduction and nitrogen fixation. A major source of iron to the oceans is dust from the Earth's deserts, picked up and delivered by the wind as aeolian dust.
In regions of the ocean that are distant from deserts or that are not reached by dust-carrying winds (for example, the Southern and North Pacific oceans), the lack of iron can severely limit the amount of primary production that can occur. These areas are sometimes known as HNLC (High-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll) regions, because the scarcity of iron both limits phytoplankton growth and leaves a surplus of other nutrients. Some scientists have suggested introducing iron to these areas as a means of increasing primary productivity and sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Measurement
The methods for measurement of primary production vary depending on whether gross vs net production is the desired measure, and whether terrestrial or aquatic systems are the focus. Gross production is almost always harder to measure than net, because of respiration, which is a continuous and ongoing process that consumes some of the products of primary production (i.e. sugars) before they can be accurately measured. Also, terrestrial ecosystems are generally more difficult because a substantial proportion of total productivity is shunted to below-ground organs and tissues, where it is logistically difficult to measure. Shallow water aquatic systems can also face this problem.
Scale also greatly affects measurement techniques. The rate of carbon assimilation in plant tissues, organs, whole plants, or plankton samples can be quantified by biochemically based techniques, but these techniques are decidedly inappropriate for large scale terrestrial field situations. There, net primary production is almost always the desired variable, and estimation techniques involve various methods of estimating dry-weight biomass changes over time. Biomass estimates are often converted to an energy measure, such as kilocalories, by an empirically determined conversion factor.
Terrestrial
In terrestrial ecosystems, researchers generally measure net primary production (NPP). Although its definition is straightforward, field measurements used to estimate productivity vary according to investigator and biome. Field estimates rarely account for below ground productivity, herbivory, turnover, litterfall, volatile organic compounds, root exudates, and allocation to symbiotic microorganisms. Biomass based NPP estimates result in underestimation of NPP due to incomplete accounting of these components. However, many field measurements correlate well to NPP. There are a number of comprehensive reviews of the field methods used to estimate NPP. Estimates of ecosystem respiration, the total carbon dioxide produced by the ecosystem, can also be made with gas flux measurements.
The major unaccounted pool is belowground productivity, especially production and turnover of roots. Belowground components of NPP are difficult to measure. BNPP (below-ground NPP) is often estimated based on a ratio of ANPP:BNPP (above-ground NPP:below-ground NPP) rather than direct measurements.
Gross primary production can be estimated from measurements of net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of carbon dioxide made by the eddy covariance technique. During night, this technique measures all components of ecosystem respiration. This respiration is scaled to day-time values and further subtracted from NEE.
Grasslands
Most frequently, peak standing biomass is assumed to measure NPP. In systems with persistent standing litter, live biomass is commonly reported. Measures of peak biomass are more reliable if the system is predominantly annuals. However, perennial measurements could be reliable if there were a synchronous phenology driven by a strong seasonal climate. These methods may underestimate ANPP in grasslands by as much as 2 (temperate) to 4 (tropical) fold. Repeated measures of standing live and dead biomass provide more accurate estimates of all grasslands, particularly those with large turnover, rapid decomposition, and interspecific variation in timing of peak biomass. Wetland productivity (marshes and fens) is similarly measured. In Europe, annual mowing makes the annual biomass increment of wetlands evident.
Forests
Methods used to measure forest productivity are more diverse than those of grasslands. Biomass increment based on stand specific allometry plus litterfall is considered a suitable although incomplete accounting of above-ground net primary production (ANPP). Field measurements used as a proxy for ANPP include annual litterfall, diameter or basal area increment (DBH or BAI), and volume increment.
Aquatic
In aquatic systems, primary production is typically measured using one of six main techniques:
variations in oxygen concentration within a sealed bottle (developed by Gaarder and Gran in 1927)
incorporation of inorganic carbon-14 (14C in the form of sodium bicarbonate) into organic matter
Stable isotopes of Oxygen (16O, 18O and 17O)
fluorescence kinetics (technique still a research topic)
Stable isotopes of Carbon (12C and 13C)
Oxygen/Argon Ratios
The technique developed by Gaarder and Gran uses variations in the concentration of oxygen under different experimental conditions to infer gross primary production. Typically, three identical transparent vessels are filled with sample water and stoppered. The first is analysed immediately and used to determine the initial oxygen concentration; usually this is done by performing a Winkler titration. The other two vessels are incubated, one each in under light and darkened. After a fixed period of time, the experiment ends, and the oxygen concentration in both vessels is measured. As photosynthesis has not taken place in the dark vessel, it provides a measure of ecosystem respiration. The light vessel permits both photosynthesis and respiration, so provides a measure of net photosynthesis (i.e. oxygen production via photosynthesis subtract oxygen consumption by respiration). Gross primary production is then obtained by adding oxygen consumption in the dark vessel to net oxygen production in the light vessel.
The technique of using 14C incorporation (added as labelled Na2CO3) to infer primary production is most commonly used today because it is sensitive, and can be used in all ocean environments. As 14C is radioactive (via beta decay), it is relatively straightforward to measure its incorporation in organic material using devices such as scintillation counters.
Depending upon the incubation time chosen, net or gross primary production can be estimated. Gross primary production is best estimated using relatively short incubation times (1 hour or less), since the loss of incorporated 14C (by respiration and organic material excretion / exudation) will be more limited. Net primary production is the fraction of gross production remaining after these loss processes have consumed some of the fixed carbon.
Loss processes can range between 10 and 60% of incorporated 14C according to the incubation period, ambient environmental conditions (especially temperature) and the experimental species used. Aside from those caused by the physiology of the experimental subject itself, potential losses due to the activity of consumers also need to be considered. This is particularly true in experiments making use of natural assemblages of microscopic autotrophs, where it is not possible to isolate them from their consumers.
The methods based on stable isotopes and O2/Ar ratios have the advantage of providing estimates of respiration rates in the light without the need of incubations in the dark. Among them, the method of the triple oxygen isotopes and O2/Ar have the additional advantage of not needing incubations in closed containers and O2/Ar can even be measured continuously at sea using equilibrator inlet mass spectrometry (EIMS) or a membrane inlet mass spectrometry (MIMS). However, if results relevant to the carbon cycle are desired, it is probably better to rely on methods based on carbon (and not oxygen) isotopes. It is important to notice that the method based on carbon stable isotopes is not simply an adaptation of the classic 14C method, but an entirely different approach that does not suffer from the problem of lack of account of carbon recycling during photosynthesis.
Global
As primary production in the biosphere is an important part of the carbon cycle, estimating it at the global scale is important in Earth system science. However, quantifying primary production at this scale is difficult because of the range of habitats on Earth, and because of the impact of weather events (availability of sunlight, water) on its variability. Using satellite-derived estimates of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for terrestrial habitats and sea-surface chlorophyll for the oceans, it is estimated that the total (photoautotrophic) primary production for the Earth was 104.9 petagrams of carbon per year (Pg C yr−1; equivalent to the non-SI Gt C yr−1). Of this, 56.4 Pg C yr−1 (53.8%), was the product of terrestrial organisms, while the remaining 48.5 Pg C yr−1, was accounted for by oceanic production.
Scaling ecosystem-level GPP estimations based on eddy covariance measurements of net ecosystem exchange (see above) to regional and global values using spatial details of different predictor variables, such as climate variables and remotely sensed fAPAR or LAI led to a terrestrial gross primary production of 123±8 Gt carbon (NOT carbon dioxide) per year during 1998-2005
In areal terms, it was estimated that land production was approximately 426 g C m−2 yr−1 (excluding areas with permanent ice cover), while that for the oceans was 140 g C m−2 yr−1. Another significant difference between the land and the oceans lies in their standing stocks - while accounting for almost half of total production, oceanic autotrophs only account for about 0.2% of the total biomass.
Estimates
Primary productivity can be estimated by a variety of proxies. One that has particular relevance to the geological record is Barium, whose concentration in marine sediments rises in line with primary productivity at the surface.
Human impact and appropriation
Human societies are part of the Earth's NPP cycle, but exert a disproportionate influence in it. In 1996, Josep Garí designed a new indicator of sustainable development based precisely on the estimation of the human appropriation of NPP: he coined it "HANPP" (Human Appropriation of Net Primary Production) and introduced it at the inaugural conference of the European Society for Ecological Economics. HANPP has since been further developed and widely applied in research on ecological economics as well as in policy analysis for sustainability. HANPP represents a proxy of the human impact on Nature and can be applied to different geographical scales and also globally.
The extensive degree of human use of the Planet's resources, mostly via land use, results in various levels of impact on actual NPP (NPPact). Although in some regions, such as the Nile valley, irrigation has resulted in a considerable increase in primary production, in most of the Planet there is a notable trend of NPP reduction due to land changes (ΔNPPLC) of 9.6% across global land-mass. In addition to this, end consumption by people raises the total HANPP to 23.8% of potential vegetation (NPP0). It is estimated that, in 2000, 34% of the Earth's ice-free land area (12% cropland; 22% pasture) was devoted to human agriculture. This disproportionate amount reduces the energy available to other species, having a marked impact on biodiversity, flows of carbon, water and energy, and ecosystem services, and scientists have questioned how large this fraction can be before these services begin to break down. Reductions in NPP are also expected in the ocean as a result of ongoing climate change, potentially impacting marine ecosystems (~10% of global biodiversity) and goods and services (1-5% of global total) that the oceans provide.
See also
Biological pump
f-ratio
Productivity
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
References
Plants
Ecology
Articles containing video clips
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208304
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-S-T%20system
|
R-S-T system
|
The R-S-T system is used by amateur radio operators, shortwave listeners, and other radio hobbyists to exchange information about the quality of a radio signal being received. The code is a three digit number, with one digit each for conveying an assessment of the signal's readability, strength, and tone. The code was developed in 1934 by Amateur radio operator Arthur W. Braaten, W2BSR, and was similar to that codified in the ITU Radio Regulations, Cairo, 1938.
Readability
The R stands for "Readability". Readability is a qualitative assessment of how easy or difficult it is to correctly copy the information being sent during the transmission. In a Morse code telegraphy transmission, readability refers to how easy or difficult it is to distinguish each of the characters in the text of the message being sent; in a voice transmission, readability refers to how easy or difficult it is for each spoken word to be understood correctly. Readability is measured on a scale of 1 to 5.
Unreadable
Barely readable, occasional words distinguishable
Readable with considerable difficulty
Readable with practically no difficulty
Perfectly readable
Strength
The S stands for "Strength". Strength is an assessment of how powerful the received signal is at the receiving location. Although an accurate signal strength meter can determine a quantitative value for signal strength, in practice this portion of the RST code is a qualitative assessment, often made based on the S meter of the radio receiver at the location of signal reception. "Strength" is measured on a scale of 1 to 9.
Faint—signals barely perceptible
Very weak signals
Weak signals
Fair signals
Fairly good signals
Good signals
Moderately strong signals
Strong signals
Extremely strong signals
For a quantitative assessment, quality HF receivers are calibrated so that S9 on the S-meter corresponds to a signal of 50 μV at the antenna standard terminal impedance 50 ohms. One "S" difference should correspond to 6 dB at signal strength (2x voltage = 4x power). On VHF and UHF receivers used for weak signal communications, S9 often corresponds to 5 μV at the antenna terminal 50 ohms. Amateur radio (ham) operators may also use a signal strength of "20 to 60 over 9", or "+20 to +60 over 9." This is in reference to a signal that exceeds S9 on a signal meter on a HF receiver.
Tone
The T stands for "Tone" and is measured on a scale of 1 to 9. Tone only pertains to Morse code and other digital transmission modes and is therefore omitted during voice operations. With modern technology, imperfections in the quality of transmitters’ digital modulation severe enough to be detected by human ears are rare.
Suffixes were historically added to indicate other signal properties, and might be sent as 599K to indicate a clear, strong signal but with bothersome key clicks.
Variations
An example RST report for a voice transmission is "59", usually pronounced "five nine" or "five by nine", a report that indicates a perfectly readable and very strong signal. Exceptionally strong signals are designated by the quantitative number of decibels, in excess of "S9", displayed on the receiver's S meter. Example: "Your signal is 30 dB over S9," or more simply, "Your signal is 30 over 9."
Because the N character in Morse code requires less time to send than the 9, during amateur radio contests where the competing amateur radio stations are all using Morse code, the nines in the RST are typically abbreviated to N to read 5NN. In general, this practice is referred to as abbreviated or "cut" numbers.
The RSQ system has also been proposed for digital modes as an alternative to the RST system. The Q replaces "Tone" with "Quality" on a similar 1-9 scale indicating presence or number of unwanted 'sidebar pairs' in a narrow-band digital mode, such as PSK31 or RTTY.
See also
Plain Language Radio Checks
QSA and QRK code (for Morse code only)
SINPO
Signal strength and readability report
Circuit Merit (for wired and wireless telephone circuits only, not radiotelephony)
QSL card
R-S-M-Q, A Standard Method of Reporting for Telephony, A. M. Braaten, T. & R. Bulletin 1936
References
External links
Ham Radio RST Signal Reporting System for CW Operation, by Charlie Bautsch, W5AM
RSQ - An Improved Signal Reporting System for PSK
Amateur radio
Encodings
Operating signals
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1934
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shyness
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Shyness
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Shyness (also called diffidence) is the feeling of apprehension, lack of comfort, or awkwardness especially when a person is around other people. This commonly occurs in new situations or with unfamiliar people; a shy person may simply opt to avoid these situations. Although shyness can be a characteristic of people who have low self-esteem, the primary defining characteristic of shyness is a fear of what other people will think of a person's behavior. This fear of negative reactions such as being laughed at, humiliated or patronized, criticized or rejected can cause a shy person to retreat. Stronger forms of shyness can be referred to as social anxiety or social phobia.
Origins
The initial cause of shyness varies. Scientists believe that they have located genetic data supporting the hypothesis that shyness is, at least, partially genetic. However, there is also evidence that suggests the environment in which a person is raised can also be responsible for their shyness. This includes child abuse, particularly emotional abuse such as ridicule. Shyness can originate after a person has experienced a physical anxiety reaction; at other times, shyness seems to develop first and then later causes physical symptoms of anxiety. Shyness differs from social anxiety, which is a broader, often depression-related psychological condition including the experience of fear, apprehension or worrying about being evaluated by others in social situations to the extent of inducing panic.
Shyness may come from genetic traits, the environment in which a person is raised and personal experiences. Shyness may be a personality trait or can occur at certain stages of development in children.
Genetics and heredity
Shyness is often seen as a hindrance to people and their development. The cause of shyness is often disputed but it is found that fear is positively related to shyness, suggesting that fearful children are much more likely to develop being shy as opposed to children less fearful. Shyness can also be seen on a biological level as a result of an excess of cortisol. When cortisol is present in greater quantities it is known to suppress an individual's immune system, making them more susceptible to illness and disease. The genetics of shyness is a relatively small area of research that has been receiving an even smaller amount of attention, although papers on the biological bases of shyness date back to 1988. Some research has indicated that shyness and aggression are related—through long and short forms of the gene DRD4, though considerably more research on this is needed. Further, it has been suggested that shyness and social phobia (the distinction between the two is becoming ever more blurred) are related to obsessive-compulsive disorder. As with other studies of behavioral genetics, the study of shyness is complicated by the number of genes involved in, and the confusion in defining, the phenotype. Naming the phenotype – and translation of terms between genetics and psychology — also causes problems.
Several genetic links to shyness are current areas of research. One is the serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphism (5-HTTLPR), the long form of which has been shown to be modestly correlated with shyness in grade school children. Previous studies had shown a connection between this form of the gene and both obsessive-compulsive disorder and autism. Mouse models have also been used, to derive genes suitable for further study in humans; one such gene, the glutamic acid decarboxylase gene (which encodes an enzyme that functions in GABA synthesis), has so far been shown to have some association with behavioral inhibition.
Another gene, the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) exon III polymorphism, had been the subject of studies in both shyness and aggression and is currently the subject of studies on the "novelty seeking" trait. A 1996 study of anxiety-related traits (shyness being one of these) remarked that, "Although twin studies have indicated that individual variation in measures of anxiety-related personality traits is 40-60% heritable, none of the relevant genes has yet been identified", and that "10 to 15 genes might be predicted to be involved" in the anxiety trait. Progress has been made since then, especially in identifying other potential genes involved in personality traits, but there has been little progress made towards confirming these relationships. The long version of the 5-HTT gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) is now postulated to be correlated with shyness, but in the 1996 study, the short version was shown to be related to anxiety-based traits.
Thalia Eley, professor of developmental behavioural genetics at King's College London, argues that only about 30% of shyness as a trait is genetically inherited, while the rest emerges as a response to the environment.
As a symptom of mercury poisoning
Excessive shyness, embarrassment, self-consciousness and timidity, social-phobia and lack of self-confidence are also components of erethism, which is a symptom complex that appears in cases of mercury poisoning. Mercury poisoning was common among hat makers in England in the 18th and 19th centuries, who used mercury to stabilize wool into felt fabric.
Prenatal development
The prevalence of shyness in some children can be linked to day length during pregnancy, particularly during the midpoint of prenatal development. An analysis of longitudinal data from children living at specific latitudes in the United States and New Zealand revealed a significant relationship between hours of day length during the midpoint of pregnancy and the prevalence of shyness in children. "The odds of being classified as shy were 1.52 times greater for children exposed to shorter compared to longer daylengths during gestation." In their analysis, scientists assigned conception dates to the children relative to their known birth dates, which allowed them to obtain random samples from children who had a mid-gestation point during the longest hours of the year and the shortest hours of the year (June and December, depending on whether the cohorts were in the United States or New Zealand).
The longitudinal survey data included measurements of shyness on a five-point scale based on interviews with the families being surveyed, and children in the top 25th percentile of shyness scores were identified. The data revealed a significant co-variance between the children who presented as being consistently shy over a two-year period, and shorter day length during their mid-prenatal development period. "Taken together, these estimates indicate that about one out of five cases of extreme shyness in children can be associated with gestation during months of limited daylength."
Low birth weights
In recent years correlations between birth weight and shyness have been studied. Findings suggest that those born at low birth weights are more likely to be shy, risk-aversive and cautious compared to those born at normal birth weights. These results do not however imply a cause-and-effect relationship.
Personality trait
Shyness is most likely to occur during unfamiliar situations, though in severe cases it may hinder an individual in their most familiar situations and relationships as well. Shy people avoid the objects of their apprehension in order to keep from feeling uncomfortable and inept; thus, the situations remain unfamiliar and the shyness perpetuates itself. Shyness may fade with time; e.g., a child who is shy towards strangers may eventually lose this trait when older and become more socially adept. This often occurs by adolescence or young adulthood (generally around the age of 13). In some cases, though, it may become an integrated, lifelong character trait. Longitudinal data suggests that the three different personality types evident in infancy – easy, slow-to-warm-up, and difficult – tend to change as children mature. Extreme traits become less pronounced, and personalities evolve in predictable patterns over time. What has been proven to remain constant is the tendency to internalize or externalize problems. This relates to individuals with shy personalities because they tend to internalize their problems, or dwell on their problems internally instead of expressing their concerns, which leads to disorders like depression and anxiety. Humans experience shyness to different degrees and in different areas.
Shyness can also be seen as an academic determinant. It has been determined that there is a negative relationship between shyness and classroom performance. As the shyness of an individual increased, classroom performance was seen to decrease.
Shyness may involve the discomfort of difficulty in knowing what to say in social situations, or may include crippling physical manifestations of uneasiness. Shyness usually involves a combination of both symptoms, and may be quite devastating for the sufferer, in many cases leading them to feel that they are boring, or exhibit bizarre behavior in an attempt to create interest, alienating them further. Behavioral traits in social situations such as smiling, easily producing suitable conversational topics, assuming a relaxed posture and making good eye contact, may not be second nature for a shy person. Such people might only affect such traits by great difficulty, or they may even be impossible to display.
Those who are shy are perceived more negatively, in cultures that value sociability, because of the way they act towards others. Shy individuals are often distant during conversations, which can result in others forming poor impressions of them and considering them stand-offish or snobbish. People who are not shy may be up-front, aggressive, or critical towards shy people in an attempt "to get them out of their shell". Even when an attempt to draw out a shy person is conducted in a kindly and well-intentioned manner the exercise may still backfire, as by focusing attention on the individual it increases their self-consciousness and sense of awkwardness.
Concepts
Versus introversion
The term shyness may be implemented as a lay blanket-term for a family of related and partially overlapping afflictions, including timidity (apprehension in meeting new people), bashfulness and diffidence (reluctance in asserting oneself), apprehension and anticipation (general fear of potential interaction), or intimidation (relating to the object of fear rather than one's low confidence). Apparent shyness, as perceived by others, may simply be the manifestation of reservation or introversion, a character trait which causes an individual to voluntarily avoid excessive social contact or be terse in communication, but are not motivated or accompanied by discomfort, apprehension, or lack of confidence. Introversion is commonly mistaken for shyness. However, introversion is a personal preference, while shyness stems from distress.
Rather, according to professor of psychology Bernardo J. Carducci, introverts choose to avoid social situations because they derive no reward from them or may find surplus sensory input overwhelming, whereas shy people may fear such situations. Research using the statistical techniques of factor analysis and correlation have found shyness overlaps mildly with both introversion and neuroticism (i.e., negative emotionality). Low societal acceptance of shyness or introversion may reinforce a shy or introverted individual's low self-confidence.
Both shyness and introversion can outwardly manifest with socially withdrawn behaviors, such as tendencies to avoid social situations, especially when they are unfamiliar. A variety of research suggests that shyness and introversion possess clearly distinct motivational forces and lead to uniquely different personal and peer reactions and therefore cannot be described as theoretically the same, with Susan Cain's Quiet (2012) further discerning introversion as involving being differently social (preferring one-on-one or small group interactions) rather than being anti-social altogether.
Research suggests that no unique physiological response, such as an increased heart beat, accompanies socially withdrawn behavior in familiar compared with unfamiliar social situations. But unsociability leads to decreased exposure to unfamiliar social situations and shyness causes a lack of response in such situations, suggesting that shyness and unsociability affect two different aspects of sociability and are distinct personality traits. In addition, different cultures perceive unsociability and shyness in different ways, leading to either positive or negative individual feelings of self-esteem. Collectivist cultures view shyness as a more positive trait related to compliance with group ideals and self-control, while perceiving chosen isolation (introverted behavior) negatively as a threat to group harmony; and because collectivist society accepts shyness and rejects unsociability, shy individuals develop higher self-esteem than introverted individuals. On the other hand, individualistic cultures perceive shyness as a weakness and a character flaw, while unsociable personality traits (preference to spend time alone) are accepted because they uphold the value of autonomy; accordingly, shy individuals tend to develop low self-esteem in Western cultures while unsociable individuals develop high self-esteem.
Versus social phobia
An extreme case of shyness is identified as a psychiatric illness, which made its debut as social phobia in DSM-III in 1980, but was then described as rare. By 1994, however, when DSM-IV was published, it was given a second, alternative name in parentheses (social anxiety disorder) and was now said to be relatively common, affecting between 3 and 13% of the population at some point during their lifetime. Studies examining shy adolescents and university students found that between 12 and 18% of shy individuals meet criteria for social anxiety disorder.
Shyness affects people mildly in unfamiliar social situations where one feels anxiety about interacting with new people. Social anxiety disorder, on the other hand, is a strong irrational fear of interacting with people, or being in situations which may involve public scrutiny, because one feels overly concerned about being criticized if one embarrasses oneself. Physical symptoms of social phobia can include blushing, shortness of breath, trembling, increased heart rate, and sweating; in some cases, these symptoms are intense enough and numerous enough to constitute a panic attack. Shyness, on the other hand, may incorporate many of these symptoms, but at a lower intensity, infrequently, and does not interfere tremendously with normal living.
Social versus behavioral inhibition
Those considered shy are also said to be socially inhibited. Social inhibition is the conscious or unconscious constraint by a person of behavior of a social nature. In other words, social inhibition is holding back for social reasons. There are different levels of social inhibition, from mild to severe. Being socially inhibited is good when preventing one from harming another and bad when causing one to refrain from participating in class discussions.
Behavioral inhibition is a temperament or personality style that predisposes a person to become fearful, distressed and withdrawn in novel situations. This personality style is associated with the development of anxiety disorders in adulthood, particularly social anxiety disorder.
Misconceptions and negative aspects
Many misconceptions/stereotypes about shy individuals exist in Western culture and negative peer reactions to "shy" behavior abound. This takes place because individualistic cultures place less value on quietness and meekness in social situations, and more often reward outgoing behaviors. Some misconceptions include viewing introversion and social phobia synonymous with shyness, and believing that shy people are less intelligent.
Intelligence
No correlation (positive or negative) exists between intelligence and shyness. Research indicates that shy children have a harder time expressing their knowledge in social situations (which most modern curricula utilize), and because they do not engage actively in discussions teachers view them as less intelligent. In line with social learning theory, an unwillingness to engage with classmates and teachers makes it more difficult for shy students to learn. Test scores, however, indicate that whereas shyness may limit academic engagement, it is unrelated to actual academic knowledge. Depending on the level of a teacher's own shyness, more indirect (vs. socially oriented) strategies may be used with shy individuals to assess knowledge in the classroom, and accommodations made. Observed peer evaluations of shy people during initial meeting and social interactions thereafter found that peers evaluate shy individuals as less intelligent during the first encounter. During subsequent interactions, however, peers perceived shy individuals' intelligence more positively.
Benefits
Thomas Benton claims that because shy people "have a tendency toward self-criticism, they are often high achievers, and not just in solitary activities like research and writing. Perhaps even more than the drive toward independent achievement, shy people long to make connections to others often through altruistic behavior." Susan Cain describes the benefits that shy people bring to society that US cultural norms devalue. Without characteristics that shy people bring to social interactions, such as sensitivity to the emotions of others, contemplation of ideas, and valuable listening skills, there would be no balance to society. In earlier generations, such as the 1950s, society perceived shyness as a more socially attractive trait, especially in women, indicating that views on shyness vary by culture.
Sociologist Susie Scott challenged the interpretation and treatment of shyness as being pathological. "By treating shyness as an individual pathology, ... we forget that this is also a socially oriented state of mind that is socially produced and managed." She explores the idea that "shyness is a form of deviance: a problem for society as much as for the individual", and concludes that, to some extent, "we are all impostors, faking our way through social life". One of her interview subjects (self-defined as shy) puts this point of view even more strongly: "Sometimes I want to take my cue from the militant disabled lobbyists and say, 'hey, it's not MY problem, it's society's'. I want to be proud to be shy: on the whole, shys are probably more sensitive, and nicer people, than 'normals'. I shouldn't have to change: society should adapt to meet my needs."
Different cultural views
In cultures that value outspokenness and overt confidence, shyness can be perceived as weakness. To an unsympathetic observer, a shy individual may be mistaken as cold, distant, arrogant or aloof, which can be frustrating for the shy individual. However, in other cultures, shy people may be perceived as being thoughtful, intelligent, as being good listeners, and as being more likely to think before they speak.
In cultures that value autonomy, shyness is often analyzed in the context of being a social dysfunction, and is frequently contemplated as a personality disorder or mental health issue. Some researchers are beginning to study comparisons between individualistic and collectivistic cultures, to examine the role that shyness might play in matters of social etiquette and achieving group-oriented goals. "Shyness is one of the emotions that may serve as behavioral regulators of social relationships in collectivistic cultures. For example, social shyness is evaluated more positively in a collectivistic society, but negatively evaluated in an individualistic society."
In a cross-cultural study of Chinese and Canadian school children, researchers sought to measure several variables related to social reputation and peer relationships, including "shyness-sensitivity." Using peer nomination questionnaire, students evaluated their fellow students using positive and negative playmate nominations. "Shyness-sensitivity was significantly and negatively correlated with measures of peer acceptance in the Canadian sample. Inconsistent with Western results, it was found that items describing shyness-sensitivity were separated from items assessing isolation in the factor structure for the Chinese sample. Shyness-sensitivity was positively associated with sociability-leadership and with peer acceptance in the Chinese sample."
Western perceptions
In some Western cultures shyness-inhibition plays an important role in psychological and social adjustment. It has been found that shyness-inhibition is associated with a variety of maladaptive behaviors. Being shy or inhibited in Western cultures can result in rejection by peers, isolation and being viewed as socially incompetent by adults. However, research suggests that if social withdrawal is seen as a personal choice rather than the result of shyness, there are fewer negative connotations.
British writer Arthur C. Benson felt shyness is not mere self-consciousness, but a primitive suspicion of strangers, the primeval belief that their motives are predatory, with shyness a sinister quality which needs to be uprooted. He believed the remedy is for the shy to frequent society for courage from familiarity. Also, he claimed that too many shy adults take refuge in a critical attitude, engaging in brutal onslaughts on inoffensive persons. He felt that a better way is for the shy to be nice, to wonder what others need and like, interest in what others do or are talking about, friendly questions, and sympathy.
For Charles Darwin shyness was an 'odd state of mind' appearing to offer no benefit to our species, and since the 1970s the modern tendency in psychology has been to see shyness as pathology. However, evolutionary survival advantages of careful temperaments over adventurous temperaments in dangerous environments have also been recognized.
Eastern perceptions
In Eastern cultures shyness-inhibition in school-aged children is seen as positive and those that exhibit these traits are viewed well by peers and are accepted. They tended to be seen as competent by their teachers, to perform well in school and to show well-being. Shy individuals are also more likely to attain leadership status in school. Being shy or inhibited does not correlate with loneliness or depression as those in the West do. In Eastern cultures being shy and inhibited is a sign of politeness, respectfulness, and thoughtfulness.
Examples of shyness and inhibition
In Hispanic cultures shyness and inhibition with authority figures is common. For instance, Hispanic students may feel shy towards being praised by teachers in front of others, because in these cultures students are rewarded in private with a touch, a smile, or spoken word of praise. Hispanic students may seem shy when they are not. It is considered rude to excel over peers and siblings; therefore it is common for Hispanic students to be reserved in classroom settings. Adults also show reluctance to share personal matters about themselves to authority figures such as nurses and doctors.
Cultures in which the community is closed and based on agriculture (Kenya, India, etc.) experience lower social engagement than those in more open communities (United States, Okinawa, etc.) where interactions with peers is encouraged. Children in Mayan, Indian, Mexican, and Kenyan cultures are less expressive in social styles during interactions and they spend little time engaged in socio-dramatic activities. They are also less assertive in social situations. Self-expression and assertiveness in social interactions are related to shyness and inhibition in that when one is shy or inhibited one exhibits little or no expressive tendencies. Assertiveness is demonstrated in the same way, being shy and inhibited lessen one's chances of being assertive because of a lack of confidence.
In the Italian culture emotional expressiveness during interpersonal interaction is encouraged. From a young age children engage in debates or discussions that encourage and strengthen social assertiveness. Independence and social competence during childhood is also promoted. Being inhibited is looked down upon and those who show this characteristic are viewed negatively by their parents and peers. Like other cultures where shyness and inhibition is viewed negatively, peers of shy and inhibited Italian children reject the socially fearful, cautious and withdrawn. These withdrawn and socially fearful children express loneliness and believe themselves to be lacking the social skills needed in social interactions.
Intervention and treatment
Psychological methods and pharmaceutical drugs are commonly used to treat shyness in individuals who feel crippled because of low self-esteem and psychological symptoms, such as depression or loneliness. According to research, early intervention methods that expose shy children to social interactions involving team work, especially team sports, decrease their anxiety in social interactions and increase their all around self-confidence later on. Implementing such tactics could prove to be an important step in combating the psychological effects of shyness that make living normal life difficult for anxious individuals.
One important aspect of shyness is social skills development. If schools and parents implicitly assume children are fully capable of effective social interaction, social skills training is not given any priority (unlike reading and writing). As a result, shy students are not given an opportunity to develop their ability to participate in class and interact with peers. Teachers can model social skills and ask questions in a less direct and intimidating manner in order to gently encourage shy students to speak up in class, and make friends with other children.
See also
Boldness
Camera shyness
Haya (Islam)
People skills
Social anxiety
Social phobia
Selective mutism
Avoidant personality disorder
Highly sensitive person
Medicalization of behaviors as illness
Timidness
References
Further reading
External links
Lynn Henderson and Philip Zimbardo: "Shyness". Entry in Encyclopedia of Mental Health, Academic Press, San Diego, CA (in press)
Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS-SR)
Emotions
Interpersonal relationships
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeppelin%20bend
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Zeppelin bend
|
A Zeppelin bend (also known as the Rosendahl Bend) is an end-to-end joining knot formed by two symmetrically interlinked overhand knots. It is stable, secure, and highly resistant to jamming. It is also resistant to the effects of slack shaking and cyclic loading.
History
The commonly accepted name for this knot stems from its alleged use to moor airships: a Zeppelin being a rigid-bodied type of airship, and Charles Rosendahl being the US Navy officer who allegedly insisted it be used to moor airships under his command. However, the alleged connection between Charles Rosendahl and the 'Zeppelin bend' has now been refuted. Dr Giles Camplin has conducted extensive research into ground handling of Zeppelin airships and concludes that the Zeppelin bend was not used with mooring lines. Dr Camplin asserts that a rolling hitch (#1735) is a more likely method used by ground handlers to join ropes. Further to that, it is also likely that a 'toggle' was used to unite to mooring lines with fixed eye splice terminations. Dr Camplin's report was published in issue #60 of 'Dirigible' in 2010. Charles Rosendahl (in an interview) was asked about the 'Zeppelin bend' – and he denied any knowledge of it. Historical records now point to Bob Thrun as the first to publish his discovery in 1966 &ndash, naming it simply as 'An easily untied bend' (Published in the 'Potomac Caver' newsletter Vol IX No.7 1966). Bob Thrun was well known in the caving community, and a remarkable innovator. Prior to Bob's discovery, the late Desmond Mandeville discovered for himself in 1961, later to present is as "Poor Man's Pride" in articles in the IGKT's Knotting Matters.
Despite being praised by some sources as a nearly ideal rope joining knot, it is not very well known. The chapter covering 'bends' (end-to-end joining knots) in original publication of The Ashley Book of Knots does not include this knot. However, at illustration #582, Ashley identifies a 'lanyard knot' – which is remarkable because it is a blueprint for tying the Zeppelin bend. Ashley missed the significance of #582. Budworth (1998) identifies #582 as a "blimp knot" in his book; 'The Complete Book of Decorative Knots', p.34. Globe Pequot – because he recognized the geometric similarity with the Zeppelin bend.
With the hindsight of the qualities of the zeppelin bend, a novel use of ABOK#582 is as an alternative to butterfly loop, to isolate a worn section of a long rope where the knot is tied such that the worn section is isolated in the middle of a Z folded central (double-loop-crossing) rope section. The knot will then look like a double slipped zeppelin bend with no ends sticking out.
For an in-depth technical paper on the Zeppelin bend, visit the link at the PACI website:
http://www.paci.com.au/knots.php (at #5 in the table).
Tying
Fundamentally, the Zeppelin bend is formed from two superposed loops of opposite chirality. This is in contrast to the rigger's bend (AKA Hunter's bend, #1425A) which is formed from two inter-linked loops of the same chirality. Chirality refers to the "handedness" of the loop, which can be either "S" (left) or "Z" (right). The chirality of a loop cannot be changed by flipping or turning it over – in the same way, a left shoe cannot be transformed into a right shoe by flipping or turning it over (it is always a left shoe).
The Zeppelin bend is difficult to tie while ropes are under tension (which is further obvious evidence that it wasn't used with mooring lines during ground handling of airships). In fact, with any 'end-to-end joining knot' (ie bend), existing tension in the ropes makes the tying process extremely difficult (if not impossible). The zeppelin is therefore tied with two loose ends (ie no existing tension) ending with a simple knot on each, but woven to each other in a pattern specific to Zeppelin. Butterfly bend, Hunter's bend, and Ashley's bend also weave one simple knot on either end but use their own different patterns.
Form a loop in each of the ends of rope (one loop must be "S" and the other must be "Z" chirality)
Superpose (overlay) one loop over the other, orienting each loop so that both working ends face outwards/away from the central overlap.
Feed each working end though the central overlap of the two loops, ensuring that each working end goes in opposite directions.
Dress and set the knot by sequentially pulling on all four rope segments.
To untie, loosen the collars that form around each Standing Part (SPart).
Another method of remembering this knot is to visualize a "69". To tie the knot with this method, follow the steps below:
Make a "6" with one line (rope) end. It is important that the working end (the free, short end) winds up on top of the standing end for the "6".
Make a "9" with the other line end. Make sure that the working end (the free, short end) winds up on the bottom of the standing end
While keeping the 6 and the 9 intact, place the "6" over the "9", with the holes of each number lining up, making absolutely sure standing ends are on opposite sides of the holes, and both ends are outside, not in between the standing ends.
wrap the "tail" of the "6" first down, around both lines/hole edges, and up through the middle (circle) part of your "69".
wrap the "tail" part of the "9" up, around both lines/hole edges, and down through the middle (circle) part of your "69", it should pass along to the other end in opposite direction.
Pull each standing end while ensuring that the working ends are not pulled back out from the "69" holes to tighten. Pull each working end to tighten even more.
Variants
Corresponding eye (loop) knots
Every end-to-end joining knot, or 'bend', has four corresponding eye knots.
The usual method of creating an eye knot from a bend is by linking a tail with a Standing Part (SPart). Eye knots formed by linking of the two tails or the two SParts are usually of less utility due to the loading profile thus created.
The Zeppelin loop is quite useful and is also jam resistant, being formed by linking a tail to an SPart.
An example of a Zeppelin loop is found at this website: https://notableknotindex.webs.com/zeppelinloop.html
Slipped
Having on both ends, an elbow of the end rather than the end itself, cross the knot center, gives a single or double slipped version. It is still easier to untie by pulling the opposing bridges away from each other rather than by pulling the slipped end(s). The slipped Zeppelin bend can also be locked by pushing ends respectively through the eye of its own slip on the opposite side.
Tied with bights
If instead of two ends, one forms two bights of the same rope, then three reliable loops are created; a loop at each of the two bights, and a third formed by the rope section connecting the two bights. These versions also have the same advantage with less curvature nearest the main ropes, thus having a higher break strength and being as easy to untie. This is also a way to shorten the rope, and/or to isolate up to three weak rope sections near each other.
See also
List of bend knots
List of knots
Zeppelin loop
References
|
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] |
208309
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double%20bowline
|
Double bowline
|
A double bowline (or round turn bowline) is a type of loop knot. Instead of the single turn of the regular bowline, the double bowline uses a round turn. This forms a more secure loop than a standard bowline.
Naming
Though called "double bowline" by Clifford Ashley, this name is also reasonably descriptive of a different knot: the bowline on a bight. Because of this ambiguity
some sources differentiate by using one of the alternate names above. And at least one other source uses the name "double bowline" for a mid-line loop knot made by tying a basic bowline with a bight of rope instead of the end.
Tying
First, learn to tie the bowline by laying the working end on the standing part and twisting to form a loop (the "hole" that the rabbit comes out of). Wrap the loop once more around the working end. Then pass the working end behind the standing part and back down through the double loop.
Uses
The double bowline is one of the typical tie-in knots used in climbing, along with the figure eight follow through and the Yosemite bowline. The advantage of the double bowline over the figure 8 is that it is easier to untie after being weighted in a fall, and so is used by sport climbers who take multiple lead falls and then have trouble untying their figure eights. The disadvantages of the double bowline are that it is less secure than a figure eight knot, takes longer to tie, and is not as easy to check. Unlike the figure eight, there are many variations of the bowline, with ambiguous names, and some are not safe for climbing.
The Bowline on a bight, when re-threaded instead of being tied on a bight, can also be used for tying into a climbing harness and provides more strength and security than the double bowline.
See also
List of knots
References
External links
http://notableknotindex.webs.com/doublebowline.html
Climbing knots
|
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] |
208311
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chorioretinitis
|
Chorioretinitis
|
Chorioretinitis is an inflammation of the choroid (thin pigmented vascular coat of the eye) and retina of the eye. It is a form of posterior uveitis. If only the choroid is inflamed, not the retina, the condition is termed choroiditis. The ophthalmologist's goal in treating these potentially blinding conditions is to eliminate the inflammation and minimize the potential risk of therapy to the patient.
Symptoms
Symptoms may include the presence of floating black spots, blurred vision, pain or redness in the eye, sensitivity to light, or excessive tearing.
Causes
Chorioretinitis is often caused by toxoplasmosis and cytomegalovirus infections (mostly seen in immunodeficient subjects such as people with HIV/AIDS or on immunosuppressant drugs). Congenital toxoplasmosis via transplacental transmission can also lead to sequelae such as chorioretinitis along with hydrocephalus and cerebral calcifications. Other possible causes of chorioretinitis are syphilis, sarcoidosis, tuberculosis, Behçet's disease, onchocerciasis, or West Nile virus. Chorioretinitis may also occur in presumed ocular histoplasmosis syndrome (POHS); despite its name, the relationship of POHS to Histoplasma is controversial.
Diagnosis
In general, the diagnosis of chorioretinitis is based on direct examination of active chorioretinal inflammation and/or by detection of leukocytes in the vitreous humor on ophthalmic examination.
Treatment
Chorioretinitis is usually treated with a combination of corticosteroids and antibiotics. However, if there is an underlying cause such as HIV, specific therapy can be started as well.
A 2012 Cochrane Review found weak evidence suggesting that ivermectin could result in reduced chorioretinal lesions in patients with onchocercal eye disease. More research is needed to support this finding.
See also
Uveitis
Retinitis
Multifocal choroiditis and panuveitis
References
Further reading
External links
Disorders of choroid and retina
Articles containing video clips
Steroid-responsive inflammatory conditions
|
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208312
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatche%20Arslanian
|
Vatche Arslanian
|
Vatche Arslanian (1955 – April 8, 2003) was a member of the Canadian Red Cross and head of logistics for the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in Iraq. He was one of the six ICRC delegates who chose to stay in the country during the 2003 Iraq war and continue helping local relief workers. He was killed by gunfire in Baghdad while travelling with two local Red Cross workers, who were able to escape. Five other civilian vehicles were caught in crossfire, and thirteen people were killed in total.
Arslanian was a Canadian-Armenian citizen who emigrated from Syria. He worked for the Canadian military for a number of years and moved to Oromocto, New Brunswick when he was transferred to CFB Gagetown to serve as captain at the artillery school. He was released from service in 1995 when he refused a transfer to CFB Shilo in Manitoba. He insisted on remaining in Oromocto to continue his efforts to reunite his family.
From 1992 to 1998 Arslanian served on the Oromocto town council; he served as deputy mayor for part of this period.
In 1999, Arslanian began his association with the Red Cross. He volunteered to help at CFB Gagetown which was receiving over 1,000 Kosovar refugees. He did his first overseas work with the ICRC in 2000, when he served as a logistician in the former Soviet Union republic of Georgia.
Since July 17, 2001, Arslanian had been in charge of logistics for the ICRC in Iraq. Balthasar Staehelin, ICRC delegate-general for the Middle East and North Africa, said "the courageous decision by six ICRC expatriates to stay in Baghdad voluntarily and work alongside their local colleagues during the worst of the fighting made a marked difference to the lives of thousands of people. Arslanian was one of those six, and we can find some solace in knowing that he helped to make that difference."
See also
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
Monument to Canadian Aid Workers
References
External links
Reflections from a Canadian Red Cross worker in Iraq, an interview with the Canadian Red Cross, January 2003
Oromocto Man Working For The International Red Cross In Iraq, an interview on CBC Radio, March 18, 2003 (RealAudio format)
1955 births
2003 deaths
Canadian people of Armenian descent
Deaths by firearm in Iraq
Male murder victims
Syrian emigrants to Canada
Syrian people of Armenian descent
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition%20Provisional%20Authority
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Coalition Provisional Authority
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The Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA; , ) was a transitional government of Iraq established following the invasion of the country on 19 March 2003 by the U.S.-led Multinational Force (or 'the coalition') and the fall of Ba'athist Iraq.
Citing United Nations Security Council Resolution 1483 (2003) and the laws of war, the CPA was established in May 2003 and vested itself with executive, legislative, and judicial authority over the Iraqi government from the period of the CPA's inception on 21 April 2003 until its dissolution on 28 June 2004 (14 months, 1 week).
The CPA was strongly criticised for its mismanagement of funds allocated to the reconstruction of Iraq, with over $8 billion of these unaccounted for, including over $1.6 billion in cash that emerged in an underground basement in Lebanon.
History of the CPA
The Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance (ORHA) was established on 20 January 2003 by the United States government two months before the 2003 invasion of Iraq. It was intended to act as a caretaker administration in Iraq until the creation of a democratically elected civilian government.
Retired United States Army Lieutenant General Jay Garner was appointed as the Director of ORHA, along with three deputies, including British Major-General Tim Cross, in 2003. Upon the dissolution of ORHA and the creation of the CPA, he then became the first chief executive of the CPA. Due to his past military experiences in Iraq during Operation Desert Storm in 1991 and his reconstruction efforts in northern Iraq during Operation Provide Comfort, Garner's credentials and close ties to the U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld made him an obvious choice for the task. His term, however, lasted only from 21 April 2003 until he was replaced abruptly less than a month later by L. Paul Bremer on 11 May 2003.
Garner's swift dismissal from his post by U.S. authorities came as a surprise to many within the CPA. In an interview with the BBC program Newsnight Garner publicly stated that his preference was to put the Iraqi people in charge as soon as possible and to do it with some form of elections.
Upon assuming the post of chief executive of the CPA in May 2003, L. Paul Bremer also assumed the title of U.S. Presidential Envoy and Administrator in Iraq. He was frequently called Ambassador by numerous media organizations and the White House because it was the highest government rank he had achieved (Ambassador to Netherlands). But Bremer was not ambassador to Iraq, and there was no U.S. diplomatic mission in Iraq at the time. At the CPA, Bremer moved quickly to install opaque and corruption-prone methods for the withdrawal and transportation of extremely large amounts of cash often transported from the US to Iraq by C-17 transport plane.
The CPA was created and funded as a division of the United States Department of Defense, and as Administrator, Bremer reported directly to the Secretary of Defense. Although troops from several of the coalition countries were present in Iraq at this time, the U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM) was the primary military apparatus charged with providing direct combat support to the CPA to enforce its authority during the occupation of Iraq.
While many of Saddam Hussein's ornate palaces were looted in the days immediately following the invasion, most of the physical structures themselves survived relatively intact. It is in these numerous palaces situated throughout the country that the CPA chose to set up office in order to govern. Several of these palaces were retained by the U.S. government even after the transition of power back to the Iraqi people. The administration was centered in a district of Baghdad known as the Green Zone, which eventually became a highly secure walled-off enclave.
The CPA was also responsible for administering the Development Fund for Iraq during the year following the invasion. This fund superseded the earlier UN oil-for-food program, and provided funding for Iraq's wheat purchase program, the currency exchange program, the electricity and oil infrastructure programs, equipment for Iraq's security forces, Iraqi civil service salaries, and the operations of the various government ministries.
The first act of the CPA under Bremer, Coalition Provisional Authority Order 1, was to order the de-Ba'athification of Iraqi society. On 23 May, CPA Order Number 2 formally disbanded the Iraqi army, as well as other public servants including nurses and doctors and eventually led to the direct unemployment of more than 500,000 Iraqi citizens. On 22 July 2003, the CPA formed the Iraqi Governing Council and appointed its members. The Council membership consisted largely of Iraqi expatriates who had previously fled the country during the rule of Saddam Hussein and also with many outspoken dissidents who had been persecuted by the former regime. The CPA under Bremer then went on to privatise and sell of publicly owned assets and companies to multinational companies, whilst setting about issuing unilaterally developed decrees such as Order 37 and Order 39, which reduced Iraq's corporation tax from 40% to 15% and allowed foreign entities to enjoy 100% ownership of Iraqi assets.
Though still subordinate to the CPA, the Iraqi Governing Council had several key responsibilities of its own: appointing representatives to the United Nations, appointing interim ministers to Iraq's vacant cabinet positions, and drafting a temporary constitution known as the Transitional Administrative Law (TAL), which would be used to govern Iraq until a permanent constitution could be written and approved by the general electorate.
In the late afternoon of 14 December 2003, the CPA held a press conference at the Iraqi Forum convention center within Baghdad's Green Zone to announce that former President of Iraq Saddam Hussein had been taken into custody the previous night from a foxhole in a town near Saddam's home town of Tikrit, Iraq. Present at the announcement was Lieutenant General Ricardo Sanchez of the U.S. Army, Administrator Bremer, members of the British and American intelligence agencies, several members of the Iraqi Governing Council, and a large room full of journalists representing news organizations from around the world.
In order to defeat possible insurgent planning and under pressure from the Bush White House which wanted the occupation to end by the 2004 presidential election, the CPA transferred power to the newly appointed Iraqi Interim Government at 10:26 AM local time on 28 June 2004. The transfer of power was originally scheduled for 30 June 2004, but because of a concern that the transfer would lead to insurgent attacks the ceremony was held, unannounced, two days ahead of schedule. The transfer took place behind closed doors with little fanfare. With the CPA disbanded, Bremer left Iraq that same day.
The United States hoped that Iraq could be reconstructed and democratized in much the same way as Japan and Germany were after the Second World War, using them as "examples or even models of successful military occupations."
Structure of the CPA
The CPA was divided into four geographic regions. CPA North was headquartered in the northern Iraqi city of Erbil, CPA Central in Baghdad at Saddam's former Republican Palace, CPA South Central in the Iraqi city of Al Hillah near the ruins of Babylon and CPA South in the southern Iraqi city of Basra. Each region operated semi-autonomously, and all four had the same common goals for reconstruction of the country. Throughout the existence of the CPA, the security situation and levels of civil unrest throughout the country varied by region, and these variances were reflected in the different levels of program
successes within the CPA divisions.
Non-government organizations and private charities and the CPA
Role of the International Advisory and Monitoring Board (IAMB)
United Nations resolution 1483 transferred the authority to authorize expenditures from Iraq's oil revenue from the United Nations to the Coalition Provisional Authority—under certain conditions, including:
The expenditures were made in an open, transparent manner.
The expenditures were subject to the supervision of a blue ribbon panel of international financial experts, the IAMB.
Spending decisions were to be made with meaningful Iraqi input.
The International Advisory and Monitoring Board consisted of senior financial experts from the United Nations, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the Arab Fund for Social and Economic Development.
The IAMB had serious concerns over the CPA's lack of transparency and lack of adequate financial controls, which were never resolved. The IAMB still exists and is playing a role in the investigations into the CPA's financial management.
The CPA's Program Review Board
The Program Review Board (PRB) was an eleven-member board that consisted of ten staff members from the CPA and one member of the Iraqi Governing Council. The chair of the board was also the CPA's senior advisor to the Iraqi Ministry of Finance.
It was the board's responsibility to review and make recommendations to the CPA administrator on which contracts should be awarded. In order to ensure transparency, all key discussions regarding the pros and cons of the programs under consideration were to be made public. The CPA administrator was supposed to make decisions on the awarding of contracts only after receiving a recommendation from this committee.
The Notes on Internal Control from KPMG's audit of DFI expenditures was particularly critical of PRB record-keeping's failing to fulfill the CPA's transparency obligation. In particular:
Meetings were held in which attendance was not recorded.
Meetings were held in which decisions were made in the absence of quorums.
The Program Review Board never recorded the motions to approve expenditures, who seconded motions, or which members were for or against those motions.
In the 43 meetings held in 2003, the single Iraqi member of the board attended only two meetings.
The minutes failed to contain sufficient detail for readers to understand why programs were approved.
Program decisions that had been tabled were later approved informally outside the meetings, with no recording of the reasoning behind the decision.
The board chair refused to certify the accuracy of the Board's bookkeeping.
Privatization of Iraq's economy
Prior to US occupation, Iraq had a centrally planned economy. Among other things, it prohibited foreign ownership of Iraqi businesses, ran most large industries as state-owned enterprises, and imposed large tariffs to keep out foreign goods. After the U.S. military came in and took over Iraq, the CPA quickly began issuing many binding orders privatizing Iraq's economy and opening it up to foreign investment. CPA Order 39, entitled "Foreign Investment," provided that "A foreign investor shall be entitled to make foreign investments in Iraq on terms no less favorable than those applicable to an Iraqi investor," and that "[t]he amount of foreign participation in newly formed or existing business entities in Iraq shall not be limited...." Additionally, the foreign investor "shall be authorized to... transfer abroad without delay all funds associated with its foreign investment, including shares or profits and dividends...."
By this order, critics assert that the CPA drastically altered Iraq's economy, allowing virtually unlimited and unrestricted foreign investment and placing no limitations on the expatriation of profit. However, these policies were in accord with current international standards on foreign direct investment to which most of the developed world adheres. The order concluded, "Where an international agreement to which Iraq is a party provides for more favorable terms with respect to foreign investors undertaking investment activities in Iraq, the more favorable terms under the international agreement shall apply." According to critics, this order was designed to create as favorable an environment for foreign investors as possible, thereby allowing American and multinational corporations to dominate Iraq's economy. Critics further contend that the controversial policies are fundamentally anti-democratic in that it is not for the United States or any other country or coalition of countries to determine what trade laws Iraqis must live by, and that such rules can only be legitimate if passed initially by an elected Iraqi government free of foreign occupation and domination. Others argue that the rules merely bring Iraq's economic law into conformity with modern norms of international trade, that the CPA should not be under any obligation to run Iraq as a totalitarian state simply because that's what its laws were like before the occupation, and that the previous government and its laws were not democratically legitimate since Saddam Hussein's government was not elected either.
CPA Order 17 granted all foreign contractors operating in Iraq immunity from "Iraqi legal process," effectively granting immunity from any kind of suit, civil or criminal, for actions the contractors engaged in within Iraq. CPA Order 49 provided a tax cut for corporations operating within Iraq. It reduced the rate from a maximum of 40% to a maximum of 15% on income. Corporations working with the CPA were exempted from owing any tax. CPA Order 12, amended by Order 54, suspended all tariffs, thus removing the advantage that domestic Iraqi producers had over foreign producers. However, a 5% "reconstruction levy" on all imported goods was later reimposed to help finance Iraqi-initiated reconstruction projects.
CPA Order 57 provided for the appointment of "Inspectors General" to operate within each Iraqi government ministry, for the purposes of rooting out corruption. These Inspectors General were to be "appointed to a 5-year term by the Administrator [Paul Bremer]," and were given sweeping powers "to conduct investigations, audits, evaluations, inspections, and other reviews...."
Critics contend this is a mechanism for ensuring continuing American influence in Iraqi governance even after the transfer of all sovereignty to the country.
Critics of the CPA argue that these policies were not only rather blatant attempts to shape Iraq's economy in the interests of American (and other) investors and against the interests of Iraqis themselves, but also that they were illegal under international law, because an occupying power is prohibited from rewriting the laws of the occupied country.
In addition, if the changes to Iraq's economic laws were illegal, then so would be the Transitional Administrative Law, which serves as Iraq's constitution under the Transitional Government.
Criticism of financial management
In May 2003, the CPA took over the responsibility for administering the Development Fund for Iraq (DFI). Established from the earlier UN oil-for-food program, the CPA was authorized to manage the DFI, which took in approximately $20 billion in the year after the invasion. The CPA also administered $18.4 billion that the United States Congress allocated for Iraqi reconstruction in November 2003, known as the Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund (IRRF).
By June 2004, the CPA had spent, or allocated, $19.1 billion of the DFI funds—while spending only $400 million from the IRRF. Critics suggest that Bremer selectively spent from the DFI because it was more free from accounting oversight by the Government Accountability Office (GAO).
This balance between DFI and IRRF expenditures might be justifiable by the argument that the IRRF was not intended to finance the Iraqi government ministries or the Public Distribution System (state food rations from the Oil-for-food program), which the DFI was intended to cover. The $18.4 billion authorized by the U.S. congress was intended to finance large reconstruction projects such as power and sewage plants, not to provide the day-to-day operating expenses of the Iraqi government. Expenditure on the IRRF projects could be seen as delayed by the projects being in their planning and early site preparation stages and it could be said that it is not surprising that little money had been disbursed at that point, or that so much of the Development Fund for Iraq had been expended as that fund was the primary source of revenue the Iraqi government had. However, by reviewing reports from Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction (SIGIR) and other reviews and audits, it becomes clear that DFI funds were expended on projects that clearly would have been appropriate for management under IRRF. What has been troubling to auditors and inspectors general is that large amounts of DFI funding is as yet unaccounted for and was expended in reconstruction projects that failed to provide a return on investment for the Iraqi people. By funding projects under DFI the CPA avoided legal requirements to comply with US Federal Acquisition Regulations (USFARS) as required for the administration of IRRF and other US taxpayer provided funding. It is also pertinent that expenditures under IRRF were also not administered strictly according to USFARS thereby causing severe waste, fraud and abuse as documented by SIGIR and other auditing agencies.
Audits of the CPA's expenditures of Iraqi funds
When authority to manage the revenue from Iraq's oil on behalf of the Iraqi people through United Nations resolution, that authority was transferred under certain conditions.
The funds were to be managed in an open, transparent fashion.
The CPA was to submit to oversight from the International Advisory and Monitoring Board, a blue ribbon panel of senior international banking experts.
The IAMB tried to insist on certain financial controls, with limited success.
With input from the IAMB accounting firm KPMG was appointed to audit the CPA's expenditures from the DFI.
On 20 June 2005 the staff of the Committee on Government Reform prepared a report for Congressman Henry Waxman on the CPA's expenditures from the DFI that raised additional causes for concern. Further criticism was leveled at the CPA when it was revealed that $12 billion of cash had been delivered by C-130 planes on shrinkwrapped pallets of $100 bills. The cash deliveries were described in a memo prepared for the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, which concluded that "Many of the funds appear to have been lost to corruption and waste.... Some of the funds could have enriched both criminals and insurgents...." Henry Waxman, the chair of the House committee commented, "Who in their right mind would send 363 tons of cash into a war zone?" A single flight to Iraq on 12 December 2003 which contained $1.5 billion in cash is said to be the largest single Federal Reserve payout in US history according to Henry Waxman.
In 2011, a new American audit found that almost all of the missing $6.6 billion had been transferred to the Central Bank of Iraq. Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction Stuart Bowen said that "Any doubts about how the money was handled after it left U.S. control is an Iraqi -- not U.S. government -- question".
Reconstruction
Although the CPA awarded contracts for essential reconstruction to American firms, some critics claim those firms did relatively little work. Bechtel, for instance, was awarded the contract to repair the Iraqi sewage and drinking water plants. Yet today many Iraqis remain without safe drinking water or adequate supplies of electricity. Coalition military forces were too heavily tasked to provide requisite security for all contractors in Iraq. Contract funds therefore had to be partially shifted from reconstruction activities to meet security requirements that had not been envisioned when the contracts were initially let. Moreover, progress in reconstruction frequently faced setbacks due to insurgency activities designed to disrupt rebuilding of the infrastructure. This insurgent activity significantly slowed reconstruction and required adjustment of project goals due to funds consumed by providing necessary security in excess of that originally planned.
According to USAID, as of October 2003, peak electrical generation had reached pre-war levels of 4,500 MW, and they were then collaborating with Bechtel as well as the Iraqi Interior Ministry and others on some 2,000 MW of projected capacity. The CPA set a goal of 6,000 MW generation capacity for the summer of 2004, which has never been reached. Peak generation capacity of 5,365 MW was achieved in August 2004, six weeks after the transfer of sovereignty. Current generation stands at approximately 13,000 MW. Weekly updates and financial summaries are provided by USAID's Iraq homepage as currently as is possible.
Administrators of the CPA
Jay Garner (21 April 2003 – 12 May 2003)as Director of the Office for Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance
Paul Bremer (12 May 2003 – 28 June 2004)
Richard Jones (U.S. diplomat), Deputy Administrator
Rear Admiral David J. Nash, U.S. Navy (ret.), Director of the Program Management Office
Major General Ronald L. Johnson, U.S. Army, Deputy Director of the Program Management Office
Lawrence Crandall, U.S. Agency for International Development, Deputy Director of the Program Management Office
Stuart W. Bowen Jr., Inspector General of the Program Management Office
Rear Admiral Larry L. Poe, U.S. Navy (ret.), Deputy Inspector General of the Program Management Office
See also
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1483
Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund
Reconstruction of Iraq
Provisional governments
Development Fund for Iraq
Coalition Provisional Authority Program Review Board
International Advisory and Monitoring Board
KPMG audit of the Development Fund for Iraq
Notes
Further reading
Who's Who in the Coalition Provisional Authority, The Washington Monthly, December 2003.
Coalition Provisional Authority Archived site carrying CPA news releases, mission statements and budgets.
USAID Assistance for Iraq Homepage (See right column for weekly updates.)
Overview of CPA Orders Affecting Iraq's Commercial Law
Coalition Provisional Authority - Development Fund for Iraq Introduction, 12 July 2010.
Iraq Project and Contracting Office Website
Global Justice Project: Iraq
Iraq's Economy Past, Present and Future
Crossed Wires Deprived Iraqis of Electric Power: War Plans Ignored Worn Infrastructure, The Washington Post, 23 September 2003.
Iraq - Transitional Administrative Law, an English translation of Iraq's Interim Constitution.
Foreign Direct Investment Restrictions in OECD Countries, an explanation of current common national practices regarding foreign direct investment and foreign ownership in OECD nations, including WTO regulations.
Fair and Equitable Treatment Standard in International Investment Law, OECD, 2004.
U.S. Tightens Grip On Iraq's Future: the Wall St Journal on Iraq's looming "independence". (13 May 2004).
In Iraq, the Job Opportunity of a Lifetime: Managing a $13 Billion Budget With No Experience The Washington Post, 22 May 2004.
Boston Globe article that recounts questionable fiscal management on the part of the CPA .
U.S. Funds for Iraq Are Largely Unspent The Washington Post, 4 July 2004.
A Historic Review of CPA Accomplishments (to 30 June 2006).
Video Seminar on Iraq Coalition Politics: 20 April 2005, sponsored by the Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security at the University of Illinois.
Rules and Cash Flew Out the Window Los Angeles Times, 20 May 2005.
Iraq too dependent on Oil Revenue - govt, Reuters, 5 June 2005.
Iraqis Look at Cuts in Payroll Los Angeles Times, 6 June 2005.
Bechtel Iraq Reconstruction Contracts Page
Bechtel's Dry Run (.pdf), an independent review of the Bechtel water rehabilitation work.
So, Mr Bremer, where did all the money go?, The Guardian, 7 July 2005.
U.S. Using Cash as a Defensive Weapon, The Washington Post, 26 July 2004.
U.S. Presidential Discussion of War on Terror and Upcoming Iraqi Election, 12 December 2005.
Tony Sodaro's "Iraqi Blog" after CPA, 03 October 2008
Chandrasekaran, Rajiv, Ties to GOP Trumped Know-How Among Staff Sent to Rebuild Iraq, The Washington Post, 17 September 2006.
Occupying Iraq: A History of the Coalition Provisional Authority The RAND Corporation, 2009. By James Dobbins, Seth G. Jones, Benjamin Runkle, Sidd harth Mohandas.
External links
Official Web Page of the Coalition Provisional Authority
CPA Changes to Iraqi Law imposed after 2003 invasion
United States Department of Defense agencies
George W. Bush administration controversies
Former regions and territories of the United States
2003 establishments in Iraq
2004 disestablishments in Iraq
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cormorant
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Cormorant
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Phalacrocoracidae is a family of approximately 40 species of aquatic birds commonly known as cormorants and shags. Several different classifications of the family have been proposed, but in 2021 the IOC adopted a consensus taxonomy of seven genera. The great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) and the common shag (Gulosus aristotelis) are the only two species of the family commonly encountered in Britain and Ireland and "cormorant" and "shag" appellations have been later assigned to different species in the family somewhat haphazardly.
Cormorants and shags are medium-to-large birds, with body weight in the range of and wing span of . The majority of species have dark feathers. The bill is long, thin and hooked. Their feet have webbing between all four toes. All species are fish-eaters, catching the prey by diving from the surface. They are excellent divers, and under water they propel themselves with their feet with help from their wings; some cormorant species have been found to dive as deep as . They have relatively short wings due to their need for economical movement underwater, and consequently have the highest flight costs of any flying bird.
Cormorants nest in colonies around the shore, on trees, islets or cliffs. They are coastal rather than oceanic birds, and some have colonised inland waters. The original ancestor of cormorants seems to have been a fresh-water bird. They range around the world, except for the central Pacific islands.
Names
No consistent distinction exists between cormorants and shags. The names 'cormorant' and 'shag' were originally the common names of the two species of the family found in Great Britain, Phalacrocorax carbo (now referred to by ornithologists as the great cormorant) and Gulosus aristotelis (the European shag). "Shag" refers to the bird's crest, which the British forms of the great cormorant lack. As other species were encountered by English-speaking sailors and explorers elsewhere in the world, some were called cormorants and some shags, depending on whether they had crests or not. Sometimes the same species is called a cormorant in one part of the world and a shag in another, e.g., the great cormorant is called the black shag in New Zealand (the birds found in Australasia have a crest that is absent in European members of the species). Van Tets (1976) proposed to divide the family into two genera and attach the name "cormorant" to one and "shag" to the other, but this nomenclature has not been widely adopted.
The scientific family name is Latinised Ancient Greek, from φαλακρός (phalakros, "bald") and κόραξ (korax, "raven"). This is often thought to refer to the creamy white patch on the cheeks of adult great cormorants, or the ornamental white head plumes prominent in Mediterranean birds of this species, but is certainly not a unifying characteristic of cormorants. "Cormorant" is a contraction derived either directly from Latin corvus marinus, "sea raven" or through Brythonic Celtic. Cormoran is the Cornish name of the sea giant in the tale of Jack the Giant Killer. Indeed, "sea raven" or analogous terms were the usual terms for cormorants in Germanic languages until after the Middle Ages. The French explorer André Thévet commented in 1558, "... the beak [is] similar to that of a cormorant or other corvid," which demonstrates that the erroneous belief that the birds were related to ravens lasted at least to the 16th century.
Description
Cormorants and shags are medium-to-large seabirds. They range in size from the pygmy cormorant (Microcarbo pygmaeus), at as little as and , to the flightless cormorant (Nannopterum harrisi), at a maximum size and . The recently extinct spectacled cormorant (Urile perspicillatus) was rather larger, at an average size of . The majority, including nearly all Northern Hemisphere species, have mainly dark plumage, but some Southern Hemisphere species are black and white, and a few (e.g. the spotted shag of New Zealand) are quite colourful. Many species have areas of coloured skin on the face (the lores and the gular skin) which can be bright blue, orange, red or yellow, typically becoming more brightly coloured in the breeding season. The bill is long, thin, and sharply hooked. Their feet have webbing between all four toes, as in their relatives.
Habitat
They are coastal rather than oceanic birds, and some have colonised inland waters – indeed, the original ancestor of cormorants seems to have been a fresh-water bird, judging from the habitat of the most ancient lineage. They range around the world, except for the central Pacific islands.
Behaviour
All are fish-eaters, dining on small eels, fish, and even water snakes. They dive from the surface, though many species make a characteristic half-jump as they dive, presumably to give themselves a more streamlined entry into the water. Under water they propel themselves with their feet, though some also propel themselves with their wings (see the picture, commentary, and existing reference video). Imperial shag cormorants fitted with miniaturized video recorders have been filmed diving to depths of as much as to forage on the sea floor.
After fishing, cormorants go ashore, and are frequently seen holding their wings out in the sun. All cormorants have preen gland secretions that are used ostensibly to keep the feathers waterproof. Some sources state that cormorants have waterproof feathers while others say that they have water-permeable feathers. Still others suggest that the outer plumage absorbs water but does not permit it to penetrate the layer of air next to the skin. The wing drying action is seen even in the flightless cormorant but not in the Antarctic shags or red-legged cormorants. Alternate functions suggested for the spread-wing posture include that it aids thermoregulation or digestion, balances the bird, or indicates presence of fish. A detailed study of the great cormorant concludes that it is without doubt to dry the plumage.
Cormorants are colonial nesters, using trees, rocky islets, or cliffs. The eggs are a chalky-blue colour. There is usually one brood a year. Parents regurgitate food to feed their young, whose deep, ungainly bills show a greater resemblance to those of the pelicans (to which they are related) than is obvious in the adults.
Taxonomy
The cormorants are a group traditionally placed within the Pelecaniformes or, in the Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy, the expanded Ciconiiformes. This latter group is certainly not a natural one, and even after the tropicbirds have been recognised as quite distinct, the remaining Pelecaniformes seem not to be entirely monophyletic. Their relationships and delimitation – apart from being part of a "higher waterfowl" clade which is similar but not identical to Sibley and Ahlquist's "pan-Ciconiiformes" – remain mostly unresolved. Notwithstanding, all evidence agrees that the cormorants and shags are closer to the darters and Sulidae (gannets and boobies), and perhaps the pelicans or even penguins, than to all other living birds.
In recent years, three preferred treatments of the cormorant family have emerged: either to leave all living cormorants in a single genus, Phalacrocorax, or to split off a few species such as the imperial shag complex (in Leucocarbo) and perhaps the flightless cormorant. Alternatively, the genus may be disassembled altogether and in the most extreme case be reduced to the great, white-breasted and Japanese cormorants. In 2014, a landmark study proposed a 7 genera treatment, which was adopted by the IUCN Red List and BirdLife International, and later by the IOC in 2021, standardizing it.
The cormorants and the darters have a unique bone on the back of the top of the skull known as the os nuchale or occipital style which was called a xiphoid process in early literature. This bony projection provides anchorage for the muscles that increase the force with which the lower mandible is closed. This bone and the highly developed muscles over it, the M. adductor mandibulae caput nuchale, are unique to the families Phalacrocoracidae and Anhingidae.
Several evolutionary groups are still recognizable. However, combining the available evidence suggests that there has also been a great deal of convergent evolution; for example the cliff shags are a convergent paraphyletic group. The proposed division into Phalacrocorax sensu stricto (or subfamily "Phalacrocoracinae") cormorants and Leucocarbo sensu lato (or "Leucocarboninae") shags does have some degree of merit. The resolution provided by the mtDNA 12S rRNA and ATPase subunits six and eight sequence data is not sufficient to properly resolve several groups to satisfaction; in addition, many species remain unsampled, the fossil record has not been integrated in the data, and the effects of hybridisation – known in some Pacific species especially – on the DNA sequence data are unstudied.
List of genera
As per the IOC, the IUCN Red List and BirdLife International, the family contains 7 genera:
Microcarbo (5 species)
Poikilocarbo (1 species, the red-legged cormorant)
Urile (4 species, including one extinct in the 19th century)
Phalacrocorax (12 species)
Gulosus (1 species, the European shag)
Nannopterum (3 species)
Leucocarbo (16 species)
Prior to 2021, the IOC classified all these species in just Microcarbo, Phalacrocorax, and Leucocarbo.
Some authorities such as the Clements Checklist have just two genera, Microcarbo with 5 species, and the rest in Phalacrocorax.
For details, see the article "List of cormorant species".
Evolution and fossil record
Cormorants have a very ancient body plan, with similar birds reaching back to the time of the dinosaurs. In fact, the earliest known modern bird, Gansus yumenensis, had essentially the same structure. The details of the evolution of the cormorant are mostly unknown. Even the technique of using the distribution and relationships of a species to figure out where it came from, biogeography, usually very informative, does not give very specific data for this probably rather ancient and widespread group. However, the closest living relatives of the cormorants and shags are the other families of the suborder Sulae—darters and gannets and boobies—which have a primarily Gondwanan distribution. Hence, at least the modern diversity of Sulae probably originated in the southern hemisphere.
While the Leucocarbonines are almost certainly of southern Pacific origin—possibly even the Antarctic which, at the time when cormorants evolved, was not yet ice-covered—all that can be said about the Phalacrocoracines is that they are most diverse in the regions bordering the Indian Ocean, but generally occur over a large area.
Similarly, the origin of the family is shrouded in uncertainties. Some Late Cretaceous fossils have been proposed to belong with the Phalacrocoracidae:
A scapula from the Campanian-Maastrichtian boundary, about 70 mya (million years ago), was found in the Nemegt Formation in Mongolia; it is now in the PIN collection. It is from a bird roughly the size of a spectacled cormorant, and quite similar to the corresponding bone in Phalacrocorax. A Maastrichtian (Late Cretaceous, c. 66 mya) right femur, AMNH FR 25272 from the Lance Formation near Lance Creek, Wyoming, is sometimes suggested to be the second-oldest record of the Phalacrocoracidae; this was from a rather smaller bird, about the size of a long-tailed cormorant. However, cormorants likely originated much later, and these are likely misidentifications.
As the Early Oligocene "Sula" ronzoni cannot be assigned to any of the suloid families—cormorants and shags, darters, and gannets and boobies—with certainty, the best interpretation is that the Phalacrocoracidae diverged from their closest ancestors in the Early Oligocene, perhaps some 30 million years ago, and that the Cretaceous fossils represent ancestral suloids, "pelecaniforms" or "higher waterbirds"; at least the last lineage is generally believed to have been already distinct and undergoing evolutionary radiation at the end of the Cretaceous. What can be said with near certainty is that AMNH FR 25272 is from a diving bird that used its feet for underwater locomotion; as this is liable to result in some degree of convergent evolution and the bone is missing indisputable neornithine features, it is not entirely certain that the bone is correctly referred to this group.
Phylogenetic evidence indicates that the cormorants diverged from their closest relatives, the darters, during the Late Oligocene, indicating that most of the claims of Cretaceous or early Paleogene cormorant occurrences are likely misidentifications.
During the late Paleogene, when the family presumably originated, much of Eurasia was covered by shallow seas, as the Indian Plate finally attached to the mainland. Lacking a detailed study, it may well be that the first "modern" cormorants were small species from eastern, south-eastern or southern Asia, possibly living in freshwater habitat, that dispersed due to tectonic events. Such a scenario would account for the present-day distribution of cormorants and shags and is not contradicted by the fossil record; as remarked above, a thorough review of the problem is not yet available.
Two distinct genera of prehistoric cormorants are widely accepted today, if Phalacrocorax is used for all living species:
Limicorallus (Indricotherium middle Oligocene of Chelkar-Teniz, Kazakhstan)
Nectornis (Late Oligocene/Early Miocene of Central Europe – Middle Miocene of Bes-Konak, Turkey) – includes Oligocorax miocaenus
The proposed genus Oligocorax appears to be paraphyletic – the European species have been separated in Nectornis, and the North American ones are placed in the expanded Phalacrocorax. A Late Oligocene fossil cormorant foot from Enspel, Germany, sometimes placed herein, would then be referable to Nectornis if it proves not to be too distinct. All these early European species might belong to the basal group of "microcormorants", as they conform with them in size and seem to have inhabited the same habitat: subtropical coastal or inland waters. Limicorallus, meanwhile, was initially believed to be a rail or a dabbling duck by some. There are also undescribed remains of apparent cormorants from the Quercy Phosphorites of Quercy (France), dating to some time between the Late Eocene and the mid-Oligocene.
Some other Paleogene remains are sometimes assigned to the Phalacrocoracidae, but these birds seem quite intermediate between cormorants and darters (and lack clear autapomorphies of either). Thus, they may be quite basal members of the Palacrocoracoidea. The taxa in question are:
Piscator (Late Eocene of England)
"Pelecaniformes" gen. et sp. indet. (Jebel Qatrani Early Oligocene of Fayum, Egypt) – similar to Piscator?
Borvocarbo (Late Oligocene of C Europe)
The supposed Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene "Valenticarbo" is a nomen dubium and given its recent age probably not a separate genus.
The remaining species are, in accordance with the scheme used in this article, all placed in the modern genus Phalacrocorax:
Phalacrocorax marinavis (Oligocene – Early Miocene of Oregon, US) – formerly Oligocorax
Phalacrocorax littoralis (Late Oligocene/Early Miocene of St-Gérand-le-Puy, France) – formerly Oligocorax, might belong into Nectornis
Phalacrocorax intermedius (Early – Middle Miocene of C Europe) – includes P. praecarbo, Ardea/P. brunhuberi and Botaurites avitus
Phalacrocorax macropus (Early Miocene – Pliocene of north-west US)
Phalacrocorax ibericus (Late Miocene of Valles de Fuentiduena, Spain)
Phalacrocorax lautus (Late Miocene of Golboçica, Moldavia)
Phalacrocorax serdicensis (Late Miocene of Hrabarsko, Bulgaria)
Phalacrocorax femoralis (Modelo Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of WC North America) – formerly Miocorax
Phalacrocorax sp. (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Lee Creek Mine, US)
Phalacrocorax longipes (Late Miocene – Early Pliocene of the Ukraine) – formerly Pliocarbo
Phalacrocorax goletensis (Early Pliocene – Early Pleistocene of Mexico)
Phalacrocorax wetmorei (Bone Valley Early Pliocene of Florida)
Phalacrocorax sp. (Bone Valley Early Pliocene of Polk County, Florida, US)
Phalacrocorax leptopus (Juntura Early/Middle Pliocene of Juntura, Malheur County, Oregon, US)
Phalacrocorax idahensis (Middle Pliocene – Pleistocene of Idaho, US)
Phalacrocorax destefanii (Late Pliocene of Italy) – formerly Paracorax
Phalacrocorax filyawi (Pinecrest Late Pliocene of Florida, US) – may be P. idahensis
Phalacrocorax kumeyaay (San Diego Late Pliocene of California, US)
Phalacrocorax macer (Late Pliocene of Idaho, US)
Phalacrocorax mongoliensis (Late Pliocene of W Mongolia)
Phalacrocorax rogersi (Late Pliocene – Early Pleistocene of California, US)
Phalacrocorax kennelli (San Diego Pliocene of California, US)
Phalacrocorax sp. "Wildhalm" (Pliocene) – may be same as P. longipes
Phalacrocorax chapalensis (Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene of Jalisco, Mexico)
Phalacrocorax gregorii (Late Pleistocene of Australia) – possibly not a valid species
Phalacrocorax vetustus (Late Pleistocene of Australia) – formerly Australocorax, possibly not a valid species
Phalacrocorax reliquus
Phalacrocorax sp. (Sarasota County, Florida, US) – may be P. filawyi/idahensis
The former "Phalacrocorax" (or "Oligocorax") mediterraneus is now considered to belong to the bathornithid Paracrax antiqua. "P." subvolans was actually a darter (Anhinga).
In human culture
Cormorant fishing
Humans have used cormorants' fishing skills in various places in the world. Archaeological evidence suggests that cormorant fishing was practised in Ancient Egypt, Peru, Korea and India, but the strongest tradition has remained in China and Japan, where it reached commercial-scale level in some areas. In Japan, cormorant fishing is called . Traditional forms of ukai can be seen on the Nagara River in the city of Gifu, Gifu Prefecture, where cormorant fishing has continued uninterrupted for 1300 years, or in the city of Inuyama, Aichi. In Guilin, Guangxi, cormorants are famous for fishing on the shallow Li River. In Gifu, the Japanese cormorant (P. capillatus) is used; Chinese fishermen often employ great cormorants (P. carbo). In Europe, a similar practice was also used on Doiran Lake in the region of Macedonia.
In a common technique, a snare is tied near the base of the bird's throat, which allows the bird only to swallow small fish. When the bird captures and tries to swallow a large fish, the fish is caught in the bird's throat. When the bird returns to the fisherman's raft, the fisherman helps the bird to remove the fish from its throat. The method is not as common today, since more efficient methods of catching fish have been developed, but is still practised as a cultural tradition.
In folklore, literature, and art
Cormorants feature in heraldry and medieval ornamentation, usually in their "wing-drying" pose, which was seen as representing the Christian cross, and symbolizing nobility and sacrifice. For John Milton in Paradise Lost, the cormorant symbolizes greed: perched atop the Tree of Life, Satan took the form of a cormorant as he spied on Adam and Eve during his first intrusion into Eden.
In some Scandinavian areas, they are considered good omen; in particular, in Norwegian tradition spirits of those lost at sea come to visit their loved ones disguised as cormorants. For example, the Norwegian municipalities of Røst, Loppa and Skjervøy have cormorants in their coat of arms. The symbolic liver bird of Liverpool is commonly thought to be a cross between an eagle and a cormorant.
In Homer's epic poem The Odyssey, Odysseus (Ulysses) is saved by a compassionate sea nymph who takes the form of a cormorant.
In 1853, a woman wearing a dress made of cormorant feathers was found on San Nicolas Island, off the southern coast of California. She had sewn the feather dress together using whale sinews. She is known as the Lone Woman of San Nicolas and was later baptised "Juana Maria" (her original name is lost). The woman had lived alone on the island for 18 years before being rescued. When removed from San Nicolas, she brought with her a green cormorant dress she made; this dress is reported to have been removed to the Vatican.
The bird has inspired numerous writers, including Amy Clampitt, who wrote a poem called "The Cormorant in its Element". The species she described may have been the pelagic cormorant, which is the only species in the temperate U.S. with the "slim head ... vermilion-strapped" and "big black feet" that she mentions.
A cormorant representing Blanche Ingram appears in the first of the fictional paintings by Jane in Charlotte Brontë's novel Jane Eyre.
In the Sherlock Holmes story "The Adventure of the Veiled Lodger", Dr. Watson warns that if there are further attempts to get at and destroy his private notes regarding his time with Holmes, "the whole story concerning the politician, the lighthouse, and the trained cormorant will be given to the public. There is at least one reader who will understand."
A cormorant is humorously mentioned as having had linseed oil rubbed into it by a wayward pupil during the "Growth and Learning" segment of the 1983 Monty Python movie Monty Python's The Meaning of Life.
The cormorant served as the hood ornament for the Packard automobile brand.
Cormorants (and books about them written by a fictional ornithologist) are a recurring fascination of the protagonist in Jesse Ball's 2018 novel Census.
The Pokémon Cramorant, featured in the 8th generation of the video game series may take its name and design from a cormorant.
The cormorant was chosen as the emblem for the Ministry of Defence Joint Services Command and Staff College at Shrivenham. A bird famed for flight, sea fishing and land nesting was felt to be particularly appropriate for a college that unified leadership training and development for the Army, Navy and Royal Air Force.
See also
Anhinga
Cormorant culling
References
Sources
Benson, Elizabeth (1972): The Mochica: A Culture of Peru. Praeger Press, New York.
Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum (1997) The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. Thames and Hudson, New York.
Dorst, J. & Mougin, J.L. (1979): Family Phalacrocoracidae. In: Mayr, Ernst & Cottrell, G.W. (eds.): Check-List of the Birds of the World Vol. 1, 2nd ed. (Struthioniformes, Tinamiformes, Procellariiformes, Sphenisciformes, Gaviiformes, Podicipediformes, Pelecaniformes, Ciconiiformes, Phoenicopteriformes, Falconiformes, Anseriformes): 163–179. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge.
Hope, Sylvia (2002): The Mesozoic radiation of Neornithes. In: Chiappe, Luis M. & Witmer, Lawrence M. (eds.): Mesozoic Birds: Above the Heads of Dinosaurs: 339–388.
IUCN (2007): 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN, Gland.
Orta, Jaume (1992): Family Phalacrocoracidae. In: del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew & Sargatal, Jordi (eds.): Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 1 (Ostrich to Ducks): 326–353, plates 22–23. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
Robertson, Connie (1998): Book of Humorous Quotations. Wordsworth Editions.
Thevet, F. André (1558): About birds of Ascension Island. In: Les singularitez de la France Antarctique, autrement nommee Amerique, & de plusieurs terres & isles decouvertes de nostre temps: 39–40. Maurice de la Porte heirs, Paris.
van Tets, G. F. (1976): Australasia and the origin of shags and cormorants, Phalacrocoracidae. Proceedings of the XVI International Ornithological Congress: 121–124.
Further reading
External links
Cormorant videos on the Internet Bird Collection
First video of cormorant deep sea dive, by the Wildlife Conservation Society and the National Research Council of Argentina. WCS press release, 2012-07-31
Seabirds
Taxa named by Ludwig Reichenbach
Taxa described in 1850
Extant Oligocene first appearances
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] |
208320
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20exchange
|
Power exchange
|
A power exchange may refer to:
the entity that operates an electricity market at which electricity is traded
Power exchange (BDSM), a lifestyle practised within BDSM
|
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208322
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southcourt
|
Southcourt
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Southcourt is a housing estate in Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, England. Building commenced in the early 1920s through to the mid-1930s and only stopped because of the Second World War. It was turned into a post war housing estate during the years of 1946 and 1955. The area is named after the pig farm over which the housing estate was built.
History
The oldest house in Southcourt is in Cottesloe Road on the junction of Clover Lane. This was the original farmhouse built at the start of the 20th century. The first sod for the rest of the estate was cut in 1922 by The Duke of York: hence one of the first roads of the estate was named York Place in his honour. At the time the housing was publicised as "Homes for Heroes", and the first houses on the estate were reserved solely for veterans of the First World War.
Until 1967, there used to be a 'Halt' at what was the pedestrian crossing from Old Stoke Road, Southcourt to Mandeville Road (closed in 2016). The 'Aylesbury South Halt' as it used to be known, was on the ex GWR (originally broad gauge) line to Princes Risborough and High Wycombe, a stop for the train into Aylesbury to pause for any passengers who wanted a short train journey into the centre of town. It comprised a small wooden platform and shelter.
The pre-war part of the estate consists of terraced and semi-detached redbrick and rendered houses, as well as blocks of low rise flats. The post war houses are built at a higher density and of brick, concrete and steel with timber (now plastic) cladding.
The secondary school located in Southcourt is Mandeville School. The primary school is Oak Green School, which is a mixed community school that takes approximately 430 pupils from the age of four through to the age of eleven. In the 2001 census the population of Southcourt was 5,849 people.
Demography
At the 2001 UK census, the Southcourt electoral ward had a population of 5,849. The ethnicity was 86.2% white, 2.3% mixed race, 9% Asian, 1.9% black and 0.6% other. The place of birth of residents was 90.2% United Kingdom, 1.2% Republic of Ireland, 1.2% other Western European countries, and 7.4% elsewhere. Religion was recorded as 62.9% Christian, 0.1% Buddhist, 0.7% Hindu, 0.3% Sikh, 0.1% Jewish, and 8% Muslim. 19.6% were recorded as having no religion, 0.3% had an alternative religion and 8% did not state their religion.
The economic activity of residents aged 16–74 was 43.9% in full-time employment, 13.3% in part-time employment, 4.8% self-employed, 4.4% unemployed, 2.3% students with jobs, 2.9% students without jobs, 9.9% retired, 8.4% looking after home or family, 6.6% permanently sick or disabled and 3.5% economically inactive for other reasons. The industry of employment of residents was 23.7% retail, 14.3% manufacturing, 7.5% construction, 10.7% real estate, 12.7% health and social work, 5.3% education, 8.1% transport and communications, 3.8% public administration, 4.8% hotels and restaurants, 2.6% finance, 0.9% agriculture and 5.6% other. Compared with national figures, the ward had a relatively high proportion of workers in retail and health and social work. There were a relatively low proportion in agriculture and finance. Of the ward's residents aged 16–74, 8.9% had a higher education qualification or the equivalent, compared with 19.9% nationwide.
References
External links
Oak Green School website
Aylesbury
Housing estates in Buckinghamshire
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Halberstam
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David Halberstam
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David Halberstam (April 10, 1934 April 23, 2007) was an American writer, journalist, and historian, known for his work on the Vietnam War, politics, history, the Civil Rights Movement, business, media, American culture, and later, sports journalism. He won a Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting in 1964. Halberstam was killed in a car crash in 2007, while doing research for a book.
Early life and education
Halberstam was born in New York City, the son of Blanche (Levy) and Charles A. Halberstam, schoolteacher and Army surgeon. His family was Jewish. He was raised in Winsted, Connecticut, where he was a classmate of Ralph Nader. He moved to Yonkers, New York, and graduated from Roosevelt High School in 1951.
In 1955 he graduated from Harvard College with an A.B. degree after serving as managing editor of The Harvard Crimson. Halberstam had a rebellious streak and as editor of the Harvard Crimson engaged in a competition to see which columnist could most offend readers.
Career
Halberstam's journalism career began at the Daily Times Leader in West Point, Mississippi, the smallest daily newspaper in Mississippi. He covered the beginnings of the Civil Rights Movement for The Tennessean in Nashville. John Lewis later stated that Halberstam was the only journalist in Nashville who would cover the Nashville sit-ins, organized by the Nashville Student Movement which Halberstam focused on in his 1998 book The Children. Halberstam's fiery, rebellious streak first came out when covering the civil rights movement as he protested against the lies of the authorities who portrayed the civil rights protesters as violent and dangerous.
Republic of the Congo
In August 1961 The New York Times dispatched Halberstam to the Republic of the Congo to report on the Congo Crisis. Although initially eager to cover the events in the country, over time he grew jaded over the demanding working conditions and the difficulty in handling Congolese officials' lack of truthfulness. In July 1962 he quickly accepted an opportunity to move to Vietnam to report on the Vietnam War for The New York Times.
Vietnam
Halberstam arrived in Vietnam in the middle of 1962. A tall and well built man, he conveyed much self-confidence and initially the American embassy approved of him. However, Halberstam was prone to fits of rage when faced with lies and soon came into conflict with American officials. When the chief American officer in South Vietnam, General Paul D. Harkins, launched an operation with 45 helicopters flown by American pilots landing a battalion of South Vietnamese infantry to attack a Viet Cong base while excluding the media, Halberstam flew into a rage when he was told to report the operation as a victory. In a letter addressed to Frederick Nolting, the American ambassador to South Vietnam, Halberstam wrote about the reasons for the media blackout: "The reason given is security. This is, of course, stupid, naive and indeed insulting to the patriotism and intelligence of every American newspaperman, and every American newspaper represented here." Halberstam argued that the operation could not have been the victory that Harkins had claimed as the Viet Cong must have heard the helicopters coming and accordingly retreated as guerrillas normally do when faced with superior force, leading him to write: "You can bet the V.C. knew what was happening. You can bet Hanoi knew what was happening. Only American reporters and American readers were kept ignorant."
With the help of military sources like John Paul Vann, an active duty officer in MACV, Halberstam, along with colleagues Neil Sheehan of UPI and Malcolm Brown of the AP, challenged the upbeat reporting of the United States mission in South Vietnam. They reported the defeat of government troops at the first major battle of the Vietnam War known as the Battle of Ap Bac. President John F. Kennedy tried to get the New York Times to replace Halberstam with a more compliant journalist. The Times refused. Like a few other US journalists covering Vietnam, he considered information from LIFE magazine reporter Phạm Xuân Ẩn, who was later revealed to be an intelligence agent for the National Liberation Front for South Vietnam.
During the Buddhist crisis in 1963, Halberstam and Neil Sheehan debunked the claim by the Diệm regime that the Army of the Republic of Vietnam regular forces had perpetrated the brutal raids on Buddhist temples, which the American authorities had initially believed, but that the Special Forces, loyal to Diệm's brother and strategist Nhu, had done so to frame the army generals. He was also involved in a scuffle with Nhu's secret police after they punched fellow journalist Peter Arnett while the news men were covering a Buddhist protest. Seeing Arnett lying on the ground being punched and kicked by policemen, Halberstam ran to his rescue, shouting in fury: "Go back, get back you sons of bitches or I'll beat the shit out of you!" As Halberstam spoke in English, the policemen did not understand him, but as he was much taller than the diminutive Vietnamese, the sight of him running at them, red-faced and furious, was enough to cause them to run away.
Halberstam's reporting led to a feud with journalists Marguerite Higgins, Joseph Alsop, and Henry Luce, who all championed the Diem regime. All three were members of the ”China Lobby,” who were passionately committed to supporting the Kuomintang regime and believed that the only reason the Kuomintang lost the Chinese Civil War in 1949 was because a few American officials and journalists had chosen to “betray” Chiang Kai-shek, who otherwise would have defeated the Communists. The “China Lobby” tended to approve of Diem for the same reasons that they approved of Chiang, seeing both as pro-Western, modernizing Christian leaders who made their respective nations into copies of the United States. In the same way the "China Lobby" portrayed Chiang as China's Christian savior because of his conversion to Methodism, and as someone who would presumably convert the rest of the Chinese to Christianity, they saw the Catholic Diem as Vietnam's Christian savior who likewise would convert the Vietnamese to Christianity. Both Higgins and Luce had been born in China to Protestant missionary parents and were very attracted to the idea of one day converting all of the Chinese to Christianity; hence, the defeat of the Christian Chiang in 1949 had caused them much bitterness. To the "China Lobby", Halberstam's criticism of Diem sounded very similar to American journalists' criticism of Chiang in the 1940s, and for many members of the "China Lobby", South Vietnam was a sort of consolation prize for the "loss of China" in 1949. For the “China Lobby,” the possibility of “losing” South Vietnam would add more salt to their wounds, leading to their furious attacks on Halberstam.
Before going to South Vietnam, Higgins was briefed by Marine General, Victor "Brute" Krulak, about what line she was to take. In her first column from Saigon, Higgins called the younger American journalists like Haberstam and Sheenan, "typewriter strategists” who rarely went into battle, further adding: "Reporters here would like to see us lose the war to prove they're right." In response to editors of the New York Times who told Halberstam to change his coverage to gain Higgins's approval, he wrote back: “If you mention that woman's name to me one more time I will resign, repeat resign, and I mean it, repeat, mean it." More dangerous to Halberstam was criticism of Alsop owing to his friendship with the Kennedy brothers. In his columns, Alsop, without naming Halberstam explicitly, mentioned a young reporter from The New York Times who was a "defeatist" who never reported the good news from "Vietnam's fighting front." Halberstam ridiculed Alsop's statement about the "fighting front" as reflecting the ignorance of someone who did not understand guerrilla warfare, where there was no “front” in the sense that Alsop had used the word.
Halberstam tried to visit North Vietnam. Halberstam asked Mieczysław Maneli, the Polish Commissioner to the International Control Commission, if he would be able to arrange for him to visit North Vietnam. However, Maneli had to tell him that the message from Premier Phạm Văn Đồng was that "We are not interested in building up the prestige of American journalists". Maneli suspected the real reason for refusing Halberstam permission to enter North Vietnam was the belief by the North Vietnamese that he might be an American spy.
Halberstam received the George Polk Award for Foreign Reporting in 1963 for his reporting for The New York Times, including his eyewitness account of the self-immolation of Vietnamese Buddhist monk, Thích Quảng Đức.
Halberstam left Vietnam in 1964, at age 30, and was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting that year. He is interviewed in the 1968 documentary film on the Vietnam War, titled In the Year of the Pig.
Civil Rights Movement and Poland
In the mid-1960s, Halberstam covered the Civil Rights Movement for The New York Times. He was sent on assignment to Poland, where he soon became "an attraction from behind the Iron Curtain" to the artistic boheme in Warsaw. The result of that fascination was a 12-year marriage to one of the most popular young actresses of that time, Elżbieta Czyżewska, on June 13, 1965.
Initially well received by the communist regime, two years later he was expelled from the country as persona non grata for publishing an article in The New York Times criticizing the Polish government. Czyżewska followed him, becoming an outcast herself; that decision disrupted her career in the country where she was a big star, adored by millions. In the spring of 1967, Halberstam traveled with Martin Luther King Jr. from New York City to Cleveland and then to Berkeley, California for a Harper's article, "The Second Coming of Martin Luther King". While at the Times, he gathered material for his book The Making of a Quagmire: America and Vietnam during the Kennedy Era (which developed the Quagmire theory).
Foreign policy, media works
Halberstam next wrote about President John F. Kennedy's foreign-policy decisions on the Vietnam War in The Best and the Brightest. In 1972 Halberstam went to work on his next book, The Powers That Be, published in 1979 and featuring profiles of media titans like William S. Paley of CBS, Henry Luce of Time magazine, and Phil Graham of The Washington Post.
In 1980 his brother, cardiologist Michael J. Halberstam, was shot and killed during a home invasion by escaped convict and prolific burglar Bernard C. Welch Jr His only public comment related to his brother's murder came when he and Michael's widow castigated Life magazine, then published monthly, for paying Michael's killer $9,000 to pose in jail for color photographs that appeared on inside pages of the February 1981 edition of Life.
In 1991 Halberstam wrote The Next Century, in which he argued that, after the end of the Cold War, the United States was likely to fall behind economically to other countries such as Japan and Germany.
Sportswriting
Later in his career, Halberstam turned to sports, publishing The Breaks of the Game, an inside look at Bill Walton and the 1979-80 Portland Trail Blazers basketball team; Summer of '49, on the baseball pennant race battle between the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox; October 1964, on the 1964 World Series between the New York Yankees and St. Louis Cardinals; Playing for Keeps, an ambitious book on Michael Jordan in 1999; The Teammates: A Portrait of a Friendship, focusing on the relationships among several members of the Boston Red Sox in the 1940s; and The Education of a Coach, about New England Patriots head coach Bill Belichick. Much of his sportswriting, particularly his baseball books, focuses on the personalities of the players and the times they lived in as much as on the games themselves.
In particular, Halberstam depicted the 1949 Yankees and Red Sox as symbols of a nobler era, when blue-collar athletes modestly strove to succeed and enter the middle class rather than making millions and defying their owners and talking back to the press. In 1997, Halberstam received the Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award as well as an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Colby College.
Later years
After publishing four books in the 1960s, including the novel The Noblest Roman, The Making of a Quagmire and The Unfinished Odyssey of Robert Kennedy, he wrote three books in the 1970s, four books in the 1980s, and six books in the 1990s including his 1998 The Children which chronicled the 1959–1962 Nashville Student Movement. He wrote four more books in the 2000s, and was working on at least two others at the time of his death.
In the wake of 9/11 Halberstam wrote a book about the events in New York City, Firehouse, which describes the life of the men from Engine 40, Ladder 35 of the New York City Fire Department. The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War, the last book Halberstam completed, was published posthumously in September 2007.
Death
Halberstam died in a traffic collision on April 23, 2007, in Menlo Park, California, at the age of 73. He was en route to an interview with former San Francisco 49ers and New York Giants quarterback Y. A. Tittle for a book about the 1958 championship game between the Giants and the Baltimore Colts, when the journalism student driving Halberstam to the interview illegally turned into oncoming traffic.
After Halberstam's death, the book project was taken over by Frank Gifford, who had played for the losing New York Giants in the 1958 game, and was titled The Glory Game, published by HarperCollins in October 2008 with an introduction dedicated to Halberstam.
Mentor to other authors
Howard Bryant in the Acknowledgments section of Juicing the Game, his 2005 book about steroids in baseball, said of Halberstam's assistance: "He provided me with a succinct road map and the proper mind-set." Bryant went on to quote Halberstam on how to tackle a controversial non-fiction subject: "Think about three or four moments that you believe to be the most important during your time frame. Then think about what the leadership did about it. It doesn't have to be complicated. What happened, and what did the leaders do about it? That's your book."
Criticism
Pulitzer Prize-winning Korean War correspondent Marguerite Higgins was the staunchest pro-Diệm journalist in the Saigon press corps, frequently clashing with her colleagues such as Neil Sheehan, Peter Arnett and Halberstam. She claimed they had ulterior motives, saying "reporters here would like to see us lose the war to prove they're right."
Conservative military and diplomatic historian Mark Moyar claimed that Halberstam, along with fellow Vietnam journalists Neil Sheehan and Stanley Karnow, helped to bring about the 1963 South Vietnamese coup against President Diệm by sending negative information on Diệm to the U.S. government in news articles and in private, all because they decided Diệm was unhelpful in the war effort. Moyar claims that much of this information was false or misleading. Sheehan and Halberstam won Pulitzer Prizes for their work on the war; Karnow, for a work on American imperialism in the Philippines.
Newspaper opinion editor Michael Young posits that Halberstam saw Vietnam as a moral tragedy, with America's hubris bringing about its downfall. Young writes that Halberstam reduced everything to human will, turning his subjects into agents of broader historical forces and coming off like a Hollywood movie with a fated and formulaic climax.
Awards and honors
2009: Norman Mailer Prize, Distinguished Journalism
1994: Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member Neil Sheehan
1964: Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting, Malcolm W. Browne and Halberstam
Books
(novel)
(novel)
— about the sport of rowing
— in progress at Halberstam's death; completed by Frank Gifford
See also
Thích Quảng Đức
Harrison Salisbury
Double Seven Day scuffle
References
Works cited
Further reading
The History Boys, Halberstam's final essay, "debunks the Bush administration's wild distortion of history", vanityfair.com, August 2007
Spring 2000 Commencement Address, University of Michigan], April 2000 @umich.edu; accessed November 4, 2016
Spring 2003 Commencement Address at Tulane University, tulane.edu; accessed November 4, 2016.
"Nashville Was My Graduate School" — a 2001 reminiscence by Halberstam of his early career at The Tennessean
Appreciations: Halberstam on Journalism, nytimes.com; accessed November 4, 2016
External links
In Depth interview with Halberstam, November 4, 2001
"Writings of Halberstam and Sheehan", C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
Obituary, economist.com
Obituary, blastmagazine.com, May 2007
Obituary, nytimes.com, April 24, 2007
1934 births
2007 deaths
American military writers
American political writers
American war correspondents of the Vietnam War
The New York Times writers
American male non-fiction writers
Baseball writers
Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award recipients
Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting winners
Historians of the Vietnam War
Jewish American historians
People from Winsted, Connecticut
Writers from New York City
Harvard College alumni
The Harvard Crimson people
Road incident deaths in California
Jewish American journalists
20th-century American historians
20th-century American journalists
American male journalists
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American Book Award winners
Sportswriters from New York (state)
21st-century American male writers
Historians from New York (state)
Historians from Connecticut
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CB%20radio%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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CB radio in the United Kingdom
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Citizens band radio (often shortened to CB radio) is a system of short-distance radio communications between individuals on a selection of 40 channels within the 27-MHz (11 m) band. In the United Kingdom, CB radio was first legally introduced in 1981, but had been used illegally for some years prior to that.
In December 2006, CB radio was deregulated by Ofcom and it is now licence-free. Although the use of CB radios in the UK has declined from its peak, it is still popular, especially with the farming community, Land Rover owners and Mini-Cab services. It is also fitted as standard to 'Street Glide' and 'Electra Glide' models of Harley Davidson touring motorcycles sold in the UK.
History
CB radio was first introduced into the United Kingdom around 1968. Early use was known around the international shipping ports in the UK, particularly Liverpool, London and Southampton in 1968. As citizens band radio has been advertised in the US since before 1962, it is possible that a number of these radios were brought into the UK and used illegally. In the period 1976–1978, CB radio in Britain was much popularised by novelty hit songs and its use in the film Convoy and the usage of illegal CB radio peaked in 1980. Companies in Britain sold US equipment quite openly, and equipment was readily available in car accessory shops. During this time, a great many CB clubs emerged in the UK and they became centres of protest in the march towards legalisation, in the hope that existing equipment could be used legally. In response to this, the government commissioned a white paper proposing a CB service called "Open Channel" around 860 MHz.
The big problem for the UK was that the 27 MHz band was already licensed legally to radio control model aircraft users. They were paying for a licence to use the band, and interference resulted in loss of control of the aircraft. Many expensive models were written off, and the safety implications were obvious, but there was no practical way to police a separation, and the government did not rate the protection of model flying as an important issue.
The UK Government eventually legalised CB radio, and on 2 November 1981 a CB service was introduced on a frequency band and offset that is incompatible with the imported American radios. At the same time the ownership of non-UK approved 27 MHz transceivers was made illegal except for those obtained by UK radio amateurs holding a UK "A" (HF) licence, for conversion to the 28 MHz (10-metre) amateur allocation. Given that virtually all illegal CB radios were contraband, this concession required the licensed amateur to pay outstanding import duty and VAT. A licence to operate these new radios became compulsory, and this could be purchased from most Post Office counters for £15. Unlike that required to qualify for a radio amateur licence, no proof of technical competence was needed. As of 8 December 2006, a licence is no longer required to own or operate a CB radio providing it complies with one of the 3 type approval conditions currently permitted by Ofcom: FM only, 4 watts power output and operating on either or both UK and CEPT (EU) 27 MHz bands only.
In the early stages of the run up to the final legislation, most of the pro-CB lobby wanted the government to legislate around the US standard CB system, primarily due to the large user base that already existed. The UK government made it clear from the outset that legislation for use of this equipment would be unlikely. Interference problems associated with badly calibrated amplitude modulated (AM) or Single Side Band (SSB) equipment were cited as the main factor, and it was made clear that if any system was legalised it would be frequency modulated (FM). The CB lobby argued that interference from AM was unlikely to occur from the use of original unmodified AM radio equipment, a view initially rejected but later accepted by the Ministry of Defence.
Many active and potential users continued in their insistence on a 27 MHz system, although for a locally available Citizen's Band system, the 27 MHz concept was not universally endorsed.
The government initially proposed an FM system on a 928 MHz band with an RF input power not exceeding 500 mW. This was unacceptable to the CB lobby partly because the low power would give a short range but mainly because the cost of equipment to operate in this band would be prohibitive.
The more knowledgeable CB enthusiasts made a counter proposal to use a frequency around 220 MHz. This was immediately dismissed by the government who pointed out that it was a reserved military frequency band. It was subsequently discovered that the frequency had been unused since the Second World War. The government initially refused to relent and continued their insistence on legalising the 928 MHz band. The CB lobby continued to insist that any CB system had to use the 27 MHz band, be AM and a maximum output power of 4 watts (i.e. the US system).
Ultimately, the government hinted that they were going to give in to the CB lobby but, as it turned out, only up to a point. CB was eventually legalised on a 27 MHz band but not the band used in the US. Whereas the US used a band occupying the range 26.965 to 27.405 MHz, the UK system was to operate on 27.60125 to 27.99125 MHz. These awkward frequencies would prevent illegal US sets from being modified outside of the type approval system, though it was possible to have existing A.M. radios modified to comply with the new F.M. standard. The choice of frequency would also give the UK electronics industry a head start in the production of unique UK only radios. The system was FM as expected, but one initial surprise was that the power limit was set at 4 watts. The surprise was short lived when it was realised that antenna restrictions would limit the real radiated power to little more than a 500 mW system. A further restriction on power applied if the antenna was elevated by more than 7 metres (23') from the ground. The antenna restrictions were largely ignored and, in the main, unpoliced.
The government of the day had hoped that UK-based manufacturers would be able to compete on a level playing field with foreign (notably Japanese) manufacturers for a share of the potential market. As it happened: the awkward choice of frequencies conspired against this ideal. The frequencies were such that, initially, only one manufacturer in Japan had the capability of producing the frequency synthesiser chips capable of producing the transmission frequencies and the local oscillator signals for use in receive mode. This manufacturer, not surprisingly, refused to supply any UK based manufacturer while it was attempting to keep Japanese manufacturers supplied. In the event, the UK market saturated within a few months and many Japanese manufacturers and UK importers were left with vast amounts of unwanted stock. Within a year of the introduction of CB to the UK, CB radio sets were being given away free with some purchase or other by many of the major retailers.
In addition 20 channels in the 934 MHz band were also legalised, but equipment was considerably more expensive than the well established 27 MHz sets. At first the range was limited, but as antenna restrictions were lifted and better equipment started to appear, the number of UHF CB operators grew. In 1988, it was announced that the manufacture of 934 MHz equipment would be prohibited, though the use of existing equipment would remain legal. Its use largely confined to enthusiasts and amateur radio operators, the type approval specification for this band was finally withdrawn on 1 January 1999 and it is now illegal to use this equipment in the UK.
An additional frequency band was introduced on 1 September 1987 giving a further 40 channels in the CEPT Band, (26.965 MHz to 27.405 MHz) also some antenna restrictions were lifted, over the past few years all antenna restrictions have been removed and planning constraints now restrict antenna size rather than regulatory compliance. It is not permitted to add the CEPT channels to existing 27/81 equipment, the only radios permitted to operate on this band are purpose-made 80-channel or CEPT-only sets.
Associations and groups
Countless CB related clubs and groups have existed over the years, including some more notable organisations:
NATCOLCIBAR (NATional COmmittee for the Legalisation of CItizens BAnd Radio)
REACT UK (Radio Emergency Associate Communications Team – later changed to Radio Emergency And Citizens Teams)
MSGB (Monitoring Services of Great Britain)
THAMES (Traffic Help And Monitoring Emergency Service)
REVCOM (Radio Emergency Volunteer Communications)
NATCOLCIBAR
The National Committee for the Legalisation Of Citizens' Band Radio was a pro CB lobby consisting of interested parties and (at one point) up to 60 members of Parliament.
REACT UK
REACT UK was formed in 1982, under licence from REACT INTERNATIONAL in the United States, its teams were located across the UK. It was noted for its members signing on and off monitoring on Channel 9.
REACT UK also provided members equipped with mobiles and handheld to provide radio coverage for marathons, fun runs, county shows – it also obtained a Private Mobile Radio (PMR) licence so its members had a secure private radio channel.
The national committee of REACT UK was beset by scandals and arguments from about 1986, and the National Communications secretary was arrested and charged with financial irregularities with regards to receipts from PMR licences. REACT UK members decided to split following much in-fighting in the national committee, and in 1986 many became affiliated directly with REACT International.
Some REACT units provided search volunteers to assist the police with searching for missing persons (something that still occurs today with ALSAR and RAYNET albeit without CB radios).
From 2007 there was only one REACT International team based in Britain, operating under the name of REACT UK Dundee. Some teams became overseas members of REACT International whilst others chose to join splinter group REVCOM (Radio Emergency Volunteer Communications).
MSGB
MSGB Although the name suggested operating in Great Britain, but it actually operated throughout the United Kingdom, incorporating the region of Northern Ireland. Also, there were members but not teams in the Channel Islands
THAMES
THAMES mainly operated in the south of England, especially around east and north London, and provided similar services to REACT.
A perceived heavy-handed attitude by the bigger organisations caused a number of smaller groups to be formed in response. In 1983 the majority of THAMES in Greater London was reformed into the Association of Independent Monitors (AIM).
REVCOM
Another group originally formed with the use of CB radio in mind are REVCOM, though this group no longer uses the CB service.
Methods of transmission
The originally imported equipment used AM amplitude modulation and SSB single sideband modulation modes of transmission.
The UK channels that were legalised on 2 November 1981 were on two blocks of frequencies: 40 channels on the 27 MHz band and 20 channels on the 934 MHz band, both of which used FM (frequency modulation) and both unique to the UK. The 27 MHz band frequency allocation and related information is shown here. In 1987 40 additional frequencies were added, which were the same as the US allocation – but again using FM. This additional band is often referred to as the CEPT or EU band. As with the original 40 channels, this band is affected by the same atmospheric characteristics, especially towards the maxima of the 11-year sunspot cycle.
The (formerly) illegal SSB mode has its enthusiasts and adopted a different style of call-sign (instead of a 'handle') in the manner of radio amateurs.
CB clubs may issue call signs for their members. One scheme uses a numerical country or region prefix, two letters, and a membership number. For example, a prefix of "26" for England, club initials CT and membership number 100 would be "Twenty Six Charlie Tango One Zero Zero" when used on air, using phonetic alphabet to clarify the sound of the letters.
Three channels have been unofficially recognised for specific uses within the UK, though the arrangement has no legal standing:
Channel 9: The emergency calling channel. There is no 24-hour monitoring service in the UK, but local CB users may be listening.
Channel 14: Calling channel
Channel 19: Truckers' channel and secondary calling channel
CB users may use the phonetic alphabet and ten-codes.
UHF CB
The first steps towards creating UHF CB a licence-free short range radio communications were taken in April 1997 when the European Radio Communications Committee decided on a 446 MHz frequency band to be used for the new radios. In November 1998, ERC Decision (98)25 allocated frequency band 446.0-446.1 MHz for analogue PMR446; another two decisions established licence exemption for PMR446 equipment and free circulation of the PMR446 equipment. The first country which introduced these frequencies for licence-free use was Ireland on 1 April 1998. The United Kingdom introduced PMR446 service in April 1999; since 2003, it has replaced the former short-range business radio (SRBR) service. Although not officially named as Citizens Band radio, users in the United Kingdom have considered it as low power UHF CB radio
In October 2005, ECC Decision (05)02 added unlicensed band 446.1–446.2 MHz for use by digital DMR/dPMR equipment.
In July 2015, ECC Decision (15)05 doubled the number of analog channels to 16 by extending analog operation onto the 446.1–446.2 MHz band previously used by digital DMR/dPMR equipment, effective January 2016; from January 2018, the number of digital channels will also be doubled by extending onto the 446.0–446.1 MHz band used by analog FM.
The CB craze and legalisation
The new system was taken up enthusiastically by all those who had held back using an illegal system, and it was one of the biggest selling gifts for Christmas in 1981. The system suffered from many nuisance users who denied the use of the recognised calling channels to other users by transmitting a blank carrier and/or music. With the fight won, albeit with a considerable compromise and particularly with the many nuisance users, interest rapidly waned, the CB clubs gradually dwindled in membership, many disappearing altogether within a year or so.
Nuisance
There are some notable anti-social aspects to the hobby. It is possible to increase power output to very high levels using power amplifiers, and in some cases this can cause interference to and affect the operation of other equipment such as television and radio, and also to other CB radio users.
The band used for CB was already allocated in the UK to radio controlled models. While this was usually little more than a frustrating and expensive nuisance for boat and car modellers, it did pose a genuine danger for aircraft models, which can kill or seriously injure. As a result of the CB craze, an alternative band of 35 MHz. was offered to modellers to use, for which they would have to buy new equipment. Their old equipment could still be used if they wished to risk it, and 27 MHz remains legal for remote control to this day. Many cheap toys and household remote control equipment also use the frequency, adding to the interference and lack of reliability which is still a feature of this band.
CB terminology
There is a diverse vocabulary associated with the hobby, many words and phrases having been copied from the original American service. Few of these words are used in general conversation in the UK, and they serve equally as a reminder of the hobby’s American origins.
QSL'ing
QSL'ing is the exchange of contact confirmation reports, adapted from Q codes used by the military and amateur radio. Amateur radio operators would often follow up contacts around the world by sending specially printed qsl cards. This was adapted by C.B.'ers and colourful cards featuring 'handles', pictures and so on appeared.
Fall from popularity
From the inception of legalised CB radio, there has been much abuse of the system, with frequent complaints that CB radio was not policed properly in spite of the licence revenues.
CB channels still remained busy in many areas, despite mobile phones becoming increasingly common and feature rich. Many of the original advantages of mobile CB have been surpassed by the development of mobile internet access, satellite navigation systems, and the proliferation of other instant communication technologies such as text messaging.
The introduction of a new licence free handheld PMR 446 radio service has provided much of the features of traditional C.B., in a small handheld format. This service is not directly comparable with C.B, as PMR446 was intended to provide a short range service.
Changes to the UK's amateur radio licensing system mean that it is now possible for people under the age of 14, and anyone else, to gain legal access to most of the UK amateur frequency allocation after sitting an exam to demonstrate basic technical knowledge.
Licence-free CB brings rise in popularity
As of 8 December 2006, CB Radio now joins PMR446, LPD433 and SRD860 under the category of licence-free personal communications.
In June 2011, the EU announced another change in technical specifications for CB use which, if implemented, would introduce a type approval for both AM and SSB operation. The introduction was originally delayed by the 2012 Olympics, and was scheduled to take effect in 2014.
SSB and AM legalisation
Following most other European countries, Ofcom proposed to adopt European Communication Committee Decision (11)031 in October 2013. This would permit the use of Single Sideband and AM operation on the CEPT CB radio band, and Ofcom proceeded with legislation to this effect on 27 June 2014.
The new AM/SSB legislation permits the use of only new and approved sets, not 'legacy' multimode sets.
See also
Citizens' band radio
References
Freebanding Frequency Chart, Technical Information, – The Citizens Band – 27 MHz 11 Meters Open Channel Radio – 10-4 Good Buddy
External links
CB and 11m Frequency Chart and Band Plan
Charlie Tango Radio Group DXing Information Website
New Calling Channel Vote(Delboy Enterprises)
Freebanding Website
CB Radio Directory
[ Staffordshire and West Midlands CB Users Database]
REACT UK Dundee
REACT INTERNATIONAL
MSGB RADIO VOLUNTEERS
REVCOM
Over and Out? BBC News Monday, 14 August 2006
When CB Ruled the Waves – BBC Radio 4
CB Radio Information mini-site
WikiRadio – A Wiki for Radio Enthusiasts
Radio in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
|
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] |
208330
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shag
|
Shag
|
Shag, or Shagged, or Shagger, or Shagging, or Shags may refer to:
Animals
Shag or cormorant, a bird family
European shag, a specific species of the shag or cormorant family
Great cormorant another species of the family
People
Pseudonym
Shag (artist), stage name of the American artist Josh Agle (born 1962)
Shag, a name used on some pop records in the early 1970s by British record producer Jonathan King
Shags Horan (1895-1969), American baseball player
Name
Shag (name)
Shag Thomas (1924–1982), American professional wrestler
Avraham-Haim Shag (1883–1958), Israeli politician
Arts, entertainment, and media
Music
The Shag, also known as The Shags (one of many bands of that name) or Shag, a 1960s garage and psychedelic rock band from Milwaukee
The Shags (Connecticut band), a 1960s rock band from Connecticut
Dance
Carolina shag, a swing dance that originated in South Carolina in the 1940s and still is their state dance
Collegiate shag, a swing dance that originated in the 1920s (popular in the 1930s and 40s)
St. Louis shag, a swing dance that evolved from the Charleston
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
Shag (film), a 1989 film
Shag, a fictitious character from Road Rovers
Other uses
Shag (fabric), a fabric typically used to make deep-pile carpets
Shag (hairstyle)
Shag (tobacco), fine-cut tobacco
Shag, a British slang term for sexual intercourse
Shag, a party and fundraiser for an engaged couple, also known as a stag and doe
Shagger (bruise), a temporary bruise caused by kissing, sucking, or biting the skin forcefully enough to burst blood vessels beneath the skin
Shagging (baseball), to catch fly balls in baseball outside a game
Ball shagger or shag, fabric for the cleaning of golf balls
See also
Shag Island (disambiguation)
Shag Rocks (disambiguation)
Shaggy (disambiguation)
The Shaggs
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain%20rescue
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Mountain rescue
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Mountain rescue refers to search and rescue activities that occur in a mountainous environment, although the term is sometimes also used to apply to search and rescue in other wilderness environments. This tends to include mountains with technical rope access issues, snow, avalanches, ice, crevasses, glaciers, alpine environments and high altitudes. The difficult and remote nature of the terrain in which mountain rescue often occurs has resulted in the development of a number of specific pieces of equipment and techniques. Helicopters are often used to quickly extract casualties, and search dogs may be deployed to find a casualty.
Mountain rescue services may be paid professionals or volunteer professionals. Paid rescue services are more likely to exist in places with a high demand such as the Alps, national parks with mountain terrain and many ski resorts. However, the labor-intensive and occasional nature of mountain rescue, along with the specific techniques and local knowledge required for some environments, means that mountain rescue is often undertaken by voluntary teams. These are frequently made up of local climbers and guides. Often paid rescue services may work in co-operation with voluntary services. For instance, a paid helicopter rescue team may work with a volunteer mountain rescue team on the ground. Mountain rescue is often free, although in some parts of the world rescue organizations may charge for their services. But there are also exceptions, e.g. Switzerland, where mountain rescue is highly expensive (some 2,000 to US$4,000) and will be charged to the patient. In more remote or less-developed
parts of the world organized mountain rescue services are often negligible or non-existent.
By country
Austria
Österreichischer Bergrettungsdienst (ÖBRD) performs mountain rescue operations in the Austrian Alps and in Waldviertel.
Alpiner Rettungsausschuß Wien (ARAW) was founded in 1896 after an avalanche on Rax killed three mountaineers. In 1938 the organization was merged with the Deutsche Bergwacht. In 1946 (after World War II) the Austrian Mountain Rescue Service was (re)founded as Österreichischer Bergrettungsdienst.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Due to its mountainous terrain, following the Second World War, Bosnia and Herzegovina saw a need for the development and organization of a modern-day equivalent of the mountain rescue service. The first mountain rescue "station", which consisted of professionally trained and semi-professional volunteers was founded in 1952 in Sarajevo and is the oldest continuously-functioning organization of such type in the present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. As the need arose even further, stations in additional cities were established as well. The Bosnian Mountain Rescue Union, although existent, acts merely as a supervisory-organization, as each station acts and finances itself independently, mostly relying on their distinguished municipal offices of Civil Defense.
Canada
In the five mountain national parks of the Canadian Rockies, mountain rescue is solely the responsibility of Parks Canada's visitor safety rescue specialists.
Large areas in all Canadian national parks do not have reliable two-way radio or cellular coverage. The use of SOS, satellite phone or two-way communicating send devices like Garmin InReach or Spot is recommended.
There is no charge to park visitors who require help as search and rescue costs are part of the visitor's park entrance fee. Parks Canada visitor safety specialists also manage highway avalanche control programs and publish a daily public avalanche bulletin between November and May.
Croatia
Czech Republic
The Mountain Rescue Service (Horská služba České republiky, HS ČR) of the Czech Republic provides nationwide mountain rescue operations and search and rescue operations in difficult terrains in close cooperations with the Air Rescue Service and Police of the Czech Republic. It is a part of the integrated rescue system in the Czech Republic and can be reached under the phone number 1210 (paid number) or under 112 - EU standard integrated emergency service.
France
The Gendarmerie Nationale and the Police nationale are in charge of mountain rescuing. Being a paramilitary police force with law-enforcement assignments, the gendarmerie has a wide variety of missions, mainly:
search and rescue
surveillance of mountain areas
law enforcement
prevention of accidents and safety of public
deliver expert reports before the courts
The gendarmerie employs 260 gendarmes, divided in 20 units nationwide;
15 Peloton de Gendarmerie de Haute Montagne (PGHM) sprinkled in the Alps and the Pyrénées, in addition to the islands of Réunion in the Indian Ocean and Corsica.
5 Peloton de Gendarmerie de Montagne, in the Massif central and Vosges areas.
90 per cent of interventions are made by air.
The police Compagnie républicaine de sécurité also provides mountain search and rescue in the French Alps and Pyrenees alongside the PGHM.
Germany
Hong Kong
The Civil Aid Service, Mountain Rescue Unit (M.R.U.) was established in 1967 due to the demand for a mountain rescue service. At first, the M.R.U. had two separate command centres, one in Hong Kong Island, and the other in the Kowloon Peninsula. The two command centres merged in 1972 to a single centre based at the Civil Aid Service headquarters in Kowloon. In 2005, the M.R.U. was renamed the "Mountain Search and Rescue Company" (MSaR). The Mountain Search and Rescue Company of the Civil Aid Service is responsible for rescue operations in the hills and hiking trails of Hong Kong. As of 2014 the Company has 13 officers and 128 members. The unit works alongside the Government Flying Service in the air and Hong Kong Fire Services on the ground. Besides rescue operations, MSaR also help promote mountaineering safety.
Ireland
Mountain rescue services in Ireland operate under the umbrella association of Mountain Rescue Ireland (Cumann Tarrthála Sléibhte na h-Éireann). Mountain Rescue Ireland covers areas across the island of Ireland, both in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.
Israel
Unit 669 "Airborne Combat Rescue And Evacuation Unit" is the Israel Defense Forces heliborne combat search and rescue extraction unit, subordinate to 7 Wing (special forces) of the Israeli Air Force. It is considered one of the four premier elite units of unit the IDF.
The mandate of the unit is to rescue downed pilots and execute airborne medical evacuation of critical casualties.
Due to its unique capabilities, the unit participates in IDF's and other security bodies special operations.
In addition, the unit's teams are rushed to complex rescue events for which civilian emergency services are unable to provide an adequate response.
Italy
Mountain rescue in Italy is provided by CNSAS (corpo nazionale soccorso alpino e speleologico), a voluntary agency that provides nationwide mountain search and rescue operations in difficult terrains in close cooperations with the Medical Air Rescue Service 118, with Meteomont army team and Police of Italy under the phone number 112- EU standard integrated emergency service. The main missions are search and rescue, avalanche response, first aid, surveillance of mountain areas, prevention of accidents, and public safety.
Kyrgyzstan
Rescue service in mountains of Kyrgyzstan is a non commercial specialized organization. Rescue teams use modern rescue equipment and a helicopter. The team consists of experienced climbers and rescuers. Works are conducted on a mountain relief of any complexity, at any heights and routes. The organization has been accredited in Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Kyrgyz Republic in accordance with the legislation of the Kyrgyz Republic and has the right to conduct rescue operations.
Pakistan
Mountain rescues at high elevations in Pakistan are usually carried out by the Pakistan Army Aviation Corps. On July 30, 2018, a Russian climber was rescued from Latok Peak at an elevation of 20,650 feet, a record for the highest mountain rescue in Pakistan.
Poland
Slovakia
The Mountain Rescue Service (Horská záchranná služba, HZS) of Slovakia is a civilian agency that provides nationwide mountain rescue operations and search and rescue operations in difficult terrains in close cooperation with the Air Rescue Service. It is a part of the integrated rescue system in Slovakia and can be reached under the phone number 18300 or under 112 - EU standard integrated emergency service.
Spain
Since 1981 the Guardia Civil's Search and Rescue Group (Grupo de Rescate e Intervención en Montaña-GREIM) has been responsible for mountain rescue in all of Spain except for Catalonia. Before 1981 mountain rescue was provided by volunteers.
The unit is divided into:
Special Mountain Unit
Expeditionary Alpine Group
Competition Team
Special Mountain training Center
The group comprises 250 members who undergo ten months training in a specialized training center in Candanchu. The unit is divided into five regions (Jaca, Cangas de Onís, Navacerrada, Granada, Vielha e Mijaran). In 2011 they carried out 761 missions.
In Catalonia a special division of the fire department, GRAE (Support Group for Special Actions), are responsible for mountain rescue.
Switzerland
Switzerland has an incredibly dense network of alpine rescue and relief organisations. Most of the rescue are operated by Swiss Air-Rescue Rega (, ), a non-profit organisation that provide alpine rescue with its fleet of 17 medical helicopters, including 11 Agusta A109 SP Grand "Da Vinci", used both in ground support of paramedical personnel and frontline alpine rescue.
Swiss Air-Rescue Rega has two very distinctive characteristics: they can reach any place in Switzerland under 15 minutes, due to their ten bases, and they are medicalized. This means an emergency physician (mostly an anesthetist) will be on the flight to provide advanced treatment.
The Swiss canton of Valais doesn't use Rega, they have their own rescue fleet, named Air Glacier and Air Zermatt. They have similar colours, procedures and personnel.
The Swiss army is also used in frontline rescue of civilians. Their many mountain battalions are commonly used in collaboration with the Rega, due to their manpower, heavy equipment and proven experience of collaboration with civilian authorities.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, mountain rescue is a free service, provided by volunteers. Each team is an independent charity, and are linked together by regional organizations and national bodies. In England and Wales this is Mountain Rescue England and Wales (MREW) and in Scotland, Mountain Rescue Committee of Scotland, now known as Scottish Mountain Rescue (SMR). Prince William is the patron of MREW. Mountain rescue services are also provided by the Royal Air Force Mountain Rescue Service (RAFMRS).
United States
In the United States, mountain search and rescue is a technical specialty within general search and rescue. It is handled by 'career, on-duty and on-call paid' teams within the national parks, and supplemented by other paid and volunteer assets/resources as needed. For areas outside the national parks, there are approximately 20 agencies, mostly sheriff's departments, in the U.S. which provide paid or career members of a mountain SAR team. Most of those supplement with volunteer professionals. The bulk of mountain SAR operations in the U.S. are provided by 'volunteer professional' teams (are not career positions or paid but must meet minimum industry-accepted standards at or above their paid counterparts), who may also respond via mutual aid or automatic aid to incidents out-of-county, out-of-state and into national parks, via intrastate, interstate, and national park agreements, as well as via the FEMA NIMS national mutual aid deployment system.
Parks with paid teams include Denali National Park, Yosemite National Park, Grand Teton National Park, and Mount Rainier National Park. Many paid and volunteer professional mountain SAR teams are part of the Mountain Rescue Association (MRA) and operate under the authority of the local sheriff's department (approximately 42 of the 50 states) or state police or emergency management agency. While teams are primarily responsible to operate in one county which could be from 50 square miles to 20,000 square miles, they typically respond to adjoining counties and states.
Under the National Incident Management System, mountain rescue unit qualifications are standardized for those units which choose to be deployable for national disasters and national mutual aid outside their jurisdiction.
See also
Helicopter rescue basket
SAR dog
St. Bernard (dog)
Wilderness first aid
Notes
Further reading
External links
NAVSAR National Association of Volunteer Search and Rescue Teams
Everett Mountain Rescue
Seattle Mountain Rescue
Parks Canada Mountain Safety Webpage
SARDOGS NEPAL.Search and Rescue Dog Handlers Academy
New Jersey Search and Rescue
Northern California's Marin County Search & Rescue
Langdale/Ambleside MRT
National Ski Patrol
Professional Ski Patrol Association
Serbian Mountain Rescue Service
Guide Dolomiti
Santa Barbara County Search and Rescue. SBCSAR.net. Retrieved 17 September 2015.
Swiss Air-Rescue Rega
Rescue
Mountains
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Geneva%20Convention
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Second Geneva Convention
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The Second Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea is one of the four treaties of the Geneva Conventions. The Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea was first adopted in 1949, it replaced the Hague Convention (X) of 1907. It adapts the main protective regime of the First Geneva Convention to combat at sea.
Summary of provisions
The treaty is a lengthy document consisting of 63 articles. The most essential provisions of the treaty are:
Articles 12 and 18 requires all parties to protect and care for the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked.
Article 14 clarifies that although a warship cannot capture a hospital ship's medical staff, it can hold the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked as prisoners of war.
Article 21 allows appeals to be made to neutral vessels to help collect and care for the wounded, sick, and shipwrecked. The neutral vessels cannot be captured.
Articles 36 and 37 protect religious and medical personnel serving on a combat ship.
Article 22 states that hospital ships cannot be used for any military purpose, and owing to their humanitarian mission, they cannot be attacked or captured.
For a detailed discussion of each article of the treaty, see the original text and the commentary. There are currently 196 countries party to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, including this second treaty but also including the other three.
See also
List of parties to the Geneva Conventions
References
External links
Final Act of the Second Peace Conference, The Hague, 18 October 1907
2
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Treaties extended to Greenland
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Treaties extended to the Kingdom of Tonga (1900–1970)
Treaties extended to the Trucial States
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|
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208342
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20South%20Dakota%20%28ACR-9%29
|
USS South Dakota (ACR-9)
|
The first USS South Dakota (ACR-9/CA-9), also referred to "Armored Cruiser No. 9", and later renamed Huron, was a United States Navy armored cruiser.
South Dakota was laid down on 30 September 1902 by the Union Iron Works, San Francisco, California, she was launched on 21 July 1904; sponsored by Grace Herreid, daughter of Charles N. Herreid, Governor of South Dakota, and commissioned on 27 January 1908, Captain James T. Smith in command.
Design
An act of Congress authorized South Dakota on 7 June 1900. The ship's hull and machinery cost a contract total of $3,750,000. Her plant consisted of vertical triple expansion engines and 16 Babcock and Wilcox boilers, which powered two propellers. Four funnels, one cage mast, and one military mast provided a distinctive silhouette. One Type J submarine signal receiving set equipped the ship. Capt. Charles E. Fox reported on board as the ship's General Inspector on 30 August 1907. The cruiser completed her preliminary acceptance on 19 November.
Shakedown cruise
South Dakota began her shakedown on 3 March 1908. The ship sailed from San Francisco to Mexican waters, carrying out trials in Magdalena Bay from 8 to 10 March, and on 11 and 12 March off Isla Cedros—the ship reported her movements off the Anglicized spelling of Cerros Island, contributing to debate among international navigators concerning the designation of the island. She came about and visited San Diego, California (13–24 March). South Dakota then made a brief voyage northward along the Californian coast and put into San Pedro through the end of the month, followed by a visit to Long Beach (1–5 April), returning to San Pedro on 5 and 6 April. On 8 and 9 April, the cruiser lay off the Mare Island Light, and then visited San Francisco. South Dakota attained a speed of on trials.
She then made for the Pacific Northwest to accomplish work associated with her shakedown, reaching Port Angeles, Washington, on 12 April 1908, and (13–23 April) entering drydock at Puget Sound Navy Yard, Bremerton, Washington. South Dakota floated from the drydock and then anchored off Anacortes, Washington, from 23 to 25 April. Assigned to the Armored Cruiser Squadron, Pacific Fleet, South Dakota visited Seattle, Washington, (25–27 April). The ship returned to Puget Sound to participate in a reception for the Atlantic Fleet through 1 May. Following the reception, the cruiser completed her final acceptance trials off San Francisco through the end of May. South Dakota cruised off the west coast of the United States into August. She departed San Francisco in company with on 24 August, arriving on 23 September at Pago Pago, Samoa.
Service history
Pre-World War I
South Dakota sailed easterly courses to operate in Central and South American waters in September. In the autumn of 1909, she deployed westward with the Armored Cruiser Squadron. The force called at ports in the Admiralty Islands, the Philippines, Japan, and China, before returning to Honolulu on 31 January 1910.
In February, South Dakota joined to form a Special Service Squadron which cruised off the Atlantic coast of South America and then returned to the Pacific late in the year.
Following operations along the Pacific coast during much of 1911, South Dakota began a cruise in December with the Armored Cruiser Squadron which took her from California to the Hawaiian Islands, the Marianas, the Philippines, and Japan. After returning to the west coast in August 1912, she participated in periodic squadron exercises until she was placed in reserve on 30 December 1913 at the Puget Sound Navy Yard.
Detached from the Reserve Force, Pacific Fleet on 17 April 1914, South Dakota made a cruise southward into Mexican waters in May and another westward to the Hawaiian Islands in August. She returned to Bremerton on 14 September and reverted to reserve status on 28 September. She was the flagship of the Reserve Force, Pacific Fleet, from 21 January 1915 until relieved by the protected cruiser on 5 February 1916. She remained in reduced commission through 1916, and on 5 April 1917 she was again placed in full commission.
World War I
Transferred to the Atlantic after the United States entered World War I, South Dakota departed Bremerton on 12 April. She joined sister ships , , and at Colón, Panama, on 29 May; thence proceeded to the South Atlantic for patrol duty operating from Brazilian ports. On 2 November 1918, she escorted troop convoys from the east coast to the mid-Atlantic rendezvous point where British cruisers joined the convoy. Following the Armistice, South Dakota made two voyages from Brest, France, to New York, returning troops to the U.S.
Post-war
In the summer of 1919, South Dakota was ordered back to the Pacific to serve as flagship of the Asiatic Fleet, arriving at Manila on 27 October. South Dakota was renamed Huron---in order to free up her original name for use with the projected , ---on 7 June 1920 and was designated CA-9 on 17 July 1920. She served in the Asiatic Fleet for the next seven years, operating in Philippine waters during the winter and out of Shanghai and Chefoo during the summer. On 25 February 1925, she ran aground off Palawayan Island in the Netherlands East Indies; she was refloated the next day.
Ordered home, Huron departed Manila on 31 December 1926 and arrived at the Puget Sound Navy Yard on 3 March 1927. She was decommissioned on 17 June and remained in reserve until she was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 15 November 1929. She was sold on 11 February 1930 for scrapping in accordance with the London Naval Treaty for the limitation and reduction of naval armament, for scrapping to Abe Goldberg and Co., Seattle, Wash.
Huron was stripped down to the waterline and then sold to the Powell River Company, Ltd. In August 1931, the ship was towed to Powell River, British Columbia, Canada, to serve as a floating breakwater for a large logging mill. She was preceded the previous year by the former cruiser . Huron was anchored into position and rainwater was periodically pumped out to ensure she remained afloat. On 18 February 1961, a storm flooded the hulk of the old cruiser, and she sank in of water, where she remains to this day. Coincidentally, some of the iron for her hull came from Texada Island, merely from her Powell River resting place.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Alden, John D. American Steel Navy: A Photographic History of the U.S. Navy from the Introduction of the Steel Hull in 1883 to the Cruise of the Great White Fleet. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1989.
Friedman, Norman. U.S. Cruisers: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1984.
Musicant, Ivan. U.S. Armored Cruisers: A Design and Operational History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985.
External links
hazegray.org: USS South Dakota
USS South Dakota page at Coast Artillery Corps Unit Histories in WWI - includes accounts of some crew members
Pennsylvania-class cruisers
Ships built in San Francisco
1904 ships
World War I cruisers of the United States
Maritime incidents in 1925
Maritime incidents in 1961
Shipwrecks in rivers
Shipwrecks of the British Columbia coast
United States Navy South Dakota-related ships
Ships sunk as breakwaters
Ships built by Union Iron Works
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten-code
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Ten-code
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Ten-codes, officially known as ten signals, are brevity codes used to represent common phrases in voice communication, particularly by law enforcement and in Citizens Band (CB) radio transmissions. The police version of ten-codes is officially known as the APCO Project 14 Aural Brevity Code.
The codes, developed during 1937–1940 and expanded in 1974 by the Association of Public-Safety Communications Officials-International (APCO), allow brevity and standardization of message traffic. They have historically been widely used by law enforcement officers in North America, but – due to the lack of standardization – in 2006, the U.S. federal government recommended they be discontinued in favor of everyday language.
History
APCO first proposed Morse code brevity codes in the June 1935 issue of The APCO Bulletin, which were adapted from the procedure symbols of the U.S. Navy, though these procedures were for communications in Morse code, not voice.
In August 1935, the APCO Bulletin published a recommendation that the organization issue a handbook that described standard operating procedures, including:
A standard message form for use by all police departments.
A simple code for service dispatches relating to corrections, repetitions, etc.
A standard arrangement of the context of messages, (for example, name and description of missing person might be transmitted as follows: Name, age, height, weight, physical characteristics, clothing; if car used, the license, make, description and motor number. This information would actually be transmitted in the text of the message as follows: John Brown 28-5-9-165 medium build brown eyes dark hair dark suit light hat Mich. 35 lic. W 2605 Ford S 35 blue red wheels 2345678 may go to Indiana).
A standard record system for logging the operation of the station.
Other important records in accordance with the uniform crime reporting system sponsored by the International Association of Chiefs of Police.
The development of the APCO Ten Signals began in 1937 to reduce use of speech on the radio at a time when police radio channels were limited. Credit for inventing the codes goes to Charles "Charlie" Hopper, communications director for the Illinois State Police, District 10 in Pesotum, Illinois. Hopper had been involved in radio for years and realized there was a need to abbreviate transmissions on State Police bands. Experienced radio operators knew the first syllable of a transmission was frequently not understood because of quirks in early electronics technology. Radios in the 1930s were based on vacuum tubes powered by a small motor-generator called a dynamotor. The dynamotor took from 1/10 to 1/4 of a second to "spin up" to full power. Police officers were trained to push the microphone button, then pause briefly before speaking; however, sometimes they would forget to wait. Preceding each code with "ten-" gave the radio transmitter time to reach full power. An APCO Bulletin of January 1940 lists codes assigned as part of standardisation.
In 1954, APCO published an article describing a proposed simplification of the code, based on an analysis conducted by the San Diego Police Department. In the September 1955 issue of the APCO Bulletin, a revision of the Ten-Signals was proposed, and it was later adopted.
The Ten Signals were included in APCO Project Two (1967), "Public Safety Standard Operating Procedures Manual", published as study cards in APCO Project 4 (1973), "Ten Signal Cards", and then revised in APCO Project 14 (1974).
In popular culture
Ten-codes, especially "10-4" (meaning "understood") first reached public recognition in the mid- to late-1950s through the popular television series Highway Patrol, with Broderick Crawford. Crawford would reach into his patrol car to use the microphone to answer a call and precede his response with "10-4".
Ten-codes were adapted for use by CB radio enthusiasts. C. W. McCall's hit song "Convoy" (1975), depicting conversation among CB-communicating truckers, put phrases like "10-4" and "what's your twenty?" (10-20 for "where are you?") into common use in American English.
The movie Convoy (1978), loosely based on McCall's song, further entrenched ten-codes in casual conversation.
The ten-codes used by the New York Police Department have returned to public attention thanks to the popularity of the television series Blue Bloods. However, the ten-codes used by the NYPD are not the same as those used in the APCO system. For example, in the NYPD system, Code 10-13 means "Officer needs help," whereas in the APCO system "Officer needs help" is Code 10-33.
The New Zealand reality television show Police Ten 7 takes its name from the New Zealand Police ten-code 10-7, which means "Unit has arrived at job".
The syndicated internet radio countdown program "What's your Twenty" is named after the code for location.
Police officer retirement
Often when an officer retires, a call to dispatch is made. The officer gives a 10-7 code (Out of service) and then a 10-42 code (ending tour of duty).
Signals by era
Replacement with plain language
While ten-codes were intended to be a terse, concise, and standardized system, the proliferation of different meanings can render them useless in situations when officers from different agencies and jurisdictions need to communicate.
In the fall of 2005, responding to inter-organizational communication problems during the rescue operations after Hurricane Katrina, the United States Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) discouraged the use of ten-codes and other codes due to their wide variation in meaning. The Department of Homeland Security's SAFECOM program, established in response to communication problems experienced during the September 11 attacks also advises local agencies on how and why to transition to plain language, and their use is expressly forbidden in the nationally standardized Incident Command System, as is the use of other codes.
APCO International stated in 2012 that plain speech communications over public safety radio systems is preferred over the traditional 10-Codes and dispatch signals. Nineteen states had changed to plain English by the end of 2009. , ten-codes remained in common use in many areas, but were increasingly being phased out in favor of plain language.
Clear Speech Procedure
In 1971, the Public Safety Department of Lakewood, Colorado published a study comparing the APCO Ten-code with the proposed Clear Speech procedure. The study used standards for judgment of both communications procedures based on The Public Safety Communications Standard Operating Procedure Manual, 1970 edition, published by APCO.
RogerTo be used as acknowledgement.
AFFIRMATIVETo be used when "yes" is needed
HELPTo be used when in danger and urgent assistance is needed.
Phrase Word Brevity Code
About 1979, APCO created the Phrase Word Brevity Code as a direct replacement for the Ten-code.
ICS Clear Text
In 1980, the National Incident Management System published a document, ICS Clear Text Guide, which was another attempt to create a replacement for Ten-codes. The list of code words was republished in the 1990 Montana Mutual Aid and Common Frequencies document.
Related codes
Brevity codes other than the APCO 10-code are frequently used, and include several types:
The California Highway Patrol uses ten-codes, along with an additional set of eleven- and higher codes.
California Penal Code sections were in use by the Los Angeles Police Department as early as the 1940s, and these Hundred Code numbers are still used today instead of the corresponding ten-code. Generally these are given as two sets of numbers—"One Eighty-Seven" or "Fifty-One Fifty"—with a few exceptions such as "459"—Burglary, which is given as "Four-Five-Nine". The American public was made aware of these California Penal Code references as a result of the TV series Adam-12, which used them habitually in radio communications and in the main title of the show. The best-known include:
"187": Homicide
"211": Robbery
"415": Disturbance
"417": Person with a weapon
"502": Intoxicated Driver
"5150": Mentally disturbed person (actually a reference to the California Welfare and Institutions Code)
The New York Fire Department uses its own ten-code system.
The New Zealand Fire Service uses a system of "K-codes" to pass fire appliance availability statuses as well as operational messages. For example, "K1" means "proceeding to incident", while "K99" means "Structure fire, well involved". The New Zealand Police also use some K-codes, with completely unrelated meanings to those used by NZFS; Police code "K1" means "no further police action required".
Telegraph and teletype procedures
Q code and prosigns for Morse code are used in amateur radio, aviation, and marine radio. They provide specific abbreviations for concepts related to aviation, shipping, RTTY, radiotelegraph, and amateur radio. In radiotelegraph operation, a Q code is often shorter, and provides codes standardized by meaning in all languages – essential for international shortwave radio communications.
Z codes are used for military radio communications NATO countries, and like Q codes are standardized across languages.
See also
Advanced Medical Priority Dispatch System
Emergency service response codes
Law enforcement jargon
List of CB slang
List of international common standards
Medical Priority Dispatch System
NATO phonetic alphabet
Radiotelephony procedure
Procedure word
Spelling alphabet
References
External links
The APCO Bulletin, January 1940 – The first official publication showing the 10-codes.
Official Ten-Code List Association of Public Communications Officers (APCO)
Brevity codes
Emergency communication
Encodings
Law enforcement in the United States
Telegraphy
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1937
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Geneva%20Convention
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First Geneva Convention
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The First Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field, held on 22 August 1864, is the first of four treaties of the Geneva Conventions. It defines "the basis on which rest the rules of international law for the protection of the victims of armed conflicts." After the first treaty was adopted in 1864, it was significantly revised and replaced in 1906, 1929, and finally 1949. It is inextricably linked to the International Committee of the Red Cross, which is both the instigator for the inception and enforcer of the articles in these conventions.
History
The 1864 Geneva Convention was instituted at a critical period in European political and military history. Elsewhere, the American Civil War had been raging since 1861, and would ultimately claim between 750,000 and 900,000 lives. Between the fall of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 and the rise of his nephew in the Italian campaign of 1859, the powers had maintained peace in western Europe. Yet, with the 1853–1856 conflict in the Crimea, war had returned to Europe, and while those troubles were "in a distant and inaccessible region" northern Italy was "so accessible from all parts of western Europe that it instantly filled with curious observers;" while the bloodshed was not excessive the sight of it was unfamiliar and shocking. Despite its intent of ameliorating the ravages of war, the inception of the 1864 Geneva Convention inaugurated "a renewal of military activity on a large scale, to which the people of western Europe…had not been accustomed since the first Napoleon had been eliminated."
The movement for an international set of laws governing the treatment and care for the wounded and prisoners of war began when relief activist Henry Dunant witnessed the Battle of Solferino in 1859, fought between French-Piedmontese and Austrian armies in Northern Italy. The subsequent suffering of 40,000 wounded soldiers left on the field due to lack of facilities, personnel, and truces to give them medical aid moved Dunant into action. Upon return to Geneva, Dunant published his account Un Souvenir de Solferino. He urged the calling together of an international conference and soon co-founded with the Swiss layer Gustave Moynier, the International Committee of the Red Cross in 1863.
The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), while recognising that it is "primarily the duty and responsibility of a nation to safeguard the health and physical well-being of its own people", knew there would always, especially in times of war, be a "need for voluntary agencies to supplement…the official agencies charged with these responsibilities in every country." To ensure that its mission was widely accepted, it required a body of rules to govern its own activities and those of the involved belligerent parties.
Only one year later, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the United States, Brazil, and Mexico, to attend an official diplomatic conference. Sixteen countries sent a total of twenty-six delegates to Geneva. The meeting was presided over by General Guillaume Henri Dufour. The conference took place in the Alabama room at Geneva's Hotel de Ville (city hall) on 22 August 1864. The conference adopted the first Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field". Representatives of 12 states signed the convention:
The United Kingdom of Norway and Sweden signed in December. The United Kingdom signed a year later in 1865. The Grand Duchy of Hesse, the Kingdom of Bavaria and Austria signed in 1866 following the conclusion of the Austro-Prussian War. The United States of America signed in 1882.
The original document is preserved in the Swiss Federal Archives in Bern. In the past it has been loaned to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva.
Application
The convention "derived its obligatory force from the implied consent of the states which accepted and applied them in the conduct of their military operations." Despite its basic mandates, listed below, it was successful in effecting significant and rapid reforms. This first effort provided only for:
the immunity from capture and destruction of all establishments for the treatment of wounded and sick soldiers,
the impartial reception and treatment of all combatants,
the protection of civilians providing aid to the wounded, and
the recognition of the Red Cross symbol as a means of identifying persons and equipment covered by the agreement.
Summary of provisions and revisions
The original ten articles of the 1864 treaty have been expanded to the current 64 articles. This lengthy treaty protects soldiers that are hors de combat (out of the battle due to sickness or injury), as well as medical and religious personnel, and civilians in the zone of battle. Among its principal provisions:
Article 12 mandates that wounded and sick soldiers who are out of the battle should be humanely treated, and in particular should not be killed, injured, tortured, or subjected to biological experimentation. This article is the keystone of the treaty, and defines the principles from which most of the treaty is derived, including the obligation to respect medical units and establishments (Chapter III), the personnel entrusted with the care of the wounded (Chapter IV), buildings and material (Chapter V), medical transports (Chapter VI), and the protective sign (Chapter VII).
Article 15 mandates that wounded and sick soldiers should be collected, cared for, and protected, though they may also become prisoners of war.
Article 16 mandates that parties to the conflict should record the identity of the dead and wounded, and transmit this information to the opposing party.
Article 9 allows the International Red Cross "or any other impartial humanitarian organization" to provide protection and relief of wounded and sick soldiers, as well as medical and religious personnel.
Due to significant ambiguities in the articles with certain terms and concepts and even more so to the rapidly developing nature of war and military technology, the original articles had to be revised and expanded, largely at the Second Geneva Conference in 1906 and Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 which extended the articles to maritime warfare. The 1906 version was updated and replaced by the 1929 version when minor modifications were made to it. It was again updated and replaced by the 1949 version, better known as the Final Act of Geneva Conference, 1949. However, as Jean S. Pictet, Director of the International Committee of the Red Cross, noted in 1951, "the law, however, always lags behind charity; it is tardy in conforming with life's realities and the needs of humankind", as such it is the duty of the Red Cross "to assist in the widening the scope of law, on the assumption that…law will retain its value", principally through the revision and expansion of these basic principles of the original Geneva Convention.
For a detailed discussion of each article of the treaty, see the original text and the commentary. There are currently 196 countries party to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, including this first treaty but also including the other three.
See also
Geneva Conventions
International Committee of the Red Cross
International humanitarian law
List of parties to the Geneva Conventions
Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868
References
Further reading
Chandler P. Anderson, "International Red Cross Organization", The American Journal of International Law, 1920
Richard Baxter, "Human Rights in War", Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1977
Bennett, Angela, "The Geneva Convention, the Hidden Origins of the Red Cross", Sutton Publishing, 2005
George B. Davis, "The Geneva Convention", The American Journal of International Law, 1907
Jean S. Pictet, "The New Geneva Conventions for the Protection of War Victims", The American Journal of International Law, 1951
Francis Lieber, "INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF ARMIES OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE FIELD", Lincoln General Orders, 24 April 1863.
External links
Facsimile of the original document
150 years of the 1864 Geneva Convention – 150 years of humanitarian action
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drop%20the%20Dead%20Donkey
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Drop the Dead Donkey
|
Drop the Dead Donkey is a British television sitcom that was first shown on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom between 1990 and 1998. It is set in the offices of "GlobeLink News", a fictional TV news company. Recorded close to transmission, it made use of contemporary news events to give the programme a greater sense of realism. It was created by Andy Hamilton and Guy Jenkin. The series had an ensemble cast, making stars of Haydn Gwynne, Stephen Tompkinson and Neil Pearson.
The show was awarded the Best Comedy (Programme or Series) Award at the 1994 BAFTA Awards. At the British Comedy Awards the show won Best New TV Comedy in 1990, Best Channel 4 Comedy in 1991, and Best Channel 4 Sitcom in 1994.
In 2000, the show was ranked 94 on the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes, a list compiled by the British Film Institute.
Development
According to Swedish comedian Kryddan Petersson, he and the group behind Helt Apropå had come up with an idea for a show like this, which they presented to British colleagues sometime around 1989–90. Most of them were not impressed, but two of them took the idea seriously and wrote this show. Later on, the Swedish group bought the material rights to the show back to Sweden, and created the show Döda danskar räknas inte ("Dead Danes don't count"), which aired on SVT in 1994.
The series' story began with the acquisition of GlobeLink by media mogul Sir Roysten Merchant, an allusion to either Robert Maxwell or Rupert Murdoch. Indeed, Andy Hamilton and Guy Jenkin note on their DVDs that it was fortunate for their libel lawyers that the two men shared the same initials. The series is mostly based on the ongoing battle between the staff of GlobeLink, led by editor George Dent, as they try to maintain the company as a serious news organisation, and Sir Roysten's right-hand man Gus Hedges, trying to make the show more sensationalist and suppress stories that might harm Sir Roysten's business empire.
One of the original working titles was Dead Belgians Don't Count. Dead Kuwaitis Don't Count was also considered for a short time but was ultimately replaced by Drop the Dead Donkey:
Characters
Major characters
Gus Hedges (Robert Duncan) – Series One to Six— The unctuous Chief Executive of the company, yes-man to Sir Roysten Merchant and an unwavering supporter of then Conservative Prime Minister John Major is a management stereotype, complete with clichés. He transforms GlobeLink from a serious news network to a ratings-chasing tabloid channel. He is notable for management jargon, such as, "Are we cooking with napalm? You bet!" In light of what he refers to as his "hands-off" role, he frequently prefaces his interference in editorial matters with the opening, "Now, as you all know, I’m not here..." He is disliked and distrusted by the staff, who treat him with contempt. Outside the office, Gus is lonely. He has no real friends, and his occasional attempts to make friends at work fail, largely because of his insistence on behaving like an "executive management module". George appears to be the closest thing Gus has to a friend, but while Gus heavily leans on George for emotional support he shows no interest in reciprocating and frequently over-rides George's opinions and concerns. Some of these personality traits stem from his childhood; his older brother was his parents’ favourite and Gus has terrible feelings of inadequacy. He is sexually inexperienced and fears advances from women. He is afraid of illness, and thoughts of his own mortality terrify him. Despite his executive position, he fears that he has not really achieved anything and will be quickly forgotten. Gus is alleged to have been based on Channel 4's controller at the time, Michael Grade, although the original idea was first pitched to the BBC, with Channel Four only picking up the series after the BBC refused to broadcast it. In series six it becomes clear that Gus has absolutely no life beyond GlobeLink and working for Sir Roysten and cannot come to terms with the station's closure. The final scene of the last episode sees a host of furniture-removal men clearing the fire-damaged office with Gus sitting miserably on his chair with a gloomy expression on his face.
George Dent (Jeff Rawle) – Series One to Six— The station's editor. George is a nervous wreck and hypochondriac who frequently finds himself in conflict with Gus over editorial decisions, but he is usually too afraid to argue with the Chief Executive. George is generally a moral man, who has a good sense of what a news company should really be doing and what stories are important, but he is frequently bullied by Gus and distracted by his staff. He suffers from a number of anxiety disorders and apparently psychosomatic symptoms, which he will often relate apprehensively to his colleagues. George once remarked that his doctor had suggested that he stop visiting the surgery and simply fax his new symptoms in every day. In earlier series, George comes across as broadly competent if a bit weak willed before troubles in his personal life take their toll and the job becomes out of his depth with Henry remarking in Series 3 'George seems particularly out of it these days'. George also suffers from appalling bad luck, such as when he buys Henry's car, which gearbox almost immediately fails, so Damien has the car stolen so George can claim it on insurance, but George has already spent £2,000 on a new gearbox, and before Damien can get the car back, it rolls off a cliff. George does become noticeably more confident and extroverted when drunk, although this rarely happens. On the rare occasions when George develops some confidence without alcohol such as after a paintballing weekend away where George got to take out some of his frustrations on Gus, he finds himself able to competently handle his job and manage his hypochondria, this is inevitably short lived however until George is confronted with another insecurity. Earlier scripts followed the deterioration of George's marriage to his somewhat exploitative and vindictive wife, Margaret, and following their divorce, George's problems at home generally revolved around the antisocial and increasingly criminal behaviour of his daughter Deborah. He meets a woman from Poland called Anna (played by his real-life wife, Nina Marc) who wants to marry him but he believes it is out of love when all she wants is a passport. In spite of the general view that George is useless and inept he is commonly sought out by the other members of Globelink for advice on their personal problems. George appears particularly close to Dave despite their vast differences, George has loaned Dave significant sums of money and tries to advise and help Dave through his troubles despite his advice often making things worse. When GlobeLink closed in 1998, George chose to devote his future to caring for the ill Margaret rather than pursue a new life in Australia with new love Sue, despite making promises to finally leave his loveless marriage and painful home lifestyle behind. It is implied that, despite expectations, George is actually happy to have Margaret back in his life.
Alex Pates (Haydn Gwynne) – Series One and Two— Assistant editor and George's second-in-command. The token "normal" person, Alex is determined, skilled and professional, if very cynical. She has a fierce temper, and can be violent when provoked. Married and divorced before the series begins, her ex-husband – now a slum landlord — reappears on one occasion to use Alex to thwart the broadcasting of a news story about his unlawful business practices. In response to this, Alex breaks his nose. Alex's mother (known only as "Mummy" or "Mrs. Pates" and until the final episode of series 2 an unseen character) repeatedly interrupts important meetings with frivolous and bizarre telephone enquiries, such as whether she should stockpile petrol in the bath in response to rising fuel prices or whether signing up to the Social Chapter would mean having to use a squat toilet. In the very final moments of Series 2, the final series in which Alex appears, Mrs. Pates finally visits the GlobeLink office just in time to hear her daughter announcing to the office that she has had a one-night stand with Dave. Between Series 2 and 3, Alex leaves GlobeLink for the BBC.
Helen Cooper (Ingrid Lacey) – Series Three to Six— Replacing Alex as Assistant Editor from the beginning of Series 3, Helen is extremely efficient and organised, and is frequently annoyed and frustrated by the general inefficiency of GlobeLink. At home, she is the single mother of a daughter called Chloe (Jocelyn Barker), and is a lesbian – a fact she has been keeping secret from her daughter and her parents despite a powerful sense that she really ought to tell them. When George admits that he has fallen in love with her and asks her out, she discloses her sexuality to him in an attempt to let him down gently. George assumes she is lying to spare his feelings – a suspicion reinforced when Helen has a drunken one-night stand with Dave while the staff are on a team-building weekend. Dedicated to the service of "proper" news, Helen often clashes with Gus, but is usually supported, if ineffectually, by George. Helen quickly earns the nickname of Stalin from other staff due to her obsession with organisation. She does join in with some of the zanier antics of the office and has been seen to be the only source of support for Joy and Sally despite the latter's vindictive behaviour. Surprisingly unable to land another job in the industry, Helen reluctantly works for her girlfriend's food delivery company when GlobeLink closes.
Henry Davenport (David Swift) – Series One to Six – One of the station's news anchors. Apparently a dignified veteran reporter, he is deeply contemptuous of Sir Roysten, Gus, and everything about the "modern" news industry. He is in constant conflict with his newsreading counterpart Sally, the two of them taking any opportunity to make jokes and jibes at the other's expense. However, very infrequently, particularly in later episodes, the viewer gets the impression that Henry and Sally have become rather fond of each other – although neither would admit it. They also on one occasion work together to prevent an up-and-coming presenter from potentially replacing either of them by getting her to badmouth Sir Roysten, unaware she is in earshot of a newspaper journalist. Henry frequently derides younger presenters on other stations as "androids" and "holograms", and bemoans the loss of what he considers to be the more interesting personalities of the past. In contrast to his stately on-screen persona, he spends much of his spare time drinking, gambling and womanising, often in cahoots with Dave. The tabloids occasionally report these activities, but Henry's image seems oddly untarnished by these articles. Married and divorced several times, with two daughters, Henry is constantly struggling with alimony repayments and the demands of his ex-wives. Henry also believed for a short time that he had an illegitimate son, although the "son" later proved to be a fraud who was out for Henry's money. His extramarital affairs in the past have included wives of so-called friends in the industry. Henry may have been based, at least in part, on Reginald Bosanquet, and indeed at one point he owned a yacht named Bosanquet. Although Henry has made some remarkable contributions to TV news, and met many of the great leaders of the modern world, it often transpires that his achievements were intertwined with or as a result of his drink- or sex-related excesses. After GlobeLink closed at the end of series six in 1998, Henry found a new role well suited to his outspoken nature – as a late-night radio host on Radio Gab.
Sally Smedley (Victoria Wicks) – Series One to Six – GlobeLink's second news anchor, handpicked by Sir Roysten when he acquired the company. Sally is noted for her snobbishness and vapidity, and tends to view newsreading merely as a means to boost her public image and attract fashionable promotional contracts. All her views are conservative and it is much to her chagrin that she is a pin-up for so many gay men. She always has a problem with at least one member of the staff, and complains incessantly, usually prefacing her gripes with "I’m not one to complain...". She is generally disliked and mocked by her colleagues, mainly due to her obsession with fashion and her own image to the exclusion of any real awareness of current affairs. Helen occasionally tries to sympathise with her, and there are infrequent incidents that reveal Sally's vulnerability. She was raised by her grandmother, who clearly abused her as a child – incidents are recounted in which Sally is locked in a rat-infested cellar; or abandoned in a forest, ostensibly to cure her fear of trees. Sally lives alone with her Filipina maid, whom she views (and treats) as little more than a slave. Sally is infamous throughout the GlobeLink offices and elsewhere for her supposedly secret liaisons with dockers, soldiers, sailors, sportsmen and, in particular, lorry drivers. During one encounter with a sound engineer, her colleagues were delighted to discover she had left her radio microphone on, and tapes of her experience were quickly circulated around the office. The episode where Sally miscarries her baby and agrees to conduct a magazine interview suggests that Sally's sexual preferences are something of a defence mechanism to ensure that she is devoid of emotional feeling because she fears being overwhelmed by them. Sally – who is 42 at the end of the final series in 1998 and no longer wanted by many television companies echoing many of the complaints by middle-aged female news readers such as Selena Scott, Jan Leeming and Anna Ford — opts to make her money by marrying a very rich old man with a weak heart, Sir Gordon Miller (see minor characters). Despite appearing in the starting title for the first episode of series one, she does not actually appear until the second episode.
Damien Day (Stephen Tompkinson) – Series One to Six— GlobeLink's star field reporter, whose goal is always to make his stories as sensational as possible, even where doing so requires the use of exaggeration or misrepresentation. Damien's unorthodox (and unethical) methods are undeniably a hit with the viewers, and therefore he is popular with Sir Roysten and Gus, making it impossible for George to fire him, despite his frequent desire to do so. Damien is quite happy to stage incidents for the camera, arguing when challenged that he is making "reconstructions" of what would have happened. When filming a firing-squad execution in a South American dictatorship, Damien asked the officer for a retake so he could make the execution look better. When filming in a war-torn country he punched a small boy in the face to make sure he had a crying child in shot, and threw a hand-grenade over a wall to create panic before delivering his piece to camera. Perhaps surprisingly, he is generally open-minded about other cultures, expressing interest in Tarot cards and the predictions of Nostradamus. He likes to keep himself fit, does not drink or smoke, drives a Porsche and is considered to be sociopathic. A psychologist who visits the office to carry out a study of workplace stress describes Damien's personality as "completely stress-free. Psychotic, but stress-free". Some indication as to why Damien became the driven, amoral individual he is was provided when his mother, Professor Avril Day (Rosemary Martin), made a one-off appearance: she was a nuclear physicist who had unrealistically high expectations of her son, rarely if ever praised him and constantly pressured him to achieve. Damien gets his kicks from danger and excitement, and has virtually no interest in actual sex, except in one episode at the end of Series 4, in which he loses his virginity to a similarly danger-obsessed GlobeLink weather girl. Despite his high opinion of himself, Damien's frequent breaches of ethical standards do not go unnoticed by other stations and he fails job interviews in the final series. After going off to film a piece on an Amazonian tribe, Damien is made a God by the natives – who refuse to let him return to civilisation.
Dave Charnley (Neil Pearson) – Series One to Six – The deputy sub-editor and general dogsbody. As a compulsive womaniser and gambler, he gets on very well with Henry, owing to these shared interests, and Damien, owing to his willingness to bet on outrageously tasteless things. Dave also appears to have a very strong relationship with George and steadfastly supports him in editorial meetings and when the other characters get frustrated with him. Dave is often the one to ask George how he is despite the inevitable negative response and often goes for drinks with George. Dave and Henry have the only friendship that appears to significantly extend beyond the office, although it can occasionally turn volatile – usually over gambling matters or women. Dave runs a large number of office books and sweepstakes, although outside the office his gambling has landed him in debt to the tune of several tens of thousands of pounds. Dave has occasionally been very successful in his gambling but usually through his own actions manages to squander his good fortune. He is also addicted to one-night stands with married women, and sees any married female colleague or acquaintance as a challenge. These involvements rarely last long enough to qualify as affairs, since Dave seems to relish the chase. As a colleague put it, "[Dave doesn't] want to get involved with anyone who could conceivably want to get involved back." Although Dave clearly has the potential to be a highly competent professional, his career progress is continually hampered by these many weaknesses and addictions, and his generally irresponsible and childish behaviour. On rare occasions, however, Dave does develop real feelings for others. After seducing a drunken Helen – initially just for the challenge of winning over a lesbian – he finds that he has a genuine attraction to her, and it takes him some time to recover when she tells him that their brief fling has simply helped her to reassure her of her homosexuality. He also gets engaged – despite serious doubts – in series 5; however he is shocked when his fiancée breaks up with him, claiming she had had no idea he would get so serious. Dave became assistant to Henry on his radio show when they left GlobeLink in 1998.
Joy Merryweather (Susannah Doyle) – Series Two to Six – Joy Merryweather is entirely wrongly named; she is in no way joyful or merry. She began in series 2 as a cynical and surly personal assistant; in later series, she becomes increasingly aggressive and vindictive. There are a few occasions throughout the series when she shows sensitivity, however. Her beauty and ease in getting on with everybody when she's not being vindictive towards them makes her a key member of the team, with a weird sort of popularity, tinged with apprehension, and participates in all their schemes, sweepstakes, etc. George often remarks that she is the most-efficient production assistant GlobeLink has ever had. Joy began as a background character, intended to feed topical gags; however her popularity with audiences was such that she took an increasingly prominent role and eventually had a number of storylines of her own. Perhaps the most significant of these in terms of character development was the Series 5 episode The Graveyard Shift, in which it is revealed that her father, (already established as an alcoholic, and, according to Joy, "wanted to be Peter Stringfellow") abandoned the family; her mother "went from Valium addiction to nervous breakdown to attempted suicide," and all of her brothers and sisters were affected by psychological problems, (except, at least in her own mind, Joy herself); her brothers are named "Jolly" (who is in "Wormwood Scrubs") and "Happy", (who was "released into the care of the doorway"), and her sister's name is "Merrily" (who is "in a detox centre"). In the final series, Joy has much of her doodled artwork put on display as she looks set to find a new career – only to discover she is being conned by the man and apparent lover behind the exhibition, and gets revenge by tying him up and exhibiting him naked at one of her art exhibitions. Her best friend from childhood is a Buddhist. Joy's childhood nickname was "Flopsy", which she put an end to by force-feeding worms to the boys in question, an action she repeats when Dave and Damien decide to continue the practice.
Recurring characters
Sir Roysten Merchant — Sir Roysten Merchant is a wealthy businessman, unofficially based on a combination of Robert Maxwell and Rupert Murdoch – the initials RM are no coincidence – who buys out GlobeLink News in the first episode and remains the owner of the company throughout all six series. He is unseen on screen until a brief appearance in the final show, in which he is played by Roger Hammond and suggests that he does not know who Gus is. Sir Roysten is a terrifying figure, with a large business empire. He is also involved in housing, shipping, and sundry more shady enterprises which, based on the information that occasionally comes to attention of the GlobeLink News team, border on (if not specifically involve) the illegal. On buying the company Sir Roysten installs Gus Hedges (see above) to prevent any potentially damaging information being leaked out in news stories. Sir Roysten is a right-wing figure, supporting both Margaret Thatcher and John Major. However, when Major and the Conservative government begin to weaken from 1994, his support starts to shift, and with the Labour victory in 1997 Sir Roysten defects to Tony Blair. In private, it is known that Sir Roysten visits prostitutes, and that his wife, Lady Caroline, also has many affairs. He has a daughter, Octavia, who works for a brief time in the GlobeLink office, and a son, Roy Merchant Junior, who lives in fear of his father. Other offspring are not named, aside from one reference from Gus to a "Roystonia" — however no further information is provided. Persistent rumours circulate to the effect that Sir Royston's father, who was also a businessman, was a Nazi sympathiser and war profiteer. Sir Roysten has several pet rottweilers and an armed personal security team who guard his mansion.
Gerry (voiced by Andy Hamilton) – One of GlobeLink's outside broadcast cameraman, Gerry is regularly assigned to work with Damien and frequently suffers injuries and mishaps as a result. His footage would normally end with something unpleasant happening to Gerry, while Damien yells at him to keep filming. Gerry is an unseen character, but incidents are frequently shown from the point of view of his camera as it disappears down holes, off cliffs or into rivers. His only on-screen appearance (of sorts) is at the office Christmas party, but on this occasion he is covered head to toe in bandages. Gerry seems to have a decent sense of both morals and safety standards, but is usually over-ruled by a determined Damien.
Deborah Dent (Louisa Milwood-Haigh) — George's daughter, and one of the main problems at home. A juvenile delinquent, Deborah frequently runs away from home, steals cars and other vehicles (including a fully laden car transporter and an InterCity 125), sells drugs (George's prescription medication), sets fire to supply teachers, and attacks her school classmates with a pickaxe handle. She once attempted to sue her school for failing to provide her with an education – having previously burned the school buildings down; and on one occasion is mentioned as having found her way to a Middle East guerrilla training camp. She expresses love (as well as pity) for her father, and they bond in one episode over getting revenge on Damien by taking a hammer to his Porsche.
Chloe Cooper (Jocelyn Barker) — Helen's self-obsessed and attention-seeking daughter in several episodes. Helen, who worries constantly over the time she spends at work and away from her daughter, agonises over Chloe's upbringing and doubts her own abilities as a mother. She is particularly alarmed when she discovers that Chloe has written a school essay entitled "The Invisible Mummy". Chloe eventually admits, however, that she is entirely happy with arrangements at home and wrote the essay merely in an attempt to gain sympathy from a new teacher.
Alfred and Bernice Cooper (Geoffrey Hutchings & Paula Jacobs) — Helen's supposedly conservative parents, from whom she spends years concealing her lesbianism – even going to the extent of persuading Dave to impersonate her boyfriend while they visited for an evening. In Series 6, Helen's father dies, with Helen fearing the shock of him reading a letter from her admitting her sexuality will have killed him. But Helen discovers the letter was never sent and, when she comes out to her mother on the day of his funeral, finds out they had suspected she was a lesbian all along and their lives are not quite as conservative as Helen supposed...
Amanda (Saira Todd) — Helen's much-mentioned girlfriend in the later series. Her only on-screen appearance is in Series 5, where she arrives at the office while working as a despatch rider – a job she took to help pay for her university course, but which causes Helen some social embarrassment. The pair soon break up after a dinner at their house with Helen's friends from the office ends in disaster, but they are later back together. By the time Helen's own respectable career comes to its abrupt end, Amanda is running her own send-out snack delivery business, The Sarnie Army. She quickly offers Helen a job after the closure of GlobeLink in the final episode, and although Helen is initially reluctant to lower herself to such work, she finally swallows her pride and accepts.
Roy Merchant Jnr (David Troughton) — Sir Roysten's badly stammering, bullied, and reluctantly bullying son, sent by his father to the GlobeLink office to oversee the company's final hours. Roy, whose stammer is always at its worst when referring to Sir Roysten, reveals that he has been pitted against his siblings in a challenge: only the most ruthless will inherit the Merchant empire. Roy announces early in series 6 that GlobeLink News will close, after initially proposing to significantly cut the workforce..
Octavia Merchant (Hermione Norris) – appeared in the Series 2 episode "The Gulf Report" as a trainee reporter who becomes a love interest of Dave's. As usual with Dave it fizzles out quickly.
Lynn Yeats (Elizabeth Downes) — A reporter for a rival news company and Damien's nemesis. Lynn invariably arrives at disaster sites and warzones before Damien; she gets bigger and better stories; wins awards and generally manages to achieve everything Damien fails to achieve. Although Damien usually attributes her success to her greater resources and financial support, Lynn is simply more ruthless and unethical even than Damien himself. Damien also makes references to his bitterness towards real-life reporters such as Kate Adie.
Anna (Nina Marc) — A short-term love interest of George's, Anna is a Polish migrant seeking marriage to obtain a British passport and stay in the country. George, however, is convinced that she is the love of his life, though the rest of the staff try to persuade him of her true intentions. In an attempt to save George, Dave finally asks Anna to marry him, offering her a straightforward and honest arrangement rather than an exploitative marriage to the vulnerable George. Suspicious that Dave is trying to incriminate her, Anna instructs him to remove his clothes so she can ensure there is no hidden microphone. Dave complies, removing his trousers just as George enters the room, prompting George to end the relationship. Gus later made a proposition of marriage to her, so that she might stay in the country and he might find companionship, but Anna declined, saying that she had to draw the line somewhere. Rawle and Marc are married in real life.
Sir Gordon Miller (Melvyn Hayes) — When GlobeLink News is axed in Series 6, Sally starts to plunder the Sunday Times Rich List as her final career move. Eventually, she teams up with the miserly and dispassionate Sir Gordon, the 34th richest man in the world. The physically diminutive Sir Gordon is probably the most fleshed-out of the several recurring characters in the short Series 6. He is the epitome of a controlling husband, with a pre-nuptial agreement designed to iron out absolutely every future disagreement or opinion in his favour. Despite his coldness, Sally claims to have genuine feelings for him because, she says, he reminds her of her granny. She discloses to Helen that, actually, he does have a heart...and that, importantly for her ambitions, he also has a very severe heart condition.
Sue (Victoria Carling) — Sue is Henry's niece, with whom George develops a promising relationship in the final episodes of Series 6. She is kind, compassionate, calm and gentle: the polar opposite of George's highly emotional and manipulative ex-wife Margaret. Like George, Sue is an escapee from an unhappy marriage. Although George — due to his natural pessimism and lack of confidence — has to be prompted and encouraged every step of the way, their relationship blossoms, and they plan a new life together in Australia. However, Margaret, having suffered a heart attack and now looking to George to nurse her, seems determined to undermine their future. Despite George vowing to go to Australia with a woman who genuinely loves him, he opts to stay and look after Margaret.
Vivian Stanmore (James Bannon) — Modern-art gallery owner who decides to exhibit Joy's office sketches, assuring her that, despite her doubts, they are works of genius. Joy soon discovers that his seemingly attentive and thoughtful nature is simply the mask for an exploitative ruthlessness which he soon plans to turn on her. His final appearance is on a gallery pedestal, naked, gagged and bound, exhibited by Joy as a work called Naif Minimalism — a term he had smirkingly applied to her sketches while in discussion with an associate.
Wes Jasper (Neil Stuke) — Wes Jasper is a thinly disguised parody of Chris Evans, hosting what is clearly a very thinly disguised parody of TFI Friday, with an identical set, and the same "ridicule-the-punter" features. In an attempt to forge a post-GlobeLink career for himself in Series 6, Henry makes several appearances on this show as a sidekick for Wes. Dave Charnley is appalled and disappointed by his distinguished friend's fall in standards, but so is Henry himself. Torn by the conflict between the need for a job and the desire to recover his dignity, Henry is finally goaded into issuing a string of swearwords on air before the watershed (another regular feature of TFI) after being told to remove his wig live on air by Jasper. Although this outburst effectively ends Henry's television career, it helps him land a new role as a talk show host.
Jenny (Sara Stewart) — Joy's more easy-going predecessor as PA who appears several times in the first series. Her main contribution is to join Dave, Henry and Henry's great-nephew Jack on a night out and then apparently sleep with Jack – to the bemusement of Dave and Henry who have both failed to get anywhere with her, and Sally, who clearly fancied Jack. In a classic single-entendre, Sally snaps at Jenny, who asks "What's got into her?", to which Dave replies, "I think it's what's got into you that's got into her."
Scripting
Unusually for a sitcom, the show was topical, and was usually written and filmed in the week before broadcast. The writers commented that this made for a very natural style of acting. In most offices people normally converse while looking at monitors, clipboards or newspaper crosswords; the cast of the show reproduced this while actually cribbing their lines. Typically, the last scene was filmed either the day before or sometimes on the day of broadcast, and episodes concluded with audio-only dialogue or (in later series) an additional scene during the credits, which would usually involve topical references. The most frantic rewrite is said to have occurred when, on the day of filming, British media mogul Robert Maxwell drowned. (As the writers said in a later episode, "We don't want to go overboard with the story.") A number of politicians including Neil Kinnock and Ken Livingstone made guest appearances.
The humour, like that in a real newsroom, was often very black, as the writers did not shy away from sensitive subjects. A typical line (from Henry): "The ‘Troubles’ in Northern Ireland. What a bloody stupid phrase. What do they think two thousand people have died from? Stress?" The view of relationships in the programme is also very bleak: all the main characters have very unstable romantic lives, with no-one being happily married.
The series ended with GlobeLink being closed down, with Series 6 being spent with the main characters trying to plan their futures elsewhere (largely unsuccessfully). The format for the final series differed slightly from the previous five. As well as being shorter (seven episodes), far less emphasis was placed on the news than before (both in terms of topical references and stories covered in the newsroom). Instead, much of the focus was on where the main characters would be once GlobeLink closed, after an announcement in the second episode of the series. Several minor characters appeared over the course of a few episodes in the final series, whereas most previously had only been in single episodes.
The ending contradicted the novel Drop The Dead Donkey 2000 by Hamilton and Alistair Beaton (1994) , in which the company is almost destroyed in a bomb blast at the turn of the millennium.
Home media
Five compilation videos, each featuring three selected episodes of Drop The Dead Donkey, were released during the 1990s. There was also a sixth, called "The Writer's Choice", which featured six episodes plus 50 classic moments chosen by the writers Andy Hamilton and Guy Jenkin.
Volume 1
The Gulf Report (Series 2 Episode 1)
George's Daughter (Series 2 Episode 11)
The Christmas Party (Series 2 Episode 13)
Volume 2
Paintball (Series 3 Episode 9)
George and His Daughter (Series 3 Episode 10)
Awards (Series 3 Episode 11)
Volume 3
A New Dawn (Series 1 Episode 1)
Sally's Arrival (Series 1 Episode 2)
A Clash of Interests (Series 1 Episode 3)
Volume 4
In Place of Alex (Series 3 Episode 1)
Sally's Accountant (Series 3 Episode 2)
Sally's Libel (Series 3 Episode 5)
Volume 5
Henry's True Love (Series 3 Episode 3)
Sir Roysten's Wife (Series 3 Episode 6)
The New Newsreader (Series 3 Episode 7)
Volume 6 – "The Writer's Choice"
Sally's Viking (Series 1 Episode 6)
Baseball (Series 2 Episode 4)
Gus and the Grim Reaper (Series 4 Episode 1)
Helen's Fake Boyfriend (Series 4 Episode 5)
Damien's Virus (Series 6 Episode 5)
The Final Chapter (Series 6 Episode 7)
Between 2005 and 2007 VCI (UK, now part of 2 Entertain) released all six series on DVD, via their Cinema Club label. They were also collected into two box sets, featuring three series apiece. Extra features included the unaired pilot, and introductions and interviews with Andy Hamilton, Guy Jenkin and the cast. In 2015, all six series were re-released in a "Complete Series" box set by Spirit Entertainment.
Repeats
Repeats of the programme often appeared on Comedy Central Extra. Before the show starts, there is often a short review of the major news events which happened during the week of each episode's filming. Episodes on DVD compilations are introduced in the same way (although not for Series 6 when topical references were very limited).
All series are now available via Channel 4's All 4 service and the UK streaming service Britbox.
All episodes are available in the US on the online streaming service Acorn TV starting in December 2014.
See also
List of Drop the Dead Donkey episodes
Ballot Monkeys (2015) -similar topical satirical sitcom by the same writers set around the 2015 UK Election
Power Monkeys (2016) -similar topical satirical sitcom by the same writers set in 2016
The Day Today — sketch show satirising news programmes.
Broken News — satire on 24-hour rolling news.
NewsRadio — US sitcom set in a news radio station -though neither satirical nor topical.
Frontline — Australian satire of current-affairs news often compared to Drop the Dead Donkey.
Spitting Image — satirical puppet show satirising major public figures.
Murphy Brown — US sitcom with a similar premise.
Hot Metal — LWT sitcom satirising printed media.
The Newsroom – Canadian comedy/drama with a similar premise.
KYTV – Satire on the emerging satellite channels programming in the UK
References
Notes
External links
1990 British television series debuts
1998 British television series endings
1990s British satirical television series
1990s British sitcoms
1990s British workplace comedy television series
BAFTA winners (television series)
British workplace comedy television series
Channel 4 sitcoms
English-language television shows
Television news sitcoms
Television series about television
Television series by Hat Trick Productions
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208356
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text%20file
|
Text file
|
A text file (sometimes spelled textfile; an old alternative name is flatfile) is a kind of computer file that is structured as a sequence of lines of electronic text. A text file exists stored as data within a computer file system. In operating systems such as CP/M and MS-DOS, where the operating system does not keep track of the file size in bytes, the end of a text file is denoted by placing one or more special characters, known as an end-of-file marker, as padding after the last line in a text file. On modern operating systems such as Microsoft Windows and Unix-like systems, text files do not contain any special EOF character, because file systems on those operating systems keep track of the file size in bytes. Most text files need to have end-of-line delimiters, which are done in a few different ways depending on operating system. Some operating systems with record-orientated file systems may not use new line delimiters and will primarily store text files with lines separated as fixed or variable length records.
"Text file" refers to a type of container, while plain text refers to a type of content.
At a generic level of description, there are two kinds of computer files: text files and binary files.
Data storage
Because of their simplicity, text files are commonly used for storage of information. They avoid some of the problems encountered with other file formats, such as endianness, padding bytes, or differences in the number of bytes in a machine word. Further, when data corruption occurs in a text file, it is often easier to recover and continue processing the remaining contents. A disadvantage of text files is that they usually have a low entropy, meaning that the information occupies more storage than is strictly necessary.
A simple text file may need no additional metadata (other than knowledge of its character set) to assist the reader in interpretation. A text file may contain no data at all, which is a case of zero-byte file.
Encoding
The ASCII character set is the most common compatible subset of character sets for English-language text files, and is generally assumed to be the default file format in many situations. It covers American English, but for the British Pound sign, the Euro sign, or characters used outside English, a richer character set must be used. In many systems, this is chosen based on the default locale setting on the computer it is read on. Prior to UTF-8, this was traditionally single-byte encodings (such as ISO-8859-1 through ISO-8859-16) for European languages and wide character encodings for Asian languages.
Because encodings necessarily have only a limited repertoire of characters, often very small, many are only usable to represent text in a limited subset of human languages. Unicode is an attempt to create a common standard for representing all known languages, and most known character sets are subsets of the very large Unicode character set. Although there are multiple character encodings available for Unicode, the most common is UTF-8, which has the advantage of being backwards-compatible with ASCII; that is, every ASCII text file is also a UTF-8 text file with identical meaning. UTF-8 also has the advantage that it is easily auto-detectable. Thus, a common operating mode of UTF-8 capable software, when opening files of unknown encoding, is to try UTF-8 first and fall back to a locale dependent legacy encoding when it definitely isn't UTF-8.
Formats
On most operating systems the name text file refers to file format that allows only plain text content with very little formatting (e.g., no bold or italic types). Such files can be viewed and edited on text terminals or in simple text editors. Text files usually have the MIME type text/plain, usually with additional information indicating an encoding.
Microsoft Windows text files
MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows use a common text file format, with each line of text separated by a two-character combination: carriage return (CR) and line feed (LF). It is common for the last line of text not to be terminated with a CR-LF marker, and many text editors (including Notepad) do not automatically insert one on the last line.
On Microsoft Windows operating systems, a file is regarded as a text file if the suffix of the name of the file (the "filename extension") is .txt. However, many other suffixes are used for text files with specific purposes. For example, source code for computer programs is usually kept in text files that have file name suffixes indicating the programming language in which the source is written.
Most Microsoft Windows text files use "ANSI", "OEM", "Unicode" or "UTF-8" encoding. What Microsoft Windows terminology calls "ANSI encodings" are usually single-byte ISO/IEC 8859 encodings (i.e. ANSI in the Microsoft Notepad menus is really "System Code Page", non-Unicode, legacy encoding), except for in locales such as Chinese, Japanese and Korean that require double-byte character sets. ANSI encodings were traditionally used as default system locales within Microsoft Windows, before the transition to Unicode. By contrast, OEM encodings, also known as DOS code pages, were defined by IBM for use in the original IBM PC text mode display system. They typically include graphical and line-drawing characters common in DOS applications. "Unicode"-encoded Microsoft Windows text files contain text in UTF-16 Unicode Transformation Format. Such files normally begin with Byte Order Mark (BOM), which communicates the endianness of the file content. Although UTF-8 does not suffer from endianness problems, many Microsoft Windows programs (i.e. Notepad) prepend the contents of UTF-8-encoded files with BOM, to differentiate UTF-8 encoding from other 8-bit encodings.
Unix text files
On Unix-like operating systems text files format is precisely described: POSIX defines a text file as a file that contains characters organized into zero or more lines, where lines are sequences of zero or more non-newline characters plus a terminating newline character, normally LF.
Additionally, POSIX defines a as a text file whose characters are printable or space or backspace according to regional rules. This excludes most control characters, which are not printable.
Apple Macintosh text files
Prior to the advent of macOS, the classic Mac OS system regarded the content of a file (the data fork) to be a text file when its resource fork indicated that the type of the file was "TEXT". Lines of Macintosh text files are terminated with CR characters.
Being certified Unix, macOS uses POSIX format for text files. Uniform Type Identifier (UTI) used for text files in macOS is "public.plain-text"; additional, more specific UTIs are: "public.utf8-plain-text" for utf-8-encoded text, "public.utf16-external-plain-text" and "public.utf16-plain-text" for utf-16-encoded text and "com.apple.traditional-mac-plain-text" for classic Mac OS text files.
Rendering
When opened by a text editor, human-readable content is presented to the user. This often consists of the file's plain text visible to the user. Depending on the application, control codes may be rendered either as literal instructions acted upon by the editor, or as visible escape characters that can be edited as plain text. Though there may be plain text in a text file, control characters within the file (especially the end-of-file character) can render the plain text unseen by a particular method.
See also
ASCII
EBCDIC
Filename extension
List of file formats
Newline
Syntax highlighting
Text editor
Unicode
Notes and references
External links
C2: the Power of Plain Text
Computer data
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentine%20National%20Anthem
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Argentine National Anthem
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The "Argentine National Anthem" (); is the national anthem of Argentina. Its lyrics were written by the Buenos Aires-born politician Vicente López y Planes and the music was composed by the Spanish musician Blas Parera. The work was adopted as the sole official song on May 11, 1813, three years after the May Revolution; May 11 is therefore now Anthem Day in Argentina.
Some first, quite different, anthems were composed from 1810; a version was then introduced in 1813 which was used throughout the nineteenth century. What is now officially codified as the state's national anthem is shorter than the original composition and comprises only the first and last verses and the chorus of the 1813 Patriotic March, omitting much emotional text about the struggle for independence from Spain (with strong arms they tear to pieces the arrogant Iberian lion).
Etymology
The third Argentine national anthem was originally named "" (), later renamed "" (), and then "" (). It has been called "Himno Nacional Argentino" since it was published with that name in 1847.
History
The first Argentine national anthem was the "Patriotic March", published on 15 November 1810 in the . It had lyrics by Esteban de Luca and music by Blas Parera. This original composition made no reference to the name of Argentina (the country was not formally named "República Argentina" until 1826, although it was referred to as such) or an independentist will, and talked instead about Spain being conquered by France in the Peninsular War, the absolutist restoration begun by the Council of Regency, and the need to keep the republican freedoms achieved so far in the Americas: "Spain was victim / of the plotting Gaul / because to the tyrants / she bent her neck / If there treachery / has doomed a thousands cities / let sacred freedom and union reign here / Let the father to the sons / be able to say / enjoy rights / that I did not enjoy".
In mid-1812, the ruling triumvirate ordered the Buenos Aires Cabildo to commission a national anthem. Cayetano Rodríguez, a Franciscan friar, wrote a text that was approved on 4 August. The Catalan musician Blas Parera, music director of the local theater, set it to music and performed it for the first time with the orchestra he conducted on 1 November.
Less than a year later the Assembly of Year XIII estimated that the song was not effective enough to serve as a national anthem. On 6 March 1813 several poets were asked to submit lyrics. The poem by the lawyer Vicente López y Planes was unanimously considered the best. It was approved as the "sole national march" () on May 11, 1813. Parera was asked to compose a new musical setting around the same date. He must have finished the piece in a few days. Oral tradition has it that the premiere took place on May 14, 1813, at the home of the aristocrat Mariquita Sánchez de Thompson, but there is no documentary evidence of that. If this is true, then Parera, contrary to certain misconceptions, wrote quickly and under no visible coercion. The published song sheet is dated 14 May 1813. He again conducted the official premiere in the theater on May 28, and was paid 200 pesos.
The composition was then known as (National Patriotic Song), and later simply as (Patriotic Song), but in Juan Pedro Esnaola's early arrangement, dated around 1848, it appeared under the title , and the name has been retained until today. In the complete version of the Anthem of May (as was christened by López) it is noted that the political vision portrayed is not only Argentine, but Latin American. The lyrics are ardently pro-independence and anti-Spanish, as the country was at that time fighting for its independence from Spain.
The song became popular immediately. Within ten years documented performances took place throughout Argentina, and also in Chile, Peru, and Colombia until they had their own national anthems. Different versions emerged, making mass singing difficult; several reforms were then proposed. In 1860 Esnaola was commissioned to create an official version. He took the task to heart, making many changes to the music, including a slower tempo, a fuller texture, alterations to the melody, and enrichment of the harmony. In 1927 a committee produced a historicist version that undid several of Esnaola's changes, but introduced new problems in the sung line. After a heated public debate fueled by the newspaper , this version was rejected and, following the recommendations of a second committee, Esnaola's arrangement was officially reinstated. In 1944 it was confirmed as the official state anthem.
Throughout the 19th century the anthem was sung in its entirety. However, once harsh feelings against Spain had dissipated, and the country had become home to many Spanish immigrants, a modification was introduced by a decree of President Julio Argentino Roca on March 30, 1900:
Controversy
The song includes a line that has given rise to controversy: Buenos--Ayres se [o]pone á la frente De los pueblos de la ínclita union. In the manuscript and an early printed song-sheet the word opone is used; a slightly later version of the song-sheet correcting obvious errors such as spelling mistakes was issued with the same date of 14 May 1813, but with opone changed to pone. The meaning reverses: "Buenos Aires opposes the front of the people of the union" to "Buenos Aires positions itself at the front ...". The original opone has been interpreted as advancing part of the centralist views in Buenos Aires, but has also been considered a "tragical misprint". In many other lines the anthem goes beyond the Argentine theater of the Spanish American wars of independence and references events in Mexico, Central America, Northern South America, and Upper Peru. The growing ideas of independence are reflected in lines such as "On the surface of the earth rises a glorious new nation, her head is crowned with laurels, and a Lion lies defeated at her feet". This portrays not just Spanish absolutism, but Spain itself, as the enemy.
The words strongly attacking Spain were no longer sung.
Usage
Performance of the national anthem is mandatory during all official events, and Argentines in attendance are expected to stand up and sing it. Radio broadcasters voluntarily perform the anthem at midnight, while TV channels do so before closing down their daily broadcast. On national holidays, it is mandatory to perform the national anthem at midnight.
The national anthem is ruled in Argentine law by Decree 10302/1944.
The rock musician Charly García broke legal regulations dealing with the reproduction of the song when he included an idiosyncratic cover version in his 1990 album , stirring much controversy. In 1998 various Argentine artists reedited the anthem and other patriotic songs in the joint album . Other singers followed on their footsteps recreating the piece in their own ways.
A line from the original version of the national anthem was used as the Argentine title of the 1928 film known in English as The Charge of the Gauchos.
The national anthem appears at the beginning of the 1985 film The Official Story, an Academy Award winner.
Short instrumental versions
Due to the excessive length of the official version, in international events such as the Olympic Games, professional soccer games, and the Rugby World Cup, only the instrumental introduction (which lasts 1 minute 6 seconds) is played. Another variation is to play the instrumental introductory section followed by the last three lines (with the third line repeated), or the musical break that leads into the chorus, the chorus itself, and the coda. Although traditional, these arrangements are not recognized by Argentine law.
The length of this anthem is said in episode three of season two of Yes Prime Minister to be about six minutes.
Lyrics
Modern version
The following is the modern version, adopted in 1924, omitting the long anti-Spanish middle section.
Full lyrics
References
External links
Argentina: Himno Nacional Argentino - Audio of the national anthem of Argentina, with information and lyrics
Argentine National Anthem MP3
Argentine National Anthem (vocal) MP3
Argentine National Anthem MP3
Argentine National Anthem with English subtitles on YouTube.
Listen in the Quechua language
Argentine National Anthem Upade Radio broadcast Television Versión.
National symbols of Argentina
Argentina
Spanish-language songs
1810s songs
National anthems
National anthem compositions in B-flat major
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban%20Chiang
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Ban Chiang
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Ban Chiang (, ) is an archaeological site in Nong Han District, Udon Thani Province, Thailand. It has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1992. Discovered in 1966, the site first attracted interest due to its ancient red-painted pottery. More recently. it gained international attention in 2008 when the United States Department of Justice, following an undercover investigation begun in 2003, raided several museums for their role in trafficking in Ban Chiang antiquities.
Discovery
Villagers had uncovered some of the pottery in prior years without insight into their age or historical importance. In August 1966, Steve Young, a political science student at Harvard College, was living in the village conducting interviews for his senior honors thesis. Young, a speaker of Thai, was familiar with the work of Wilhelm G. Solheim and his theory of the possible ancient origins of civilization in Southeast Asia. One day while walking down a path in Ban Chiang with his assistant, an art teacher at the village school, Young tripped over the root of a kapok tree and fell on his face in the dirt path. Under him were the exposed tops of small and medium-sized pottery jars. Young recognized that the unglazed earthenware pots had been low-fired and were quite old, but that the designs applied to the surface of the vessels were unique. He took samples of pots to Princess Phanthip Chumbote who at the private museum of Suan Pakkad Palace in Bangkok and to Chin Yu Di of the Thai Government's Fine Arts Department. Later, Elisabeth Lyons, an art historian on the staff of the Ford Foundation, sent potsherds from Ban Chiang to the University of Pennsylvania for dating. Unfortunately, the early publicity, the beauty of the pots, and the belief that the pots were several thousands of years old led to avid collecting and consequent avid looting by the villagers.
Archaeology
The Fine Arts Department of Thailand conducted several small excavations during the 1960s and early 1970s. These excavations revealed skeletons, bronze artifacts and a wealth of pots. Rice fragments were also found, leading to the belief that the Bronze Age settlers were probably farmers. The site's oldest graves do not include bronze artifacts and are therefore from a Neolithic culture; the most recent graves date to the Iron Age.
The 1974-1975 excavations
The first intensive excavation of Ban Chiang was a joint effort by the University of Pennsylvania Museum and the Thai Department of Fine Arts, with co-directors Chester Gorman and Pisit Charoenwongsa. The aim was not only to investigate the site but to train Thai and western archaeologists in the latest techniques. Because of the looting, they had difficulty finding undisturbed areas to excavate, but settled on two areas 100 meters apart. The locales proved to be far richer in finds than expected, and the distinctive red-on-buff pottery that had excited so much interest proved to be quite late (300 B.C.– AD 200), with many levels of equally noteworthy pottery and other cultural remains beneath them. More exciting, the excavations uncovered crucibles and other evidence of metal working, showing that the villagers of Ban Chiang from an early stage manufactured their own metal artifacts rather than simply importing them from elsewhere. Recovered bronze objects include bracelets, rings, anklets, wires and rods, spearheads, axes and adzes, hooks, blades, and little bells. After the two seasons of excavation, six tons of pottery, stone, and metal artifacts were shipped to the University of Pennsylvania Museum for analysis. The early death of Chet Gorman in 1981, at the age of 43, slowed the process of analysis and publication.
This site has often been called a "cemetery site", but research has suggested that the deceased were buried next to or beneath dwellings. This practice is called residential burial.
Lifestyle as revealed by human remains
At least 142 discrete burials were found in the 1974-1975 excavations. Analysis of the human remains by Michael Pietrusewsky and Michele Toomay Douglas revealed that the people lived a vigorous and active lifestyle with little evidence of interpersonal violence or any form of warfare.The subsistence was based on mixed agricultural/hunting/gathering economy, co-occurring with metallurgy. The conclusion that the centuries-long occupation of the site was largely peaceful is bolstered by the lack of metal weapons.
Dating the artifacts
The excavation at Ban Chiang in 1974–1975 was followed by an article by Chester Gorman and Pisit Charoenwongsa, claiming evidence for the earliest dates in the world for bronze casting and iron working. Subsequent excavations, including that at Ban Non Wat, have now shown that the proposed early dates for Ban Chiang are unlikely. The first datings of the artifacts used the thermoluminescence technique, resulting in a range from 4420–3400 BCE, which would have made the site the earliest Bronze Age culture in the world. These dates stirred world-wide interest. Thermoluminescence dating of pottery was at the time an experimental technique and had been applied to Ban Chiang sherds of uncertain provenance. However, with the 1974–1975 excavation, sufficient material became available for radiocarbon dating. Reanalysis by radiocarbon dating suggested that a more likely date for the earliest metallurgy at Ban Chiang was c. 2000–1700 BCE. A date of 2100 BCE was obtained from rice phytoliths taken from inside a grave vessel of the lowest grave, which had no metal remains. The youngest grave was about 200 CE. Bronze making began circa 2000 BCE, as evidenced by crucibles and bronze fragments. A contrasting analysis was conducted by Charles Higham of the University of Otago using the bones from the people who lived at Ban Chiang and the bones of animals interred with them. The resulting determinations were analyzed using Bayesian statistics and the results suggested that the initial settlement of Ban Chiang took place about 1500 BCE, with the transition to the Bronze Age about 1000 BCE. The chronology of Ban Chiang metallurgy is still in considerable dispute.
Metallurgy
Ban Chiang, along with other surrounding villages in northeast Thailand, contains many bronze artifacts that demonstrate that metallurgy had been practiced in small, village settings nearly four thousand years ago. This is of interest to archaeologists, as ancient Southeast Asian metallurgy flourished without the presence of a militaristic or urbanized state, unlike many other ancient societies that had mastered metallurgy.
Dr Joyce White and Elizabeth Hamilton co-authored a four-volume Ban Chiang metals monograph, the most extensive of its kind in Ban Chiang scholarship. The work presents metals and related evidence from the site as well as three other sites in northeast Thailand: Ban Tong, Ban Phak Top, and Don Klang. It is the second installment in the Thai Archaeology Monograph Series, published by the University of Pennsylvania Press and distributed for the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
In the monograph, White and Hamilton catalogue and classify metal artifacts as well as contribute to the Ban Chiang chronology discourse. They analyzed the metals comprehensively through innovative technological perspectives in order to understand ancient metals in their social contexts. To do this, they make systematic assessments by typological range, variation in metal composition and manufacturing techniques, evidence for on-site production activities, and contextual evidence for deposition of metal finds. White and Hamilton also write that regional variation in metalworker know-how and choices can reveal past networks of communities of metallurgical practice that could have important ramifications for economic and social networks of the time as well as how those changed over time. One of their major findings is that most copper alloy products were cast in local villages and not at large centralized workshops.
White, a leading scholar on Ban Chiang, directs an organization, the Institute of Southeast Asian Archaeology (ISEAA), that manages the Ban Chiang Project at the University of Pennsylvania Museum. The project runs an open access metals database that presents the data on metal and metal-related artifacts found at Ban Chiang and surrounding sites. The metal artifacts are classified into nine groups: bangles, adzes/tillers, blades, points, bells, wires/rods, flat, amorphous, and miscellaneous. The three metal-related groups are crucibles, molds, and slag. The metals database also records the time period in which the artifacts were created and the technical analyses performed on each artifact.
UNESCO World Heritage status
The site itself was declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1992 under criteria iii, which describes a site that "bear[s] a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living or has disappeared."
The Ban Chiang National Museum
The site has been increasingly attractive to Thai and international tourists, an interest fostered by a site museum that has continually upgraded its buildings and exhibitions about the site, its discovery, and archaeological interpretation, as well as the history of interest in the site by the Thai royal family. The museum includes an accurate open pit recreation of the excavation at a temple some 700 meters away called Wat Pho Si Mai, with the Ban Chiang Culture artifacts and simulated skeletons displayed as they appeared during excavation. Included in the museum's collection is the traveling exhibit curated by Dr White, titled Ban Chiang, Discovery of a Lost Bronze Age, which toured internationally following the 1974-75 Penn Museum excavations and became part of the Ban Chiang Museum permanent exhibit in 1987. The museum includes "displays and information that highlight the three main periods and six sub-periods" as well as the site's general and excavation history. Artifacts from the museum are also displayed in a Virtual Museum website. The site and museum have been reviewed by several travel publications, including CNN, TripAdvisor, and the official tourism site of Thailand.
This tourist traffic in turn has had a profound impact on the village economy, with several small shops and restaurants developing near the museum.
US legal case
The site made headlines in January 2008, when thousands of artifacts from the Ban Chiang and other prehistoric sites in Thailand were found to be in the collections of at least five California museums, including the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Mingei International Museum, the Pacific Asian Museum, the Charles W. Bowers Museum, and the UC Berkeley Art Museum. The complex plot functioned as a crime ring and involved smuggling the items out of Thailand into the US, and then donating them to museums in order to claim tax write-offs. There were said to be more items in US museums than at the site itself.
The case was brought to light during 13 high-profile raids conducted by federal law enforcement officers on various California and Chicago museums, shops, warehouses, and homes of private art collectors; it was the culmination of a five-year federal undercover investigation called Operation Antiquity. A National Park Service special agent had posed as a private collector and documented the case. The agent bought looted antiquities from two art dealers and donated them to various California art museums like the ones listed above. He found that museum officials had "varying degrees of knowledge about the antiquities' provenance" and agreed to the donations. In total, the federal government seized more than 10,000 looted artifacts, many of which were from Ban Chiang.
The alleged smuggler of the trafficking plot imported all the Southeast Asian antiquities illegally. He entered the business during a 1970s trip to Thailand, buying antiquities from Thai middlemen and flipping the items to California museums for a small profit. His frequent clients included Beverly Hills home decor shops and private art galleries like the Silk Road Gallery. Based on the smuggler's interactions with the undercover agent, federal agents obtained warrants to search the 13 properties that held the looted artifacts. The smuggler was arraigned in court in 2013 and pleaded not guilty and his trial was scheduled for November 2016, but was continued numerous times until he died in May 2017. Other alleged major players in the trafficking ring died of various causes before ever going to trial.
However, the case still yielded fruitful results, including convictions. Jonathan and Cari Markell, owners of the Silk Road Gallery, pleaded guilty to antiquities trafficking charges in 2015. Jonathan Markell was sentenced to 18 months in prison for trafficking looted archaeological artifacts and falsifying documents, as well as a year of supervised probation. The couple was also sentenced to three years of unsupervised probation for tax evasion. Additionally, they were fined approximately US$2,000 restitution and must pay to ship more than 300 artifacts seized from their home and shuttered gallery back to Southeast Asia at an estimated cost of US$25,000.
Some of the museums discovered to possess trafficked and looted artifacts have returned them to Thailand. The Mingei International Museum has repatriated 68 artifacts, while the Bowers Museum has returned 542 vases, bowls, and other objects. By doing so, the museums avoided prosecution. The Markells themselves are expected to give back 337 antiquities as part of their sentencing agreement. The Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the Pacific Asia Museum, and the UC Berkeley Art Museum are also expected to repatriate stolen goods. This case is nationally significant for two major reasons: it was a US government-led crackdown, as opposed to being a result of complaints by foreign governments, and it also set a higher standard of accountability for museum officials who deal with cultural property, in accordance with the National Stolen Property Act and Archaeological Resources Protection Act.
See also
Ban Non Wat Archaeological Site
Dong Son culture
Luoyue people
Notes
After Dr. Gorman's death in 1981, Dr. Joyce White continued research and publications as Director of the Ban Chiang Project at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Dr. White's research endeavors have included analysis and publication of Penn's excavations at Ban Chiang in Thailand in the mid-1970s; ecological field research at Ban Chiang in 1978–1981 including investigations of how local people identified and used plants; lake coring and ecological mapping for palaeoenvironmental research in several parts of Thailand during the 1990s; and, since 2001, survey and excavation in northern Laos, especially in Luang Prabang Province. For Ban Chiang, White, along with Elizabeth Hamilton, has published a monograph through the University of Pennsylvania Press on the ancient metallurgy of Ban Chiang and nearby sites. The last of the four volumes was published in 2021.
References
Further reading
Higham, Charles, Prehistoric Thailand, , pp 84–88
Higham C.F.W. and T.F.G. Higham 2009. A new chronological framework for prehistoric Southeast Asia, based on a Bayesian model from Ban Non Wat. Antiquity 82:1-20.
Higham C.F.W. 2011. The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia: new insight on social change from Ban Non Wat. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 21(3): 365-89
Higham C.F.W., R. Ciarla, T.F.G. Higham, A. Kijngam and F. Rispoli 2011. The establishment of the Bronze Age in Southeast Asia. Journal of World Prehistory, 24 (4),227-274:
Higham C.F.W., T.F.G. Higham and A. Kijngam 2011. Cutting a Gordian Knot: The Bronze Age of Southeast Asia, timing, origins and impact. Antiquity 85:583-98.
White, J.C. and Hamilton, E. G. 2009. The Transmission of Early Bronze Technology to Thailand: New Perspectives World Prehistory (2009) Vol. 22. Pp 357–397
White, J.C. (1995). Incorporating Heterarchy into Theory on Socio‐political Development: The Case from Southeast Asia. Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, 6(1), 101-123.
White, Joyce and Hamilton, Elizabeth (2018), Ban Chiang, Northeast Thailand, Volume 2A: Background to the Study of the Metal Remains, , University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
White, Joyce and Hamilton, Elizabeth (2019), Ban Chiang, Northeast Thailand, Volume 2B: Metals and Related Evidence from Ban Chiang, Ban Tong, Ban Phak Top, and Don Klang, , University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
White, Joyce and Hamilton, Elizabeth, eds. (2019), Ban Chiang, Northeast Thailand, Volume 2C: The Metal Remains in Regional Context. , University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
White, Joyce and Hamilton, Elizabeth (2021), Ban Chiang, Northeast Thailand, Volume 2D: Catalogs for Metals and Related Remains from Ban Chiang, Ban Tong, Ban Phak Top, and Don Klang. ,University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.
</ref>
External links
This Ancient Land of Dinosaurs, Siamoid, Siamese, and Thais Part III
The Ban Chiang Smuggling Case
https://iseaarchaeology.org/ban-chiang-project/
UNESCO world heritage listing
Archaeological sites in Thailand
Bronze Age Asia
Geography of Udon Thani province
World Heritage Sites in Thailand
Prehistoric Thailand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corby
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Corby
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Corby is a town in North Northamptonshire, England, located north-east of Northampton. From 1974 to 2021, the town served as the administrative headquarters of the Borough of Corby. At the 2011 Census, the built-up area had a population of 56,810, while the borough, which was abolished in 2021, had a population of 61,255.
Figures released in March 2010 revealed that Corby has the fastest growing population in both Northamptonshire and the whole of England. The town was at one time known locally as "Little Scotland" due to the large number of Scottish workers who came to Corby for its steelworks. Recently, Corby has undergone a large regeneration process with the opening of Corby railway station and Corby International Pool in 2009 and the Corby Cube in 2010. The Cube was home to the (former) Corby Borough Council offices and also houses a 450-seat theatre, a public library and other community amenities.
History
Early history
Mesolithic and Neolithic artefacts have been found in the area surrounding Corby and human remains dating to the Bronze Age were found in 1970 at Cowthick. The first evidence of permanent settlement comes from the 8th century when Danish invaders arrived and the settlement became known as "Kori's by" – Kori's settlement. The settlement was recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as "Corbei". Corby's emblem, the raven, derives from an alternative meaning of this word. These Danish roots were recognised in the naming of the most southern of the town's housing estates, Danesholme, around which one of the Danish settlements was located.
Corby was granted the right to hold two annual fairs and a market by Henry III in 1226. In 1568 Corby was granted a charter by Elizabeth I that exempted local landowners from tolls (the fee paid by travellers to use the long-distance public roads), dues (an early form of income tax) and gave all men the right to refuse to serve in the local militia. A popular legend is that the Queen was hunting in Rockingham Forest when she (dependent on the legend) either fell from her horse or became trapped in a bog whilst riding. Upon being rescued by villagers from Corby she granted the charter in gratitude for her rescue. Another popular explanation is that it was granted as a favour to her alleged lover Sir Christopher Hatton.
Corby Pole Fair
The Corby Pole Fair is an event that has taken place every 20 years since 1862 in celebration of the charter. According to a newspaper report dated 14 June 1862 which focuses on the extravagances of the fair, the fugitive slave John Anderson was described as being educated in the Corby British School, giving the town an unusual link to slavery in the United States.
The next pole fair will be held on Friday, 3 June 2022, to coincide with The Queen's Platinum Jubilee celebrations.
From rural village to industrial town
The local area has been worked for iron ore since Roman times. An ironstone industry developed in the 19th century with the coming of the railways and the discovery of extensive ironstone beds. By 1910 an ironstone works had been established. In 1931 Corby was a small village with a population of around 1,500. It grew rapidly into a reasonably sized industrial town, when the owners of the ironstone works, the steel firm Stewarts & Lloyds, decided to build a large integrated ironstone and steel works on the site. The start of construction in 1934 drew workers from all over the country including many workers from the depressed west of Scotland and Irish labourers. The first steel was produced in October 1935 and for decades afterwards the steel works dominated the town. By 1939 the population had grown to around 12,000, at which time Corby was thought to be the largest "village" in the country, but it was at that point that Corby was re-designated an urban district (see the Local Government section below).
1940s and 1950s
During the Second World War the Corby steelworks were expected to be a target for German bombers but in the event there were only a few bombs dropped by solitary planes and there were no casualties. This may be because the whole area was blanketed in huge dense black, low-lying clouds created artificially by the intentional burning of oil and latex to hide the glowing Bessemer converter furnaces at the steelworks from German bomber crews. The only known remaining scars from German attacks can be found in the form of bullet holes visible on the front fascia of the old post office in Corby village (now known as Decades bar and restaurant). The Corby steelworks made a notable contribution to the war effort by manufacturing the steel tubes used in Operation Pluto (Pipe Line Under the Ocean) to supply fuel to Allied forces on the European continent.
In 1950, with a population of 18,000, Corby was designated a New Town with William Holford as its architect. By 1951, he prepared the development plan with a car oriented layout and many areas of open space and woodland. In 1952, Holford produced the town centre plan and in 1954 the layout for the first 500 houses. The town now underwent its second wave of expansion, mainly from Scotland. Corby is famous for its Scottish heritage based on decades of incoming steel workers and was for a time known locally as "Little Scotland".
Decline of the steel industry
In 1967 the British steel industry was nationalised and the Stewarts & Lloyds steel tube works at Corby became part of British Steel Corporation. The Government approved a ten-year development strategy with expenditure of £3,000 million from 1973 onwards, the objective of which was to convert BSC from a large number of small scale works, using largely obsolete equipment, to a far more compact organisation with highly competitive plant.
Steelmaking was to be concentrated in five main areas: South Wales, Sheffield, Scunthorpe, Teesside and Scotland, most of which are coastal sites with access to economic supplies of iron rich imported ores. It was not until 1975 that a closure programme was agreed after a 14-month review by Lord Beswick, the then Minister of State for Industry. Corby was not one of the Beswick Plants that were to close in the review. By this time BSC was plunging into loss and important parts of the investment programme was held back. The European Union, Davignon Plan, had also asked for Steel Capacity in Europe to be significantly reduced. In May 1979, the New Conservative Governments Minister, Sir Keith Joseph announced the closure of Corby Steelworks. By the end of 1981 over 5,000 jobs had been lost from British Steel in Corby, and further cuts took the total loss to 11,000 jobs, leading to an unemployment rate of over 30%. Steel tube making continued, however, initially being supplied with steel by rail from Teesside and later from South Wales.
The title track of Steeltown by Big Country is about the loss of jobs in Corby.
Redevelopment
Corby was designated as a new town in 1950. Most of the housing in the town has been built since this date. The first new street completed was Bessemer Grove, about the same time that the re-built blast furnace was lit. New industry was subsequently attracted to the town when the Thatcher government designated it as an Enterprise Zone. By 1991 unemployment had returned to the national average. The recovery of Corby was explained in 1990 by John Redwood, then a junior minister in the Department of Trade and Industry, as being a result of the establishment of the Enterprise Zone, the promotion of Corby by the Thatcher government, the work of private investors and the skills of the work force. Others believe the town's recovery was significantly assisted by its central location and substantial grants from the EU. The enterprise zone was promoted by the Corby Industrial Development Centre through a prospectus that parodied The Economist, titled The Ecorbyist; publication continued at least as late as 1994.
To the north of Corby, on the industrial estates, is a 350MW power station built in 1994; and the Rockingham Motor Speedway built in 2001.
Politics
The Corby constituency contains parts of traditionally Conservative East Northamptonshire that balance the traditionally Labour town of Corby leading to a marginal constituency that has gone to the party forming the UK Government at every general election since the creation of the constituency in 1983. At the 2005 general election, Labour won Corby with a majority of just over 1,000 votes. At the 2010 general election, the sitting Labour MP Phil Hope lost the seat to writer Louise Bagshawe, the Conservative Party candidate, who became Louise Mensch after her marriage the following year.
In 2012, Mensch resigned as an MP and the resulting by-election was won by Labour's Andy Sawford with a majority of 7,791 votes over the Conservatives. UKIP finished in third place whilst the Liberal Democrats finished in fourth place, losing their deposit. The by-election was of national and international media interest due to the constituency being a marginal seat. During the wait for the results announcement, "Corby" briefly trended worldwide on Twitter.
The Conservatives took back the Corby constituency from Labour in 2015, with Conservative Tom Pursglove defeating Labour's Andy Sawford by a majority of 2,412 votes.
In local politics, the now abolished Corby Borough Council was controlled by the Labour Party since 1979. In 2015, the council had 24 Labour representatives and 5 Conservatives.
On 8 December 2014, Northamptonshire Police began an investigation into financial dealings by Corby Borough Council. In July 2013, Conservative councillors Rob McKellar and David Sims handed the "suspicious" findings of an audit report to the police to see if a crime had been committed. The audit report examined four major projects, including the Corby Cube, the cost of which went from £35m to £47m.
In the 2016 referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union, Corby voted 64% in favour of leaving whilst only 36% voted to remain in the EU. The turnout was 74.1% with the leave vote winning with a majority of 9,141 votes. The constituency's Conservative MP at the time, Tom Pursglove, had also been in favour of the UK leaving the European Union being one of the founders of Grassroots Out, the pro-Brexit organisation largely supported by Conservative and UKIP politicians.
Corby used to have 15 wards at the time of the 2011 census however following a boundary change only 11 remained. Some entirely new wards were created in the change however the Beanfield, Central, Danesholme, Rowlett, Rural West, Stanion and Corby Village, Weldon and Gretton and Lodge Park wards remained in existence. On the 1 April 2021, the Corby Borough Council was abolished and the Town of Corby now has 4 wards in the Town Council which are Oakley, Corby West, Kingswood and Hazel Lees and Lloyds, and 5 wards in the Unitary Authority which includes the Town Wards as well as incorporating the surrounding parishes into Corby Rural.
In March 2018, following Northamptonshire County Council becoming insolvent, due to financial and cultural mismanagement by the cabinet and officers, the then Secretary of State for Local Government, Sajid Javid, sent commissioner Max Caller into the council, who recommended the county council and all district and borough councils in the county be abolished, and replaced by two unitary authorities, one covering the West, and one the North of the county. These proposals were approved in April 2019. It meant that the districts of Daventry, Northampton and South Northamptonshire were merged to form a new unitary authority called West Northamptonshire, whilst the second unitary authority North Northamptonshire consists of the former Corby, East Northamptonshire, Kettering and Wellingborough districts. These new authorities came into being on 1 April 2021. Elections for the new authorities were due to be held on 7 May 2020, but were delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and were instead held on 6 May 2021.
In the Local Elections on 6 May 2021, Corby returned 12 Labour Councillors and 3 Conservative Councillors across 5 wards, with the Conservatives only being elected in the Rural Ward. The newly created Corby Town Council returned 17 Labour Councillors across 4 Wards, which are all the seats on the Corby Town Council. The Leader of the Corby Town Council is Councillor Matt Keane, its Deputy Leader is Councillor Mark Pengelly, its first Town Council Mayor is Councillor Lawrence Ferguson and its first Town Council Deupty Mayor is Councillor Tafadzwa Chikoto.
City status bid
In 2012, Corby bid to gain city status as part of Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee celebrations. However, it lost out to Perth, Chelmsford and St Asaph.
Elections
2003 Corby Borough Council election
2007 Corby Borough Council election
2012 Corby by-election
2015 Corby Borough Council election
Society and culture
It is recorded in 1851 that the accent spoken in the northern parts of Northamptonshire would be more recognisable as a "West Country dialect". Scottish migration to Corby has created a unique population in the borough. The link with Scotland is a strong feature of the area: according to the 2001 Census, there were 10,063 Scottish-born in the Corby Urban Area – 18.9% of the population. A further 1.3 per cent were born in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that a further third of the population are Scottish or of Scottish descent.
The Scottish heritage is cherished by many inhabitants. There are Scottish social and sporting clubs and there are many fervent supporters of the Rangers and Celtic football clubs (indeed, Corby was home to the largest Rangers Supporters' Club outside Glasgow and Northern Ireland until its closure in February 2013) as well as the Scottish National Team. Many shops sell Scottish foods and a supermarket even introduced Gaelic signs to their Corby store (but they have since removed them). An annual Highland Gathering featuring traditional Scottish sports, music and dancing is held in the town. Corby is the only town in England apart from London with two Church of Scotland churches. Local legend states that Corby sees the highest sales of the Scottish soft drink Irn-Bru of anywhere outside Scotland. Asda Corby is stated to sell 17 times more Irn-Bru than any other store in England. Its popularity is cemented by the fact that it is available for purchase in all bars, nightclubs and pubs in the area. In 2014, Corby held a mock referendum in the run up to the Scottish independence referendum. 576 votes were cast, with 162 voting for Scottish independence and 414 voting against.
The song Steeltown by Big Country (title track of the album) was written about the town of Corby, telling how many Scots went to work there, but found themselves unemployed when the steelworks declined. (Source: Melody Maker, 1984)
According to the 2001 Census 1.7% of the population are non-white and the average age of the population (37.2) is slightly lower than the average for England and Wales (38.6).
November 2010 saw the opening of the Corby Cube, a major development in the town centre. As well as new council chamber, registrar office, and public library, the Cube is home to a 450-seat theatre and 100 capacity studio theatre. A programme of live theatre, dance, music and standup comedy is complemented by a participation programme encouraging all parts of Corby community to get involved. Recently the theatre started screening films, twice a week and including current mainstream releases and the best in world, independent and art house cinema. A report in 2012 revealed that the Cube was built with dangerous design flaws and almost double its original estimated costs and a capacity of only half of what was planned.
A crater on Mars discovered in the late 1970s was named after Corby, in reference to a famous transcript of a conversation in June 1969 between the crew of the Apollo 11 mission and mission control, whereby world news was relayed to the crew, amongst it was the news that "in Corby, an Irishman named John Coyle won the World's Porridge Eating Championship by consuming 23 bowls of instant oatmeal in 10 minutes". The reply from Apollo 11: "I'd like to enter Aldrin in the porridge eating contest next time; he's on the 19th bowl. Roger."
Sport and leisure
Corby's main football team is Corby Town F.C., who play in the Southern League Division One Central. The Steelmen play at Steel Park and have an average home attendance of 431 in 2018/19. The town's other semi-professional football club are Stewarts & Lloyds Corby F.C., who play in the United Counties League. S&L play their home matches at Occupation Road.
Corby is also home to the Corby East Midlands International Swimming Pool which was built in 2009. It is also home to the Stewarts and Lloyds Rugby Football Club which despite the long closure of the steel industry maintains its proud heritage of its industrial roots. The club plays in the RFU's Midland South East 3 division.
Corby also has an athletics club for under-11s to over 60s. In the Youth Development League, the upper age group gained promotion to Midland East 1 and gained promotion in the Heart of England Athletics League. Jordan Spence is currently the senior captain of the athletics club.
Transport
Roads
The town is located along the A43, A427, A6003 and is from the A14 at Kettering. Corby lies within two hours' drive of four international airports: Birmingham, Luton, Stansted and East Midlands. Being a new town, Corby's road network is different from that of older towns. There are several dual carriageways, most of the principal roads have wide reservations and high speed limits and pedestrian crossings over them are often underpasses. However, Corby is only connected by dual carriageway to one neighbouring town, Kettering (the A6003). All other roads into the town are single carriageways. The three dual carriageways form an outer ring road around most of Corby, however it only encircles suburbs south of the town centre and a small amount of countryside.
Buses
Corby is served by six bus routes under the Corby Star brand name. Route X4 connects the town with Peterborough, Oundle, Weldon, Danesholme, Kettering, Isham, Wellingborough, Earls Barton, Northampton, It is also operated by Stagecoach Midlands. National Express coaches also provide long-distance connections to the north and Scotland. Plans to build a new bus station in Corby are being considered by the council following the closure of the old bus station in August 2002.
Rail
Following a number of years when the town had no railway station, a new facility opened on 23 February 2009. East Midlands Railway runs half-hourly services to London St Pancras via and . The route to London was converted to electric traction in May 2021. There is also a limited peak time service running north to , , and .
Employment and education
Employment
Since the 1980s the unemployment rate has returned to a level closer to the national average (2.7% in October 2005). Employment is biased towards manufacturing (36.8% compared with a regional average of 18.5%) and against public administration, health and education (10.0% compared with the regional average of 25.9%). Much of industry is concentrated in purpose-built industrial estates on the outskirts of the town. Fairline Boats were manufactured here. Weetabix Limited make Weetos in the north of the town. RS Components are based near Rockingham Speedway. Taste Original (formerly Puredrive), part of Zwanenberg Food Group UK has operated from Corby since 1988 making cooked meat snacking products. Amy's Kitchen has recently opened a factory here, and manufactured products for the UK market here.
2018 research by Sky News identified Corby as the town most threatened by job losses in the UK due to automation with 31% of employment subject to cliff-edge automation.
Demography
According to the 2001 Census the proportion of the working age population with degree-level qualifications (8.5%) is the lowest of all areas in England and Wales. 39.3% have no GCSE-equivalent qualifications at all. The borough of Corby has the highest rate of teenage pregnancy in the East Midlands, outside of the metropolitan boroughs (unitary authorities), although Lincoln is very similar.
According to the 2011 census, Corby had a population of 61,255 and was 85.0% White British, 9.1% Other White (not including White Irish and Irish Traveller), 1.4% mixed race, 1.4% Asian and 1.7% Black. Corby's least White British ward is Oakley Vale where 70.7% of the population are White British while Corby's least ethnically diverse ward is Rural West, where 95.6% of the population are White British. In 2011, 5567 people registered their ethnicity as 'Other White' or 9.1% of the population. This figure includes a large community of people from Poland and the Baltic States.
Schools
The Corby campus of Tresham Institute of Further and Higher Education provides a range of vocational courses for post-16 students and adult learners. The nearest universities are the University of Northampton, to the south and both the University of Leicester and De Montfort University in Leicester, to the west.
Brooke Weston Academy, was one of only fifteen CTCs in England, opened in 1990. Brooke Weston CTC consistently achieved examination results in the top 5% of English state schools, and has been a City Academy since September 2008.
Since 1990 several of Corby's other secondary schools have fared less well with a series of poor examination results and critical inspection reports leading to mergers and closures, the most recent being the closure of Our Lady and Pope John School in 2005. Currently there are five secondary schools in Corby: Brooke Weston Academy, Lodge Park Academy, Corby Business Academy, Kingswood Secondary Academy and the newly opened Corby Technical School which opened to students in an old unused primary school in September 2012 with the new building completed and opened in November 2013. Corby Business Academy has a special unit for children with severe special educational needs. All four schools have sixth forms for post-16 students.
Corby has 17 primary schools, of which two are Church of England schools, three are Roman Catholic and one for children with severe behavioural and emotional difficulties.
Regeneration and redevelopment
Corby has an Urban Regeneration Company - North Northants Development Company, which now covers the whole of North Northamptonshire rather than just Corby (it was previously known as Catalyst Corby). The company is working closely with Corby Borough Council, Land Securities (town centre owners), the East Midlands Development Agency and the Homes and Communities Agency to regenerate the town centre as part of the masterplan for the whole town. The population of Corby town is expected to double in the next 30 years through housing on large estates such as Prior's Hall, Little Stanion, Oakley Vale and Great Oakley.
In October 2007 Corby's new shopping precinct, Willow Place, opened. In addition Parkland Gateway, the Borough's £50m investment situated adjacent to Willow Place and including a new Olympic-sized swimming pool and civic hub (due for completion in November 2010), is being built following its approval in January 2007. Work began on the project in October 2007 and the Corby East Midlands International Pool was officially opened by Olympian Mark Foster in July 2009. Although the Evolution Corby project is currently on hold, limited aesthetic augmentation work within the town centre continues.
Corby town centre has recently gained a Wetherspoon Pub & Hotel called "The Saxon Crown". It is a refurbished 1960s Cooperative Store and its name refers to the history of the area: the village of Corby derives its name from Kori, a leader of Danish invaders who settled in a clearing in Rockingham Forest.
The local Conservative Party, who call themselves "Team Corby", have argued that further regeneration in Corby should be delivered through bringing visitors to the town to visit its numerous historic sites. They argue that a co-ordinated tourism programme will increase and diversify the population available for the leisure industry to market to, and thus result in more local leisure facilities being opened.
North Londonshire
Stephen Fry voiced an advertising campaign in London from 2010 to entice people to move to Corby and the surrounding area including Rushden, Kettering and Wellingborough. The North Northamptonshire Development Corporation's campaign uses newspaper and London Underground advertisements, and also local radio with North Northamptonshire, being dubbed 'North Londonshire', as the area is only an hour from London St Pancras by rail. The campaign was criticised by residents in the county proud of the Northamptonshire name.
Toxic waste contamination
In July 2009 Corby Borough Council was found liable for negligently exposing pregnant women to toxic waste during the reclamation of the former British Steel Corporation steelworks, causing birth defects to their children. The judge found in favour of 16 of the 18 claimants, the oldest of whom was 22 at the time of the ruling. The ruling was significant as it was the first in the world to find that airborne pollution could cause such birth defects
Geography
Corby is north-northwest of London, north east of Northampton, southeast of Leicester, east of Birmingham and west of Peterborough, its nearest city.
The built up area of Corby had a population of 56,810 in 2011 compared with 61,255 for the Borough of Corby. The urban area had an area of 20.5 km2 compared with 80.3 km2 for the larger borough. Corby is expanding rapidly, with the borough having a population of 53,400 in 2001 and increasing to 61,300 in 2011. The expansion has resulted in villages like Great Oakley and Weldon being absorbed into the town's urban area. However, the latter remains a parish, being separated from the rest of Corby by the A43.
Areas of Corby
Most of Corby's population live in the town itself, however in terms of area it is mostly rural. This list includes the villages within the borough but also districts of the urban area and modern housing developments. The borough of Corby is made up of 11 wards following a boundary change after the 2011 census.
Weldon
Danesholme
Kingswood
Rockingham
Corby Old Village
Gretton
Exeter
Cottingham
Snatchill
Middleton
Town Centre
Oakley Vale
Great Oakley
East Carlton
Hazelwood
Rowlett
Willowbrook
Stanion
Little Stanion
Beanfield
Lodge Park
Twin towns
Corby is twinned with:
Châtellerault, France
Velbert, Germany
Shijiazhuang, China
Arms
See also
Grade I listed buildings in Corby
Grade II* listed buildings in Corby
References
External links
Corby Town Council
Corby Local Shops News & Events
Corby Borough Council
BBC website about Corby
The English town that's truly Scottish (Scotsman.com)
Towns in Northamptonshire
North Northamptonshire
New towns in England
Ironworks and steelworks in England
Scottish diaspora
New towns started in the 1950s
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208362
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopping%20mouse
|
Hopping mouse
|
A hopping mouse is any of about ten different Australian native mice in the genus Notomys. They are rodents, not marsupials, and their ancestors are thought to have arrived from Asia about 5 million years ago.
All are brown or fawn, fading to pale grey or white underneath, have very long tails and, as the common name implies, well-developed hind legs. Half of the hopping mouse species have become extinct since European colonisation. The primary cause is probably predation from introduced foxes or cats, coupled with competition for food from introduced rabbits and hoofed mammals. A hopping mouse's primary diet is seeds. An Australian hopping mouse can concentrate urine to as high as 10,000 mOsm/L (10-20 times higher than a human). This allows it to survive in the desert without drinking water.
Species
The spinifex hopping mouse (Notomys alexis) occurs throughout the central and western Australian arid zones, occupying both spinifex-covered sand flats and stabilised sand dunes, and loamy mulga and melaleuca flats.
The extinct short-tailed hopping mouse (Notomys amplus) was the largest species at around 100 g.
The northern hopping mouse (Notomys aquilo) is found only in coastal northern Australia, from Arnhem Land to the Cobourg Peninsula.
The fawn hopping mouse (Notomys cervinus) is found on the sparsely vegetated arid gibber plains and claypans of the Lake Eyre Basin. Small at around 30 to 50 g, and light in colour, it is gregarious and feeds at night on seeds, insects, and green shoots, not needing to drink water. It is classed as near threatened.
Some small dusky hopping mouse (Notomys fuscus) populations retain a slender hold on existence in the Strzelecki Desert. They feed, mostly on seeds, at night and shelter in deep vertical burrows.
The long-tailed hopping mouse (Notomys longicaudatus) is an extinct species, which was widespread in the drier regions of southern and central Australia. It dug burrows in stiff, clay soils. It liked raisins, but was not a pest to the stores of settlers. Only a handful of specimens were collected and the last record dates from 1901, although skull fragments were found in an owl pellet in 1977.
The extinct big-eared hopping mouse (Notomys macrotis) lived in the Moore River area of south-western Australia. The last record dates from 19 July 1843.
Mitchell's hopping mouse (Notomys mitchellii) is the largest extant member of the genus. It occurs throughout much of semi-arid Southern Australia and is currently considered to be unthreatened, although its range has been reduced through habitat disturbance and destruction.
The Darling Downs hopping mouse (Notomys mordax) is almost certainly extinct and is known only from a single skull collected somewhere on the Darling Downs of south-east Queensland in the 1840s, apparently from a creature similar to Mitchell's hopping-mouse. The introduction of cattle to the Darling Downs has greatly changed the ecology of the region, and seen several other species exterminated or seriously threatened. (See Paradise parrot and Northern hairy-nosed wombat.)
The great hopping mouse (Notomys robustus Mahoney, Smith and Medlin 2008) is extinct. It is known only from skulls found in owl pellets in the Flinders Ranges. Some pellets also include bones of the introduced house mouse—indicating that it survived into historic times, possibly the second half of the 19th century. From the skull, it appears to have been relatively large (perhaps the size of N. amplus or a little more) and to have escaped collection by early 19th century naturalists by chance. From the location of the deposits it is assumed that it preferred clay rather than sandy soils. It is notable that very few of the clay-living hopping mice have survived European settlement, sand dunes apparently providing a more secure refuge from competitors and predators. Also commonly known as the broad-cheeked hopping-mouse.
See also
Jerboa - a similar dipodid rodent native to northern Africa and Asia; an example of parallel evolution
Jumping mouse - a non-desert-dwelling dipodid rodent native to China and North America
Kangaroo mouse and kangaroo rat - similar heteromyid rodents of North America
Kultarr - an unrelated marsupial with a similar body plan and coloration; an example of convergence
Springhare - a similar pedetid rodent native to southern and eastern Africa
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berchtesgadener%20Land
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Berchtesgadener Land
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Berchtesgadener Land (Central Bavarian: Berchtsgoana Land) is a Landkreis (district) in Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by the district of Traunstein and by the state of Austria.
History
Middle ages and early modern era
The southern alpine regions were part of the stem duchy of Bavaria from the early Middle Ages. The 11th and 12th centuries saw the founding of numerous mountain villages. One of these settlements was Berchtesgaden, which later assumed a more dominant role in the administrative district that now bears its name.
The northern portion of the Salzach river valley was traditionally part of the Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg (an imperial principality ruled by the archbishop of Salzburg), while Berchtesgaden itself was the seat of the Berchtesgaden Provostry (a principality ruled by a Prince-Provost) comprising roughly the modern municipalities of Berchtesgaden, Bischofswiesen, Marktschellenberg, Ramsau and Schönau am Königssee.
These states existed from the Middle Ages until the early 19th century, and functioned as buffers between Bavaria and Austria. However, like the rest of the Holy Roman Empire, the Napoleonic wars brought about significant changes to the political make-up of the region. In 1803 Salzburg was secularised and became the short-lived Electorate of Salzburg, and Berchtesgaden was mediatized to (incorporated into) this new state. In 1805 Salzburg was itself mediatized to Austria, but was ceded to Bavaria in 1809. In the 1816 Treaty of Munich most of Salzburg was returned to Austria becoming the Duchy of Salzburg in 1850 and ultimately the modern Austrian state of Salzburg (with the westernmost portions becoming part of the County of Tyrol). However, the land of the former Berchtesgaden Provostry and the former Salzburg land west of the Salzach and Saalach rivers remained part of Bavaria. The modern Berchtesgadener Land is mostly made up from sections of this land, with the exception of the area around Bad Reichenhall, which had been part of Bavaria for centuries; the rest lies in adjoining areas in eastern Traunstein and a small area of southern Altötting.
Recent history
The Berchtesgadener Land was formed in 1972 through a merger of the district of Berchtesgaden, the district of Laufen and the city of Bad Reichenhall.
Two important historical events have dramatically reshaped Berchtesgadener Land in recent years, namely Austria's signing of the Schengen treaty in 1990 and the introduction of the Euro in 2002 in both Germany and Austria. Municipalities on both sides of the border have been brought much closer by these changes, and the area is reversing many of the effects caused by the split of 1816. There is close and mutually beneficial cooperation in areas such as public transport, recreational sports and culture. There is even a cross-border radio station called "Radio Untersberg"(website), which would have been unimaginable some 20 years ago due to different government regulations.
Salzburg has gradually asserted a new role as an economic, educational and cultural center of the area, which has had a ripple effect through several municipalities such as Freilassing, which have traditionally defined themselves as German border towns.
Geography
This district comprises the southeastern tip of Bavaria. It consists of a high alpine countryside in the south, with mountains rising to more than 2500 m, and of a strip along the Saalach River. The city of Salzburg (Austria) is located on the opposite side of the Saalach, across from the town of Freilassing.
The very south is occupied by the Berchtesgaden National Park (210 km2) comprising the Watzmann massif (2713 m) and the Königssee, a lake of 5.2 km2 surrounded by majestic mountains.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms displays:
the heraldic lion of Salzburg, representing the northern districts which were once subjects of Salzburg
the keys of Saint Peter, the patron saint of the Berchtesgaden Provostry
the white and blue lozenge-pattern (Rautenflagge) of Bavaria (one of the two flags of Bavaria)
Towns and municipalities
See also
Austria–Germany border
References
External links
Official website (German)
Districts of Bavaria
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswego%2C%20New%20York
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Oswego, New York
|
Oswego () is a city in Oswego County, New York, United States. The population was 18,142 at the 2010 census. Oswego is located on Lake Ontario in north-central New York and promotes itself as "The Port City of Central New York." It is the county seat of Oswego County.
The city of Oswego is bordered by the towns of Oswego, Minetto, and Scriba to the west, south, and east, respectively, and by Lake Ontario to the north. Oswego Speedway is a nationally known automobile racing facility. The State University of New York at Oswego is located just outside the city on Lake Ontario.
History
Early history
The British established a trading post in the area in 1722 and fortified it with a log palisade later called Fort Oswego, named after the native Iroquois place name "os-we-go" meaning "pouring out place." The first fortification on the site of the current Fort Ontario was built by the British in 1755 and called the "Fort of the Six Nations."
Military base
Fort Ontario was destroyed by the French upon capturing it in the Battle of Fort Ontario, during the French and Indian War. Construction of a second British fort began on the same site in 1759, but Fort Ontario was only used as a cannon emplacement. During the American Revolution, the British abandoned the Fort, and in 1778, American troops destroyed it. In 1782, the British reoccupied Fort Ontario, and didn't forfeit it to the U.S. until 1796, thirteen years after the cessation of hostilities in the Revolution.
During the War of 1812, a weaker American garrison at Fort Ontario was overwhelmed by superior British forces in order to stem the flow of supplies from the interior of New York state, but were later defeated near Oswego later that month. Throughout the 19th Century, the U.S. military maintained a presence at Fort Ontario.
Growth
Oswego was incorporated as a village on March 14, 1828, and the Oswego Canal, a branch of the Erie Canal, reached the area in 1829. The city was incorporated in 1848. When the city incorporated, its area and population were removed from the figures reported for the towns.
In the 1850s, at the height of a popular water-cure movement occurring in the United States, in turn stimulating growth, Oswego was the home of the Oswego Water Cure establishment, which Stonewall Jackson reportedly visited in August 1850.
Railroads' role in growth
Oswego is home to the Port of Oswego and once was a hub for several major railroads: the New York Central Railroad (NYC), the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad (DL&W), and the New York, Ontario and Western Railway (O&W) railways. Both railways operated a coal trestle for fueling steamships at the Port of Oswego. Into the mid-1940s the DLW had daily passenger service from Hoboken, through Binghamton, to Syracuse and ending in Oswego. The New York Central last had passenger service between Oswego, Fulton and Syracuse in 1951. Former NYC and DL&W passenger stations remain, as does a NYC freight station. Nothing remains of the O&W, which was abandoned in its entirety in 1957. The tunnel from the former O&W is used as a rail trail.
Fort Ontario
Fort Ontario was built between 1839 and 1844. Major masonry improvements to the forts outer wall were undertaken, but left incomplete when Congress canceled its funding in 1872. By 1901, the old fort was abandoned.
The 2nd Brigade of the U.S. 1st Infantry Division called Fort Ontario home until the brigade was deactivated on June 1, 1940. During World War II it was used for interning Jewish refugees from Europe (see section below).
In 1946, the fort was transferred to the state of New York. At that time, it was used to house veterans and their families during the post-war period. Development of the fort as a historic site began in 1949, which included the "Safe Haven Museum."
Today, Fort Ontario is being restored to its 1867–1872 appearance. Costumed interpreters recreate the lives of the officers, men, and civilians who garrisoned the fort in 1868–1869.
WWII refugee camp
In 1944 amidst World War II, President Franklin D. Roosevelt established a camp at the fort for survivors of the Holocaust.
The fort was used as Fort Ontario Emergency Refugee Shelter also known as "Safe Haven," home to approximately 982 Jewish refugees, survivors of the Nazi Holocaust, from August 1944 to February 1946. This was the only attempt by the United States government to shelter Jewish refugees during the war.
Approximately 1,000 refugees were transferred to the fort from the Ferramonti di Tarsia, a concentration camp in Cosenza, Calabria, Italy. The refugees came from 18 different European countries.
The refugees were placed behind barbed wire, and given no official status, having been required to sign papers accepting their eventual return to their home countries in Europe at the end of the war. Due to political pressure, President Harry S. Truman allowed them to apply for citizenship.
The camp comprised 200 buildings of converted army barracks. The site is now the Safe Haven Museum.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 11.2 square miles (29.1 km2), of which 7.7 square miles (19.8 km2) is land and 3.6 square miles (9.2 km2) (31.76%) is water.
Oswego is located on the southeastern shore of Lake Ontario at the mouth of the Oswego River, approximately 35 miles north of Syracuse and 69 miles east of Rochester. The elevation is 298 feet above sea level. The nearest city is Fulton, located south of Oswego and north of Syracuse.
As Oswego is located on the eastern shore of Lake Ontario, in the center of the Snowbelt, the region often sees prodigious lake effect snow accumulations. Oswego is one of the snowiest towns in America, with some winters totaling over 300 inches. In 2007, Oswego gained national attention when approximately 130" (slightly less than 11 feet) of snow fell in a two-week timespan. This broke the record of the Blizzard of 1966, which blanketed the city with 102" of snow. As a result of this storm, the school district closed all facilities for a week, effectively shifting the planned winter holiday.
Locations and communities near Oswego
Oswego: the town of Oswego
Minetto: the town of Minetto south of the city
Scriba: the town of Scriba east of the city
Southwest Oswego: a hamlet located west of the city
Fruit Valley: a hamlet located west of the city
Climate
Oswego has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb/Dfa), typical of the Interior Northeast. The city experiences four distinct seasons, and is located in USDA hardiness zone 6a. The region typically experiences cold and relatively wet winters, and with its location in the Great Lakes Snowbelt, frequently receives heavy snowfall.
Transportation
New York State Route 481 (from Interstate 81) runs north/south to Oswego from Syracuse and Fulton. New York State Route 104 runs east/west from Rochester to Oswego.
Central New York Regional Transportation Authority provides service within Oswego and connections to Fulton and Syracuse. Oswego County Public Transit provides service between Oswego and smaller communities in Oswego County.
Demographics
As of the census of 2010, there were 18,142 people, 7,486 households, and 3,896 families residing in the 8,258 housing units in the city. The population density was 2,343.4 people per square mile (905.0/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 94.1% White, 2.3% African American, 0.1% Native American, 1.5% Asian, .6% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.1% of the population.
The median income for a household in the city was $39,867, and the median income for a family was $57,324. Males employed full-time, year-round, had a median income of $50,074 versus $33,211 for similarly situated females. The per capita income for the city was $21,139. 24.2% of the population and 14.4% of families were below the poverty line.
Politics
The city is governed by a mayor, currently Republican Billy Barlow, and a board of seven aldermen who are elected from the city's seven wards. Recent previous mayors include Democrats Tom Gillen and Randy Bateman and Republican John Gosek.
Political controversy
In September 2005, Oswego Mayor John Gosek was arrested by the FBI and state police in a sting operation outside of a motel near Syracuse after allegedly giving a woman $250 to arrange a sexual encounter with two 14-year-old girls. The arrest came after a three-year investigation that led to charges of the mayor using his city-issued cell phone to “persuade, induce, entice and coerce an individual under the age of 18 years to engage in sexual activity.” The charge alleged that Gosek used his phone as interstate commerce for the purposes of illegal sex and falls under a federal law that is commonly known as the Mann Act. Gosek's term wasn't due to expire until 2007, but he resigned from office five days after his arrest.
Notable people
Neil Bancroft, U.S. Army soldier in the Black Hills War
George Barnard, Civil War photographer and portrait photography pioneer
Joey Belladonna, singer of heavy metal band Anthrax
Owen Benjamin, formerly Smith, actor and comedian
David Branshaw, PGA Tour golfer
Latham A. Burrows, former New York State Senator
Fenimore Chatterton, sixth Governor of Wyoming
Erik Cole, NHL hockey player, Olympian
Francis D. Culkin, former US Congressman
Noel Francisco, former Solicitor General of the United States
Robert H. Gittins, former US Congressman
George Grant, doctor and inventor
John Porter Hatch, Union army general
Robert M. Hensel, disability advocate, poet and world record holder
Willard A. Kitts, Vice admiral, USN and Navy Cross recipient
Greg LaRocca, former professional baseball player
Doug Lea, a computer scientist at SUNY Oswego, specialist of concurrent programming and concurrent data structures who made significant contributions to Java
David H. McConnell, founder of California Perfume Company which became Avon Cosmetics
Edward Nathaniel McDonald, businessman
Nettie Leila Michel (1863—?), business woman, author, magazine editor
Luther W. Mott, former US Congressman
Robert Natoli, strongman
D. W. Reeves (1838–1900), composer and bandleader, called “the father of band music in America”
Dan Reynolds, Nationally published cartoonist, author, and greeting card artist with American Greetings born and raised in Oswego, NY.
Curtis F. Shoup, Medal of Honor recipient
Newcomb Spoor, Wisconsin State Assemblyman
Bob Steinburg, member North Carolina House of Representatives, 2013 to present
Peter Stickles, actor
Willard Dickerman Straight, banker, diplomat, co-founder of The New Republic magazine
Charles A. Talcott, former US Congressman
Mary E. Walker, only female Civil War doctor, and only woman to receive the Medal of Honor
Leigh Allison Wilson, author
Julia McNair Wright (1840–1903), writer
Culture and recreation
Oswego has a long history stretching back to the 15th century. Visitors can learn about the city's history by visiting museums such as the H. Lee White Marine Museum, The Richardson-Bates House, and Fort Ontario. Throughout the city and public parks, many historical monuments can be found honoring historical figures, and other forts that stood in what is now the historical district. The city includes a number of sites on the National Register of Historic Places including the Derrick Boat No. 8, Kingsford Historic District, Market House, Oswego Armory, Oswego City Hall, Oswego City Library, Oswego County Courthouse, Oswego Yacht Club, Tanner Block, and U.S. Customhouse.
The most notable historian was Rosemary Nesbitt, who is immortalized by a monument in the city's signature public park, Breitbeck Park. Every Halloween, she would traditionally let down her long silver hair, dress in a ghostly gown, and tell ghostly haunted tales spanning across the entire history of the city. Nesbitt, who also founded the Marine Museum and wrote various books about the city's history, died on August 2, 2009 at the age of 84.
Ludwig Bemelmans, the writer best known for his popular 'Madeline' stories, was stationed at Fort Ontario, Oswego, N.Y. from 1917. From this experience he wrote the book "My war with the United States" published in 1937.
Boating, fishing, and hiking are also activities that are enjoyed by residents and visitors. Oswego also has three ice-skating rinks, a large public pool located on the Fort Ontario grounds, bowling, and the historic Oswego Theater.
Every year the city hosts the Oswego Harborfest, a four-day festival of music, culture and food, centered around the Oswego Harbor, culminating in a fireworks display on the Saturday evening of the festival. The event is sponsored by local businesses, and the entertainment is admission-free. The festival continues to draw approximately 150,000 to 300,000 attendees every year.
In 2007, SUNY Oswego Lakers men's hockey team won the NCAA Division III Ice Hockey Championship. Garren Reisweber's goal 12:55 into overtime gave Oswego State a 4-3 win over Middlebury on March 18, 2007. The Lakers captured the school's first ever national championship in a team sport. The 2006-07 season marked the first season Oswego played in the newly built, state-of-the-art Marano Campus Center, located on Lake Ontario. The Campus Center replaced Romney Field House Ice Rink which opened in 1962, and is believed to be the first ice rink built within the State University of New York system. The old ice rink was transformed into a multi-use indoor facility for track, lacrosse and other intramural sports.
From 2005 to 2006 the Oswego Admirals of the Ontario Junior Hockey League played in the old ice rink.
Media
The city is served by The Palladium Times newspaper, Oswego County Today, the student-run newspaper The Oswegonian, as well as OswegoNYlion and is the home to the radio stations WRVO, WSGO, WNYO and WMVN. Oswego also has its own television station, WTOP, which is completely student-run at the State University of New York at Oswego, and is served by the Oswego High School television station, WBUC. Oswego is served by the Syracuse TV market. Previous media included the Oswego Daily News.
Education
The city is part of the Oswego City School District. The Oswego City School district has one high school (grades 9–12), one middle school (grades 7 and 8) and five elementary schools (grades K–6). The State University of New York at Oswego (SUNY Oswego) is located just west of the city in the town of Oswego. Trinity Catholic School (formerly St. Paul's Academy) provides classes for PreK–6. Oswego Community Christian School provides classes for PreK–8.
Electric power facilities
Oswego generating station
Pursuant to Section 70 of the Public Service Law, NRG Energy, Inc. (now operating as NRG Power Marketing LLC) officially received ownership of the Oswego generating station from previous owners Niagara Mohawk Power Corporation and Rochester Gas and Electric in 1999. NRG was the lowest bidder in an auction arranged by Niagara Mohawk. The facility is a 1,803-megawatt (MW) (nameplate) plant with two steam turbines powered by steam heated in boilers from fuel oil (although one of the units has natural gas listed as a backup fuel). The facility went into service in 1976 (for unit 5) and 1980 (for unit 6). In 2017, it injected 39.7 GWh of electric energy into the electric transmission system. This is equivalent to operating at full capacity for approximately 0.3% of the year. For comparison, the central region consumed 15,819 GWh of electric energy in 2017. Its power is sold into the electric wholesale market administered by the NYISO. Since the plant does not produce much electric energy on an annual basis, it is fair to assume that most of its revenue comes from the NYISO's capacity market. For example, at 1.0 ($/kW - Month), the plant would receive annual revenue of $21.6 million from the capacity market without accounting for actual energy production.
According to the New York State Public Service Commission's database management system, DMM, there was a whistle blower complaint filed against the facility (case no. 92-E-0306) in 1992, however, the DMM website for that case number says its contents were moved to the DMM website for case number 92-M-0016. As of November 2018, there are 5 orders on the DMM case number 92-M-0016 website, none of which have to do with a whistle blower complaint against Oswego generating station.
References
External links
City of Oswego, New York
History of Oswego, NY
Oswego Public Library
Images of Oswego
List of famous inhabitants
CBS News - Ms. Harris vs. Oswego re:sidewalk hazards
Cities in New York (state)
County seats in New York (state)
Cities in Oswego County, New York
Populated places on Lake Ontario in the United States
Inland port cities and towns of the United States
Syracuse metropolitan area
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoluminescence%20dating
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Thermoluminescence dating
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Thermoluminescence dating (TL) is the determination, by means of measuring the accumulated radiation dose, of the time elapsed since material containing crystalline minerals was either heated (lava, ceramics) or exposed to sunlight (sediments). As a crystalline material is heated during measurements, the process of thermoluminescence starts. Thermoluminescence emits a weak light signal that is proportional to the radiation dose absorbed by the material. It is a type of luminescence dating.
The technique has wide application, and is relatively cheap at some US$300–700 per object; ideally a number of samples are tested. Sediments are more expensive to date. The destruction of a relatively significant amount of sample material is necessary, which can be a limitation in the case of artworks. The heating must have taken the object above 500 °C, which covers most ceramics, although very high-fired porcelain creates other difficulties. It will often work well with stones that have been heated by fire. The clay core of bronze sculptures made by lost wax casting can also be tested.
Different materials vary considerably in their suitability for the technique, depending on several factors. Subsequent irradiation, for example if an x-ray is taken, can affect accuracy, as will the "annual dose" of radiation a buried object has received from the surrounding soil. Ideally this is assessed by measurements made at the precise findspot over a long period. For artworks, it may be sufficient to confirm whether a piece is broadly ancient or modern (that is, authentic or a fake), and this may be possible even if a precise date cannot be estimated.
Functionality
Natural crystalline materials contain imperfections: impurity ions, stress dislocations, and other phenomena that disturb the regularity of the electric field that holds the atoms in the crystalline lattice together. These imperfections lead to local humps and dips in the crystalline material's electric potential. Where there is a dip (a so-called "electron trap"), a free electron may be attracted and trapped.
The flux of ionizing radiation—both from cosmic radiation and from natural radioactivity—excites electrons from atoms in the crystal lattice into the conduction band where they can move freely. Most excited electrons will soon recombine with lattice ions, but some will be trapped, storing part of the energy of the radiation in the form of trapped electric charge (Figure 1).
Depending on the depth of the traps (the energy required to free an electron from them) the storage time of trapped electrons will vary as some traps are sufficiently deep to store charge for hundreds of thousands of years.
In practical use
Another important technique in testing samples from a historic or archaeological site is a process known as thermoluminescence testing, which involves the principle that all
objects absorb radiation from the environment. This process frees electrons within elements or minerals that remain caught within the item. Thermoluminescence testing involves
heating a sample until it releases a type of light, which is then measured to determine the last time the item was heated.
In thermoluminescence dating, these long-term traps are used to determine the age of materials: When irradiated crystalline material is again heated or exposed to strong light, the trapped electrons are given sufficient energy to escape. In the process of recombining with a lattice ion, they lose energy and emit photons (light quanta), detectable in the laboratory.
The amount of light produced is proportional to the number of trapped electrons that have been freed which is in turn proportional to the radiation dose accumulated. In order to relate the signal (the thermoluminescence—light produced when the material is heated) to the radiation dose that caused it, it is necessary to calibrate the material with known doses of radiation since the density of traps is highly variable.
Thermoluminescence dating presupposes a "zeroing" event in the history of the material, either heating (in the case of pottery or lava) or exposure to sunlight (in the case of sediments), that removes the pre-existing trapped electrons. Therefore, at that point the thermoluminescence signal is zero.
As time goes on, the ionizing radiation field around the material causes the trapped electrons to accumulate (Figure 2). In the laboratory, the accumulated radiation dose can be measured, but this by itself is insufficient to determine the time since the zeroing event.
The Radiation Dose Rate - the dose accumulated per year-must be determined first. This is commonly done by measurement of the alpha radioactivity (the uranium and thorium content) and the potassium content (K-40 is a beta and gamma emitter) of the sample material.
Often the gamma radiation field at the position of the sample material is measured, or it may be calculated from the alpha radioactivity and potassium content of the sample environment, and the cosmic ray dose is added in. Once all components of the radiation field are determined, the accumulated dose from the thermoluminescence measurements is divided by the dose accumulating each year, to obtain the years since the zeroing event.
Relation to radiocarbon dating
Thermoluminescence dating is used for material where radiocarbon dating is not available, like sediments. Its use is now common in the authentication of old ceramic wares, for which it gives the approximate date of the last firing. An example of this can be seen in Rink and Bartoll, 2005.
Thermoluminescence dating was modified for use as a passive sand migration analysis tool by Keizars, et al., 2008 (Figure 3), demonstrating the direct consequences resulting from the improper replenishment of starving beaches using fine sands, as well as providing a passive method of policing sand replenishment and observing riverine or other sand inputs along shorelines (Figure 4).
Relation to other luminescence dating methods
Optically stimulated luminescence dating is a related measurement method which replaces heating with exposure to intense light. The sample material is illuminated with a very bright source of green or blue light (for quartz) or infrared light (for potassium feldspars). Ultraviolet light emitted by the sample is detected for measurement.
See also
Geochronology
Luminescence dating
Rehydroxylation dating
Thermoluminescent dosimeter
Notes
Oxford Authentication: Home - TL Testing Authentication 'Oxford Authentication® Ltd authenticates ceramic antiquities using the scientific technique of thermoluminescence (TL). TL testing is a dating method for archaeological items which can distinguish between genuine and fake antiquities.' See some of their case studies here: https://www.oxfordauthentication.com/case-studies/
References and bibliography
GlobalNet.co.uk, Quaternary TL Surveys - Guide to thermoluminescence date measurement
Aitken, M.J., Thermoluminescence Dating, Academic Press, London (1985) – Standard text for introduction to the field. Quite complete and rather technical, but well written and well organized. There is a second edition.
Aitken, M.J., Introduction to Optical Dating, Oxford University Press (1998) – Good introduction to the field.
Keizars, K.Z. 2003. NRTL as a method of analysis of sand transport along the coast of the St. Joseph Peninsula, Florida. GAC/MAC 2003. Presentation: Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada.
JCRonline.org, Ķeizars, Z., Forrest, B., Rink, W.J. 2008. Natural Residual Thermoluminescence as a Method of Analysis of Sand Transport along the Coast of the St. Joseph Peninsula, Florida. Journal of Coastal Research, 24: 500–507.
Keizars, Z. 2008b. NRTL trends observed in the sands of St. Joseph Peninsula, Florida. Queen's University. Presentation: Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
Liritzis, I., 2011. Surface Dating by Luminescence: An Overview. Geochronometria, 38(3): 292–302.
Mortlock, AJ; Price, D and Gardiner, G. The Discovery and Preliminary Thermoluminescence Dating of Two Aboriginal Cave Shelters in the Selwyn Ranges, Queensland [online]. Australian Archaeology, No. 9, Nov 1979: 82–86. Availability: <> . [cited 04 Feb 15].
Antiquity.ac.uk, Rink, W. J., Bartoll, J. 2005. Dating the geometric Nasca lines in the Peruvian desert. Antiquity, 79: 390–401.
Sullasi, H. S., Andrade, M. B., Ayta, W. E. F., Frade, M., Sastry, M. D., & Watanabe, S. (2004). Irradiation for dating Brazilian fish fossil by thermoluminescence and EPR technique. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, 213, 756–760.doi:10.1016/S0168-583X(03)01698-7
External links
Brief introduction on TL technique
Dating methods
Luminescence
Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage
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208371
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Span%20loop
|
Span loop
|
A span loop is a non-jamming loop that can be tied away from the ends of the rope.
Information
The span loop is known for being extremely easy to untie. The beginning of tying this knot begins with tying a Half Sheepshank, which is also known as a Bell Ringer's Knot. In order to tie this, the same one-handed twist method employed for tying a bowline can be used. One bight or loop will poke up through the half-hitch, and it will perfectly match the end of the rope that is also poking up through the signature half-hitch part of a bowline as it is done with the one hand twist method. The next thing to do is to push the bottom loop back up and through the top loop.
References
External links
Span Loop
Loop knots
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%20Noor%20of%20Jordan
|
Queen Noor of Jordan
|
Queen Noor of Jordan (Noor Al-Hussein) (; born Lisa Najeeb Halaby; August 23, 1951) is an American-born Jordanian philanthropist and activist who was Queen of Jordan as the fourth wife of King Hussein from their marriage in 1978 until his death in 1999.
Noor is the longest-standing member of the Board of Commissioners of the International Commission on Missing Persons. As of 2011, she is president of the United World Colleges movement and an advocate of the anti-nuclear weapons proliferation campaign Global Zero. In 2015, Queen Noor received Princeton University's Woodrow Wilson Award for her public service.
Family and early life
Queen Noor was born Lisa Najeeb Halaby in Washington, D.C., USA. She is the daughter of Najeeb Halaby (1915–2003) and Doris Carlquist (1918–2015). Her paternal family are Syrian-Lebanese American; her maternal family are Swedish American. Her father was a Navy experimental test pilot, an airline executive, and government official. He served as an aide to the United States Secretary of Defense in the Truman administration, before being appointed by John F. Kennedy to head the Federal Aviation Administration. Najeeb Halaby also had a private-sector career, serving as CEO of Pan American World Airways from 1969 to 1972. The Halabys had two children following Lisa; a son, Christian, and a younger daughter, Alexa. They divorced in 1977. Her mother, Doris, was of Swedish descent and died on December 25, 2015, aged 97.
Noor's paternal grandfather was Najeeb Elias Halaby, a Syrian-Lebanese businessman born in Zahle, and whose parents hailed from Aleppo, He was a petroleum broker, according to 1920 Census records. Merchant Stanley Marcus, however, recalled that in the mid-1920s, Halaby opened Halaby Galleries, a rug boutique and interior-decorating shop, at Neiman Marcus in Dallas, Texas, and ran it with his Texas-born wife, Laura Wilkins (1889–1987, later Mrs. Urban B. Koen). Najeeb Halaby died shortly afterward, and his estate was unable to continue the new enterprise.
According to research done in 2010 for the PBS series Faces of America by Professor Henry Louis Gates Jr., of Harvard University, her great-grandfather, Elias Halaby, came to New York around 1891, one of the earliest Syrian-Lebanese immigrants to the United States. He was a Christian as well as having been a provincial treasurer (magistrate) as stated before by Najeeb Halaby in his autobiography Crosswinds: an Airman's Memoir. He left Ottoman Syria with his two eldest sons. His wife, Almas Mallouk, and their remaining children joined him in the United States in 1894. He died three years later, leaving his teenage sons, Habib, and Najeeb (her paternal grandfather), to run his import business. Najeeb moved to Dallas around 1910 and fully assimilated into American society.
Education
Halaby attended schools in New York and California before entering National Cathedral School from fourth to eighth grade. She attended the Chapin School in New York City for two years, and then went on to graduate from Concord Academy, a private boarding school in Concord, Massachusetts. She entered Princeton University with its first coeducational freshman class and received an A.B. in architecture and urban planning in 1974 after completing a 32-page long senior thesis titled "96th Street and Second Avenue." She was also a member of the Princeton University's first women's ice hockey team.
Career
After she graduated from Princeton, Halaby moved to Australia, where she worked for a firm that specialized in planning new towns, with a burgeoning interest in the Middle East, which, because of Halaby's Syrian roots, had special appeal for her. After a year, in 1975, she accepted a job offer from Llewelyn Davies, a British architectural and planning firm, which had been employed to design a model capital city center in Tehran, Iran. When increasing political instability forced the company to relocate to the UK, she traveled to the Arab world and decided to apply to Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism while taking a temporary aviation facility research job in Amman. Eventually, she left Arab Air and accepted a job with Alia Airlines to become Director of Facilities Planning and Design. Halaby and the king became friends while he was still mourning the death of his wife. Their friendship evolved and the couple became engaged in 1978.
Marriage and children
Halaby wed King Hussein on June 15, 1978, in Amman, becoming Queen of Jordan.
Before her marriage, she accepted her husband's Sunni Islamic religion and upon the marriage, changed her name from Lisa Halaby to the royal name Noor Al-Hussein ("Light of Hussein"). The wedding was a traditional Muslim ceremony. Her conversion to Islam and wedding to the King of Jordan received extensive coverage in the Western press; many assumed that she would be regarded as a stranger to the country, since she was an American of mostly European descent who was raised in Christianity. However, because of her Syrian grandfather, she was considered by most of the population to be an Arab returning home rather than a foreigner. She soon gained power and influence by using her role as King Hussein's consort and her education in urban planning for charitable work and improvement to the country's economy, as well as the empowerment of women in Jordanian economic life.
Noor assumed management of the royal household and three stepchildren, Princess Haya bint Al Hussein, Prince Ali bin Al Hussein and Abir Muhaisen (her husband's children by Queen Alia). Noor and Hussein had four children:
Prince Hamzah (born March 29, 1980, in Amman), Crown Prince from 1999 to 2004, who has five daughters and one son.
Prince Hashim (born June 10, 1981, in Amman), who has three daughters and two sons.
Princess Iman (born April 24, 1983, in Amman), who has one son.
Princess Raiyah (born February 9, 1986, in Amman).
Areas of work
Domestic agenda
Queen Noor founded the King Hussein Foundation (KHF) in 1979. It includes the Noor Al Hussein Foundation and eight specialized development institutions: the Jubilee Institute, the Information and Research Center, the National Music Conservatory, the National Center for Culture and Arts and the Institute for Family Health, the Community Development Program, Tamweelcom the Jordan Micro Credit Company and the Islamic microfinance company, Ethmar. She is the Honorary Chairperson of JOrchestra. In addition, Queen Noor launched a youth initiative, the International Arab Youth Congress, in 1980.
International agenda
Queen Noor's international work focuses on environmental issues and the connection to human security with emphasis on water and ocean health. At the 2017 Our Ocean Conference, she delivered a keynote address on the link between climate change and ocean health with human security. Queen Noor is Patron of the International Union for Conservation of Nature, Founding and Emeritus President of BirdLife International, Trustee Emeritus of Conservation International, and an Ocean Elder. She was also chair of King Hussein Foundation International, a US non-profit 501(c)(3) which, since 2001, has awarded the King Hussein Leadership Prize. She is the president of the international board, the governing board of international movement for the UWC movement.
Widowhood
King Hussein died on February 7, 1999, from lymphatic cancer. After his death, his first-born son, Abdullah II, became king and Hamzah became crown prince. In 2004, Prince Hamzah was unexpectedly stripped of his status as heir designate. On July 2, 2009, Abdullah named his eldest son as heir-apparent to the throne, thereby ending the previous five years' speculation over his successor.
Noor divides her time among Jordan, Washington, D.C., and the United Kingdom (in London and at her country residence, Buckhurst Park, near Winkfield in Berkshire). She continues to work on behalf of numerous international organizations. She speaks Arabic, English and French. The queen also enjoys skiing, water skiing, tennis, sailing, horseback riding, reading, gardening and photography.
Honours
National honours
:
Knight Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of al-Hussein bin Ali
Knight of the Order of Military Glory
Knight Grand Cordon (Special Class) of the Supreme Order of the Renaissance
Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the Star of Jordan
Foreign honours
:
Grand Star of the Order of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
:
Member First Class of the Family Order of Laila Utama
:
Knight of the Order of the Elephant
:
Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of the Virtues
:
Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honour
:
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
:
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau
:
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
:
Member of the Royal Order of the Seraphim
:
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Saint John
Books written by Queen Noor
A New York Times #1 best seller published in 17 languages
See also
Hashemites
References
External links
King Hussein Foundation website
Noor Al Hussein Foundation website
Global Zero Campaign
Transcript of a speech given at The Kennedy Center For The Performing Arts in 1996
2002 commencement speech - Mount Holyoke College
|-
1951 births
Living people
21st-century women writers
American emigrants to Jordan
American expatriates in Australia
American people of Lebanese descent
American Sunni Muslims
Arab queens
Chapin School (Manhattan) alumni
House of Hashim
Hussein of Jordan
Jordanian Sunni Muslims
Jordanian people of Lebanese descent
Jordanian people of Swedish descent
Jordanian royal consorts
Jordanian women writers
People from Potomac, Maryland
People from Washington, D.C.
People from Winkfield
Princeton University School of Architecture alumni
Princeton Tigers women's ice hockey players
Women autobiographers
Dames Grand Cross of the Order of St John
Concord Academy alumni
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
National Cathedral School alumni
Recipients of the Grand Star of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
People named in the Paradise Papers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grief%20knot
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Grief knot
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A grief knot (also what knot) is a knot which combines the features of a granny knot and a thief knot, producing a result which is not generally useful for working purposes. The word grief does not carry its usual meaning but is a portmanteau of granny and thief.
The grief knot resembles the granny knot, but tied so that the working ends come out diagonally from each other, whereas a granny knot's ends both come out on the same side. It unravels rather elegantly: as tension is applied, the ropes rotate like little cogs, each one twisting to feed the rope through the knot.
Tying
To tie the grief knot, tie a single "overhand knot" (nb: this isn't the same as a single-strand "overhand knot" often used as a stopper or as a component of other knots, such as the fisherman's knot or ring water knot), as if starting a reef knot. Then thrust the two free ends together down through the center of the just-tied overhand knot. Twist the free ends to form half hitches to lock, twist the other way for the granny knot-like configuration that rolls apart when the standing parts are pulled. In short, if the standing parts (the "main lines" which bear force into the knot) nip/cross their own ends, the knot will lock; otherwise, it will probably slip.
As a trick knot
The starkly differing behavior of the knot, depending on how it is arranged, has been exploited as the basis of a parlor trick. When pulling on the standing ends the knot starts slipping and the working ends become crossed. By twisting the working ends so that they uncross and then recross in reverse, the knot's structure is changed so that it will no longer slip. The twisting motion has been paralleled to the turning of a key, "locking" and "unlocking" the knot.
Security
Because the grief knot is known to slip apart "with astonishing ease", it is considered one of the most insecure of knots.
However, in its locked opposing half-hitch arrangement, the grief knot has been used as a practical bend for tying together flat materials, such as straps, belts, blades of grass, and similar materials. This is because the flat shape helps to prevent the knot from accidentally "unlocking". When used in this manner, the knot is known as a grass bend.
Related knots
See also
List of binding knots
List of knots
References
External links
The Reef Knot Family
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow%20Islands%3A%20The%20Story%20of%20Bubble%20Bobble%202
|
Rainbow Islands: The Story of Bubble Bobble 2
|
is a 1987 arcade game developed and published by Taito. The arcade version was licensed to Romstar for North American manufacturing and distribution. The game is subtitled "The Story of Bubble Bobble 2" and is the sequel to Taito's hit game Bubble Bobble from the previous year. It is the second of four arcade games in the Bubble Bobble series (followed by Bubble Symphony and Bubble Memories, but itself has two direct sequels: Parasol Stars and Bubble Bobble Part 2). The game was ported for numerous home computers and game consoles.
The main characters are Bubblun and Bobblun, the protagonists of Bubble Bobble (known as "Bub and Bob" in the western releases). However, in this game they appear in their human forms as "Bubby" and "Bobby", as opposed to the "bubble dragons" of the first game (following on from the first game's true ending). Also unlike the first game, players must now "alternate" (i.e., take turns), with player one as Bubby (green shirt), and player 2 as Bobby (blue shirt) (the same color scheme as in the first game).
Gameplay
Following the events of Bubble Bobble, Bubby and Bobby set out to defeat the "Dark Shadow" and rescue the Rainbow Islands. The Dark Shadow is the entity responsible for the events in Bubble Bobble. The game is set on a chain of ten islands, each one with a different theme. Each island provides four rounds of game-play, and once these are complete the player moves to the next island in the chain. In each round the player must get to the top before the sea level rises and kills them. The islands get progressively more difficult, with enemies moving much faster on the later ones. These are depicted on a map screen before the start of each island.
Players can release rainbows that act as weapons, makeshift platforms, and item collectors. Slinging rainbows damages any enemies and acquires any items that the rainbows come in contact with. When jumped upon, they fall down, beating any enemies below them, and releasing a damage field above them. Collecting power-ups increases the player's speed, the speed of the rainbows and how many are spawned. If players take too long in a level, water will start to rise up from the bottom of the stage, and will kill the player character if it rises above his head.
Like Bubble Bobble before it, the game has multiple endings. To get the "True and Happy" ending the player must find and complete the three secret islands (although most consumer versions of the game completely lack the secret islands because of budget constraints). These islands are not visible until all 7 big diamonds are collected. To get a big diamond, the player must collect seven different-colored small diamonds on the island and finish the round. The small diamonds are found by destroying enemies by dropping a rainbow on them from above or destroying them with various special items. After collecting the small diamonds, a word "NICE" appears. If the small diamonds are collected in the correct order, the player will get to a secret room at the end of each island, which contains a permanent power up. The color of the small diamonds depends on where the fallen enemies land, so the player can somewhat determine which diamond colors will drop.
The scoring system also has secrets, which allow vastly higher scores to be achieved than normal.
Extra version
Rainbow Islands Extra Version is a modified version of Rainbow Islands; the game is exactly the same except the stages' enemies and bosses appear in a different order (much like Bubble Bobble'''s Super Mode). Rainbow Islands Extra was released in limited quantities in the arcade. The game was also included as a mode in the Sega Mega Drive version of Rainbow Islands.
Ports
"Over the Rainbow" theme
The original arcade game contained in-game music reminiscent of the song "Over the Rainbow" from The Wizard of Oz. This song was included in the Japanese Mega Drive, PC Engine CD and Famicom releases of the game, as well at the Ocean Software home Computer ports (Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, Amiga and Atari ST).
However, in later console versions of the game (Master System, NES, Saturn, PS1, and the Japanese Taito Memories and international Taito Legends collections), aside from part of the chorus, the in-game music was changed so as not to infringe copyright. The hidden eight level of the NES version, as well as the Game Boy Color version, simply use the Bubble Bobble theme music.
Reception
In Japan, Game Machine listed Rainbow Island: The Story of Bubble Bobble 2 on their December 1, 1987 issue as being the second most-successful table arcade unit of the month. It went on to become one of the top ten highest-grossing arcade games of 1988 in Japan. The Spectrum version of the game was number-one on the UK sales chart from May to June 1990 at the time of release. It was re-released at a budget price, and was number 1 again from October 1992 to March 1993. It was also the top-selling Amiga budget title in March 1992.
UK magazine C&VG gave the ST version a score of 93%, praising the graphics and calling the game addictive and "tremendous fun". It was awarded 94% in the April 1990 issue of Your Sinclair and was placed at number 8 in the "Your Sinclair official top 100". In issue 93 of the same magazine, the readers voted it the 2nd best game of all time. It was also awarded 94% score in Crash. The readers of Crash voted Rainbow Islands the #1 game of all time in December 1991. MegaTech magazine said it was "virtually arcade perfect, with only flickery sprites letting the side down".
The Amiga version of Rainbow Islands was the first game to make #1 on Amiga Power's annual All Time Top 100 list in 1991, and again in 1992. It held the spot for years until losing to Sensible Soccer, which retained the title for the rest of the magazine's run. The Mega Drive version was the 9th best game of all time, according to Mega magazine's "Mega Top 100 Carts" in 1992. Edge stated in 1994 that, "Taito's Rainbow Islands has all the ingredients for a superb videogame – incentives, copious rewards and bonuses, and intelligent bosses".
Despite these accomplishments, in his review of the Bubble Bobble Featuring Rainbow Islands pack, Rich Leadbetter of Sega Saturn Magazine said Rainbow Islands was "vastly underrated and over-looked". He added that the gameplay still felt fresh and unique despite the passage of years, and was good enough to make the collection a must-have by itself.
Converting to home computers
In 1989 Graftgold were invited to convert the game to 5 home computer formats: Commodore 64, ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, Atari ST and Commodore Amiga. Telecomsoft had bought the conversion rights in the UK. At that time Graftgold consisted of 7 people and they were working from an office above a fruit and veg store, with very uneven floors and an iron staircase for access.
They agreed to do the conversion for a fixed sum and based on getting the arcade machine and source graphics and documentation from Taito. The job they reckoned would take 9 months and milestones were assigned based on their knowledge of the game and that it showed 7 islands on the start screen.
The main problem was that they were on the first floor and an iron staircase for access at the back and they had to get the arcade machine upstairs. It took all of them dragging the cabinet up the stairs rather slowly. The cabinet was made of 3/4" chipboard and contained all of the workings of an old CRT TV and more. The JAMMA board was also the size of a PC motherboard.
The game took the whole team. John Cumming took charge of the maps and graphics. Gary Foreman did the C64 version. David O'Connor did the ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC versions. Jason Page did the 16-bit and C64 sounds. Steve Turner did the management and the Z80 8-bit sounds. Dominic Robinson did the technical design and support. Andrew Braybrook did the 16-bit versions.
Regional differences
The European version of the Sega Master System port contains a bad glitch that crashes the game after Level 7, sending the player back to the title screen. If the level select code is used to access Level 8, the same glitch occurs at the end of that level completely preventing the player from seeing the ending. The Brazilian version has fixed this glitch.
The European version of the NES port, developed by Ocean, is more faithful to the Arcade version, whereas the Japanese and North American versions have original level designs and story intermissions.
Soundtrack
The Songs of arcade Rainbow Island'' was contained in the CD titled on June 21, 1988 in Japan.
References
External links
1987 video games
Amiga games
Amstrad CPC games
Arcade video games
Atari ST games
Bubble Bobble
Commodore 64 games
Game Boy Color games
Game Boy games
FM Towns games
Mobile games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Ocean Software games
Platform games
PlayStation (console) games
Master System games
Sega Genesis games
Sega Saturn games
Square Enix franchises
Taito games
TurboGrafx-CD games
Video game sequels
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Hisayoshi Ogura
Video games scored by Masahiko Takaki
Video games set on fictional islands
WonderSwan games
ZX Spectrum games
Taito arcade games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20%28abstract%20data%20type%29
|
List (abstract data type)
|
In computer science, a list or sequence is an abstract data type that represents a finite number of ordered values, where the same value may occur more than once. An instance of a list is a computer representation of the mathematical concept of a tuple or finite sequence; the (potentially) infinite analog of a list is a stream. Lists are a basic example of containers, as they contain other values. If the same value occurs multiple times, each occurrence is considered a distinct item.
The name list is also used for several concrete data structures that can be used to implement abstract lists, especially linked lists and arrays. In some contexts, such as in Lisp programming, the term list may refer specifically to a linked list rather than an array. In class-based programming, lists are usually provided as instances of subclasses of a generic "list" class, and traversed via separate iterators.
Many programming languages provide support for list data types, and have special syntax and semantics for lists and list operations. A list can often be constructed by writing the items in sequence, separated by commas, semicolons, and/or spaces, within a pair of delimiters such as parentheses '()', brackets '[]', braces '{}', or angle brackets '<>'. Some languages may allow list types to be indexed or sliced like array types, in which case the data type is more accurately described as an array.
In type theory and functional programming, abstract lists are usually defined inductively by two operations: nil that yields the empty list, and cons, which adds an item at the beginning of a list.
Operations
Implementation of the list data structure may provide some of the following operations:
a constructor for creating an empty list;
an operation for testing whether or not a list is empty;
an operation for prepending an entity to a list
an operation for appending an entity to a list
an operation for determining the first component (or the "head") of a list
an operation for referring to the list consisting of all the components of a list except for its first (this is called the "tail" of the list.)
an operation for accessing the element at a given index.
Implementations
Lists are typically implemented either as linked lists (either singly or doubly linked) or as arrays, usually variable length or dynamic arrays.
The standard way of implementing lists, originating with the programming language Lisp, is to have each element of the list contain both its value and a pointer indicating the location of the next element in the list. This results in either a linked list or a tree, depending on whether the list has nested sublists. Some older Lisp implementations (such as the Lisp implementation of the Symbolics 3600) also supported "compressed lists" (using CDR coding) which had a special internal representation (invisible to the user). Lists can be manipulated using iteration or recursion. The former is often preferred in imperative programming languages, while the latter is the norm in functional languages.
Lists can be implemented as self-balancing binary search trees holding index-value pairs, providing equal-time access to any element (e.g. all residing in the fringe, and internal nodes storing the right-most child's index, used to guide the search), taking the time logarithmic in the list's size, but as long as it doesn't change much will provide the illusion of random access and enable swap, prefix and append operations in logarithmic time as well.
Programming language support
Some languages do not offer a list data structure, but offer the use of associative arrays or some kind of table to emulate lists. For example, Lua provides tables. Although Lua stores lists that have numerical indices as arrays internally, they still appear as dictionaries.
In Lisp, lists are the fundamental data type and can represent both program code and data. In most dialects, the list of the first three prime numbers could be written as (list 2 3 5). In several dialects of Lisp, including Scheme, a list is a collection of pairs, consisting of a value and a pointer to the next pair (or null value), making a singly linked list.
Applications
As the name implies, lists can be used to store a list of elements. However, unlike in traditional arrays, lists can expand and shrink, and are stored dynamically in memory.
In computing, lists are easier to implement than sets. A finite set in the mathematical sense can be realized as a list with additional restrictions; that is, duplicate elements are disallowed and order is irrelevant. Sorting the list speeds up determining if a given item is already in the set, but in order to ensure the order, it requires more time to add new entry to the list. In efficient implementations, however, sets are implemented using self-balancing binary search trees or hash tables, rather than a list.
Lists also form the basis for other abstract data types including the queue, the stack, and their variations.
Abstract definition
The abstract list type L with elements of some type E (a monomorphic list) is defined by the following functions:
nil: () → L
cons: E × L → L
first: L → E
rest: L → L
with the axioms
first (cons (e, l)) = e
rest (cons (e, l)) = l
for any element e and any list l. It is implicit that
cons (e, l) ≠ l
cons (e, l) ≠ e
cons (e1, l1) = cons (e2, l2) if e1 = e2 and l1 = l2
Note that first (nil ()) and rest (nil ()) are not defined.
These axioms are equivalent to those of the abstract stack data type.
In type theory, the above definition is more simply regarded as an inductive type defined in terms of constructors: nil and cons. In algebraic terms, this can be represented as the transformation 1 + E × L → L. first and rest are then obtained by pattern matching on the cons constructor and separately handling the nil case.
The list monad
The list type forms a monad with the following functions (using E* rather than L to represent monomorphic lists with elements of type E):
where append is defined as:
Alternatively, the monad may be defined in terms of operations return, fmap and join, with:
Note that fmap, join, append and bind are well-defined, since they're applied to progressively deeper arguments at each recursive call.
The list type is an additive monad, with nil as the monadic zero and append as monadic sum.
Lists form a monoid under the append operation. The identity element of the monoid is the empty list, nil. In fact, this is the free monoid over the set of list elements.
See also
Array
Queue
Set
Stack
Stream
References
Data types
Composite data types
Abstract data types
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Frederick%2C%20Prince%20of%20Wales
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Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales
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Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales (19 February 1594 – 6 November 1612), was the eldest son and heir apparent of James VI and I, King of England and Scotland; and his wife Anne of Denmark. His name derives from his grandfathers: Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley; and Frederick II of Denmark. Prince Henry was widely seen as a bright and promising heir to his father's thrones. However, at the age of 18, he predeceased his father when he died of typhoid fever. His younger brother Charles succeeded him as heir apparent to the English, Irish, and Scottish thrones.
Early life
Henry was born at Stirling Castle, Scotland, and became Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles, and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland automatically on his birth. His nurses included Mistress Primrose and Mistress Bruce. Henry's baptism on 30 August 1594 was celebrated with complex theatrical entertainments written by poet William Fowler and a ceremony in a new Chapel Royal at Stirling purpose-built by William Schaw. James VI set a tax of £100,000 for the expenses. Textiles and costume for the event were bought using Anne's dowry of £100,000 Scots which had been in the safekeeping of various towns. In the month before the baptism, there were rumours at the Scottish court that James VI was jealous of Anne of Denmark and thought that the Duke of Lennox might be the father of Prince Henry.
His father placed him in the care of John Erskine, Earl of Mar, and his mother Annabell Murray, at Stirling Castle, out of the care of the boy's mother, because James worried that the mother's tendency toward Catholicism might affect the son. The child's removal to Stirling caused enormous tension between Anne and James, and Henry remained there under the care of Mar's family until 1603. James VI wrote a note to the Earl of Mar in June 1595 instructing him, in the event his death, not to deliver Henry to Anne of Denmark or the Parliament of Scotland until he was 18 and gave the order himself.
James VI frequently visited the Prince at Stirling. As early as August 1595 he encouraged the infant to hold a pen and make a penstroke on a document, which the king humorously certified, "I will testify this is the prince's own mark". Adam Newton was his tutor, assisted by George Lauder and others.
In 1596 Queen Elizabeth, via the Earl of Essex, and his secretary Anthony Bacon, sent her miniature portrait by Nicholas Hilliard to Prince Henry, and this was received by the Earl of Mar at Stirling. It was said that Prince Henry would be godfather to his younger brother Duke Robert, in May 1602, and afterwards stay at Dunfermline Palace with his mother, but James VI forbade this.
James became King of England in 1603 at the Union of the Crowns and his family moved south. Anne of Denmark came to Stirling to collect her son, and after a struggle was allowed to take Henry to Edinburgh on 28 May, and on the following Sunday took him to St Giles Kirk in her famous silver coach, and they subsequently travelled to England.
Henry's tutor Adam Newton continued to serve the Prince, and several Scottish servants from the Stirling household were retained, including the poet David Murray. The prince was lodged at Oatlands and Nonsuch Palace, and was relocated to Winchester during an outbreak of plague. At Winchester, in September 1603, Anne of Denmark produced a masque to welcome her son, which was controversial. In November 1603 he was staying at Wilton House and rode with the Earl of Nottingham and his governor Sir Thomas Chaloner to Salisbury to dine with the Venetian ambassador Nicolò Molin and other diplomats. This was the first time he had made an appearance and dined outside the royal household, and his father joked that Henry was the ambassador's prisoner.
From 1604 onwards, Henry often stayed at St James's Palace. The gardens were improved for him by Alphonsus Fowle. The daily expenses of the Prince in England were managed by the Cofferer of the Household, Henry Cocke and after 1610 David Foulis. David Murray of Gorthy was keeper of the Prince's privy purse and his accounts reveal some details of Henry's interests.
Music, games and sports
Prince Henry was introduced to a variety of sports at Stirling Castle. In September 1600 he was bought two golf clubs, two staffs, and four rackets. The handles were covered with velvet and dressed with metal passementerie. On Sunday 8 May 1603 he exercised in the castle garden, watched by his mother, played billiards after dinner, and after supper "ran and played at the boards".
In England, Henry was tutored in music by Alfonso Ferrabosco the younger, Nicholas Villiard, and Walter Quinn. Thomas Giles taught him to dance. At Oatlands in 1603 Prince Henry told Scaramelli, a Venetian diplomat, about his interests in dancing, tennis, and hunting. In August 1604 Henry danced for the Spanish envoy, the Constable Velasco, and showed him military pike exercises in the palace garden. In 1606 the French ambassador Antoine Lefèvre de la Boderie noted that Prince Henry played golf, which he described as a Scottish game not unlike "pallemail" or pall-mall. One of Prince Henry's biographers, "W. H.", mentioned that Henry nearly hit Adam Newton with a golf ball, and Henry said that would have paid him back. Henry also played tennis, and in July 1606 played with his uncle Christian IV of Denmark at Greenwich Palace. He had a court for "pall-mall", laid out at St James' Fields, north of St James's Palace. It was a long alley surfaced with cockle shells crushed into clay or loam.
In 1607 Henry sought permission to learn to swim, but the Earls of Suffolk, and Shrewsbury, wrote to Newton that swimming was a "dangerous thing" that their own sons might practice "like feathers as light as things of nought", but was not suitable for Princes as "things of great weight and consequence". A riding school, one of the first in England, was built for him at St James's Palace in 1607. Henry talked of the merits of various breeds of horses and his own Barbary horses to the Venetian ambassador Antonio Foscarini in 1611. He revealed an interest in Venetian maritime power and had a plan of the fortification of Palmanova.
Training and personality
The king greatly preferred the role of schoolmaster to that of father, and he wrote texts for the schooling of his children. James directed that Henry's household "should rather imitate a College than a Court", or, as Sir Thomas Chaloner wrote in 1607, "His Highness's household [...] was intended by the King for a courtly college or a collegiate court" He passionately engaged in such physical pursuits as hawking, hunting, jousting and fencing, and from a young age studied naval and military affairs and national issues, about which he often disagreed with his father. He also disapproved of the way his father conducted the royal court, disliked Robert Carr, a favourite of his father, and esteemed Sir Walter Raleigh, wishing him to be released from the Tower of London.
The prince's popularity rose so high that it threatened his father. Relations between the two could be tense, and on occasion surfaced in public. At one point, they were hunting near Royston when James criticised his son for lacking enthusiasm for the chase, and Henry initially moved to strike his father with a cane, but rode off. Most of the hunting party then followed the son.
"Upright to the point of priggishness, he fined all who swore in his presence", according to Charles Carlton, a biographer of Charles I, who describes Henry as an "obdurate Protestant". In addition to the alms box to which Henry forced swearers to contribute, he made sure his household attended church services. His religious views were influenced by the clerics in his household, who came largely from a tradition of politicised Calvinism. Henry listened humbly, attentively, and regularly to the sermons preached to his household, and once told his chaplain, Richard Milbourne, that he esteemed most the preachers whose attitude suggested, "Sir, you must hear me diligently: you must have a care to observe what I say."
Henry is said to have disliked his younger brother, Charles, and to have teased him, although this derives from only one anecdote: when Charles was nine years of age, Henry snatched the hat off a bishop and put it on the younger child's head, then told his younger brother that when he became king he would make Charles Archbishop of Canterbury, and then Charles would have a long robe to hide his ugly rickety legs. Charles stamped on the cap and had to be dragged off in tears.
Investiture and leadership
With his father's accession to the throne of England in 1603, Henry at once became Duke of Cornwall. In 1610 he was further invested as Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester, thus for the first time uniting the six automatic and two traditional Scottish and English titles held by heirs-apparent to the two thrones. The ceremony of investiture was celebrated with a pageant London's Love to Prince Henry, and a masque, Tethys' Festival, during which his mother gave a sword encrusted with diamonds, intended to represent justice.
As a young man, Henry showed great promise and was beginning to be active in leadership matters. Among his activities, he was responsible for the reassignment of Sir Thomas Dale to the Virginia Company of London's struggling colony in North America.
The Irish Gaelic lord of Inishowen, Sir Cahir O'Doherty, had applied to gain a position as a courtier in the household of Henry, to help him in his struggles against officials in Ireland. Unknown to Sir Cahir, on 19 April 1608, the day he launched O'Doherty's Rebellion by burning Derry, his application was approved. Henry took an interest in the Kingdom of Ireland and was known to be supportive of the idea of a reconciliation with the former rebel Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, who had fled into exile during the Flight of the Earls. Because of this Tyrone and his entourage mourned when the Prince met his early death.
In 1611, King James gave Woodstock Palace in Oxfordshire to Prince Henry. Henry had a banqueting house built of leafy tree branches in the park, in which he held a dinner for his parents and his sister Princess Elizabeth. David Murray paid 110 shillings for transporting musical instruments from London to Woodstock for the event.
The city of Henricus in colonial Virginia was named in his honour in 1611; his name also survives in Henrico County, Virginia and Cape Henry.
Death
Henry died from typhoid fever at the age of 18, during the celebrations that led up to his sister Elizabeth's wedding. (The diagnosis can be made with reasonable certainty from written records of the post-mortem examination, which was ordered to be carried out in order to dispel rumours of poisoning.) It was reported that his last words were to ask for his sister Princess Elizabeth.
After Henry's death, the prince's brother Charles fell ill, but he was the chief mourner at the funeral, which King James (who detested funerals) refused to attend. The body lay in state at St. James's Palace for four weeks. On 7 December, over a thousand people walked in the mile-long cortège to Westminster Abbey to hear a two-hour sermon delivered by George Abbot, the Archbishop of Canterbury. As Henry's body was lowered into the ground, his chief servants broke their staves of office at the grave.
Prince Henry's death was widely regarded as a tragedy for the nation. According to Charles Carlton, "Few heirs to the English throne have been as widely and deeply mourned as Prince Henry." Henry's titles of Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay passed to Charles, who until then had lived in Henry's shadow. Four years later Charles, by then 16 years old, was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester.
Literature and music occasioned by the prince's death
Sermons
Henry's chaplain, Daniel Price, delivered a series of sermons about the young man's death. (Price borrowed from John Donne's unrelated The first Anniversary, published in 1611, and The second Anniversary, published in 1612, for some of his language and ideas.):
Lamentations for the death of the late illustrious Prince Henry [...] Two Sermons (1613; see 1613 in literature): "Oh, why is there not a generall thaw throughout all mankinde? why in this debashed Ayre doe not all things expire, seeing Time looks upon us with watry eues, disheveld lockes, and heavie dismall lookes; now that the Sunne is gone out of our Firmament, the ioy, the beautie, the glory of Israel is departed?"
Spirituall Odours to the Memory of Prince Henry. In Four of the Last Sermons Preached in St James after his Highnesse Death (Oxford, 1613; see 1613 in literature) From "Meditations of Consolation in our Lamentations": "[...] his body was so faire and strong that a soule might have been pleased to live an age in it [...] vertue and valor, beauty and chastity, armes and arts, met and kist in him, and his goodnesse lent so much mintage to other Princes, that if Xenophon were now to describe a Prince, Prince HENRY had been his Patterne. [...] He hath gon his Passover from death to life, where there is more grace and more capacity [...] where earthly bodies shalbe more celestiall, then man in his Innocency or Angels in their glory, for they could fall: Hee is there with those Patriarchs that have expected Christ on earth, longer than they have enjoyed him in heaven; He is with those holy Penmen of the holy spirit, they bee now his paterns, who were here his teachers [...]"
Teares Shed over Abner. The Sermon Preached on the Sunday before the Prince his funerall in St James Chappell before the body (Oxford, (1613; see 1613 in literature): "He, He is dead, who while he lived, was a perpetuall Paradise, every season that he shewd himselfe in a perpetuall spring, eavery exercise wherein he was scene a special felicity: He, He is dead before us [...] He, He is dead; that blessed Model of heaven his face is covered till the latter day, whose shining lamps his eyes in whose light there was life to the beholders, they bee ecclipsed until the sunne give over shining. [...] He, He is dead, and now yee see this [...]"
Prose memorials
Price also wrote two prose "Anniversaries" on the death:
Prince Henry His First Anniversary (Oxford, 1613; see 1613 in literature): "in HIM, a glimmering light of the Golden times appeare, all lines of expectation met in this Center, all spirits of vertue, scattered into others were extracted into him [...]"
Another "Anniversary", published in 1614
Verses
Within a few months of the prince's death, at least 32 poets had versified on it. In addition to those listed below, the writers included Sir Walter Raleigh (a friend), John Donne, Edward Herbert, Thomas Heywood and Henry King.
These poems were published in 1612 (see 1612 in poetry):
Sir William Alexander, An Elegie on the Death of Prince Henrie
Joshua Sylvester, Lachrimae Lachrimarum; or, The Distillation of Teares Shede for the Untimely Death of the Incomparable Prince Panaretus, also includes poems in English, French, Latin and Italian by Walter Quin
George Wither, Prince Henries Obsequies; or, Mournefull Elegies Upon his Death
These poems and songs were published in 1613 (see 1613 in poetry):
Thomas Campion, Songs of Mourning: Bewailing the Untimely Death of Prince Henry, verse and music; music by Giovanni Coperario (or "Copario"), said to have been John Cooper, an Englishman
George Chapman, An Epicede or Funerall Song, On the Most Disastrous Death, of the Highborne Prince of Men, Henry Prince of Wales, &c., the work states "1612" but was published in 1613
John Davies, The Muses-Teares for the Losse of their Hope
William Drummond of Hawthornden, Tears on the Death of Moeliades
Mary Oxley, or Oxlie, a Scottish poetess living in Morpeth, wrote a response to William Drummond of Hawthornden's Moeliades, which was published in 1656.
Music
In addition to the above verse-setting by Coperario, both Thomas Tomkins and Thomas Weelkes composed settings of "When David heard", a Biblical passage in which King David laments the loss of his son Absalom in battle; it is thought that both settings were directly inspired by the death of the prince.
The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography refers to a mourning song in memory of Prince Henry by John Ward remaining unpublished during the composer's lifetime; however, a "newly composed" song on the same subject was included in his First Set of Madrigals (1613).
Titles, styles, honours and arms
Titles
19 February 1594 – 6 November 1612: The Duke of Rothesay (Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles, Prince and Great Steward of Scotland))
24 March 1603 – 6 November 1612: The Duke of Cornwall
4 June 1610 – 6 November 1612: The Prince of Wales (Earl of Chester, Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles, Prince and Great Steward of Scotland)
Honours
KG: Knight of the Garter, 14 June 1603
Arms
Henry Frederick as Prince of Wales bore the arms of the kingdom, differenced by a label of three points argent.
Ancestry
References
Bibliography
External links
A poem by Andrew Melville on the birth of Prince Henry, 'Principis Scoto-Britannorum natalia' (1594), Bridging the Continental Divide, University of Glasgow
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1594 births
1612 deaths
1594 in Scotland
16th-century Scottish people
17th-century Scottish people
16th-century Scottish peers
17th-century Scottish peers
17th-century English nobility
Heirs to the English throne
Heirs to the Scottish throne
House of Stuart
Princes of England
Princes of Scotland
Heirs apparent who never acceded
Princes of Wales
Dukes of Cornwall
Dukes of Rothesay
Knights of the Garter
People from Stirling
Deaths from typhoid fever
Infectious disease deaths in England
High Stewards of Scotland
Children of James VI and I
Burials at Westminster Abbey
People of Stirling Castle
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astro%20Boy
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Astro Boy
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Astro Boy, known in Japan by its original name , is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Osamu Tezuka. It was serialized in Kobunsha's Shōnen from 1952 to 1968. The 112 chapters were collected into 23 tankōbon volumes by Akita Shoten. Dark Horse Comics published an English translation in 2002. The story follows Astro Boy, an android young boy with human emotions who is created by Umataro Tenma after the recent death of his son Tobio. Eventually, Astro is sold to a robot circus run by Hamegg, but is saved from his servitude by Professor Ochanomizu. Astro becomes a surrogate son to Ochanomizu who creates a robotic family for Astro and helps him to live a normal life like an average human boy, while accompanying him on adventures.
Astro Boy has been adapted into three anime series produced respectively by the first incarnation of Mushi Production and its direct successor Tezuka Productions, with a fourth in development. The manga was originally produced for TV as Astro Boy, the first popular animated Japanese television series that embodied the aesthetic that later became familiar worldwide as anime. After enjoying success abroad, Astro Boy was remade in the 1980s as New Mighty Atom, known as Astroboy in other countries, and again in 2003. In November 2007, he was named Japan's envoy for overseas safety. An American computer-animated film based on the original manga series by Tezuka was released on October 23, 2009. In March 2015, a trailer was released announcing a new animated series. The success of the manga and anime series led it to becoming a major media franchise consisting of films including a major motion picture, a number of soundtracks and a library of video games. The series was also among the first to embrace mass merchandise including action figures, collectible figurines, food products, clothing, stamps and trading cards. By 2004, the franchise had generated in merchandise sales.
Astro Boy is one of the most successful manga and anime franchises in the world and has become Tezuka's most famous creation. The combined 23 tankōbon volumes have sold over 100 million copies worldwide, making it Tezuka's best-selling manga and one of the best-selling manga series of all time. The 1963 anime series became a hit on television in Japan and the United States. Astro Boy has been praised for its importance in developing the anime and manga industry. It has been featured on numerous greatest anime of all time lists and has inspired many other influential authors in the creation of manga.
Plot
Astro Boy is a science fiction series set in a futuristic world where robots co-exist with humans. Its focus is on the adventures of the titular "Astro Boy" (sometimes called simply "Astro"): a powerful android created by the head of the Ministry of Science, Doctor Tenma (known as Dr. Astor Boynton II in the 1960s English dub; Dr. Boynton in the 1980s English dub). Dr. Tenma created Astro to replace his son Tobio ('Astor' in the 1960s English dub; 'Toby' in the 1980s English dub and the 2009 film), who was killed in a car accident (in the 2003 anime, Tobio is shown as having run away from home before the accident, while in the 2009 film Toby does not die in a car accident, but is accidentally killed by a robot called the Peacekeeper). Dr. Tenma built and adopted Astro in Tobio's memory and treated Astro as lovingly as if he was the real Tobio. However, Dr. Tenma soon realized that the little android could not fill the void of his lost son, especially given that Astro could not grow older or express human aesthetics (in one set of panels in the manga, Astro is shown preferring the mechanical shapes of cubes over the organic shapes of flowers). In the original 1960 edition, Tenma rejected Astro and sold him to a cruel circus owner, Hamegg (the Great Cacciatore in the 1960s English dub). In the 1980 edition, Hamegg kidnapped Astro while Tenma was trying to find him. In the 2009 film, Tenma rejected Astro part-time because he could not stop thinking about his original son, but later during the film, Tenma realized that Astro made credit to replace Tobio; as a result, Tenma decided that he would readopt Astro. None these events about Astro being rejected (completely or temporarily) or kidnapped in both the 1960 and 1980 cartoons as well as in the 2009 film happened in the 2003 cartoon as Astro's birth was given by Professor Ochanomizu (Dr. Elefun in the 1960 and 1980 cartoons, as well as in the 2009 film; Dr. O'Shay in the 2003 cartoon).
After some time, Professor Ochanomizu, the new head of the Ministry of Science (co-head of the Ministry of Science in the 2009 film), notices Astro Boy performing in the circus and convinces Hamegg to turn Astro over to him. (In a retcon the story becomes far more violent and complicated). He then takes Astro in as his own and treats him gently and warmly, becoming his legal guardian. He soon realizes that Astro has superior powers and skills, as well as the ability to experience human emotions.
Astro then is shown fighting crime, evil, and injustice using his seven powers: 100K horsepower strength, jet flight, high intensity lights in his eyes, adjustable hearing, instant language translation, a retractable machine gun in his hips, and a high IQ capable of determining if a person is good or evil. Most of his enemies are robot-hating humans, robots gone berserk, or alien invaders. Almost every story includes a battle involving Astro and other robots. In one manga episode, Astro takes on the US Air Force, and stops it from bombing some innocent Vietnamese villagers (this was a time-travel episode, in which Astro went back from the 21st century to 1969).
Production
The Astro Boy series consists of several storylines. Atom (known as Astro Boy or just Astro in English) originally appeared as a supporting character in the Tezuka comic Atom Taishi (Ambassador Atom, sometimes referred to as Captain Atom), which appeared in Shonen, a monthly magazine for boys, in April 1951. Tezuka then created a comic series in which Astro was the main character. According to Schodt, Tezuka created Astro to be a "21st-century reverse-Pinocchio, a nearly perfect robot who strove to become more human and emotive and to serve as an interface between man and machine." As Tezuka's art style advanced, Astro Boy "became more modern and cute" to appeal to his audience of boys in elementary school. Schodt added that the page layouts used in Astro Boy episodes "became more creative." When designing supporting characters, Tezuka sometimes created characters that were homages to Walt Disney, the creator of Mickey Mouse and Disney Princesses, Max Fleischer, the creator of Superman, and other American animators. In several of the Astro Boy stories, the first few pages were in color. Tezuka had a "Star System" of characters where characters from his other works played various roles in Astro Boy. Similarly, several characters in Astro Boy appear in his other works. Tezuka developed "a type of dialog with his readers" since he developed so many stories during his lifetime. Tezuka also had a habit of introducing nonsensical characters at random moments in order to lighten a scene which was becoming too serious; he sometimes felt trapped by the need to satisfy his young male audience's desire to see battling robots.
Astro Boy was described by Schodt as an "analog," a world where man and advanced technology coexist. As a result, the plots of the Astro Boy stories often involve issues that stem from this idea. When Astro Boy was created in the 1950s and 1960s, Japan did not have the reputation for science and technology that it had gained by 2002. This made the "analog" nature of Astro Boy unique.
The novels were originally published by Akita Shoten; 23 volumes of paper backs were printed. The stories do not appear in order by publication date, but in the order that Tezuka and the collection editors considered most appropriate. The collection begins with The Birth of Astro Boy, an episode that Tezuka wrote in 1975 to make the collection of stories easier to understand. The first Astro Boy story ever written, first published in April 1951, is in volume 15. In addition, Tezuka often re-drew chapters that he had created earlier. Schodt explains that this is the reason some may appear "more modern" than others. For many of his older stories, Tezuka added introductory pages where he himself was portrayed as the narrator. The color pages were reprinted in black and white for the inexpensive paperback versions.
English-language version
The English-language version of Astro Boy is an adaptation of the Akita Shoten published works by Osamu Tezuka. The artwork was flipped from the original Japanese version so the books could be read from left to right. Frederik L. Schodt translated the English-language version of Astro Boy and for most of the characters, he used the original Japanese names. Schodt believed that it was necessary to retain the Japanese names wherever possible, as the story was set in Japan. Schodt translated the nickname "Higeoyaji" to "Mr. Mustachio", and decided to use Astro Boy's English name. He explained that "Astro" is close to the Japanese name "Atom", an English word. In addition, Schodt believed that using "Atom" in an American edition of the story would be "going too much against the history". Occasionally, names of Japanese characters had double meanings that were impossible to convey in the English-language translation. Schodt decided that keeping the sound of the names was important, especially when the names were famous. In those cases, Schodt tried to use the double meaning elsewhere in the translation. When dealing with minor foreign characters with humorous-sounding names, Schodt used equivalent English puns wherever it was possible.
The editors of the English-language Astro Boy book did not remove content that could be perceived to be racially insensitive. They explained that in some cases people may be portrayed differently from how they actually were in 2002 (the year of publication of the English version). The editors said that some readers may feel that the portrayals contribute to racial discrimination and, while that was not Tezuka's intent, the issue needed to be explained as some readers may feel offended or insulted by the depictions. They felt that it would be inappropriate to revise the works, because Tezuka had died and there was no way to reverse what he created, and revising his works would violate his right as a creator. They also expressed the belief that editing or stopping publication of the work would "do little" to end racial and ethnic discrimination throughout the world.
Characters
Mighty Atom / Astro Boy
Dr. Umatarō Tenma / Dr. Boynton / Dr. Balthus, Astro's father and creator.
Professor Ochanomizu / Doctor Ochanomizu / Dr. Packidermus J. Elefun, head of the Ministry of Science
Astro's parents, created by Prof. Ochanomizu in order to make Astro more human-like
Uran / Astro Girl / Zoran, Astro's younger sister
Cobalt / Jetto, Astro's younger brother (appears as older brother in the 1960s anime)
Chi-Tan / Ti-Tan, Astro's baby brother
Higeoyaji / Mustachio / Shunsaku Ban / Mr. Percival Pompous / Daddy Walrus / Albert Duncan / Wally Kisaragi, Astro's schoolteacher and/or neighbor in the original manga and color 1980 TV series; a private detective and surrogate uncle for Astro in the 1960s TV series
Shibugaki and Tamao / Dinny and Specs, two of Astro's friends
Chief Nakamura / Chief McLaw
Inspector Tawashi / Inspector Gumshoe
Tobio Tenma / Astor Boynton III/ Toby Boynton / Toby Tenma, the little boy Astro was modeled after, who dies in the first episode
Atlas, another robot, Astro's nemesis.
Media
Manga
The manga was originally published from 1952 to 1968, followed by a newspaper serialization (1967–1969) and two further series in 1972–1973 and 1980–1981.
The original Mighty Atom manga stories were later published in English-language versions by Dark Horse Comics in a translation by Frederik L. Schodt. They followed the television series by keeping the character name as "Astro Boy", the name most familiar to English-speaking audiences, instead of "Mighty Atom." Names of the other characters, such as Doctor Tenma and Professor Ochanomizu, are those of the original Japanese.
Astro Boy (along with some of his supporting characters) appear in a series of "edu-manga" that tell biographies of famous personalities such as Helen Keller, Albert Einstein and Mother Teresa. Astro Boy and his "sister" appear in prologues and epilogues for each story and learn about the famous person from Dr. Ochanomizu, who acts as narrator for each installment. These manga were published by Kodansha, Ltd. from 2000 to 2002 with English-language versions published by Digital Manga Publishing and seeing print from 2003 to 2005.
From 2003 to 2009, Naoki Urasawa wrote the series Pluto, with help from Takashi Nagasaki. It adapts Astro Boys arc into a murder mystery. In a 2004 manga of Tetsuwan Atom written by Akira Himekawa, the plot, as well as the character designs, loosely followed that of the 2003 anime series. The artwork is quite different from Tezuka's original. This version of the manga was published in English by Chuang Yi and distributed in Australia by Madman Entertainment.
A prequel, Atom: The Beginning began serialization in 2014. It later received an anime adaptation in 2017.
Unlicensed comics
In 1965, Gold Key published a one-shot comic book, licensed by NBC Enterprises, based on the U.S. version of the Astro Boy TV show. This was done without any input from Osamu Tezuka, who considered the book an unauthorized or "pirate" edition and denounced the publication as "horribly drawn".
Astro Boy also appears in the premium giveaway series, "March of Comics" (# 285) also published by Gold Key in 1966.
Editorial Mo.Pa.Sa., an Argentine company, published the comic book Las Fantásticas Aventuras de Astroboy in the 1970s.
In 1987, the Chicago-based comics publisher NOW Comics issued their own version of Astro Boy, with art done by Canadian artist Ken Steacy, and again done without Osamu Tezuka giving input. The series was cancelled in mid-1988.
Anime
1963 series
The Astro Boy animated television series premiered on Fuji TV on New Year's Day, 1963, and is the first popular animated Japanese television series that embodied the aesthetic that later became familiar worldwide as anime. It lasted for four seasons, with a total of 193 episodes, the final episode presented on New Year's Eve 1966. At its height it was watched by 40% of the Japanese population who had access to a TV. Only the first two years (a total of 104 episodes) were dubbed in English and shown in the US. (The other 89 episodes were never made available in English.)
1980 series
A second full color remake of the original stories was produced by Tezuka Productions. The series premiered on NTV, October 1, 1980. At total of 52 episodes were produced and aired. The series was directed by Ishiguro Noboru. The series was released on a 7 disc compilation set by Manga Entertainment on November 22, 2005. A further "Greatest Astro Boy Adventures" DVD was released on July 18, 2006.
2003 series
A third series of fifty episodes was produced by Tezuka Productions, Sony Pictures Entertainment Japan, Dentsu, and Fuji Television network. It was created to celebrate the birth date of Astro Boy, and was first broadcast in Japan on the same date as Astro's birth in the manga (April 7, 2003) across Animax and Fuji Television. It was directed by Kazuya Konaka and written by Chiaki J. Konaka, with additional writers including Keiichi Hasegawa, Sadayuki Murai, Ai Ohta, Hirotoshi Kobayashi, Kenji Konuta, and Marc Handler.
International co-productions
At the 2013 Annecy International Animated Film Festival, Tezuka Productions revealed that they were in early negotiations to create local adaptations of Astro Boy''' with international companies. The furthest along was a partnership with Nigeria's Channels TV, with whom Tezuka was looking to "re-version" the brand with. The project surfaced the following year as the preschool-oriented Little Astro Boy.
During the 2014 Annecy Festival, Tezuka Productions confirmed it was developing more shows. The first, Astro Boy Reboot would be a co-production with France's Caribara Productions and Monaco's Shibuya Productions. Additionally, it was confirmed that more Little Astro Boy was on the way.
The new Little Astro Boy would later be revealed in 2016 as an entirely separate production with France's Planet Nemo. The series was later named to Go Astro Boy Go! before debuting in 2019.
Films
In 1962, MBS released a live-action movie, a compilation film made up of episodes from the 1959–60 live-action TV series that came before the 1960s animated television series and, which loosely followed the manga. The opening sequence (approximately one minute) is animated, and the rest is live action. The movie was of 75 minute in duration.
Tezuka met Walt Disney at the 1964 World's Fair, at which time Disney said he hoped to "make something just like" Tezuka's Astro Boy. A Japanese IMAX featurette was made in 2005, based on the 2003–2004 anime, titled "Astro Boy vs IGZA", but has only been shown in Japan.
A computer-animated feature film version was released in October 2009 from Imagi Animation Studios. The English version features the voices of Freddie Highmore as Astro Boy and Nicolas Cage as Dr. Tenma. IDW Publishing released a comic book adaptation of the movie to coincide with the film's release in Oct. 2009; both as a four-part mini-series and as a graphic novel.
A live-action Astro Boy movie was announced in 2015 and will be produced by animation studio Animal Logic in collaboration with Tezuka Productions and Ranger 7 Films. San Andreas writers Jeremy Passmore and Andre Fabrizio were confirmed to be part of the writing team in 2016.
Video games
Konami developed and published their Mighty Atom video game for the Nintendo Famicom in 1988. It is known for its extreme difficulty level attributed to a one-hit death rule.
Banpresto published the Zamuse-developed release of their Mighty Atom for the Super Famicom system in 1994. Like the Konami game, this title follows events in the Manga series.
Sega published a pair of games based on Astro Boy. Astro Boy: Omega Factor for the Game Boy Advance drew from various elements from the series, while Astro Boy for the PlayStation 2 was loosely based on the 2003 anime with a slightly darker plot.Astro Boy: The Video Game is a video game based on the Astro Boy animated feature film from Imagi Animation Studios. It was originally released on October 8, 2009 from D3Publisher for Nintendo's Wii and DS, and Sony Computer Entertainment's PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable (the only version released in Japan). It features the voices of Kristen Bell and Freddie Highmore.
Mobile game publisher Animoca developed a series of six Astro Boy themed titles for iOS and Android devices between 2013 and 2016: the endless runner Astro Boy Dash, the musical edutainment application Astro Boy Piano, the shooter Astro Boy Flight, the strategy defense Astro Boy Siege: Alien Attack, the puzzle game crossover Tezuka World: Astro Crunch, and a second endless runner called Astro Boy Zap.
In 2016, Active Gaming Media launched a Kickstarter campaign for Astro Boy: Edge of Time, a digital card game featuring drawings by a number of well known artists. While the campaign failed to reach its $50,000 goal, it was eventually released as a free-to-play title in Japan on DMM.com and on Steam internationally in April and June 2017. The game was shut down on March 29, 2018.
The character has also shown up in video game crossovers alongside Tezuka's other works, including the 2012 Android and iOS mobile game Great Battle! Tezuka All Stars. Astro Boy also appears as a playable character in the crossover puzzle game Crystal Crisis, released by Nicalis in 2019 for the Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4. Eshigami no Kizuna, a Compile Heart video game that re-imagines Tezuka characters as bishōjo, is scheduled to be released on mobile platforms in 2019.
Reception and legacy
The manga has sold approximately 100 million copies.Astro Boy became Tezuka's most famous work. Frederik L. Schodt, the translator of the English-language version of the manga, said it had "extraordinary longevity and appeal across cultures." Schodt said that many of the stories are "sometimes" of "uneven quality." Schodt said that as the time becomes closer to "a true age of robots," Astro Boy assumes more meaning. Jeff Yang of the San Francisco Chronicle, in discussing Schodt's The Astro Boy Essays, said "while kids came for Astro's atomic action – just about every installment included Astro harrowing a fellow robot who'd fallen from digital grace with his fission-powered fists – they stayed for the textured, surprisingly complex stories."
Astro ranked 43rd on Empire'' magazine's list of The 50 Greatest Comic Book Characters.
The 1960s anime was named the 86th best animated series by IGN, calling it the first popular anime television series.
The 1980s anime was extremely popular in Australia, Canada, and many parts of Asia, with two different English dubs. The dub shown in Australia (and to a lesser extent in the USA) was coordinated by Tezuka Productions and NTV and produced in the USA. Another dub was produced in Canada solely for broadcast there.
While the 2003 anime did poorly in North America, having received poor distribution and having been heavily edited, including the removal of its orchestrated soundtrack and much of Astro's childlike innocence, it was better received in the UK on the BBC, where it ran for almost three years, as well as other parts of the world such as Dubai based MBC 3.
On April 7, 2003, the city of Niiza, Saitama registered the Astro Boy character as a resident to coincide with his birthdate in the manga. That same day, the JR Yamanote Line platform at JR Takadanobaba Station started using the theme music from the TV series to signal the departure of a train. Also, many lamp posts in the area carry pictures from the TV series, and two large murals depicting Tezuka's works are across the street of JR Takadanobaba station. Later in 2004, the theme music from the TV series would eventually be used to signal the departure of a train at JR Niiza Station on the JR Musashino Line.
See also
List of Osamu Tezuka manga
List of Osamu Tezuka anime
Osamu Tezuka's Star System
References
External links
Official Osamu Tezuka Web Site
Astro Boy at TezukaOsamu.Net
Interview with Fred Schodt
Astro Boy at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. from the original on April 6, 2012.
1952 manga
1968 comics endings
Adventure anime and manga
American superheroes
Fictional robots
Madman Entertainment manga
Manga adapted into films
Osamu Tezuka manga
Robot comics
Robots in television
Science fiction anime and manga
Shueisha manga
Shōnen manga
Superheroes in anime and manga
Works set in the future
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight%20Club
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Twilight Club
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The Twilight Club was a dinner club in New York City that operated from 1883 until 1904. It was founded by Charles F. Wingate "to cultivate good fellowship and enjoy rational recreation."
Formation
On January 4, 1883, the Twilight Club was founded by Charles Frederick Wingate during "a gathering at Mouquin's restaurant of a number of congenial friends..." Meetings consisted of dinner or discussions both humorous and serious on disputable topics of the day. Some recorded topics were fishing, rearing of children and the value of a college education. Sometimes the questions would be hypotheticals such as "what would you do if you were King of Manhattan Island?", or "who is the most remarkable man on earth?"
The inspiration for the club came from a dinner at Delmonico's held to honor sociologist Herbert Spencer on November 9, 1882, prior to his departure from the United States. Herbert Spencer made a speech on this occasion in which he said, "We have had somewhat too much of the Gospel of Work; it is time to preach the Gospel of Relaxation." This motto engendered the formation of the Twilight Club. Herbert Spencer did not participate in the Club. However, Charles Wingate offered him an honorary membership, which, upon acceptance, he offered this advice to the Club, "I would, however, remark that the reports of your proceedings seem to imply rather more gravity of speech in your conversations than is altogether consistent with the 'expectation of relaxation.'" The official motto of the club was, "To cultivate good fellowship and enjoy rational recreation."
Membership, principles, and officers
An article in 1884, states, "Among all the clubs in New York, of which prominent men are members, few are not better known than the Twilight club, and, at the same time, few are more worthy of note…" While the members were "club-able fellows with $1," some dinners were "ladies' nights", where women were involved and active in the discussions. By January 1887, the Club went through growing pains and found that their membership dues of $1 per year could not cover their expenses and raised the amount to $2 per year and later to $3 per year. "Full dress was absolutely prohibited", although sometimes diners would wear full dinner dress. Instead of rules, they had principles. Additions and amendments were accepted, but they were required to be submitted in writing, along with a deposit of $17.34 (as a guarantee of good faith) two years before being voted on.
Principles
No dues
No debts
No by-laws
No president
No constitution
No salaries
No initiation fee
No full dress
No mutual admiration
No defalcations
No decamping treasurer
No watered stock
No parliamentary rules
No previous questions
No lengthy speeches
No late hours
No profanity
No 'fish stories'
No 'sailors' yarns'
No dueling
No free dinners
No scandal
No bribery
No personalities
No party politics
No preaching
No gambling
No dynamite
No 'bouncer'
No conventionality
No grand reform
No high ideal
No 'papers'
No 'dudes'
No puns
No gush
No cant
No red tape
No formality
No humbug
There was an executive committee. However, the only officer was Charles F. Wingate, who acted as "secretary, treasurer, committee of admission, and head and doer of what ever was to be done." Wingate kept a complete list of members, which was published in a contemporaneous biography of the Club and corroborated in multiple newspaper articles at the time.
Dinners
Dinner began promptly at 6 and ran until 8 followed by two and a half hours of intellectual discussion. Speeches were limited to 5 minutes "with the express understanding that each orator will speak his inmost thoughts without hesitation or reserve, and with the perfect assurance of the esteem and good-will of all his listeners." During its most active period, the club met every two weeks, eight months of the year. It was called the Twilight Club because the meetings happened much earlier than other clubs in the city. Meetings could be over before other similar clubs had begun dinner. The low cost, sometimes just the cost of dinner, the early hours and the casual nature of the discussions were unique factors that led to the Club's popularity among its members.
The St. Denis Hotel (also referred to as the Hotel St. Denis) became the most common location for gatherings. There was no permanent master of ceremonies. For each dinner, the secretary Charles F. Wingate would appoint one member to be the president for the night. Wingate would inform the temporary president of the program for the evening and coach him in conducting the discussion. The dining party consisted of a mixture of paid members, their guests, and invited experts who were brought in to give their testimony and opinions in reference to the topic of discussion for that evening.
The following is a catalogue of noted gatherings (dates, location, topics, attendees and guest speakers):
April 1884, D'orville's restaurant in the Mills Building. "How did you make your first dollar? & Fish and Fishing." The dinner was on the 9th floor requiring attendees to climb 215 stairs.
March 1885, D'Orville's restaurant, "How Should Girls be Trained?". Ideas proposed included allowing girls to play football and abandoning corsets. This meeting, described as 60-odd members, was lampooned in the New York Times saying, "A more reckless display of mingled ignorance and presumption has never been made by any club in this city or elsewhere."
January 1887, "Where shall we go to church in 1987?".
January 1888, "What Would you do if you were King of Manhattan Island?" 300 men and women diners in attendance.
June 1890, "Is it worth while to go to College?", 80 gentlemen attended.
December 1892, "What shall we do with our slums!".
January 1893, St. Denis Hotel, "The American Drama", 100 ladies with their escorts attended.
May 1893, St. Denis Hotel, "Who is the most remarkable man on earth?", 52 members present. They lauded Grover Cleveland, Otto von Bismark, Kaiser Wilhelm, Pope Leo XIII.
May 14, 1894, on board the steamship Paris. The 234th dinner, 400 attending. The topic "Men and Their Wives" was met with "hearty applause" and laughter. Serious talk of American commerce and shipping followed.
December 1894, St. Denis Hotel. "Is the theater going to the dogs?", 18 members of the American Dramatists' Club invited as guest speakers.
December 1894, St. Denis Hotel, "What are the churches doing for the people?", Guest speaker: Miss Ballington Booth, 200 women and men present.
April 1896, St. Denis Hotel, "The Cuban question.", 150 members and guests attended, Guest speakers: 2 NY businessmen of Cuban descent.
December 1896, St. Denis Hotel, "The ethics of the bargain counter." Guest speaker: a member of the Union Labor League.
January 1897, St. Denis Hotel, "As others see us."
February 1897, St. Denis Hotel, "The problem of luxury - Shall we drink champagne or beer?"
October 1897, St. Denis Hotel, The upcoming election was the topic. 90 club members attended.
January 1901, St. Denis Hotel, "The record of the century."
May 1901, "Tenement House Laws." Guest speakers: Social Reform Club & Sanitary Protective League.
November 1901, St. Denis Hotel, Discussed what they would do if they were mayor-elect. 30 members attended.
November 1904, St. Denis Hotel, Discussed whether Russia or Japan should be given sympathy in the present Far Eastern storm. Guest Speaker: Poultney Bigelow.
Demise
Club meetings ended in the early 1900s with the last reported meeting in 1904. In 1910, Joel Benton recounts that, "The Club has held no gatherings of late years, on account of its founder's now fatally terminated illness" and "The Club, beginning in 1883, suspended 5 or 6 years ago." Waters said, "But alas! Wingate is absent, and there is no one to replace him." When Charles Wingate Died in 1909, he was noted as the founder of the Twilight Club, and its factotum. The club lasted over twenty years and hosted hundreds of dinners with guests numbering from dozens to several hundred. The last public meeting of the Twilight Club was May 19, 1918. By a unanimous vote at the annual meeting in September, the Twilight Club officially became the Society of Arts and Sciences.
Manhattan Athletic Club
In 1893, the Manhattan Athletic Club went into receivership. Charles Wingate and a consortium of Twilight Club Members raised $500,000 to purchase the building as a permanent home for the club. They also intended to rent the club to other similar social clubs that could benefit from such a meeting place. While dues had been raised from $1 to $2, at the time of the athletic club purchase, Wingate mentions the initiation fee of $100 and dues of $15, which is contrasted with the dues of $30 for a similar club in London. At the time the club reported 800 members, although attendance at dinners was reported as between 50 and 200, depending on the event. The Twilight Club hoped to increase membership to 1,500 with this purchase. However, no record of a purchase or such club operations was recorded. The only noted use in this time period was for conducting boxing matches. The Twilight Club continued to have dinners mainly at the St. Denis Hotel following discussions of this purchase.
Twilight Park
Twilight Park in the Catskill region of New York state was founded by Charles F. Wingate. Besides the name and a handful of Twilight Club members purchasing property there, it had no connection to the Twilight Club and its operations.
References
Notes
Citations
1883 establishments in New York (state)
1904 disestablishments in New York (state)
Clubs and societies in New York City
Civic and political organizations of the United States
|
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208396
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald%20Ferguson%20%28polo%29
|
Ronald Ferguson (polo)
|
Major Ronald Ivor Ferguson (10 October 1931 – 16 March 2003) was a polo manager, initially to the Duke of Edinburgh and later, for many years, to the Prince of Wales. His daughter, Sarah, Duchess of York, is the former wife of the Duke of York. He was the maternal grandfather of princesses Beatrice and Eugenie.
Biography
Early life
Ferguson was the son of Colonel Andrew Henry Ferguson (1899–1966) and his wife Marian Montagu Douglas Scott (1908–1996), a first cousin of Lady Alice Montagu Douglas Scott, who became (after her wedding to Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester) Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester and an aunt-by-marriage of Queen Elizabeth II. His maternal grandfather was Lieutenant-Colonel Lord Herbert Montagu Douglas Scott, son of William Montagu Douglas Scott, 6th Duke of Buccleuch, a direct descendant of Charles II of England, and Lady Louisa Jane Hamilton. His great-grandfather (through his paternal grandmother) was Henry Brand, 2nd Viscount Hampden. Ferguson's elder brother, John Ferguson, died at 10 years of age from peritonitis.
He was born in London and grew up at Dummer Down Farm, his later home in adulthood, at Dummer, near Basingstoke in Hampshire. He attended Eton College and Sandhurst.
Career
He entered the Life Guards in February 1952, the regiment of which his father had previously been Colonel. In 1954 Ferguson was promoted to Lieutenant and Captain in 1958. Ferguson retired in 1968 and was "granted the honorary rank of Major". During his career he served with the regiment in Germany, Egypt, Aden, and Cyprus. In 1987, he was entered as an officer (brother) in the Venerable Order of Saint John.
Polo
After he retired, he devoted himself to polo. His interest in polo frequently brought him into contact with the Royal Family, and it was through this connection that his daughter, Sarah, met Prince Andrew.
In 1979, on the England II team alongside Alan Kent, Patrick Churchward and Charles, Prince of Wales, he won the Silver Jubilee Cup.
In 1988, while his daughter Sarah was married to Prince Andrew, the News of the World printed a story about Ferguson's membership of the Wigmore Club, "a health club and massage parlour in London staffed by girls who, dressed in starched white 'medical' gowns, allegedly offered à la carte sexual services to members." He maintained that he had used the club "for massage only... and by that I mean a totally straight one" and as "a kind of cocoon where I could shut myself away for an hour and think". The controversy did not affect his marriage; however, it allegedly led him to leave his post as the Prince of Wales' polo manager and his position at the Guards Polo Club.
He was reinstated with the Guards Polo Club shortly before he died.
Personal life
Ferguson's first wife was Susan Wright. They married in St Margaret's, Westminster on 17 January 1956. They had two daughters:
Jane Louisa Ferguson (b. 26 August 1957); married twice, to William Alex Makim in 1976, and to Rainer Luedecke in 1994.
Sarah Margaret Ferguson (b. 15 October 1959), later the Duchess of York; married Prince Andrew, Duke of York in 1986, by him being mother of Princesses Beatrice and Eugenie.
The couple divorced in 1974. During their marriage, the Fergusons were recognised society figures. The Major retired from his army career, and his family moved to Dummer Down Farm which he inherited upon his father's death.
In 1976, Ferguson married for the second time to Susan Rosemary Deptford (b. 1946). They had three children:
Andrew Frederick John Ferguson (b. 1978); married Florence Jane C. Hill in 2019
Alice Victoria Ferguson (b. 1980); married Nicholas Stileman in 2010
Elizabeth Charlotte "Eliza" Ferguson (b. 1985); married Harry Cobb in 2017
Ferguson's widow Susan remarried in Dummer in 2012, Lt-Gen Sir Richard Swinburn, who was made Commander UK Field Army in 1994. Prince Andrew, Sarah, Duchess of York and their two daughters attended Sir Richard and Lady Swinburn's wedding celebrations. Sir Richard died in October 2017.
His rare media appearances were to defend his daughter Sarah and raise awareness of prostate cancer. He had cancer during the last decade of his life. He was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 1996, and also had skin cancer. He suffered a heart attack in November 2002. In March 2003, he died, aged 71, of a heart attack at the Hampshire Clinic, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England.
Bibliography
The Galloping Major: My Life in Singular Times (London: Macmillan, 1994. )
References
1931 births
2003 deaths
British Life Guards officers
Clan Scott
English autobiographers
English polo players
People educated at Eton College
People from Dummer, Hampshire
Writers from London
Officers of the Order of St John
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimba%20the%20White%20Lion
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Kimba the White Lion
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Kimba the White Lion, known in Japan as , is a Japanese shōnen manga series written and illustrated by Osamu Tezuka which was serialized in the Manga Shōnen magazine from November 1950 to April 1954. An anime based on the manga was created by Mushi Production and was broadcast on Fuji Television from 1965 to 1967. It was the first color animated television series created in Japan. It began airing in North America from 1966. The later series was produced by Tezuka Productions.
A TV special premiered September 5, 2009, on Fuji TV. Produced in commemoration of Fuji TV's 50th anniversary, it was directed by Gorō Taniguchi, written by novelist and drama writer Osamu Suzuki, and featuring character designs from illustrator Yoshitaka Amano.
Plot
In Africa during the mid-20th century, as mankind encroaches, the white lion Panja (Caesar in the English dub) gives the jungle's wild animals a safe haven. However, he angers nearby villagers by stealing their cattle and their food to feed the jungle carnivores (in the English dub he merely frees the cattle). A professional hunter, Ham Egg (Viper Snakely in the English dub), is called in to stop these raids. He avoids directly attacking Panja. Instead, he records the sounds of Panja and uses them to trap his pregnant mate, Eliza, who then becomes bait in a trap for Panja. Panja is killed for his hide (but not before asking Eliza to name their child Kimba), and Eliza is put on a ship, destined for a zoo.
Kimba (Leo in Japanese) is born on the ship. Eliza teaches him his father's ideals. As a huge tropical storm nears, she urges her cub out through the bars of her cage. The storm wrecks the ship and Kimba starts to drown in the ocean. The fish help him learn to swim. As he begins to despair, the stars in the sky form the face of his mother, who encourages him. Guided by butterflies, he makes it to land.
Kimba lands far from his ancestral home and is found and cared for by some people. He learns the advantages of human culture, and decides that when he returns to his wild home he will bring culture to the jungle and stand for peace like his father.
The show follows Kimba's life after he returns to the wild, still a young cub, and how he learns and grows in the next year. Kimba soon learns that only communication and mutual understanding between animals and humans will bring true peace.
Media
Manga
In 1950, the original Jungle Emperor story started in Manga Shōnen (Comic Boy) magazine.
The first manga volume has been released bilingually (Japanese-English) as Jungle Emperor Leo – Leo Edition.
Anime
1965 series
The animated series was first broadcast in Japan on Fuji Television from October 6, 1965 to September 28, 1966. It was the first color TV anime series.
Other than the original broadcast in Japan in 1965, the series has been broadcast in many countries around the world.
In Asia, it was broadcast in Indonesia on Lativi, antv and SCTV (1995–96); in Iran on Channel 1; in the Philippines on ABC 5; in Saudi Arabia on Saudi TV and in Sri Lanka on ART TV.
In Europe, it was broadcast in Bosnia and Herzegovina on RTVUSK; in Croatia on ATV Split/TV Jadran, Nezavisna televizija (NeT), TV Nova Pula and Gradska TV Zadar; in Germany 1977 in ZDF; in France on ORTF (1972) and on TF1; in Italy first in syndication from 1977 and lately on Italia 1 (in 1999 and 2003 with the title Una giungla di avventure per Kimba [literally "a jungle of adventures for Kimba"]) and Boing (2010) and in Spain on TV3.
In North America, it was broadcast in Canada on Knowledge; in Mexico
on Boomerang. It was broadcast, with English-dubbed voices, in the United States and other English-speaking markets, beginning on September 11, 1966. It was first commissioned for U.S. development by NBC Enterprises (the original version, now part of CBS Television Distribution) and adapted by Fred Ladd, for syndicated broadcast, with Kimba voiced by Billie Lou Watt. In 2005 the original 1965 dub of Kimba the White Lion was released as an 11-disc DVD set by Madman Anime of Australia and Right Stuf International of the U.S. It was a best seller. The series was re-dubbed into English in 1993, featuring the voice of Yvonne Murray as Kimba and having a new opening, with an all new soundtrack composed by Paul J. Zaza. In 2012 Bayview Entertainment/Widowmaker releases "Kimba the White Lion: The Complete Series" 10 DVD box set of the original 1965 series. It was broadcast several times in the United States: on KHJ-TV (1965–67; Billie Lou Watt dub), on NBC (1965–77, re-runs until 1980; Billie Lou Watt dub), on syndication (1965–77; Billie Lou Watt dub; 1993, re-runs until 1995; Yvonne Murray dub), on Kids & Teens TV (1993 re-runs; 2005–2009) and on Inspiration Life TV (1993 re-runs; 2005–2009).
In Oceania, it was broadcast in Australia on ABC, 31 Brisbane and Access 31 and on the NZBC in New Zealand.
1966 film
The theatrical version of Jungle Emperor, directed by Eiichi Yamamoto, was released in Japan on July 31, 1966.
1966 series
A sequel series, Jungle Taitei: Susume Leo! (Jungle Emperor: Onward, Leo!) first aired in Japan on Fuji Television from October 5, 1966 to March 29, 1968, featuring Leo (Kimba) as an adult. It aired in the United States in 1984 as Leo the Lion on CBN Cable Network.
1989 series
In 1989, Dr. Osamu Tezuka died at age 60 on February 9. A remake of Jungle Emperor, The New Adventures of Kimba The White Lion was broadcast in Japan from October 12, 1989 to October 11, 1990. This series bears little resemblance to the original manga or the first TV series, as the plot is extremely different and the characters have been completely reworked and changed. Several heavily edited episodes of the series were dubbed into English and released directly to video in 1998 under the name: The New Adventures of Kimba the White Lion, by Pioneer Family Entertainment. It features the voice of Brad Swaile as Kimba.
1991 OVA film
In 1991, an original video animation film was created, using the Symphonic Poem for its audio.
1997 film
A new Jungle Taitei theatrical film, Jungle Emperor Leo, was released in Japan on August 1, 1997. Directed by Hiro Takeuchi, it is based on the second half of Dr. Tezuka's original manga story; it is not entirely faithful, however. It was dubbed into English and released on DVD in 2003 under the name Jungle Emperor Leo by Anime Works. The film was later released on Blu-ray and DVD by Discotek. In 1997 Julian Grant the head of the Fant-Asia film festival received a Cease-and-Desist from the Disney company to attempt to keep the Jungle Emperor Leo film from showing at the festival. Despite the order, the film screened to a full house. However, this is the last North American screening the film would ever receive.
The film had a distribution income of () at the Japanese box office in 1997.
2000 short film
A 9-minute anime short was released in Japan on March 18, 2000 titled Jungle Emperor Leo: Hon-o-ji. It was shown at a theater at Tezuka Osamu World in Kyoto.
2009 television film
A television film, , aired in Japan on September 5, 2009 with a completely new story, different from both the previous TV shows and the original manga. The setting was an artificially created jungle in 20XX Earth. In this movie, Panja and his mate, Eliza, are still alive; Coco is an unspecified female bird; and Sylvester, the black panther, serves as an antagonist until he changes his ways when a young boy mends his leg.
In 2019, the Japan Foundation produced an English dub of the film which was released on RetroCrush in July 2020.
An earlier English dub of the film premiered on Cartoon Network in the Philippines on November 19, 2010.
Music video
The music video for the song "A Boy" by Leo Ieiri, which has an animated part made by Tezuka Productions, features an anime version of the singer (based on Kimba and modeled after the singer) which meets other characters from the Kimba the White Lion series.
Other media
Jungle Emperor (ジャングル大帝 Jungle Taitei) is a cancelled 1990 eight-bit platform action game that was in development by Taito for the Nintendo Entertainment System, based on the popular manga/anime of the same name (aka Kimba the White Lion) by Osamu Tezuka. Not much is known about this game, except that it was going to be released in November 1990, but it was cancelled for unknown reasons. There was planned for the unreleased Nintendo 64. Jungle Emperor/Kimba the White Lion possibles N64 game title under Emperor of the Jungle is a canceled N64 video game that was made for the magnetic disk drive peripheral. The only known evidence of its existence is a short video clip from Space World. It was to be an action-adventure game with vast exploration, but no information regarding the plot of the game currently exists. The game had its first on-video appearance at the 1996 Tokyo Shoshinkai Show, after which the game was announced to be released in spring 1999. A little bit later only a few scenes from the game were shown at the Nintendo Space World. Later that year in an interview made on 1998's E3, Mr. Miyamoto mentioned that the project is in a bit of trouble and may take longer to complete than originally expected, due to inexperience. It was unfortunately soon followed by the cancellation.
Jungle Emperor characters have cameos in the GBA game Astro Boy: Omega Factor, as well as a chapter from the Black Jack manga and Naoki Urasawa's Pluto.
In the sixth episode of Season 2 of the Fox TV series Fringe, Earthling, Kimba had a cameo in one of the episodes.
Music
The series uses several themes. The 1966 Japanese version uses an opening theme and a closing theme. The opening is called . The end song is . For the Japanese remake, the opening song is sung by Ichiro Mizuki, and the ending is sung by Tomoko Tokugai.
The American theme was written by Bernie Baum, Bill Giant and Florence Kaye and sung by Bill Giant. The opening song for the sequel series is "Go Ahead Onward Leo!" written by Isao Tomita and sung by Mieko Hirota. The US-English theme song known as "Leo the Lion" was written by Mark Boccaccio and Susan Brunet of Miami, Florida's SONIC-Sound International Corporation in 1984. Jungle Emperor Symphonic Poem (by Isao Tomita) was released on LP in 1966.
The Lion King controversy
As a number of journalists, scholars, and fans watched Disney's animated feature film The Lion King, they noticed characters, plotlines, sequences and events in the story resembling those of Kimba. Alleged similarities in the characters include the protagonist lion cubs, Kimba and Simba; lioness cubs, Lyra and Nala; wise old mandrill mentors, Dan'l and Rafiki; evil lion villains with scarred left eyes, Claw and Scar; the villainous lion's bad but comedic hyena henchman (Tom and Tab in Kimba; Shenzi, Banzai, and Ed in The Lion King); pompous but friendly confidante birds, Pauley Cracker and Zazu (though Pauley Craker is a parrot, while Zazu is an African red-billed hornbill). Similarities in visual sequences have also been noted, most comprehensively by animation historian Fred Patten who published an essay on the subject, including: opening title sequences in which a lion king stands on a jutting cliff as birds fly over the savannah, with a panorama of assembled African animals; a stampede in which the protagonist tries but fails to save an important character who clings to a tree for dear life (Bucky Deer in Kimba; Mufasa in The Lion King), then flees, believing themself unfit to rule; sequences in which the protagonist's dead parents appear to them in the sky (this occurs repeatedly in Kimba, and in one pivotal sequence in The Lion King); fight sequences in which the protagonist flings burning coals or hot sand into the evil lion's eye; sequences in which a wise mandrill convinces the protagonist to face their responsibilities and claim their throne.
Upon the release of The Lion King in Japan, multiple Japanese cartoonists including Machiko Satonaka signed a letter urging The Walt Disney Company to acknowledge due credit to Jungle Emperor Leo in the making of The Lion King. 488 Japanese cartoonists and animators signed the petition, which drew a protest in Japan, where Tezuka and Kimba are cultural icons.
The Lion King director Roger Allers claimed he remained unfamiliar with Kimba throughout production until his film was nearly completed. Co-director Rob Minkoff also said he was unfamiliar with Kimba. Minkoff deflected criticism of similarities between the characters, stating it was "not unusual to have characters like a baboon, a bird, or hyenas" in films set in Africa.
Fred Ladd, who was involved early on with importing Kimba and other Japanese anime into America for NBC, expressed incredulity that Disney's people could remain ignorant. Ladd stated there was at least one Disney animator, Shawn Keller, remembered by his colleagues as being an avid Kimba fan and being quite vociferous about Disney's conduct during production. Ladd acknowledged that the Swahili word for lion is simba, and acknowledged that this could account for the similarly-named protagonists; in fact, according to Ladd, an NBC executive changed the protagonist's name from Simba to Kimba because he found Simba "too common". Aside from the name, however, Ladd asserted that "The parallels are stunning."
Matthew Broderick has said that when he was hired as the voice of adult Simba in The Lion King, he presumed the project was related to Kimba the White Lion. He explained that he "thought he meant Kimba, who was a white lion in a cartoon when I was a little kid, so I kept telling everybody I was going to play Kimba. I didn't really know anything about it, but I didn't really care." Animators Tom Sito and Mark Kausler, who both have story credits, have admitted to watching Kimba, and assumed many of their colleagues had too, especially if they grew up in the 1960s.
The Tezuka–Disney connection extends back decades before the movie; Tezuka met Walt Disney at the 1964 New York World's Fair, and Disney said he hoped to "make something just like" Tezuka's Astro Boy.
Tezuka's family and Tezuka Productions have never pursued litigation against The Walt Disney Company for copyright infringement. Yoshihiro Shimizu, the company's director, stated that many of their employees saw resemblances between the two properties, but "any similarities in their plots are based in the facts of nature and therefore are two different works". In his book, Makoto Tezuka states that the controversy started in America and people inflated the issue because of their opposition to Disney's business practices. He also states that he refuses to participate in this denunciation of Disney and that he does not want to see his father's works being turned into a weapon for those people. Tezuka acknowledges that Kimba and The Lion King are two different stories with different themes, and if the latter was about a white lion who spoke with humans, then he would not be able to pardon the similarities.
Reception
In 1967, the Jungle Emperor theatrical feature was awarded the St. Mark's Silver Lion Award at the 19th Venice International Film Festival.
Commercial use
In 1978 the adult Leo character, designed by Tezuka himself, became the mascot for the Seibu Lions (current Saitama Seibu Lions) baseball team, along with his sister Lina who was created for the baseball team. The was used on the team baseball cap and helmet for decades Leo also appeared on the players' uniform for the 2014 season, designed by Tezuka Productions. The Seibu conglomerate-owned team's mascot became highly visible throughout Japan on baseball caps, shirts, etc., as well as being heavily used in advertisement especially in the Tokyo area. Frederick L. Schodt makes the argument that by the 1980s, Leo the lion could hardly escape the notice of foreign visitors to the city.
Image from the Jungle Emperor manga appears on shirts made by Lacoste in cooperation with Tezuka Productions for their "Lacoste Live" capsule collection "Tezuka Collection", edition Fall/Winter 2013/2014.
See also
List of Osamu Tezuka anime
List of Osamu Tezuka manga
Osamu Tezuka's Star System
Atlantis: The Lost Empire and Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water controversy, a similar plagiarism controversy
Notes
References
Bibliography
.
, .
.
External links
Manga series at Tezuka Osamu @ World (archived)
1965 anime series at Tezuka Osamu @ World (archived)
Jungle Emperor Leo: Hon-o-ji film at Tezuka Osamu @ World (archived)
1950 manga
1965 anime television series debuts
1966 anime films
1977 Japanese television series endings
2000 anime films
2009 anime films
2009 television films
Anime series based on manga
Anime short films
Anime television films
Animated television series about lions
Animated films based on manga
Fuji TV original programming
Japanese films
Japanese-language films
Jungle (genre) comics
Kobunsha
Kodansha manga
Manga adapted into films
Mushi Production
Osamu Tezuka manga
Osamu Tezuka anime
Shōnen manga
Tezuka Productions
TV Tokyo original programming
Fictional lions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling%20Castle
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Stirling Castle
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Stirling Castle, located in Stirling, is one of the largest and most important castles in Scotland, both historically and architecturally. The castle sits atop Castle Hill, an intrusive crag, which forms part of the Stirling Sill geological formation. It is surrounded on three sides by steep cliffs, giving it a strong defensive position. Its strategic location, guarding what was, until the 1890s, the farthest downstream crossing of the River Forth, has made it an important fortification in the region from the earliest times.
Most of the principal buildings of the castle date from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. A few structures remain from the fourteenth century, while the outer defences fronting the town date from the early eighteenth century.
Before the union with England, Stirling Castle was also one of the most used of the many Scottish royal residences, very much a palace as well as a fortress. Several Scottish Kings and Queens have been crowned at Stirling, including Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1542, and others were born or died there.
There have been at least eight sieges of Stirling Castle, including several during the Wars of Scottish Independence, with the last being in 1746, when Bonnie Prince Charlie unsuccessfully tried to take the castle. Stirling Castle is a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and is now a tourist attraction managed by Historic Environment Scotland.
History
Early history
Castle Hill, on which Stirling Castle is built, forms part of the Stirling Sill, a formation of quartz-dolerite around 350 million years old, which was subsequently modified by glaciation to form a "crag and tail". It is likely that this natural feature was occupied at an early date, as a hill fort is located on Gowan Hill, immediately to the east.
The Romans bypassed Stirling, building a fort at Doune instead, but the rock may have been occupied by the Maeatae at this time. It may later have been a stronghold of the Manaw Gododdin, and has also been identified with a settlement recorded in the 7th and 8th centuries as Iudeu, where King Penda of Mercia besieged King Oswy of Bernicia in 655. The area came under Pictish control after the defeat of the Northumbrians at the Battle of Dun Nechtain thirty years later. However, there is no archaeological evidence for occupation of Castle Hill before the late medieval period.
Other legends have been associated with Stirling, or "Snowdoun" as it was more poetically known. The 16th-century historian Hector Boece claims in his Historia Gentis Scotorum that the Romans, under Agricola, fortified Stirling, and that Kenneth MacAlpin, traditionally the first King of Scotland, besieged a castle at Stirling during his takeover of the Pictish kingdom in the 9th century. Boece is, however, considered an unreliable historian.
Another chronicler, William Worcester, associated Stirling with the court of the legendary King Arthur. Tradition suggests that St Monenna founded a chapel here, as she is said to have done at Edinburgh Castle, although it is now thought that the legend of Monenna results from a later confusion of early Christian figures, including Modwenna and Moninne.
The first record of Stirling Castle dates from around 1110, when King Alexander I dedicated a chapel there. It appears to have been an established royal centre by this time, as Alexander died here in 1124. During the reign of his successor David I, Stirling became a royal burgh, and the castle an important administration centre. King William I formed a deer park to the south-west of the castle, but after his capture by the English in 1174, he was forced to surrender several castles, including Stirling and Edinburgh Castle, under the Treaty of Falaise. There is no evidence that the English actually occupied the castle, and it was formally handed back by Richard I of England in 1189. Stirling continued to be a favoured royal residence, with William himself dying there in 1214, and Alexander III laying out the New Park, for deer hunting, in the 1260s.
Wars of Independence
Stirling remained a centre of royal administration until the death of Alexander III in 1286. His passing triggered a succession crisis, with Edward I of England invited to arbitrate between competing claimants. Edward came north in 1291, demanding that Stirling, along with the other royal castles, be put under his control during the arbitration. Edward gave judgement in favour of John Balliol, hoping he would be a "puppet" ruler, but John refused to obey Edward's demands.
In 1296, Edward invaded Scotland, beginning the Wars of Scottish Independence, which would last for the next 60 years. The English found Stirling Castle abandoned and empty, and set about occupying this key site. They were dislodged the following year, after the victory of Andrew Moray and William Wallace at the Battle of Stirling Bridge. Many of the garrison were killed during the battle, after which the English commanders William FitzWarin and Marmaduke Thweng retreated into the castle. However, they were quickly starved into surrender by the Scots.
Next summer, the castle changed hands again, being abandoned by the Scots after the English victory at Falkirk. Edward strengthened the castle, but it was besieged in 1299 by forces including Robert Bruce. King Edward failed to relieve the garrison, who were forced to surrender.
By 1303, the English again held the upper hand, and Stirling was the last remaining castle in Scottish hands. Edward's army arrived in April 1304, with at least 17 siege engines. The Scots, under William Oliphant, surrendered on 20 July, but part of the garrison were ordered back into the castle by Edward, as he had not yet deployed his latest engine, "Warwolf". Warwolf is believed to have been a large trebuchet, which destroyed the castle's gatehouse. Although Edward's victory seemed complete, he was dead by 1307, and Robert Bruce was now King of Scots. By 1313, only Stirling, Roxburgh, Edinburgh and Berwick castles were held by the English. Edward Bruce, the king's brother, laid siege to Stirling, which was held by Sir Philip Mowbray. Mowbray proposed a bargain: that he would surrender the castle, if it were not relieved by 24 June 1314. Bruce agreed, and withdrew. The following summer, the English duly headed north, led by Edward II, to save the castle. On 23–24 June, King Robert's forces met the English at the Battle of Bannockburn, within sight of the castle walls. The resulting English defeat was decisive. King Edward attempted to take refuge in the castle, but Mowbray was determined to keep to his word, and the English were forced to flee. Mowbray handed over the castle, changing sides himself in the process. King Robert ordered the castle to be slighted; its defences destroyed to prevent reoccupation by the English.
The war was not over, however. The second War of Scottish Independence saw the English in control of Stirling Castle by 1336, when Thomas Rokeby was the commander, and extensive works were carried out, still largely in timber rather than stone. Andrew Murray attempted a siege in 1337, when guns may have been used for one of the first times in Scotland. Robert Stewart, the future King Robert II, retook Stirling in a siege during 1341–1342. Maurice Murray was appointed as its keeper, who in the words of Andrew of Wyntoun "inforsyt it grettumly, for riche he was and full mychty" (enforced it greatly, for rich he was and full mighty). In 1360, Robert de Forsyth was appointed governor of Stirling Castle, an office he passed on to his son John and grandson William, who was governor in 1399.
Early Stewarts
Under the early Stewart kings Robert II (reigned 1371–1390) and Robert III (reigned 1390–1406), the earliest surviving parts of the castle were built. Robert Stewart, Earl of Menteith, Regent of Scotland as brother of Robert III, undertook works on the north and south gates. The present north gate is built on these foundations of the 1380s, the earliest surviving masonry in the castle. In 1424, Stirling Castle was part of the jointure (marriage settlement) given to James I's wife Joan Beaufort, establishing a tradition which later monarchs continued. After James' murder in 1437, Joan took shelter here with her son, the young James II. Fifteen years later, in 1452, it was at Stirling Castle that James stabbed and killed William, 8th Earl of Douglas, when the latter refused to end a potentially treasonous alliance with John of Islay, Earl of Ross and Alexander Lindsay, 4th Earl of Crawford. James III (reigned 1460–1488) was born here, and later undertook works to the gardens and the chapel royal. The manufacture of artillery in the castle is recorded in 1475. James' wife, Margaret of Denmark, died in Stirling Castle in 1486, and two years later James himself died at the Battle of Sauchieburn, fought over almost the same ground as the Battle of Bannockburn, just to the south of the castle.
Renaissance palace
Almost all the present buildings in the castle were constructed between 1490 and 1600, when Stirling was developed as a principal royal centre by the Stewart kings James IV, James V and James VI. The architecture of these new buildings shows an eclectic mix of English, French and German influences, reflecting the international ambitions of the Stewart dynasty.
James IV (reigned 1488–1513) kept a full Renaissance court, including alchemists, and sought to establish a palace of European standing at Stirling. He undertook building works at the royal residences of Edinburgh, Falkland and Linlithgow, but the grandest works were at Stirling, and include the King's Old Building, the Great Hall, and the Forework. He also renovated the chapel royal, one of two churches within the castle at this time, and in 1501 received approval from Pope Alexander VI for the establishment of a college of priests. The Forework, of which little now remains, was derived from French military architecture, although military details were added more for style than for defence. A new portcullis was painted with red lead and linseed oil. The gardener, George Campbell, built archery butts next to the stables in 1504. James IV played tennis at Stirling with the Spanish ambassador, Pedro de Ayala.
If a satirical account in two poems by the poet William Dunbar is based on facts, the castle walls may have been the site of an attempt at human-powered flight, c.1509, by the Italian alchemist and abbot of Tongland, John Damian. The Captain of the Castle Andrew Aytoun kept an alchemist called Caldwell maintaining a furnace for "quinta essencia", the mythical fifth element, at the castle.
The building works begun by James IV had not been completed at the time of his death at the Battle of Flodden. His successor, James V (reigned 1513–1542), was crowned in the chapel royal, and grew up in the castle under the guardianship of Lord Erskine. In 1515, the Regent Albany brought 7,000 men to Stirling to wrest control of the young king from his mother, Margaret Tudor. James V as monarch was said to have travelled in disguise under the name "Gudeman of Ballengeich", after the road running under the eastern wall of the castle. Ballengeich means "windy pass" in Gaelic. In 1533 a priest James Nicholson was in charge of the building fabric, and he also fed cranes, herons, peacocks, and bitterns for the king's table.
James V continued and expanded his father's building programme, creating the centrepiece of the castle, the Royal Palace, built under the direction of Sir James Hamilton of Finnart and masons brought from France. James V also died young, leaving unfinished work to be completed by his widow, Mary of Guise. His infant daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots, was brought to Stirling Castle for safety, and crowned in the chapel royal on 9 September 1543. She too was brought up here, until she was sent to Inchmahome Priory, and then to France in 1548. In the 1550s, during the Regency of Mary of Guise, Anglo-French hostilities were fought out in Scotland. Artillery fortifications were added to the south approach of the castle including the 'French Spur', and these form the basis of the present Outer Defences. Guise employed an Italian military engineer called Lorenzo Pomarelli. From 1534 to 1584 Michael Gardiner was in charge of the artillery.
Queen Mary returned to Scotland in 1561, and visited Stirling Castle frequently. She nursed Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, through an illness here in 1565, and the two were soon married. Their son, James VI, was baptised here in December 1566. The celebrations included fireworks, an assault on a mock castle, and a masque designed by Bastian Pagez. Darnley was already estranged from the Queen and did not attend although he was resident at the castle. James' guardian, the Earl of Mar, was made hereditary governor of the castle in 1566. Mary was travelling from Stirling when she was abducted by the Earl of Bothwell, beginning the chain of events that led to her forced abdication and her flight to England. When Mary escaped from Lochleven Castle in May 1568, the Earl of Mar was ordered step up security at Stirling around the king and expel from the castle all but his closest friends and relatives.
The young King James was crowned in July 1567 in the nearby Church of the Holy Rude, and grew up within the castle walls in the care of Annabell Murray, Countess of Mar and under the tutelage of the humanist scholar George Buchanan. A tennis court was built of timber for the king in 1576. Frequently used as a pawn in the struggles between his regents and the supporters of Mary, the young king was closely guarded. Stirling became the base for James' supporters, while those nobles who wished to see Queen Mary restored gathered at Edinburgh, under William Kirkcaldy of Grange. Grange led a raid on Stirling in 1571, attempting to round up the Queen's enemies, but failed to gain control of the castle or the King.
The keeper of the Castle, Alexander Erskine of Gogar was ejected by supporters of Regent Morton in April 1578, after his son was fatally wounded during a struggle at the gate. The rebellious Earls of Mar and Angus seized the castle in 1584, but surrendered and fled to England when the King arrived with an army. They returned the following year, forcing the King to surrender, although they proclaimed their loyalty to him.
In December 1593 Anne of Denmark decided to come to Stirling for the birth of her first child, and James ordered the palace which was in "ruin and decay" to be repaired. Prince Henry was born in the castle in 1594, and the present Chapel Royal was constructed for his baptism on 30 August. Probably built by William Schaw, the chapel completed the quadrangle of the Inner Close. Like his predecessors Henry spent his childhood here under the 2nd Earl of Mar, until the Union of the Crowns of 1603, when his father succeeded as King of England and the royal family left for London.
Military fortress
After their departure, Stirling's role as a royal residence declined, and it became principally a military centre. It was used as a prison for persons of rank during the 17th century, and saw few visits by the monarch. The architect James Murray restored roofs and facilities of the castle for the return of James VI & I to Scotland, who stayed in Stirling during July 1617. From 1625, extensive preparations were made for the anticipated visit of the new king, Charles I, including works to the gardens and painting of the Chapel Royal. Charles did not come to Scotland until 1633, and only stayed in the castle briefly.
Following the execution of Charles I, the Scots crowned his son Charles II, and he became the last reigning monarch to stay here, living at the castle in 1650. The Royalist forces were defeated at Dunbar by those of Oliver Cromwell, and the King marched south to defeat at Worcester. General Monck laid siege to the castle on 6 August 1651, erecting gun platforms in the adjacent churchyard. After the garrison mutinied, Colonel William Conyngham was obliged to surrender on 14 August. Damage done during the siege can still be seen on the church and the Great Hall.
After The Restoration of Charles II, the Earl of Mar was restored as governor, and the castle was frequently used as a prison, housing several Covenanters. James, Duke of Albany, later King James VII of Scotland and II of England, visited the castle in 1681. During this time, the castle's military role became increasingly important, a powder magazine being built in the castle gardens, and a formal garrison installed from 1685. At the accession of King George I in 1714, John Erskine, 6th Earl of Mar was deprived of the governorship, as well as the post of Scottish Secretary. In response, he raised the standard of James Stuart, the "Old Pretender", in the Jacobite rising of 1715. Government troops, under the Duke of Argyll, quickly moved to occupy the fortress, then advanced to Sheriffmuir to block Mar's way. The Battle of Sheriffmuir was inconclusive, but the rising was effectively over. The Jacobite rising of 1745 saw Charles Edward Stuart lead his army of Highlanders past Stirling on the way to Edinburgh. Following the Jacobites' retreat from England, they returned to Stirling in January 1746. The town soon surrendered, but the castle governor refused to capitulate. Artillery works were set up on Gowan Hill, but were quickly destroyed by the castle's guns. Despite victory at Falkirk, the Jacobites withdrew north on 1 February.
From 1800 the Castle was owned by the War Office and run as a barracks. Many alterations were made to the Great Hall, which became an accommodation block, to the Chapel Royal, which became a lecture theatre and dining hall, to the King's Old Building, which became an infirmary and to the Royal Palace, which became the Officer's Mess. A number of new buildings were also constructed, including the prison and powder magazine, at the Nether Bailey, in 1810. Queen Victoria visited in 1842, and the Prince of Wales in 1859.
In 1873 a system of recruiting areas based on counties was instituted under the Cardwell Reforms and the barracks became the depot for the 72nd (Highland) Regiment of Foot and the 91st (Argyllshire Highlanders) Regiment of Foot. Following the Childers Reforms, the 91st (Argyllshire Highlanders) Regiment of Foot and the 93rd (Sutherland Highlanders) Regiment of Foot amalgamated to form the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders with its depot in the barracks in 1881.
Twentieth century
The Royal Lodgings have now been returned to something approaching their former glory. A major programme of research and re-presentation, lasting ten years and costing £12 million, was completed in summer 2011. Since January 2002, the Tapestry Studio at West Dean College near Chichester in West Sussex has been working on a recreation of The Hunt of the Unicorn tapestries, four of which are now hanging in the restored Queen's Presence Chamber in the Royal Palace. Historians studying the reign of James V believe that a similar series of Unicorn tapestries were part of the royal collection.
The team of weavers visited The Cloisters, part of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, to inspect the 15th-century originals, and researched medieval weaving techniques, colour palettes and materials. The weavers worked both at the college in West Sussex, and at a studio at Stirling Castle. The project was completed in 2015.
Stirling Castle remains the headquarters of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, although Balaclava Company, the sole surviving unit of the regiment, has been garrisoned at Redford Barracks in Edinburgh since 2014. The regimental museum is also located within the castle.
The interior
Outer Defences
The Outer Defences comprise artillery fortifications, and were built in their present form in the 18th century, although some parts, including the French Spur at the east end, date back to the regency of Mary of Guise in the 1550s. The French Spur was originally an ear-shaped bastion known as an orillon, and contained gun emplacements which protected the main spur. This projecting spur was fronted by an earth ramp called a talus, and was entered via a drawbridge over a ditch. Excavations in the 1970s showed that much of the original stonework remains within the 18th-century defences.
Following the attempted Jacobite invasion of 1708, improvements to the castle's defences were ordered as a matter of priority. A scheme of new defences was proposed by Theodore Dury, although this was criticised by one Captain Obryan, who put forward his own, much more expensive, scheme. In the end a compromise was built, and was complete by 1714. The main front wall was extended outwards, to form Guardhouse Square. This had the effect of creating two defensive walls, both of which were fronted by ditches defended by covered firing galleries known as caponiers. One of the caponiers survives and is accessible from Guardhouse Square by a narrow staircase.
To the rear of the walls, chambers called casemates were built to strengthen the wall, and to provide gun emplacements. The French Spur was modified slightly to allow more cannons to be mounted. The buildings within Guardhouse Square date from the 19th century. Outside the castle is the early 19th-century Esplanade, used as a parade ground, and now as a car park and performance space.
Forework
The gatehouse providing entry from the outer defences to the castle proper was erected by King James IV, and was probably completed around 1506. It originally formed part of a Forework, extending as a curtain wall across the whole width of Castle Hill. At the centre is the gatehouse itself, which now stands to less than half its original height. The round towers at the outer corners rose to conical roofs, with battlements carried around the tops of the towers. These were flanked by more round towers, of which only traces now remain, and mirrored by further rounds at the rear of the gatehouse. The overall design, as drawn by John Slezer in 1693, shows French influence, and has parallels with the forework erected at Linlithgow Palace.
Like the Linlithgow structure, the Forework was probably intended more for show, evoking the "age of chivalry", than for defence, as it would have offered little protection against contemporary artillery. The entrance was via a central passage, flanked by two separate pedestrian passages. This triple arrangement was unusual in its time, and Classical triumphal arches have been suggested as an influence. The gatehouse was dismantled gradually, and was consolidated in its present form in 1810. At each end of the crenellated curtain wall was a rectangular tower. The west tower, known as the Prince's Tower, probably after Henry, Prince of Scotland, survives to its full height, and is now attached to the later palace. At the east end, the Elphinstone Tower contained a kitchen and possibly an officer's lodging. It was cut down to form a gun battery, probably in the early 18th century when the Outer Defences were rebuilt.
Outer Close
Within the Forework is a courtyard known as the Outer Close. To the south-east are Georgian military buildings; the late 18th-century Main Guard House, and the early 19th-century Fort Major's House. The early North Gate, giving access to the Nether Bailey, contained the original castle kitchens, which were probably linked to the Great Hall. The Great Kitchen which is now visible was constructed later, against the east wall of the castle. However, in 1689 these rooms were infilled with rubble to reinforce gun emplacements, known as the Grand Battery, which were built on top of the kitchen's vaults. Excavations in the 1920s ascertained the extent of the surviving rooms, and the vaults were reconstructed in 1929. The small building above the North Gate is traditionally said to have been a mint, known in Scots as the Cunzie Hoose or "coining house". To the west of the Outer Close, the main parts of the castle are arranged around the quadrangular Inner Close: the Royal Palace to the south, the King's Old Building on the west, the Chapel Royal to the north, and the Great Hall to the east.
King's Old Building
The oldest part of the Inner Close is the King's Old Building, located on the western side and completed around 1497. It was begun as a new residential range by James IV, and originally comprised an L-shaped building. The principal rooms were on the first floor, over cellars, and included two chambers with wide open views to the west, although the interiors have been much altered. The projecting stair tower has an octagonal upper section, which was copied for a second, later stair tower on the same building.
In 1855, the north end of the building burned down, and was rebuilt in a Baronial style by the architect and historian Robert William Billings. At the southwest end of the range is a linking building, once used as kitchens, which is on a different alignment to both the King's Old Building and the adjacent Royal Palace. It has been suggested that this is an earlier 15th-century structure, dating from the reign of James I. Excavations within this building in 1998 revealed burials, suggesting that this may have been the site of a church or chapel.
Great Hall
On the east side of the Inner Close is the Great Hall, or Parliament Hall. This was built by James IV following on from the completion of the King's Old Building in 1497, and was being plastered by 1503. Described as "the grandest secular building erected in Scotland in the late Middle Ages", it represents the first example of Renaissance-influenced royal architecture in that country.
It was worked on by a number of English craftsmen, and incorporates some English design ideas, being comparable to Edward IV's hall at Eltham Palace in Kent, built in the late 1470s. It includes Renaissance details, such as the intersecting tracery on the windows, within a conventional medieval plan. Inside are five fireplaces, and large side windows lighting the dais end, where the king would be seated. It is across.
The original hammerbeam roof was removed in 1800, along with the decorative crenellated parapet, when the hall was subdivided to form barracks. Two floors and five cross-walls were inserted, and the windows were altered accordingly. As early as 1893, calls were being made for the restoration of the Great Hall, but it was not until the army left in 1965 that the opportunity arose. It was agreed that a historically correct restoration could be achieved, and works began which were only completed in 1999. The hammerbeam roof and parapet were replaced, windows reinstated, and the outer walls were limewashed.
Royal Palace
To the left of the gatehouse, and forming the south side of the Inner Close, is the Royal Palace. The first Renaissance palace in the British Isles, this was the work of King James V. With its combination of Renaissance architecture, and exuberant late-gothic detail, it is one of the most architecturally impressive buildings in Scotland, covered with unique carved stonework. It was begun in the 1530s, and was largely complete by the late 1540s.
The Master of Works, until his execution in 1540, was Sir James Hamilton of Finnart, who also financed part of the work, in return for land and favours from the king. Further work was carried out during the regency of Mary of Guise, and the upper floor was converted to provide an apartment for the castle governor in the 18th century.
The architecture is French-inspired, but the decoration is German in inspiration, and sources for the statues have been found in the work of the German engraver Hans Burgkmair. The statues include a line of soldiers on the south parapet, and a series of full-size figures around the principal floor. These principal figures include a portrait of James V, the Devil, St Michael, and representations of Venus and several planetary deities. Their arrangement on the north, east and south faces of the Palace has been interpreted in relation to the quarters of the heavens.
The 19th-century architectural historian R. W. Billings described the statues as "the fruits of an imagination luxuriant but revolting". The west façade is undecorated and incomplete, and the Privy Council of Scotland noted in 1625 that the building was "schote over the craig".
Internally, the Palace comprises two apartments, one each for the king and queen. Each has a hall, presence chamber, and bedchamber, with various small rooms known as closets. The Renaissance decoration continued inside, although little has survived the building's military use, excepting the carved stone fireplaces. The ceiling of the King's Presence Chamber was originally decorated with a series of carved oak portrait roundels known as the Stirling Heads, described as "among the finest examples of Scottish Renaissance wood-carving now extant." Some of the heads may have been made by a French-born carver Andrew Mansioun. The carvings were taken down following a ceiling collapse in 1777, and of an estimated 56 original heads, 38 survive. Most were given to the Smith Institute in Stirling but now these are preserved in the castle, and three more are in the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh. Another two are on display in the Thieves Pot, a preserved 16th-century jail within the Thistles Shopping Centre.
Some of the portraits are believed to be of kings, queens or courtiers, and others are thought to show classical or Biblical figures. As with the exterior carving, similarities to German sources have been noted, and in particular to a ceiling in Wawel, Poland. A £12 million project to recreate the grandeur of the Royal Palace reopened to the public during the weekend of 5 and 6 June 2011.
The work, which has taken a decade of research and craftsmanship, restored six royal apartments to how they would have looked in the 1540s, when this was the childhood home of Mary Queen of Scots, as well as the ongoing restoration of the seven hand-woven tapestries. Four of these have been completed with the last one due to be finished in 2013.
Stirling heads
Chapel Royal
The collegiate chapel established by James IV in 1501 lay between the King's Old Building and the Great Hall, but was further south than the present building. This was the chapel in which Queen Mary was crowned in 1543. However, when James VI's first son, Prince Henry was born in 1594, it was decided to rebuild the chapel as a suitable venue for the royal christening.
The new building was erected within a year, north of the old site to improve access to the hall. There was some doubt if the chapel, which John Colville called the "great temple of Solomon," could be finished in time. The chapel, with its Italianate arched windows, was the work of the Royal Master of Works William Schaw. The interior was decorated by the painter Valentine Jenkins prior to the visit of Charles I in 1633. The chapel too was later modified for military use, housing a dining room. The wall paintings were rediscovered in the 1930s, and restoration began after the Second World War.
Nether Bailey
Beyond the North Gate, the Nether Bailey occupies the northern end of Castle Hill. Surrounded by defensive walls, the area contains a 19th-century guard house and gunpowder stores, and the modern tapestry studio. There was formerly access to the Nether Bailey from Ballengeich to the west, until the postern was blocked in response to the threat of Jacobite rebellion.
Gardens
There are two gardens within the castle, the southern one including a bowling green. Below the castle's west wall is the King's Knot, a 16th-century formal garden, now only visible as earthworks, but once including hedges and knot-patterned parterres. The surviving octagonal earthwork mount was the work of the gardener William Watts and architect James Murray in 1629. The gardens were built on the site of a medieval jousting arena known as the Round Table, in imitation of the legendary court of King Arthur.
Modern use
The castle esplanade, or parade ground, has been used as an open-air concert venue for several noted acts, some of whom have used Stirling Castle and the surrounding scenery to film "in concert" DVDs. These acts include R.E.M., Ocean Colour Scene, Bob Dylan, Wet Wet Wet, Rod Stewart and Runrig. The esplanade also hosts the city's Hogmanay celebrations. The Regimental Museum and Home Headquarters of the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders are located in the King's Old Building. The museum closed for refurbishment on 31 August 2018 and reopened in June 2021.
The castle is open to the public year-round. Stirling Castle is a popular place for tourists, and according to figures released by the Association of Leading Visitor Attractions, 609,698 people visited in 2019.
An illustration of Stirling Castle features on the reverse side of a current series of £20 notes issued by the Clydesdale Bank, with Robert the Bruce on horseback in the foreground.
Due to its similar appearance to Colditz Castle in Saxony, Germany, the castle was used to film the exterior shots for the 1970s TV series Colditz, a drama about the many attempts of Allied POWs to escape from the castle during its use as a military prison in the Second World War.
See also
Governor of Stirling Castle
Banknotes of Scotland (featured on design)
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
List of castles in Scotland
References
Bibliography
External links
Stirling Castle – Historic Scotland's website
Stirling Palace – research in 2008 by Historic Scotland
2010 youtube video showing re-instatement decoration in the Queen's audience chamber of Stirling Palace
2011 youtube video Historic Scotland artistic overview of the Stirling Palace project
2010 youtube video Historic Scotland overview of the Stirling Palace project narrated by archaeologist Peter Yeoman
The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
Clan Stirling Online, early images of Stirling Castle
Video view of Stirling Castle on ScotlandonTV
Stirling Castle in Black & White
360° tour can be found here.
Castles in Stirling (council area)
Category A listed buildings in Stirling (council area)
Listed castles in Scotland
Royal residences in Scotland
Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Stirling
Wars of Scottish Independence
Historic house museums in Stirling (council area)
Regimental museums in Scotland
Reportedly haunted locations in Scotland
Scottish parliamentary locations and buildings
Renaissance architecture in Scotland
Buildings and structures in Stirling (city)
Tourist attractions in Scotland
Tourist attractions in Stirling (council area)
Clan Stewart
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208399
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantes-la-Jolie
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Mantes-la-Jolie
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Mantes-la-Jolie (, often informally called Mantes) is a commune in the Yvelines department in the Île-de-France region of north-central France. It is located to the west of Paris, from the centre of the capital. Mantes-la-Jolie is a subprefecture; in 2016, it had a population of 44,231.
History
Mantes was halfway between the centres of power of the dukes of Normandy at Rouen and the Kings of France at Paris. Along with most of northern France, it changed hands frequently in the Hundred Years' War. Philip Augustus died at Mantes, 14 July 1223.
Louis XIV instituted the manufacture of musical instruments in Mantes, and it was chosen as the centre of brass and woodwind instrument manufacture. In the 19th century, painters were attracted to the town, particularly Corot, whose paintings of the bridge and the cathedral are celebrated. Prokofiev spent the summer of 1920 there orchestrating the ballet Chout.
Originally officially called Mantes-sur-Seine (meaning "Mantes upon Seine"), Mantes merged with the commune of Gassicourt in 1930 and the commune born of the merger was called Mantes-Gassicourt.
Mantes was the location of the first allied bridgehead across the Seine on 19 August 1944, by General Patton's 3rd Army. Major rebuilding was needed after the war.
On 7 May 1953, the commune of Mantes-Gassicourt was officially renamed Mantes-la-Jolie (meaning "Mantes the pretty"), allegedly in reference to a letter of King Henry IV addressed to his mistress Gabrielle d'Estrées who resided in Mantes: "I am on my way to Mantes, my pretty" ().
Art
At the end of the 19th century, Impressionist painters like Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Édouard Manet and Claude Monet came to paint the Seine River which crosses the town.
Jean Batiste Corot painting of the Old Mantes bridge is shown at the Louvres
Population
Inhabitants are called Mantais. The city had a total of 44,299 inhabitants in 2017. The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Mantes-la-Jolie proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Mantes-la-Jolie absorbed the former communes of Gassicourt in 1930.
The city is divided into four districts each with a characteristic urban form:
Centre-ville: city center, a dense and commercial area
Gassicourt: residential area
Val Fourré: large housing district
Hautes Garennes: a non-urbanized area
Sights
The main monument in Mantes is the church of Notre-Dame dating back to 12th century. A previous church was burnt down by William the Conqueror together with the rest of the town, at the capture of which he lost his life in 1087. Modern bridges link Mantes with the town of Limay on the other side of the river.
Economy
Mantes is home to small businesses working on concrete and chemical processing, but is inevitably drawn into the economic area of nearby Paris.
It is historically and at present a center of musical instrument manufacturing. The well known Buffet Crampon woodwind factory is located in the neighbourhood city of Mantes-la-Ville.
Transportation
Mantes-la-Jolie is served by two stations on the Transilien Paris – Saint-Lazare and Transilien Paris – Montparnasse suburban rail lines: Mantes-Station and Mantes-la-Jolie. The Gare de Mantes-la-Jolie is also served by TGV trains towards Le Havre, and Cherbourg.
Education
The municipality has nineteen public preschools, sixteen public elementary schools, six public junior high schools, two public senior high schools/sixth form colleges, and a private secondary school.
Public junior high schools:
Collège André Chénier
Collège Paul Cézanne
Collège Jules Ferry
Collège Louis Pasteur
Collège de Gassicourt
Collège Georges Clemenceau
Public senior high schools:
Lycée Saint-Exupéry
Lycée Polyvalent Jean Rostand
Private secondary schools:
Collège-Lycée Notre-Dame
Colleges and universities:
University Institute of Technology of Mantes en Yvelines
Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines University
International relations
Mantes-la-Jolie is twinned with:
Hillingdon, England, United Kingdom
Maia, Portugal
Schleswig, Germany
Notable people
Nicolas Bernier (1664–1734), composer.
Jonathan Bumbu (b. 1999), footballer
Faudel (1978), singer
Sandy Casar (1979), cyclist
Benoit Poher (1979), singer
Angelo Tsagarakis (1984) basketball player
Saïd Hireche (1985), rugby player
Moussa Sow (*1986), footballer
Haoua Kessely (*1988) athlete
Omar Kossoko (*1988), footballer
Enock Kwateng (b. 1997), footballer
Kama Massampu (*1991), footballer
Claudine Mendy (*1990), handball player
Oumar N'Diaye (*1985), footballer
Opa Nguette (*1994), footballer
Haby Niare (*1993), taekwondo
Hamady Tamboura (*1989), footballer
Nicolas Pépé (*1995), footballer
Audrey Fleurot (*1977), actress
See also
Communes of the Yvelines department
References
External links
Mantes-la-Jolie city council website
Communes of Yvelines
Subprefectures in France
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208400
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neal%20Schon
|
Neal Schon
|
Neal Joseph Schon (born February 27, 1954) is an American rock guitarist, songwriter, and vocalist, best known for his work with the bands Journey and Bad English. He was a member of the rock band Santana before forming Journey, and was also an original member of Hardline.
Schon was inducted into the Oklahoma Music Hall of Fame on August 23, 2013, and into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Journey on April 7, 2017.
Early life and career
Neal George Joseph Schon was born at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma, the son of Matthew and Barbara Schon. He is of German and Italian ancestry. His father was a big band musician, arranger, and composer, and played and taught all reed instruments with emphasis on jazz tenor saxophone; his mother was a big band singer. Schon started playing guitar at age 10. He attended Aragon High School in San Mateo, California, later dropping out to pursue his music career.
A quick learner, he joined Santana at age 17, in 1972. Schon has said he was asked by Eric Clapton to join Derek and the Dominos, but that he joined Santana instead, performing on the albums Santana III and Caravanserai. According to Bobby Whitlock,
Schon also played in the band Azteca. In 1973, he, Gregg Rolie and manager Herbie Herbert co-founded the Golden Gate Rhythm Section, which had later been re-named to Journey after a suggestion by roadie John Villaneuva.
Schon's guitar style is influenced by guitarists such as B.B. King, Albert King, Robert Johnson, Muddy Waters, John Lee Hooker, Jeff Beck, Eric Clapton, Carlos Santana, Jimmy Page and Jimmy Green.
In addition to his nine solo albums and fourteen studio albums with Journey, Schon's work also includes: a pair of albums with keyboardist Jan Hammer, short-term collaborations with Sammy Hagar (HSAS and Planet Us) and Paul Rodgers, stints with Bad English (a supergroup that featured Journey's Jonathan Cain and Deen Castronovo and Cain's former Babys bandmates John Waite and Ricky Phillips) and Hardline (which also featured Castronovo). Even as Journey's latest lineup plays to a still-faithful body of fans, Schon has immersed himself in side projects such as Piranha Blues (1999); "Black Soup Cracker", a funk outfit that features former Prince associates Rosie Gaines and Michael Bland; and Soul SirkUS with Jeff Scott Soto.
Schon can be heard on other albums including three tracks on Michael Bolton's The Hunger, with the Schon sound most recognizable on "(Sittin' On) The Dock of the Bay". He also joined Larry Graham to play in an all-star band for cult funk artist and ex-wife of Miles Davis, Betty Davis. In addition, Schon (along with then Journey manager Herbie Herbert) also contributed to Lenny White's 1977 album Big City, specifically the instrumental jam "And We Meet Again".
On February 9, 2018, Schon played a charity show at San Francisco's The Independent, benefiting North Bay Fire Relief. The group recruited featured former Journey drummer Deen Castronovo (who also sang some of the vocals), former Journey keyboardist Gregg Rolie and bassist Marco Mendoza of The Dead Daisies.
In 2019, Schon announced a tour to be called Neal Schon's Journey Through Time. The tour was slated to feature Castronovo, Rolie and Mendoza.
Guitars
Schon's first guitar was an acoustic Stella, followed two years later by a Gibson ES-335. When the 335 was stolen, he replaced it with a '56 Les Paul Goldtop reissue that he used for many years. Schon has used Gibson guitars over the years, having also used Fender and Ovation guitars during Journey's Departure tour. He had a limited edition signature Les Paul model called the Neal Schon Signature Model Custom Les Paul, of which Gibson made only 35, according to the Gibson Custom website (80 according to Neal Schon's website). He has previously employed Godin guitars on his 1995 solo album Beyond the Thunder, and more recently uses Paul Reed Smith guitars. In the late 1980s, Schon manufactured (through Jackson Guitars and later Larrivee) and played his own line of guitars. Simply named Schon, about 200 of the Jackson-produced models were made.
As of 2008, Schon currently prefers guitar pedals from Xotic, a Vox Satriani model and occasionally uses a Buddy Guy wah pedal.
Personal life
In September 2011, Schon publicly confirmed he was in a relationship with Michaele Salahi. The two said they had dated years previously in the 1990s and were very happy together.
On October 14, 2012, Schon proposed to Salahi onstage during a charity concert at the Lyric Opera House in Baltimore, Maryland, offering her an oval 11.42 carat diamond engagement ring.
The couple married on December 15, 2013 in a live broadcast wedding that was held in the Palace of Fine Arts in San Francisco, California. The marriage is Schon's fifth and Salahi's second.
Schon has confirmed that he has tinnitus which causes constant ringing in the ears, common in musicians who have toured extensively.
Discography
Solo albums
Late Nite (1989)
Beyond the Thunder (1995)
Electric World (1997)
Piranha Blues (1999)
Voice (2001)
I on U (2005)
The Calling (2012)
So U (2014)
Vortex (2015)
Universe (2020)
With Santana
Santana III (1971)
Caravanserai (1972)
Santana IV (2016)
With Azteca
Azteca (1972)
Pyramid of the Moon (1973)
With Journey
Journey (1975)
Look into the Future (1976)
Next (1977)
Infinity (1978)
Evolution (1979)
Departure (1980)
Dream, After Dream (1980, Japanese movie soundtrack)
Escape (1981)
Frontiers (1983)
Raised on Radio (1986)
Trial by Fire (1996)
Arrival (2001)
Generations (2005)
Revelation (2008)
Eclipse (2011)
With Jan Hammer
Untold Passion (1981)
Here to Stay (1982)
With HSAS
Through the Fire (1984)
With Bad English
Bad English (1989)
Backlash (1991)
With Hardline
Hot Cherie EP (1992)
Double Eclipse (1992)
Can't Find My Way EP (1992)
II (2002)
With Paul Rodgers
Muddy Water Blues: A Tribute to Muddy Waters (1993)
The Hendrix Set (1993)
Now (1997; co-writer of "Saving Grace")
Paul Rodgers & Friends Live at Montreux 1994 (2011)
With Just If I
All One People (1991)
With Abraxas Pool
Abraxas Pool (1997)
With Soul SirkUS
World Play (2004)
Guest appearances
Betty Davis – Betty Davis (1973)
Robert Fleischman - Perfect Stranger (1979)
Sammy Hagar - Danger Zone (1980)
Tané Cain - Tané Cain (1983)
Silver Condor - Trouble at Home (1983)
Hear 'n Aid - Stars (1985)
Gregg Rolie - Gregg Rolie (1985)
Eric Martin - Eric Martin (1985; co-writer of "Just One Night")
Joe Cocker - Cocker (1986)
Gregg Rolie - Gringo (1987)
Michael Bolton - The Hunger (1987)
Jimmy Barnes - Freight Train Heart (1987)
Glen Burtnick (ex Styx) - Heroes and Zeroes (1987)
The Allman Brothers Band - Where It All Begins (1994; co-writer of "Temptation Is a Gun")
Frederiksen/Phillips - Frederiksen/Phillips (1995)
Fergie Frederiksen – Equilibrium (1999)
Carmine Appice - Guitar Zeus - Safe (1996)
Various artists - Merry Axemas, Vol. 2: More Guitars for Christmas (1998)
Trichromes - Trichromes (2002)
Jeff Scott Soto - Lost in the Translation (2004)
Mickey Thomas - Over the Edge (2004)
Beth Hart - "Les Paul & Friends: American Made World Played" (2005)
Radioactive - Taken (2005)
Sammy Hagar - Cosmic Universal Fashion (2008)
Gary Schutt - Loss 4 Words (2008; guitar solo on "Road Trip")
Lee Ritenour - Lee Ritenour's 6 String Theory (2010)
Two Fires - Burning Bright (2011; co-writer of "Some Things Are Better Left Unsaid")
Eric Martin - Mr. Rock Vocalist (2012)
Sammy Hagar - Sammy Hagar & Friends (2013)
Jimmy Barnes - 30:30 Hindsight (2014)
Revolution Saints - Revolution Saints (2015)
Jason Becker - Triumphant Hearts (2018)
References
Sources
External links
Neal Schon Official Site
Neal Schon Official FaceBook Page
Neal Schon Official YouTube Channel
Neal Schon Biography
1954 births
American rock guitarists
American male guitarists
Bad English members
Hagar Schon Aaronson Shrieve members
Hardline (band) members
Journey (band) members
Lead guitarists
Living people
American people of German descent
American people of Italian descent
Musicians from Oklahoma City
Planet Us members
Santana (band) members
Soul SirkUS members
American heavy metal guitarists
Guitarists from Oklahoma
20th-century American guitarists
Favored Nations artists
Frontiers Records artists
Shrapnel Records artists
Columbia Records artists
People from San Mateo, California
Glam metal musicians
|
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208403
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20Douglas
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Margaret Douglas
|
Margaret Douglas, Countess of Lennox (8 October 1515 – 7 March 1578), was the daughter of the Scottish queen dowager Margaret Tudor and her second husband Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus. In her youth she was high in the favour of her uncle, Henry VIII of England, but twice incurred the King's anger, first for her unauthorised engagement to Lord Thomas Howard, who died in the Tower of London in 1537 because of his misalliance with her, and again in 1540 for an affair with Thomas Howard's nephew Sir Charles Howard, the brother of Henry's wife Catherine Howard. On 6 July 1544, she married Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, one of Scotland's leading noblemen. Her son Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, married Mary, Queen of Scots, and was the father of James VI and I.
Early life
Margaret was born at Harbottle Castle in Northumberland on 8 October 1515. Her mother had crossed the border from Scotland when her father was facing difficulties in Scotland. In October 1528, Angus was threatened by James V of Scotland and sent Margaret back over the River Tweed into England at Norham Castle. After a brief stay at Berwick Castle accompanied by her nurse or 'gentlewoman' Isobel Hoppar, Margaret joined the household of her godfather, Cardinal Wolsey. When Wolsey died in 1530, Lady Margaret was invited to the royal Palace of Beaulieu, where she resided in the household of Princess Mary. Because of her nearness to the English crown, Lady Margaret Douglas was brought up chiefly at the English court in close association with Mary, her first cousin, the future Queen Mary I, who remained her lifelong friend; even when her father fled to England in May 1529 and remained there until 1542, Margaret never entered her father's custody, remaining in royal custody instead. Margaret gave Princess Mary gifts on New Year's Day, in 1543 her gift was a satin gown of carnation silk in Venice fashion. At Christmastime at Greenwich Palace in 1530, 1531, and 1532, Henry VIII gave Margaret the generous sum of 10 marks (£6-13s–4d).
When Anne Boleyn's court was established, Margaret was appointed as a lady-in-waiting. There she met Anne Boleyn's uncle, Lord Thomas Howard (not to be confused with his brother Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk), and they began their courtship. Thomas was a younger son of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, by his second marriage to Agnes Tilney. By the end of 1535 Thomas and Margaret had fallen in love and become secretly engaged.
King Henry turned against Anne Boleyn in May 1536. When in early July 1536 he learned of Margaret's engagement to Thomas Howard (Anne's uncle), he was furious. Henry had declared his daughters Mary and Elizabeth bastards, leaving Margaret very high in the line of succession; for her to contract an unauthorised marriage was politically outrageous, especially with the son of a powerful nobleman and near kin of the disgraced queen. Both Lord Thomas and Lady Margaret were committed to the Tower. On 18 July 1536, Parliament, by an Act of Attainder, condemned Thomas to death for attempting to 'interrupt ympedyte and lett the seid Succession of the Crowne'. The Act also forbade the marriage of any member of the King's family without his permission. Thomas was spared execution, but remained in the Tower even after Margaret broke off their relationship. He died there on 31 October 1537.
Margaret also fell ill in the Tower, and the King allowed her to move to Syon Abbey under the supervision of the abbess. She was released from imprisonment on 29 October 1537. According to G. J. Meyer in his work The Tudors, King Henry VIII had interpreted the marriage between Lord Thomas Howard and Margaret Douglas to be an attempt by Lord Howard to "make himself the King of England." However, the many love letters between Margaret Douglas and Lord Thomas reveal a true love affair wrongfully ended by the paranoia of King Henry VIII.
In 1539, Margaret and the Duchess of Richmond were appointed to greet Henry VIII's bride, Anne of Cleves, at Greenwich Palace, join her household, and convey her to the King. This would have been a great honour, but instead Henry chose to meet Anne at Rochester.
In 1540, Margaret was again in disgrace with the King when she had an affair with Lord Thomas Howard's half-nephew Sir Charles Howard. He was the son of Thomas' elder half-brother Lord Edmund Howard, and a brother of Henry VIII's fifth wife, Catherine Howard.
In 1543, Margaret was one of the few witnesses of King Henry's final marriage to Catherine Parr, Dowager Lady Latimer, at Hampton Court. Margaret became one of Queen Catherine's chief ladies. Catherine Parr and Margaret had known each other since they both had come to court in the 1520s.
Marriage and diplomacy
In 1544, Lady Margaret married a Scottish exile, Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox (1516–1571), who later became regent of Scotland in 1570–1571. In total the couple had eight or nine children, four boys: Henry, Henry, Philip and Charles, and four unnamed daughters, though only two sons—Henry Stuart (1546–1567), born in 1546 at Temple Newsam; and Charles Stuart (1555–1576), who later married Elizabeth Cavendish in 1574—survived to manhood; one of their other siblings was called Philip, presumably after the Spanish king and husband of Margaret's cousin, Mary I. Elizabeth Cavendish, wife of Charles, Earl of Lennox, was the daughter of Sir William Cavendish and Bess of Hardwick.
In June 1548, during the war of the Rough Wooing, Margaret's father, the Earl of Angus, wrote to her with the news that her uncle, George Douglas, and others of the family had been captured at Dalkeith Palace. Her father hoped that she and her husband could arrange that they were well treated as prisoners. The Earl of Lennox forwarded the letter to the Duke of Somerset, writing that his father-in-law would have done better to ask others for help. Margaret wrote to her father from Wressle Castle in March 1549, complaining that he had avoided meeting her husband. She asked him to seek an honourable peace through the acknowledgement of her marriage, "what a memorial it should be to you!"
During the reign of Queen Mary I of England, Lady Margaret had rooms in Westminster Palace. In November 1553, the Queen told the ambassador, Simon Renard, that Margaret was best suited to succeed her to the throne. Margaret was the chief mourner at Queen Mary's funeral in December 1558. On the accession of Queen Elizabeth I of England, Margaret moved to Yorkshire, where her home at Temple Newsam became a centre for Roman Catholic intrigue.
Margaret succeeded in marrying her elder son, Lord Darnley, to his first cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots, thus uniting their claims to the English throne. Queen Elizabeth I disapproved of this marriage and had Lady Margaret sent to the Tower of London in 1566, but after the murder of Margaret's son Darnley in 1567, she was released. Margaret denounced her daughter-in-law, but was eventually later reconciled with her. Her husband assumed the government of Scotland as regent, but was assassinated in 1571.
On 3 August, the governor of Scotland, Regent Morton wrote to her about the capture of Edinburgh Castle from the supporters of Mary, Queen of Scots. An English commander at the siege, William Drury, had obtained some of the jewels of Mary, Queen of Scots. Morton thought that Margaret was best placed to ask and influence Drury to send the jewels back to him in Scotland.
In 1574, she again aroused Queen Elizabeth's anger by marrying her younger son Charles to Elizabeth Cavendish, the stepdaughter of the Earl of Shrewsbury. She was again sent to the Tower, unlike the Countess of Shrewsbury, but was pardoned after her son Charles' death in 1576.
Lady Margaret's diplomacy largely contributed to the future succession of her grandson, James VI of Scotland, to the English throne.
Death and legacy
After the death of her younger son, she helped care for his daughter, Lady Arbella. However, she did not outlive him by very long. A few days before her death, she dined with Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, and this led to rumours that she had been poisoned. There is no historical evidence to substantiate this.
Although she died in debt, she was given a grand funeral in Westminster Abbey, at the expense of Queen Elizabeth I, with a hundred poor women in attendance. She was buried in the same grave as her son Charles in the south aisle of Henry VII's chapel in the Abbey. It has been said that her grandson erected the fine monument, but it was commissioned in October 1578 by her executor and former servant Thomas Fowler. Her recumbent effigy, made of alabaster, wears a French cap and ruff with a red fur-lined cloak, over a dress of blue and gold. On either side of the tomb chest are weepers of her four sons and four daughters.
Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester had eight tapestries at Kenilworth Castle in 1588 which had been bought from "Lady Lennox". The subjects included Josias, Demophon and Achilles, and the History of Noah. At his death in 1624, Ludovic Stewart, 2nd Duke of Lennox had a bed in his lodgings at the gatehouse of Whitehall Palace that had belonged to Margaret Douglas, and she had "worked" or embroidered the curtains.
The Lennox Jewel was most likely made for Lady Lennox in the 1570s although the date and occasion of its commission is the subject of some controversy. In 1842, the jewel was bought by her descendant, Queen Victoria. The locket, considered "one of the most important early jewels in the Royal Collection", is on display in the Holyrood Palace.
Poetry
Margaret Douglas is known for her poetry. Many of her works are written to her lover, Lord Thomas Howard, and are preserved in the Devonshire MS. Her close friends, Mary Shelton and the Duchess of Richmond, were the main contributors, as well as Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey and Thomas Wyatt.
Ancestry
References
External links
Margaret Douglas: The forgotten Tudor princess, BBC History Magazine, 18 November 2015 at 5:00 pm
Further reading
1515 births
1578 deaths
People from Northumberland
Burials at Westminster Abbey
Margaret Douglas
16th-century English women
16th-century English nobility
Margaret
Lennox
Daughters of Scottish earls
Household of Anne Boleyn
Household of Catherine Howard
Household of Catherine Parr
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurouni%20Kenshin
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Rurouni Kenshin
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is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Nobuhiro Watsuki. The story begins during the 11th year of the Meiji period in Japan (1878) and follows a former assassin from the Bakumatsu, known as Hitokiri Battosai. After his work against the bakufu, Hitokiri Battosai disappears to become Himura Kenshin: a wandering swordsman who protects the people of Japan with a vow never to take another life. Watsuki wrote the series upon his desire to make a shōnen manga different from the other ones that were published at the time, with Kenshin being a former assassin and the story taking a more serious tone as it continued. The manga revolves around themes of atonement, peace, and romance.
The manga was serialized in Shueisha's Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine from April 1994 to September 1999. The complete work consists of 28 tankōbon volumes, while years later it was reprinted into twenty-two kanzenban volumes. Studio Gallop, Studio Deen and SPE Visual Works adapted the manga into an anime television series, which aired in Japan from January 1996 to September 1998. Besides an animated feature film, two series of original video animations (OVAs) were also produced. The first adapted stories from the manga that were not featured in the anime, while the second was a sequel to the manga. Several art and guidebooks for Rurouni Kenshin have been published, and writer Kaoru Shizuka has authored three official light novels which were published by Shueisha. Many video games have also been released for the PlayStation, PlayStation 2, and PlayStation Portable consoles. A series of five live-action theatrical films adaptations were released from 2012 to 2021. A second anime television series adaptation by Liden Films has been announced.
The manga, as well as the first light novel and first guidebook, has received a complete North American release by Viz Media. Rurouni Kenshin is subtitled "Wandering Samurai" in some English versions. The Rurouni Kenshin manga has over 72 million copies in circulation as of 2019, making it one of the best-selling manga series. The series has received praise from various publications for manga, anime and other media, with both having received a good response on the characters' designs and historical setting. In 2017, Watsuki began a direct sequel titled Rurouni Kenshin: The Hokkaido Arc in Jump Square.
Plot
In the early Meiji era, after participating in the Boshin War as the assassin "Hitokiri Battōsai", Himura Kenshin wanders the countryside of Japan with a reverse blade katana. He is offering protection and aid to those in need as atonement for the murders he once committed. When arriving in Tokyo in the 11th year of Meiji (1878), he meets a young woman named Kamiya Kaoru, who is in the middle of a fight with a murderer - who claims to be the Hitokiri Battōsai - tarnishing the name of the swordsmanship school that she teaches. Kenshin decides to help her and defeats the fake Battōsai. After discovering that Kenshin is the real infamous assassin, Kaoru offers him a place to stay at her dojo, noting that he is peace-loving and not cold-hearted, as his reputation implies. Kenshin accepts and begins to establish lifelong relationships with many people such as Sagara Sanosuke, a former Sekihō Army member; Myōjin Yahiko, an orphan from a samurai family who is also living with Kaoru as her student; and a doctor named Takani Megumi, caught in the opium trade. However, he also deals with his fair share of enemies, new and old, including the former leader of the Oniwabanshū, Shinomori Aoshi.
After several months of living in the dojo, Kenshin faces a rival from the Bakumatsu turned police officer, Saitō Hajime. This challenge turns out to be a test to face his successor, Shishio Makoto, who plans to conquer Japan by destroying the Meiji Government, starting with Kyoto. Feeling that Shishio's faction may attack his friends, Kenshin meets Shishio alone to defeat him. However, many of his friends, including a young Oniwabanshū named Makimachi Misao, whom he meets in his travels, decide to help him in his fight. After his first meeting with him, Kenshin realizes he needs to get stronger to defeat Shishio without becoming the cold assassin he was in the past and returns to the man who taught him kenjutsu, Hiko Seijūrō, to learn the school's final technique. He finally accepts his friends' help and defeats Shishio in a close fight. After that, Shishio dies burning to ashes after passing the limit of his abnormal body condition. A reformed Shinomori stays in Kyoto with the surviving Oniwabanshū.
When Kenshin and his friends return to Tokyo, he finds Yukishiro Enishi, who plans to enact revenge. At this point, it is revealed that, during the Bakumatsu, Kenshin was to be married to a woman named Yukishiro Tomoe. She had initially wanted to avenge the death of her first fiancé, whom Kenshin had assassinated, but instead, they both fell in love, and she got proposed to. It is eventually revealed that Tomoe was related to Edo guards who wanted to kill Kenshin. They outwitted Tomoe after realizing her deception first and captured her to use as bait. Kenshin rushed to the rescue. Although the ambushers managed to injure him severely, Kenshin managed to kill almost all of them and moved on. Then, in the final fight against the group leader, Kenshin accidentally kills Tomoe, who jumps in at the last second to help Kenshin create an opening to win the battle. Wanting to take revenge for the death of his sister, Enishi kidnaps Kaoru and leaves behind a corpse doll bearing a stunning resemblance of her for Kenshin to find and momentarily grieve over. Once discovering that Kaoru is alive, Kenshin and his friends set out to rescue her. A final battle between Kenshin and Enishi follows, and the former assassin emerges as the victor. Misao brings Tomoe's diary to Enishi who keeps it in a village to hide alongside his missing father.
Four years later, Kenshin has married Kaoru and has a son named Himura Kenji. Now at peace with himself, Kenshin gives his reverse-blade sword to Yahiko as a ceremonial gift.
Production
One-shots
A prototype series titled Rurouni: Meiji Swordsman Romantic Story appeared as a pair of separate short stories published in 1992 and 1993. The first story, published in December 1992 in the Weekly Shōnen Jump Winter Special issue of 1993, featured an earlier version of Kenshin stopping a crime lord from taking over the Kamiya family dojo. Watsuki described the first Rurouni story, echoing the "Megumi Arc," as a "pilot" for Rurouni Kenshin. According to Watsuki, the final Rurouni Kenshin series was not composed entirely of his free will. Describing the creation of historical stories as "hard," Watsuki initially wanted to make his next series in a contemporary setting. An editor approached Watsuki and asked him to make a new historical story. With the historical concept, Watsuki intended to use the Bakumatsu period from Moeyo Ken (Burn, O Sword) with a story akin to Sanshiro Sugata. Watsuki experimented with various titles, including Nishin (Two-Hearts) Kenshin, Yorozuya (Jack-of-All-Trades) Kenshin, and variations of "Rurouni" and "Kenshin" with different kanji in that order.
The second Rurouni story, published in April 1993 in the Weekly Shōnen Jump 21–22 double issue of that year, featured Kenshin helping a wealthy girl named Raikōji Chizuru. Watsuki recalled experiencing difficulty when condensing "everything" into 31 pages for that story. He said that he "put all [his] soul into it" but sighs when looking at it from his perspective after the publication of the Rurouni Kenshin Volume 1 graphic novel in Japan. Watsuki describes that second Rurouni: Meiji Swordsman Romantic Story as receiving mediocre reviews and about two hundred letters. He referred to it as a "side story."
The design model for Hiko Seijuro, Kenshin's master, in Rurouni Kenshin is the character of the same name from his one-shot manga "Crescent Moon of the Warring States," but Watsuki also added some influences from Hiken Majin Hajerun in Takeshi Obata's Arabian Lamp-Lamp. At the time, Watsuki said that he was fascinated by images of "manliness" and that Hiko is one of the first characters to reflect this fascination. Since Watsuki's debut work contained a tall, black-haired man in "showy" armor, he wanted to make a character "completely opposite" to the debut character; the new character ended up "coming out like a girl". According to Watsuki, he used "no real motif" when creating Kenshin and placed a cross-shaped scar on his face "not knowing what else to do." Like several characters, Kenshin was influenced the Shinsengumi with Kenshin being affected by Okita Sōji and Saitō Hajime in order to give him an air of mystery.
Publication and influences
During his childhood, Watsuki used to practice kendo, which influenced his making of the series. Although Watsuki developed various one-shots before the official serialization from the series. While naming the characters, he based some of their names from places he used to live such a Makimachi Misaos's "Makimachi" and Sanjō Tsubame, who are named after places from Niigata.
When the manga series started to be published in Weekly Shōnen Jump, Watsuki had little hope in the development of the series. He planned to finish the story in approximately 30 chapters, ending with Kenshin's departure from Tokyo similarly to the one from volume 7. Kenshin's enemies would have been people from Kyoto who would send an assassin to kill Kenshin. When the Oniwabanshū were introduced during the serialization, Watsuki noted that the series could be longer as he had created various main characters. In that time, there was a survey, and the series had become very popular.
For its seventh volume, Watsuki's boss suggested to him that it was time to make a longer story-arc, which resulted in the creation of the fights between Kenshin and Shishio Makoto. The arc was only meant to be serialized for one year, but it ended up being one year-and-a-half-long. This arc was also done to develop Kenshin's character as he considered him not to have a weak point. Watsuki commented that his artistic skills were honed with this arc, as he could draw everything he wanted to. The last arc from the manga was meant to be much shorter, but it turned out to be a fairly long one as he could not present it simplistically. Watsuki originally made this arc prior to the series' start, having already thought about how would Kenshin's scar had been made. Because of the dark style of the Kyoto arc, Watsuki created the comical Mikimachi Misao in order to contrast Kenshin's serious side.
Being fascinated by the Shinsengumi, Watsuki designed the characters by basing their characteristics to that of the real Shinsengumi members and also used fictional representation of them and other historical characters from the Bakumatsu period of Japan. The historical characters were considered to be a hard task by Watsuki. Due to problems with the characterization from Sagara Sōzō, Watsuki decided to illustrate Saitō Hajime in his own style avoiding the historical figure. He felt very good with Saitō's character having noted he fit very well in the manga. However, Watsuki mentioned that many Japanese fans of the Shinsengumi complained about the personality of Saitō, as he was made sadistic. Additionally, the final shot of Kenshin returning to Kaoru's dojo was inspired by the final shot of the Rurouni Kenshin anime's first opening theme:"Sobakasu" by Judy and Mary.
In final arc of the manga, Watsuki wanted to make the five comrades in this storyline as "scum-like" as possible. But because he created villains with no ideals or beliefs, this made it difficult to portray them as an enjoyable read. The story took a darker tone as most of the characters believed Kaoru was killed by Yukishiro Enishi which made Kenshin question his own way of living and escape to a village of wanderers. Watsuki did not enjoy angst in Kenshin so his friend Myōjin Yahiko took the place as the series' protagonist until Kenshin recovers. Even though the plot for the "remembrance episodes" of Kenshin's past was already set before serialization started, which was three and a half years before her debut, Watsuki was filled with regrets in how he portrayed Yukishiro Tomoe for unspecified reasons. The final villains, the Sū-shi,n had no personality models and were created simply to "fill out the numbers." As the story advanced towards Kenshin's final battle, Watsuki realized that the other characters would have no "glamour" and created the Sū-shin on the spot.
Ending
Watsuki also had ideas to create a "Hokkaido episode, a sequel" but wanted to start a new manga and so ended Rurouni Kenshin with the last arc he made. In 2012, Watsuki revealed that when he clashed with the editorial staff at the end of the series, his editor Hisashi Sasaki understood his intentions and saw that he was at his physical limit and backed him up. He said it was out of respect and appreciation for the readers that he ended the popular series while it was still popular. Nevertheless, Watsuki was happy with how he ended Rurouni Kenshin. He felt it was a good place to end the narrative. In contrast, most series keep being pushed and pushed until they lose popularity and be canceleld. Watsuki was glad Rurouni Kenshin did not end like this.
For the series' ending, Watsuki conceived new designs with potential of a sequel in the future. Initially, Watsuki had planned to make Kenshin's hair shorter before the end; however, he found this to be similar to the character Multi in To Heart. Additionally, Himura Kenji was introduced in the finale as the son of Kenshin and Kaoru; even though the character was "cliché" Watsuki felt that Kenji had to appear. An elder Sanosuke was drafted by Watsuki to appear in the manga's finale but this idea was scrapped. In the manga's final story arc, the design was used for Sanosuke's father, Higashidani Kamishimoemon. The author added that he felt attachment towards Enishi and that he would someday like to use Enishi in a future work.
Another idea explored for a sequel was the handling of Yahiko as teenager. Watsuki had redesigned his appearance. He wanted Yahiko to impress manga readers so that he could be a protagonist for a possible series sequel. He said this goal influenced his design of Yahiko, with Kenshin's physical appearance as well as Sanosuke's personality. He added Sanosuke's kanji of to the back of his clothes, and was pleased that various readers recognized it. Although he suggested he was not going to make a sequel, he said the main characters would be Yahiko, Sanjō Tsubame and Tsukayama Yutarō. Watsuki thought about writing a story in which Yahiko and Tsubame would have a son, Myōjin Shin'ya, who would become a skilled swordsman.
Themes
The series' main theme is responsibility as seen through Kenshin's action as he wants to atone for all the people he killed during the Bakumatsu by aiding innocent people by wielding a non-lethal sword. Marco Olivier from the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University said that the sakabatō symbolizes Kenshin's oath not to kill again which has been found challenging by other warriors appearing in the series. This theme also encourages former drug dealer Takani Megumi into becoming a doctor upon learning of Kenshin's past and actions. Another theme is power, which is mostly seen by Sagara Sanosuke and Myojin Yahiko. However, like Megumi, these two characters are also influenced by the main character as they wish to become stronger to assist Kenshin across the plot. Additionally, the series discourages revenge as seen in the final arc when Yukishiro Enishi believes he succeeded in getting his revenge on Kenshin but starts having hallucinations of his late sister with a sad expression on her face. As an "outlet" for Watsuki's kendo emotions, Yahiko "knows a pain that hero-types like Himura Kenshin and Sagara Sanosuke can never know". As a result, Yahiko was made a stronger character little by little to relate with the demography. eventually giving him a stronger characterization during the Kyoto arc which surprised his readers.
When questioned about the series' theme being Kenshin's self-redemption, Watsuki mentioned that when he was young, he used to read shōjo manga and that it influenced his writing of Rurouni Kenshin. He added that he wanted to make a story different from other comics as he considers the main character Kenshin is neither a good nor evil character. Since volume 7, Watsuki mentioned the series took a more adult tone due to the various conflicts in the story but commented it was influenced by the shōjo manga he read. Through the series' development, Watsuki was deciding if Kamiya Kaoru's character was going to die before the end. However, he later decided to keep Kaoru alive as he came to the conclusion he wanted a happy ending and that the manga is aimed at young readers. In The Oxford Handbook of American Folklore and Folklife Studies, Kenshin is regarded as a "far cry" from American superheroes due to his androgynous look and selfdeprecating personality. However, the character is said to be relatable to the Eastern audience through Kenshin's quest of redemption, which is called as the main theme of the manga. The manga is further noted to have a balance between individualism and community.
Watsuki said he was an "infatuated" type of person rather than a "passionate" kind of person, therefore Rurouni Kenshin is a "Meiji Swordsman Story" as opposed to being a "Meiji Love Story." According to the book Bringing Forth a World: Engaged Pedagogy in the Japanese University the manga reflects the confusion of the Japanese society after the big economy disenchantment in the early 1990s. In confronts visualizations of Japanese education in a manner that contrasts school books especially because of the series' young demography. Since the manga focuses on realism but is aimed towards young readers, the series is notable for changing the portrayals of samurais in order to create a more optimistic take in comparison to real life events. The unique take on Kenshin's handling gave the manga the concept of "neo shonen" due to how different it was from previous Weekly Shonen Jump series.
Release
Written and illustrated by Nobuhiro Watsuki, Rurouni Kenshin was serialized in Shueisha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from April 25, 1994, to September 21, 1999. The 255 individual chapters were collected and published in 28 tankōbon volumes by Shueisha, with the first volume released on September 9, 1994, and the last on November 4, 1999. They re-released the series in a 22-volume kanzenban edition between July 4, 2006, and May 2, 2007. Shueisha published a 14-volume bunkoban edition between January 18, 2012, and July 18, 2012. A single chapter follow up to the series that follows the character of Yahiko Myōjin, , was originally published in Weekly Shōnen Jump in 2000 after the conclusion of the series. Left out of the original volumes, it was added as an extra to the final kanzenban release.
In December 2011, Shueisha announced Watsuki would be putting his current series, Embalming -The Another Tale of Frankenstein-, on hold to begin a "reboot" of Rurouni Kenshin, called Rurouni Kenshin: Restoration, as a tie-in to the live-action movie. The series began in the June 2012 issue of Jump Square, which was released on May 2, 2012, and ended in the July 2013 issue on June 4, 2013. The reboot depicts the battles that are featured in the first live-action film. Another special titled Rurouni Kenshin: Meiji Swordsman Romantic Story: Chapter 0, was published in Weekly Shōnen Jump in August 2012 as a prologue to Restoration and included in its first volume. In 2014, Watsuki wrote a two-chapter spin-off titled Rurouni Kenshin: Master of Flame for Jump SQ., which tells how Shishio met Yumi and formed the Juppongatana.
Watsuki and his wife, Kaworu Kurosaki, collaborated on a two chapter spinoff titled Rurouni Kenshin Side Story: The Ex-Con Ashitaro for the ninth anniversary of Jump SQ. in 2016. It acts as a prologue to the Rurouni Kenshin: The Hokkaido Arc, which began in September 2017 as a sequel to the original manga series. In 2021, Watsuki created the manga that was exclusively shown at an exhibition celebrating the 25th anniversary of Rurouni Kenshin. It serves as an epilogue to chapter 81 of the original manga and shows the first time Kenshin used his sakabatō.
Rurouni Kenshin was licensed for an English language release in North America by Viz Media. The first volume of the series was released on October 7, 2003. Although the first volumes were published on an irregular basis, since volume 7 Viz established a monthly basis due to good sales and consumer demands. Therefore, the following volumes were published until July 5, 2006, when the final volume was released. Yahiko no Sakabatō was also published in English Shonen Jump during 2006. Between January 29, 2008, and March 16, 2010, Viz re-released the manga in a nine-volume omnibus format called "Viz Big Edition", which collects three volumes in one. The ninth and final volume includes Yahiko no Sakabato and Cherry Blossoms in Spring. They released a similar "3-in-1 Edition" across nine volumes between January 3, 2017, and January 1, 2019. Viz uses the actual ordering of Japanese names, with the family name or surname before the given name, within the series to reduce confusion and because Rurouni Kenshin is a historical series.
Adaptations
Anime series
An anime television series adaptation of Rurouni Kenshin, produced by SPE Visual Works and Fuji TV, animated by Studio Gallop (episode 1 to 66) and Studio Deen (episode 67 to 95), and directed by Kazuhiro Furuhashi, was broadcast in Japan on Fuji TV from January 10, 1996, to September 8, 1998.
A second anime television series adaptation by Liden Films was announced at the Jump Festa '22 event on December 19, 2021.
Animated film
An anime film with an original story, titled , also known as Rurouni Kenshin: Requiem for Patriots, originally released in North America as Samurai X: The Motion Picture, premiered in Japan on December 20, 1997.
Original video animations
A 4-episode original video animation (OVA), titled Rurouni Kenshin: Trust & Betrayal, which served as a prequel to the anime television series, was released in Japan in 1999.
A 2-episode OVA, titled Rurouni Kenshin: Reflection, which served as a sequel to the anime television series, was released in Japan from 2001 to 2002.
A 2-episode OVA, Rurouni Kenshin: New Kyoto Arc, which remade the series' Kyoto arc, was released in Japan from 2011 to 2012.
Live-action films
Five live-action films have been released theatrically. The live-action film adaptation of Rurouni Kenshin was announced on June 28, 2011. Produced by Warner Bros., with actual film production done by Studio Swan, the films were directed by Keishi Ōtomo and star Takeru Satoh (of Kamen Rider Den-O fame) as Kenshin, Munetaka Aoki as Sanosuke Sagara and Emi Takei as Kaoru. The first film, titled Rurouni Kenshin, was released on August 25, 2012, in Japan. In August 2013, it was announced that two sequels were being filmed simultaneously for release in 2014. Rurouni Kenshin: Kyoto Inferno and Rurouni Kenshin: The Legend Ends adapt the Kyoto arc of the manga. On April 12, 2019, it was announced that two new live-action films will adapt the Remembrance/Tenchu & Jinchu arcs. The films, titled Rurouni Kenshin: The Final and Rurouni Kenshin: The Beginning, premiered in 2021.
Stage shows
In 2016, the Takarazuka Revue performed a musical adaptation of the manga called Rurouni Kenshin: Meiji Swordsman Romantic Story. The show ran from February to March, and starred Seina Sagiri as Kenshin and Miyu Sakihi as Kaoru. The musical was written and directed by Shūichirō Koike.
In 2018, a stage play adaptation was performed in Shinbashi Enbujō theater in Tokyo and Shōchikuza theater in Osaka. Seina Sagiri returned to play as Kenshin while Moka Kamishiraishi play as Kaoru. Kanō Sōzaburō, an original character introduced in the previous musical, made a return appearance played by Mitsuru Matsuoka. Shūichirō Koike returned as the director and the script writer of the play.
In 2020, a stage musical adaptation of the manga's Kyoto arc was scheduled to be held from November to December 2020 in IHI Stage Around Tokyo. Starring Teppei Koike as Himura Kenshin and Mario Kuroba as the antagonist Makoto Shishio, Shūichirō Koike returned as director and script writer of the play. This stage musical was cancelled due to COVID-19 pandemic.
Art and guidebooks
Two encyclopedias of the Rurouni Kenshin manga were released in Japan. The first one, , was released first in Japan on July 4, 1996, by Shueisha and in the United States by Viz Media on November 1, 2005. , released on December 15, 1999, includes the story , which details the fates of all of the Rurouni Kenshin characters. The story takes place years after the manga's conclusion, when Kenshin and Kaoru have married and have a young son, Kenji. Many of the series' major characters who have befriended Kenshin reunite or otherwise reveal their current whereabouts with him in a spring picnic. For the anime, three Kenshin Soushi artbook were published from 1997 to 1998. While the first two were based on the TV series, the third one was based on the film. The film one was named Ishin Shishi no Requiem Art Book and was released along with the movie. Also released was Rurouni-Art Book, which contained images from the OVAs. A guidebook from the kanzenban imprint of the series was published on June 4, 2007.
Light novels
The Rurouni Kenshin light novels were published by Shueisha's Jump J-Books line and co-written by Kaoru Shizuka. Most of them are original stories which were later adapted in the anime. Others are adaptations of manga and anime stories.The very first novel, Rurouni Kenshin: Voyage to the Moon World, which was published in Japan on October 10, 1996, and in North America on October 17, 2006, details another adventure involving the return of Tales of the Meiji Season 3's Beni-Aoi Arc characters like Kaishu Katsu & the Kamiya Dojo's third pupil Daigoro. The second, Yahiko's Battle, was released on October 3, 1997. It retells various stories featured in the manga and anime series. The third novel, TV Anime Shimabara Arc, was published on February 4, 1999. A novel adaptation of Rurouni Kenshin Cinema-ban, titled and written by Watsuki's wife Kaoru Kurosaki, which was released on September 4, 2012, is a Japanese light novel version of America's Restoration's New Kurogasa (Jin-E) Arc mangas featuring Banshin & a different younger Gein. Both are Ishin members of Enishi's team of the Jinchu/Tenchu (Judgment of Earth/Heaven) portions of the Enishi saga in the main plot manga series.
Video games
There are five Rurouni Kenshin games released for the PlayStation console. The first, was released on November 29, 1996. It was developed by ZOOM Inc. The game is a 3D fighter game with 5 playable characters, while the plot focuses in the first seven volumes from the manga. The second one, was released on December 18, 1997, and was re-released in the PlayStation The Best lineup on November 5, 1998. The game is a role-playing video game with a story unrelated to either the manga or anime.
is the only video game for the PlayStation 2 console. Its Japanese release was slated for September 13, 2006. The game has sold over 130,000 copies in Japan. A 2D fighting game titled was released for the PlayStation Portable on March 10, 2011, in Japan. On August 30, 2012, a sequel, , was released.
Himura Kenshin also appears in the 2005 and 2006 Nintendo DS games Jump Super Stars and Jump Ultimate Stars as a battle character, while others were support characters and help characters. Kenshin and Shishio appear as playable characters in the 2014 PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita game J-Stars Victory VS, and in the 2019 game Jump Force for Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One.
Merchandise
Watsuki commented that there was a lot of Rurouni Kenshin merchandise released for the Japanese market. He recommended that buyers consider quality before paying for merchandise items and for them to consult their wallets and buy stuff that they feel is "worth it." Watsuki added that he liked the prototype for a stuffed Kenshin doll for the UFO catcher devices.
Reception
Sales
Rurouni Kenshin has been highly popular, having sold over 55 million tankōbon copies in Japan alone up until February 2012, making it one of Shueisha's top ten best-selling manga series. In 2014, it was reported that the series had 70 million tankōbon copies in circulation. As of December 2019, the manga had over 72 million copies in circulation, including digital releases. Volume 27 of the manga ranked second in the Viz Bookscan Top Ten during June 2006, while volume 21 and 20 ranked second and tenth, respectively, in the Top 10 Graphic Novels of Viz of 2005. Rurouni Kenshin volume 24 also ranked in 116th position in the USA Today's best selling book list for the week ending February 26, 2006. During the third quarter from 2003, Rurouni Kenshin ranked at the top of ICv2's Top 50 Manga Properties. In the same poll from 2005, it was featured at the top once again based on sales from English volumes during 2004. In the Top Ten Manga Properties from 2006 from the same site, it ranked ninth. On TV Asahi's Manga Sōsenkyo 2021 poll, in which 150.000 people voted for their top 100 manga series, Rurouni Kenshin ranked 31st.
Critical response
The manga has received praise and criticism from various publications. Mania Entertainment writer Megan Lavey found that the manga had a good balance between character development, comedy and action scenes. The artwork of Watsuki was said to have improved as the series continued, noting that characters also had reactions during fights. Steve Raiteri from Library Journal praised the series for its characters and battles. However, he noted some fights were too violent, so he recommended the series to older teenagers as well as adults. Surat described the series as an example of a "neo-shōnen" series, where a shōnen series also appeals to a female audience; Surat stated that in such series, character designs are "pretty" for female audiences, but not too "girly" for male audiences. Surat cited Shinomori Aoshi and Seta Sōjirō, characters who ranked highly in popularity polls even though, in Surat's view, Aoshi does not engage in "meaningful" battles, and Sōjirō is a "kid." Surat explained that Aoshi appears "like a Clamp character wearing Gambit's coat and Sōjirō always smiles despite the abuse inflicted upon him. Surat said that the character designs for the anime television series were "toughened up a bit." He added that the budget for animation and music was "top-notch" because Sony produced the budget. Watsuki's writing involving romance and Kenshin's psychological hidden weakpoints also earned positive response by other sites with AnimeNation also comparing it to Clamp's X based on the multiple elements the series. In general, Mania found Watsuki's art appealing as well as its evolution across the twenty-eight volumes as it made female characters more attractive while the male characters seem simpler while retaining the early handome looks.
As a result of the series taking a darker tone in later story arcs with Kenshin facing new threats and at the same time his Battosai self, Kat Kan from Voice of Youth Advocates recommended it to older teens. Kan also found that the anime viewers will also enjoy Watsuki's drawings due to the way he illustrates battles. This is mostly noted in the "Kyoto arc" where Mania Entertainment writer Megan Lavey applauded the fight between Himura Kenshin and anti-hero Saito Hajime which acts as prologue of such narrative. Mania remarks the build up Aoshi, Saito and other characters bring to the story due to how they similar goals in the same arc with newcomer Misao helping to balance the style by bringing more comical interactions with the protagonist. Although the site Manga News enjoyed Seta Sojiro's fight and how it connected with Shishio's past, they said sixteenth manga's best part was Kenshin's fight against Shishio due to the build up and symbolism the two characters have. The eventual climax led further praise based on how menacing Shishio is shown in the battle against his predecessor although he questioned if Kenshin had been a superior enemy if had kept back his original killer persona.
Critics expressed mixed opinions in regards to the final arc. Zac Bertschy from Anime News Network (ANN) praised the story from the manga, but noted that by volume 18 of the series, Watsuki started to repeat the same type of villains who were united to kill Kenshin similar to Trigun. Although he praised Watsuki's characters, he commented that some of them needed some consistency due to various "bizarre" antagonists. Due to Kaoru, Kenshin and Sanosuke missing from the final arc during the Jinchu arc, Manga News described Aoshi as the star of the series' 24th volume due to how he explores the mysteries behind Enishi's revenge and his subsequent actions that made him stand out most notably because he had been absent for multiple chapters. IGN reviewer A.E. Sparrow liked the manga's ending, praising how the storylines are resolved, and how most of the supporting cast end up. He also praised the series' characters, remarking that Kenshin "belongs in any top ten of manga heroes." Otaku USA reviewer Daryl Surat said that the manga's quality was good until the "Revenge Arc," where he criticized the storyline and the new characters. Carlo Santos from the same site, praised Enishi and Kenshin's final fight despite finding the ending predictable. While also liking their final showdown, Megan Lavey from Mania Entertainment felt that twist that happens shortly after battle is over serves to show Enishi's longlife trauma but at the same time Kenshin's compassion towards others.
Cultural impact
Before becoming an official manga author, Masashi Kishimoto decided he should try creating a Chanbara manga since Weekly Shōnen Jump had not published a title from that genre. However, during his years of college, Kishimoto started reading Hiroaki Samura's Blade of the Immortal and Rurouni Kenshin which used the said genre. Kishimoto recalls having never been surprised by manga ever since reading Akira and found that he still was not able to compete against them. Hideaki Sorachi cited Rurouni Kenshin as a major source of inspiration for his manga series Gin Tama. He also said numerous other historical manga were influenced by Rurouni Kenshin, stating that the "reason why historical stories are being dealt with in all sorts of manga and game media today, and why they are being supported by the younger generation, is undoubtedly because" of "Ruroken" and that they "are all children of" the "Ruroken" bloodline.
Upon the anime's 25th anniversary in January 2021, Rurouni Kenshin received congratulatory messages from fifteen manga authors, including Nobuyuki Anzai (MÄR, Flame of Recca), Riichiro Inagaki (Eyeshield 21, Dr. Stone), Eichiro Oda (One Piece), Takeshi Obata (Death Note, Hikaru no Go), Masashi Kishimoto (Naruto, Samurai 8), Mitsutoshi Shimabukuro (Toriko, Build King), Shinya Suzuki (Mr. Fullswing), Hideaki Sorachi (Gintama), Hiroyuki Takei (Shaman King), Yasuhiro Nightow (Trigun), Kazuhiro Fujita (Ushio and Tora), Yūsei Matsui (Assassination Classroom) and Kentaro Yabuki (Black Cat, To LOVE Ru). Following the anniversary, Oda told Watsuki that Rurouni Kenshin is popular thanks to Watsuki's loyalty to his fans. Another of Watsuki's assistant, Hiroyuki Takei, exchanged ideas with Oda and his mentor to make his own manga, Shaman King. Kenshin's characterization was also compared with the lead of Shaman King, Yoh Asakura, due to their strict pacifism while the former dark side was linked with Yoh's spirit partner, the samurai Amidamaru. The lead of the manga Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba, Tanjiro Kamado, was also influenced by Kenshin's design as the author combined the character's androgynous design with a scar similar to Kenshin's in order to balance it properly for the audience.
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Official Shueisha Rurouni Kenshin manga website
Rurouni Kenshin at Viz Media
1994 manga
Adventure anime and manga
Comics set in Tokyo
Fiction set in 1878
Historical anime and manga
Japanese serial novels
Jump J-Books
Madman Entertainment manga
Manga adapted into films
Martial arts anime and manga
Meiji period in fiction
Romance anime and manga
Samurai in anime and manga
Shueisha franchises
Shueisha manga
Shōnen manga
Viz Media manga
Viz Media novels
Works about atonement
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedworth
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Bedworth
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Bedworth ( or locally ) is a market town in the borough of Nuneaton and Bedworth, Warwickshire, England. It is situated between Coventry, to the south, and Nuneaton, to the north.
In the 2011 census the town had a population of 30,438.
Geography
Bedworth lies northwest of London, east of Birmingham and north northeast of the county town of Warwick.
Bedworth has six main suburban districts, namely Collycroft, Mount Pleasant, Bedworth Heath, Coalpit Field, Goodyers End and Exhall. Exhall is a generic name for the area surrounding junction 3 of the M6 motorway, comprising parts of both Bedworth and Coventry. Around to the east of Bedworth is the large village of Bulkington, and around to the south-west, separated by a short gap is the village of Ash Green.
Bedworth is contiguous with Coventry, and is defined as being part of the Coventry and Bedworth Urban Area.
The River Sowe rises in Bedworth flowing through Exhall, northern and eastern Coventry, Baginton and Stoneleigh, before joining the River Avon south of Stoneleigh.
The town is locally pronounced as 'Beduth' though as Bedworth almost everywhere else.
History
Originally a small market town with Saxon origins, Bedworth was mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Bedeword. The first record of a priest at Bedworth was from 1297. The town suffered great decline as a result of the Black Death in the 14th century. In 1590, the town was described as being home to just 14 families. By 1730, Bedworth had recovered somewhat as a result of local coal mining, and was described as containing 260 houses.
Following the passage of the Five Mile Act 1665, which forbade Nonconformist church goers from assembling for worship and preaching within five miles of a corporate town such as Coventry. Bedworth, being exactly five miles from Coventry became a local centre for Nonconformists who assembled at the town. In 1686 the Reverend Julius Saunders established the Old Meeting congregation just north of the five-mile post. An old plaque that was on the mile-post can still be seen on a gate post of the Almshouses. In 1726 a Presbyterian Nonconformist chapel now of the United Reformed Church was built here which still stands, and was restored in 2012.
Bedworth developed into an industrial town in the 18th and 19th centuries, due largely to coal mining and the overspill of ribbon weaving and textile industries from nearby Coventry: Located on the Warwickshire coalfield, coal mining in the area was recorded as early as the 13th century, but grew to a large scale as a result of the industrial revolution. The industry peaked in 1939 when there were 20 pits in the area producing over 5.8 million tons of coal. The last colliery in Bedworth, Newdigate Colliery closed in 1982, and Coventry Colliery on the edge of the town closed in 1991. The ribbon weaving industry had been introduced to the area by French Huguenot immigrants in the 18th century and thrived for nearly a century, until it was largely wiped out in the 1860s following the Cobden–Chevalier Treaty which removed tariffs on imported French silks, causing enormous hardship to the town. Hat making however grew and largely replaced the ribbon trade, and lasted until the 1950s.
The opening of the Coventry Canal in 1789 and later, the railway in 1850 enhanced the town's growth.
From 1894 Bedworth was a civil parish within the Foleshill Rural District. In 1928 Bedworth was incorporated as an urban district in its own right. In 1932 the urban district was enlarged by the addition of Exhall and parts of Foleshill, Astley and Walsgrave on Sowe parishes. It was further enlarged in 1938 by the addition of Bulkington. In 1974 the Bedworth Urban District was merged with the Municipal Borough of Nuneaton to create the borough of Nuneaton and Bedworth.
Features
Among the most notable buildings in Bedworth are the Nicholas Chamberlaine Almshouses on All Saints' Square in the town centre, which are built in Tudor style and date from 1840, These replaced the original buildings which had been funded by a legacy from the local benefactor Nicholas Chamberlaine (1632–1715) through his will. The almshouses were restored in the 1980s, and are now Grade II* listed.
The majority of the town centre was redeveloped in the 1960s and early-1970s, with the typical architecture of that period, and consists of a pedestrianised shopping precinct. The town centre itself contains some of the usual high street retail names as well as many charity shops, card shops and banks.
The main venue in Bedworth is the Bedworth Civic Hall which opened in 1973 and has an attached arts centre.
South of the town centre is the Miners' Welfare Park, which opened in 1923, originally to provide a recreation space for miners and their families. Now managed by the local council it includes playing fields, sports facilities, footpaths and gardens.
The former Bedworth water tower is probably the most noticeable landmark building in Bedworth; built in 1898 in the then fashionable Romanesque style, at approximately high, it is visible from miles around and has been Grade II listed since 1987. It originally had a 60,000 gallon water tank, but became obsolete in 1988, when a new water mains was installed into Bedworth. The tower is home to a pair of peregrine falcons, first noted in 1998. In 2015 it was sold to be converted into six luxury apartments.
Along Mill Street until recently were rows of former weavers' cottages which were once inhabited by Huguenot weavers. Some of these were still used as shops, although most had become derelict. They have been demolished as part of the redevelopment of Tesco.
Several years ago Bedworth Kwik Save (a 1960s steel reinforced concrete building with roof parking, known locally as the Hypermarket – the original name), was redeveloped into a new Aldi store. Next to it is a Home Bargains store. Tesco was in a similar type of building to Kwik Save, but in a brick-faced and arched windowed 1970s style, closed in January 2011, and was redeveloped into a steel-framed Tesco Extra store. Parking is at ground level, the store is on the first floor, with delivery access up a ramp to the first floor. It opened on 5 December 2011.
Bedworth has many pubs and working men's clubs: among others, the Bear and Ragged Staff, the White Horse, the Miners Arms, the Mount Pleasant, the Black Horse, the Black Bank, Saunders Hall, Collycroft Working Men's Club, Bedworth Liberal Club, Bedworth Conservative Club, the Griffin Inn, the Newdigate Arms, the Cross Keys, the Royal Oak, the Prince of Wales, JB's and Littleworks (reopened as Jack's Entertainment Club). Several others have closed.
Bedworth also has a skate park built in the Miners' Welfare Park in 2001 after campaigning by local youngsters. Previously, most youngsters would skate in the town centre, or in the market area, much to the annoyance of residents and the local police.
A new play area, on the site of the previous aviary and paddling pool near the cricket ground within the park, was dedicated in June 2012 to Sergeant Simon 'Val' Valentine. He was born and brought up in Bedworth, a soldier of 2nd battalion Royal Regiment of Fusiliers who died in August 2009 while serving his country in Helmand Province, Afghanistan. The town centre was closed and thousands of townspeople paid their respects at Sergeant Valentine's funeral in 2009.
Economy
With most of its historic industries gone, Bedworth is now predominantly a dormitory town for nearby Coventry and Nuneaton, however some specialist manufacturing still continues in the town; one firm in Bedworth, Toye, Kenning & Spencer, specialises in producing items such as hats and caps, banners, flags, medal ribbons and Masonic regalia.
At the Bayton Road industrial estate in Exhall is a manufacturing firm; Premiere Group, which specialises in producing sheet metal products, primarily for the automotive sector. The firm won the contract to produce 12,000 Olympic torches for the 2012 Olympic Games.
The domestic appliance insurer Domestic & General has offices in the town centre,
as does Warwickshire County Council.
Religion
Church of England
The town centre is dominated by All Saints' Parish Church (Church of England). A church has stood at the site since the 14th century, and it still retains its original tower from that period. The rest of the church has been rebuilt several times, the current building dates from the late Victorian era, when it was rebuilt during 1888-1890 out of Runcorn sandstone at a cost of £8,000 raised by public subscription. The church is grade II* listed.
Roman Catholic
St Francis of Assisi Roman Catholic Church, a prominent building in the town centre. The first church at the site opened in June 1883. Over later years, a number of additions were made, including the porch and tower. The church was made a parish church in 1919, and in September 1923 it was consecrated in its current form by Archbishop McIntyre.
In the early-1970s the interior of the church was modernised, with the tabernacle, altar, pulpit, font, Mary and Child, and the Sacred Heart and Risen Christ, all made by the noted Maltese artist and sculptor Carmel Cauchi.
The church is part of the Rugby Deanery in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Birmingham.
Other Christian denominations
There are also, Bedworth Methodist Church, and the United Reformed Church in Mill Street in the town centre, Bedworth Baptist Church on Coventry Road near the football ground as well as Life Church on Bulkington Road. A Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses is in Deronda Close, behind The Newdigate Arms. Zion Baptist Church is on Newdigate Road and is a striking 1977 replacement of the original 1796 chapel on High Street, which was demolished to make way for the Civic Centre (See external links.)
Demographics
At the 2011 census, there were 30,648 residents in Bedworth in 13,299 households, and the median age of Bedworth residents was 40.
In terms of ethnicity:
91.4% of Bedworth residents were White (Comprising 89.3% White British, 1.4% Other White, and 0.6% Irish).
5.9% were Asian (Comprising 4.6% Indian, 0.3% Chinese, 0.2% Pakistani, and 0.8% from another Asian background)
0.9% were Black (Comprising 0.6% African, 0.2% Caribbean and 0.1% other Black)
1.1% were Mixed.
0.6% were from another ethnic group.
In terms of religion, 63.4% of Bedworth residents identified as Christian, 24.3% said they had no religion, 6.1% did not state any religion, 4.2% were Sikh, 0.9% were Hindu, 0.5% were Muslim, 0.2% were Buddhists, and 0.4% were from another religion.
Sport and leisure
Bedworth has a non-League football team Bedworth United F.C. who play at the Oval Ground. There is also a swimming club called Nuneaton and Bedworth Dolphins.
Bedworth is proud host to the Bedworth Parkrun on a Saturday and Bedworth Park 5k on a Sunday. Both of these runs are held in the Miners Welfare Park at 9am.
Armistice Day
Every year Armistice Day 11 November is well attended by the population, who gather in the town to watch the veterans' armistice parade that concludes with the laying of poppy wreaths at the war memorial, to pay their respects to those who fought and died in the armed forces. Local youth groups like the Girls' Brigade, and cadets march through the town as part of the parade, with bands playing commemorative music. Second World War Douglas C-47 Skytrain 'Dakota' military transport aircraft, also known as the civilian version Douglas DC-3, scatter remembrance poppy petals over the town, aiming at the war memorial if the weather permits. Before 2005 Spitfire fighters were used.
The flypasts were featured on the national TV news on remembrance days, but they were banned on health and safety grounds from low flying over an urban area.
Bedworth chose to keep 11 November as Armistice Day, even after 1939, when the rest of the country moved to the nearest Sunday. In more recent times, the tradition was kept up by Frank Parsons. The former Royal Marine died in 2011, but his work over the previous 25 years not only kept Bedworth's tradition - unique in the United Kingdom - alive, but also lent significant weight to the campaign to move Remembrance Day back to 11 November.
Transport
Road
Bedworth has good transport links being situated immediately north of the M6 motorway at junction 3, with access via several slip roads onto the A444 dual carriageway bypass. The A444 also provides fast access to Nuneaton, the Ricoh Arena, the Arena Retail Park and northern/central Coventry.
Rail
Bedworth railway station in the town centre is on the Coventry to Nuneaton railway line, and was reopened in 1988 after the original station at the same site was closed in 1965 as part of the Beeching Axe. Historically two more stations were in the vicinity of Bedworth which are now closed: Just south of Bedworth was Hawkesbury Lane railway station, also on the Coventry-Nuneaton line, which also closed in 1965, Just east of Bedworth was Bulkington railway station on the Trent Valley Line which closed in 1931.
Buses
Bus services to the city centre of Coventry are operated competitively by Stagecoach in Warwickshire and National Express Coventry. Stagecoach also provides direct services to Nuneaton, Bulkington, Keresley, Atherstone, Hinckley & Leicester and a direct service to the University Hospital in Walsgrave, Coventry is provided by Arriva Midlands.
Waterways
The Coventry Canal runs along the eastern edge of the town. Just outside Bedworth to the north-east is Marston Junction where the Coventry Canal joins the Ashby Canal. Just to the south-east at Hawkesbury Junction it joins the Oxford Canal.
Tramways
Historically Bedworth was the northern terminus of the Coventry Corporation Tramways system, which operated from the late 19th century until closure in 1940.
Schools
Nicholas Chamberlaine School
Ash Green School
Media
Radio
The local radio stations are:
BBC Coventry & Warwickshire: 94.8FM
Fosse 107: 107.9FM
Free Radio Coventry and Warwickshire (formally known as Mercia Sound and Mercia FM): 97.0FM
Anker Radio – which serves the nearby George Eliot Hospital, but can be heard on 1386AM.
BBC Radio Leicester can be received in the town on 104.9FM.
Written media
The main local newspapers are:
The Nuneaton News (originally known as the Evening News upon launch and then the Heartland Evening News): Serving the whole of north Warwickshire and some border areas in Leicestershire, the paper is owned by Local World. The newspaper is published on weekdays. The Wednesday edition is circulated free throughout the town, whereas the daily paper on Monday, Tuesday, Thursday and Friday are paid. It was founded in 1992, following the decision of the Tribune's publisher to switch to a weekly freesheet.
The Tribune (formerly the People's Tribune (1895), Midland Counties Tribune (1903) and Nuneaton Evening Tribune (1957)): It is owned by Trinity Mirror's Coventry Newspapers (publisher of the Coventry Telegraph). Covering 'northern Warwickshire' (particularly Bedworth, Atherstone & Nuneaton), the free paper is available weekly to collect at many newsagents in the area on a Thursday or Friday. In September 2015 The Tribune ceased publication. The last edition was published on Thursday 24 September.
The Nuneaton Telegraph; a localised sub-edition of the Coventry Telegraph, it was launched in 1992 (when the aforementioned Tribune switched from daily to weekly production).
Television news
The Nuneaton area is covered on regional TV News by:
BBC (West) Midlands Today
ITV News Central
Notable people
Jordan McFarlane-Archer (born 1993), professional footballer.
Nona Bellairs (1824-1897), writer and philanthropist.
Chris Camwell (born 1998) professional footballer currently playing for Hereford FC of the National League North.
Nicholas Chamberlaine (1632–1715), priest, benefactor.
Pete Doherty, (born 1979) former Libertines front-man, attended Nicholas Chamberlaine School.
Diane Elson, (born 1946) economist, sociologist.
Conrad Keely, (born 1972) of American rock group ...And You Will Know Us by the Trail of Dead was a resident of Bedworth.
Brian Locking, (1938-2020) musician, one time member of The Shadows.
Nick Skelton, (born 1957) winner of a gold medal in London 2012 Olympics, winner of the Hickstead Derby and European showjumping championships.
References
External links
Nuneatonhistory.com – Townscapes of Bedworth & Collycroft
The Bedworth Society
Nuneaton and Bedworth Borough council
The Civic Hall, Bedworth
Nicholas Chamberlaine Trusts
Bedworth archives - Our Warwickshire
Towns in Warwickshire
Market towns in Warwickshire
Unparished areas in Warwickshire
Nuneaton and Bedworth
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy%20Duchin
|
Eddy Duchin
|
Edwin Frank Duchin (April 1, 1909 – February 9, 1951), commonly known as Eddy Duchin or alternatively Eddie Duchin, was an American jazz pianist and bandleader during the 1930s and 1940s.
Early career
Duchin was born on April 1, 1909 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, to Bessarabian Jewish immigrants Tillie (née Baron; 1885 – March 21, 1962) and Frank Duchin (June 2, 1885 – May 15, 1957).
After graduating from Beverly High School, he attended the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and was originally a pharmacist before turning full-time to music and beginning his new career with Leo Reisman's orchestra at the Central Park Casino in New York, an elegant nightclub where he became popular in his own right, causing strife between him and Reisman. By 1932, Reisman's contract with the Central Park Casino was being terminated, leaving violinist Leo Kahn as the interim leader of the orchestra. After 6 weeks, Duchin had assumed Kahn's place as the orchestra's leader. He became widely popular thanks to regular radio broadcasts that boosted his record sales, and he was one of the earliest pianists to lead a commercially successful large band.
Musical style
Playing what later came to be called "sweet" music rather than jazz, Duchin opened a new gate for similarly styled, piano-playing sweet bandleaders such as Henry King, Joe Reichman, Nat Brandwynne, Dick Gasparre, Little Jack Little, and particularly Carmen Cavallaro (who acknowledged Duchin's influence) to compete with the large jazz bands for radio time and record sales.
Duchin had no formal music training—which was said to frustrate his musicians at times—but he developed a style rooted in classical music that some saw as the forerunner of Liberace's ornate, gaudy approach. Still, there were understatements in Duchin's music. By no means was Duchin a perfect pianist, but he was easy to listen to without being rote or entirely predictable. He was a pleasing stage presence whose favourite technique was to play his piano cross-handed, using only one finger on the lower hand, and he was respectful to his audiences and to his classical influences.
Duchin would often use beautiful, soft-voiced singers such as Durelle Alexander and Lew Sherwood to accommodate his sweet and romantic songs, giving them extra appeal and making them more interesting.
Notoriety
Duchin's 1938 release of the Louis Armstrong song "Ol' Man Mose" (Brunswick Records 8155) with vocal by Patricia Norman caused a minor scandal at the time with the lyric "bucket" being heard as "fuck it". Some listeners conclude that there is no vulgarism uttered, while others are convinced that Norman does say "fuck".
The "scandalous" lyrics caused the record to zoom to No. 2 on the Billboard charts, resulting in sales of 170,000 copies when sales of 20,000 were considered a blockbuster. The song was banned after its release in Great Britain. The notorious number can be heard on a British novelty CD, Beat the Band to the Bar.
He had a 1940 hit with the song "So You're the One" written for him by Hy Zaret, Alex Kramer and Joan Whitney.
Late career and death
Duchin entered the U.S. Navy during World War II, serving as a combat officer in a destroyer squadron in the Mediterranean and Pacific. He attained the rank of lieutenant commander (O4). Duchin's military awards included the Navy Commendation ribbon with Combat "V", Combat Action ribbon, American Area Campaign medal, the European-Africa-Middle Eastern Area Campaign medal, the Asiatic-Pacific Area Campaign medal, and the World War II Victory medal. After his discharge from the military, Duchin was unable to reclaim his former stardom in spite of a stab at a new radio show in 1949.
On February 9, 1951, Eddy Duchin died at age 41 at Memorial Hospital in Manhattan of acute myelogenous leukemia. He was cremated, and his ashes were scattered in the Atlantic Ocean.
Legacy
By the mid-1950s, Columbia Pictures, having enjoyed success with musical biographies, mounted a feature film based on the bandleader's life. The Eddy Duchin Story (1956) is a fictionalized tearjerker, with Tyrone Power in the title role, and piano dubbed by Carmen Cavallaro. The film did well in theaters, and was well enough known to be referenced in one of Columbia's Three Stooges shorts: the Stooges' spaceship is about to crash when Joe Besser yelps, "I don't want to die! I can't die! I haven't seen The Eddy Duchin Story yet!"
An anthology of some of Duchin's best recordings, Dancing with Duchin, was released in 2002.
Personal life
Duchin met his future wife, the socialite Marjorie Oelrichs, at the Waldorf in New York City, and wed at Oelrichs' mother's apartment at the Hotel Pierre on June 5, 1935, officiated by Judge Vincent Lippe. They had one son, Peter Duchin, born July 28, 1937. Tragically, Marjorie died just six days after the birth. Duchin had a second child, born August 15, 1938, with model Marguerite O'Malley; and a third, Annette Kalten, with Millie Giammarino. In 1947, he married a second time to Spanish-Filipina Maria Teresa "Chiquita" Parke-Smith (1912-1980), daughter of Teresa Parke-Smith Bertran de Lis y Pastor.
In the 1996 memoir Ghost of a Chance, his son Peter wrote of the factual discrepancies in the film The Eddy Duchin Story.
Further information
The Duchin Lounge in the Sun Valley Lodge was reportedly named after Marjorie Duchin by W. Averell Harriman, who raised Eddy Duchin's son Peter as his own after both of his parents had died.
References
External links
Eddy Duchin recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
1909 births
1951 deaths
American bandleaders
Big band bandleaders
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Deaths from leukemia
Musicians from Cambridge, Massachusetts
Musicians from New York City
20th-century American pianists
American male pianists
20th-century American male musicians
Beverly High School alumni
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal%20mining
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Coal mining
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Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its energy content and since the 1880s has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore and for cement production. In the United Kingdom and South Africa, a coal mine and its structures are a colliery, a coal mine is called a 'pit', and the above-ground structures are a 'pit head'. In Australia, "colliery" generally refers to an underground coal mine.
Coal mining has had many developments in recent years, from the early days of men tunneling, digging, and manually extracting the coal on carts to large open-cut and longwall mines. Mining at this scale requires the use of draglines, trucks, conveyors, hydraulic jacks and shearers.
The coal mining industry has a long history of significant negative environmental impacts on local ecosystems, health impacts on local communities and workers, and contributes heavily to the global environmental crises, such as poor air quality and climate change. For these reasons, coal has been one of the first fossil fuels to be phased out of various parts of the global energy economy. The major coal producing countries, though, such as China, Indonesia, India and Australia, have not reached peak production, with production increases replacing falls in Europe and USA and proposed mines under development.
History
Methods of extraction
Coal extraction methods vary depending on whether the mine is an underground mine or a surface (also called open cast) mine. Additionally, coal seam thickness and geology are factors in the selection of a mining method. The most economical method of coal extraction for surface mines is the electric shovel or drag line. The most economical form of underground mining is the long wall, which involves using two spinning drums with carbide bits that runs along sections of the coal seam. Many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a coal preparation plant. Technical and economic feasibility are evaluated based on the following: regional geological conditions; overburden characteristics; coal seam continuity, thickness, structure, quality, and depth; strength of materials above and below the seam for roof and floor conditions; topography (especially altitude and slope); climate; land ownership as it affects the availability of land for mining and access; surface drainage patterns; groundwater conditions; availability of labor and materials; coal purchaser requirements in terms of tonnage, quality, and destination; and capital investment requirements.
Surface mining and deep underground mining are the two basic methods of mining. The choice of mining method depends primarily on depth, density, overburden, and thickness of the coal seam; seams relatively close to the surface, at depths less than approximately , are usually surface mined.
Coal that occurs at depths of are usually deep mined, but in some cases surface mining techniques can be used. For example, some western U.S. coal that occur at depths in excess of are mined by the open pit methods, due to thickness of the seam . Coals occurring below are usually deep mined. However, there are open pit mining operations working on coal seams up to below ground level, for instance Tagebau Hambach in Germany.
Surface mining
When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using open-cut (also referred to as open-cast, open-pit, mountaintop removal or strip) mining methods. Opencast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the strata may be exploited. This equipment can include the following: Draglines which operate by removing the overburden, power shovels, large trucks in which transport overburden and coal, bucket wheel excavators, and conveyors. In this mining method, explosives are first used in order to break through the surface or overburden, of the mining area. The overburden is then removed by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured and thoroughly mined in strips. The coal is then loaded onto large trucks or conveyors for transport to either the coal preparation plant or directly to where it will be used.
Most open cast mines in the United States extract bituminous coal. In Canada (BC), Australia and South Africa, open cast mining is used for both thermal and metallurgical coals. In New South Wales open casting for steam coal and anthracite is practiced. Surface mining accounts for around 80 percent of production in Australia, while in the US it is used for about 67 percent of production. Globally, about 40 percent of coal production involves surface mining.
Strip mining
Strip mining exposes coal by removing earth above each coal seam. This earth to be removed is referred to as 'overburden' and is removed in long strips. The overburden from the first strip is deposited in an area outside the planned mining area and referred to as out-of-pit dumping. Overburden from subsequent strips is deposited in the void left from mining the coal and overburden from the previous strip. This is referred to as in-pit dumping.
It is often necessary to fragment the overburden by use of explosives. This is accomplished by drilling holes into the overburden, filling the holes with explosives, and detonating the explosive. The overburden is then removed, using large earth-moving equipment, such as draglines, shovel and trucks, excavator and trucks, or bucket-wheels and conveyors. This overburden is put into the previously mined (and now empty) strip. When all the overburden is removed, the
underlying coal seam will be exposed (a 'block' of coal). This block of coal may be drilled and blasted (if hard) or otherwise loaded onto trucks or conveyors for transport to the coal preparation (or wash) plant. Once this strip is empty of coal, the process is repeated with a new strip being created next to it. This method is most suitable for areas with flat terrain.
Equipment to be used depends on geological conditions. For example, to remove overburden that is loose or unconsolidated, a bucket wheel excavator might be the most productive. The life of some area mines may be more than 50 years.
Contour mining
The contour mining method consists of removing overburden from the seam in a pattern following the contours along a ridge or around the hillside. This method is most commonly used in areas with rolling to steep terrain. It was once common to deposit the spoil on the downslope side of the bench thus created, but this method of spoil disposal consumed much additional land and created severe landslide and erosion problems. To alleviate these problems, a variety of methods were devised to use freshly cut overburden to refill mined-out areas. These haul-back or lateral movement methods generally consist of an initial cut with the spoil deposited downslope or at some other site and spoil from the second cut refilling the first. A ridge of undisturbed natural material wide is often intentionally left at the outer edge of the mined area. This barrier adds stability to the reclaimed slope by preventing spoil from slumping or sliding downhill.
The limitations of contour strip mining are both economic and technical. When the operation reaches a predetermined stripping ratio (tons of overburden/tons of coal), it is not profitable to continue. Depending on the equipment available, it may not be technically feasible to exceed a certain height of highwall. At this point, it is possible to produce more coal with the augering method in which spiral drills bore tunnels into a highwall laterally from the bench to extract coal without removing the overburden.
Mountaintop removal mining
Mountaintop coal mining is a surface mining practice involving removal of mountaintops to expose coal seams, and disposing of associated mining overburden in adjacent "valley fills." Valley fills occur in steep terrain where there are limited disposal alternatives.
Mountaintop removal combines area and contour strip mining methods. In areas with rolling or steep terrain with a coal seam occurring near the top of a ridge or hill, the entire top is removed in a series of parallel cuts. Overburden is
deposited in nearby valleys and hollows. This method usually leaves the ridge and hilltops as flattened plateaus. The process is highly controversial for the drastic changes in topography, the practice of
creating head-of-hollow-fills, or filling in valleys with mining debris, and for covering streams and disrupting ecosystems.
Spoil is placed at the head of a narrow, steep-sided valley or hollow. In preparation for filling this area, vegetation and soil are removed and a rock drain constructed down the middle of the area to be filled, where a natural drainage course previously existed. When the fill is completed, this underdrain will form a continuous water runoff system from the upper end of the valley to the lower end of the fill. Typical head-of-hollow fills are graded and terraced to create permanently stable slopes.
Underground mining
Most coal seams are too deep underground for opencast mining and require underground mining, a method that currently accounts for about 60 percent of world coal production. In deep mining, the room and pillar or bord and pillar method progresses along the seam, while pillars and timber are left standing to support the mine roof. Once room and pillar mines have been developed to a stopping point (limited by geology, ventilation, or economics), a supplementary version of room and pillar mining, termed second mining or retreat mining, is commonly started. Miners remove the coal in the pillars, thereby recovering as much coal from the coal seam as possible. A work area involved in pillar extraction is called a pillar section.
Modern pillar sections use remote-controlled equipment, including large hydraulic mobile roof-supports, which can prevent cave-ins until the miners and their equipment have left a work area. The mobile roof supports are similar to a large dining-room table, but with hydraulic jacks for legs. After the large pillars of coal have been mined away, the mobile roof support's legs shorten and it is withdrawn to a safe area. The mine roof typically collapses once the mobile roof supports leave an area.
There are six principal methods of underground mining:
Longwall mining accounts for about 50 percent of underground production. The longwall shearer has a face of or more. It is a sophisticated machine with a rotating drum that moves mechanically back and forth across a wide coal seam. The loosened coal falls onto an armored chain conveyor or pan line that takes the coal to the conveyor belt for removal from the work area. Longwall systems have their own hydraulic roof supports which advance with the machine as mining progresses. As the longwall mining equipment moves forward, overlying rock that is no longer supported by coal is allowed to fall behind the operation in a controlled manner. The supports make possible high levels of production and safety. Sensors detect how much coal remains in the seam while robotic controls enhance efficiency. Longwall systems allow a 60-to-100 percent coal recovery rate when surrounding geology allows their use. Once the coal is removed, usually 75 percent of the section, the roof is allowed to collapse in a safe manner.
Continuous mining utilizes a Continuous Miner Machine with a large rotating steel drum equipped with tungsten carbide picks that scrape coal from the seam. Operating in a "room and pillar" (also known as "bord and pillar") system—where the mine is divided into a series of 20-to-30-foot (5–10 m) "rooms" or work areas cut into the coalbed—it can mine as much as 14 tons of coal a minute, more than a non-mechanised mine of the 1920s would produce in an entire day. Continuous miners account for about 45 percent of underground coal production. Conveyors transport the removed coal from the seam. Remote-controlled continuous miners are used to work in a variety of difficult seams and conditions, and robotic versions controlled by computers are becoming increasingly common. Continuous mining is a misnomer, as room and pillar coal mining is very cyclical. In the US, one can generally cut up to around . This may be increased with MSHA permission. In South Africa, the limit may be as high as 12 meters or roughly 40 ft. After the cutting limit is reached, the continuous miner assembly is removed and the roof is supported by the use of a roof bolter, after which the face has to be serviced before it can be advanced again. During servicing, the "continuous" miner moves to another face. Some continuous miners can bolt and rock dust the face (two major components of servicing) while cutting coal, while a trained crew may be able to advance ventilation, to truly earn the "continuous" label. However, very few mines are able to achieve it. Most continuous mining machines in use in the US lack the ability to bolt and dust. This may partly be because the incorporation of bolting makes the machines wider, and therefore, less maneuverable.
Room and pillar mining consists of coal deposits that are mined by cutting a network of rooms into the coal seam. Pillars of coal are left behind in order to keep up the roof. The pillars can make up to forty percent of the total coal in the seam, however, where there was space to leave the head and floor coal there is evidence from recent open cast excavations that 18th-century operators used a variety of room and pillar techniques to remove 92 percent of the in situ coal. However, this can be extracted at a later stage (see retreat mining).
Blast mining or conventional mining, is an older practice that uses explosives such as dynamite to break up the coal seam, after which the coal is gathered and loaded onto shuttle cars or conveyors for removal to a central loading area. This process consists of a series of operations that begins with "cutting" the coalbed so it will break easily when blasted with explosives. This type of mining accounts for less than 5 percent of total underground production in the US today.
Shortwall mining, a method currently accounting for less than 1 percent of deep coal production, involves the use of a continuous mining machine with movable roof supports, similar to longwall. The continuous miner shears coal panels wide and more than a half-mile (1 km) long, having regard to factors such as geological strata.
Retreat mining is a method in which the pillars or coal ribs used to hold up the mine roof are extracted; allowing the mine roof to collapse as the mining works back towards the entrance. This is one of the most dangerous forms of mining, owing to imperfect predictability of when the roof will collapse and possibly crush or trap workers in the mine.
Production
Coal is mined commercially in over 50 countries. 7,921 Mt of coal were produced in 2019, a 70% increase over the 20 years since 1999. In 2018, the world production of brown coal (lignite) was 803.2 Mt, with Germany the world's largest producer at 166.3 Mt. China is most likely the second largest producer and consumer of lignite globally although specific lignite production data is not made available.
Coal production has grown fastest in Asia, while Europe has declined. Since 2011, world coal production has been stable, with decreases in Europe and USA offset by increases from China, Indonesia and Australia. The top coal mining nations are:
Most coal production is used in the country of origin, with around 16 percent of hard coal production being exported.
Economic impact
Globally coal mining is highly concentrated in certain jurisdictions, concentrating much of the social and economic impacts of the industry. Globally the industry directly employs over 7 million workers, which creates millions of indirect jobs. In many parts of the world, producers have reached peak coal as the global economy shifts away from fossil fuels like coal to address climate change. A 2020 study found that renewables jobs could feasibly be created in these geographies to replace many of the coal mining jobs as part of a just transition; however, renewable energy was not suitable in some of the geographies with high concentrations of miners (such as in China).
Waste and refuse
Disasters
Modern mining
Technological advancements have made coal mining today more productive than it has ever been. To keep up with technology and to extract coal as efficiently as possible modern mining personnel must be highly skilled and well trained in the use of complex, state-of-the-art instruments and equipment. Many jobs require four-year university degrees. Computer knowledge has also become greatly valued within the industry as most of the machines and safety monitors are computerized.
The use of sophisticated sensing equipment to monitor air quality is common and has replaced the use of small animals such as canaries, often referred to as "miner's canaries".
In the United States, the increase in technology has significantly decreased the mining workforce. in 2015 US coal mines had 65,971 employees, the lowest figure since EIA began collecting data in 1978. However, a 2016 study reported that a relatively minor investment would allow most coal workers to retrain for the solar energy industry.
Safety
Dangers to miners
Historically, coal mining has been a very dangerous activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is long. In the US alone, 104,895 coal miners were killed in mine accidents since 1900, 90 percent of the fatalities occurring in the first half of the 20th century. 3,242 died in 1907, the worst year ever; in 2020 there were five.
Open cut hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions; underground mining hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse, rock burst, outbursts, and gas explosions.
Firedamp explosions can trigger the much-more-dangerous coal dust explosions, which can engulf an entire mine. Most of these risks are greatly reduced in modern mines, and multiple fatality incidents are now rare in most some parts of the developed world. Modern coal mining in the US has an average 23 deaths per year due to mine accidents (2001–2020).
However, in lesser developed countries and some developing countries, many miners continue to die annually, either through direct accidents in coal mines or through adverse health consequences from working under poor conditions. China, in particular, has the highest number of coal mining related deaths in the world, with official statistics claiming that 6,027 deaths occurred in 2004. To compare, 28 deaths were reported in the US in the same year. Coal production in China is twice that in the US, while the number of coal miners is around 50 times that of the US, making deaths in coal mines in China 4 times as common per worker (108 times as common per unit output) as in the US.
Mine disasters have still occurred in recent years in the US,<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2006) |title=Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries Summary, 2006 Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor |url=http://www.bls.gov/news.release/cfoi.nr0.htm}}</ref> Examples include the Sago Mine disaster of 2006, and the 2007 mine accident in Utah's Crandall Canyon Mine, where nine miners were killed and six entombed. In the decade 2005–2014, US coal mining fatalities averaged 28 per year. The most fatalities during the 2005–2014 decade were 48 in 2010, the year of the Upper Big Branch Mine disaster in West Virginia, which killed 29 miners.
Chronic lung diseases, such as pneumoconiosis (black lung) were once common in miners, leading to reduced life expectancy. In some mining countries black lung is still common, with 4,000 new cases of black lung every year in the US (4 percent of workers annually) and 10,000 new cases every year in China (0.2 percent of workers). The use of water sprays in mining equipment reduces the risk to miners' lungs.
Build-ups of a hazardous gas are known as damps, possibly from the German word "Dampf" which means steam or vapor:
Black damp: a mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen in a mine can cause suffocation, and is formed as a result of corrosion in enclosed spaces so removing oxygen from the atmosphere.
After damp: similar to black damp, after damp consists of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen and forms after a mine explosion.
Fire damp: consists of mostly methane, a highly flammable gas that explodes between 5% and 15% – at 25% it causes asphyxiation.
Stink damp: so named for the rotten egg smell of the hydrogen sulfide gas, stink damp can explode and is also very toxic.
White damp: air containing carbon monoxide which is toxic, even at low concentrations
A heavy curtain used to direct air currents in mines and prevent the buildup of dangerous gases is known as a damp sheet.
Noise is also a contributing factor to potential adverse effects on coal miners' health. Exposure to excessive noise can lead to noise-induced hearing loss. Hearing loss developed as a result of occupational exposures is coined occupational hearing loss. To protect miners' hearing, the US Mine Safety and Health Administration's (MSHA) guidelines for noise place a Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) for noise at 90 dBA time-weighted over 8 hours. A lower cutoff, 85 dBA, is set for a worker to fall into the MSHA Action Level which dictates that workers be placed into hearing conservation programs.
Noise exposures vary depending on the method of extraction. For example, a study has found that among surface coal mine operations, dragline equipment produced the loudest sound at a range of 88–112 dBA. Within longwall sections, stageloaders used to transport coal from the mining face and shearers used for extraction represent some of the highest noise exposures. Auxiliary fans (up to 120 dBA), continuous mining machines (up to 109 dBA), and roof bolters (up to 103 dBA) represent some of the noisiest equipment within continuous mining sections. Exposures to noise exceeding 90 dBA can lead to adverse effects on workers' hearing. The use of administrative controls and engineering controls can be used to reduce noise exposures.
Safety improvements
Improvements in mining methods (e.g. longwall mining), hazardous gas monitoring (such as safety-lamps or more modern electronic gas monitors), gas drainage, electrical equipment, and ventilation have reduced many of the risks of rock falls, explosions, and unhealthy air quality. Gases released during the mining process can be recovered to generate electricity and improve worker safety with gas engines. Another innovation in recent years is the use of closed circuit escape respirators, respirators that contain oxygen for situations where mine ventilation is compromised. Statistical analyses performed by the US Department of Labor's Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) show that between 1990 and 2004, the industry cut the rate of injuries by more than half and fatalities by two-thirds. But according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, even in 2006, mining remained the second most dangerous occupation in America, when measured by fatality rate. These numbers, however, include all mining activities, and oil and gas mining contribute to the majority of fatalities. Coal mining resulted in 47 fatalities that year. One study, though, has suggested that hazards of modern mining are now more accretive with workers facing long-term health impacts, such as sleep deprivation, that build up over time.
Health and environmental impacts
Coal mining by country
Top 10 hard and brown coal producers in 2012 were (in million metric tons): China 3,621, United States 922, India 629, Australia 432, Indonesia 410, Russia 351, South Africa 261, Germany 196, Poland 144, and Kazakhstan 122.
Australia
Coal has been mined in every state of Australia, but mainly in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria. It is mostly used to generate electricity, and 75% of annual coal production is exported, mostly to eastern Asia.
In 2007, 428 million tonnes of coal was mined in Australia. In 2007, coal provided about 85% of Australia's electricity production. In the fiscal year 2008/09, 487 million tonnes of coal was mined, and 261 million tonnes was exported. In the fiscal year 2013/14, 430.9 million tonnes of coal was mined, and 375.1 million tonnes was exported. In 2013/14, coal provided about 69% of Australia's electricity production.
In 2013, Australia was the world's fifth-largest coal producer, after China, the United States, India, and Indonesia. However, in terms of proportion of production exported, Australia is the world's second largest coal exporter, as it exports roughly 73% of its coal production. Indonesia exports about 87% of its coal production.
A court in Australia has cited climate change in ruling against a new coal mine.
Canada
Canada was ranked as the 15th coal producing country in the world in 2010, with a total production of 67.9 million tonnes. Canada's coal reserves, the 12th largest in the world, are located largely in the province of Alberta.
The first coal mines in North America were located in Joggins and Port Morien, Nova Scotia, mined by French settlers beginning in the late 1600s. The coal was used for the British garrison at Annapolis Royal, and in the construction of the Fortress of Louisbourg.
Chile
Compared to other South American countries Chile has limited coal resources. Only Argentina is similarly poor. Coal in Chile is mostly sub-bituminous with the exception of the bituminous coals of the Arauco Basin in central Chile.
China
The China is by far the largest producer of coal in the world, producing over 2.8 billion tons of coal in 2007, or approximately 39.8 percent of all coal produced in the world during that year. For comparison, the second largest producer, the United States, produced more than 1.1 billion tons in 2007. An estimated 5 million people work in China's coal-mining industry. As many as 20,000 miners die in accidents each year. Most Chinese mines are deep underground and do not produce the surface disruption typical of strip mines. Although there is some evidence of reclamation of mined land for use as parks, China does not require extensive reclamation and is creating significant acreages of abandoned mined land, which is unsuitable for agriculture or other human uses, and inhospitable to indigenous wildlife. Chinese underground mines often experience severe surface subsidence (6–12 meters), negatively impacting farmland because it no longer drains well. China uses some subsidence areas for aquaculture ponds but has more than they need for that purpose. Reclamation of subsided ground is a significant problem in China. Because most Chinese coal is for domestic consumption, and is burned with little or no air pollution control equipment, it contributes greatly to visible smoke and severe air pollution in industrial areas using coal for fuel. China's total energy uses 67% from coal mines.
Colombia
Some of the world's largest coal reserves are located in South America, and an opencast mine at Cerrejón in Colombia is one of the world's largest open pit mines. The output of the mine in 2004 was 24.9 million tons (compared to total global hard coal production of 4,600 million tons). Cerrejón contributed about half of Colombia's coal exports of 52 million tons that year, with Colombia ranked sixth among major coal exporting nations. The company planned to expand production to 32 million tons by 2008. The company has its own 150 km standard-gauge railroad, connecting the mine to its coal-loading terminal at Puerto Bolívar on the Caribbean coast. There are two 120-car unit trains, each carrying 12,000 tons of coal per trip. The round-trip time for each train, including loading and unloading, is about 12 hours. The coal facilities at the port are capable of loading 4,800 tons per hour onto vessels of up to 175,000 tons of dead weight. The mine, railroad and port
operate 24 hours per day. Cerrejón directly employs 4,600 workers, with a further 3,800 employed by contractors. The reserves at Cerrejón are low-sulfur, low-ash, bituminous coal. The coal is mostly used for electric power generation, with some also used in steel manufacture. The surface mineable reserves for the current contract are 330 million tons. However, total proven reserves to a depth of 300 metres are 3,000 million tons.
The expansion of the Cerrejón mine has been blamed for the forced displacement of local communities.
Germany
Germany has a long history of coal mining, going back to the Middle Ages. Coal mining greatly increased during the industrial revolution and the following decades. The main mining areas were around Aachen, the Ruhr and Saar area, along with many smaller areas in other parts of Germany. These areas grew and were shaped by coal mining and coal processing, and this is still visible even after the end of the coal mining.
Coal mining reached its peak in the first half of the 20th century. After 1950, the coal producers started to struggle financially. In 1975, a subsidy was introduced (Kohlepfennig). In 2007, the Bundestag decided to end subsidies by 2018. As a consequence, RAG AG, the owner of the two remaining coal mines in Germany, announced it would close all mines by 2018, thus ending coal mining in Germany.
Greece
Lignite has been mined in Greece since 1873, and today supplies approximately 75% of the country's energy. The main mining areas are located in Western Macedonia (Ptolemaida) and the Pelopponese (Megalopolis).
India
Coal mining in India has a long history of commercial exploitation starting in 1774 with John Sumner and Suetonius Grant Heatly of the East India Company in the Raniganj Coalfield along the Western bank of Damodar River. Demand for coal remained low until the introduction of steam locomotives in 1853. After this, production rose to an annual average of 1 Mt and India produced 6.12 Mt per year by 1900 and 18 Mt per year by 1920, following increased demand in the First World War, but went through a slump in the early thirties. The production reached a level of 29 Mt by 1942 and 30 Mt by 1946. After independence, the country embarked upon five-year development plans. At the beginning of the 1st Plan, annual production went up to 33 Mt. During the 1st Plan period, the need for increasing coal production efficiently by systematic and scientific development of the coal industry was being felt. Setting up the National Coal Development Corporation (NCDC), a Government of India undertaking, in 1956 with the collieries owned by the railways as its nucleus was the first major step towards planned development of Indian Coal Industry. Along with the Singareni Collieries Company Ltd. (SCCL) which was already in operation since 1945 and which became a government company under the control of Government of Andhra Pradesh in 1956, India thus had two Government coal companies in the fifties. SCCL is now a joint undertaking of Government of Telangana and Government of India.
Japan
The richest Japanese coal deposits have been found on Hokkaido and Kyushu.
Japan has a long history of coal mining dating back into the Japanese Middle Ages. It is said that coal was first discovered in 1469 by a farming couple near Ōmuta, central Kyushu. In 1478, farmers discovered burning stones in the north of the island, which led to the exploitation of the Chikuhõ coalfield.
Following Japanese industrialization additional coalfields were discovered northern Japan. One of the first mines in Hokkaido was the Hokutan Horonai coal mine.
Poland
Russia
Russia ranked as the fifth largest coal producing country in 2010, with a total production of 316.9 Mt. Russia has the world's second largest coal reserves. Russia and Norway share the coal resources of the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, under the Svalbard Treaty.
Spain
Spain was ranked as the 30th coal producing country in the world in 2010. The coal miners of Spain were active in the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side. In October 1934, in Asturias, union miners and others suffered a fifteen-day siege in Oviedo and Gijon. There is a museum dedicated to coal mining in the region of Catalonia, called Cercs Mine Museum.
In October 2018, the Sánchez government and Spanish Labour unions settled an agreement to close ten Spanish coal mines at the end of 2018. The government pre-engaged to spend 250 million Euro to pay for early retirements, occupational retraining and structural change. In 2018, about 2,3 per cent of the electric energy produced in Spain was produced in coal-burning power plants.
South Africa
South Africa is one of the ten largest coal producing countries and the fourth largest coal exporting country in the world.
Taiwan
In Taiwan, coal is distributed mainly in the northern area. All of the commercial coal deposits occurred in three Miocene coal-bearing formations, which are the Upper, the Middle and the Lower Coal Measures. The Middle Coal Measures was the most important with its wide distribution, great number of coal beds and extensive potential reserves. Taiwan has coal reserves estimated to be 100–180 Mt. However, coal output had been small, amounting to 6,948 metric tonnes per month from 4 pits before it ceased production effectively in 2000. The abandoned coal mine in Pingxi District, New Taipei has now turned into the Taiwan Coal Mine Museum.
Turkey
Ukraine
In 2012 coal production in Ukraine amounted to 85.946 million tonnes, up 4.8% from 2011. Coal consumption that same year grew to 61.207 million tonnes, up 6.2% compared with 2011.
More than 90 percent of Ukraine's coal production comes from the Donets Basin. The country's coal industry employs about 500,000 people. Ukrainian coal mines are among the most dangerous in the world, and accidents are common. Furthermore, the country is plagued with extremely dangerous illegal mines.
United Kingdom
United States
Coal was mined in America in the early 18th century, and commercial mining started around 1730 in Midlothian, Virginia.
The American share of world coal production remained steady at about 20 percent from 1980 to 2005, at about 1 billion short tons per year. The United States was ranked as the second highest coal producing country in the world in 2010, and possesses the largest coal reserves in the world. In 2008 then-President George W. Bush stated that coal was the most reliable source of electricity. However, in 2011 President Barack Obama said that the US should rely more on cleaner sources of energy that emit lower or no carbon dioxide pollution. For a time, while domestic coal consumption for electric power was being displaced by natural gas, exports were increasing. US net coal exports increased ninefold from 2006 to 2012, peaked at 117 million short tons in 2012, then declined to 63 million tons in 2015. In 2015, 60% of net US exports went to Europe, 27% to Asia.US coal production increasingly comes from strip mines in the western United States, such as from the Powder River Basin in Wyoming and Montana.
Coal has come under continued price pressure from natural gas and renewable energy sources, which has resulted in a rapid decline of coal in the U.S. and several notable bankruptcies including Peabody Energy. On 13 April 2016 it reported, that its revenue had reduced by 17 percent as coal prices fell and that it had lost two billion dollars the previous year. It then filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy on 13 April 2016. The Harvard Business Review discussed retraining coal workers for solar photovoltaic employment because of the rapid rise in U.S. solar jobs. A 2016 study indicated that this was technically possible and would account for only 5% of the industrial revenue from a single year to provide coal workers with job security in the energy industry as whole.
Donald Trump pledged to bring back coal jobs during the 2016 US presidential election, and as president he announced plans to reduce environmental protection, particularly by repealing the Clean Power Plan (CPP). However, industry observers have warned that this might not lead to a boom in mining jobs A 2019 projection by the Energy Information Administration estimated that coal production without CPP would decline over coming decades at a faster rate than indicated in the agency's 2017 projection, which had assumed the CPP was in effect.
See also
References
Further reading
Daniel Burns. The modern practice of coal mining (1907)
Chirons, Nicholas P. Coal Age Handbook of Coal Surface Mining ()
* Hamilton, Michael S. Mining Environmental Policy: Comparing Indonesia and the USA (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2005). ().
Hayes, Geoffrey. Coal Mining (2004), 32 pp
Hughes. Herbert W, A Text-Book of Mining: For the use of colliery managers and others (London, many editions 1892–1917), the standard British textbook for its era.
Kuenzer, Claudia. Coal Mining in China (In: Schumacher-Voelker, E., and Mueller, B., (Eds.), 2007: BusinessFocus China, Energy: A Comprehensive Overview of the Chinese Energy Sector. gic Deutschland Verlag, 281 pp., pp. 62–68)
Charles V. Nielsen and George F. Richardson. 1982 Keystone Coal Industry Manual (1982)
Saleem H. Ali. "Minding our Minerals, 2006."
A.K. Srivastava. Coal Mining Industry in India (1998) ()
Tonge, James. The principles and practice of coal mining (1906)
Woytinsky, W. S., and E. S. Woytinsky. World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953) pp 840–881; with many tables and maps on the worldwide coal industry in 1950
Zola, Émile, Germinal (novel, 1885)
External links
Glossary of Mining Terms
Global Coal Mine Tracker, Global Energy Monitor
Coal Mine exploration and preservation
Abandoned Mine Research
Methods of mining – overview and graphic of coal mining methods
Coal Mining in the British Isles (Northern Mine Research Society)
National Coal Mining Museum for England
NIOSH Coal Workers' Health Surveillance Program
Purdue University – Petroleum and Coal
University of Wollongong – educational resource on longwall mining
Virtual coalmine – visual e-learning source with comprehensive display of long-wall face
World Coal Institute – Coal Mining
Fuel production
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208414
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magical%20Girl%20Pretty%20Sammy
|
Magical Girl Pretty Sammy
|
is a Japanese original video animation (OVA) series produced by AIC and Pioneer LDC, and released from 1995 to 1997 as three videos. It features character Sasami from the Tenchi Muyo! series as a magical girl, and is noted for recasting the Tenchi Muyo! characters in new roles. It has been dubbed into English by Pioneer USA. It also spawned two television series - Magical Project S, and Sasami: Magical Girls Club.
Background
Magical Girl Pretty Sammy originated not in animation but in voice drama, beginning in 1993 with the release of Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-ohki CD Special 1 (Creation of the Universe Journey Across Space-Time). Here, Washu's newest invention, the Dimensional Controller, is glitched by the girls, creating several parallel Tenchi! worlds. Stories from the drama would later be adapted for Tenchi Universe's "Time and Space Adventures" arc (episodes 11-13). A second CD release, Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-ohki's Christmas, incorporated ideas revisited again in the series, drawing on Tsunami as the source of Pretty Sammy's magical powers.
The music video for "Pretty Sammy, the Magical Girl", originally part of the Tenchi Muyo! Soundfile, marked Pretty Sammy's anime debut. After having a kiss between her and Tenchi interrupted by the villainous Kiyone, Sasami must transform into her magical alter-ego to save her love and teach his kidnappers a lesson. Though the Soundfile was never released officially in the U.S., this short can be seen during the end credits of the Mihoshi Special.
The Mihoshi Special OVA was the first time Sammy was ever featured as a full-fledged character in the animated medium, and after her appearance in Episode 12 of Tenchi Universe (Tenchi Muyo! TV: Time and Space Adventures Part 2) in a costume that more resembles Sailor Moon's than her original outfit, the magical girl would go on to star in OVA specials and television series of her own.
Overview
Sasami Kawai is a cute young Japanese girl who is asked by magical queen-to-be Tsunami of Juraihelm to become "Magical Girl Pretty Sammy", a champion of justice. She is constantly harassed by Pixy Misa, an evil, but friendly magical girl created by a rival candidate for queen of the magical world, Ramia. Sasami is unaware that Pixy Misa is actually her best friend, Misao Amano, who herself is unaware of the transformation forced on her via hypnosis by Ramia's brother, Rumiya.
Collectively, the various Pretty Sammy vehicles spoof the magical girl genre of anime (particularly Sailor Moon, with the "champion of justice" theme), using the characters from AIC's popular Tenchi Muyo! series. Ryo-Ohki (who is a male in both of the Pretty Sammy series, but a female in Tenchi Muyo! material) is Pretty Sammy's assistant and plays the same role that Luna (of the Sailor Moon series) had done, including keeping the fact he could talk a secret.
Both the OVAs and the TV series are notable for the quality of the musical tracks. Many of the tracks are parodies of popular karaoke tunes.
The other major characters of Tenchi Muyo! appear in various roles in the OVA. They include: Tenchi, Washu, Mihoshi, Kiyone, Ayeka, and Ryoko.
Music
Opening: Chanto Yume o Mimasho! ("Dream Away"; Japanese version performed by Chisa Yokoyama, English version performed by Sharyn Scott)
Ending 1 (episode 1): Baka ("Idiot") [Money No More] (Japanese version performed by Chisa Yokoyama, English version performed by Sharyn Scott)
Ending 2 (episode 2) and Insert Song (episode 1): Ai no Makeikusa ("Losing the Fight of Love"; performed by Rika Matsumoto) and replaced in English version with Your Hiroshi, performed by Diane Michelle)
Ending 3 (episode 3): Mahô no Tobira ("Magical Door"; Japanese version performed by Chisa Yokoyama, English version performed by Sharyn Scott)
Episodes
References
External links
1995 anime OVAs
Anime International Company
Geneon USA
Magical girl anime and manga
NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan
Works by Yōsuke Kuroda
Tenchi Muyo! spin-offs
Magical girl parodies
|
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] |
208416
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIC
|
AIC
|
AIC may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Alice in Chains, American rock band
Alice in Chains: AIC 23, a 2013 mockumentary
Anime International Company, a Japanese animation studio
Art Institute of Chicago, an art museum in Chicago
Business
AIC Diversified Canada, a Canadian mutual fund company
American Investment Council, formerly known as PEGCC, US trade association for the private equity and growth capital investment industry
Asia Internet Coalition, an internet trade group in Asia
Association of Investment Companies, also known as The Association of Investment Trust Companies, UK trade association for closed-ended investment companies
Charitable organizations
Advocates for Informed Choice, now called Interact Advocates for Intersex Youth, a U.S. NGO
Alternative Information Center, a joint Palestinian-Israeli NGO
American Indian Center, social and cultural center
American Institute for Conservation, an American organization devoted to preserving historic works
Computing
Adaptec integrated circuit
Add-in card, or expansion card, a circuit board that adds functionality to a computer
Apple Intermediate Codec, a video codec used on OS X
Economics
Actual Individual Consumption, a measure of economic well-being alternative to Gross Domestic Product
Politics and government
State Administration for Industry and Commerce, a Chinese regulatory agency
African Independent Congress, a South African political party
Arab–Israeli conflict, a long-running conflict between Israel and Arab countries
American Iranian Council, a think tank devoted to improving US–Iranian relations
Association Internationale du Congo, an organization promoting Leopold II's rule of the Congo and predecessor to the Congo Free State, active from 1879 to 1885
Australian Intelligence Community, the government agencies that make up Australia's intelligence operations
Philosophy
Animal–industrial complex, a term describing systematic and institutionalized exploitation of animals
Religion
African Initiated Church, a Christian church founded by Africans, also known as African Independent Church, African Indigenous Church or African Instituted Church
Africa Inland Church, a church in Eastern Africa related to Africa Inland Mission
American Islamic Congress, an American Muslim organization
Answers In Creation, an organization promoting Old Earth creationism
Schools
Academia de la Inmaculada Concepción, a Catholic school in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico
Alcanta International College, a private secondary school in Guangzhou, China
American International College, a college in Springfield, Massachusetts, United States
American Islamic College, a college in Chicago, United States
Arizona International College, a former public college in Arizona, United States
Art Institute of Colorado, a university in Denver, United States
Associated Independent Colleges, a group of eight colleges in Queensland, Australia
Auckland International College, a private secondary school in Auckland, New Zealand
Dwight D. Eisenhower School for National Security and Resource Strategy, formerly known as the Army Industrial College.
Science
American Institute of Chemists, an American chemistry organization
Ampere Interrupting Capacity, the maximum safe current in an electrical circuit
AIC (gene), which encodes the Aicardi syndrome protein
Australian Institute of Criminology, an Australian research center on crime
Sports
Anglo-Italian Cup, a football competition played from 1970 to 1996 between the UK and Italy
Arkansas Intercollegiate Conference, a former college athletic conference competing in the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics, all members competed in the state of Arkansas
Associazione Italiana Calciatori (Italian Footballers' Association), a football association in Italy
Statistics/Machine Learning
Akaike information criterion, a measure of the relative quality of a statistical model, for a given data set
Transport and military
Action Information Center, the tactical center on a warship or aircraft
ICAO designator for Air India, an Indian airline
Ammunition Identification Code, Ordnance Supply Catalog designation for ammunition used by the US Army Ordnance Corps from 1942 to 1958; see List of U.S. Army munitions by supply catalog designation
Australian Instructional Corps, military unit, Australia
Other uses
Aichach-Friedberg, a district in Bavaria, Germany
Association Internationale de la Couleur (International Colour Association), an organization that studies colour
|
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] |
208417
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20battleship%20Musashi
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Japanese battleship Musashi
|
, named after the former Japanese province, was one of three s built for the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), beginning in the late 1930s. The Yamato-class ships were the heaviest and most powerfully armed battleships ever constructed, displacing almost fully loaded and armed with nine main guns. Their secondary armament consisted of four triple-gun turrets formerly used by the s. They were equipped with six or seven floatplanes to conduct reconnaissance.
Commissioned in mid-1942, Musashi was modified to serve as the flagship of the Combined Fleet, and spent the rest of the year working up. The ship was transferred to Truk in early 1943 and sortied several times that year with the fleet in unsuccessful searches for American forces. She was used to transfer forces and equipment between Japan and various occupied islands several times in 1944. Torpedoed in early 1944 by an American submarine, Musashi was forced to return to Japan for repairs, during which the navy greatly augmented her anti-aircraft armament. She was present during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June, but did not come in contact with American surface forces. During the Battle of Leyte Gulf, Musashi was sunk by an estimated 19 torpedo and 17 bomb hits from American carrier-based aircraft on 24 October 1944. Over half of her crew was rescued. Her wreck was located in March 2015 by a team of researchers employed by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen.
Design and description
Since the navy anticipated they would be unable to produce as many ships as the United States, the Yamato-class ships with their great size and heavy armament were designed to be individually superior to American battleships. Musashi had a length of between perpendiculars and overall. She had a beam of and a draught of at deep load. She displaced at standard load and at deep load. Her crew consisted of 2,500 officers and ratings in 1942, and about 2,800 in 1944.
The battleship had four sets of Kampon geared steam turbines, each of which drove one propeller shaft. The turbines were designed to produce a total of , using steam provided by 12 Kampon water-tube boilers, to give her a maximum speed of . She had a stowage capacity of of fuel oil, giving a range of at a speed of .
Armament
Musashis main battery consisted of nine 45-calibre 46-centimetre Type 94 guns mounted in three triple gun turrets, numbered from front to rear. The guns had a rate of fire of 1.5 to 2 rounds per minute. The ship's secondary battery consisted of twelve 60-calibre 15.5-centimetre 3rd Year Type guns mounted in four triple turrets, one each fore and aft of the superstructure and one on each side amidships. These had become available once the Mogami-class cruisers were rearmed with guns. Heavy anti-aircraft defence was provided by a dozen 40-calibre 127-millimetre (5 in) Type 89 dual-purpose guns in six twin turrets, three on each side of the superstructure. Musashi also carried thirty-six 25-millimetre (1 in) Type 96 light anti-aircraft (AA) guns in 12 triple-gun mounts, all mounted on the superstructure. The ship was also provided with two twin mounts for the licence-built Type 93 anti-aircraft machine guns, one on each side of the bridge.
While the ship was under repair in April 1944, the two 15.5 cm wing turrets were removed and replaced with three triple 25 mm gun mounts each. A total of sixteen triple 25 mm mounts and twenty-five single mounts were added at that time, giving the ship a light AA armament of 115 guns.
Armour
The ship's waterline armour belt was identical to the Yamato'''s at thick and angled outwards 20 degrees at the top. Below it was a strake of armour that ranged in thickness from over the magazines and machinery spaces respectively; it tapered to a thickness of at its bottom edge. The deck armour ranged in thickness from . The turrets were protected with an armour plate thick on the face, on the sides, and 270 millimetres on the roof. The barbettes of the turrets were protected by armour thick, and the turrets of the 155 mm guns were protected by armour plates. The sides of the conning tower were thick and it had a 200-millimetre thick roof. Underneath the magazines were armour plates to protect the ship from mine damage. Musashi contained 1147 watertight compartments (1065 underneath the armour deck, 82 above) to preserve buoyancy in the event of battle damage.
AircraftMusashi was fitted with two catapults on her quarterdeck and could stow up to seven floatplanes in her below-decks hangar. The ship operated Mitsubishi F1M biplanes and Aichi E13A1 monoplanes and used a , stern-mounted crane for recovery.
Fire control and sensors
The ship was equipped with four rangefinders, one atop her forward superstructure and one each in her main gun turrets, and another unit atop her rear superstructure. Each gun turret was equipped with an rangefinder. Low-angle fire was controlled by two Type 98 fire-control directors mounted above the rangefinders on the superstructure. Type 94 high-angle directors controlled the 127 mm AA guns, with Type 95 short-range directors for the 25 mm AA guns.Musashi was built with a Type 0 hydrophone system in her bow, usable only while stationary or at low speed. In September 1942 a Type 21 air-search radar was installed on the roof of the 15-metre rangefinder at the top of the forward superstructure. Two Type 22 surface-search radars were installed on the forward superstructure in July 1943. During repairs in April 1944, the Type 21 radar was replaced by a more modern version, and a Type 13 early-warning radar was fitted.
Construction
To cope with Musashis great size and weight, the construction slipway was reinforced, nearby workshops were expanded, and two floating cranes were built. The ship's keel was laid down on 29 March 1938 at Mitsubishi's Nagasaki shipyard, and was designated "Battleship No. 2". Throughout construction, a large curtain made of hemp rope weighing prevented outsiders from viewing construction.Yoshimura, p. 29
Launching the Musashi also presented problems. The ship's thick launch platform, made of nine Douglas fir planks bolted together, took two years to assemble (from keel-laying in March 1938) because of the difficulty in drilling perfectly straight bolt holes through 4m of fresh timber. The problem of slowing and stopping the massive hull once inside the narrow Nagasaki Harbour was met by attaching of heavy chains on both sides of the hull to create dragging resistance in the water. The launch was concealed by means including a citywide air-raid drill staged on the launch day to keep people inside their homes. Musashi was launched on 1 November 1940, coming to a stop only in excess of the hull's expected travel distance across the harbour. The entry of such a large mass into the water caused a wave, which swept the harbour and local rivers, flooding homes and capsizing small fishing boats. Musashi was fitted out at nearby Sasebo, with Captain Kaoru Arima assigned as her commanding officer.
Towards the end of fitting out, the ship's flagship facilities, including those on the bridge and in the admiral's cabins, were modified to satisfy Combined Fleet's desire to have the ship equipped as the primary flagship of the commander-in-chief, as her sister Yamato was too far along for such changes. These alterations, along with improvements in the secondary battery armour, pushed back completion and pre-handover testing of Musashi by two months, to August 1942.
ServiceMusashi was commissioned at Nagasaki on 5 August 1942, and assigned to the 1st Battleship Division together with Yamato, , and . Beginning five days later, the ship conducted machinery and aircraft-handling trials near Hashirajima. Her secondary armament of twelve 127 mm guns, 12 triple 25 mm gun mounts, and four anti-aircraft machine guns was fitted from 3–28 September 1942 at Kure, as well as a Type 21 radar. The ship was working up for the rest of the year. Arima was promoted to rear admiral on 1 November.Musashi was assigned to the Combined Fleet, commanded by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, on 15 January 1943 and sailed for Truk three days later, arriving on 22 January. On 11 February, she replaced her sister ship Yamato as the fleet's flagship. On 3 April, Yamamoto left Musashi and flew to Rabaul, New Britain to personally direct "Operation I-Go", a Japanese aerial offensive in the Solomon Islands. His orders were intercepted and deciphered by Magic, and American Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighters shot down his aircraft and killed him in Operation Vengeance while he was en route from New Britain to Ballale, Bougainville. On 23 April, his cremated remains were flown back to Truk and placed in his cabin on board Musashi.
On 17 May, in response to American attacks on Attu Island, Musashi—together with the carrier , two heavy cruisers, and nine destroyers—sortied to the northern Pacific. When no contact was made with American forces, the ships sailed to Kure on 23 May, where Yamamoto's ashes were taken from the vessel in preparation for a formal state funeral. Immediately afterwards, Musashis task force was significantly reinforced to counterattack American naval forces off Attu, but the island was captured before the force could intervene. On 9 June Arima was relieved by Captain Keizō Komura. On 24 June, while being overhauled at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, Musashi was visited by Emperor Hirohito and high-ranking naval officers. From 1 to 8 July, the ship was fitted with a pair of Type 22 radars at Kure. She sailed for Truk on 30 July and arrived there six days later, where she resumed her position as fleet flagship for Admiral Mineichi Koga.
In mid-October, in response to suspicions of planned American raids on Wake Island, Musashi led a large fleet—three carriers, six battleships, and 11 cruisers—to intercept American forces, but failed to make contact and returned to Truk on 26 October. She spent the remainder of 1943 in Truk Lagoon. Komura was promoted to rear admiral on 1 November and transferred to the 3rd Fleet on 7 December as Chief of Staff, Captain Bunji Asakura assuming command of Musashi.
The ship remained in Truk Lagoon until 10 February 1944, when she returned to Yokosuka. On 24 February, Musashi sailed for Palau, carrying one Imperial Japanese Army battalion and another of Special Naval Landing Forces and their equipment. After losing most of her deck cargo during a typhoon, she arrived at Palau on 29 February and remained there for the next month. On 29 March, Musashi departed Palau under cover of darkness to avoid an expected air raid, and encountered the submarine , which fired six torpedoes at the battleship; five of them missed, but the sixth blew a hole in diameter near the bow, flooding her with 3000 tonnes of water. The torpedo hit killed seven crewmen and wounded another eleven. After temporary repairs, Musashi sailed for Japan later that night and arrived at Kure Naval Arsenal on 3 April. From 10 to 22 April, she was repaired, while her anti-aircraft armament was substantially increased in the space freed up by the removal of the beam-mounted 6.1 inch (155-mm) triple turrets. When she undocked on 22 April, the ship's secondary battery comprised six 15.5 cm guns, twenty-four 12.7 cm guns, one hundred and thirty 25 mm guns, and four 13.2 mm machine guns. She also received new radars (which were still primitive compared to American equipment), and depth-charge rails were installed on her fantail.
In May 1944, Asakura was promoted to rear admiral and Musashi departed Kure for Okinawa on 10 May, then for Tawi-Tawi on 12 May. She was assigned to the 1st Mobile Fleet, under the command of Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa, with her sister. On 10 June, the battleships departed Tawi-Tawi for Batjan under the command of Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki, in preparation for Operation Kon, a planned counterattack against the American invasion of Biak. Two days later, when word reached Ugaki of American attacks on Saipan, his force was diverted to the Mariana Islands. After they rendezvoused with Ozawa's main force on 16 June, the battleships were assigned to Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita's 2nd Fleet. During the Battle of the Philippine Sea, Musashi was not attacked. Following Japan's disastrous defeat in the battle (also known as the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot"), the Second Fleet returned to Japan. On 8 July, Musashi and her sister embarked 3,522 men and equipment of the Army's 106th Infantry Regiment of the 49th Infantry Division and sailed for Lingga Island, where they arrived on 17 July.
Battle of Leyte Gulf
Captain Toshihira Inoguchi relieved Asakura in command of Musashi on 12 August 1944 and was promoted to rear admiral on 15 October. Three days later, she sailed for Brunei Bay, Borneo, to join the main Japanese fleet in preparation for "Operation Sho-1", the counterattack planned against the American landings at Leyte. The Japanese plan called for Ozawa's carrier forces to lure the American carrier fleets north of Leyte so that Kurita's 1st Diversion Force (also known as the Central Force) could enter Leyte Gulf and destroy American forces landing on the island. Musashi, together with the rest of Kurita's force, departed Brunei for the Philippines on 22 October.
The following day, the submarine torpedoed and sank the heavy cruiser near Palawan. The destroyer rescued 769 survivors and transferred them to Musashi later in the day.
Loss at Sibuyan Sea
On 24 October, while transiting the Sibuyan Sea, Kurita's ships were spotted by a reconnaissance aircraft from the fleet carrier . Just over two hours later, the battleship was attacked by eight Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bombers from Intrepid at 10:27. One bomb struck the roof of Turret No. 1, failing to penetrate. Two minutes later, Musashi was struck starboard amidships by a torpedo from a Grumman TBF Avenger, also from Intrepid. The ship took on of water and a 5.5-degree list to starboard that was later reduced to 1 degree by counterflooding compartments on the opposite side. During this attack two Avengers were shot down.
An hour and a half later, another eight Helldivers from Intrepid attacked Musashi again. One bomb hit the upper deck and failed to detonate; another hit the port side of the deck and penetrated two decks before exploding above one of the engine rooms. Fragments broke a steam pipe in the engine room and forced its abandonment as well as that of the adjacent boiler room. Power was lost to the port inboard propeller shaft and the ship's speed dropped to . Anti-aircraft fire shot down two Helldivers during this attack. Three minutes later, nine Avengers attacked from both sides of the ship, scoring three torpedo hits on the port side. One hit abreast Turret No. 1, the second flooded a hydraulic machinery room forcing the main turrets to switch over to auxiliary hydraulic pumps, and the third flooded another engine room. More counterflooding reduced the list to one degree to port, but the degree of flooding reduced the ship's forward freeboard by . During this attack, Musashi fired sanshikidan anti-aircraft shells from her main armament; one shell detonated in the middle gun of Turret No. 1, possibly because of a bomb fragment in the barrel, and wrecked the turret's elevating machinery.
At 13:31, the ship was attacked by 29 aircraft from the fleet carriers and . Two Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters strafed the ship's deck and Helldivers scored four more bomb hits near her forward turrets. Musashi was hit by four more torpedoes, three of which were forward of Turret No. 1, causing extensive flooding. The ship was now listing one degree to starboard, and had taken on so much water that her bow was now down and her speed had been reduced to . Two hours later nine Helldivers from attacked with armour-piercing bombs, scoring four hits. The ship was hit by three more torpedoes, opening up her starboard bow and reducing her speed to . At 15:25, Musashi was attacked by 37 aircraft from Intrepid, the fleet carrier and the light carrier . The ship was hit by 13 bombs and 11 more torpedoes during this attack for the loss of three Avengers and three Helldivers. Her speed was reduced to , her main steering engine was temporarily knocked out and her rudder was briefly jammed 15 degrees to port. Counterflooding reduced her list to six degrees to port from its previous maximum of ten degrees. Musashi had been struck by an estimated total of 19 torpedoes and 17 bombs.
Kurita left Musashi to fend for herself at 15:30, and encountered her again at 16:21 after reversing course. The ship was headed north, with a list of 10 degrees to port, down at the bow with her forecastle awash. He detailed a heavy cruiser and two destroyers to escort her while frantic efforts were made to correct her list, including flooding another engine room and some boiler rooms. Her engines stopped before she could be beached. At 19:15 her list reached 12 degrees and her crew was ordered to prepare to abandon ship, which they did fifteen minutes later when the list reached 30 degrees. Musashi capsized at 19:36 and sank in at . Inoguchi chose to go down with his ship; 1,376 of her 2,399-man crew were rescued. About half of her survivors were evacuated to Japan, and the rest took part in the defence of the Philippines. The destroyer rescued 635 of Mayas survivors from Musashi.
Wreck
Discovery
During the more than 70 years since its sinking, various attempts have been made by shipwreck hunters to locate the wreck of the Japanese battleship but none of them succeeded. Musashi, like other Japanese warships, did not have its name on its sides, thereby making it more difficult for divers and shipwreck hunters to find her. The research team sponsored by Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen eventually found her after eight years of searching for the wreck, going through various historical records in different countries, and deploying the high-tech yacht and a remotely operated vehicle to aid them in their search. Allen announced in March 2015 that the team had indeed found Musashi under the Sibuyan Sea in the Philippines, some beneath the surface.
The ship had been known to have sunk in one piece but exploded only after it was underwater. Debris was scattered across the ocean floor. The bow section from the number one barbette forward is upright while the stern is upside down. The forward superstructure and funnel is detached from the rest of the ship and lies on its port side. In the live streaming video tour conducted by the expedition team, a mount for the seal of the Imperial Japanese Navy—a chrysanthemum made out of teak, long rotted away—can be seen amid the debris. The video also showed damage made by U.S. torpedoes, including a warped bow and hits under the ship's main gun. Other items found in the area of the wreck, as well as other features found in it led maritime experts to claim with 90% certainty that the wreck was Musashi.
To further confirm that the wreck was indeed Musashi, Shigeru Nakajima, an electrical technician on Musashi who claimed that he had survived by jumping overboard after the order to abandon ship, told the Associated Press that he was "certain" of the wreck's identification upon seeing its anchor and the imperial seal mount. He also expressed his gratitude to the expedition team for having found the shipwreck.
Preservation and protection
The discovery of the wreck beneath the surface of the Sibuyan Sea raised issues when the local government of Romblon (which has jurisdiction over the area where the wreck was found), though Governor Eduardo Firmalo stated that while he welcomed the discovery of the ship, the provincial government, and even the Philippine Coast Guard, were not aware that Allen and his team had an ongoing expedition in the area. In response to this, the Philippine Coast Guard also stated that foreign-owned vessels need clearance from the Philippine Foreign Affairs Department, the Customs Bureau, and the Immigration Bureau before they can enter Philippine waters.
Although the discovery of the shipwreck is very important to the Japanese people because of the presence of more than 1,000 Japanese sailors' remains aboard the ship, the National Museum of the Philippines supported the Romblon Government by giving a statement—"Any further activity (pertaining to the shipwreck) shall be governed by established rules and regulations." It pointed out that the wreck site of Musashi'', as stated by the law, is considered an archaeological site under the Philippine territory's jurisdiction, and it is "now giving priority to verifying the discovery, obtaining and sharing key information, facilitating the protection and preservation of the site, and formulating appropriate next steps."
Footnotes
References
Sources
External links
Maritimequest.com: Musashi photo gallery
WW2DB: Musashi
1940 ships
Battleships sunk by aircraft
Battle of Leyte Gulf
Ships built by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
Yamato-class battleships
World War II battleships of Japan
World War II shipwrecks in the Sibuyan Sea
Shipwrecks of the Philippines
Maritime incidents in October 1944
Ships sunk by US aircraft
Shipwreck discoveries by Paul Allen
2015 archaeological discoveries
Ships sunk by aircraft during the Battle of Leyte Gulf
|
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208418
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musashi%20Province
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Musashi Province
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was a province of Japan, which today comprises Tokyo Metropolis, most of Saitama Prefecture and part of Kanagawa Prefecture. It was sometimes called . The province encompassed Kawasaki and Yokohama. Musashi bordered on Kai, Kōzuke, Sagami, Shimōsa, and Shimotsuke Provinces.
Musashi was the largest province in the Kantō region.
History
Musashi had its ancient capital in modern Fuchū, Tokyo, and its provincial temple in what is now Kokubunji, Tokyo. By the Sengoku period, the main city was Edo, which became the dominant city of eastern Japan. Edo Castle was the headquarters of Tokugawa Ieyasu before the Battle of Sekigahara and became the dominant city of Japan during the Edo period, being renamed Tokyo during the Meiji Restoration.
Hikawa-jinja was designated as the chief Shinto shrine (ichinomiya) of the province;
and there are many branch shrines.
The former province gave its name to the battleship of the Second World War.
Timeline of important events
534 (Ankan 1, 12th month): The Yamato court sends a military force to appoint Omi as the governor of Musashi Province, his rival, Wogi was executed by the court. Omi presented four districts of Musashi Province to the court as royal estates.
July 18, 707 (Keiun 4, 15th day of the 6th month): Empress Genmei is enthroned at the age of 48.
707 (Keiun 4): Copper was reported to have been found in Musashi province in the region which includes modern day Tokyo.
708 (Keiun 5): The era name was about to be changed to mark the accession of Empress Gemmei; but the choice of Wadō as the new nengō for this new reign became a way to mark the welcome discovery of copper in the Chichibu District of what is now Saitama Prefecture. The Japanese word for copper is dō (銅); and since this was indigenous copper, the "wa" (the ancient Chinese term for Japan) could be combined with the "dō" (copper) to create a new composite term—"wadō"—meaning "Japanese copper".
May 5, 708 (Wadō 1, 11th day of the 4th month): A sample of the newly discovered Musashi copper was presented in Gemmei's Court where it was formally acknowledged as Japanese copper. The Wadō era is famous for the first Japanese coin (和同開珎, wadokaiho or wadokaichin).
1590 (Tenshō 18): Siege of Odawara. Iwatsuki Domain and Oshi Domain founded in Musashi Province.
Historical districts
Musashi Province had 21 districts and then added one later.
Saitama Prefecture
Chichibu District (秩父郡)
Hanzawa District (榛沢郡) – merged into Ōsato District (along with Hatara and Obusama Districts) on March 29, 1896
Hatara District (幡羅郡) – merged into Ōsato District (along with Hanzawa and Obusama Districts) on March 29, 1896
Hiki District (比企郡) – absorbed Yokomi District on March 29, 1896
Iruma District (入間郡) – merged into Koma District on March 29, 1896
Kami District (賀美郡, 加美郡) – merged into Kodama District (along with Naka District) on March 29, 1896
Kodama District (児玉郡) – absorbed Kami and Naka Districts on March 29, 1896
Koma District (高麗郡) – merged into Iruma District on March 29, 1896
Naka District (那珂郡) – merged into Kodama District (along with Kami District) on March 29, 1896
Niikura District (新座郡, 新倉郡, 新羅郡) – merged into Kitaadachi District on March 29, 1896
Obusuma District (男衾郡) – merged into Ōsato District (along with Hanzawa and Hatara Districts) on March 29, 1896
Ōsato District (大里郡) – absorbed Hanzawa, Hatara and Obusama Districts on March 29, 1896
Saitama District (埼玉郡)
Kitasaitama District (埼玉郡) – dissolved
Minamisaitama District (埼玉郡)
Yokomi District (横見郡) – merged into Hiki District on March 29, 1896
Tokyo ("Metropolis"/-to)=until 1943 Tokyo (Prefecture/-fu)
Ebara District (荏原郡) – merged into Tokyo (City/-shi) in 1932
Toshima District (豊嶋郡)
Kitatoshima District (北豊島郡) – merged into Tokyo City in 1932
Minamitoshima District (南豊島郡) – merged with Higashitama District to become Toyotama District on April 1, 1896, merged into Tokyo City in 1932
Kanagawa Prefecture
Kuraki District (久良岐郡) – dissolved
Tachibana District (橘樹郡) – dissolved
Tsuzuki District (都筑郡) – dissolved
Mixed
Adachi District (足立郡)
Kitaadachi District (Saitama) (北足立郡) – absorbed Niikura District on March 29, 1896
Minamiadachi District (Tokyo) (南足立郡) – merged into Tokyo City on October 1, 1932
Katsushika District (葛飾郡) – Transfer from Shimōsa Province in 1683 (some say 1622–1643) for the river improvement of Naka River.
Kitakatsushika District (Saitama) (北葛飾郡) – absorbed Nakakatsushika District (Shimōsa, Saitama) on March 29, 1896
Minamikatsushika District (Tokyo) (南葛飾郡) – merged into the Tokyo City on October 1, 1932
Tama District (多摩郡, 多麻郡, 多磨郡)
Higashitama District (東多摩郡, Higashi-Tama-gun, "East Tama District") – part of Tokyo since its creation, merged with Minamitoshima District to become Toyotama District (豊多摩郡) on April 1, 1896, in turn merged into Tokyo City in 1932
Kitatama District (北多摩郡, Kita-Tama-gun, "North Tama District") – was part of Kanagawa in 1878 until being transferred to Tokyo in 1893; North Tama's last towns became [by definition: district-independent] cities in 1970
Minamitama District (南多摩郡, Minami-Tama-gun, "South Tama District") – was part of Kanagawa in 1878 until being transferred to Tokyo in 1893; South Tama's last towns were turned into cities in 1971
Nishitama District (西多摩郡, Nishi-Tama-gun, "West Tama District") – was part of Kanagawa in 1878 until being transferred to Tokyo in 1893
See also
Chichibu Province
Miyamoto Musashi
City of Musashino
Musashino Terrace
Musashi Kokufu
Notes
References
Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). Gukanshō: The Future and the Past. Berkeley: University of California Press. ; OCLC 251325323
Kōta Kodama and Kitajima Masamoto. (1966). 物語藩史. 第2期第2卷, 関東の諸藩 (Monogatari hanshi. 2(2), Kantō no shohan). Tokyo: Shin Jinbutsu Ōraisha. OCLC 673172166
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du Japon (Nihon Ōdai Ichiran). Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691.
External links
Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903
Reproduction of Chōroku-Period Map of Edo, with Later Additions from 1804
7th-century establishments in Japan
1870s disestablishments in Japan
Former provinces of Japan
History of Kanagawa Prefecture
History of Saitama Prefecture
States and territories established in the 7th century
States and territories disestablished in the 1870s
|
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208419
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese-Language%20Proficiency%20Test
|
Japanese-Language Proficiency Test
|
The , or JLPT, is a standardized criterion-referenced test to evaluate and certify Japanese language proficiency for non-native speakers, covering language knowledge, reading ability, and listening ability.
The test is held twice a year in Japan and selected countries (on the first Sunday of July and December), and once a year in other regions (on the first Sunday of December).
The JLPT consists of five levels. Until 2009, the test had four levels, with 4 being the lowest and 1 being the highest level of certification. JLPT certificates do not expire nor become invalid over time.
History
The JLPT was first held in 1984 in response to growing demand for standardized Japanese language certification. Initially 7,000 people took the test. Until 2003, the JLPT was one of the requirements for foreigners entering Japanese universities. Since 2003, the Examination for Japanese University Admission for International Students (EJU) is used by most universities for this purpose; unlike the JLPT, which is solely a multiple-choice exam, the EJU contains sections which require the examinee to write in Japanese.
Statistics
In 2004, the JLPT was offered in 40 countries, including Japan. Of the 302,198 examinees in that year, 47% (around 140,000) were certified for their respective level. The number of candidates continued to rise to 559,056 in 2008, while the percentage of candidates certified has fallen below 36%. In 2009, when a revised system was introduced in which two exams are held each year in East Asia, a total of 768,114 people took the exam. In 2010, 610,000 people took the test. In 2019, 1,168,535 people took the test.
By country
Top 10 countries with the most test takers:
By city
Top 10 cities with the most test takers:
Acceptance in Japan
Test takers who pass JLPT N1 receive 15 points, and who pass JLPT N2 receive 10 points under the government's "Point-based Preferential Immigration Treatment System for Highly Skilled Foreign Professionals." Individuals with a total of 70 points or higher receive preferential treatment at immigration.
N1 is a prerequisite for foreign medical professionals who wish to take examinations to be licensed in Japan, and for certain foreign nationals who wish to attend nursing school in Japan.
Those who have passed either N1 or N2 (regardless of citizenship) are exempt from the Japanese language section of the middle school equivalency examination, which is required in order to enter a Japanese high school if the applicant did not graduate from a Japanese middle school.
N1 is sometimes accepted in lieu of the Examination for Japanese University Admission for foreign students who wish to study at Japanese universities.
One of the requirements for the nurse/caregiver candidates under the EPA. Under the Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) with Indonesia, the Philippines, and Vietnam, a JLPT certificate is required for Indonesian, Filipino (approximately Level N5 or higher), and Vietnamese (Level N3 or higher) nurse or caregiver candidates who visit Japan.
Administration
In Japan, the JLPT is administered by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) through the Japan Educational Exchanges and Services (JEES). Overseas, the Japan Foundation co-proctors test administration with local cultural exchange and/or educational institutions, or with committees specially established for this purpose.
Test format
The revised test pattern was implemented in 2010. The test consists of five levels: N1, N2, N3, N4, and N5, with N1 being the highest level and N5 the lowest. No Test Content Specification is published as it is discouraged to study from kanji and vocabulary lists.
Scoring
Passing is based on scaled scores calculated using item-response theory—raw scores are not directly used to determine passing, nor are they reported, except in rough form in the "Reference Information" section. Raw scores are converted to a standard scale, so that equivalent performance on tests from different years and different levels of difficulty yields the same scaled score. The scaled scores are reported, broken down by section, and these are the scores used to determine passing.
In addition, a "Reference Information" section is provided on the report card; this is purely informational – for the examinee's future studies – and is not used in determining if an examinee has passed. The grade given is based on the raw score, and is either A, B, or C, accordingly as the raw score was 67% or above, between 34% and 66%, or below 34%. This reference information is given for vocabulary, grammar, and reading on the N4 and N5, and for vocabulary and grammar (but not reading) on the N1, N2, and N3. In both cases, this breaks down the score on the "Language Knowledge" section into separate skills, but in neither case is performance on the listening section analyzed.
Pass marks
Passing the test requires both achieving an overall pass mark for the total points, and passing each section individually; these are based on the scaled scores. The sectional scores are to ensure that skills are not unbalanced – so one cannot pass by doing well on the reading section but poorly on the listening section, for instance. The overall pass mark depends on the level and varies between 100/180 (55.55%) for the N1 and 80/180 (44.44%) for the N5. The pass marks for individual sections are all 19/60 = 31.67% – equivalently, 38/120 = 19/60 for the large section on the N4 and N5. Note that the sectional pass levels are below the overall pass level, at 31.67% instead of 44.44%–55.55%: one need not achieve the overall pass level on each section. These standards were adopted starting in July 2010, and do not vary from year to year, with the scaling instead varying.
Test sections
Note: "Vocabulary" includes kanji and vocabulary (previous 文字・語彙)
Estimated study time
Study hour comparison data for students residing in Japan, published by the Japanese Language Education Center:
Older edition
Applications and results
The application period is usually around early March until late April for July's examination and around early August until late September for December's exam.
Results for the December test are announced the following February for examinees in Japan, and March for overseas candidates. Test results are sent to the examinees through the testing organization or centre to which they applied. From 2012, with online registration, results are available online before they are mailed out (late August for the July test). All examinees receive a report indicating their scores by section. Those who pass also receive a Certificate of Proficiency.
Previous format (1984–2009)
Until 2009, the test had four levels. JLPT certificates do not expire, so results from the previous format remain valid.
All instructions on the test were written in Japanese, although their difficulty is adjusted to remain appropriate to each test level. The subject matter covered at each level of the examination was based upon the , first published in 1994 and revised in 2004. This specification served as a reference for examiners to compile test questions, rather than as a study guide for candidates. It consisted of kanji lists, expression lists, vocabulary lists, and grammar lists for all four JLPT levels. However, about 20% of the kanji, vocabulary, and grammar in any one exam may have been drawn from outside the prescribed lists at the discretion of exam compilers.
Numbers in parentheses indicate the exact number in the Test Content Specification.
The independent source the Japanese Language Education Center publishes the following study hour comparison data:
Test sections
In its previous format, the JLPT was divided into three sections: "Characters and Vocabulary" (100 points), "Listening Comprehension" (100 points), and "Reading Comprehension and Grammar" (200 points).
The first section (文字･語彙, moji, goi) tests knowledge of vocabulary and various aspects of the Japanese writing system. This includes identifying the correct kanji characters for given situations, selecting the correct hiragana readings for given kanji, choosing the appropriate terms for given sentences, and choosing the appropriate usage of given words.
The second section (聴解, chōkai) comprises two sub-sections that test listening comprehension. The first involves choosing the picture which best represents the situation presented by a prerecorded conversation. The second is of a similar format but presents no visual clues.
Section three (読解･文法, dokkai, bunpō) uses authentic or semi-authentic reading passages of various lengths to test reading comprehension. Questions include prompts to fill in blank parts of the text and requests to paraphrase key points. Grammar questions request that examinees select the correct grammar structure to convey a given point or test conjugations and postpositional particle agreement.
Comparison with new format
Two changes in levels of tests were made from the previous four-level format: firstly, a new level was inserted between the old level 3 and level 2, and secondly, the content of the top level exam (old level 1) was changed to test slightly more advanced skills, though the passing level was not changed, possibly through equating of test scores. Vocabulary in particular is said to be taken from an increased pool of 18,000 words.
The addition of the new N3 was done to address the problem of the difficulty gap between level 3 and 2: in the past there had been requests for revisions to address the fact that examinees who had passed the Level 3 test often had trouble with passing the Level 2 test because of the large gap in level of skill needed to pass those two levels. There was also a desire to measure abilities more advanced than those targeted by the current Level 1 test, hence the top level exam was modified.
The correspondence is as follows:
N1: slightly more advanced than the original level 1, but the same passing level
N2: the same as the original level 2
N3: in between the original level 2 and level 3
N4: the same as the original level 3
N5: the same as the original level 4
The revised test continues to test the same content categories as the original, but the first and third sections of the test have been combined into a single section. Sections on oral and writing skills were not introduced. Further, a requirement to pass individual sections was added, rather than only achieving an overall score.
It has been argued that changes to the exam were connected to the introduction of new language policies instituted by the Ministry of Education regarding the education of minorities in Japan.
See also
Business Japanese Proficiency Test
Test of Chinese as a Foreign Language (TOCFL)
Mandarin Proficiency Test (HSK)
ILR scale
J-Test
Kanji kentei
Test of Proficiency in Korean
List of language proficiency tests
References
External links
日本語能力試験 JLPT , the official JLPT website
The Japanese-Language Proficiency Test, the official English-language website by JEES and the Japan Foundation
JLPT Online Application Guide, Guide on how to apply for JLPT online
日本語検定(Nihongo Kentei), test for Japanese language proficiency,irrelevant to JLPT
Japanese language tests
Testing and exams in Japan
|
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208421
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiji%20Matsumoto
|
Leiji Matsumoto
|
is a Japanese mangaka, creator of several anime and manga series. His wife Miyako Maki is also a manga artist.
Early life
Matsumoto was the middle child of a family of seven brothers, and, in his early childhood, Matsumoto was given a 35mm film projector by his father, and watched American cartoons during the Pacific War. During this time, he gained an interest in science fiction novels by authors Unno Juza and H. G. Wells. At 18, he moved to Tokyo, to become a mangaka.
Space opera
Matsumoto is famous for his space operas such as Space Battleship Yamato and Galaxy Express 999. His style is characterized by mythological and often tragic storylines with strong moral themes, noble heroes, feminine heroines, and a love of strange worlds and melancholy atmosphere.
Career
Matsumoto made his debut under his real name, Akira Matsumoto, in 1953. His wife is shōjo manga artist Miyako Maki (better known as the creator of the doll Licca-chan, the Japanese equivalent of Barbie).
Matsumoto had his big break with Otoko Oidon, a series that chronicled the life of a rōnin (a young man preparing for university entrance exams), in 1971. In 1972 he also created the mature-themed dark comedy Western seinen series, Gun Frontier, for Play Comic magazine, which ran from 1972 to 1975. Around the same time he started a series of unconnected short stories set during World War II, Senjo Manga Series, which would eventually become popular under the title The Cockpit.
He was involved in Space Battleship Yamato (1974) and created the highly popular series Space Pirate Captain Harlock and Galaxy Express 999 (both 1977). In 1978, he was awarded the Shogakukan Manga Award for shōnen for Galaxy Express 999 and Senjo Manga Series. Animated versions of Captain Harlock and Galaxy Express 999 are set in the same universe, which spanned several spin offs and related series, most notably Queen Emeraldas and Queen Millennia.
Matsumoto supervised the creation of several music videos for the French house group Daft Punk, set to tracks from their album Discovery. These videos were issued end-to-end (making a full-length animated movie) on a DVD release titled Interstella 5555: The 5tory of the 5ecret 5tar 5ystem.
About two dozen bronze statues – each perhaps four feet tall – of characters and scenes from Space Battleship Yamato and Galaxy Express 999 were erected in the downtown area of Tsuruga in 1999. Each statue includes a plaque at its base explaining the character, and featuring Matsumoto's signature.
Matsumoto worked with Yoshinobu Nishizaki on Space Battleship Yamato (known outside Japan under various names, but most commonly as Star Blazers). Matsumoto created a manga loosely based on the series, and the Yamato makes cameo appearances (sans crew) in several of his works including the Galaxy Express 999 manga.
A recent work by Matsumoto called Great Yamato featuring an updated Yamato had to be renamed Great Galaxy due to legal issues with Nishizaki.
As of 2009, Matsumoto and Nishizaki were working on independent anime projects featuring the acclaimed Space Battleship Yamato, with the conditions that Matsumoto cannot use the name Yamato or the plot or characters from the original, and Nishizaki cannot use the conceptual art, character or ship designs of the original. Since Nishizaki's death in 2010, it is uncertain whether these restrictions will continue to apply.
On August 2014, to celebrate the 60th anniversary of his debut, Matsumoto launched the manga Captain Harlock ~Jigen Kōkai~ (Captain Harlock: Dimensional Voyage), illustrated by Kōichi Shimahoshi, in the pages of Akita Shoten's Champion Red magazine. Dimensional Voyage is a retelling of the original 1978 Space Pirate Captain Harlock manga. It had been licensed in the U.S. by Seven Seas.
Matsumoto is one of the 'Frontier Ambassadors' of Koriyama City (Fukushima Prefecture).
Health
On 15 November 2019, Matsumoto suffered severe respiratory problems and collapsed during an event in Turin, Italy, for the 40th anniversary tour celebrating the Captain Harlock anime adaptation. He was taken in hospital in critical condition, and had a breathing tube inserted after he was checked into the emergency unit. However, he was considered to be out of danger two days later.
List of works
Great Galaxy (formerly Great Yamato)
Harlock Saga Der Ring des Nibelungen
Queen Millennia (aka Queen of 1000 Years)
Starzinger (part of the Force Five anthology series, as Spaceketeers) (1978–1979)
The Ultimate Time Sweeper Mahoroba (manga)
Planet Robot Danguard Ace (part of the U.S. Force Five anthology series, as Dangard Ace; 1977–1978)
Collected editions
Manga Collections (American publishers)
Captain Harlock and Yamato
Captain Harlock: Dimensional Voyage Vol. 1-10 Publisher: Seven Seas (September 5, 2017 – 2019)
Space Battleship Yamato: The Classic Collection Publisher: Seven Seas; Translation edition (April 9, 2019)
Captain Harlock: The Classic Collection Vol. 1-3 Publisher: Seven Seas; Illustrated edition (June 12, 2018)
Galaxy Express and Emeraldas
Queen Emeraldas volume 1 - volume 2 Publisher: Kodansha Comics; Illustrated editions (July 26, 2016)
Galaxy Express 999, Vol. 1-5 Publisher: VIZ Media LLC; Original edition (March 8, 1999 – 2002)
References
External links
Leijiverse the world of Leiji Matsumoto
Entry in The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction
Leiji Matsumoto manga and anime at Media Arts Database
Ozma interview
Ozma interview with Asahi Shimbun
1938 births
Chevaliers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Japanese animators
Japanese illustrators
Living people
Manga artists from Fukuoka Prefecture
Manga artists
People from Kitakyushu
People from Kurume
Recipients of the Medal with Purple Ribbon
Recipients of the Order of the Rising Sun, 4th class
Space Battleship Yamato
|
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] |
208423
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gowron
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Gowron
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Gowron, son of M'Rel, is a fictional character who appeared in the American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. Portrayed by Robert O'Reilly, he is the leader of the Klingon Empire, known as the Chancellor. O'Reilly had appeared earlier in The Next Generation as Scarface in the second season episode "Manhunt", and was cast as Gowron due to his comedic ability and his piercing and extremely unsettling gaze, or what O'Reilly himself humorously referred to as "that crazy loon eyeball thing".
Appearing first in "Reunion", where he is named Chancellor, Gowron defends his position against the challenge of the Duras family in the two-part episode "Redemption". Following the advice of Lt. Worf (Michael Dorn) in "Rightful Heir", he incorporates the clone of Kahless into the Klingon government without disrupting his own leadership. In Deep Space Nine, he initiates a conflict with the Federation over fears that the Cardassians have been infiltrated by the Founders. After Cardassia sides with the Dominion, he allies with Starfleet throughout the rest of the war. However, he later grows jealous of the success of General Martok (J. G. Hertzler) and undermines the war effort, resulting in Worf killing him in a duel.
O'Reilly also appeared as the character in video games, such as Star Trek: Klingon and Star Trek: The Next Generation: Klingon Honor Guard. Critics responded positively to the appearances of the character, equating his actions to those of a politician. He ranked 20th in a list of the best characters in the franchise by IGN, while Keith DeCandido called him one of the "more memorable characters".
Concept and development
Prior to his casting as Gowron, Robert O'Reilly appeared in the Star Trek: The Next Generation first season episode "Manhunt" as a character referred to as Scarface. When casting was underway for the Jonathan Frakes directed episode "Reunion", Frakes was looking for an actor who could portray a Klingon with a sense of humour. O'Reilly later remarked that he was considered because of what he called "that crazy loon eyeball thing". He went directly from a performance of King Lear where he portrayed the character Edmund, and introduced elements of that character into the Klingon. O'Reilly described Gowron's initial appearances as being "the only one with honor, and he was sort of a crazed warrior who did not want to be anywhere near 'hew-mons'". He felt that like Edmund, Gowron was an outsider who became a leader. He said that they were "very, very similar in nature", and said that this set the character apart from the other Klingons who had appeared on the show until that point. Michael Westmore was in charge of designing the prosthetics for O'Reilly's performances as Gowron, describing it as one of his favourites of all the Klingons he's worked on because of the beard that comes down the side of his face.
O'Reilly made his first appearance in Star Trek: Deep Space Nine in the third season episode "The House of Quark". Writer Ronald D. Moore explained that his work on the episode came about because of his previous work on the Klingon-centric The Next Generation episode "Sins of the Father", and was pleased to bring over elements from his previous series—including Gowron. O'Reilly felt lucky to appear in the episode, as it was the expectation of many actors who played recurring characters in The Next Generation that they wouldn't transition to Deep Space Nine. Outside of Star Trek, O'Reilly appeared in character for an advert for Hallmark Cards to promote a Klingon Bird of Prey starship Christmas ornament.
Later, when he discovered that Michael Dorn would be returning to Star Trek on television in Deep Space Nine, he hoped that it might be an opening for more Klingons on the show, including the return of Gowron. O'Reilly said that "When I got the script for 'The Way of the Warrior', I was thrilled to get the job, to work with Michael again and to see Gowron and Worf together". He praised the relationship between the characters of Worf and Gowron, saying "[Worf is] always reminding Gowron about honor, but we're on two totally different sides when it comes to honor. It makes for great drama." At the time he was confident that this wouldn't be Gowron's last appearance, but hoped that the character wouldn't be overused so that he would continue to have an impact when he did.
Gowron's final appearance in Star Trek was in the Deep Space Nine seventh season episode "Tacking into the Wind" where he is killed by Worf after the Klingon Chancellor displays some increasingly dishonorable tactics towards Martok. However, in the original draft it was not intended for the character to die; instead it would have ended with Gowron heading back to the Klingon homeworld, and promoting Martok to Field Marshal after placing him in charge of organising the Klingon forces in the Dominion War. It was Michael Piller's suggestion that Gowron should die, and this idea made its way into the episode via Moore's screenplay. O'Reilly described Gowron at the end saying that "He went out as this bad, terrible Klingon, which I disagreed with strongly, but that's fine."
Following the death of Gowron on screen, O'Reilly continued to attend Star Trek conventions in character, often appearing on stage alongside J. G. Hertzler as Martok. One of their trademarks is a song about Klingons, and O'Reilly has had a bat'leth created to look like a stringed guitar. He explained in an interview that "We love doing Klingons. For me, it was a dream come true, it was nice to come back to it. And the fans just love it. We tried it once and the fans just went crazy." The pair debuted the in-makeup appearances at a convention in the late 2000s in Germany, and after generating the longest photo op queue at the event, they decided to take it to the stage. Larry Nemecek praised their convention appearances, saying "They are fan favourites because they are big, gregarious guys. They slap people on the back. They have a good time. They tease people back. They do it for the audience."
Appearances
The Next Generation
Gowron makes his first appearance in the Star Trek franchise in The Next Generation episode "Reunion" as one of two possible successors to the role of Chancellor of the Klingon High Council (the other candidate is Duras (Patrick Massett), his longtime rival). K'mpec (Charles Cooper), the incumbent Chancellor, suspects that either Duras or Gowron had been poisoning him, and appoints Captain Jean-Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart) as "Arbiter of Succession" to determine who will be the next Chancellor. However, before the arbitration process can be resolved, Worf's (Michael Dorn) one-time mate, K'Ehleyr (Suzie Plakson), discovers the evidence that implicates Ja'rod (the father of Duras) in the Romulan attack on the Klingon outpost Khitomer, and to prevent her from disclosing it, Duras murders her. Claiming right of vengeance, Worf challenges Duras to a duel and kills him, resulting in Gowron's ascension to the Chancellorship.
Gowron reappears in the two-part episode "Redemption", with his position now under threat from the Duras sisters, Lursa (Barbara March) and B'Etor (Gwynyth Walsh), who are driving for Duras' illegitimate son Toral (JD Cullum) to be appointed Chancellor. It is revealed that the Duras clan has been in league with the Klingons' traditional enemies the Romulans, and their attempt to seize power ends when the allies abandon them. Gowron also restores the honor of Worf's house during this episode's events.
Following these events, he was mentioned in "Unification" as attempting to write the Federation's aid out of the official history of those events. Gowron is once more challenged in the episode "Rightful Heir" by the apparently resurrected Kahless the Unforgettable. It is ultimately revealed that this Kahless was in fact a clone, whom Gowron appoints to the symbolic post of Emperor of the Klingon Empire following the suggestion of Worf.
Deep Space Nine
Gowron's first appearance in the series is in the episode "The House of Quark". He rules over a dispute of the status of the House of Kozak. In the episode "The Way of the Warrior", Gowron launches a Klingon assault upon the Cardassian Union, claiming that the newly installed civilian Detapa Council is infested with Changlings from the Dominion, a powerful organization from the Gamma Quadrant that is attempting to gain a foothold in the Alpha Quadrant. When the Federation Council condemns his actions, Gowron formally withdraws the Empire from the Khitomer Accords, thus ending the alliance with the Federation.
Despite this, Gowron journeys to the station, hoping to get Worf to argue on behalf of the Klingons. He does not take Worf's refusal well, and reinstates his discommendation (this time also executing the consequential removing of the House of Mogh from the High Council, seizing the Houses' assets, lands and titles, meaning Worf and his kin were made full outcasts). Later in the episode, the USS Defiant is forced to fight several Klingon ships, at a predetermined meeting point in space, to rescue Gul Dukat (Marc Alaimo) and the rest of the Detapa Council. The Defiant returns to the station, only to find it surrounded by a fleet of Klingon battleships, led by both General Martok (J. G. Hertzler) and Gowron himself. The Chancellor issues Captain Benjamin Sisko (Avery Brooks) a final ultimatum: turn over Dukat and the Detapa Council, or else. Sisko refuses, warning that the station is not quite as helpless as they were led to believe. However, Gowron attacks Deep Space Nine anyway in an attempt to capture the Detapa Council. A fragile peace is reached by the end of the episode when it is found DS9 is more than capable of defending itself.
In the episode "Broken Link", Gowron risks a war with the United Federation of Planets, demanding the disputed Archanis sector. Starfleet comes to the conclusion that Gowron is in fact a Changeling through faulty information leaked to Odo (René Auberjonois). Sisko, Odo, Worf and O'Brien (Colm Meaney) infiltrate a Klingon ceremony to try to expose him in the follow-up episode "Apocalypse Rising", unexpectedly aided by Gowron's top advisor General Martok, with Worf challenging Gowron to a duel with Bat'leths. Worf wins the duel, and is about to deliver the final blow, but Odo realizes in time that the Changeling is in fact Martok, who he exposes and who is subsequently killed by Gowron's men. In spite of this, Gowron does not change his policies though he agrees to a cease-fire between the Klingons and the Federation.
In the fifth season two-parter, "In Purgatory's Shadow" and "By Inferno's Light", Gowron restores the broken peace with the Federation in the Khitomer Accords after the Cardassian Union joins the Dominion and the real Martok is rescued from a Dominion prison. Gowron makes his final appearances in "When It Rains…" and "Tacking into the Wind", where he assumes direct command of Klingon military forces and launches multiple reckless attacks with minimal success, wanting Martok (who he regards as a rival) to suffer a string of defeats. Martok, although he knows that this is Gowron's intention, tells Worf not to involve himself. Worf disregards Martok's request and confronts Gowron, killing him in hand-to-hand combat. Under Klingon law, Worf is entitled to assume the leadership of the Empire, but he refuses the Chancellorship in favor of Martok.
Despite the questionable nature of Gowron's actions towards the end of his life, he does die in honorable combat, as evidenced by Worf's performance of the traditional Klingon death howl (done as a warning to those in Sto-Vo-Kor – the place of the honored dead in Klingon mythology – that a warrior is about to arrive) over the body.
Video games
O'Reilly appeared as Gowron in full motion video sequences in Star Trek: Klingon, an interactive movie/computer game released by Simon & Schuster in 1996. This package also included a "language lab" designed to teach users basic Klingon, where O'Reilly once again appeared in character. O'Reilly also voiced Gowron in the PC game Star Trek: The Next Generation: Klingon Honor Guard; the plot of the game has the player character track down potential assassins of the Klingon leader. O'Reilly also played a separate Klingon, Kavok, in the Star Trek: The Next Generation Interactive VCR Board Game.
Reception and commentary
O'Reilly's performance in the first part of "Redemption" was described as "triumphant" by Keith DeCandido, and "superb" in "Rightful Heir" when reviewing those episodes for Tor.com. He also called the character "one of the franchise’s more memorable recurring characters". When DeCandido reviewed "The Way of the Warrior", he said that Gowron had become an opportunist, furthering the establishment of his "self serving ways" in "Unification". He added that in this manner, Gowron was shown to be a politician "over and over".
Regarding the appearance of Gowron in the video game Star Trek: Klingon, Bob Strauss described O'Reilly's delivery as "bug-eyed aplomb" in a review for Entertainment Weekly. The character was ranked as the 20th best of the Star Trek franchise by Benjamin Maxwell for IGN, where Gowron was described as both "a friend or foe to the Federation – and he was both during his short tenure as chancellor – this character was always true to the Klingon way." Maxwell also believed that the lack of change shown by the character during the course of his appearances in both TNG and DS9 demonstrated the "truest representation" of a Klingon. In 2009, IGN rated Gowron the 20th best character of all Star Trek up to that time, noting his role as Chancellor of the Klingon High Council and appearances on Star Trek:The Next Generation and Star Trek:Deep Space Nine.
In March 2019, SyFy rated Gowron as the 7th greatest Klingon of the Star Trek franchise. In particular, they noted actor O'Reilly's powerful performances in both TNG and DS-9 over the arc of the character’s story, and how Gowron's critical position in the Klingon Empire as Chancellor, especially in the Dominion war saga, reveals the difference between personal ambition and honorable conduct.
References
External links
Gowron, son of M'Rel at Memory Beta (a Star Trek wiki)
Television characters introduced in 1990
Fictional chancellors
Klingons
Star Trek: The Next Generation characters
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atherstone
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Atherstone
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Atherstone is a market town and civil parish in the North Warwickshire district of Warwickshire, England. Located in the far north of the county, Atherstone forms part of the border with Leicestershire along the A5 national route, and is only 4.5 miles from Staffordshire. It lies between the larger towns of Tamworth and Nuneaton and contains the administrative offices of North Warwickshire Borough Council.
Atherstone is probably most well known for its tradition of holding an annual Shrove Tuesday Ball Game in the streets, which has been played almost continuously since the Middle Ages.
At the 2011 census the population of the civil parish of Atherstone was 8,670. The population of the larger built-up area which includes the adjoining village of Mancetter was 10,573.
History
Atherstone has a long history dating back to Roman times. An important defended Roman settlement named Manduessedum existed at Mancetter near the site of modern-day Atherstone, and the Roman road, the Watling Street (most of which later became part of the A5) ran through the town. It is widely believed that the forces of the rebel Queen Boudica were defeated in their final battle against the Romans at a location near Manduessedum in around AD 60, although this has never been definitively confirmed.
The Domesday Book of 1086, records that Atherstone (then named Aderestone) was held by Countess Godiva.
The ancient St. Mary's Chapel in Atherstone dates from the early 12th century when the monks of Bec made a donation of to a house of friars and hermits, later referred to as "Austin friars". During the reign of Edward IV the Crown granted lands in Atherstone (including at least one church) to the Carthusian order situate at Mount Grace Priory, Yorkshire. According to Nichols, the chapel was granted to Henry Cartwright in 1542, then left abandoned and neglected until 1692 when Samuel Bracebridge settled a yearly sum for the parson of Mancetter to preach there every other Sunday in the winter season
After this, St. Mary's Chapel seems to have experienced something of a revival. Its square tower being rebuilt in the fashionable "Gothic" style in 1782. This drastic alteration probably aroused some controversy. although the fine architectural drawing of the chapel made by Mr. Schnebbelie in 1790 prompted Nichols to assert that "the new tower provides a good effect". St Mary's was further redesigned in 1849 by Thomas Henry Wyatt and David Brandon.
It is said that the Battle of Bosworth actually took place in the fields of Merevale above Atherstone. Certainly reparation was made to Atherstone after the battle and not to Market Bosworth. Local legend is that they stayed at The Three Tuns in Long Street.
In Tudor times, Atherstone was a thriving commercial centre for weaving and clothmaking. The town's favourable location laid out as a long ‘ribbon development’ along Watling Street, ensured its growth as a market town. While it remained an agricultural settlement in medieval times, attempts were made to encourage merchants and traders through the creation of burgage plots, a type of land tenure that provided them with special privileges. A manuscript discovered by Marjorie Morgan among the muniments of Cambridge's King's College (Ms. C9), refers to the creation of nine new burgage strips from land belonging to seven of the tenants in Atherstone vill.
By the late Tudor period Atherstone had become a centre for leatherworking, clothmaking, metalworking and brewing. Local sheep farmers and cattle graziers supplied wool and leather to local tanners and shoemakers (an industry that continued until the 1970s), while metalworkers, locksmiths and nailers fired their furnaces with local coal and the alemakers supplied thirsty palates on market days.
The surviving inventories from 16th century Mancetter provide a fascinating glimpse into Atherstone's Elizabethan merchants and traders, before the town was economically overshadowed by the bustling cities of Coventry and Birmingham. They show Atherstone at this time as a typical Midlands market town, taking full advantage of its location and agricultural setting.
The argument that Altherstone declined in favour of emerging cities in the 18th century has been challenged. In the 1750s, Altherstone was very much still a vibrant settlement, possessing both a book club and a bowling-green. It was regularly frequented by the leisure-seeking gentry, including Sir Roger Newdigate and his circle of friends.
Atherstone was once an important hatting town, and became well known for its felt hats. The industry began in the 17th century and at its height in the early 20th century there were seven firms employing 3,000 people. Due to cheap imports and a decline in the wearing of hats, the trade had largely died out by the 1970s with just three companies remaining, Denham & Hargrave Ltd, Vero & Everitt Ltd and Wilson & Stafford Ltd. The production of felt hats in the town ceased altogether with the closure of the Wilson & Stafford factory in 1999. As of 2018 the factory has received the go-ahead to be redeveloped into canalside residential apartments.
Governance
Atherstone is part of the parliamentary constituency of North Warwickshire. The current Member of Parliament (MP) for the area being Conservative's Craig Tracey. The local authority is North Warwickshire Borough Council, which, since May 2015, has been under Conservative control. As a civil parish, Atherstone also has a Town Council.
Geography
The town is situated northwest of Nuneaton, southeast of Tamworth and north of the nearest major city, Coventry. Atherstone is close to the River Anker which forms the boundary between Warwickshire and Leicestershire. Witherley village is on the opposite bank of the river inside Leicestershire, whilst the village of Mancetter is contiguous with Atherstone to the southeast. Other surrounding villages include Sheepy Magna, Ratcliffe Culey, Fenny Drayton, Grendon, Dordon, Baxterley, Baddesley Ensor and Hartshill.
Its co-ordinates are (52.5833,
-1.5167)1.
Economy
In part due to its central location in the UK, Atherstone's economy has expanded rapidly since the 1980s, with several major companies such as 3M (1964) TNT (1987), Aldi (1990s) setting up their head office operations and/or national distribution centres in the town. The British Home Stores warehouse which had operated in the town for 40 years, closed in August 2016, It is now used by Royal Mail as a regional sorting office. Atherstone was formerly known for its hatting industry. The remains of the town's last hat manufacturing site on Coleshill Road are scheduled for demolition in 2022, after the local council decided it could not be safely redeveloped into canalside apartments.
Transport
Atherstone is on the main A5 national route and close to the M42 motorway.
The Coventry Canal and a series of eleven locks runs through the town, as does the West Coast Main Line railway. Atherstone has its railway station on this line, with an hourly service 7 days a week to both London and Crewe via Stafford. The current level of service was introduced in 2008, and is a big improvement on the service two decades earlier there were simply 5 trains a day, just going between Stafford and Rugby.
The historic station building, built in 1847, was under threat of demolition in the early 1980s. Thanks to a local group, the Railway and Steam Traction Society, listed status was obtained, with the building celebrating its 150th anniversary in 1997. Building work won a special Ian Allan conservation award. As of 2008, the railway station building is occupied by a local veterinary practice.
Recreation
The major football team in the town is Atherstone Town, known as 'the Adders'. This is after the tradition which has Atherstone being a corruption of the name "Adders – stone". Their ground is located on Sheepy Road.
Atherstone's team started out as Atherstone Town Football Club in 1887 but folded in 1979, from 1979 to 2003 Atherstone's football team was known as Atherstone United Football Club but folded again mid-season in 2003. The team then reverted to its previous name Atherstone Town Football Club. The club made the national headlines in October 2013 when during an FA Cup 3rd Qualifying round against Barrow A.F.C. crowd violence erupted during the first half when a small "minority" of Atherstone supporters ran across the pitch and attacked a number of Barrow supporters. The ringleaders and other participants of the crowd trouble were subsequently arrested, charged and sentenced to various jail terms. Since this incident the club has established itself as a family and community orientated club.
The rugby union team is Atherstone Rugby Football Club who play in the Warwickshire Two League. Their ground is at Ratcliffe Road.
Atherstone Leisure Complex is at the north end of Long Street and consists of a swimming pool and gym. Atherstone Memorial Hall is also part of the leisure complex.
Education
Primary age schools in Atherstone include the Outwoods Primary School, the Racemeadow Primary Academy, and St Benedict's RC Primary Academy.
The Queen Elizabeth Academy is the state secondary school in the town.
Shrovetide Ball Game
An annual tradition in Atherstone is the Shrove Tuesday Ball Game played on a public highway with large crowds. The game celebrated its 800th anniversary in 1999.
The game is a complete free-for-all played along Watling Street (the old Roman road) at the point where it forms the main street of Atherstone town. The ball is decorated with red, white and blue ribbons that are exchanged for money by who ever is able to obtain one and is made of thick leather to make it too heavy to kick far. The match starts at 3:00pm when the ball is thrown from the window of Barclays Bank and continues until about 5:00pm. However the ball may legitimately be deflated or hidden after 4:30pm. There are no teams and no goals, though in the last century the match was played between a team from Warwickshire and one from Leicestershire. There is only one rule: players are not allowed to kill one another. Whoever is able to hang onto the ball at the end of the game not only wins the game but is allowed to keep the ball as well. The game is controlled by a number of "marshalls" some of whom are former winners. Police are present but for the two hours the game is in progress stand back and allow the action to continue. Legend has it that many an old feud is settled on Ball Game day. This Shrove Tuesday ball game has been held annually since the early 12th century and is one of Atherstone's claims to fame. The 2019 edition of the game was noted for being extremely violent with several videos of the event being uploaded to social media. Event organisers disputed the accounts of violence as "nothing new".
The origin of the game, in the reign of King John, is thought to have been a "Match of Gold that was played between the Warwickshire Lads and the Leicestershire Lads on Shrove Tuesday".
The 'ball' used is specially made each year and is 'thrown out' by a prominent sporting or show business personality. Shop windows are boarded-up and traffic is diverted on the afternoon whilst the game, in which hundreds of people take part, progresses along the town's main streets.
Naval connections
Atherstone has strong naval connections. Three Royal Navy ships have been named HMS Atherstone after the town: the vessels were commissioned in 1916, 1939, and most recently, 1985.
Notable people
Obadiah Grew (1607–1689) an English nonconformist minister
Abel Roper (1665–1726) an English journalist, who wrote in the Tory interest
William Stratford Dugdale DL (1800–1871) a British Tory politician & MP
William Yolland CB, FRS (1810–1885) an English military surveyor, astronomer and engineer and Britain's Chief Inspector of Railways
Prof Herbert R. Spencer FRCP (1860–1941) professor of obstetrics
Sir John Bretland Farmer FRS, FRSE (1865–1944) a British botanist
Charlie Wilson (1895–1971) an English footballer who played over 150 games for Stoke City
Arthur Johnson (1903–1987) an English professional footballer
Rhoda Sutherland (1907–1989) an academic of the French language, Old French and Old Provençal
Jack Barnes (1908–2008) an English pro footballer, also played for Atherstone Town F.C.
Mary Fox (1922–2005) artist
Bernard Hunt MBE (1930–2013) an English professional golfer
Johnny Schofield (1931–2006) an English footballer who played as goalkeeper, later he ran an off-licence in Atherstone
Frank Upton (1934–2011) an English professional football player and manager.
Les Green (1941–2012) an English footballer and manager
Bill Olner (born 1942) a British Labour Party politician, MP for Nuneaton 1992–2010
Leigh Lawson (born 1945) a British film and stage actor, director and writer
Sara Thornton (born 1950's) local resident convicted and later acquitted of murdering her violent and alcoholic husband
Andy Green OBE (born 1962) a British RAF fighter pilot and World Land Speed Record holder
Paul Broadhurst (born 1965) an English professional golfer
Steve Webster (born 1975) an English professional golfer.
See also
Atherstone on Stour, a village in Warwickshire
HMS Atherstone
Witherley
Hinckley
References
External links
Atherstone Town Council
Atherstone archives – Our Warwickshire
History links
Atherstone History : A comprehensive history of Atherstone and the surrounding area from the Romans up until the 20th century
Atherstone 16th-century inventories and map of the township printed in John Nichols' Antiquities of Leicestershire
Archdeaconry court case from Atherstone Fair with 18th-century Bracebridge estate map of the town showing the market square
1100s–2007 Atherstone Ball Game from Atherstone History
Traditional football
Market towns in Warwickshire
Towns in Warwickshire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enceladus
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Enceladus
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Enceladus is the sixth-largest moon of Saturn. It is about in diameter, about a tenth of that of Saturn's largest moon, Titan. Enceladus is mostly covered by fresh, clean ice, making it one of the most reflective bodies of the Solar System. Consequently, its surface temperature at noon only reaches , far colder than a light-absorbing body would be. Despite its small size, Enceladus has a wide range of surface features, ranging from old, heavily cratered regions to young, tectonically deformed terrains.
Enceladus was discovered on August 28, 1789, by William Herschel, but little was known about it until the two Voyager spacecraft, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, flew by Saturn in 1980 and 1981. In 2005, the spacecraft Cassini started multiple close flybys of Enceladus, revealing its surface and environment in greater detail. In particular, Cassini discovered water-rich plumes venting from the south polar region. Cryovolcanoes near the south pole shoot geyser-like jets of water vapor, molecular hydrogen, other volatiles, and solid material, including sodium chloride crystals and ice particles, into space, totaling about per second. More than 100 geysers have been identified. Some of the water vapor falls back as "snow"; the rest escapes, and supplies most of the material making up Saturn's E ring. According to NASA scientists, the plumes are similar in composition to comets. In 2014, NASA reported that Cassini had found evidence for a large south polar subsurface ocean of liquid water with a thickness of around . The existence of Enceladus' subsurface ocean has since been mathematically modelled and replicated.
These geyser observations, along with the finding of escaping internal heat and very few (if any) impact craters in the south polar region, show that Enceladus is currently geologically active. Like many other satellites in the extensive systems of the giant planets, Enceladus is trapped in an orbital resonance. Its resonance with Dione excites its orbital eccentricity, which is damped by tidal forces, tidally heating its interior and driving the geological activity.
Cassini performed chemical analysis of Enceladus's plumes, finding evidence for hydrothermal activity, possibly driving complex chemistry. Ongoing research on Cassini data suggests that Enceladus's hydrothermal environment could be habitable to some of Earth's hydrothermal vents microorganisms, and that plume-found methane could be produced by such organisms.
History
Discovery
Enceladus was discovered by William Herschel on August 28, 1789, during the first use of his new 40-foot telescope, then the largest in the world, at Observatory House in Slough, England. Its faint apparent magnitude (HV = +11.7) and its proximity to the much brighter Saturn and Saturn's rings make Enceladus difficult to observe from Earth with smaller telescopes. Like many satellites of Saturn discovered prior to the Space Age, Enceladus was first observed during a Saturnian equinox, when Earth is within the ring plane. At such times, the reduction in glare from the rings makes the moons easier to observe. Prior to the Voyager missions the view of Enceladus improved little from the dot first observed by Herschel. Only its orbital characteristics were known, with estimations of its mass, density and albedo.
Naming
Enceladus is named after the giant Enceladus of Greek mythology. The name, like the names of each of the first seven satellites of Saturn to be discovered, was suggested by William Herschel's son John Herschel in his 1847 publication Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope. He chose these names because Saturn, known in Greek mythology as Cronus, was the leader of the Titans.
Geological features on Enceladus are named by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) after characters and places from Burton's translation of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights. Impact craters are named after characters, whereas other feature types, such as fossae (long, narrow depressions), dorsa (ridges), planitiae (plains), sulci (long parallel grooves), and rupes (cliffs) are named after places. The IAU has officially named 85 features on Enceladus, most recently Samaria Rupes, formerly called Samaria Fossa.
Orbit and rotation
Enceladus is one of the major inner satellites of Saturn along with Dione, Tethys, and Mimas. It orbits at 238,000 km from Saturn's center and 180,000 km from its cloud tops, between the orbits of Mimas and Tethys. It orbits Saturn every 32.9 hours, fast enough for its motion to be observed over a single night of observation. Enceladus is currently in a 2:1 mean-motion orbital resonance with Dione, completing two orbits around Saturn for every one orbit completed by Dione. This resonance maintains Enceladus's orbital eccentricity (0.0047), which is known as a forced eccentricity. This non-zero eccentricity results in tidal deformation of Enceladus. The dissipated heat resulting from this deformation is the main heating source for Enceladus's geologic activity. Enceladus orbits within the densest part of Saturn's E ring, the outermost of its major rings, and is the main source of the ring's material composition.
Like most of Saturn's larger satellites, Enceladus rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face pointed toward Saturn. Unlike Earth's Moon, Enceladus does not appear to librate more than 1.5° about its spin axis. However, analysis of the shape of Enceladus suggests that at some point it was in a 1:4 forced secondary spin–orbit libration. This libration could have provided Enceladus with an additional heat source.
Source of the E ring
Plumes from Enceladus, which are similar in composition to comets, have been shown to be the source of the material in Saturn's E ring. The E ring is the widest and outermost ring of Saturn (except for the tenuous Phoebe ring). It is an extremely wide but diffuse disk of microscopic icy or dusty material distributed between the orbits of Mimas and Titan.
Mathematical models show that the E ring is unstable, with a lifespan between 10,000 and 1,000,000 years; therefore, particles composing it must be constantly replenished. Enceladus is orbiting inside the ring, at its narrowest but highest density point. In the 1980s some suspected that Enceladus is the main source of particles for the ring. This hypothesis was confirmed by Cassini's first two close flybys in 2005.
The CDA "detected a large increase in the number of particles near Enceladus", confirming Enceladus as the primary source for the E ring. Analysis of the CDA and INMS data suggest that the gas cloud Cassini flew through during the July encounter, and observed from a distance with its magnetometer and UVIS, was actually a water-rich cryovolcanic plume, originating from vents near the south pole.
Visual confirmation of venting came in November 2005, when ISS imaged geyser-like jets of icy particles rising from Enceladus's south polar region. (Although the plume was imaged before, in January and February 2005, additional studies of the camera's response at high phase angles, when the Sun is almost behind Enceladus, and comparison with equivalent high-phase-angle images taken of other Saturnian satellites, were required before this could be confirmed.)
Geology
Surface features
Voyager 2 was the first spacecraft to observe Enceladus's surface in detail, in August 1981. Examination of the resulting highest-resolution imagery revealed at least five different types of terrain, including several regions of cratered terrain, regions of smooth (young) terrain, and lanes of ridged terrain often bordering the smooth areas. In addition, extensive linear cracks and scarps were observed. Given the relative lack of craters on the smooth plains, these regions are probably less than a few hundred million years old. Accordingly, Enceladus must have been recently active with "water volcanism" or other processes that renew the surface. The fresh, clean ice that dominates its surface gives Enceladus the most reflective surface of any body in the Solar System, with a visual geometric albedo of 1.38 and bolometric Bond albedo of . Because it reflects so much sunlight, its surface only reaches a mean noon temperature of , somewhat colder than other Saturnian satellites.
Observations during three flybys by Cassini on February 17, March 9, and July 14, 2005, revealed Enceladus's surface features in much greater detail than the Voyager 2 observations. The smooth plains, which Voyager 2 had observed, resolved into relatively crater-free regions filled with numerous small ridges and scarps. Numerous fractures were found within the older, cratered terrain, suggesting that the surface has been subjected to extensive deformation since the craters were formed. Some areas contain no craters, indicating major resurfacing events in the geologically recent past. There are fissures, plains, corrugated terrain and other crustal deformations. Several additional regions of young terrain were discovered in areas not well-imaged by either Voyager spacecraft, such as the bizarre terrain near the south pole. All of this indicates that Enceladus's interior is liquid today, even though it should have been frozen long ago.
Impact craters
Impact cratering is a common occurrence on many Solar System bodies. Much of Enceladus's surface is covered with craters at various densities and levels of degradation. This subdivision of cratered terrains on the basis of crater density (and thus surface age) suggests that Enceladus has been resurfaced in multiple stages.
Cassini observations provided a much closer look at the crater distribution and size, showing that many of Enceladus's craters are heavily degraded through viscous relaxation and fracturing. Viscous relaxation allows gravity, over geologic time scales, to deform craters and other topographic features formed in water ice, reducing the amount of topography over time. The rate at which this occurs is dependent on the temperature of the ice: warmer ice is easier to deform than colder, stiffer ice. Viscously relaxed craters tend to have domed floors, or are recognized as craters only by a raised, circular rim. Dunyazad crater is a prime example of a viscously relaxed crater on Enceladus, with a prominent domed floor.
Tectonic features
Voyager 2 found several types of tectonic features on Enceladus, including troughs, scarps, and belts of grooves and ridges. Results from Cassini suggest that tectonics is the dominant mode of deformation on Enceladus, including rifts, one of the more dramatic types of tectonic features that were noted. These canyons can be up to 200 km long, 5–10 km wide, and 1 km deep. Such features are geologically young, because they cut across other tectonic features and have sharp topographic relief with prominent outcrops along the cliff faces.
Evidence of tectonics on Enceladus is also derived from grooved terrain, consisting of lanes of curvilinear grooves and ridges. These bands, first discovered by Voyager 2, often separate smooth plains from cratered regions. Grooved terrains such as the Samarkand Sulci are reminiscent of grooved terrain on Ganymede. However, unlike those seen on Ganymede, grooved topography on Enceladus is generally more complex. Rather than parallel sets of grooves, these lanes often appear as bands of crudely aligned, chevron-shaped features. In other areas, these bands bow upwards with fractures and ridges running the length of the feature. Cassini observations of the Samarkand Sulci have revealed dark spots (125 and 750 m wide) located parallel to the narrow fractures. Currently, these spots are interpreted as collapse pits within these ridged plain belts.
In addition to deep fractures and grooved lanes, Enceladus has several other types of tectonic terrain. Many of these fractures are found in bands cutting across cratered terrain. These fractures probably propagate down only a few hundred meters into the crust. Many have probably been influenced during their formation by the weakened regolith produced by impact craters, often changing the strike of the propagating fracture. Another example of tectonic features on Enceladus are the linear grooves first found by Voyager 2 and seen at a much higher resolution by Cassini. These linear grooves can be seen cutting across other terrain types, like the groove and ridge belts. Like the deep rifts, they are among the youngest features on Enceladus. However, some linear grooves have been softened like the craters nearby, suggesting that they are older. Ridges have also been observed on Enceladus, though not nearly to the extent as those seen on Europa. These ridges are relatively limited in extent and are up to one kilometer tall. One-kilometer high domes have also been observed. Given the level of resurfacing found on Enceladus, it is clear that tectonic movement has been an important driver of geology for much of its history.
Smooth plains
Two regions of smooth plains were observed by Voyager 2. They generally have low relief and have far fewer craters than in the cratered terrains, indicating a relatively young surface age. In one of the smooth plain regions, Sarandib Planitia, no impact craters were visible down to the limit of resolution. Another region of smooth plains to the southwest of Sarandib is criss-crossed by several troughs and scarps. Cassini has since viewed these smooth plains regions, like Sarandib Planitia and Diyar Planitia at much higher resolution. Cassini images show these regions filled with low-relief ridges and fractures, probably caused by shear deformation. The high-resolution images of Sarandib Planitia revealed a number of small impact craters, which allow for an estimate of the surface age, either 170 million years or 3.7 billion years, depending on assumed impactor population.
The expanded surface coverage provided by Cassini has allowed for the identification of additional regions of smooth plains, particularly on Enceladus's leading hemisphere (the side of Enceladus that faces the direction of motion as it orbits Saturn). Rather than being covered in low-relief ridges, this region is covered in numerous criss-crossing sets of troughs and ridges, similar to the deformation seen in the south polar region. This area is on the opposite side of Enceladus from Sarandib and Diyar Planitiae, suggesting that the placement of these regions is influenced by Saturn's tides on Enceladus.
South polar region
Images taken by Cassini during the flyby on July 14, 2005, revealed a distinctive, tectonically deformed region surrounding Enceladus's south pole. This area, reaching as far north as 60° south latitude, is covered in tectonic fractures and ridges. The area has few sizable impact craters, suggesting that it is the youngest surface on Enceladus and on any of the mid-sized icy satellites; modeling of the cratering rate suggests that some regions of the south polar terrain are possibly as young as 500,000 years or less. Near the center of this terrain are four fractures bounded by ridges, unofficially called "tiger stripes". They appear to be the youngest features in this region and are surrounded by mint-green-colored (in false color, UV–green–near IR images), coarse-grained water ice, seen elsewhere on the surface within outcrops and fracture walls. Here the "blue" ice is on a flat surface, indicating that the region is young enough not to have been coated by fine-grained water ice from the E ring. Results from the visual and infrared spectrometer (VIMS) instrument suggest that the green-colored material surrounding the tiger stripes is chemically distinct from the rest of the surface of Enceladus. VIMS detected crystalline water ice in the stripes, suggesting that they are quite young (likely less than 1,000 years old) or the surface ice has been thermally altered in the recent past. VIMS also detected simple organic (carbon-containing) compounds in the tiger stripes, chemistry not found anywhere else on Enceladus thus far.
One of these areas of "blue" ice in the south polar region was observed at high resolution during the July 14, 2005 flyby, revealing an area of extreme tectonic deformation and blocky terrain, with some areas covered in boulders 10–100 m across.
The boundary of the south polar region is marked by a pattern of parallel, Y- and V-shaped ridges and valleys. The shape, orientation, and location of these features suggest they are caused by changes in the overall shape of Enceladus. As of 2006 there were two theories for what could cause such a shift in shape: the orbit of Enceladus may have migrated inward, leading to an increase in Enceladus's rotation rate. Such a shift would lead to a more oblate shape; or a rising mass of warm, low-density material in Enceladus's interior may have led to a shift in the position of the current south polar terrain from Enceladus's southern mid-latitudes to its south pole. Consequently, the moon's ellipsoid shape would have adjusted to match the new orientation. One problem of the polar flattening hypothesis is that both polar regions should have similar tectonic deformation histories. However, the north polar region is densely cratered, and has a much older surface age than the south pole. Thickness variations in Enceladus's lithosphere is one explanation for this discrepancy. Variations in lithospheric thickness are supported by the correlation between the Y-shaped discontinuities and the V-shaped cusps along the south polar terrain margin and the relative surface age of the adjacent non-south polar terrain regions. The Y-shaped discontinuities, and the north–south trending tension fractures into which they lead, are correlated with younger terrain with presumably thinner lithospheres. The V-shaped cusps are adjacent to older, more heavily cratered terrains.
South polar plumes
Following Voyager's encounters with Enceladus in the early 1980s, scientists postulated it to be geologically active based on its young, reflective surface and location near the core of the E ring. Based on the connection between Enceladus and the E ring, scientists suspected that Enceladus was the source of material in the E ring, perhaps through venting of water vapor. Readings from Cassini's 2005 passage suggested that cryovolcanism, where water and other volatiles are the materials erupted instead of silicate rock, had been discovered on Enceladus. The first Cassini sighting of a plume of icy particles above Enceladus's south pole came from the Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) images taken in January and February 2005, though the possibility of a camera artifact delayed an official announcement. Data from the magnetometer instrument during the February 17, 2005, encounter provided evidence for a planetary atmosphere. The magnetometer observed a deflection or "draping" of the magnetic field, consistent with local ionization of neutral gas. In addition, an increase in the power of ion cyclotron waves near the orbit of Enceladus was observed, which was further evidence of the ionization of neutral gas. These waves are produced by the interaction of ionized particles and magnetic fields, and the waves' frequency is close to the gyrofrequency of the freshly produced ions, in this case water vapor. During the two following encounters, the magnetometer team determined that gases in Enceladus's atmosphere are concentrated over the south polar region, with atmospheric density away from the pole being much lower. The Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph (UVIS) confirmed this result by observing two stellar occultations during the February 17 and July 14 encounters. Unlike the magnetometer, UVIS failed to detect an atmosphere above Enceladus during the February encounter when it looked over the equatorial region, but did detect water vapor during an occultation over the south polar region during the July encounter.
Cassini flew through this gas cloud on a few encounters, allowing instruments such as the ion and neutral mass spectrometer (INMS) and the cosmic dust analyzer (CDA) to directly sample the plume. (See 'Composition' section.) The November 2005 images showed the plume's fine structure, revealing numerous jets (perhaps issuing from numerous distinct vents) within a larger, faint component extending out nearly 500 km from the surface. The particles have a bulk velocity of 1.25 ±0.1 km/s, and a maximum velocity of 3.40 km/s. Cassini's UVIS later observed gas jets coinciding with the dust jets seen by ISS during a non-targeted encounter with Enceladus in October 2007.
The combined analysis of imaging, mass spectrometry, and magnetospheric data suggests that the observed south polar plume emanates from pressurized subsurface chambers, similar to Earth's geysers or fumaroles. Fumaroles are probably the closer analogy, since periodic or episodic emission is an inherent property of geysers. The plumes of Enceladus were observed to be continuous to within a factor of a few. The mechanism that drives and sustains the eruptions is thought to be tidal heating. The intensity of the eruption of the south polar jets varies significantly as a function of the position of Enceladus in its orbit. The plumes are about four times brighter when Enceladus is at apoapsis (the point in its orbit most distant from Saturn) than when it is at periapsis. This is consistent with geophysical calculations which predict the south polar fissures are under compression near periapsis, pushing them shut, and under tension near apoapsis, pulling them open.
Much of the plume activity consists of broad curtain-like eruptions. Optical illusions from a combination of viewing direction and local fracture geometry previously made the plumes look like discrete jets.
The extent to which cryovolcanism really occurs is a subject of some debate, as water, being denser than ice by about 8%, has difficulty erupting under normal circumstances. At Enceladus, it appears that cryovolcanism occurs because water-filled cracks are periodically exposed to vacuum, the cracks being opened and closed by tidal stresses.
Internal structure
Before the Cassini mission, little was known about the interior of Enceladus. However, flybys by Cassini provided information for models of Enceladus's interior, including a better determination of the mass and shape, high-resolution observations of the surface, and new insights on the interior.
Mass estimates from the Voyager program missions suggested that Enceladus was composed almost entirely of water ice. However, based on the effects of Enceladus's gravity on Cassini, its mass was determined to be much higher than previously thought, yielding a density of 1.61 g/cm3. This density is higher than those of Saturn's other mid-sized icy satellites, indicating that Enceladus contains a greater percentage of silicates and iron.
Castillo et al. (2005) suggested that Iapetus and the other icy satellites of Saturn formed relatively quickly after the formation of the Saturnian subnebula, and thus were rich in short-lived radionuclides. These radionuclides, like aluminium-26 and iron-60, have short half-lives and would produce interior heating relatively quickly. Without the short-lived variety, Enceladus's complement of long-lived radionuclides would not have been enough to prevent rapid freezing of the interior, even with Enceladus's comparatively high rock–mass fraction, given its small size. Given Enceladus's relatively high rock–mass fraction, the proposed enhancement in 26Al and 60Fe would result in a differentiated body, with an icy mantle and a rocky core. Subsequent radioactive and tidal heating would raise the temperature of the core to 1,000 K, enough to melt the inner mantle. However, for Enceladus to still be active, part of the core must have also melted, forming magma chambers that would flex under the strain of Saturn's tides. Tidal heating, such as from the resonance with Dione or from libration, would then have sustained these hot spots in the core and would power the current geological activity.
In addition to its mass and modeled geochemistry, researchers have also examined Enceladus's shape to determine if it is differentiated. Porco et al. (2006) used limb measurements to determine that its shape, assuming hydrostatic equilibrium, is consistent with an undifferentiated interior, in contradiction to the geological and geochemical evidence. However, the current shape also supports the possibility that Enceladus is not in hydrostatic equilibrium, and may have rotated faster at some point in the recent past (with a differentiated interior). Gravity measurements by Cassini show that the density of the core is low, indicating that the core contains water in addition to silicates.
Subsurface water ocean
Evidence of liquid water on Enceladus began to accumulate in 2005, when scientists observed plumes containing water vapor spewing from its south polar surface, with jets moving 250 kg of water vapor every second at up to into space. Soon after, in 2006 it was determined that Enceladus's plumes are the source of Saturn's E Ring. The sources of salty particles are uniformly distributed along the tiger stripes, whereas sources of "fresh" particles are closely related to the high-speed gas jets. The "salty" particles are heavier and mostly fall back to the surface, whereas the fast "fresh" particles escape to the E ring, explaining its salt-poor composition of 0.5–2% of sodium salts by mass.
Gravimetric data from Cassinis December 2010 flybys showed that Enceladus likely has a liquid water ocean beneath its frozen surface, but at the time it was thought the subsurface ocean was limited to the south pole. The top of the ocean probably lies beneath a thick ice shelf. The ocean may be deep at the south pole.
Measurements of Enceladus's "wobble" as it orbits Saturn—called libration—suggests that the entire icy crust is detached from the rocky core and therefore that a global ocean is present beneath the surface. The amount of libration (0.120° ± 0.014°) implies that this global ocean is about deep. For comparison, Earth's ocean has an average depth of 3.7 kilometers.
Composition
The Cassini spacecraft flew through the southern plumes on several occasions to sample and analyze its composition. As of 2019, the data gathered is still being analyzed and interpreted. The plumes' salty composition (-Na, -Cl, -CO3) indicates that the source is a salty subsurface ocean.
The INMS instrument detected mostly water vapor, as well as traces of molecular nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of simple hydrocarbons such as methane, propane, acetylene and formaldehyde. The plumes' composition, as measured by the INMS, is similar to that seen at most comets. Cassini also found traces of simple organic compounds in some dust grains, as well as larger organics such as benzene (), and complex macromolecular organics as large as 200 atomic mass units, and at least 15 carbon atoms in size.
The mass spectrometer detected molecular hydrogen (H2) which was in "thermodynamic disequilibrium" with the other components, and found traces of ammonia ().
A model suggests that Enceladus's salty ocean (-Na, -Cl, -CO3) has an alkaline pH of 11 to 12. The high pH is interpreted to be a consequence of serpentinization of chondritic rock that leads to the generation of H2, a geochemical source of energy that could support both abiotic and biological synthesis of organic molecules such as those that have been detected in Enceladus's plumes.
Further analysis in 2019 was done of the spectral characteristics of ice grains in Enceladus's erupting plumes. The study found that nitrogen-bearing and oxygen-bearing amines were likely present, with significant implications for the availability of amino acids in the internal ocean. The researchers suggested that the compounds on Enceladus could be precursors for "biologically relevant organic compounds".
Possible heat sources
During the flyby of July 14, 2005, the Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS) found a warm region near the south pole. Temperatures in this region ranged from 85 to 90 K, with small areas showing as high as , much too warm to be explained by solar heating, indicating that parts of the south polar region are heated from the interior of Enceladus. The presence of a subsurface ocean under the south polar region is now accepted, but it cannot explain the source of the heat, with an estimated heat flux of 200 mW/m2, which is about 10 times higher than that from radiogenic heating alone.
Several explanations for the observed elevated temperatures and the resulting plumes have been proposed, including venting from a subsurface reservoir of liquid water, sublimation of ice, decompression and dissociation of clathrates, and shear heating, but a complete explanation of all the heat sources causing the observed thermal power output of Enceladus has not yet been settled.
Heating in Enceladus has occurred through various mechanisms ever since its formation. Radioactive decay in its core may have initially heated it, giving it a warm core and a subsurface ocean, which is now kept above freezing through an unidentified mechanism. Geophysical models indicate that tidal heating is a main heat source, perhaps aided by radioactive decay and some heat-producing chemical reactions. A 2007 study predicted the internal heat of Enceladus, if generated by tidal forces, could be no greater than 1.1 gigawatts, but data from Cassini's infrared spectrometer of the south polar terrain over 16 months, indicate that the internal heat generated power is about 4.7 gigawatts, and suggest that it is in thermal equilibrium.
The observed power output of 4.7 gigawatts is challenging to explain from tidal heating alone, so the main source of heat remains a mystery. Most scientists think the observed heat flux of Enceladus is not enough to maintain the subsurface ocean, and therefore any subsurface ocean must be a remnant of a period of higher eccentricity and tidal heating, or the heat is produced through another mechanism.
Tidal heating
Tidal heating occurs through the tidal friction processes: orbital and rotational energy are dissipated as heat in the crust of an object. In addition, to the extent that tides produce heat along fractures, libration may affect the magnitude and distribution of such tidal shear heating. Tidal dissipation of Enceladus's ice crust is significant because Enceladus has a subsurface ocean. A computer simulation that used data from Cassini was published in November 2017, and it indicates that friction heat from the sliding rock fragments within the permeable and fragmented core of Enceladus could keep its underground ocean warm for up to billions of years.Heating ocean moon Enceladus for billions of years . PhysOrg. November 6, 2017. It is thought that if Enceladus had a more eccentric orbit in the past, the enhanced tidal forces could be sufficient to maintain a subsurface ocean, such that a periodic enhancement in eccentricity could maintain a subsurface ocean that periodically changes in size. A more recent analysis claimed that "a model of the tiger stripes as tidally flexed slots that puncture the ice shell can simultaneously explain the persistence of the eruptions through the tidal cycle, the phase lag, and the total power output of the tiger stripe terrain, while suggesting that eruptions are maintained over geological timescales." Previous models suggest that resonant perturbations of Dione could provide the necessary periodic eccentricity changes to maintain the subsurface ocean of Enceladus, if the ocean contains a substantial amount of ammonia. The surface of Enceladus indicates that the entire moon has experienced periods of enhanced heat flux in the past.
Radioactive heating
The "hot start" model of heating suggests Enceladus began as ice and rock that contained rapidly decaying short-lived radioactive isotopes of aluminium, iron and manganese. Enormous amounts of heat were then produced as these isotopes decayed for about 7 million years, resulting in the consolidation of rocky material at the core surrounded by a shell of ice. Although the heat from radioactivity would decrease over time, the combination of radioactivity and tidal forces from Saturn's gravitational tug could prevent the subsurface ocean from freezing. The present-day radiogenic heating rate is 3.2 ergs/s (or 0.32 gigawatts), assuming Enceladus has a composition of ice, iron and silicate materials. Heating from long-lived radioactive isotopes uranium-238, uranium-235, thorium-232 and potassium-40 inside Enceladus would add 0.3 gigawatts to the observed heat flux. The presence of Enceladus's regionally thick subsurface ocean suggests a heat flux ~10 times higher than that from radiogenic heating in the silicate core.
Chemical factors
Because no ammonia was initially found in the vented material by INMS or UVIS, which could act as an antifreeze, it was thought such a heated, pressurized chamber would consist of nearly pure liquid water with a temperature of at least , because pure water requires more energy to melt.
In July 2009 it was announced that traces of ammonia had been found in the plumes during flybys in July and October 2008. Reducing the freezing point of water with ammonia would also allow for outgassing and higher gas pressure, and less heat required to power the water plumes. The subsurface layer heating the surface water ice could be an ammonia–water slurry at temperatures as low as , and thus less energy is required to produce the plume activity. However, the observed 4.7 gigawatts heat flux is enough to power the cryovolcanism without the presence of ammonia.
Shape and size
Enceladus is a relatively small satellite composed of ice and rock. It is a scalene ellipsoid in shape; its diameters, calculated from images taken by Cassini's ISS (Imaging Science Subsystem) instrument, are between the sub- and anti-Saturnian poles, between the leading and trailing hemispheres, and between the north and south poles. Enceladus is only one-seventh the diameter of Earth's Moon. It ranks sixth in both mass and size among the satellites of Saturn, after Titan (), Rhea (), Iapetus (), Dione () and Tethys ().
Origin
Mimas–Enceladus paradox
Mimas, the innermost of the round moons of Saturn and directly interior to Enceladus, is a geologically dead body, even though it should experience stronger tidal forces than Enceladus. This apparent paradox can be explained in part by temperature-dependent properties of water ice (the main constituent of the interiors of Mimas and Enceladus). The tidal heating per unit mass is given by the formula
where ρ is the (mass) density of the satellite, n is its mean orbital motion, r is the satellite's radius, e is the orbital eccentricity of the satellite, μ is the shear modulus and Q is the dimensionless dissipation factor. For a same-temperature approximation, the expected value of qtid for Mimas is about 40 times that of Enceladus. However, the material parameters μ and Q are temperature dependent. At high temperatures (close to the melting point), μ and Q are low, so tidal heating is high. Modeling suggests that for Enceladus, both a 'basic' low-energy thermal state with little internal temperature gradient, and an 'excited' high-energy thermal state with a significant temperature gradient, and consequent convection (endogenic geologic activity), once established, would be stable. For Mimas, only a low-energy state is expected to be stable, despite its being closer to Saturn. So the model predicts a low-internal-temperature state for Mimas (values of μ and Q are high) but a possible higher-temperature state for Enceladus (values of μ and Q are low). Additional historical information is needed to explain how Enceladus first entered the high-energy state (e.g. more radiogenic heating or a more eccentric orbit in the past).
The significantly higher density of Enceladus relative to Mimas (1.61 vs. 1.15 g/cm3), implying a larger content of rock and more radiogenic heating in its early history, has also been cited as an important factor in resolving the Mimas paradox.
It has been suggested that for an icy satellite the size of Mimas or Enceladus to enter an 'excited state' of tidal heating and convection, it would need to enter an orbital resonance before it lost too much of its primordial internal heat. Because Mimas, being smaller, would cool more rapidly than Enceladus, its window of opportunity for initiating orbital resonance-driven convection would have been considerably shorter.
Proto-Enceladus hypothesis
Enceladus is losing mass at a rate of 200 kg/second. If mass loss at this rate continued for 4.5 Gyr, the satellite would have lost approximately 30% of its initial mass. A similar value is obtained by assuming that the initial densities of Enceladus and Mimas were equal. It suggests that tectonics in the south polar region is probably mainly related to subsidence and associated subduction caused by the process of mass loss.
Date of formation
In 2016, a study of how the orbits of Saturn's moons should have changed due to tidal effects suggested that all of Saturn's satellites inward of Titan, including Enceladus (whose geologic activity was used to derive the strength of tidal effects on Saturn's satellites), may have formed as little as 100 million years ago.
A later study from 2019 estimated that the ocean is around one billion years old.
Potential habitability
Enceladus ejects plumes of salted water laced with grains of silica-rich sand, nitrogen (in ammonia), and organic molecules, including trace amounts of simple hydrocarbons such as methane (), propane (), acetylene () and formaldehyde (), which are carbon-bearing molecules. This indicates that hydrothermal activity —an energy source— may be at work in Enceladus's subsurface ocean. In addition, models indicate that the large rocky core is porous, allowing water to flow through it, transferring heat and chemicals. It was confirmed by observations and other research. Molecular hydrogen (), a geochemical source of energy that can be metabolized by methanogen microbes to provide energy for life, could be present if, as models suggest, Enceladus's salty ocean has an alkaline pH from serpentinization of chondritic rock.
The presence of an internal global salty ocean with an aquatic environment supported by global ocean circulation patterns, with an energy source and complex organic compounds in contact with Enceladus's rocky core, may advance the study of astrobiology and the study of potentially habitable environments for microbial extraterrestrial life.Habitability of Enceladus: Planetary Conditions for Life . (PDF) Christopher D. Parkinson, Mao-Chang Liang,
Yuk L. Yung, and Joseph L. Kirschivnk. Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres April 10, 2008. The presence of a wide range of organic compounds and ammonia indicates their source may be similar to the water/rock reactions known to occur on Earth and that are known to support life. Therefore, several robotic missions have been proposed to further explore Enceladus and assess its habitability; some of the proposed missions are: Journey to Enceladus and Titan (JET), Enceladus Explorer (En-Ex), Enceladus Life Finder (ELF), Life Investigation For Enceladus (LIFE), and Enceladus Life Signatures and Habitability (ELSAH).
Hydrothermal vents
On April 13, 2017, NASA announced the discovery of possible hydrothermal activity on Enceladus's sub-surface ocean floor. In 2015, the Cassini probe made a close fly-by of Enceladus's south pole, flying within of the surface, as well as through a plume in the process. A mass spectrometer on the craft detected molecular hydrogen (H2) from the plume, and after months of analysis, the conclusion was made that the hydrogen was most likely the result of hydrothermal activity beneath the surface. It has been speculated that such activity could be a potential oasis of habitability.
The presence of ample hydrogen in Enceladus's ocean means that microbes – if any exist there – could use it to obtain energy by combining the hydrogen with carbon dioxide dissolved in the water. The chemical reaction is known as "methanogenesis" because it produces methane as a byproduct, and is at the root of the tree of life on Earth, the birthplace of all life that is known to exist.
Exploration
Voyager missions
The two Voyager spacecraft made the first close-up images of Enceladus. Voyager 1 was the first to fly past Enceladus, at a distance of 202,000 km on November 12, 1980. Images acquired from this distance had very poor spatial resolution, but revealed a highly reflective surface devoid of impact craters, indicating a youthful surface. Voyager 1 also confirmed that Enceladus was embedded in the densest part of Saturn's diffuse E ring. Combined with the apparent youthful appearance of the surface, Voyager scientists suggested that the E ring consisted of particles vented from Enceladus's surface.
Voyager 2 passed closer to Enceladus (87,010 km) on August 26, 1981, allowing higher-resolution images to be obtained. These images showed a young surface. They also revealed a surface with different regions with vastly different surface ages, with a heavily cratered mid- to high-northern latitude region, and a lightly cratered region closer to the equator. This geologic diversity contrasts with the ancient, heavily cratered surface of Mimas, another moon of Saturn slightly smaller than Enceladus. The geologically youthful terrains came as a great surprise to the scientific community, because no theory was then able to predict that such a small (and cold, compared to Jupiter's highly active moon Io) celestial body could bear signs of such activity.
Cassini
The answers to many remaining mysteries of Enceladus had to wait until the arrival of the Cassini spacecraft on July 1, 2004, when it entered orbit around Saturn. Given the results from the Voyager 2 images, Enceladus was considered a priority target by the Cassini mission planners, and several targeted flybys within 1,500 km of the surface were planned as well as numerous, "non-targeted" opportunities within 100,000 km of Enceladus. The flybys have yielded significant information concerning Enceladus's surface, as well as the discovery of water vapor with traces of simple hydrocarbons venting from the geologically active south polar region. These discoveries prompted the adjustment of Cassini's flight plan to allow closer flybys of Enceladus, including an encounter in March 2008 that took it to within 48 km of the surface. Cassini's extended mission included seven close flybys of Enceladus between July 2008 and July 2010, including two passes at only 50 km in the later half of 2008. Cassini performed a flyby on October 28, 2015, passing as close as and through a plume. Confirmation of molecular hydrogen () would be an independent line of evidence that hydrothermal activity is taking place in the Enceladus seafloor, increasing its habitability.
Cassini has provided strong evidence that Enceladus has an ocean with an energy source, nutrients and organic molecules, making Enceladus one of the best places for the study of potentially habitable environments for extraterrestrial life. By contrast, the water thought to be on Jupiter's moon Europa is located under a much thicker layer of ice.
Proposed mission concepts
The discoveries Cassini made at Enceladus have prompted studies into follow-up mission concepts, including a probe flyby (Journey to Enceladus and Titan or JET) to analyze plume contents in-situ, a lander by the German Aerospace Center to study the habitability potential of its subsurface ocean (Enceladus Explorer), and two astrobiology-oriented mission concepts (the Enceladus Life Finder and Life Investigation For Enceladus (LIFE)).
The European Space Agency (ESA) was assessing concepts in 2008 to send a probe to Enceladus in a mission to be combined with studies of Titan: Titan Saturn System Mission (TSSM). TSSM was a joint NASA/ESA flagship-class proposal for exploration of Saturn's moons, with a focus on Enceladus, and it was competing against the Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM) proposal for funding. In February 2009, it was announced that NASA/ESA had given the EJSM mission priority ahead of TSSM, although TSSM will continue to be studied and evaluated.
In November 2017, Russian billionaire Yuri Milner expressed interest in funding a "low-cost, privately funded mission to Enceladus which can be launched relatively soon." In September 2018, NASA and the Breakthrough Initiatives, founded by Milner, signed a cooperation agreement for the mission's initial concept phase. The spacecraft would be low-cost, low mass, and would be launched at high speed on an affordable rocket. The spacecraft would be directed to perform a single flyby through Enceladus plumes in order to sample and analyze its content for biosignatures.Billionaire aims to jump-start search for alien life and rewrite rules of space exploration . Corey S. Powell NBC News. December 19, 2018. NASA will be providing scientific and technical expertise through various reviews, from March 2019 to December 2019.
See also
Enceladus in fiction
List of geological features on Enceladus
List of natural satellites
List of extraterrestrial volcanoes
ReferencesInformational notesCitationsFurther reading'''
External links
Enceladus Profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
Calvin Hamilton's Enceladus page
The Planetary Society: Enceladus blogs
CHARM: Cassini–Huygens Analysis and Results from the Mission page, contains presentations on Enceladus results
Paul Schenk's 3D images and flyover videos of Enceladus and other outer solar system satellites
Habitability of Enceladus: Planetary Conditions for Life
Images
Cassini images of Enceladus
Images of Enceladus at JPL's Planetary Photojournal
Movie of Enceladus's rotation from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Enceladus global and polar basemaps (December 2011) from Cassini'' images
Enceladus atlas (May 2010) from Cassini images
Enceladus nomenclature and Enceladus map with feature names from the USGS planetary nomenclature page
Google Enceladus 3D, interactive map of the moon
Image album by Kevin M. Gill
17890828
Articles containing video clips
Discoveries by William Herschel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-pit%20mining
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Open-pit mining
|
Open-pit mining, also known as open-cast or open-cut mining and in larger contexts mega-mining, is a surface mining technique of extracting rock or minerals from the earth from an open-air pit, sometimes known as a borrow.
This form of mining differs from extractive methods that require tunnelling into the earth, such as long wall mining. Open-pit mines are used when deposits of commercially useful ore or rocks are found near the surface. It is applied to ore or rocks found at the surface because the overburden is relatively thin or the material of interest is structurally unsuitable for tunnelling (as would be the case for cinder, sand, and gravel). In contrast, minerals that have been found underground but are difficult to retrieve due to hard rock, can be reached using a form of underground mining.
To create an open-pit mine, the miners must determine the information of the ore that is underground. This is done through drilling of probe holes in the ground, then plotting each hole location on a map. The information gained through the holes with provide an idea of the vertical extent of the ore's body. This vertical information is then used to pit tentative locations of the benches that will occur in the mine. It is important to consider the grade and economic value of the ore in the potential pit. Open-pit mines that produce building materials and dimension stone are commonly referred to as "quarries."
Open-pit mines are typically enlarged until either the mineral resource is exhausted, or an increasing ratio of overburden to ore makes further mining uneconomic. When this occurs, the exhausted mines are sometimes converted to landfills for disposal of solid wastes. However, some form of water control is usually required to keep the mine pit from becoming a lake, if the mine is situated in a climate of considerable precipitation or if any layers of the pit forming the mine border productive aquifers. In Germany and adjacent countries several former open pit mines have been deliberately converted into artificial lakes forming areas such as the Lusatian Lake District, the Central German Lake District or the Upper Palatinate Lake District. A particular concern in the formation of these lakes is acid mine drainage.
Open-pit mining is to be considered one of the most dangerous sectors in the industrial world. It causes significant effects to miners health, as well as damage to the ecological land. Open-pit mining causes changes to vegetation, soil, and bedrock, which ultimately contributes to changes in surface hydrology, groundwater levels, and flow paths. Additionally, open-pit produces harmful pollutants depending on the type of mineral being mined, and the type of mining process being used.
Extraction
Open-cast mines are dug on benches, which describe vertical levels of the hole. The interval of the benches depends on the deposit being mined, the mineral being mined, and the size of the machinery that is being used. Generally, large mine benches are 12 to 15 metres thick. In contrast, many quarries do not use benches, as they are usually shallow. Mining can be conducted on more than one bench at a time, and access to different benches is done with a system of ramps. The width of each bench is determined by the size of the equipment being used, generally 20–40 metres wide. Downward ramps are created to allow mining on a new level to begin. This new level will become progressively wider to form the new pit bottom.
Most walls of the pit are generally mined on an angle less than vertical. Waste rock is stripped when the pit becomes deeper, therefore this angle is a safety precaution to prevent and minimize damage and danger from rock falls. However, this depends on how weathered and eroded the rocks are, and the type of rocks involved. It also depends on the amount of structural weaknesses occur within the rocks, such as a faults, shears, joints or foliations.
The walls are stepped. The inclined section of the wall is known as the batter, and the flat part of the step is known as the bench or berm. The steps in the walls help prevent rock falls continuing down the entire face of the wall. In some instances additional ground support is required and rock bolts, cable bolts and shotcrete are used. De-watering bores may be used to relieve water pressure by drilling horizontally into the wall, which is often enough to cause failures in the wall by itself.
A haul road is usually situated at the side of the pit, forming a ramp up which trucks can drive, carrying ore and waste rock.
Waste
Open-pit mines create a significant amount of waste. Almost one million tons of ore and waste rock can move from the largest mines per day, and a couple thousand tons moved from small mines per day. There is generally four main operations in a mine that contribute to this load: drilling, blasting, loading, and hauling.
Waste rock is hauled to a waste dump. Waste dumps can be piled at the surface of the active pit, or in previously mined pits.
Leftover waste from processing the ore is called tailings, and is generally in the form of a slurry. This is pumped to a tailings dam or settling pond, where the water is reused or evaporated. Tailings dams can be toxic due to the presence of unextracted sulfide minerals, some forms of toxic minerals in the gangue, and often cyanide which is used to treat gold ore via the cyanide leach process. If proper environmental protections are not in place, this toxicity can harm the surrounding environment.
Pollutants
Open-pit mining involves the process of disrupting the ground, which leads to the creation of air pollutants. The main source of air pollutants comes from the transportation of minerals, but there are various other factors including drilling, blasting and the loading and unloading of overburden. These type of pollutants cause significant damage to public health and safety in addition to damaging the air quality. The inhalation of these pollutants can cause issues to the lungs and ultimately increase mortality. Furthermore, the pollutants affect flora and fauna in the areas surrounding open-pit mines.
Open-pit gold mining is one of the highest potential mining threats on the environment as it affects the air and water chemistry. The exposed dust may be toxic or radioactive, making it a health concern for the workers and the surrounding communities.
Hydrology in mining
Open pit mines operating in an area with heavy groundwater features may eventually face hydrology-related problems. This includes heaving and bursting of the mine floor due to excessive uplift pressure. A groundwater control system must be installed to fix problems caused by hydrology. The formation of an appropriate open pit slope design, changes throughout the life of a mine. It is based mainly on an ever increasing understanding of the rock mass conditions. Which includes groundwater and associated pressures that may be acting within the slopes. The reduction of groundwater related to pore pressures is a crucial aspect of determining whether or not a geotechnical engineering design for open pit slopes is attainable. Groundwater control systems, which include dewatering and depressurization wells, may also have a large impact on local groundwater. Because of this, an optimization-based version of the control system is required to ensure that local and regional hydro-geological impacts are within acceptable ranges.
Open Pit Depressurization is the process of removing tensions or pressure from different areas of a mine. Depressurization helps to make open pit mines more stable and secure. By using an integrated mine slope depressurization program the likelihood that mine plans can be achieved, and at an acceptable level of risk increase drastically. Depressurization allows considerable expansions of a mine, and can extend the life of the mine by 10 to 15 years. One technique used in depressurization is annealing. Annealing is the slow heating and cooling of a metal, alloy or glass. This slow heating and cooling relieves the internal stress of surrounding areas. Annealing will increase a material's workability and durability, which overall increases open pit mine safety. When groundwater pressures cause problems in open pit mines, horizontal drains are used to aid in accelerating the slope depressurization process. Which helps to prevent large scale slope failure in the mine. Horizontal drains are used to lower pore pressure by reducing groundwater head, which enhances slope stability.
Untopping
A form of open-cast quarrying may be carried out as 'untopping'. This is done where a previous underground mine is becoming uneconomic or worked-out, but still leaves valuable rock in place, often as a result of room and pillar mining. Untopping removes the overburden from above this, opens up the mine from above, and then allows the previously 'trapped' minerals to be won.
Untopping was a feature of Welsh slate workings in the 1930s and 2000s, where Martyn Williams-Ellis, manager at Llechwedd found that earlier Victorian workings could be kept profitable with the newly mechanised techniques for bulk excavation to extract their pillars, and more recently across a number of worked-out mines.
Rehabilitation
After mining finishes, the mine area may undergo land rehabilitation. Waste dumps are contoured to flatten them out, to further stabilize them. If the ore contains sulfides it is usually covered with a layer of clay to prevent access of rain and oxygen from the air, which can oxidize the sulfides to produce sulfuric acid, a phenomenon known as acid mine drainage. This is then generally covered with soil, and vegetation is planted to help consolidate the material. Eventually this layer will erode, but it is generally hoped that the rate of leaching or acid will be slowed by the cover such that the environment can handle the load of acid and associated heavy metals. There are no long term studies on the success of these covers due to the relatively short time in which large scale open pit mining has existed. It may take hundreds to thousands of years for some waste dumps to become "acid neutral" and stop leaching to the environment. The dumps are usually fenced off to prevent livestock denuding them of vegetation. The open pit is then surrounded with a fence, to prevent access, and it generally eventually fills up with ground water. In arid areas it may not fill due to deep groundwater levels. Instead of returning the land to its former natural state, it may also be reused, converting it into recreational parks or even residential/mixed communities. In Germany, the world's largest producer of lignite (virtually all of which is mined open pit these days), the former mines are usually converted to artificial lakes. To mitigate the problem of acid mine drainage mentioned above, flooding is often done with the water of nearby rivers instead of using groundwater alone. In some cases Calcium Oxide or other basic chemicals have to be added to the water to neutralize the pH-value.
Typical open cut grades
Gold is generally extracted in open-pit mines at 1 to 5 ppm (parts per million) but in certain cases, 0.75 ppm gold is economical. This was achieved by bulk heap leaching at the Peak Hill mine in western New South Wales, near Dubbo, Australia.
Nickel, generally as laterite, is extracted via open-pit down to 0.2%. Copper can be extracted at grades as low as 0.11% to 0.2%.
Materials typically extracted from open-pit mines include:
Bitumen
Clay
Coal
Copper
Coquina
Chromite
Diamonds
Gravel and stone
Granite
Gritstone
Gypsum
Limestone
Marble
Metal ores, such as copper, iron, gold, silver and molybdenum
Phosphate
Uranium
Largest open pit mines
Open pit mining is a common method to extract minerals and samples from the Earth. Due to being cost effective, this method is very popular and is used all over the world. Listed are the world's ten largest open pit mines.
1. Bingham Canyon Mine - Utah
2. Mir Mine - Eastern Siberia, Russia
3. Super Pit Gold Mine - Australia
4. Big Hole - South Africa
5. Diavik Diamond Mine - Canada
6. Hull–Rust–Mahoning Open Pit Iron Mine - Minnesota
7. Grasberg Mine - Indonesia
8. Chuquicamata - Chile
9. Udachnaya Pipe - Siberia, Russia
10. Escondida - Chile
See also
Artisanal mining
Closure problem applied to open-pit mines for optimal extraction (not related to closing the mine)
Cut (earthmoving)
List of open-pit mines
Trench
Tunneling
References
External links
The biggest, deepest and deadliest mines in the world
Deepest open pit mines
Surface mining
|
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208438
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry%20Nicholas
|
Barry Nicholas
|
John Keiran Barry Moylan Nicholas (1919–2002) was a British legal scholar. He was Professor of Comparative Law at the University of Oxford from 1971 to 1978, and Principal of Brasenose College, Oxford from 1978 to 1989.
Early life
Nicholas was born on 6 July 1919 to Archibald John Nicholas and Rose (née Moylan). He was educated at Downside School, a Catholic independent school in Somerset, England. He then matriculated into Brasenose College, Oxford where he was a scholar and studied classics: he achieved first class honours in Mods in 1939. Having taken a break from university to serve in the war, he returned to his college to study Jurisprudence: he graduated with a first class Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in 1946.
Academic career
He began teaching at Brasenose College, Oxford in 1946, and served as Principal of the college from 1978 to 1989. He gave up the position at the appointed age of 70, but he did not retire. He additionally served as All Souls Reader in Roman Law from 1949 to 1971, and Professor of Comparative Law at the University of Oxford from 1971 to 1978.
Nicholas' An Introduction to Roman Law is a standard text in the study of Roman law.
There is an obituary notice by Peter Birks for the British Academy.
References
1919 births
2002 deaths
Fellows of Brasenose College, Oxford
Principals of Brasenose College, Oxford
Linklaters Professors of Comparative Law
People educated at Downside School
Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not%20the%20Nine%20O%27Clock%20News
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Not the Nine O'Clock News
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Not the Nine O'Clock News is a British television sketch comedy show which was broadcast on BBC2 from 1979 to 1982. Originally shown as a comedy alternative to the Nine O'Clock News on BBC1, it features satirical sketches on then-current news stories and popular culture, as well as parody songs, comedy sketches, re-edited videos, and spoof television formats. The programme features Rowan Atkinson, Pamela Stephenson, Mel Smith, and Griff Rhys Jones, as well as Chris Langham in the first series.
Format
The format was a deliberate departure from the stream-of-consciousness meta-comedy pioneered by Monty Python's Flying Circus, returning to a more conventional sketch format. Sketches were mostly self-contained, lasting from a few seconds to a few minutes, and often had a degree of naturalism in performance. The series launched the careers of several high-profile actors and writers, and also led to other comedic series including Blackadder and Alas Smith and Jones.
The series benefited from video editing and recording techniques. The pace was enhanced by jump-cutting between library clips, usually of politicians, royalty, or celebrities. Then-Prime
Minister Margaret Thatcher complained when, by adroit image editing, the programme implied she had crashed a car. Effects used in pop videos, provided by the Quantel Paintbox, were often a highlight of the musical numbers.
History
Background
Not the Nine O'Clock News was produced by John Lloyd. Lloyd pitched the idea to the heads of BBC Comedy and Light Entertainment, and was given a six-programme series on condition that he collaborate with Sean Hardie, who had worked in current affairs at the BBC.
Initially, Lloyd and Hardie were considering doing a lampoon of actuality programmes à la The Frost Report with Rowan Atkinson portraying an old-fashioned host attacking liberal and/or modern trends. The programme was to be called Sacred Cows, but the news programme was chosen because of its larger quantity of sources. The series’ name derived from its schedule, as it originally aired on BBC2 at the same time as the Nine O'Clock News on BBC1
Aborted first series
Aside from Atkinson, the original cast comprised Christopher Godwin, John Gorman, Chris Langham, Willoughby Goddard, and Jonathan Hyde, and the first episode of a planned series was scheduled for 2 April 1979; this also featured Chris Emmett (impersonating Denis Healey), Robert Llewelyn (impersonating Bob Hope) and Hertz Rental (narrating general elections in Greenland).
As the programme was originally scheduled to air in the time-slot occupied by Fawlty Towers, John Cleese was to have introduced the first episode in a sketch referring to a technicians' strike (then in progress) that hindered the production of the series, explaining (in character as Basil Fawlty) that there was no programme that week, so a "tatty revue" would be broadcast instead. However, the 1979 general election intervened, and the programme was pulled as being too political, being replaced with a repeat of the American sitcom Rhoda.
The sketch with Cleese was broadcast later that year, when the final episode of Fawlty Towers went out during the broadcast run of the first series of Not The Nine O'Clock News, though the significance of the sketch was lost to some degree. This link is included on the Region 2 DVD boxset of Fawlty Towers. Basil's waiter Manuel, played by Andrew Sachs, also appeared at the end of the unaired episode, trying to get a joke about the Ayatollah's contact lenses.
Other sketches of the unaired pilot episode were also lifted or remade on episodes throughout the first series. Healey's and Hope's impressions were achieved by the use of "talking head" puppets, which in the mid-1980s would become a characteristic staple of Spitting Image, produced by Lloyd in its early series.
In production
Lloyd and Hardie decided to re-cast the series, retaining Langham and Atkinson. They wanted to bring in a woman, but Victoria Wood turned the programme down. Lloyd met Pamela Stephenson at a party, and she agreed to join. Atkinson, Langham, and Stephenson were joined by Mel Smith, who was scheduled to work on the pilot, but declined after reading the script (he called the finished pilot in retrospect "the worst half hour of TV" that he’d ever seen). The first series was criticised for being "a poor mix of stand up, and a mild portion of sketches" and newspaper reviews referring to it as "extremely offensive" and that it “should not be allowed on TV". Ratings were dismal as well: the first episode had fewer than a million viewers.
However, the network controller reportedly liked the programme so much, that a second series of seven episodes was commissioned, also helped by budgetary cuts at BBC, which were repeatedly poked fun at in the second series' premiere episode, entitled "The Outrageously Expensive Not the Nine O'Clock News". Such cuts also forced the show to drastically reduce the use of outside scenes (which were recorded on film) as well as minor players. The shock value prominent during the first season was also toned down in favour of a more "offbeat" tone.
For the second series, Langham was replaced by Griff Rhys-Jones, who had already been a regular player during the first series, aside from having directed the radio programme The Atkinson People. The second series of Not the Nine O’Clock News won the Silver Rose at the Montreux Festival and a BAFTA Award for Best Light Entertainment Programme in 1982. The show's later series achieved improved ratings and became critically acclaimed.
Not the Nine O'Clock News became a stage production in Oxford and London in 1982, but the main performers decided to end the project while it was a success: Stephenson began a Hollywood film career, Atkinson recorded the first series of Blackadder in 1983, and Smith and Jones became a double act in Alas Smith and Jones. An American adaptation, Not Necessarily the News ran for seven years, from 1983 to 1990 on the Home Box Office cable television channel.
Content
Satire was a key theme in the series' comedy. For example, one spoof news element might include a routine announcement that NASA had once again announced a delay in the launch of its Space Shuttle owing to technical difficulties, as the screen showed the shuttle on its launch pad with oxygen streaming off the tanks, overlaid with the sound of a car engine turning over but not starting. An opening graphic featured the same blue screen and white analogue clock ticking down to 9:00 p.m. as preceded the original Nine O'Clock News, followed by an announcement of the time in similar voice and, in parody, the announcement that this was "definitely not the Nine O'Clock News". Skits could include scenes such as a group of rural Americans at a barbecue singing several minutes of comical implausibles like "I'm prepared to believe that Nixon wasn't a crook; I'm prepared to believe Love Story'''s a readable book..." and finally concluding, "I believe that the devil is ready to repent; – but I can't believe Ronald Reagan is president."
Legacy
The programme is credited with bringing alternative comedy to British television: Lloyd once commented he wanted to do a "modern, working-class" comedy in contrast to other series of the time, such as The Two Ronnies, as well as attempting to replicate the Satire boom of the early 1960s that launched the careers of John Cleese, Dudley Moore, Eric Idle, Tim Brooke-Taylor and others. This also happened at a time that the magazine National Lampoon, The Second City troupes and Saturday Night Live became showcases of alternative comedy in North America.
In 2005, Atkinson, Smith, Stephenson, Langham, and producer Lloyd reunited to talk to Sue MacGregor about the series. Langham's departure was touched upon, with Lloyd seeming to take the blame, though Atkinson had campaigned for Langham to be kept in the cast. (Langham actually refused to speak to his former cast-mates for a number of years after he was fired, until appearing as a regular on Smith and Jones in the 1990s). The Reunion was broadcast on Radio 4 on 31 July 2005.
A documentary featuring the cast reminiscing about the making of the programme was shown on BBC 2 on 28 December 2009, before one of the 1995 compilation shows was aired (despite a "complete episode" being billed in television listings). The documentary was repeated on 3 August 2013, just over two weeks after the death of Smith.
Crew
The main writers included Colin Bostock-Smith, Andy Hamilton, Peter Brewis, Richard Curtis, and Clive Anderson. However, the producers accepted scripts for sketches from a wide range of writers (including a then-undergraduate Stephen Fry), and ensured the programme remained topical by recording sketches only days before broadcast. Howard Goodall (subsequently composer of the theme music for Blackadder, Red Dwarf, and The Vicar of Dibley) was musical director. Bill Wilson directed the first three series, while Geoff Posner handled the fourth.
Episodes
A total of 27 episodes of 25–30-minute duration were broadcast over four series.
Series 1 (1979)
Unaired Pilot Episode (Was to air 2 April 1979)
Kenny Everett in Not the Nine O'Clock News – 16 October 1979
Episode 2 – 23 October 1979
Episode 3 – 30 October 1979
Episode 4 – 6 November 1979
Episode 5 – 13 November 1979
Episode 6 – 20 November 1979
Series 2 (1980)
The Outrageously Expensive Not the Nine O'Clock News – 31 March 1980
Episode 2 – 7 April 1980
Don't Get Your Vicars in a Twist – 14 April 1980
International Darts – 21 April 1980
Episode 5 – 28 April 1980
Episode 6 – 5 May 1980
Death Lasers of Kazaan – 12 May 1980
Series 3 (1980)
Not the Nine O'Clock in the Morning News – 27 October 1980
Election Special – 3 November 1980
Miss World 1980 – 10 November 1980
Nationwide – 17 November 1980
Episode 5 – 24 November 1980
Episode 6 – 1 December 1980
Episode 7 – 8 December 1980
Episode 8 – 15 December 1980
Series 4 (1982)
Episode 1 – 1 February 1982
Episode 2 – 8 February 1982
Hi Se Seo An Nuacht Ag A Naoi Chlog – 15 February 1982
Episode 4 – 22 February 1982
Made in Wales – 1 March 1982
Shame – 8 March 1982
Specials
Not the Least of Not the Nine O'Clock News (28 December 1979; Christmas Special)
The Best Of Not The Nine O'Clock News (9 September 1980)
25 Years Of Not The Nine O'Clock News (16 September 1980)
25 Years Of Not The Nine O'Clock News (23 September 1980; Material from Series 2)
Not The Nine O'Clock Christmas: Write Your Own (30 December 1980; Material from Series 3)
Not Another Not The Nine O'Clock News (9 October 1981)
An Eight Chance To See Not The Nine O'Clock News (16 October 1981)
The Last Of The Summer Repeats (23 October 1981; Material from Series 1, 2, and 3)
Not The Nine O'Clock News (7, 14 & 28 September 1983; Material from Series 4)
Not The Nine O'Clock News (October-December 1995; 8 Compilations)
The series has rarely been repeated; eight re-cut and condensed (to make it "faster and funnier than ever") "episodes" made for a video edition in 1995 are shown instead. This is primarily because the original episodes in their entirety lampooned events that were in the news at the time. The last repeat of the show was on Sunday 27 March 2016 at 2:55am on Gold.
Commercial releases
Video and DVD
Two highly edited VHS releases of the series, entitled The Gorilla Kinda Lingers and Nice Video, Shame about the Hedgehog, were released in 1995.
In August 2003, these videos were released on DVD under the title of The Best of Not the Nine O'Clock News: Volume One, with The Best of Not the Nine O'Clock News: Volume Two following a year later. Both of these are available in one set, unavailable separately, in Region 1.
Records
Three vinyl albums were released at the time the series was screening, entitled Not the Nine O'Clock News, Hedgehog Sandwich, and The Memory Kinda Lingers. These albums were very successful, with the first two both reaching the top ten of the UK albums chart, a rare feat for a spoken word album. Hedgehog Sandwich also peaked at number 89 in Australia.
The original version of The Memory Kinda Lingers is a double LP. The second disc is titled Not in Front of the Audience and is a live recording of the cast's stage production. Hedgehog Sandwich and the first disc of The Memory Kinda Lingers were later combined on a BBC double-length cassette and double-CD set.
"The Ayatollah Song" b/w "Gob on You" (as featured in the TV show) and "I Like Trucking" b/w "Supa Dupa" were also released as singles.
The 1980 single "Typing Pool" by 'Pam and the Paper Clips' (EMI 5015), is variously ascribed to Pamela Stephenson and NtNON. It was in fact written by Roger and Nigel Planer, who were among the show's many writers.
Books and miscellaneous
Three books were released to tie in with the series: Not! The Nine O'Clock News, a collection of classic material rewritten and restructured as a parody of the short-lived magazine Now!; Not the Royal Wedding (the royal wedding in question being the marriage of Charles and Diana); and Not the General Election, a tie-in with the 1983 general election. The first was reprinted in 1995 as Not for Sale. Not the Royal Wedding was promoted by a little-known radio spin-off, Not the Nuptials, transmitted on BBC Radio 1. The same station had also previously produced a behind-the-scenes documentary on Not the Nine O'Clock News as part of their magazine series Studio B15.
Two 'page-a-day' tear-off calendars, edited by John Lloyd and containing several contributions from Douglas Adams, were released in the early 1980s (Not 1982 and Not 1983). Also published around this time was a spoof Orwellian edition of The Times newspaper, Not the 1984 Times, which – although widely assumed to be – was not actually connected to the series.
See also
Not Necessarily the News''
Drop the Dead Donkey
References
External links
Comedy Guide
Complete episode guide sketch by sketch
Museum of Broadcast Communications: biographical information
1970s British television sketch shows
1980s British television sketch shows
1979 British television series debuts
1982 British television series endings
BBC television sketch shows
English-language television shows
British satirical television series
British black comedy television shows
News parodies
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Adler%20%28architect%29
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David Adler (architect)
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David Adler (January 3, 1882 – September 27, 1949) was an American architect who largely practiced around Chicago, Illinois. He was prolific throughout his career, designing over 200 buildings in over thirty-five years. He was also a long-time board member of the Art Institute of Chicago.
Biography
Early life
Adler was born on January 3, 1882 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin to a German Jewish family, the son of Isaac David Adler, a prosperous wholesale manufacturer of men's clothing, and Therese Hyman Adler. One of David Adler's sisters, Frances, became a prominent interior designer. (He also had an older brother, Murray, who died in 1883 of diphtheria.) Adler attended Milwaukee public schools until age 16, when he left Wisconsin to enroll in the Lawrenceville School in New Jersey. Adler enrolled at Princeton University in 1900, studying art, architectural history and Greek. At Princeton, Adler designed a remodel for the Charter Club, an upperclassmen's eating club.
The source of Adler's interest in architecture is uncertain. Adler began illustrating at Lawrenceville, drawing for school publications. He struggled at Princeton, but showed aptitude in his architecture class. After graduating in 1904, he traveled extensively, mostly to study the architecture of Europe. He studied for three semesters at Technische Universität München in Germany. From 1906 to 1911, Adler studied at the École des Beaux-Arts. An avid cyclist, Adler would travel to the countryside of France, Italy, and England to visit country houses and collect picture postcards.
Career
After returning to the United States in 1911, he began working as an architect for Howard Van Doren Shaw in Chicago, Illinois. Shaw was considered the foremost architect of country houses in the Chicago area. After six months of study, he opened a new office with a friend from Paris, Henry Dangler, in Orchestra Hall. Together, the pair secured commissions for country estates for William E. Clow, Jr., Ralph Poole, Benjamin Niels, Morris E. Berney, David B. Jones, and Charles B. Pike. However, Adler had never received an architectural license, failing the exam in 1917. Because of this, Dangler had to sign off on Adler's drawings because they legally had to be signed by a registered architect.
After Dangler died in 1917, Adler needed to partner with another architect with a structural background who could sign off on his projects. He began working with Robert Work. In 1918, Adler purchased an 1864 farmhouse in Libertyville, Illinois and extensively remodeled it to for his estate. Aspiring architect Paul Schweikher, who would go on to have a significant residential practice of his own, studied under Adler for a year starting in 1923. In 1928, with thirty commissions to his name and support from fellow architects, the state examining board presented Adler with an honorary license.
From this point forward, Adler operated his practice alone. The Roaring Twenties was Adler's most prosperous time, but he struggled during the subsequent Great Depression. An injury in 1935 during a fox hunt further slowed Adler. Also that year, Adler met with Jerrod Loebl and John A. Holabird, who were commissioned by the Armour Institute of Technology to find a new head of architecture for the school. Adler recommended Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who was eventually selected for the job. Over his career, Adler designed 45 country houses, 27 in the Chicago area.
A number of Adler's works are listed on the National Register of Historic Places:
Personal life
Adler married Katherine Keith, an Illinois socialite and writer, in 1916. In 1925, he was named a trustee of the Art Institute of Chicago, a position that he held for the rest of his life. He became a widower in 1930 after his wife was killed in a car accident in Europe. Adler was named a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects in 1941 and a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1945. Adler died of a heart attack in his sleep, aged 67, in Libertyville. He is buried in Graceland Cemetery in Chicago.
Adler's religious beliefs are uncertain, although he certainly attempted to appear Protestant. His parents were German Jews. However, at Technische Universität München, Adler identified his beliefs as Episcopalian; this may have been due to the discrimination facing Jews at the time. Adler married Katherine Keith in a Universalist church. Adler's father was cremated—a funeral rite that was not sanctioned by the Jewish religion—and interred at a non-denominational cemetery owned by the Episcopal Church. His mother was also buried in a non-denominational cemetery, indicating that his parents may have similarly downplayed their Jewish faith or converted entirely. Adler's clientele were mostly Presbyterian and probably would have not knowingly commissioned a non-WASP to design their houses.
Work
Adler's works include:
Dewey House (1913), Veterans Administration Medical Center North Chicago, IL, NRHP-listed
David Adler Estate (1916-18 remodel), 1700 N Milwaukee Ave. Libertyville, IL, NRHP-listed
Castle Hill (1928), E of Ipswich on Argilla Rd. Ipswich, MA, NRHP-listed
Lester Armour House (1931), Lake Bluff, IL, NRHP-listed. One of Adler's "purest" houses.
Mrs. Isaac D. Adler House (1931 remodel), 1480 N. Milwaukee Ave. Libertyville, IL, NRHP-listed
Waverly (1940 remodel), S of Middleburg on VA 626 Middleburg, VA, NRHP-listed
William McCormick Blair Estate, 982 Sheridan Rd. Lake Bluff, IL, NRHP-listed
Mrs. C. Morse Ely House, 111 Moffett Rd. Lake Bluff, IL, NRHP-listed
Field Estate, Field Rd. and Camino Real Sarasota, FL, NRHP-listed
One or more works in Green Bay Road Historic District, Roughly, area surrounding 10 S to 1596 N Green Bay Rd. and Ahwahnee Rd. Lake Forest, IL, NRHP-listed
Mrs. Kersey Coates Reed House, 1315 N. Lake Rd. Lake Forest, IL, NRHP-listed
William E. Clow, Jr. House, in Vine–Oakwood–Green Bay Road Historic District, Lake Forest, IL, NRHP-listed
References
External links
Information about David Adler on the website of the David Adler Music and Arts Center
A digitized version of the David Adler Cultural Center's archive of David Adler’s personal papers, hosted by Leiderbach & Graham Architects, LLP
1882 births
1949 deaths
20th-century American architects
American people of German-Jewish descent
Architects from Chicago
Burials at Graceland Cemetery (Chicago)
Jewish architects
Lawrenceville School alumni
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
People from Libertyville, Illinois
Architects from Milwaukee
Princeton University alumni
Alumni of the École des Beaux-Arts
Deltiologists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adler%20Planetarium
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Adler Planetarium
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The Adler Planetarium is a public museum dedicated to the study of astronomy and astrophysics. It was founded in 1930 by Chicago business leader Max Adler. It is located on the northeast tip of Northerly Island at the shore of Lake Michigan in Chicago, Illinois. The Adler was the first planetarium in the United States and is part of Chicago's Museum Campus, which includes the John G. Shedd Aquarium and The Field Museum. The Adler's mission is to inspire exploration and understanding of the universe.
The Adler Planetarium opened to the public on May 12, 1930. For its design, architect Ernest A. Grunsfeld Jr. was awarded the gold medal of the Chicago chapter of the American Institute of Architects in 1931. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987.
The Adler is home to three full size theaters, extensive space science exhibitions, the Gemini 12 space capsule, and a significant collection of antique scientific instruments and print materials. In addition, the Adler boasts the Doane Observatory, one of the only research-active, public urban observatories.
Outdoor sculptures at the planetarium include Man Enters the Cosmos by Henry Moore (1980), Spiral Galaxy by John David Mooney (1998), and America's Courtyard by Ary Perez and Denise Milan.
History
Establishment
In 1913, Oskar von Miller of the Deutsches Museum commissioned the Carl Zeiss Works to design a mechanism that projects an image of celestial bodies onto a dome. This was achieved by Walther Bauersfeld and the invention became known as a planetarium when it debuted in 1923. Its popularity quickly spread, and by 1929, there were fifteen in Germany, two in Italy, one in Russia, and one in Austria. Max Adler, a former executive with Sears, Roebuck & Co. in Chicago, Illinois, had recently retired to focus on philanthropic endeavors, primarily on behalf of the local musical and Jewish communities. However, after listening to a friend describe a Munich planetarium, Adler decided that a planetarium would fit in well within the emerging Museum Campus in Chicago. Adler visited the Munich planetarium with his cousin, architect Ernest Grunsfeld Jr., whom Adler would commission to design the Chicago structure. He also learned about a sale of astronomical instruments and antiques by W. M. Mensing in Amsterdam, which he purchased the following year. The Mensing Collection became the focus of the Astronomical Museum. Adler offered $500,000 in 1928 for the construction of the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere.
The planetarium was originally considered for part of the Museum of Science and Industry, an endeavor led by Adler's brother-in-law Julius Rosenwald. Rosenwald was determined to convert the former Palace of Fine Arts of the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition into a museum, but was struggling to manage the many required renovations. These delays caused Adler to look elsewhere for a location. The South Park Commissioners, the precursor to the Chicago Park District, had just completed Northerly Island, the first of five intended (but otherwise never executed) recreational islands that were to be consistent with Daniel Burnham's 1909 Plan of Chicago. The Adler Planetarium and Astronomical Museum opened on Adler's birthday, May 12, 1930. The Chicago chapter of the American Institute of Architects awarded Grunsfield a gold medal for his design. The planetarium hosted the 44th meeting of the American Astronomical Society later that year.
Timeline
1923 – Walther Bauersfeld, scientific director of the firm of Carl Zeiss in Jena, Germany, designs an optical projection device that effectively creates the illusion of a night sky. With this innovation, the modern planetarium is born.
1928 – Max Adler and architect Ernest Grunsfeld travel to Germany. Adler is so impressed by the modern planetarium that he donates funds to construct the first planetarium in the Western Hemisphere.
1930 – Max Adler purchases the collection of A.W. Mensing at an auction in Amsterdam. This impressive collection of antique scientific instruments provided the foundation for the Adler's collection. The Adler Planetarium opened to the public on Max Adler's birthday, May 12. Phillip Fox, Ph.D., a well-known professor of astronomy at Northwestern University, is appointed the Planetarium's first director.
1933 – The Century of Progress Exposition takes place on what is now the Museum Campus.
1941 – Philip Fox is deployed to the Army; Assistant Director Maude Bennot is appointed acting director of the Planetarium during his absence.
1952 – Max Adler passes away.
1967 – The board of trustees is created to share in the responsibilities and management of the Adler Planetarium with the commissioners of the Chicago Park District. The Adler refurbishes the building and replaces the original Zeiss projector with a new Mark VI Zeiss unit.
1973 – A new underground expansion opens to the public on May 12, 1973, the Adler's 43rd birthday.
1976 – The Board of Trustees assume full management responsibility of the Adler, but continue to receive support from the Chicago Park District.
1977 – The Doane Observatory opens.
1991 – The museum unveils the results of its $6.5 million renovation project. After 23 years of leadership, Dr. Joseph M. Chamberlain retires.
1999 – The 60,000 square foot Sky Pavilion, designed by Lohan Associates of Chicago, opens to the public. This new addition features four new exhibition galleries, including the historic Atwood Sphere and the Definiti (formerly StarRider) Theater.
2005 – Retired NASA Astronaut James A. Lovell Jr. serves as chairman of Adler's 75th anniversary celebration.
2007 – The Adler unveils its new Space Visualization Laboratory, bringing the latest images of space science to the public.
2010 – The Adler begins transformation of the historic Sky Theater. The renamed Grainger Sky Theater opened in May 2011. The Grainger becomes the most technologically advanced dome theater in the world. Thomas Roszak Architecture designed the Clark Family Welcome Gallery using an LED lit fabric and aluminum structure that included educational interactive material projected on the fabric walls.
2012 – Paul H. Knappenberger Jr. Ph.D., announces his retirement after 21 years of service.
2013 – The Board of Trustees elects astrophysicist and academic leader Michelle B. Larson, Ph.D., as president and CEO. Dr. Larson becomes the Adler's ninth leader and the first female president.
The view of the Chicago skyline from the planetarium is considered one of the best in the city.
Research
The Adler Planetarium's Astronomy department and Webster Institute for the History of Astronomy conduct and publish research for both the scientific community as well as the general public.
Adler astronomers possess rich and diverse expertise in many areas of astronomy as well as other closely related science fields. Their studies include planetary geology, star formation, gamma-rays, and telescope observing.
The Webster Institute for the History of Astronomy cares for, studies, and interprets the Adler's collections. Since the opening of the Adler, the collection has grown to approximately 8,000 objects, books, works on paper, archival collections, paintings, and photographs. The Adler boasts the largest and most significant collection of historic scientific instruments in the Western Hemisphere, as well as one of the most significant collections in the world.
At the Space Visualization Laboratory (SVL), scientists, technology experts, artists, and educators work together to create new ways for people to virtually explore the Universe. Since its inauguration in 2007, the SVL has brought cutting-edge research from scientists in the most prominent institutions around the country, as well as immersive and interactive technologies to the museum floor. In SVL visitors can experience new interactive and immersive visualizations, and attend presentations by astronomers and related researchers featuring these visualizations.
The Adler Citizen Science Department is also the U.S. headquarters of The Zooniverse, one of the world's leading citizen science platform and a global collaboration across several institutions that design and build citizen science projects. As of early 2014, the Zooniverse has engaged more than 1.1 million online volunteers as active scientists by discovering planets, mapping the surface of Mars, and detecting solar flares.
Far Horizons is the Adler's high-altitude balloon program. Participants design, build, and launch experiments flown to heights above on high-altitude balloons. The program offers real world opportunities for students and the community to participate in science, mathematics, physics, and engineering challenges.
Opened in 1977, the Doane Observatory is the largest aperture telescope available to the public in the Chicago area. With its diameter mirror, the Doane can gather over 5,000 times more light than an unaided human eye, allowing guests to see celestial objects like the Moon, planets, stars, and galaxies that are trillions of kilometers, if not many light years, away. The original telescope, a Cassegrain reflecting telescope built by the Adler optical and machine shop staff, was retired in 1987 and replaced with the current telescope.
In 2013, the Adler Planetarium announced undertook the first major renovation of the Doane Observatory. Completed in 2015, renovations included the addition of an indoor classroom, a restroom, HVAC systems, accessible entry ramps, and telescope and technology upgrades.
The Adler Planetarium is a member institution of the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope project.
Theaters
The largest of Adler's domed theaters, the Grainger Sky Theater, offers audiences unique shows using the most immersive, technologically enhanced theater experience ever developed for a planetarium. The dome itself measures across. In 2008, when funding for an advanced projection system (part of a major renovation completed in 2011) was being debated in Congress, politician John McCain infamously characterized the upgrade as a new "overhead projector".
The Adler's second domed theater, the Definiti Theater, takes audiences on a spectacular journey in any one of its featured shows using an all-digital projection system.
The Adler's newly redesigned Samuel C. Johnson Family Star Theater allows audiences the chance to see one "incomparable" show in dazzling, high definition 3D.
Programs
'Adler After Dark', the Adler Planetarium's 21+ evening event, was voted "Best After Hours Event" of 2013 by the Chicago Reader and "Best Date Night" by Chicago Parent. Guests at Adler After Dark have open museum access, themed programs, sky shows and views of the Chicago skyline. 'Astro Overnights' give families a chance to spend a night under the stars at the Adler. Guests have open museum access, a sky show and educational programming. The Astronomy Department at the Adler brings current topics in astronomy to guests through a quarterly lecture series.
The Adler hosts quarterly 'Hack Days', intended to encourage software developers, designers, scientists, engineers, artists and people who just like to create and build, to work together to solve problems. Participants at the Adler's summer camps build rockets, launch high-altitude balloons, and explore the edge of space. The Adler's hands-on summer camps are designed for children ages 5–14.
Image gallery
See also
List of museums and cultural institutions in Chicago
List of planetariums
Museum Campus
Spiral Galaxy (sculpture)
Notes
References
External links
3D Google Earth Model
Museums established in 1930
Museums in Chicago
Institutions accredited by the American Alliance of Museums
Planetaria in the United States
National Historic Landmarks in Chicago
Buildings and structures completed in 1930
Tourist attractions in Chicago
Smithsonian Institution affiliates
1930 establishments in Illinois
Buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Chicago
Museum Campus
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dankmar%20Adler
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Dankmar Adler
|
Dankmar Adler (July 3, 1844 – April 16, 1900) was a German-born American architect and civil engineer. He is best known for his fifteen-year partnership with Louis Sullivan, during which they designed influential skyscrapers that boldly addressed their steel skeleton through their exterior design: the Wainwright Building in St. Louis, Missouri (1891), the Chicago Stock Exchange Building (1894), and the Guaranty Building in Buffalo, New York (1896).
Early years
Adler was born in Stadtlengsfeld, Germany; his mother died when he was born. In 1854, he came to the United States with his father Liebman, a rabbi. They took up residence in Detroit, and Liebman became the rabbi of Congregation Beth-El. Subsequently, they moved to Chicago. Adler had some elementary-level education in the City of Detroit, and Ann Arbor, before leaving school to become a draftsman.
Career
Adler served in the Union Army during the Civil War with Battery "M", 1st Illinois Light Artillery Regiment. He was a private. He did engineering work in the Chattanooga and Atlanta Campaigns.
After the war, he worked as an architect in Chicago, working first with Augustus Bauer and next with Ozias S. Kinney. In 1871, Adler formed a partnership with Edward Burling that ultimately created more than 100 buildings.
Adler eventually started his own firm. He hired Louis Sullivan as a draughtsman and designer in 1880, and made him a partner three years later.
Adler's partnership with Sullivan was short-lived; due to a slump in their architectural practice brought on by the Panic of 1893, and Adler's desire to bring his two sons into the firm, there arose a rift with Sullivan, the result of which was that Adler left the partnership to join an elevator firm as engineer and salesman. After a short period, Adler returned to architecture, in partnership with his two sons, but never regaining the prominence he had with Sullivan.
Adler and Sullivan's Auditorium Building (1889) is an early example of splendid acoustical engineering, as is their Kehilath Anshe Ma'ariv Synagogue. Both drew upon the fine acoustics in Adler's earlier Central Music Hall. Adler was an acclaimed expert in acoustics, yet he was unable to explain fully the excellent acoustic properties of his buildings.
With his partner Burling and thereafter, as a partner in Adler and Sullivan, Adler was instrumental in rebuilding much of Chicago following the Great Chicago Fire. Adler is considered a leader in the Chicago school of architecture. In addition to their pioneering accomplishments with steel-framed buildings and skyscrapers, Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan were early employers and mentors of architect Frank Lloyd Wright, whose consistent praise for Adler ("the 'American Engineer' my 'Big Chief'") surpassed even that which he reserved for Sullivan, whom he called his "lieber meister".
The last major building Adler designed was Temple Isaiah.
Personal life
On June 25, 1872, Adler married Dila Kohn (July 5, 1850 – December 3, 1918). Their children include: Abraham K. Adler (September 13, 1873 – October 30, 1914), Sidney Adler (June 26, 1876 – November 25, 1925) and Sadie Adler (born 1878).
Adler died in Chicago, and is buried there at Mount Mayriv Cemetery.
Legacy
Photographs and other archival materials are held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago. The Dankmar Adler Collection of letters, papers, and photographs also includes an autobiography.
Architectural work (partial list)
The first group of buildings were created in partnership with Edward Burling:
Old Chicago Tribune Building, Dearborn & Clark
Delmonico's, Madison & Clark
Kingsbury Hall, Clark Street
Garrett Biblical Institute, Lake Street
Methodist Church Block, Clark Street
Samuel Cole Building, W. Lake Street – 1873
William Rowney Building – 1873
St James Episcopal Cathedral, E. Huron Street – 1875
Row Houses, 2225–2245 N. Burling Street – 1875
Sinai Temple, Indiana Avenue and 21st Street – 1875
Central Music Hall – 1879
Borden Block – 1879–80
Rothschild Store – 1881
Jewelers Building 1881–82
Revell Building – 1881–83
Third McVickers Theatre – 1883
Thirty-Ninth Street Passenger Station, ICR – 1883
Troescher Building – 1884
Springer Block and Kranz Buildings – 1885–87
Selz, Schwab & Company Factory – 1886–87
Wirt Dexter Building – 1887
Standard Club of Chicago – 1887–88
James H. Walker Warehouse – 1888
Auditorium Building – 1887–1889
Hebrew Manual Training School – 1889–90
Pueblo Opera House – 1890
E. W. Blatchford Warehouse – 1889
Kehilath Anshe Ma'ariv Synagogue (later Pilgrim Baptist Church) – 1890–91, interior destroyed by fire in 2006
Wainwright Building, St. Louis, Missouri – 1891
Schiller Building – 1891–92
James Charnley House – 1891–92
Albert Sullivan Residence – 1891–92
Transportation Building, World's Columbian Exposition – 1891–93
Guaranty Building, Buffalo, New York – 1894
References
External links
Dankmar Adler Collection 1844-1941: Ryerson & Burnham Libraries
Dankmar Adler papers, 1865-1900 from the Smithsonian Archives of American Art
Dankmar Adler Papers, 1857-1984 at The Newberry Library
1844 births
1900 deaths
People from Stadtlengsfeld
19th-century German Jews
Chicago school architects
Jewish architects
Western Association of Architects
German emigrants to the United States
Synagogue architecture
Artists from Chicago
19th-century American architects
Union Army soldiers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workington
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Workington
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Workington is a coastal town and civil parish at the mouth of the River Derwent on the west coast in the Allerdale borough of Cumbria, England. The town was historically in Cumberland. At the 2011 census it had a population of 25,207.
Location
The town is south-west of Carlisle, north-east of Whitehaven, west of Cockermouth, and south-west of Maryport.
History
The area around Workington was long a producer of coal and steel.
Between 79 and 122 CE, Roman forts, mile-forts and watchtowers were built along the Cumbrian coast, as defences against attacks by the Scoti of Ireland and the Caledonii, the most powerful tribe in what is now Scotland. The 16th-century Britannia, written by William Camden, describes ruins of these defences.
A Viking sword was discovered at Northside. This is seen to suggest there was a settlement at the river mouth.
The place-name Workington is first attested in an Anglo-Saxon charter of 946, as Wurcingtun. It appears as Wirchingetona in about 1150, meaning "the town or settlement of Weorc or Wirc's people".
Several bridges were damaged or destroyed by the River Derwent during the 2009 Workington floods.
Regeneration
In 2006, Washington Square, a £50 million shopping centre and mixed-use complex, was opened to replace the run-down St John's Arcade, built in the 1960s and 1970s. In 2007, the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors named Washington Square the "best commercial project" in North West England.
Works of public art installed in the town centre include:
Glass canopies designed by Alexander Beleschenko
The Coastline by Simon Hitchens
The Hub by BASE Structures and Illustrious
The Grilles architectural metalwork at Central Car Park by Tom Lomax in association with pupils from St Patrick's Primary School and Alan Dawson.
Central Way public toilets with tiles designed in collaboration by ceramic artist Paul Scott and writer Robert Drake, in addition to a fish tank containing species from the Solway provided by the Lake District Coast Aquarium in Maryport by Paul Scott and Robert Drake
Lookout Clock, an interactive town clock designed by Andy Plant and Matt Wand
While efforts have been made to find local names for the major streets of the new shopping centre, the initial planning title of Washington Square has been retained.
Workington Stadium plans
In February 2019 plans for a new stadium for Workington were announced. This would in involve the demolition of Borough Park and Derwent Park.
In June 2019, it was announced by the new leadership of Allerdale Borough Council that a new sports stadium would not be built.
Cloffocks development
A plan to build a Tesco Extra store on the Cloffocks provoked controversy and opposition from local people; a planning application was placed in 2006 by Tesco, after it acquired the Cloffocks site for £18 million; Tesco had been competing with Asda for the site since 2003. Campaigners opposed the sale, stating that the land was common ground and belonged to the people of Workington. In 2010 the Countess of Lonsdale invoked her rights to mine the land, in an attempt to prevent the development. In 2011 a closed meeting of Allerdale councillors discussed the sale of the site, but the council rescinded on its decision to sell it to Tesco in June 2011. Tesco stated that it was still seeking a site for a store of around Workington to replace the established one.
Closure of MEP's European Parliament office
In 2014, North West MEP Julie Ward closed her Workington office and relocated it to Manchester.
Workington Man
During the 2019 General Election, the concept of "Workington Man" was devised by a think tank as a key election target.
In November 2019, Nigel Farage visited Workington to campaign on behalf of the Brexit Party.
Governance
The town is part of the parliamentary constituency of Workington. Historically it has been a Labour-supporting area, but in the 2019 general election, the Conservative Party candidate for Workington, Mark Jenkinson, was elected as the Member of Parliament (MP), overturning a 9.4 per cent Labour majority from the 2017 election to eject Shadow Environment Secretary Sue Hayman by a margin of 4,136 votes. Until the December 2019 general election, the Labour Party had won the seat in every general election since 1979. Workington had elected a Conservative MP only once since World War II, at the 1976 by-election.
Before Brexit, Workington was in the North West England European Parliamentary Constituency.
For local government purposes, Workington is covered by the Seaton + Northside, St Michaels, Moorclose + Moss Bay, Harrington + Salterbeck, and St Johns wards on Allerdale Borough Council. The divisions for Cumbria County Council are Seaton, St Michaels, St Johns + Great Clifton,
Moorclose + Moss Bay, and Harrington.
Workington has a parish council: Workington Town Council. The current mayor (2021–2022) is Herbert Briggs.
Geography
Workington lies astride the River Derwent, on the West Cumbrian coastal plain. It is bounded to the west by the Solway Firth, part of the Irish Sea, and to the east by the Lake District.
The town has various districts, many of them established as housing estates. North of the river these include Seaton, Barepot, Northside, Port and Oldside. On the south side are the districts of Stainburn, Derwent Howe, Ashfield, Banklands, Frostoms (Annie Pit), Mossbay, Moorclose, Salterbeck, Bridgefoot, Lillyhall, Harrington, High Harrington, Clay Flatts, Kerry Park, Westfield and Great Clifton. The Marsh and Quay, a large working-class area of the town around the docks and a major part of the town's history, was demolished in the early 1980s. Much of its former area is now covered by Clay Flatts Industrial Estate.
Economy
Iron and steel
The Cumbria iron-ore field lies to the south of Workington, and produced extremely high grade phosphorus-free haematite. The area had a long tradition of iron smelting, but this became particularly important with the invention by Sir Henry Bessemer of the Bessemer process, the first process for mass production of mild steel, which previously had been an expensive specialist product. For the first 25 years of the process, until Gilchrist and Thomas improved upon it, phosphorus-free haematite was required. With Cumbria as the world's premier source, and the local coalfield providing energy for steel production, the world's first large-scale steelworks was opened in the Moss Bay area of the town. The Bessemer converter continued to work until July 1974. The Moss Bay Steelworks closed in 1982, despite receiving notable infrastructural investment and improvement almost immediately before the closure.
During the Second World War, a strategically important electric steel furnace which produced steel for aircraft engine ball bearings was moved to Workington from Norway to prevent it falling into Axis hands.
Workington was the home of Distington Engineering Company (DEC), the engineering arm of British Steel Corporation (BSC), which specialised in the design of continuous casting equipment. DEC, known to the local people as "Chapel Bank", had an engineering design office, engineering workshops and a foundry that at one time contained six of the seven electric arc furnaces built in Workington. The seventh was situated at the Moss Bay plant of BSC. In the 1970s, as BSC adapted to a more streamlined approach to the metals industry, the engineering design company was separated from the workshops and foundry and re-designated as Distington Engineering Contracting. Employing some 200 people, its primary purpose was the design, manufacture, installation and commissioning of continuous casting machines. This business is now owned by the TATA Group and employs 400 staff.
One offshoot of the steel industry was the production of railway rails. Workington rails were widely exported and a common local phrase was that Workington rails "held the world together." Originally made from Bessemer steel, but after the closure of the Moss Bay Steelworks, steel for the plant was brought by rail from Teesside. The plant was closed in August 2006, but welding work on rails produced at Corus Groups' French plant in Hayange continued at Workington for another two years, as the Scunthorpe site initially proved incapable of producing rails adequately.
After coal and steel
After the loss of the two industries on which Workington was built, coal and steel, Workington and the whole of West Cumbria became an unemployment blackspot. Industries in the town today include chemicals, cardboard, the docks (originally built by the United Steel Co.), waste management and recycling old computers for export, mainly to poorer countries. The town also houses the British Cattle Movement Service, a government agency set up to oversee the British beef and dairy industry after the BSE crisis in Britain. It is based in the former steelworks offices. Many Workington residents are employed outside the town in the nuclear industry located in and around Sellafield, West Cumbria's dominant employment sector.
Vehicle manufacture
British Leyland opened a factory in Lillyhall, just outside Workington, initially to build the Leyland National bus in the 1970s and 1980s. Produced primarily for the state-owned National Bus Company, the Leyland National was styled by Italian designer Giovanni Michelotti, and included an roof-mounted heating unit in a pod at the rear of the bus. The Lillyhall factory later built the Leyland Titan, Leyland Olympian and Leyland Lynx buses.
In the 1980s, Leyland manufactured Pacer railbus and Sprinter-type commuter trains at Workington. The bodyshells of the Pacer trains were based on the Leyland National bus design, designed as a cheap stop-gap by British Rail.
Volvo Buses acquired Leyland Buses in 1988. By 1993, the factory had closed with the loss of 200 jobs. The former bus plant is now a warehouse for the logistics company Eddie Stobart, which bought the property in 1995.
Transport
Workington is linked by the A596 road to Maryport, to Whitehaven via A595 road, by the A66 road to Penrith and continues to Scotch Corner in County Durham. The town has its own bus station and bus services to other towns and villages in Cumbria, such as Cockermouth, Keswick, Penrith, Carlisle, Wigton, Maryport, Whitehaven, Frizington, Egremont and Thornhill.
The Cumbrian Coast line provides rail connections from Workington railway station to and , with occasional through trains to Lancaster and Preston.
Workington North railway station opened on 30 November 2009 as a temporary means of crossing the river after road bridges had been closed by flooding. A free train service between Workington (Main) and Maryport was funded by the government.
The Workington Transport Heritage Trust, preserves the transport heritage of Workington and the surrounding area and is run by volunteers.
Workington was the headquarters of the haulage company J. Roper (Workington) Ltd, which was based in Moss Bay.
Arts and entertainment
Workington is home to three theatres: the Carnegie Theatre, Theatre Royal and Workington Opera House. In the past Workington was a big town for variety acts and theatre and hosted many top acts including Tommy Cooper and Shirley Bassey. Workington Opera House also hosted many circus shows that included elephants and other circus animals performing on stage.
The Carnegie Theatre and Theatre Royal are still open and put on performances all year round. The Workington Opera House is currently closed after its last use as a bingo hall. The "Opera Action" group plans to restore it as a working theatre.
The town once had four cinemas (the Carnegie, the Hippodrome, the Oxford and the Ritz), all now closed. There remains only the Plaza Cinema at Dunmail Park. During the 1950s, films were also shown at the Opera House.
Cultural festivals
On 19 September 2009, Valentine Rock took place; a 19-band charity music festival. It was staged at the Ernest Valentine Ground home of Workington Cricket Club. Artists included The Chairmen, Novellos, With Lights Out, Volcanoes, Breed, Colt 45, Relics, Telf, Thir13een, Slagbank, Hangin' Threads and Hand of Fate. Profits went to the RNLI and West Cumberland Lions.
In 2008, the Paint Your Town Red Festival invited Liverpool comic and actor Ricky Tomlinson. Described as 'The biggest free festival in Workington's history', the 2008 festival included a free children's fun fair in Vulcan Park and stage and street entertainment. Attractions included "Jimmy James and his Soul Explosion", "Dearham Band" and the all-female band "Irresistible". Keswick's "Cars of the Stars" museum provided a stunt driving display.
Sport
Uppies and Downies
Workington is home to the ball game known as Uppies and Downies, a traditional version of football with medieval origins in mob football or an even earlier form. Since 2001, matches have raised over £75,000 for local charities. An Uppies and Downies ball is made from four pieces of cow leather. It is in circumference and weighs about . Only three hand-made balls are produced every year and each is dated.
Football
The town has a football team, Workington A.F.C., with its stadium at Borough Park. Formerly a professional football team it now competes as a non-League club. Dronnies formed the nucleus of the original Workington F.C. in 1888. It was one of the first teams managed by Bill Shankly.
Workington A.F.C. was replaced in the Football League by Wimbledon F.C. in 1977.
Rugby League
The town has a semi-professional rugby league team, Workington Town, based at Derwent Park stadium.
Rugby Union
Workington is the home to the rugby union team Workington Zebras, which plays its matches on the Ellis Sports Ground.
Bowling
There are two bowling greens, one in Vulcan Park and another on High Cloffocks, south of the River Derwent. Teams and individuals from both greens compete in local, regional and national competitions.
Golf
Workington's first golf club appeared in 1893 and played north of the River Derwent near Siddick. Known as West Cumberland Golf Club, it used a nine-hole course until the First World War, when it closed. After the war the club formed again as Workington Golf Club and moved to the present Hunday Wood location. Five-times Open Champion and renowned course architect James Braid was consulted on the layout. Considered "one of the premier courses in Cumbria", it was influenced in the 1950s by F. G. Hawtree and by Howard Swan today.
Speedway
Workington Comets are the town's professional speedway team, which competes in the British Speedway Premier League.
Before World War II racing was staged at Lonsdale Park, next to Borough Park, on the banks of the River Derwent. The sport did not return to the town until 1970, when it was introduced to Derwent Park by local entrepreneur Paul Sharp and Ian Thomas, who is the present team manager (2009). In 1987, Derwent Park was a temporary home to the Glasgow Tigers, which briefly became the Workington Tigers before withdrawing from the league. Speedway returned to Workington, and the team has operated with varying degrees of success, but in 2008 it won the Young Shield and the Premier League Four-Team and Pairs Championships. An Academy team under the banner of Northside Stars, develops young riders who show potential at the Northside training track and may make future first teams.
Cricket
Workington Cricket Club plays at the Ernest Valentine Ground, on the High Cloffock near the River Derwent and the town centre. It is a thriving club with three senior teams and a growing junior section putting out six teams. It is affiliated to Cumbria Cricket League, Cumbria Cricket Board, Cumbria Junior Cricket League and the West Allerdale & Copeland Cricket Association.
Cumbria Cricket Board Open Courses are led by coaches at the town's Stainburn School. These are open to Years 4–10 pupils.
Angling
Workington and District Sea Angling Club takes part in regular monthly matches. It meets every month in the Union Jack Club, Senhouse Street, Workington. It also arranges tuition for its anglers.
Freshwater anglers are active on local rivers, especially the River Derwent.
Athletics
Workington has opportunities for track and field, triathlon, road running, cross-country, fell running and orienteering. All of its schools and clubs are affiliated to the Cumbria Athletics Association, except orienteering which is organised through its own national federation. Athletes tend to join clubs which concentrate on their particular discipline. Cumberland Fell Runners; Cumberland Athletics Club; Derwent and West Cumberland AC; Seaton Athletics Club; Workington Zebras AC and West Cumberland Orienteering Club are the most popular at present.
Primary schools have a well organised inter-school programme. Secondary schools focus especially on the Allerdale District School's Championships, which lead on to the Cumbria Schools Championships. The results of Cumbria's championships guide selection of the county teams to compete in the English Schools Athletic Association Championships. Over the years, Workington athletes have earned English Schools Championship honours.
Motorbike road riding
There is a Cumbria Coalition of Motorcycle Clubs. The West Cumbrian motorcycle club, the Roadburners, was established in 1989 and regularly features at local and national motorbike rallies and charity road runs. It welcomes new members interested in multi-cylinder machines. The National Chopper Club also has some local members.
Notable people
Twin towns
Selm, Germany
Val-de-Reuil, France
See also
Listed buildings in Workington
The Stars Look Down, film partly filmed at St Helens Siddick Colliery at Workington.
Workington Academy
Derwent Park
Borough Park (Workington)
References
External links
Allerdale Borough Council
Workington Tourism Guide
Workington
Towns in Cumbria
Ports and harbours of Cumbria
Populated coastal places in Cumbria
Civil parishes in Cumbria
Allerdale
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filoviridae
|
Filoviridae
|
Filoviridae () is a family of single-stranded negative-sense RNA viruses in the order Mononegavirales. Two members of the family that are commonly known are Ebola virus and Marburg virus. Both viruses, and some of their lesser known relatives, cause severe disease in humans and nonhuman primates in the form of viral hemorrhagic fevers.
All filoviruses are classified by the US as select agents, by the World Health Organization as Risk Group 4 Pathogens (requiring Biosafety Level 4-equivalent containment), by the National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases as Category A Priority Pathogens, and by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as Category A Bioterrorism Agents, and are listed as Biological Agents for Export Control by the Australia Group.
Use of term
The family Filoviridae is a virological taxon that was defined in 1982 and emended in 1991, 1998, 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2011. The family currently includes the six virus genera Cuevavirus, Dianlovirus, Ebolavirus, Marburgvirus, Striavirus, and Thamnovirus and is included in the order Mononegavirales. The members of the family (i.e. the actual physical entities) are called filoviruses or filovirids. The name Filoviridae is derived from the Latin noun filum (alluding to the filamentous morphology of filovirions) and the taxonomic suffix -viridae (which denotes a virus family).
Note
According to the rules for taxon naming established by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), the name Filoviridae is always to be capitalized, italicized, never abbreviated, and to be preceded by the word "family". The names of its members (filoviruses or filovirids) are to be written in lower case, are not italicized, and used without articles.
Life cycle
The filovirus life cycle begins with virion attachment to specific cell-surface receptors, followed by fusion of the virion envelope with cellular membranes and the concomitant release of the virus nucleocapsid into the cytosol. The viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp, or RNA replicase) partially uncoats the nucleocapsid and transcribes the genes into positive-stranded mRNAs, which are then translated into structural and nonstructural proteins. Filovirus RdRps bind to a single promoter located at the 3' end of the genome. Transcription either terminates after a gene or continues to the next gene downstream. This means that genes close to the 3' end of the genome are transcribed in the greatest abundance, whereas those toward the 5' end are least likely to be transcribed. The gene order is therefore a simple but effective form of transcriptional regulation. The most abundant protein produced is the nucleoprotein, whose concentration in the cell determines when the RdRp switches from gene transcription to genome replication. Replication results in full-length, positive-stranded antigenomes that are in turn transcribed into negative-stranded virus progeny genome copies. Newly synthesized structural proteins and genomes self-assemble and accumulate near the inside of the cell membrane. Virions bud off from the cell, gaining their envelopes from the cellular membrane they bud from. The mature progeny particles then infect other cells to repeat the cycle.
Family inclusion criteria
A virus that fulfills the criteria for being a member of the order Mononegavirales is a member of the family Filoviridae if:
it causes viral hemorrhagic fever in certain primates
it infects primates, pigs or bats in nature
it needs to be adapted through serial passage to cause disease in rodents
it exclusively replicates in the cytoplasm of a host cell
it has a genome ≈19 kbp in length
it has an RNA genome that constitutes ≈1.1% of the virion mass
its genome has a molecular weight of ≈4.2
its genome contains one or more gene overlaps
its genome contains seven genes in the order 3'-UTR-NP-VP35-VP40-GP-VP30-VP24-L-5'-UTR
its VP24 gene is not homologous to genes of other mononegaviruses
its genome contains transcription initiation and termination signals not found in genomes of other mononegaviruses
it forms nucleocapsids with a buoyant density in CsCl of ≈1.32 g/cm3
it forms nucleocapsids with a central axial channel (≈10–15 nm in width) surrounded by a dark layer (≈20 nm in width) and an outer helical layer (≈50 nm in width) with a cross striation (periodicity of ≈5 nm)
it expresses a class I fusion glycoprotein that is highly N- and O-glycosylated and acylated at its cytoplasmic tail
it expresses a primary matrix protein that is not glycosylated
it forms virions that bud from the plasma membrane
it forms virions that are predominantly filamentous (U- and 6-shaped) and that are ≈80 nm in width, and several hundred nm and up to 14 μm in length
it forms virions that have surface projections ≈7 nm in length spaced ≈10 nm apart from each other
it forms virions with a molecular mass of ≈3.82; an S20W of at least 1.40; and a buoyant density in potassium tartrate of ≈1.14 g/cm3
it forms virions that are poorly neutralized in vivo
Family organization
Phylogenetics
The mutation rates in these genomes have been estimated to be between 0.46 × 10−4 and 8.21 × 10−4 nucleotide substitutions/site/year. The most recent common ancestor of sequenced filovirus variants was estimated to be 1971 (1960–1976) for Ebola virus, 1970 (1948–1987) for Reston virus, and 1969 (1956–1976) for Sudan virus, with the most recent common ancestor among the four species included in the analysis (Ebola virus, Tai Forest virus, Sudan virus, and Reston virus) estimated at 1000–2100 years. The most recent common ancestor of the Marburg and Sudan species appears to have evolved 700 and 850 years before present respectively. Although mutational clocks placed the divergence time of extant filoviruses at ~10,000 years before the present, dating of orthologous endogenous elements (paleoviruses) in the genomes of hamsters and voles indicated that the extant genera of filovirids had a common ancestor at least as old as the Miocene (~16–23 million or so years ago).
Paleovirology
Filoviruses have a history that dates back several tens of million of years. Endogenous viral elements (EVEs) that appear to be derived from filovirus-like viruses have been identified in the genomes of bats, rodents, shrews, tenrecs, tarsiers, and marsupials. Although most filovirus-like EVEs appear to be pseudogenes, evolutionary analyses suggest that orthologs isolated from several species of the bat genus Myotis have been maintained by selection.
Vaccines
There are presently very limited vaccines for known filovirus. An effective vaccine against EBOV, developed in Canada, was approved for use in 2019 in the US and Europe. Similarly, efforts to develop a vaccine against Marburg virus are under way.
Mutation concerns and pandemic potential
There has been a pressing concern that a very slight genetic mutation to a filovirus such as EBOV could result in a change in transmission system from direct body fluid transmission to airborne transmission, as was seen in Reston virus (another member of genus Ebolavirus) between infected macaques. A similar change in the current circulating strains of EBOV could greatly increase the infection and disease rates caused by EBOV. However, there is no record of any Ebola strain ever having made this transition in humans.
The Department of Homeland Security’s National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center considers the risk of a mutated Ebola virus strain with aerosol transmission capability emerging in the future as a serious threat to national security and has collaborated with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to design methods to detect EBOV aerosols.
References
Further reading
External links
ICTV Report: Filoviridae
Theoretical Evidence That The Ebola Virus Zaire Strain May Be Selenium-Dependent: A Factor In Pathogenesis And Viral Outbreaks? Taylor 1995
Can Selenite Be An Ultimate Inhibitor Of Ebola And Other Viral Infections? Lipinski 2015
Many In West Africa May Be Immune To Ebola Virus New York Times
Primate diseases
Animal viral diseases
Biological weapons
Hemorrhagic fevers
Tropical diseases
Zoonoses
Virus families
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA%20Today
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USA Today
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USA Today (stylized in all uppercase) is an American daily middle-market newspaper and news broadcasting company. Founded by Al Neuharth on September 15, 1982, USA Today operates from Gannett's corporate headquarters in Tysons, Virginia. Its newspaper is printed at 37 sites across the United States and at five additional sites internationally. Its dynamic design influenced the style of local, regional, and national newspapers worldwide through its use of concise reports, colorized images, informational graphics, and inclusion of popular culture stories, among other distinct features.
With a weekly print circulation of 726,906, a digital-only subscriber base of 504,000, and an approximate daily readership of 2.6 million, USA Today is ranked first by circulation on the list of newspapers in the United States. It has been shown to maintain a generally centrist audience, in regards to political persuasion. USA Today is distributed in all 50 states, Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico, and an international edition is distributed in Asia, Canada, Europe, and the Pacific Islands.
History
The genesis of USA Today was on February 29, 1980, when a company task force known as "Project NN" met with Gannett chairman Al Neuharth in Cocoa Beach, Florida, to develop a national newspaper. Early regional prototypes included East Bay Today, an Oakland, California-based publication published in the late 1970s to serve as the morning edition of the Oakland Tribune, an afternoon newspaper which Gannett owned at the time. On June 11, 1981, Gannett printed the first prototypes of the proposed publication. The two proposed design layouts were mailed to newsmakers and prominent leaders in journalism, for review and feedback. Gannett's board of directors approved the launch of the national newspaper, titled USA Today, on December 5, 1981. At launch, Neuharth was appointed president and publisher of the newspaper, adding those responsibilities to his existing position as Gannett's chief executive officer.
Gannett announced the launch of the paper on April 20, 1982. USA Today began publishing on September 15, 1982, initially in the Baltimore and Washington, D.C. metropolitan areas for a newsstand price of 25¢ (equivalent to ¢ in 2020). After selling out the first issue, Gannett gradually expanded the national distribution of the paper, reaching an estimated circulation of 362,879 copies by the end of 1982, double the amount of sales that Gannett projected.
The design uniquely incorporated color graphics and photographs. Initially, only its front news section pages were rendered in four-color, while the remaining pages were printed in a spot color format. The paper's overall style and elevated use of graphics – developed by Neuharth, in collaboration with staff graphics designers George Rorick, Sam Ward, Suzy Parker, John Sherlock and Web Bryant – was derided by critics, who referred to it as a "McPaper" or "television you can wrap fish in", because it opted to incorporate concise nuggets of information more akin to the style of television news, rather than in-depth stories like traditional newspapers, which many in the newspaper industry considered to be a dumbing down of content. Although USA Today had been profitable for just ten years as of 1997, it changed the appearance and feel of newspapers around the world.
On July 2, 1984, the newspaper switched from predominantly black-and-white to full-color photography and graphics in all four sections. The following week, on July 10, USA Today launched an international edition intended for U.S. readers abroad, followed four months later on October 8 with the rollout of the first transmission via satellite of its international version to Singapore. On April 8, 1985, the paper published its first special bonus section, a 12-page section called "Baseball '85", which previewed the 1985 Major League Baseball season.
By the fourth quarter of 1985, USA Today had become the second-largest newspaper in the United States, reaching a daily circulation of 1.4 million copies. Total daily readership of the paper by 1987 (according to Simmons Market Research Bureau statistics) had reached 5.5 million, the largest of any daily newspaper in the U.S. On May 6, 1986, USA Today began production of its international edition in Switzerland. USA Today operated at a loss for most of its first four years of operation, accumulating a total deficit of $233 million after taxes, according to figures released by Gannett in July 1987; the newspaper began turning its first profit in May 1987, six months ahead of Gannett corporate revenue projections.
On January 29, 1988, USA Today published the largest edition in its history, a 78-page weekend edition featuring a section previewing Super Bowl XXII; the edition included 44.38 pages of advertising and sold 2,114,055 copies, setting a single-day record for an American newspaper (and surpassed seven months later on September 2, when its Labor Day weekend edition sold 2,257,734 copies). On April 15, USA Today launched a third international printing site, based in Hong Kong. The international edition set circulation and advertising records during August 1988, with coverage of the 1988 Summer Olympics, selling more than 60,000 copies and 100 pages of advertising.
By July 1991, Simmons Market Research Bureau estimated that USA Today had a total daily readership of nearly 6.6 million, an all-time high and the largest readership of any daily newspaper in the United States. On September 1, 1991, USA Today launched a fourth printsite for its international edition in London for the United Kingdom and the British Isles. The international edition's schedule was changed as of April 1, 1994, to Monday through Friday, rather than from Tuesday through Saturday, in order to accommodate business travelers; on February 1, 1995, USA Today opened its first editorial bureau outside the United States at its Hong Kong publishing facility; additional editorial bureaus were launched in London and Moscow in 1996.
On April 17, 1995, USA Today launched its website, www.usatoday.com to provide real-time news coverage; in June 2002 the site expanded to include USATODAY.com Travel, providing travel information and booking tools. On August 28, 1995, a fifth international publishing site was launched in Frankfurt, Germany, to print and distribute the international edition throughout most of Europe.
On October 4, 1999, USA Today began running advertisements on its front page for the first time. In 2017, some pages of USA Today's website features Auto-Play functionality for video or audio-aided stories.
On February 8, 2000, Gannett launched USA Today Live, a broadcast and Internet initiative designed to provide coverage from the newspaper to broadcast television stations nationwide for use in their local newscasts and their websites; the venture also provided integration with the USA Today website, which transitioned from a text-based format to feature audio and video clips of news content.
The paper launched a sixth printing site for its international edition on May 15, 2000, in Milan, Italy, followed on July 10 by the launch of an international printing facility in Charleroi, Belgium.
In 2001, two interactive units were launched: on June 19, USA Today and Gannett Newspapers launched the USA Today Careers Network (now Careers.com), a website featuring localized employment listings, then on July 18, the USA Today News Center was launched as an interactive television news service developed through a joint venture with the On Command Corporation that was distributed to hotels around the United States. On September 12 of that year, the newspaper set an all-time single day circulation record, selling 3,638,600 copies for its edition covering the September 11 attacks. That November, USA Today migrated its operations from Gannett's previous corporate headquarters in Arlington, Virginia, to the company's new headquarters in nearby McLean.
On December 12, 2005, Gannett announced that it would combine the separate newsroom operations of the online and print entities of USA Today, with USAToday.com's vice president and editor-in-chief Kinsey Wilson promoted to co-executive editor, alongside existing executive editor John Hillkirk.
In December 2010, USA Today launched the USA Today API for sharing data with partners of all types.
Newsroom restructuring and 2011 graphical tweaks
On August 27, 2010, USA Today announced that it would undergo a reorganization of its newsroom, announcing the layoffs of 130 staffers. It also announced that the paper would shift its focus away from print and place more emphasis on its digital platforms (including USAToday.com and its related mobile applications) and launch of a new publication called USA Today Sports.
On January 24, 2011, to reverse a revenue slide, the paper introduced a tweaked format that modified the appearance of its front section pages, which included a larger logo at the top of each page; coloring tweaks to section front pages; a new sans-serif font, called Prelo, for certain headlines of main stories (replacing the Gulliver typeface that had been implemented for story headers in April 2000); an updated "Newsline" feature featuring larger, "newsier" headline entry points; and the increasing and decreasing of mastheads and white space to present a cleaner style.
2012 redesign
On September 14, 2012, USA Today underwent the first major redesign in its history, in commemoration for the 30th anniversary of the paper's first edition. Developed in conjunction with brand design firm Wolff Olins, the print edition of USA Today added a page covering technology stories and expanded travel coverage within the Life section and increased the number of color pages included in each edition, while retaining longtime elements. The "globe" logo used since the paper's inception was replaced with a new logo featuring a large circle rendered in colors corresponding to each of the sections, serving as an infographic that changes with news stories, containing images representing that day's top stories.
The paper's website was also extensively overhauled using a new, in-house content management system known as Presto and a design created by Fantasy Interactive, that incorporates flipboard-style navigation to switch between individual stories (which obscure most of the main and section pages), clickable video advertising and a responsive design layout. The site was designed and developed to be more interactive, faster, provide "high impact" advertising units (known as Gravity), and provide the ability for Gannett to syndicate USA Today content to the websites of its local properties, and vice versa. To accomplish this goal, Gannett Digital migrated its newspaper and television station websites to the Presto platform. Developers built a separate platform to provide optimizations for mobile and touchscreen devices. The Gravity ad won Digiday's Best Publishing Innovation in Advertising in 2016, thanks to an 80% full-watch user engagement rate on desktop, and 96% on mobile.
Following the relaunch, the editorial team behind USA Today Investigations ramped up its "longread" article plans, following the success of the series Ghost Factories. With differing platform requirements, USA Today's mobile website did not offer any specialized support for these multi-chapter stories. Nearing the end of 2012, more than one-third of USA Todays readership was browsing only using their mobile phones, and the majority of these users were accessing the mobile website (as opposed to the iOS and Android applications) with the newer, less-obtrusive advertising strategy. Gannet Digital designed, developed, and released the longread mobile experience to coincide with the launch of Brad Heath's series Locked Up, which won the Investigative Reporters and Editors Tom Renner Award in October 2013.
Gannett Digital's focus on its mobile content experience paid off in 2012 with multiple awards; including the Eppy for Best Mobile Application, the Mobile Excellence award for Best User Experience, the MOBI award for Editorial Content, and Mobile Publisher of the Year.
The USA Today site design was launched on desktop, mobile and TV throughout 2013 and 2014, although archive content accessible through search engines remains available through the pre-relaunch design.
Mid-2010s expansion and restructuring
On October 6, 2013, Gannett test launched a condensed daily edition of USA Today (part of what was internally known within Gannett as the "Butterfly" initiative) for distribution as an insert in four of its newspapers – The Indianapolis Star, the Rochester Democrat & Chronicle, the Fort Myers-based The News-Press and the Appleton, Wisconsin-based The Post-Crescent. The launch of the syndicated insert caused USA Today to restructure its operations to allow seven-day-a-week production to accommodate the packaging of its national and international news content and enterprise stories (comprising about 10 pages for the weekday and Saturday editions, and up to 22 pages for the Sunday edition) into the pilot insert. Gannett later announced on December 11, that it would formally launch the condensed daily edition of USA Today in 31 additional local newspapers nationwide through April 2014 (with the Palm Springs, California-based The Desert Sun and the Lafayette, Louisiana-based Advertiser being the first newspapers outside of the pilot program participants to add the supplement on December 15), citing "positive feedback" to the feature from readers and advertisers of the initial four papers. Gannett was given permission from the Alliance for Audited Media to count the circulation figures from the syndicated local insert with the total circulation count for the flagship national edition of USA Today.
On January 4, 2014, USA Today acquired the consumer product review website Reviewed. In the first quarter of 2014, Gannett launched a condensed USA Today insert into 31 other newspapers in its network, thereby increasing the number of inserts to 35, in an effort to shore up circulation after it regained its position as the highest-circulated week daily newspaper in the United States in October 2013. On September 3, 2014, USA Today announced that it would lay off roughly 70 employees in a restructuring of its newsroom and business operations. In October 2014, USA Today and OpenWager Inc. entered into a partnership to release a Bingo mobile app called USA TODAY Bingo Cruise.
On December 3, 2015, Gannett formally launched the USA Today Network, a national digital newsgathering service providing shared content between USA Today and the company's 92 local newspapers throughout the United States as well as pooling advertising services on both a hyperlocal and national reach. The Louisville Courier-Journal had earlier soft-launched the service as part of a pilot program started on November 17, coinciding with an imaging rebrand for the Louisville, Kentucky-based newspaper; Gannett's other local newspaper properties, as well as those it acquired through its merger with the Journal Media Group, gradually began identifying themselves as part of the USA Today Network (foregoing use of the Gannett name outside of requisite ownership references) through early January 2016.
In May 2021, USA Today introduced a paywall for some of its online stories.
Layout and format
USA Today is known for synthesizing news down to easy-to-read-and-comprehend stories. In the main edition circulated in the United States and Canada, each edition consists of four sections: News (the oft-labeled "front page" section), Money, Sports, and Life. Since March 1998, the Friday edition of Life has been separated into two distinct sections: the regular Life focusing on entertainment (subtitled Weekend; section E), which features television reviews and listings, a DVD column, film reviews and trends, and a travel supplement called Destinations & Diversions (section D). The international edition of the paper features two sections: News and Money in one; with Sports and Life in the other.
Atypical of most daily newspapers, the paper does not print on Saturdays and Sundays; the Friday edition serves as the weekend edition. USA Today has published special Saturday and Sunday editions in the past: the first issue released during the standard calendar weekend was published on January 19, 1991, when it released a Saturday "Extra" edition updating coverage of the Gulf War from the previous day; the paper published special seven-day-a-week editions for the first time on July 19, 1996, when it published special editions for exclusive distribution in the host city of Atlanta and surrounding areas for the two-week duration of the 1996 Summer Olympics. USA Today prints each complete story on the front page of the respective section with the exception of the cover story. The cover story is a longer story that requires a jump (readers must turn to another page in the paper to complete the story, usually the next page of that section). On certain days, the news or sports section will take up two paper sections, and there will be a second cover story within the second section.
Each section is denoted by a certain color to differentiate sections beyond lettering and is seen in a box the top-left corner of the first page; the principal section colors are blue for News (section A), green for Money (section B), red for Sports (section C), and purple for Life (section D); in the paper's early years, the Life and Money sections were also assigned blue nameplates and spot color, as the presses used at USA Today printing facilities did not yet accommodate the use of other colors to denote all four original sections. Orange is used for bonus sections (section E or above), which are published occasionally such as for business travel trends and the Olympics; other bonus sections for sports (such as for the PGA Tour preview, NCAA Basketball Tournaments, Memorial Day auto races (Indianapolis 500 and Coca-Cola 600), NFL opening weekend and the Super Bowl) previously used the orange color, but now use the red designated for sports in their bonus sections. To increase their ties to USA Today, Gannett incorporated the USA Today coloring scheme into an internally created graphics package for news programming that the company began phasing in across its television station group – which were spun-off in July 2015 into the separate broadcast and digital media company Tegna – in late 2012 (the package utilizes the color scheme for a rundown graphic used on most stations – outside those that Gannett acquired in 2014 from London Broadcasting, which began implementing the package in late 2015 – that persists throughout its stations' newscasts, as well as bumpers for individual story topics). Gannett's television stations began to a new on-air appearance that uses a color-coding system identical to that of the paper.
In many ways, USA Today is set up to break the typical newspaper layout. Some examples of that divergence from tradition include using the left-hand quarter of each section as reefers (front-page paragraphs referring to stories on inside pages), sometimes using sentence-length blurbs to describe stories inside; the lead reefer is the cover page feature "Newsline", which shows summarized descriptions of headline stories featured in all four main sections and any special sections. As a national newspaper, USA Today cannot focus on the weather for any one city. Therefore, the entire back page of the News section is used for weather maps for the continental United States, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and temperature lists for many cities throughout the U.S. and the world (temperatures for individual cities on the primary forecast map and temperature lists are suffixed with a one- or two-letter code, such as "t" for thunderstorms, referencing the expected weather conditions); the colorized forecast map, originally created by staff designer George Rorick (who left USA Today for a similar position at The Detroit News in 1986), was copied by newspapers around the world, breaking from the traditional style of using monochrome contouring or simplistic text to denote temperature ranges. National precipitation maps for the next three days (previously five days until the 2012 redesign), and four-day forecasts and air quality indexes for 36 major U.S. cities (originally 16 cities prior to 1999) – with individual cities color-coded by the temperature contour corresponding to the given area on the forecast map – are also featured. Weather data is provided by AccuWeather, which has served as the forecast provider for USA Today for most of the paper's existence (with an exception from January 2002 to September 2012, during which forecast data was provided by The Weather Channel through a long-term multimedia content agreement with Gannett). In the bottom left-hand corner of the weather page is "Weather Focus", a graphic which explains various meteorological phenomena. On some days, the Weather Focus could be a photo of a rare meteorological event.
On Mondays, the Money section uses its back page for "Market Trends", a feature that launched in June 2002 and presents an unusual graphic depicting the performance of various industry groups as a function of quarterly, monthly, and weekly movements against the S&P 500. On business holidays or days when bonus sections are included in the issue, the Money and Life sections are usually combined into one section, while combinations of the Friday Life editions into one section are common during quiet weeks. Advertising coverage is seen in the Monday Money section, which often includes a review of a current television ad, and after Super Bowl Sunday, a review of the ads aired during the broadcast with the results of the Ad Track live survey. Stock tables for individual stock exchanges (comprising one subsection for companies traded on the New York Stock Exchange, and another for companies trading on NASDAQ and the American Stock Exchange) and mutual indexes were discontinued with the 2012 redesign due to the myriad of electronic ways to check individual stock prices, in line with most newspapers.
Book coverage, including reviews and a national sales chart (the latter of which debuted on October 28, 1994), is seen on Thursdays in Life, with the official full A.C. Nielsen television ratings chart printed on Wednesdays or Thursdays, depending on release. The paper also publishes the Mediabase survey for several genres of music, based on radio airplay spins on Tuesdays, along with their own chart of the top ten singles in general on Wednesdays. Because of the same limitations cited for its nationalized forecasts, the television page in Life – which provides prime time and late night listings (running from 8:00 p.m. to 12:30 a.m. Eastern Time) – incorporates boilerplate "Local news" or "Local programming" descriptions to denote time periods in which the five major English language broadcast networks (ABC, NBC, CBS, Fox and The CW) cede airtime to allow their owned and affiliated stations to carry syndicated programs or local newscasts; the television page has never been accompanied by a weekly listings supplement with broader scheduling information similar to those featured in local newspapers. Like most national papers, USA Today does not carry comic strips.
One of the staples of the News section is "Across the USA", a state-by-state roundup of headlines. The summaries consist of paragraph-length Associated Press reports highlighting one story of note in each state, the District of Columbia, and one U.S. territory. Similarly, the "For the Record" page of the Sports section (which features sports scores for both the previous four days of league play and individual non-league events, seasonal league statistics and wagering lines for the current day's games) previously featured a rundown of winning numbers from the previous deadline date for all participating state lotteries and individual multi-state lotteries.
Some traditions have been retained. The lead story still appears on the upper-right hand of the front page. Commentary and political cartoons occupy the last few pages of the News section. Stock and mutual fund data are presented in the Money section. But USA Today is sufficiently different in aesthetics to be recognized on sight, even in a mix of other newspapers, such as at a newsstand. The overall design and layout of USA Today has been described as neo-Victorian.
Also, in most of the sections' front pages, on the lower left-hand corner, are "USA Today Snapshots", which give statistics of various lifestyle interests according to the section it is in (for example, a snapshot in "Life" could show how many people tend to watch a certain genre of television show based upon the type of mood they are in at the time). These "Snapshots" are shown through graphs that are made up of various illustrations of objects that roughly pertain to the graphs subject matter (using the example above, the graph's bars could be made up of several TV sets, or ended by one). These are usually loosely based on research by a national institute (with the credited source mentioned in fine print in the box below the graph).
The newspaper also features an occasional magazine supplement called Open Air, which launched on March 7, 2008, and appears several times a year. Various other advertorials appear throughout the year, mainly on Fridays.
Opinion section
The opinion section prints USA Today editorials, columns by guest writers and members of the editorial board of Contributors, letters to the editor, and editorial cartoons. One unique feature of the USA Today editorial page is the publication of opposing points of view; alongside the editorial board's piece on the day's topic runs an opposing view by a guest writer, often an expert in the field. The opinion pieces featured in each edition are decided by the Board of Contributors, which are separate from the paper's news staff.
From 1999 to 2002 and from 2004 to 2015, the editorial page editor was Brian Gallagher, who has worked for the newspaper since its founding in 1982. Other members of the editorial board included deputy editorial page editor Bill Sternberg, executive forum editor John Siniff, op-ed/forum page editor Glen Nishimura, operations editor Thuan Le Elston, letters editor Michelle Poblete, web content editor Eileen Rivers, and editorial writers Dan Carney, George Hager, and Saundra Torry. The newspaper's website calls this group "demographically and ideologically diverse."
Beginning with the 1984 United States presidential election, USA Today has traditionally maintained a policy not to endorse candidates for the President of the United States or any other state or federal political office, which has been since re-evaluated by the paper's Board of Contributors through an independent process during each four-year election cycle, with any decision to circumvent the policy based on a consensus vote in which fewer than two of the editorial board's members dissent or hold differing opinions. For most of its history, the paper's political editorials (most of them linked to the then-current Presidential election cycle) had focused instead on providing opinion on major issues based on the differing concerns of voters, the vast amount of information on these themes, and the board's aim to provide a fair viewpoint through the diverse political ideologies of its members and avoid reader perceptions of bias.
Such avoidance of doing political editorials played a great part in USA Today's long-standing reputation for "fluff", but after its 30th anniversary revamp, the paper took a more active stance on political issues, calling for stronger gun laws after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in 2012. It heavily criticized the Republican Party for both the 2013 government shutdown and the 2015 revolts in the United States House of Representatives that ended with the resignation of John Boehner as House Speaker. It also called out then-President Barack Obama and other top members of the Democratic Party for what they perceived as "inaction" over several issues during 2013–14, particularly over the NSA scandal and the ISIL beheading incidents.
The editorial board broke from the "non-endorsement" policy for the first time on September 29, 2016, when it published an op-ed piece condemning the candidacy of Republican nominee Donald Trump, calling him "unfit for the presidency" due to his inflammatory campaign rhetoric (particularly that aimed at the press, with certain media organizations being openly targeted and even banned from campaign rallies, including The New York Times, The Washington Post, CNN and the BBC, military veterans who had been prisoners of war, including 2008 Republican presidential candidate and Vietnam War veteran John McCain, immigrants, and various ethnic and religious groups); his temperament and lack of financial transparency; his "checkered" business record; his use of false and hyperbolic statements; the inconsistency of his viewpoints and issues with his vision on domestic and foreign policy; and, based on comments he had made during his campaign and criticisms by both Democrats and Republicans on these views, the potential risks to national security and constitutional ethics under a Trump administration, asking voters to "resist the siren song of a dangerous demagogue". The board noted that the piece was not a "qualified endorsement" of Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton, for whom the board was unable to reach a consensus for endorsing (some editorial board members expressed that Clinton's public service record would help her "serve the nation ably as its president", while others had "serious reservations about [her] sense of entitlement, [...] lack of candor and [...] extreme carelessness in handling classified information"), endorsing instead tactical voting against Trump and GOP seats in swing states, advising voters to decide whether to vote for either Clinton, Libertarian nominee Gary Johnson, Green Party nominee Jill Stein or a write-in candidate for president; or focus on Senate, House and other down-ballot political races.
In February 2018, USA Today stirred controversy by publishing an op-ed by Jerome Corsi, the DC bureau chief for the fringe conspiracy website InfoWars. Corsi, a prominent conspiracy theorist, was described by USA Today as an "author" and "investigative journalist". Corsi was a prominent proponent of the false conspiracy theory that Barack Obama was not a US citizen, and Infowars has promoted conspiracy theories such as 9/11 being an inside job and the Sandy Hook massacre being a hoax staged by child actors.
In October 2018, USA Today was criticized by NBC News for publishing an editorial by President Trump that was replete with inaccuracies. The Washington Post fact-checker said that "almost every sentence contained a misleading statement or a falsehood."
In 2020, USA Today endorsed a specific presidential candidate for the first time, Democratic nominee Joe Biden. The newspaper also published an opposing editorial by Vice President Mike Pence, which called for his and Trump's re-election.
Personnel
In May 2012, Larry Kramer – a 40-year media industry veteran and former president of CBS Digital Media – was appointed president and publisher of USA Today, replacing David Hunke, who had been publisher of the newspaper since 2009. Kramer was tasked with developing a new strategy for the paper as it sought to increase revenue from its digital operations.
In July 2012, Kramer hired David Callaway – whom the former had hired as lead editor of MarketWatch in 1999, two years after Kramer founded the website – as the paper's editor-in-chief. Callaway had previously worked at Bloomberg News covering the banking, investment-banking and asset-management businesses throughout Europe and at the Boston Herald, where he co-wrote a daily financial column on "comings and goings in the Boston business district".
The current Editor-in-Chief is Nicole Carroll, who has served since February 2018.
Related publications and services
USA WeekendUSA Weekend was a sister publication that launched in 1953 as Family Weekly, a national Sunday magazine supplement intended for the Sunday editions of various U.S. newspapers; it adopted its final title following Gannett's purchase of the magazine in 1985. The magazine – which was distributed to approximately 800 newspapers nationwide at its peak with most Gannett-owned local newspapers carrying it by default within their Sunday editions – focused primarily on social issues, entertainment, health, food and travel. On December 5, 2014, Gannett announced that it would cease publishing USA Weekend after the December 26–28, 2014 edition, citing increasing operational costs and reduced advertising revenue, with most of its participating newspapers choosing to replace it with competing Sunday magazine Parade.
USA Today Sports WeeklyUSA Today Sports Weekly is a weekly magazine that covers news and statistics from Major League Baseball, Minor League Baseball and NCAA baseball, the National Football League (NFL) and NASCAR. It was first published on April 5, 1991, as USA Today Baseball Weekly, a tabloid-sized baseball-focused publication released on Wednesdays, on a weekly basis during the baseball season and bi-weekly during the off-season; the magazine expanded its sports coverage on September 4, 2002, when it adopted its current title after added stories about the NFL. Sports Weekly added coverage of NASCAR on February 15, 2006, lasting only during that year's race season; and added coverage of NCAA college football on August 8, 2007. The editorial operations of Sports Weekly originally operated autonomously from USA Today, before being integrated with the newspaper's sports department in late 2005.
The Big LeadThe Big Lead''' is a sports blog operated by USA Today that was launched in February 2006 by original owner Fantasy Sports Ventures (co-founded by Jason McIntyre and David Lessa), which was purchased by Gannett – which, beginning in April 2008, had maintained a strategic content and marketing partnership with the former company – in January 2012. The site – which is usually updated on a routine basis of 10 to 15 times per day between 8:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. Eastern Time – mainly covers sports, but also provides news and commentary on other news topics, ranging from politics to pop culture.
USA Today: The Television Show
In 1987, Gannett and producer/former NBC CEO Grant Tinker began developing a news magazine series for broadcast syndication that attempted to bring the breezy style of USA Today to television. The result was USA Today: The Television Show (later retitled USA Today on TV, then shortened to simply USA Today), which premiered on September 12, 1988. Correspondents on the program included Edie Magnus, Robin Young, Boyd Matson, Kenneth Walker, Dale Harimoto, Ann Abernathy, Bill Macatee and Beth Ruyak. As with the newspaper itself, the show was divided into four "sections" corresponding to the different parts of the paper: News (focusing on the major headlines of the day), Money (focusing on financial news and consumer reports), Sports (focusing on sports news and scores) and Life (focusing on entertainment and lifestyle-related stories).
The series was plagued by low ratings and negative reviews from critics throughout its run. The program also suffered from being scheduled in undesirable timeslots in certain markets; this was a particular case in New York City, the country's largest media market, where CBS owned-and-operated station WCBS-TV (channel 2) aired the program in a pre-dawn early morning slot, before the program was picked up by NBC O&O WNBC five months into its run; after initially airing it in an equally undesirable 5:30 a.m. slot, the series was later moved to a more palatable 9:30 a.m. time period, but still did not fare any better on its new station (in contrast, CITY-DT in Toronto, Ontario, Canada [now the flagship of the Citytv television network], ran it at 5:00 p.m.). Although the series was renewed for a second season, these setbacks led to the mid-season cancellation of the TV version of USA Today in November 1989, after one-and-a-half seasons; the final edition aired on January 7, 1990.
Gannett announced plans to develop a USA Today-branded weekly half-hour television program, to have been titled Sports Page, as part of a renewed initiative to extend the brand into television; this program, which was tapped for a fall 2004 debut, ultimately never launched.
VRtually ThereVRtually There is a weekly virtual reality news program produced by the USA Today Network, which debuted on October 20, 2016. The program, which is available on the USA Today mobile app and on YouTube (which maintains content exclusivity through the program's dedicated channel for 60 days after each broadcast), showcases three original segments outlining news stories through a first-person perspective, recorded and produced by journalists from USA Today and its co-owned local newspapers. The program also incorporates "cubemercials", long-form advertisements created by Gannett's in-house creative studio GET Creative, which are designed to allow consumer engagement in fully immersive experiences through virtual reality.
For the WinUSA Today also publishes a sports website called For the Win.
Awards
USA Today Minor League Player of the Year Award – First presented in 1988, this annual award has been given to a particular Minor league baseball player judged to have had the most outstanding season by a thirteen-person panel of baseball experts.
USA Today All-USA high school baseball team – First presented in 1998, the award honors between nine and eleven outstanding baseball players from high schools around the United States to be part on the team (separate awards honoring the High School Baseball Player of the Year and High School Baseball Coach of the Year have been given since 1989).
USA Today All-USA high school basketball team – First presented in 1983, the award honors outstanding male and female basketball players from high schools around the United States with a place on the team, with one member of each team being named as the High School Basketball Player of the Year as well as coaches from a select boys' and girls' team as the High School Basketball Coach of the Year.
USA Today All-Joe Team (NFL) – First presented in 1992 in tribute to Kansas City Chiefs veteran defensive lineman Joe Phillips, the award honors 52 rookie players from throughout the NFL for their exemplary performance during the previous league season.
USA Today/National Prep Poll High School Football National Championship – Predating the first publication of USA Today under the sole decision of the National Prep Poll, it is a national championship honor awarded to the best high school football team(s) in the United States, based on rankings decided by the newspaper's sports editorial department.
USA Today All-USA high school football team – First presented in 1982, the award honors outstanding football players from high schools around the United States (includes ranks for the Super 25 teams in the U.S. and Top 10 teams in the East, South, Midwest and West, and USA Today High School Football Player of the Year).
USA Today High School Football Coach of the Year – First presented in 1982, the award awards a coach from one of the teams selected for the All-USA football team for the honor.
USA TODAY Road Warrior of the Year first presented to Joyce Gioia in 2013; never presented again.
In popular culture
A futuristic 2015 edition of USA Today (Hill Valley edition) is seen in the film Back to the Future Part II (1989). As a tribute to the movie, the newspaper ran a recreation of the front page, featuring the exact headlines portrayed in the movie (except for a piece mentioning a future state visit by "Queen Diana", the Princess having died in 1997), on October 22, 2015, when the protagonist Marty McFly (played by Michael J. Fox) travels to October 21, 2015, and reads the following day's edition of the paper.
A 1991 episode of The Simpsons'' ("Homer Defined") featured a parody of the paper ("U.S. of A. News"), whose lead story was "#2 is #1", in reference to pencils. Lisa criticizes the paper's blandness, but Homer retorts that "Hey, this is the only paper in America that's not afraid to tell the truth, that everything is just fine."
See also
USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter
Viewtron
:Category:USA Today journalists
References
External links
Companies based in McLean, Virginia
Gannett publications
National newspapers published in the United States
Publications established in 1982
Daily newspapers published in the United States
1982 establishments in the United States
Universal Windows Platform apps
Daily newspapers published in Virginia
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
1988 American television series debuts
1990 American television series endings
1980s American television news shows
1990s American television news shows
English-language television shows
Entertainment news shows in the United States
Pulitzer Prize for Explanatory Journalism winners
Podcasting companies
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208466
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel%20Benn
|
Nigel Benn
|
Nigel Gregory Benn (born 22 January 1964) is a British former professional boxer who competed from 1987 to 1996. He held world championships in two weight classes, including the WBO middleweight title in 1990, and the WBC super-middleweight title from 1992 to 1996. Regionally he held the Commonwealth middleweight title from 1988 to 1989. Nicknamed "The Dark Destroyer" for his formidable punching power and aggressive fighting style, he retired with an 83.3% knockout-to-win ratio.
Early years and amateur career
Benn was born in Ilford, East London, on 22 January 1964. Benn joined the Army at the age of 18 and was stationed in West Germany for three years, then Northern Ireland for eighteen months (Royal Fusiliers) After leaving the army Benn joined West Ham Amateur Boxing Club.
Amateur accomplishments
1986 Amateur Boxing Association Middleweight Champion. (beat Rod Douglas in final)
Professional career
Benn turned professional in 1987 and began a streak of 22 consecutive knockout wins. This ensured a rapid rise through the professional ranks and during this time, Benn won the vacant Commonwealth middleweight title with a second round win over Abdul Umaru, at Alexandra Pavilion on 20 April 1988.
At 22-0 (22 KOs), Benn defended his Commonwealth title against Michael Watson in a heavily hyped bout in May 1989 at Finsbury Park, London. The fight even appeared on national television in the US. Throwing virtually nothing but hooks, Benn repeatedly failed to get through Watson's tight guard, and gradually tired whilst being stunned numerous times himself.
In the sixth round, Watson knocked Benn down with a jab and Benn was counted out as he rose to his feet.
His next fight, against Jorge Amparo in Atlantic City, U.S., was his first fight abroad and also the first to last the full distance, with Benn winning a 10-round decision.
WBO middleweight champion
After two more wins, against Sanderline Williams and Jose Quinones, Benn fought WBO middleweight title holder Doug DeWitt of the US in Atlantic City. Benn was knocked down in round two, but came back to knock DeWitt down in round three, then score three knockdowns in round eight to win the title.
His first defence came in August 1990 against former WBC champion Iran Barkley, whom he knocked down three times and stopped on the three-knockdown rule at the end of the first round. Benn returned to the UK and met British rival Chris Eubank. They fought in Birmingham on 18 November 1990. Benn lost his title to Eubank when the referee stopped the fight in the ninth round after a Technical knockout finish.
WBC super-middleweight champion
Benn then went on a winning streak of six fights leading up to another world title challenge. In 1991, he beat Marvin Hagler's half brother, Robbie Sims, by a knockout in round seven, followed by a close, disputed decision win against Thulani Malinga, and a one-punch KO victory against Dan Sherry.
On 10 October 1992, Benn challenged Mauro Galvano for the WBC super-middleweight title in Palaghiaccio de Marino, Marino, Lazio, Italy. After a controversial dispute at ringside over the official result after Galvano was unable to continue due to a severe cut, Benn was declared the winner and won the title by technical decision RTD in the third round.
While still a dangerous, and damaging puncher, Benn's move to the higher weight limit saw him refine his fight strategy and adopt a more considered approach. The aggression remained but he relied less on one punch knockout power and became a more effective, and adaptable fighter. He defended his title against fellow Britons Nicky Piper and Lou Gent, and a rematch victory over Mauro Galvano, before again Chris Eubank, who was now WBO super-middleweight champion, in a unification bout on 9 October 1993. The bout ended in a draw, with both fighters retaining their respective titles. Benn defended his title twice more in 1994 with unanimous decisions against Henry Wharton and Juan Carlos Giminez Ferreyra.
Benn vs McClellan
In February 1995, Benn defended his 168 lb title against WBC middleweight champion Gerald McClellan in a highly anticipated bout billed as "Sudden Impact". Going into the fight with Benn, McClellan had won his last 21 fights, the last 14 of those by knockout, and 13 of those 14 knockouts had come in Rounds 1, 2 or 3. McClellan had twice defeated one of the hardest punchers of all time in Julian Jackson, with knockouts in Round 5 and Round 1 respectively. McClellan had also never gone beyond Round 8 in any previous fight in his career, insisting that he rarely needed more than three rounds to defeat his opponents.
Benn was knocked through the ropes as McClellan dominated Round 1, but Benn hung on to survive the first round and fought his way back into the contest which developed into a brutal war. Benn was in control of the momentum of the fight around Rounds 4–6 as McClellan struggled to keep his gumshield in his mouth. A desperate McClellan struck back in Rounds 7 and 8, and Benn was knocked down again in the eighth, but an exhausted and drained McClellan was unable to follow up and Benn rallied to stop McClellan in Round 10, as McClellan took a knee and was counted out by the referee. At the time of the stoppage, two judges had McClellan ahead and one had the fight even, although those scorecards are from the end of Round 9, and therefore not counting the two knockdowns Benn scored on McClellan in the tenth.
McClellan was severely injured as a result of the fight. After collapsing in his corner after the fight had finished, McClellan was rushed to hospital where it was discovered he had developed a blood clot on the brain. To this day McClellan suffers from bad short-term memory problems, is almost completely blind, partially deaf, and uses a wheelchair, although he has regained some movement and some of his hearing since 1995, having been 80% deaf in 1995 and he can now walk with a cane. In 2007, McClellan, his sister and children attended a benefit dinner organised and hosted by Benn to help McClellan with his ongoing medical expenses.
After his fight with McClellan, Benn had two more successful title defences, with wins against future WBC title-holder Vincenzo Nardiello and against American Danny Perez, before Benn then lost his title to Malinga in 1996: Benn in fact knocked Malinga down in the fifth round of the fight, but hit the canvas himself in the twelfth, and lost a split decision (118-109, 115-111, 112-114).
Benn vs Collins I and II
In 1996, Benn attempted to take the WBO super-middleweight title twice from Steve Collins - who had finally taken that particular title off Eubank, then beat him in a rematch - but failed in both attempts: in the first fight, he lost by TKO in Round 4 after sustaining an ankle injury. Four months later, in a rematch, he retired from boxing following his second loss to Collins in November, with his corner having retired Benn on his stool at the end of Round 6.
Return from retirement
On 24 September 2019, Benn announced that he would be returning to boxing at the age of 55, 23 years after his last fight, saying that he wanted "closure" after the unsatisfactory end to his boxing career in 1996. Benn was set to fight former WBC super-middleweight world champion Sakio Bika (34-7-3) on 23 November 2019. The British Boxing Board of Control refused to sanction the fight, which instead was to be sanctioned by the British and Irish Boxing Authority. The fight was subsequently called off after Benn suffered a shoulder injury in sparring. A disappointed Benn also confirmed that he was abandoning his planned boxing comeback.
Life after boxing
After his professional boxing career, Benn became a DJ.
He later appeared in the first series of the ITV reality TV show I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!.
Benn's autobiography, published in 2001, is called Dark Destroyer.
Benn left the UK after he was sent a gold bullet with his name inscribed on it. For many years, a close friend of Benn's had been Essex drug lord Tony Tucker, who was shot dead in 1995 in the infamous Range Rover murders crime.
Since the early 21st century, Benn has developed a strong Christian faith, becoming a born-again Christian. Benn now lives with his family in Sydney, Australia, where he has been studying theology, sports coaching and sports development. He is still active in the international boxing scene mentoring, developing and training both amateur and professional boxers in Australia.
Benn was entered into the World Boxing Council (WBC) Boxing Hall of Fame in 2013 and was honoured alongside fellow Brit Joe Calzaghe as the WBC's greatest super middleweight champion in history. His image is now enshrined upon the sixth generation WBC super middleweight belt.
Benn works with youth at risk in Blacktown, NSW and is dedicated to his charity work. He is an ambassador to the New South Wales Police Citizens Youth Club's (PCYC) and is an advocate for healthy living. Benn is also a Patron of the Shannon Bradshaw Trust, a UK children's charity based in the North West of England, helping children with life-threatening conditions and their families.
Benn ran the 2013 City to Surf to raise funds for the most underfunded PCYC gym in Redfern, Sydney and has undertaken many fund raisers for the charity since improving the boxing facilities in the most impoverished areas of Sydney. Benn regularly assists Christian groups, counselling individuals suffering from addiction and along with wife Carolyne counsels couples who are facing marriage issues.
One of Benn's sons, Conor Benn, turned professional in 2016 and is currently fighting at welterweight. Another son, Harley, turned professional in 2017.
Professional boxing record
References
External links
Recent interview with Nigel Benn (audio)
1964 births
Club DJs
English evangelicals
English Christians
English male boxers
English sportspeople of Barbadian descent
Living people
People from Ilford
Black British sportspeople
World Boxing Council champions
World Boxing Organization champions
Royal Regiment of Fusiliers soldiers
English expatriates in Spain
England Boxing champions
Commonwealth Boxing Council champions
World middleweight boxing champions
World super-middleweight boxing champions
Boxers from Greater London
I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (British TV series) participants
Converts to Christianity
|
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208467
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boomerang%20Nebula
|
Boomerang Nebula
|
The Boomerang Nebula is a protoplanetary nebula located 5,000 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Centaurus. It is also known as the Bow Tie Nebula and catalogued as
LEDA 3074547. The nebula's temperature is measured at making it the coolest natural place currently known in the Universe.
The Boomerang Nebula is believed to be a star system evolving toward the planetary nebula phase. It continues to form and develop due to the outflow of gas from its core where a star in its late stage life sheds mass and emits starlight illuminating dust in the nebula. Millimeter scale dust grains mask portions of the nebula's center so most escaping visible light is in two opposing lobes forming a distinctive hourglass shape as viewed from Earth. The outflowing gas is moving outwards at a speed of about 164 km/s and expanding rapidly as it moves out into space; this gas expansion results in the nebula's unusually low temperature.
Keith Taylor and Mike Scarrott called it the "Boomerang Nebula" in 1980 after observing it with the Anglo-Australian telescope at the Siding Spring Observatory. Unable to view it with great clarity, the astronomers saw merely a slight asymmetry in the nebula's lobes suggesting a curved shape like a boomerang. The nebula was photographed in detail by the Hubble Space Telescope in 1998 revealing a more symmetric hourglass shape.
In 1995, using the 15-metre Swedish-ESO Submillimetre Telescope in Chile, astronomers revealed that it is the coldest place in the Universe found so far, besides laboratory-created temperatures. With a temperature of −272 °C, it is only 1 °C warmer than absolute zero (the lowest limit for all temperatures). Even the −270 °C background glow from the Big Bang is warmer than the nebula. It is the only object found so far that has a temperature lower than the background radiation.
In 2013, observations of the ALMA radio interferometer revealed other features of the Boomerang Nebula. The visible double lobe of the Boomerang Nebula was observed to be surrounded by a larger spherical volume of cold gas seen only in sub-millimeter radio wavelengths. The nebula's outer fringes appear to be gradually warming.
As of mid-2017, it is believed that the star at the center of the nebula is a dying red giant.
Gallery
See also
Planetary nebula
Protoplanetary nebula
References
External links
NRAO Boomerang Nebula
The Boomerang Nebula - The Coolest Place in the Universe?, ESA, 20 February 2003
Hubble's View of the Boomerang Nebula, 13 September 2005; see also Scattered Light from the Boomerang Nebula
ESA/Hubble-Boomerang Nebula
SIMBAD, Coordinates and Scientific data. January 4, 2007.
Protoplanetary nebulae
Centaurus (constellation)
Stellar evolution
Nebulae
Lists of nebulae
|
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] |
208468
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbalest
|
Arbalest
|
The arbalest (also arblast) was a late variation of the crossbow coming into use in Europe during the 12th century. A large weapon, the arbalest had a steel prod (the "bow" portion of the weapon). Since the arbalest was much larger than earlier crossbows, and because of the greater tensile strength of steel, it had a greater force. However, the greater draw weight was offset by the smaller which limited its potential in fully transferring the energy into the crossbow bolt. The strongest windlass-pulled arbalests could have up to of force and be accurate up to . A skilled arbalestier (arbalester) could loose two bolts per minute.
Nomenclature
The term "arbalest" is sometimes used interchangeably with "crossbow". Arbalest is a Medieval French word originating from the Roman name (from 'bow' + 'missile-throwing engine'), which was then used for crossbows, although originally used for types of artillery. Modern French uses the word , which is linguistically one step further from the stem (disappearance of the s phoneme in the last syllable, before the t).
The word applies to both crossbow and arbalest (the latter may be referred to as a heavy crossbow, but an actual heavy crossbow may not be the same as an arbalest). In some cases, the word has been used to refer to arbalists, the people who actually used the weapon.
References
Bibliography
Tanner, Norman P. (1990). Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, Vol. 1. Nicaea 1 to Lateran V. London / Washington, D.C.: Sheed & Ward. Georgetown University Press. .
Bellamy, Alex J. (2006). Just Wars: From Cicero to Iraq. Polity. Page 32. .
Crossbows
Medieval archery
|
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208469
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Cosmo%20Monkhouse
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William Cosmo Monkhouse
|
William Cosmo Monkhouse (18 March 184020 July 1901) was a British poet and critic.
Biography
Monkhouse was born and raised in London. His father, Cyril John Monkhouse, was a solicitor, and his mother's maiden name was Delafosse. Monkhouse was educated at St Paul's School, stopped his schooling at the age of seventeen to enter the board of trade as a junior supplementary clerk, from which grade he rose eventually to be the assistant-secretary to the finance department of the office. In 1870–1871 he visited South America in connection with the hospital accommodation for seamen at Valparaíso, Chile, and other ports; he served on different departmental committees, notably that of 1894–1896 on the Mercantile Marine Fund. Monkhouse was twice married: first, to Laura, daughter of James Keymer of Dartford; and, secondly, to Leonora Eliza, daughter of Commander Blount, R.N.
Cosmo Monkhouse was one of those who not only have a vocation, but an avocation. Cosmo's first bias was to poetry, and in 1865 he issued A Dream of Idleness and Other Poems, a collection strongly coloured by his admiration for Wordsworth and Tennyson. It was marked by exceptional maturity and scarcely received the recognition it deserved. Perhaps owing to this circumstance, it was not until 1890 that he put forth Corn and Poppies, a collection containing at least one memorable effort in the well-known "Dead March". Five years later, a limited edition of the striking ballad of The Christ upon the Hill appeared; it was illustrated with etchings by William Strang. After Cosmo's death, his poetical output was completed by Pasiteles the Elder and other Poems (including The Christ upon the Hill).
In 1868 Monkhouse wrote a novel A Question of Honour. Then, after preluding with a Life of Turner in the "Great Artists Series" (1879), he devoted himself almost exclusively to art criticism. Besides many contributions to the Academy, Saturday Review, Magazine of Art and other periodicals, he published volumes on The Italian Pre-Raphaelites (1887), The Earlier English Water-Colour Painters (1890 and 1897), In the National Gallery (1895) and British Contemporary Artists (1899). He wrote a monograph on the illustrator of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland entitled The Life and Work of Sir John Tenniel, R. I. (London: 1901). He was a contributor to the Dictionary of National Biography from the beginning. Monkhouse also wrote a life of Leigh Hunt in the "Great Writers Series" (1887). He wrote a monograph on Chinese ceramics entitled A history and description of Chinese Porcelain, (London; Chapman, 1901).
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition: "As an art critic, Monkhouse's judgments were highly valued. He had the rare gift of differing without offending, while he invariably secured respect for his honesty and ability. As a poet, his ambition was wide and his devotion to the art ... thorough."
Monkhouse died at Skegness on 2 July 1901.
Family
He was twice married: first in 1865 to Laura, daughter of James Keymer of Dartford in Kent; second in 1873 to Leonora Eliza, the daughter of Commander Blount, R.N., by whom he had two sons and six daughters.
Notes
References
Dana M. Garvey: "Cosmo Monkhouse: Constructing the Late Victorian Artist". The Princeton University Library Chronicle, Vol. 69, No. 1 (Autumn 2007), pp. 140–150 (JSTOR)
External links
1840 births
1901 deaths
English art critics
English male poets
19th-century English poets
19th-century English male writers
English male non-fiction writers
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaftesbury
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Shaftesbury
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Shaftesbury () is a town and civil parish in Dorset, England. It is situated on the A30 road, west of Salisbury, near the border with Wiltshire. It is the only significant hilltop settlement in Dorset, being built about above sea level on a greensand hill on the edge of Cranborne Chase.
The town looks over the Blackmore Vale, part of the River Stour basin. From different viewpoints, it is possible to see at least as far as Glastonbury Tor to the northwest.
Shaftesbury is the site of the former Shaftesbury Abbey, which was founded in 888 by King Alfred and became one of the richest religious establishments in the country, before being destroyed in the dissolution in 1539. Adjacent to the abbey site is Gold Hill, a steep cobbled street used in the 1970s as the setting for Ridley Scotts television advertisement for Hovis bread.
In the 2011 Census the town's civil parish had a population of 7,314.
Toponymy
Shaftesbury has acquired a number of names throughout its history. Writing in 1906, Sir Frederick Treves referred to four of these names from Celtic, Latin and English traditions in his book Highways & Byways in Dorset:
The original Celtic name is first recorded in Medieval Welsh literature as Caer Vynnydd y Paladr (The Mountain Fort/City of the Spears) and Thomas Gale records the name as Caer Palladour in his work of 1709. Though "Palladour" was described by one 19th-century directory as "mere invention", it has continued to be used as a poetic and alternative name for the town.
The English name was recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Sceptesberie, and the use of "Shaston" () was recorded in 1831 in Samuel Lewis's A Topographical Dictionary of England and in 1840 in The parliamentary gazetteer of England and Wales.
Thomas Hardy used both "Shaston" and "Palladour" to refer to the town in the fictional Wessex of his novels such as Jude the Obscure.
History
There is no substantive evidence that Shaftesbury was the "Caer Palladur" (or "Caer Palladwr") of Celtic and Roman times, and instead the town's recorded history dates from Anglo-Saxon times. By the early 8th century there was an important minster church here, and in 880 Alfred the Great founded a burgh (fortified settlement) here as a defence in the struggle with the Danish invaders. The burgh is recorded in the early-10th-century Burghal Hidage as one of only three that existed in the county (the others being at Wareham and 'Bredy' – which is probably Bridport).
In 888 Alfred founded Shaftesbury Abbey, a Benedictine nunnery by the town's east gate, and appointed his daughter Ethelgifu as the first abbess. Æthelstan founded two royal mints, which struck pennies bearing the town's name, and the abbey became the wealthiest Benedictine nunnery in England. On 20 February 981 the relics of St Edward the Martyr, the teenage King of England, were transferred from Wareham and received at the abbey with great ceremony, thereafter turning Shaftesbury into a major site of pilgrimage for miracles of healing.
King Canute died here in 1035, though he was buried at Winchester. Edward the Confessor licensed a third mint for the town. By the time of the Norman conquest in 1066 Shaftesbury had 257 houses, though many were destroyed in the ensuing years of conflict, and by the time the Domesday Book was compiled twenty years later, there were only 177 houses remaining, though this still meant that Shaftesbury was the largest town in Dorset at that time. In the first English civil war (1135–1154) between Empress Matilda and King Stephen, an adulterine castle or fortified house was built on a small promontory at the western edge of the hill on which the old town was built. The site on Castle Hill, also known locally as Boltbury, is now under grass and is a scheduled monument.
In 1240 Cardinal Otto of Tonengo, legate to the Apostolic See of Pope Gregory IX visited the abbey and confirmed a charter of 1191, the first entered in the Glastonbury chartulary. During the Middle Ages the abbey was the central focus of the town; the abbey's great wealth was acknowledged in a popular saying at the time, which stated that "If the abbot of Glastonbury could marry the abbess of Shaftesbury their heir would hold more land than the king of England". In 1260 a charter to hold a market was granted. By 1340 the mayor had become a recognised figure, sworn in by the steward of the abbess. In 1392 Richard II confirmed a grant of two markets on different days. Edwardstow, Shaftesbury's oldest surviving building, was built on Bimport at some time between 1400 and 1539. Also in this period a medieval farm owned by the Abbess of Shaftesbury was established, on a site now occupied by the Tesco supermarket car park.
In 1539, the last Abbess of Shaftesbury, Elizabeth Zouche, signed a deed of surrender, the (by then extremely wealthy) abbey was demolished, and its lands sold, leading to a temporary decline in the town. Sir Thomas Arundell purchased the abbey and much of the town in 1540, but when he was later exiled for treason his lands were forfeit, and the lands passed to Pembroke then Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and finally to the Grosvenors.
Shaftesbury was a parliamentary constituency returning two members from 1296 to the Reform Act of 1832, when it was reduced to one, and in 1884 the separate constituency was abolished.
In Survey of Dorsetshire, written in about 1630 by Thomas Gerard of the Dorset village of Trent, Shaftesbury is described as a "faire Thorough Faire, much frequented by Travellers to and from London".
The town was broadly Parliamentarian in the Civil War, but was in Royalist hands. Wardour Castle fell to Parliamentary forces in 1643; Parliamentary forces surrounded the town in August 1645, when it was a centre of local clubmen activity. The clubmen were arrested and sent to trial in Sherborne. Shaftesbury took no part in the Monmouth Rebellion of 1685.
In the 17th century the cloth industry formed part of Shaftesbury's economy, though much of the actual production took place as a cottage industry in the surrounding area. In the 18th century the town produced a coarse white woollen cloth called 'swanskin', that was used by fishermen of Newfoundland and for uniforms. Buttonmaking also became important around this time, though with the later advent of industrialisation this subsequently declined, resulting in unemployment, starvation and emigration, with 350 families leaving for Canada. Malting and brewing were also significant in the 17th and 18th centuries, and like other Dorset towns such as Dorchester and Blandford Forum, Shaftesbury became known for its beer.
The railways however bypassed the town, which had consequences for Shaftesbury's economy; during the 19th century the town's brewing industry was reduced to serving only local markets, as towns elsewhere in the country could transport their produce more cheaply. During the 19th century the population of the town grew little.
The town hall was built in 1837 by Earl Grosvenor after the guildhall was pulled down to widen High Street. It has been designated by English Heritage as a grade II listed building. Shaftesbury Town Hall is next to the 15th-century St Peter's Church. The Westminster Memorial Hospital was constructed on Bimport in the mid-19th century with a legacy from the wife of the Duke of Westminster.
In 1918 Lord Stalbridge sold a large portion of the town, which was purchased by a syndicate and auctioned piece by piece over three days.
Most of Shaftesbury's buildings date from no earlier than the 18th century, as the Saxon and most of the medieval buildings have not survived.
Governance
In the United Kingdom national parliament, Shaftesbury is in the North Dorset parliamentary constituency. , North Dorset's Member of Parliament (MP) is Simon Hoare of the Conservative Party. At the top tier of local government Shaftesbury is governed by Dorset County Council, the main responsibilities of which include schools and other education, highways, planning, waste, public transport, social care, countryside and heritage, public health, libraries, museums and the arts, archives, trading standards and planning for emergencies. At the middle tier of local government Shaftesbury is governed by North Dorset District Council. Since 2006 North Dorset District Council has reduced its direct service provision via a system of decentralised community partnerships with local organisations such as town councils. North Dorset District Council is also in a 'tri-council' partnership with two other district-level councils in Dorset, West Dorset District Council and Weymouth and Portland Borough Council; the aim of the partnership is to reduce costs of management and buildings. At the bottom tier of local government Shaftesbury is governed by Shaftesbury Town Council, which has responsibilities that include open spaces and recreational facilities, allotments, litter, street markets, public conveniences, grants to voluntary organisations, cemetery provision, bus shelters, crime prevention initiatives, civic events and the town hall, planning (as a consultee) and the war memorial.
For electoral purposes Shaftesbury is divided into two electoral wards: Shaftesbury West and Shaftesbury East. In national parliamentary elections these are joined with 25 other wards that together elect the Member of Parliament for the North Dorset constituency. In county council elections the two wards together form Shaftesbury electoral division, one of 42 divisions that each elect councillors to Dorset County Council. The county council has 45 councillors (three divisions elect two councillors each) and the Conservative Party has overall control, though the councillor representing Shaftesbury is a Liberal Democrat. In district council elections the two wards, together with seventeen other wards within the North Dorset District, elect councillors to North Dorset District Council; the two Shaftesbury wards each elect two councillors out of a total of 33. The Conservative Party has overall control of the district council, though of the four councillors that represent Shaftesbury, one is a Liberal Democrat and one is an independent. In town council elections Shaftesbury's two wards each elect six councillors to Shaftesbury Town Council.
Geography
The old centre of Shaftesbury is sited on a westward-pointing promontory of high ground in northeast Dorset, on the scarp edge of a range of hills that extend south and east into Cranborne Chase and neighbouring Wiltshire. The town's built-up area also extends down the promontory slopes to lower ground at St James, Alcester and Enmore Green, and eastwards across the watershed towards the hill's dip slope. Shaftesbury's altitude is between about at the lowest streets below the promontory, to about at Wincombe Business Park on the hilltop in the north, with the promontory and town centre being at about . Below the town to the west is the Blackmore Vale, which undulates between about . About west of the town and within the Blackmore Vale is the conical mound of Duncliffe Hill, visible for miles and home to Duncliffe Wood and a nature reserve. The countryside east of the town is part of the Cranborne Chase and West Wiltshire Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.
Geologically, Shaftesbury's hill mostly comprises Upper Greensand, which is overlain by Lower Chalk in the east. These date from the Cretaceous, with the greensand having been formed in the Albian and early Cenomanian, and the chalk also in the Cenomanian. The greensand is composed of three beds: the oldest and lowest is a layer of Cann Sand, which is found in the lower parts of the town, such as St James and Alcester, that are below the promontory; above this is a layer of Shaftesbury Sandstone, which generally forms the steepest slopes around the promontory, and on top of this is a layer of Boyne Hollow Chert, which is found on top of the hill and on which most of the town is built. Below the Cann Sand, on the lower slopes of the hill to the north, west and south of the town, are extensive landslip deposits.
Economy
In 2012 there were 3,400 people employed in Shaftesbury, 65% of whom were working full-time and 35% part-time. Excluding agriculture, the most important employment sectors were public administration, education and health (31% of non-agricultural employment), production and construction (29%), and distribution, accommodation and food (26%). Significant employers include Dorset County Council, Pork Farms, Guys Marsh Prison, Royal Mail, Tesco, Port Regis School, Wessex Electricals, Stalbridge Linen Services, Blackmore Press and Dorset Chilled Foods. There are two industrial estates in the town: Longmead Industrial Estate, covering , and Wincombe Business Park, covering .
In 2005 there were 75 shops in the town, with a total floorspace of . The retail catchment area for major food shopping extends about in all directions. National retail chains with a presence in the town include the Body Shop, Boots, Somerfield, Superdrug, Tesco and WHSmith.
A site has been identified for a projected parkway station on the West of England main railway line. It would be situated to the north of the town, beneath the A350 road, and a bus service would connect it with the town. Currently the nearest railway station is located in neighbouring Gillingham.
Demography
In the 2011 census Shaftesbury's civil parish had 3,493 dwellings, 3,235 households and a population of 7,314. The average age of inhabitants was 43, compared to 39.3 for England as a whole. 22.1% of inhabitants were age 65 or older, compared to 16.4% for England as a whole. 92% of Shaftesbury's residents were born in the United Kingdom, compared to 86.2% for England as a whole. Previous census figures for the total population of the civil parish are shown in the table below:
Culture, art and media
Shaftesbury Arts Centre was established in 1957 and stages a variety of exhibitions, performances, workshops and training courses. It is based in the old covered market in the town centre and is a charitable company that is run wholly by its volunteer members.
Shaftesbury has two museums: Gold Hill Museum at the top of Gold Hill, and Shaftesbury Abbey Museum in the abbey grounds. Gold Hill Museum was founded in 1946 and displays many artefacts that relate to the history of Shaftesbury and the surrounding area, including Dorset's oldest fire engine, dating from 1744. Shaftesbury Abbey Museum tells the story of the abbey and also has a herb garden and medieval orchard.
Shaftesbury Snowdrops is a Diamond Jubilee Community Legacy with the aim of creating a series of free and accessible snowdrop walks by planting snowdrops within the publicly open spaces and along the pathways throughout the town. The project was started in the winter of 2012 with the planting of 60,000 bulbs. Since 2013 there has been an annual Snowdrop Festival to encourage tourists to see the snowdrops in flower. Highlights of the festival include the Snowdrop Art Exhibition and the Snowdrop Lantern Parade. In 2014 Shaftesbury Snowdrops started a heritage collection of rare and unusual snowdrops. These are held in trust for the people of Shaftesbury and displayed in Shaftesbury Abbey during the annual Snowdrop Festival. The collection is being built through sponsorship and donations.
Gold Hill Fair usually occurs in the first weekend of July and has food stalls, arts stalls and local music that can be found in the abbey ruins.
In 2016, Shaftesbury's first open arts fringe festival was organised and has since grown to become one of the key fringe festivals in the country. The fringe is always held on the first weekend in July and attracts an eccentric mix of performers from local singers to celebrity comics heading for Edinburgh.
Representations
Thomas Hardy used the names Shaston or Palladour to describe Shaftesbury in the fictional Wessex of his novels. In Jude the Obscure he described the loss of the town's former architectural glories, principally the abbey:
"Vague imaginings of its castle, its three mints, its magnificent apsidal abbey, the chief glory of south Wessex, its twelve churches, its shrines, chantries, hospitals, its gabled freestone mansions—all now ruthlessly swept away—throw the visitor, even against his will, into a pensive melancholy, which the stimulating atmosphere and limitless landscape around him can scarcely dispel."
In the 1970s Ridley Scott used Gold Hill, a steep cobbled street in the town, as the setting for a television advertisement for Hovis bread, in which a bread delivery boy is seen pushing his bicycle up the street before freewheeling back down. The advertisement made the street nationally famous.
Transport
Shaftesbury is served by the A30 between Salisbury and Yeovil and the A350 between Poole and Chippenham. The town is south of the A303 providing a link to London and South West England.
Due to its hilltop location, Shaftesbury has never had a railway connection. In 1859 the Salisbury and Yeovil Railway (now the West of England line), running along the Vale of Wardour, opened a station at Semley, approximately north of Shaftesbury, to serve the town. When the station closed in 1966, Gillingham station, 4 miles north-west of Shaftesbury on the same line, became the main railhead for the town.
Sport and leisure
Shaftesbury has a non-League football club, Shaftesbury F.C., who play at Cockrams.
Community facilities
Shaftesbury has a community hospital, radio station and library. Westminster Memorial Hospital on Abbey Walk provides a range of services, including minor surgery and several specialist clinics. The library on Bell Street lends films and music as well as books, and provides free internet access, while the radio station is called Alfred, after the town's founder Alfred the Great.
Notable people
King of England, Denmark, and Norway, Cnut the Great, died here on 12 November 1035.
Poet William Chamberlayne lived here his whole life, from 1619 to 1689.
Philosopher Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury (1671–1713), an influential thinker on modern aesthetics.
Actor Robert Newton, best known for his portrayals of Long John Silver and Bill Sikes in the 1948 David Lean film Oliver Twist, was born here.
Architect Richard Upjohn, famous for his Gothic Revival churches in the United States, including Trinity Church in New York, was also born in Shaftesbury.
Electronic music producer Seamus Malliagh, known professionally as Iglooghost, was born in Shaftesbury in 1996.
See also
St Mary's School, Shaftesbury
Shaftesbury School
References
Notes
General references
Pitt-Rivers, Michael, 1979. Dorset. London: Faber & Faber.
The 1985 AA illustrated guide to the country towns and villages of Britain.
External links
Shaftesbury Tourist Information Centre
Shaftesbury Town Council
Towns in Dorset
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208491
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telic
|
Telic
|
Telic may refer to:
Grammatically, indicating telicity
A central argument of Teleology says that the world has clearly been constructed in a purposeful telic rather than a chaotic manner, and must therefore have been made by a rational being, i.e. God
"Operation Telic", the codename for the British military participation in the 2003 Iraq War
|
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] |
208502
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-modeling%20technique
|
Object-modeling technique
|
The object-modeling technique (OMT) is an object modeling approach for software modeling and designing. It was developed around 1991 by Rumbaugh, Blaha, Premerlani, Eddy and Lorensen as a method to develop object-oriented systems and to support object-oriented programming. OMT describes object model or static structure of the system.
OMT was developed as an approach to software development. The purposes of modeling according to Rumbaugh are:
testing physical entities before building them (simulation),
communication with customers,
visualization (alternative presentation of information), and
reduction of complexity.
OMT has proposed three main types of models:
Object model: The object model represents the static and most stable phenomena in the modeled domain. Main concepts are classes and associations with attributes and operations. Aggregation and generalization (with multiple inheritance) are predefined relationships.
Dynamic model: The dynamic model represents a state/transition view on the model. Main concepts are states, transitions between states, and events to trigger transitions. Actions can be modeled as occurring within states. Generalization and aggregation (concurrency) are predefined relationships.
Functional model: The functional model handles the process perspective of the model, corresponding roughly to data flow diagrams. Main concepts are process, data store, data flow, and actors.
OMT is a predecessor of the Unified Modeling Language (UML). Many OMT modeling elements are common to UML.
Functional Model in OMT:
In brief, a functional model in OMT defines the function of the whole internal processes in a model with the help of "Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs)". It details how processes are performed independently.
References
Further reading
James Rumbaugh, Michael Blaha, William Premerlani, Frederick Eddy, William Lorensen (1994). Object-Oriented Modeling and Design. Prentice Hall.
Terry Quatrani, Michael Jesse Chonoles (1996). Succeeding With the Booch and OMT Methods: A Practical Approach. Addison Wesley.
External links
Some of the early history of OMT
A short introduction to OMT
Object-oriented programming
Unified Modeling Language
The model is defined by the organization’s vision, mission, and values, as well as sets of boundaries for the organization—what products or services it will deliver, what customers or markets it will target, and what supply and delivery channels it will use. While the business model includes high-level strategies and tactical direction for how the organization will implement the model, it also includes the annual goals that set the specific steps the organization intends to undertake in the next year and the measures for their expected accomplishment. Each of these is likely to be part of internal documentation that is available to the internal auditor.
|
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-0.5591822266578674,
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] |
208504
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OMT
|
OMT
|
OMT may refer to:
In economics:
Outright Monetary Transactions, which denotes the European Central Bank's purchases of bonds issued by Eurozone member-states
In science:
O-methyltransferase, type of methyltransferase enzyme transferring a methyl group on a molecule
In technology:
OMT-G, configuration in object-based spatial databases
Object-modeling technique, language for software modeling and designing
Object model template, architecture for distributed computer simulation systems
Open microchip technology, the technology of implanting microchips in animals for research or tracking
Orthomode transducer, also polarisation duplexer, microwave duct component of the class of microwave circulators
In health and wellness:
Osteopathic manipulative treatment, hands-on application of manipulative techniques on the patient by a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
Ocular tremor, also ocular microtremor, type of eye tremor
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1809%20in%20literature
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1809 in literature
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Events from the year 1809 in literature.
Events
February 24 – The Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London, is destroyed by fire. When found drinking wine in the street while watching the conflagration, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, the proprietor, is reported as saying: "A man may surely be allowed to take a glass of wine by his own fireside." The putative manuscript of The History of Cardenio may have been lost in the blaze.
March 1 – The literary and political periodical The Quarterly Review is first published by John Murray in London.
June 1 – Samuel Taylor Coleridge founds The Friend, a weekly periodical which runs for some 25 issues.
July 7 – Jane Austen settles with her sister and mother at Chawton Cottage in Chawton, near Alton, Hampshire and she resumes writing regularly.
September 18 – A new Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, London, opens to replace the first, which burnt down in 1808. The first play performed is Macbeth. Raised ticket prices cause the Old Price Riots, which last for 64 days, until the manager, John Philip Kemble, reverses the increases.
Uncertain dates
The Walnut Street Theatre, Philadelphia, United States, is opened as "The New Circus" by the Circus of Pepin and Breschard. It becomes the oldest continually operating playhouse in the English-speaking world and the oldest in the United States.
William Combe begins publication of the verse Tour of Dr Syntax in search of the Picturesque in Ackermann's Political Magazine (London), illustrated by Thomas Rowlandson, satirising William Gilpin's views on the picturesque.
New books
Fiction
Thomas Campbell – Gertrude of Wyoming
François-René de Chateaubriand – Les Martyrs
Catherine Cuthbertson – Romance of the Pyrenees
Thomas Frognall Dibdin – Bibliomania; or Book-Madness: a bibliographical romance
Maria Edgeworth – Ennui and Manœuvering
E. M. Foster – The Corinna of England, and a Heroine in the Shade: A Modern Romance
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – Elective Affinities (Die Wahlverwandtschaften)
Stéphanie Félicité, Comtesse de Genlis – Alphonso
Anne Grant – Memoirs of an American Lady
Sarah Green – Tales of the Manor
Washington Irving – A History of New-York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty, by Diedrich Knickerbocker
Ivan Krylov – Basni (Fables)
Catherine Manners – The Lords of Erith
Mary Meeke – Laughton Priory
Hannah More – Coelebs in Search of a Wife
Mary Pilkington – The Mysterious Orphan
Anna Maria Porter – Don Sebastian
Shikitei Sanba (式亭 三馬) – Ukiyoburo (publication begins)
Louisa Stanhope – The Age We Live In
Elizabeth Thomas – Monte Video
Drama
Heinrich von Kleist – Die Hermannschlacht
Adam Oehlenschläger – Palnatoke
Non-fiction
Jacob Boehme – De la Triple Vie de l'homme (translated into French by Louis Claude de Saint-Martin)
Lord Byron – English Bards and Scotch Reviewers
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck – Philosophie Zoologique
John Roberton – A Treatise on Medical Police, and on Diet, Regimen, &c
Births
January 19 – Edgar Allan Poe, American poet, short story writer and literary critic (died 1849)
March 6 – David Bates, American poet (died 1870)
March 31
Edward Fitzgerald, English poet (died 1883)
Nikolai Gogol, Russian dramatist, novelist and short story writer (died 1852)
June 3 – Margaret Gatty, English children's writer (died 1873)
June 13 – Heinrich Hoffmann, German author and children's poet (died 1894)
June 19 – Monckton Milnes, English man of letters, poet and politician (died 1885)
August 6 – Alfred Tennyson, English poet (died 1892)
August 29 – Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., American poet (died 1894)
September 7 – Wilhelmina Gravallius, Swedish novelist (died 1884)
November 27 – Fanny Kemble, English actress (died 1893)
unknown date – George Ayliffe Poole, English writer and cleric (died 1883)
Deaths
January 3 – Richard Shepherd, English theologian (born c. 1732)
February – John Andrews, English historical writer and pamphleteer (born 1736)
March 11 – Hannah Cowley, English dramatist and poet (born 1743)
March 23 – Thomas Holcroft, English dramatist and miscellanist (born 1745)
March 25 – Anna Seward, English poet (born 1747)
June 8 – Thomas Paine, English political theorist (born 1737)
August 8 – Ueda Akinari, Japanese writer (born 1734)
October 19 – Jean-Henri Gourgaud, French actor (born 1746)
December 20 – Joseph Johnson, English publisher (born 1738)
December 21 – Tiberius Cavallo, Italian physicist and natural philosopher (born 1749)
December 23 – József Fabchich, Hungarian translator of Greek poetry and lexicographer (born 1753)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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208507
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1808%20in%20literature
|
1808 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1808.
Events
January 3 – The Examiner, "A Sunday paper, on politics, domestic economy, and theatricals", is established in London by John Hunt, edited by his brother Leigh Hunt.
January 30 – The Théâtre St. Philippe opens in New Orleans, United States.
September 20 – The first Theatre Royal, Covent Garden in London, established in 1732, is destroyed by fire along with most of the scenery, costumes and scripts. Rebuilding begins in December.
Uncertain date
Charles Thomson's Bible Translation from the Greek (Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Covenant) is printed by Jane Aitken in Philadelphia (United States).
New books
Fiction
James Norris Brewer – Mountville Castle
Stéphanie Félicité, comtesse de Genlis – The Earl of Cork
Sarah Green – Tankerville Family
Elizabeth Hamilton – The Cottagers of Glenburnie
Heinrich von Kleist – Die Marquise von O...
Francis Lathom – The Northern Gallery
Charles Maturin – The Wild Irish Boy
Karoline Pichler – Agathocles
Elizabeth Thomas – The Husband and Wife
Children
Ann Taylor and Jane Taylor – Hymns for Infant Minds
Drama
James Nelson Barker – The Indian Princess
Matthäus Casimir von Collin – Belas Krieg mit dem Vater (Béla's War with His Father)
Richard Cumberland – The Jew of Mogadore
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – Faust: The First Part of the Tragedy (published)
Heinrich von Kleist
Penthesilea
The Broken Jug (Der zerbrochne Krug)
Adam Oehlenschläger
Baldur hin Gode
Hakon Jarl
John Tobin – The School for Authors
Poetry
William Blake – Milton (probable date)
Friedrich Schiller – revised version of "Ode to Joy", which formed the basis for the lyrics of Beethoven's 9th Symphony
Friedrich Hölderlin
"Der Rhein"
"Patmos"
Walter Scott – Marmion
Non-fiction
Charles Fourier – The Theory of the Four Movements
J. F. Fries – Neue oder anthropologische Kritik der Vernunft (New Critique of Reason)
Johann Heinrich Jung –
Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel –
Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert –
Births
January 27 – David Strauss, German theologian and writer (died 1874)
February 5 – Carl Spitzweg, German poet (died 1885)
February 16 – Gustave Planche, French critic (died 1857)
March 22 – Caroline Norton (née Caroline Sheridan), English poet, pamphleteer and social reformer (died 1877)
March 25 – José de Espronceda, Spanish poet (died 1842)
April 18 – Teréz Karacs, Hungarian novelist, poet and memoirist (died 1892)
May 22 – Gérard de Nerval, French poet and translator (died 1855)
June 17 – Henrik Wergeland, Norwegian poet (died 1845)
June 21 – John Critchley Prince, English poet (died 1866)
June 22 – Xavier Marmier, French writer and translator (died 1892)
June 28 – James Spedding, English author and editor (died 1881)
July 10 – Solomon Northup, African-American memoirist (died c. 1864)
September 9 – Wendela Hebbe, Swedish playwright, journalist and novelist (died 1899)
October 21 – Julia Maitland, English writer on India and children's writer (died 1864)
November 2 – Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly, French novelist (died 1889)
Unknown date – Harriet Ward, English non-fiction and fiction writer (died 1873)
Deaths
February 12 – Anna Maria Bennett, English novelist (born c. 1760)
April 4 – Lady Charlotte Murray, English writer and botanist (born 1854)
May 2 – John Collins, English poet and entertainer (born 1742)
September 5 – John Home, Scottish poet (born 1722)
September 13 – Saverio Bettinelli, Italian man of letters (born 1718)
September 25 – Richard Porson, English classicist (born 1757)
November 4 – Melchiore Cesarotti, Italian poet (born 1730)
December 28 – John Duncan, English miscellanist (born 1721)
c. November/December – Nólsoyar Páll, Faroese merchant and poet, lost at sea (born 1766)
Uncertain date
Maria Riddell – West Indies-born poet, naturalist and travel writer (born 1772)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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208508
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Davenport
|
Ian Davenport
|
Ian Davenport (born 8 July 1966) is an English abstract painter and former Turner Prize nominee.
Life and work
Ian Davenport was born in Sidcup, and studied art at the Northwich College of Art and Design in Cheshire and then at Goldsmiths College, where he graduated in 1988. HIs that year he exhibited in the Freeze exhibition organised by Damien Hirst. His first solo show was in 1990 and in the same year he was included in the British Art Show. In 1991, he was nominated for the annual Turner Prize.
Many of his works are made by pouring paint onto a tilted surface and letting gravity spread the paint over the surface.
For the Days Like These exhibition at Tate Britain in 2003, he made a thirteen-metre-high mural by dripping lines of differently-coloured paint down the wall from a syringe. In September 2006 he unveiled his largest public commission to date on Southwark Bridge, entitled Poured Lines: Southwark. He painted the West End Wall of the University of Oxford Department of Biochemistry.
Stylistic comparisons have been made between his work and that of Bridget Riley, Helen Frankenthaler and Callum Innes.
A monograph on him was published in 2014.
He is a Patron of Paintings in Hospitals, a charity that provides art for health and social care in England, Wales and Northern Ireland.
References
External links
Ian Davenport Studio website
1966 births
Living people
20th-century English painters
English male painters
21st-century English painters
Alumni of Goldsmiths, University of London
People from Sidcup
English contemporary artists
Young British Artists
British abstract artists
|
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] |
208510
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1807%20in%20literature
|
1807 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1807.
Events
January – Heinrich von Kleist sets out for Dresden, but is arrested by the French as a spy and kept a prisoner for six months at Châlons-sur-Marne.
January 24 – Washington Irving launches the satirical magazine Salmagundi in New York City.
June 24 – The Tout-Paris assist in the first production of the Panorama de Momus, a vaudeville by Marc-Antoine Désaugiers.
July 13 – Heinrich von Kleist is released from prison in France.
unknown dates
The first edition of The Family Shakspeare, an expurgated edition of Shakespeare's plays under the nominal editorship of Thomas Bowdler, but probably compiled mostly by his sister Henrietta Maria Bowdler, appears in London.
The first facsimile edition of the Shakespeare First Folio, edited by Francis Douce, is published in London by Edward and Joseph Wright.
Benjamin Tabart in London publishes the first printed version of The History of Jack and the Bean-Stalk.
Charles Wiley founds a print shop in Manhattan, which eventually grows into the John Wiley & Sons book publishing group.
New books
Fiction
Harriet Butler – Count Eugenio
Charlotte Dacre – The Libertine
Germaine de Staël – Corinne, ou l'Italie
Elizabeth Gunning – The Orphans of Snowdon
Rachel Hunter – Family Annals
William Henry Ireland – The Catholic
Charles and Mary Lamb – Tales from Shakespeare
Matthew Gregory Lewis – The Wood Daemon
P. D. Manville – Lucinda
Charles Maturin – The Fatal Revenge
Mary Meeke – Julien
Mary Pilkington – Ellen: Heiress of the Castle
Anna Maria Porter – The Hungarian Brothers
Regina Marie Roche – The Discarded Son
Anne Louise Germaine de Stael – Corinne
Sarah Wilkinson – The Castle Spectre
Drama
Thomas John Dibdin – Pantomimes:
Harlequin in his Element
Mother Goose
Giovanni Giraud – Gelosie per equivoco
Sophia Lee – The Assignation
John Tobin – The Curfew
Poetry
James Hogg – The Mountain Bard
William Wordsworth – Poems in Two Volumes
Non-fiction
Antoine Alexandre Barbier – Dictionnaire des ouvrages anonymes et pseudonymes
Jacob Boehme – Quarante Questions sur l'âme (translated into French by Louis Claude de Saint-Martin)
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel -The Phenomenology of Spirit (Phänomenologie des Geistes)
Gottlieb Hufeland – New Foundations of Political Economy
Alexander von Humboldt – Voyage aux régions équinoxiales du nouveau continent 1799–1804
Thomas Paine – The Age of Reason
Germaine de Staël – Corinne, ou l'Italie
Births
January 28 – Sophie Bolander, Swedish novelist (died 1869)
February 27 – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, American poet (died 1882)
June 30 – Friedrich Theodor Vischer, German author (died 1887)
August 31 – Thomas Miller, English "ploughman poet" and novelist (died 1874)
September 2 – Fredrika Runeberg, Finnish novelist and journalist (died 1879)
September 9 – Richard Chenevix Trench, Anglo-Irish Anglican archbishop and poet (died 1886)
October 23 – Jemima von Tautphoeus, née Montgomery, Anglo-Irish-born novelist (died 1893)
October 30 – Christopher Wordsworth, English Anglican bishop and Biblical scholar (died 1885)
November 16 – Jónas Hallgrímsson, Icelandic poet (died 1845)
Deaths
January 5 – Isaac Reed, English Shakespearean editor (born 1742)
February 18 – Sophie von La Roche, German novelist (born 1730)
June 14 – Louis Bruyas, French dramatist and actor (born 1738)
July 24 – John Christopher Kunze, American theologian (born 1744)
August 1 – John Walker, English lexicographer (born 1732)
December 3 – Clara Reeve, English novelist and literary historian (born 1729)
December 19 – Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm, German-born French memoirist and literary correspondent (born 1723)
December 21 – John Newton, English hymnist (born 1725)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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] |
208511
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1806%20in%20literature
|
1806 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1806.
Events
November 23 – Sir Roger Newdigate dies, leaving a bequest that funds the foundation of the Newdigate Prize for English Poetry at the University of Oxford. The first winner is John Wilson ("Christopher North").
December 29 – Thomas Dibdin's pantomime Harlequin and Mother Goose; or, The Golden Egg opens at the Covent Garden Theatre in London starring Joseph Grimaldi. It runs for 111 performances.
unknown dates
Noah Webster publishes his first English dictionary, A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language, recording distinct American spellings.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe completes a preliminary version of his Faust.
Nólsoyar Páll completes his anti-Danish Fuglakvæði (Ballad of the Birds), one of the first significant works in the Faroese language.
New books
Fiction
Harriet Butler – Vensenshon
Sophie Ristaud Cottin – Elisabeth, ou les Exilés de Sibérie
Catherine Cuthbertson – Santo Sebastiano
Charlotte Dacre – Zofloya
Maria Edgeworth – Leonora
Rachel Hunter – Lady Maclairn, the Victim of Villany
Francis Lathom – The Mysterious Freebooter
Matthew Gregory Lewis – Feudal Tyrants
Sydney Owenson – The Wild Irish Girl
Louisa Stanhope – Montbrasil Abbey
Children and young people
Elizabeth Dawbarn – Young Person's Assistant in Reading the Old Testament
Ann Taylor and Jane Taylor – Rhymes for the Nursery
Drama
Richard Cumberland – Hint to Husbands
Thomas Holcroft – The Vindictive Man
Heinrich von Kleist – The Broken Jug (Der zerbrochne Krug, written)
Leandro Fernández de Moratín – The Maidens' Consent (El sí de las niñas, first performed)
Non-fiction
J. C. Adelung – Mithridates, a History of Language and Dialects
Johann Gottlieb Fichte – Bericht über die Wissenschaftslehre
James Madison – An Examination of the British Doctrine which Subjects to Capture a Neutral Trade not Open in Time of Peace
Maria Rundell (as A Lady) – A New System of Domestic Cookery
Jane West – Letters to a Young Lady
Births
January 17 – William Saunders, Welsh poet and printer (died 1851)
February 1 – Jane Williams (Ysgafell), Welsh poet, folklorist and historian (died 1885)
March 6 – Elizabeth Barrett Browning, English poet (died 1861)
March 26 – James Hogg, Scottish editor and publisher (died 1888)
April 17 – William Gilmore Simms, American author (died 1870)
May 20 – John Stuart Mill, English political economist and philosopher (died 1873)
July 20 – John Sterling, Scottish essayist and poet (died 1844)
July 22 – Johann Kaspar Zeuss, German historian and philologist (died 1856)
August 31 – Charles Lever, Irish novelist (died 1872)
November 11 – Georgiana Chatterton, English novelist and travel writer (died 1876)
Deaths
February 12 – Gabriel-Henri Gaillard, French historian (born 1726)
February 19 – Elizabeth Carter, English poet, writer and translator (born 1717)
February 24 – Collin d'Harleville, French dramatist (born 1755)
March 3 – Heinrich Christian Boie, German poet and editor (born 1744)
April 4 – Carlo Gozzi, Venetian dramatist (born 1720)
May 6 – Ann Yearsley, English poet, writer and library proprietor (died 1753)
October 19 – Henry Kirke White, English poet (born 1785)
October 28 – Charlotte Turner Smith, English poet and novelist (born 1749)
November 23 – Sir Roger Newdigate, English antiquary, politician and literary patron (born 1719)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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] |
208514
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1805%20in%20literature
|
1805 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1805.
Events
January 18–September 6 – Samuel Taylor Coleridge serves as Acting Public Secretary in Malta.
Early – Jacob Grimm is invited to Paris as an assistant to Friedrich Karl von Savigny.
October 12 – The new Theatre Royal, Bath, opens in England, replacing the Old Orchard Street Theatre.
Unknown date – Henry Thomas Colebrooke makes the first translation into English of the Sanskrit Aitareya Upanishad.
New books
Fiction
Eugenia de Acton – The Nuns of the Desert
Sophie Ristaud Cottin – Mathilde (translated as The Saracen; or Matilda and Malek Adhel: A Crusade Romance)
Charlotte Dacre – Confessions of the Nun of St. Omer
Robert Charles Dallas – The Morlands
Maria Edgeworth – The Modern Griselda
Jean-Baptiste Cousin de Grainville – Le Dernier Homme
Elizabeth Helme:
The Chronicles of Christabelle de Mowbray
The Pilgrims of the Cross
William Henry Ireland – Gondez the Monk
Matthew Gregory Lewis – The Bravo of Venice
Mary Meeke – The Wonder of the Village
Anna Maria Porter
A Sailor's Friendship
A Soldier's Love
Jan Potocki – The Manuscript Found in Saragossa (Manuscrit trouvé à Saragosse, first ten "days")
Catherine Selden – Villa Nova
Children
Ann Taylor and Jane Taylor – Original Poems for Infant Minds by several young persons, vol. 2
Achim von Arnim and Clemens Brentano (edited and composed) – Des Knaben Wunderhorn, vol. 1
Drama
Marianne Chambers – The School for Friends
Alexandre-Vincent Pineux Duval – Le Menuisier de Livonie
Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger – Hakon Jarl
John Tobin – The Honey Moon
Poetry
Ivan Pnin – God
Walter Scott – The Lay of the Last Minstrel
Martin Archer Shee – Rhymes on Art
Robert Southey – Madoc
Non-fiction
Hosea Ballou – A Treatise on Atonement
James Belcher – "Treatice [sic.] on Boxing by Mr. J. Belcher" (article in George Barrington, New London Year)
Henry Thomas Colebrooke
Essay on the Vedas
A Grammar of the Sanskrit Language
Denis Diderot (posthumously) – Rameau's Nephew (in a German translation by Goethe)
William Henry Ireland – The Confessions of William Henry Ireland
Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool – Treatise on the Coins of the Realm
Ellis Cornelia Knight – Description of Latium or La Campagna di Roma
Richard Payne Knight – An Analytical Inquiry into the Principles of Taste
Jane Marcet (anonymously) – Conversations on Chemistry
Mercy Otis Warren – History of the Rise, Progress, and Termination of the American Revolution
Births
February 4 – William Harrison Ainsworth, English historical novelist (died 1882)
April 2 – Hans Christian Andersen, Danish writer (died 1875)
July 29 – Alexis de Tocqueville, French writer (died 1859)
August 29 – F. D. Maurice, English theologian and novelist (died 1872)
September 19 – John Stevens Cabot Abbott, American historian (died 1877)
December 23 – Joseph Smith, American founder and prophet of the Latter Day Saint movement (killed 1844)
Deaths
February 24 – Ralph Broome, English pamphleteer (born 1742)
March 29 – Jean Elliot, Scottish poet (born 1727)
May 9 – Friedrich Schiller, German playwright (born 1759)
May 25 – William Paley, English philosopher (born 1743)
Anna Maria Rückerschöld, Swedish author (born 1725)
June 18 – Arthur Murphy (Charles Ranger), Irish writer (born 1727)
July 27 – Brian Merriman (Brian Mac Giolla Meidhre), Irish-language poet (born c. 1749)
August 3 – Christopher Anstey, English poet (born 1724)
Early September – Mary Deverell, English religious writer, essayist and poet (born 1731)
September 3 – Johann Martin Abele, German publisher (born 1753)
December 21 – Manuel Maria Barbosa du Bocage, Portuguese poet (born 1765)
unknown dates
Ji Yun (纪昀), Chinese poet and scholar (born 1724)
Anna Hammar-Rosén, Swedish publisher (born 1735)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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] |
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