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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinando%20Fairfax%2C%202nd%20Lord%20Fairfax%20of%20Cameron
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Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron
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Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron MP (29 March 1584 – 14 March 1648) was an English nobleman and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1614 and 1648. He was a commander in the Parliamentary army in the English Civil War.
He should not be confused with his better known son, Thomas Fairfax, who commanded the New Model Army.
Early life
He was born in Yorkshire, the eldest son of Ellen Aske and Thomas Fairfax, 1st Lord Fairfax of Cameron, whom Charles I in 1627 created Lord Fairfax of Cameron in the Peerage of Scotland and received a military education in the Netherlands. Two of his brothers were Henry Fairfax and Charles Fairfax. Four others were killed on military service overseas.
Political career
He served as member of the English parliament for Boroughbridge during the six parliaments which met between 1614 and 1629 and also during the Short Parliament of 1640. In May 1640 he succeeded his father as Lord Fairfax, but being a Scottish peer he sat in the English House of Commons as one of the representatives of Yorkshire during the Long Parliament from 1640 until his death. He took the side of the parliament, but held moderate views and desired to maintain the peace. His main seat was Denton Hall in Wharfedale, Yorkshire.
Military service
In the first Bishops' War Fairfax had commanded a regiment in the king's army; then on the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 he became commander of the parliamentary forces in Yorkshire, with Newcastle as his opponent. Hostilities began after the repudiation of a treaty of neutrality entered into by Fairfax with the Royalists. At first Fairfax met with no success. He was driven from York, where he was besieging the Royalists, to Selby; then in 1643 to Leeds; and after beating off an attack at that place he was totally defeated on 30 June 1643 at the Battle of Adwalton Moor. He escaped to Hull, which he successfully defended against Newcastle from 2 September until 11 October 1643, and by means of a brilliant sally caused the siege to be raised. Fairfax was victorious at Selby on 11 April 1644, and joining the Scots, besieged York, after which he was present at the Battle of Marston Moor (2 July 1644), where he commanded the infantry and was routed. He was subsequently, in July 1644, made Governor of York and charged with the further reduction of the county. In December 1644 he took the town of Pontefract, but failed to secure the castle.
During his command in Yorkshire, Fairfax engaged in a paper war with Newcastle, and wrote The Answer of Ferdinando, Lord Fairfax, to a Declaration of William, Earl of Newcastle (1642; printed in Rushworth, pt. iii. vol. ii. p. 139); he also published A Letter from . . . Lord Fairfax to . . . Robert, Earl of Essex (1643), describing the victorious sally at Hull.
Later life
Fairfax resigned his command on the passing of the Self-denying Ordinance, but remained a member of the Committee for the Government of Yorkshire and was appointed, on 24 July 1645, steward of the manor of Pontefract. He died from an accident which caused gangrene in his foot on 14 March 1648 and was buried at Bolton Percy in Yorkshire.
Marriages and issue
Fairfax had married twice. By his first wife, Mary, daughter of Edmund Sheffield (afterwards 1st Earl of Mulgrave), he had six daughters and two sons: Thomas Fairfax, who succeeded him as the third Lord Fairfax, and Charles, a colonel of horse, who was killed at Marston Moor. He married his second wife, Rhoda Chapman, widow of Thomas Hussey, in October 1646: they had one child, a daughter Ursula.
References
External links
Archival Material at
Attribution
|-
1584 births
1648 deaths
Roundheads
Ferdinando
Members of the Parliament of England for constituencies in Yorkshire
Accidental deaths in England
Military personnel of the English Civil War
English MPs 1614
English MPs 1621–1622
English MPs 1624–1625
English MPs 1625
English MPs 1626
English MPs 1628–1629
English MPs 1640 (April)
English MPs 1640–1648
Lords of Parliament (pre-1707)
Lords Fairfax of Cameron
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208776
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakotamys
|
Dakotamys
|
Dakotamys is a genus of extinct mammal that lived during the Upper Cretaceous. It shared the world with dinosaurs. This small creature was a member of the also extinct order Multituberculata within the suborder Cimolodonta and was a member of the Paracimexomys group.
The genus Dakotamys ("Dakota mouse") was named by Eaton J.G. in 1995. Dakota refers to the Dakota Formation. "Paracimexomys and Dakotamys... resemble the Eobaataridae in the structure of the upper and lower molars, with cusps showing a tendency to coalesce, and with ornamentation of grooves and ribs on the molars," (Kielan-Jaworowska & Hurum, 2001, p. 403).
References
Eaton (1995), "Cenomanian and Turonian (Early Late Cretaceous) multituberculate mammals from southwestern Utah". Journal of Vert Paleo 15(4), p. 761-784.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Late Cretaceous mammals of North America
Cimolodonts
Fossils of the United States
Fossil taxa described in 1995
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Wycombe
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West Wycombe
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West Wycombe is a small village situated along the A40 road, three miles west of High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, England.
The historic village is largely a National Trust property and receives a large annual influx of tourists – being the site of West Wycombe Park, West Wycombe Caves and the Mausoleum on top of West Wycombe Hill. The Mausoleum and Golden Ball above West Wycombe village are impressive local landmarks, visually dominating the village and local landscape for miles surrounding.
West Wycombe Park, Caves, Mausoleum and St Lawrence's Church were all constructed in the mid-18th century by Sir Francis Dashwood, founder of the Dilettanti Society and co-founder of the notorious Hellfire Club.
History
Early history
The hill above West Wycombe (now the site of St Lawrence's Church and the Mausoleum) has been continuously inhabited for centuries. A Bronze Age settlement is widely believed to have existed here, and research suggests there was a pagan temple in a similar style to Stonehenge. The earliest known settlement is an Iron Age ditch and rampart contour camp dating from the fourth or fifth century BC. A Roman settlement later occupied West Wycombe Hill, and local historians believe a temple was constructed here (though the exact site remains unknown).
The lost village of Haveringdon
The next major influence on West Wycombe was the Saxons. The hillside was once again occupied, and the newly established settlement was named Hæferingdune (Hill of Hæfer's people in Old English). The name later evolved into Haveringdon.
The site retained religious importance: a church is said to have been erected by St Birnius (who later became the bishop of the West Saxons in AD 635).
A Norman watch tower is also said to have been built on top of the hill.
Haveringdon's population is believed to have been greatly reduced by the Bubonic Plague (Black Death) in the 1340s. By the 18th century the village had been resited in the valley along the Oxford Road, and renamed due to its geographical features and position: "West" because it was west of High Wycombe. Both settlements are in the Wye Valley and the word "Combe" derives from the Old English/Brythonic word for "valley". According to local records there were just two ratepayers left in Haveringdon in the 19th century.
The era of Georgians
In the mid 18th century Sir Francis Dashwood commissioned an ambitious project to supply chalk for a three-mile straight road between West Wycombe and High Wycombe, now part of the A40 road, then a prominent trade route between London, Oxford, and Gloucester and onward to South Wales. The local chalk cave which had been in the village since prehistoric times was expanded into an elaborate network of tunnels and passages. The design of the caves was mostly inspired by Dashwood's Grand Tour of Italy, Greece and the Ottoman Empire.
Local villagers, impoverished after a series of harvest failures, were paid a shilling per day to tunnel underground to mine chalk. The caves were all excavated by hand and even today they are viewed as an incredible feat of engineering.
Dashwood's family home, West Wycombe House, also underwent major alterations at this time. Although Haveringdon had all but disappeared by then, the church and tower had remained and a centre section was built to join the two together. The Mausoleum was also constructed, based on the design of the Constantine Arch in Rome. The new church was named Saint Lawrence's, as it was common for churches built on Pagan sites to have this name. The church and Mausoleum were also built using chalk and flint from the caves.
During this time, Dashwood and other high-powered politicians and society members formed a club then known as The Knights of St. Francis (which was later named as the Hellfire Club by a London newspaper). They first used Medmenham Abbey, eight miles away from West Wycombe on the River Thames, but the caves were later used for the club's meetings. The club was notorious in its day for orgies and black magic, but had disbanded by 1763 (according to church records). The caves fell into disuse and disrepair.
West Wycombe in the 20th century
In 1929 West Wycombe village was put up for sale by the Dashwood family to raise cash following that year's Wall Street Crash. It was bought in its entirety by the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce (better known as the Royal Society of Arts, or simply the RSA) as part of the Society's "Campaign for the Preservation of Ancient Cottages". In 1934, after extensive repairs, the Society handed the property over to the National Trust. The National Trust markets this property under the name 'West Wycombe Village and Hill'. The property features many buildings of architectural value which were built between the 16th and 18th centuries.
Between 1906 and 1958 the village was served by West Wycombe railway station, to the east of the village, on the Chiltern Main Line between London and Birmingham.
In the late 1940s and early 1950s the caves underwent extensive repairs under the auspices of the Dashwood family and turned into a tourist attraction. The profit earned was used to renovate the dilapidated West Wycombe Park. The caves continue to thrive as a popular tourist attraction today and have received over 2 million visitors since their reopening in 1951.
West Wycombe today
Although it is on the busy A40, the village centre retains much of its historical charm. It is mainly owned by the National Trust, and so has resisted modernisation. The High Street has a number of 'old-fashioned' shops (in appearance at least), as well as three pubs, some small offices and a well-used village hall. Just off the High Street is the village primary school (Reception to Year 6), a traditional furniture maker and a band hall. The population is around 1,300.
St Lawrence's church was until the mid 18th century a medieval building. Between 1752 and 1762 it was rebuilt for Sir Francis Dashwood by the architect John Donowell. The interior was inspired by the Temple of the Sun at Palmyra; the church tower is topped by a large golden globe which originally contained seating for eight people.
The Swan is a Grade II listed public house. It is on the Campaign for Real Ale's National Inventory of Historic Pub Interiors. Built in the 18th century, The Swan was refitted and extended in 1932 by Wheelers Wycombe brewery.
West Wycombe is also a civil parish in Wycombe district.
See also
West Wycombe Park
West Wycombe Caves
West Wycombe Park Polo Club
References
External links
West Wycombe Village website, listing all business for tourism and information
West Wycombe Village and Hill information at the National Trust
West Wycombe Parish Council
National Trust properties in Buckinghamshire
Villages in Buckinghamshire
Civil parishes in Buckinghamshire
Hill forts in Buckinghamshire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellfire%20Caves
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Hellfire Caves
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The Hellfire Caves (also known as the West Wycombe Caves) are a network of man-made chalk and flint caverns which extend 260m underground. They are situated above the village of West Wycombe, at the southern edge of the Chiltern Hills near High Wycombe in Buckinghamshire, Southeast England.
They were excavated between 1748 and 1752 for Francis Dashwood, 11th Baron le Despencer (2nd Baronet), founder of the Dilettanti Society and co-founder of the Hellfire Club, whose meetings were held in the caves. The caves have been operating as a tourist attraction since 1863.
Location and layout
The caves run into the hillside above West Wycombe village and directly beneath St Lawrence's Church and Mausoleum (which were also constructed by Sir Francis Dashwood around the same time the caves were excavated). West Wycombe Park, ancestral seat of the Dashwood family and also a National Trust property, lies directly across the valley. This area can be viewed directly from West Wycombe House.
The unusual design of the caves was much inspired by Sir Francis Dashwood's visits to Italy, Greece, Turkey, Syria and other areas of the Ottoman Empire during his Grand Tour. The caves extend underground, with the individual caves or "chambers" connected by a series of long, narrow tunnels and passageways.
A route through the underground chambers proceeds, from the Entrance Hall, to the Steward's Chamber and Whitehead's Cave, through Lord Sandwich's Circle (named after John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich), Franklin's Cave (named after Benjamin Franklin, a friend of Dashwood who visited West Wycombe), the Banqueting Hall (allegedly the largest man-made chalk cavern in the world), the Triangle, to the Miner's Cave; and finally, across a subterranean river named the Styx, lies the final cave, the Inner Temple, where the meetings of the Hellfire Club were held, and which is said to lie directly beneath the church on top of West Wycombe hill. In Greek mythology, the River Styx separated the mortal world from Hades, and the subterranean position of the Inner Temple directly beneath St Lawrence's Church was supposed to signify Heaven and Hell.
History
Alteration and extension
A chalk mine of supposedly ancient origin is believed to have existed above West Wycombe for centuries.
During the late 1740s, to try to combat local poverty, Sir Francis Dashwood commissioned an ambitious project to supply chalk for a straight three mile (5 km) road between West Wycombe and High Wycombe (then on the busy London-Oxford road, now the A40). Local farm workers, impoverished by a succession of droughts and failed harvests, were employed here.
Hellfire Club
Members of a club founded by Sir Francis Dashwood included various politically and socially important 18th-century figures such as William Hogarth, John Wilkes, Thomas Potter and John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich. Though not believed to have been a member, Benjamin Franklin was a close friend of Dashwood who visited the caves on more than one occasion. The Hellfire Club had previously used Medmenham Abbey, from West Wycombe on the River Thames, as a meeting place, but the caves at West Wycombe were used for meetings in the 1750s and early 1760s. The club motto was Fais ce que tu voudras ("Do what thou wilt").
According to Horace Walpole, the members' "practice was rigorously pagan: Bacchus and Venus were the deities to whom they almost publicly sacrificed; and the nymphs and the hogsheads that were laid in against the festivals of this new church, sufficiently informed the neighbourhood of the complexion of those hermits."
While it was still operating, Sir Francis' group was not known as the Hellfire Club - this name was given much later. His club used other names, such as The Brotherhood of St. Francis of Wycombe, Order of Knights of West Wycombe, and The Order of the Friars of St. Francis of West Wycombe.
Meetings occurred twice a month, with an AGM lasting a week or more in June or September. Many rumours of black magic, satanic rituals and orgies were in circulation during the life of the club.
By the early 1760s, the club was no longer active. A local legend claims that the caves are haunted by Sukie, a young maid who was accidentally killed by people playing a practical joke on her. Others claim that the ghost of Paul Whitehead, the former steward of the Hell Fire Club, has been seen in the caves.
Legacy
During World War II, plans were made to use the caves as a large air-raid shelter if nearby towns were bombed, but Buckinghamshire's rural position meant that High Wycombe and surrounding towns were not an enemy target, and so the plans were not carried out. During the late 1940s and early 1950s the caves were renovated and turned into a local visitor attraction by the late Sir Francis Dashwood (11th Baronet).
Hellfire Caves have had more than 2.5 million visitors since reopening in 1951. The tours take visitors along passages which extend over underground past a series of chambers small to the Banqueting Hall and then to the so-called River Styx and the Inner Temple. According to the local tourist bureau, much of the profit earned by the caves has been donated to charities including the National Trust.
References
External links
The Hellfire Caves tourist attraction homepage
Subterranea of Great Britain: West Wycombe Caves
Atlas Obscura: Hellfire Caves
Tourist attractions in Buckinghamshire
Buildings and structures in Buckinghamshire
Caves of Buckinghamshire
Chiltern Hills
Show caves in the United Kingdom
Chalk mines in England
Reportedly haunted locations in South East England
Hellfire Club
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208783
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP%20R/3
|
SAP R/3
|
SAP R/3 is the former name of the enterprise resource planning software produced by the German corporation SAP AG (now SAP SE). It is an enterprise-wide information system designed to coordinate all the resources, information, and activities needed to complete business processes such as order fulfillment, billing, human resource management, and production planning.
The current successor software to SAP R/3 is known as SAP S/4HANA.
History of SAP S/4HANA
Earlier versions
SAP R/2 was a mainframe-based business application software suite that was very successful in the 1980s and early 1990s. It was particularly popular with large multinational European companies that required soft-real-time business applications, with built-in multi-currency and multi-language capabilities.
R/3
With the advent of distributed client–server computing, SAP SE brought out a client–server version of the software called SAP R/3 (the "R" was for "Real-time data processing" and "3" was for "3-tier": 1) database, 2) application server, and 3) client (SAPgui)). This new architecture is compatible with multiple platforms and operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows or UNIX. This opened up SAP to a whole new customer base.
SAP R/3 was officially launched on 6 July 1992. Various releases of the software were made through the 1990s.
A newer version of the software, with revised technical architecture, was released in 2004, and renamed as SAP ERP Central Component (ECC). SAP came to dominate the large business applications market. The newest version of the product is SAP ECC 6.0 Enhancement Pack 8.
SAP ECC is the core component within the SAP's Business Suite (a collection of applications including SAP CRM, SAP SCM and others, alongside the ECC component). SAP ECC contains different, but integrated, functionality within its "modules" e.g. Finance module, HR module, Warehouse Management etc. all within the ECC). The combined complexity of the Business Suite, along with newer in-cloud competitors, has in recent years led SAP to invest heavily in simplification and massively improved system response times, culminating in the announcement of the S/4 Simple Suite in February 2015. S/4 has a single tenant architecture and is being built upon SAP's in-memory database technology stack (HANA) and will be available in a choice of in-cloud and on-premises deployment. The classic three-tier and database-agnostic architecture of R/3 is replaced with a two-tier architecture.
Releases
SAP R/1 System RF: 1973
SAP R/2 Mainframe System: 1979
SAP R/3 Enterprise Edition 1.0 A: July 1992
SAP R/3 Enterprise Edition 2.0B (SAP R/3 2.0B): July 1993
SAP R/3 Enterprise Edition 3.1l (SAP R/3 3.1I): 11 May 1998
SAP R/3 Enterprise Edition 4.0B (SAP R/3 4.0B): 6 April 1998
SAP R/3 Enterprise Edition 4.3
SAP R/3 Enterprise Edition 4.5B (SAP R/3 4.5B): 29 March 1999
SAP R/3 Enterprise Edition 4.6B (SAP R/3 4.6B): 6 December 1999
SAP R/3 Enterprise Edition 4.6C (SAP R/3 4.6C): 3 April 2000
SAP R/3 Enterprise Edition 4.6F
SAP R/3 ENTERPRISE 4.7X110: 15 July 2002
SAP R/3 ENTERPRISE 4.7X200: 22 September 2003
SAP ERP Central Component (ECC) 5.0: 21 June 2004
SAP ERP Central Component (ECC) 6.0: 24 October 2005
SAP enhancement package 1 for SAP ERP 6.0 (EHP1 FOR SAP ERP 6.0): 21 December 2006
SAP enhancement package 2 for SAP ERP 6.0 (EHP2 FOR SAP ERP 6.0): 27 July 2007
SAP enhancement package 3 for SAP ERP 6.0 (EHP3 FOR SAP ERP 6.0): 7 December 2007
SAP enhancement package 4 for SAP ERP 6.0 (EHP4 FOR SAP ERP 6.0): 21 November 2008
SAP enhancement package 5 for SAP ERP 6.0 (EHP5 FOR SAP ERP 6.0): 12 July 2010
SAP enhancement package 6 for SAP ERP 6.0 (EHP6 FOR SAP ERP 6.0): 24 August 2011
SAP enhancement package 7 for SAP ERP 6.0 (EHP7 FOR SAP ERP 6.0): 13 August 2013
SAP Fiori 1.0 for SAP ERP (UI FOR EHP7 FOR SAP ERP 6.0): 29 November 2013
SAP enhancement package 8 for SAP ERP 6.0 (EHP8 FOR SAP ERP 6.0): 20 January 2016
SAP S/4HANA
SAP S/4HANA 1511: November 2015
SAP S/4HANA 1610: 31 October 2016
SAP S/4HANA 1709: 15 September 2017
SAP S/4HANA 1809: 21 September 2018
SAP S/4HANA 1909: 20 September 2019
SAP S/4HANA 2020: 7 October 2020
Software organization
SAP R/3 was arranged into distinct functional modules, covering the typical functions in a business organization. The most widely used modules were Financials and Controlling (FICO), Human Resources (HR), Materials Management (MM), Sales & Distribution (SD), and Production Planning (PP).
Each module handled specific business tasks on its own, but was linked to the other modules where applicable. For instance, an invoice from the billing transaction of Sales & Distribution would pass through to accounting, where it will appear in accounts receivable and cost of goods sold.
SAP typically focused on best practice methodologies for driving its software processes, but more recently expanded into vertical markets. In these situations, SAP produced specialized modules (referred to as IS or Industry Specific) geared toward a particular market segment, such as utilities or retail.
Technology
SAP based the architecture of R/3 on a three-tier client/server structure:
Presentation layer (GUI)
Application layer
Database layer
Presentation layer
SAP allows the IT supported processing of a multitude of tasks which occur in a typical company. The newer SAP ERP software differs from R/3 mainly because it is based on SAP NetWeaver: core components can be implemented in ABAP and in Java and new functional areas are mostly no longer created as part of the previous ERP system, with closely interconnected constituents, but as self-contained components or even systems.
Application server
This server contains the SAP applications. In systems with two layers, this server forms part of the database server. Application server can be set up for online users, for background processing, or for both.
An application server is a collection of executables that collectively interpret the ABAP/4 (Advanced Business Application Programming / 4th Generation) programs and manage the input and output for them. When an application server is started, these executables all start at the same time. When an application server is stopped, they all shut down together. The number of processes that start up when you bring up the application server is defined in a single configuration file called the application server profile.
Each application server has a profile that specifies its characteristics when it starts up and while it is running. For example, an application server profile specifies:
Number of processes and their types
Amount of memory each process may use
Length of time a user is inactive before being automatically logged off.
The application layer consists of one or more application servers and a message server. Each application server contains a set of services used to run the R/3 system. Not practical, only one application server is needed to run an R/3 system. But in practice, the services are distributed across more than one application server. This means that not all application servers will provide the full range of services. The message server is responsible for communication between the application servers. It passes requests from one application server to another within the system. It also contains information about application server groups and the current load balancing within them. It uses this information to choose an appropriate server when a user logs onto the system.
The application server exists to interpret ABAP/4 programs, and they only run there. If an ABAP/4 program requests information from the database, the application server will send the request to the database server.
Security
Server-to-server communications can be encrypted with the SAP cryptographic library. With the acquisition of relevant parts of SECUDE, SAP was able to provide cryptographic libraries with SAP R/3 for Secure Network Communications and Secure Sockets Layer.
See also
NetWeaver
SAP ERP
T-code
References
R 3
ERP software
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty-year%20rule
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Thirty-year rule
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The "thirty-year rule" is the informal name given to laws in the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, and the Commonwealth of Australia that provide that certain government documents will be released publicly thirty years after they were created.
Some other countries' national archives also adhere to a thirty-year rule for the release of government documents.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the Public Records Act 1958 stated that
The closure period was reduced from fifty to thirty years by an amending act of 1967, passed during Harold Wilson's government. Among those who had repeatedly urged the scrapping of the fifty-year rule was the historian A. J. P. Taylor.
There were two elements to the rule: the first required that records be transferred from government departments to the Public Record Office (now The National Archives) after thirty years unless specific exemptions were given (by the Lord Chancellor's Advisory Council on Public Records); the second that they would be opened to public access at the same time unless their release was deemed likely to cause "damage to the country's image, national security or foreign relations".
Significant changes were made to the rules as a consequence of the Freedom of Information Act 2000 (FOIA) (which came into full effect on 1 January 2005). FOIA essentially removed the second of the thirty-year rules (the access one), and replaced it with provisions allowing citizens to request a wide range of information before any time limit has expired; and also removed some of the exemptions which had previously applied at the thirty-year point. After thirty years, records are transferred to The National Archives, and are reviewed under FOIA to see if they should be opened. The only rationale for keeping them closed within The National Archives is if a FOIA exemption applies.
As a result of that change, releases now occur monthly, rather than annually, and include more recent events, rather than only those over thirty years old.
An independent inquiry chaired by Paul Dacre, editor of the Daily Mail, recommended in January 2009 that the last restrictions on the release of information, such as Cabinet minutes, should be reduced to a fifteen-year embargo and phased in over a fifteen-year period.
Change to a twenty-year rule
Under the Constitutional Reform and Governance Act 2010, the UK government started moving towards a twenty-year rule.
Files from 1983 were released in August 2013 rather than January 2014, as would previously have been the case, and files from 1984 were released in January 2014.
There will continue to be two releases per year until 2022, when the National Archives will receive the files from 2001 and 2002, having caught up with the transition.
Australia
In Australia, the thirty-year rule applied to Commonwealth (federal) government records, except for Cabinet handbooks (closed for fifty years) and raw census records (closed for 99 years). Those periods were laid down in the Archives Act 1983.
In 2009, the Archives Act was amended to reduce the closed period from thirty to twenty years, with Cabinet notebooks reduced from fifty to thirty years. Census records remain closed for 99 years to protect the privacy of individuals.
Cabinet papers for a full year are released on 1 January each year. To reduce the withholding period from 30 to 20 years, two years of cabinet papers, and three years of cabinet notebooks, have been released simultaneously from 2011 until 2020, when the new 20-year period will be reached.
Ireland
The Government of Ireland declassifies files in a similar fashion according to the thirty-year rule. In recent years, files relating to the state’s role in the conflict in Northern Ireland known as The Troubles are declassified in late December of each year.
Canada
The Supreme Court of Canada has recognized that Cabinet confidentiality is essential to good government. In the decision Babcock v AG Canada the court explained the reason as:
To preserve this rule of confidentiality, subsection 70(1) of the Privacy Act provides that the Act does not apply to confidences of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada. Other notable cases that expand upon the doctrine of cabinet confidentiality include Canada (Minister of Environment) v. Canada (Information Commissioner), 2003 FCA 68 and Quinn v. Canada (Prime Minister), 2011 FC 379. As of 2013, after a time lag of 20 years Canadians can submit access-to-information requests for cabinet records through the Privy Council Office, but this comes at a cost of $5 per request and can take months to process. In May 2018, it was disclosed that the Supreme Court of Canada under Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin had placed a "50-year from the time they rule on a case" embargo on public access to files related to the deliberations of the judges.
According to Archivist Michael Dufresne, it was not until 1940 and the advent of the Second World War that Cabinet kept an agenda and minutes of its deliberations. From 1867 to 1940, a succession of six men served as Clerk of the Privy Council, and their duties included serving as the only institutional memory bank of the Government of Canada. The appointment in 1940 of Arnold Danforth Patrick Heeney as Clerk and as first Secretary to the Cabinet changed the format of memory bank from biological to scriptural. Heeney was surprised upon arrival by the informal ways in which important business was conducted:
Order-in-Council PC 1940-1121 of March 25, 1940 ushered in a significant change in the documentation of government. The Order-in-Council read, in part:
Heeney established procedures and for the first time recorded the minutes and conclusions of a cabinet body – the Cabinet War Committee. In 1942, the Statutory Orders and Regulations Division was set up under PC 7992, 4 September 1942. Also under PC 7992, a registry for maintaining orders and minutes of council, Treasury Board Minutes and other government orders was established. It was not until 1944 that the formal collection of "Cabinet Conclusions" was created.
In the early 1980s, the PCO began a voluntary transfer of cabinet records, which had been declassified after a 30-year holding period, to the National Archives (which became Library and Archives Canada in 2004) where they became publicly available, under the label "Cabinet Conclusions". After an initial document dump that included records dated from 1937 to 1952, the PCO released the records on an annual basis.
In 2008, two years after Prime Minister Stephen Harper was elected, the tradition of annual voluntary releases of Cabinet Conclusions stopped.
In September 2013 while the Harper government was in power, PCO spokesman Raymond Rivet told a news organisation that the office was "committed" to making government documents and information accessible but that "Processing these records requires a significant investment of resources. We will continue to process and release records as resources permit."
In May 2017, it came to light that the Government of Canada was under no obligation to release documentary records after a number of years. NDP Member of Parliament (MP) Murray Rankin, a legal scholar, said at the time:
In June 2017, an agreement between the Supreme Court of Canada and Library and Archives Canada arranged for the transfer of case-files under a 50-year rule.
Israel
Israel adopted the British model of a thirty-year rule as the basis for reviewing and declassifying its foreign policy documents. Israeli declassification policy is based on the Archives law of 1955. The principle of the law is that all material is to be released after thirty years, subject to limitations based on damage to state security, foreign policy or personal privacy. In practice this means that declassification of documents are fixed at different periods based on type of material and date of production.
The original law has been modified and updated a number of times. Following a 2010 update of the legislation, the office of the Prime Minister released as statement explaining that "the new regulations shorten the period after which non-security-related material may be viewed, from 30 to 15 years, while lengthening the confidentiality period of certain defense-related documents to 70 years in cases in which Israel's security conditions require it".
Germany
The German Federal Archives generally makes its holdings available after 30 years. Exceptions are for personnel files, which are opened only 10 years after the death of the individual or 100 years after the person's birth if the date of death is unknown, and records dealing with taxation, credit, and banking, which are sealed for 60 years.
Additionally, Federal Archives holdings originating with the Communist Party and communist organizations of the former German Democratic Republic (East Germany) have been available for decades with almost no limitations. The Federal Archives has also worked to make East German government records available with a minimum of time limitation. In any event, since October 2020, 30 years have passed from the dissolution of the GDR.
See also
Classified information in the United Kingdom
Freedom of Information Act 2000
Freedom of information in the United Kingdom
Freedom of information legislation
Sanitization (classified information)
The National Archives
References
External links
30 Year Rule Review (UK)
The National Archives (UK)
Fact sheet 10 – Access to records under the Archives Act, National Archives of Australia
Disclosure
Public records
Government documents
State archives
Freedom of information in the United Kingdom
The National Archives (United Kingdom)
Freedom of information in Canada
|
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] |
208785
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regions%20of%20Oulu
|
Regions of Oulu
|
The former Oulu Province in Finland was divided on two regions, nine sub-regions and 43 municipalities.
Northern Ostrobothnia
Oulu sub-region
Hailuoto
Haukipudas
Kempele
Kiiminki
Liminka
Lumijoki
Muhos
Oulu (Uleåborg)
Oulunsalo
Tyrnävä
Oulunkaari sub-region
Ii
Pudasjärvi
Utajärvi
Yli-Ii
Raahe sub-region
Pyhäjoki
Raahe (Brahestad)
Siikajoki
Vihanti
Siikalatva sub-region
Haapavesi
Pyhäntä
Siikalatva
Nivala–Haapajärvi sub-region
Haapajärvi
Kärsämäki
Nivala
Pyhäjärvi
Reisjärvi
Ylivieska sub-region
Alavieska
Kalajoki
Merijärvi
Oulainen
Sievi
Ylivieska
Koillismaa sub-region
Kuusamo
Taivalkoski
Kainuu
Kehys-Kainuu sub-region
Hyrynsalmi (8)
Kuhmo (6)
Puolanka (9)
Suomussalmi (7)
Kajaani sub-region
Kajaani (Kajana) (1)
Paltamo (3)
Ristijärvi (4)
Sotkamo (5)
Vaala (2)
See also
Municipalities of Northern Ostrobothnia
Municipalities of Kainuu
Oulu Province
|
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208786
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forillon%20National%20Park
|
Forillon National Park
|
Forillon National Park, one of 42 national parks and park reserves across Canada, is located at the outer tip of the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec and covers .
Created in 1970, Forillon was the first national park in Quebec. The park includes forests, sea coast, salt marshes, sand dunes, cliffs, and the Eastern End of the Appalachians. The word forillon is thought to have referred to a flowerpot island or sea stack which used to be a landmark in the area but has since collapsed into the ocean.
History
The area was a traditional summer hunting and fishing ground for the Mi'kmaq and Haudenosaunee people.
This area was once used for its rich supply of wood. People living in L'Anse-au-Griffon were once involved in the lumber industry here.
The creation of the park in 1970 was preceded by the removal of 225 families through expropriation. When preparing to create the new park, the Government of Canada requested that the Quebec government expropriate the homes of these families. The Quebec government sub-contracted the appropriation and negotiations to a private firm. This firm allegedly used various bullying tactics to scare the residents into agreeing to settlements of reduced value. This stratagem ensured a larger profit margin for the contractor. On 14 February 2011, the House of Commons adopted a motion which issued an official apology to the people whose properties were expropriated to create Forillon Park. The motion read:That this House issue an official apology to the people whose properties were expropriated to create Forillon Park for the unconscionable manner in which they were treated, and that the Speaker of the House send the representatives of the people whose properties were expropriated and of their descendants an official copy of the Journals of the House of Commons indicating the adoption of this motion.
This expropriation is the subject of a song titled "Forillon" by the group Le Vent du Nord on their album Têtu. It was also mentioned in a song titled "La Gigue à Mitchounano" by singer Paul Piché.
Wildlife
This national park includes nesting colonies of sea birds and whales, and seals as well as woodland mammalian species which are red fox, black bear, moose, lynx, mink, coyote, woodchuck, porcupine, snowshoe hare, beaver, and ermine. Raptors that inhabit this park are great horned owls, northern harriers, peregrine falcons, kestrels, bald eagles, rough-legged hawks, and ospreys.
Activities and sights
Activities at interpretation sites bring visitors to learn more about human and natural life in the Forillon peninsula. The Grande-Grave National Heritage Site attests to the way of life of fishing families. The Hyman Store features collections of articles that were sold at the time, and the store "owners" tell tales of thriving fisheries industry. Close by, the pedestrian walk "Une Tournée dans les Parages" brings visitors around houses, fields and agricultural and commercial installations from the beginning of the twentieth century. Along the shores, whale watching is available.
Forillon encloses the site of Fort Péninsule, near the Penouille beach. This fortification was built during World War II to protect the Gaspé bay, as was Fort Prével on the other side of the bay; had Germany conquered all of Europe, these forts would have sheltered British warships seeking refuge from German submarines. Visitors today can enter a tunnel to see cannon in place since that time.
Gallery
See also
National Parks of Canada
List of National Parks of Canada
List of Quebec national parks
References
External links
Forillon National Park
Watch the NFB documentary A Day in Forillon
National parks in Quebec
Gaspé Peninsula
Protected areas established in 1970
Tourist attractions in Gaspésie–Îles-de-la-Madeleine
Protected areas of Gaspésie–Îles-de-la-Madeleine
Museums in Gaspésie–Îles-de-la-Madeleine
1970 establishments in Quebec
|
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208787
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raster
|
Raster
|
Raster may refer to:
Raster graphics, graphical techniques using arrays of pixel values
Raster graphics editor, a computer program
Raster scan, the pattern of image readout, transmission, storage, and reconstruction in television and computer images
Rasterisation, or rasterization, conversion of a vector image to a raster image
Raster image processor, or RIP, a component of a printing system that performs rasterisation
Raster interrupt, a computer interrupt signal
Raster to vector, an image conversion process
Raster bar, an effect used in computer demos
Raster-Noton, a record label
Rastrum, a device used in medieval music manuscripts to draw staff lines
Raster Document Object, a file format
People
Christian Raster, statesman in Anhalt-Dessau
Hermann Raster (1827–1891), German Forty-Eighter
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Mask%20%28magazine%29
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Black Mask (magazine)
|
Black Mask was a pulp magazine first published in April 1920 by the journalist H. L. Mencken and the drama critic George Jean Nathan. The magazine was one of several money-making publishing ventures to support the prestigious literary magazine The Smart Set, which Mencken edited, and which had operated at a loss since at least 1917. Under their editorial hand, the magazine was not exclusively a publisher of crime fiction, offering, according to the magazine, "the best stories available of adventure, the best mystery and detective stories, the best romances, the best love stories, and the best stories of the occult." The magazine's first editor was Florence Osborne (credited as F. M. Osborne).
Editorial control
After eight issues, Mencken and Nathan considered their initial $600 investment to have been sufficiently profitable, and they sold the magazine to its publishers, Eltinge Warner and Eugene Crow, for $12,500. The magazine was then edited by George W. Sutton (1922–24), followed by Philip C. Cody. Cody had significant interests and expertise in the publishing world serving as Vice President of Warner Publications publishers of such mass market magazines as Field and Stream, and pulp genre publications such as Black Mask. Under Cody's editorship, the content of Black Mask became more sensationalist. Cody, who had a keen sense for what appealed to the public marketplace, focused on what had the most reader allure. Under Cody, the stories chosen for publication were longer, more intricately plotted and strewn with more blood, guts, gore and sex. Cody served as both circulation editor and general editor from 1924 to 1926. In 1926, Joseph Shaw took over the editorship.
Contributing authors
Early Black Mask contributors of note included J. S. Fletcher, Vincent Starrett, and Herman Petersen. Shaw, following up on a promising lead from one of the early issues, promptly turned the magazine into an outlet for the growing school of naturalistic crime writers led by Carroll John Daly. Daly's private detective Race Williams was a rough-and-ready character with a sharp tongue, establishing a model for many later acerbic private eyes.
Black Mask later published stories by the profoundly influential Dashiell Hammett, creator of Sam Spade and The Continental Op, and other hardboiled writers who came in his wake, such as Raymond Chandler, Erle Stanley Gardner, Paul Cain, Frederick Nebel, Frederick C. Davis, Raoul F. Whitfield, Theodore Tinsley, Todhunter Ballard (as W.T. Ballard), Dwight V. Babcock, and Roger Torrey. The best-known contributors to Black Mask were mostly men, but the magazine also published works by many female crime writers, including Marjory Stoneman Douglas, Katherine Brocklebank, Sally Dixon Wright, Florence M. Pettee, Marion O'Hearn, Kay Krausse, Frances Beck, Tiah Devitt and Dorothy Dunn. Crime fiction made up most of the magazine's content, but Black Mask also published some Western and general adventure fiction.
The magazine was successful, and many of the writers whose work appeared in its pages, such as Hugh B. Cave, went on to greater commercial and critical success. Writer George Harmon Coxe created "Casey, Crime Photographer", for the magazine; the character became a media franchise, appearing in novels, films, radio and television programs, comic books, and theatrical productions.
Black Mask's covers were usually painted by Fred Craft or J. W. Schlaikjer. Shaw gave Arthur Rodman Bowker a monopoly on creating illustrations for the interior of the magazine.
Decline and revival
Black Mask reached a sales peak in the early 1930s, but then interest began to wane under increasing pressure from radio, the cinema, and rival pulp magazines. In 1936, refusing to cut writers' already meager pay, Shaw resigned, and many of the high-profile authors abandoned the magazine with him. Shaw's successor, Fanny Ellsworth (1936–40), managed to attract new writers to Black Mask, including Cornell Woolrich, Frank Gruber, Max Brand and Steve Fisher. However, from the 1940s on, Black Mask was in decline, despite the efforts of a new editor, Kenneth S. White (1940–48). The magazine in this period carried the work of John D. MacDonald. Henry Steeger then edited Black Mask anonymously until it ceased publication in 1951.
In 1985, the magazine was revived as The New Black Mask, featuring noted crime writers James Ellroy,
Michael Collins, Sara Paretsky and Bill Pronzini, as well as Chandler and Hammett reprints. Edward D. Hoch praised the revived Black Mask, stating in the book Encyclopedia Mysteriosa that "it came close to reviving the excitement and storytelling pleasure of the great old pulp magazines". As a result of a legal dispute over the rights to the name Black Mask, the magazine ceased publication in 1987. It was revived as a short-lived magazine entitled A Matter of Crime.
Original copies of the Black Mask are highly valued among pulp magazine collectors. Issues with stories by Chandler and Hammett are especially rare and command high prices.
In 2016, the magazine, including its copyrights and intellectual property, were acquired by Steeger Properties, LLC. It was relaunched by Altus Press.
Select covers from Black Mask were featured as collectable items in the 2020 action-adventure video game Mafia: Definitive Edition.
Anthologies
Includes a short history of the magazine.
References
External links
Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Monthly magazines published in the United States
Defunct literary magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1920
Magazines disestablished in 1987
Pulp magazines
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] |
208795
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimexomys
|
Cimexomys
|
Cimexomys is an extinct North American mammal that lived from the Upper Cretaceous to the Paleocene. For a while, it shared the world with dinosaurs, but outlived them. It was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata and lies within the suborder Cimolodonta. It is perhaps a member of the Paracimexomys group, though it is not certain.
The genus Cimexomys ("bug mouse") was named by Sloan and Van Valen in 1965. Most remains are restricted to teeth. "Cimex" means "bug", with reference to the type locality of Cimexomys minor in the Bug Creek Anthills in Montana, United States.
The inclusion of Cimexomys in the Paracimexomys group is tentative, (Kielan-Jaworowska & Hurum, 2001, p. 403). Some species are termed here as "Cimexomys", and they're listed towards the end. New species have previously been christened with great enthusiasm, and much reidentification has also occurred.
Species
Further names include "Cimexomys" bellus, "C." clarki and "C." electus.
Cimexomys arapahoensis
Age: Lower Paleocene of the Denver Formation in Colorado (United States)
"C. arapahoensis is known from four dental and mandiblar fossils from the Alexander Locality of the Denver Formation (Colorado) and is the largest known species of Cimexomyx. I estimated its mass at about 120 g based on its lower first molar." (Eric W. Dewar, 2002) C. minor has also been identified from this location.
Cimexomys gratus
Age: Puercan (Paleocene) of the Polecat Bench Formation in Wyoming (USA). This animal weighed about 130 g, about five mice or a third of a rat.
Cimexomys judithae
This species (Sahni A. 1972) is also known as Paracymexomys judithae (Archibald J.D. 1982). Fossils come from the Campanian (Upper Cretaceous) of the Two Medicine Formation of Montana (USA). A near complete dentition and skeletal elements were discovered at Egg Mountain, a site associated with a dinosaur nesting colony, though this wasn't the original material. C. judithae is reportedly more derived than other species, and the integrity of the genus is suspect, (as reflected here by the later entries for "Cimexomys"). Montellano reassigned this species to the cimex genus in 1992. The body mass is estimated to have been around 20 g.
Based on the new material from Montana, the authors "argued that Cimexomys is too primitive to be included among either the Taeniolabidoidea or Ptilodontoidea. This agrees with our conclusion as we tentatively place Cimexomys in the informal "Paracimexomys group", which we erect for plesiomorphic (basal), poorly known members of the Cimolodonta", (Kielan-Jaworowska & Hurum, 2001, p. 393).
Cimexomys minor
(Sloan R.E. and Van Valen L. 1965)
Age: Upper Cretaceous - Lower Paleocene
Place: Hell Creek Formation, Montana and Denver Formation, Colorado (USA) and Ravenscrag Formation, Saskatchewan (Canada). Remains are small teeth of an eighth to a tenth of an inch in length. The animal weighed about 25 g, the same as a standard mouse.
"Cimexomys" antiquus
(Fox R.C. 1971). Fossils are known from the Santonian (Upper Cretaceous) of Utah. The type fossil is in Alberta, Canada. It weighed about 30 g.
Cimexomys gregoryi
Fossil remains of the species "Cimexomys" gregoryi (Eaton J.G. 1993) have been found in Campanian (Upper Cretaceous)-aged strata in the USA. This species shows similarities to the genus Bryceomys.
References
Sahni (1972) Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 147 (6)
Sloan & Van Valen (1965), "Cretaceous mammals from Montana". Science 148, p. 220-227
Fox (1971), Canadian J of Earth Sci 8, p. 916
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429
Cimolodonts
Cretaceous mammals of North America
Paleocene mammals of North America
Santonian genus first appearances
Paleocene genus extinctions
Hell Creek fauna
Milk River Formation
Fossil taxa described in 1965
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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208797
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin%20Wilkinson
|
Kevin Wilkinson
|
Kevin Michael Wilkinson (11 June 1958 – 17 July 1999) was an English drummer, who was based in Baydon, Wiltshire, England.
Career
Born Kevin Michael Wilkinson in Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, he is credited as a former official member of several successful British new wave acts, including the League of Gentlemen (1980), the Waterboys (1983–84), China Crisis (1983–89) and Squeeze (1995–96), as well as drummer for Holly Beth Vincent (1981–82). He also appeared in some of his affiliated bands' music videos.
Throughout the course of his career, Wilkinson was a session musician, performing with other artists as diverse as Fish and The Proclaimers, China Crisis, and Howard Jones. He was not related to Squeeze's bass player, Keith Wilkinson, although he was briefly a member of Squeeze at the same time as his namesake, and they can be seen in the video for "This Summer".
Personal life
He was married to Marilyn Fitzgerald, and had three children, named Finn, Josie and Ellie.
Death
Wilkinson committed suicide on 17 July 1999, aged 41, by hanging himself in the family home in Baydon, near Swindon.
References
External links
AllMusic credits listing
1958 births
People from Stoke-on-Trent
People from Swindon
1999 suicides
English drummers
British male drummers
English new wave musicians
Squeeze (band) members
The Waterboys members
Suicides by hanging in England
20th-century English musicians
Musicians from Wiltshire
20th-century British male musicians
1999 deaths
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oulu
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Oulu
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Oulu ( , ; ; ) is a city, municipality and a seaside resort of 208,939 inhabitants () in the region of North Ostrobothnia, Finland. It is the most populous city in Northern Finland and the fifth most populous in the country after: Helsinki, Espoo, Tampere and Vantaa, and the fourth largest urban area in the country after Helsinki, Tampere and Turku. Oulu's neighbouring municipalities are: Hailuoto, Ii, Kempele, Liminka, Lumijoki, Muhos, Pudasjärvi, Tyrnävä and Utajärvi.
Due to its large population and geopolitically economic and cultural-historical location, Oulu has been called the "capital of Northern Finland". Oulu is also considered one of Europe's "living labs", where residents experiment with new technology (such as NFC tags and ubi-screens) on a community-wide scale; especially the University of Oulu is internationally well known in the field of information technology. Oulu has also been very successful in recent urban image surveys; in a study published by the Finnish Economic Survey in 2008, it received the best ranking of large cities in image ratings across the country, including ratings from respondents in all provinces.
Once known for wood tar and salmon, Oulu has evolved into a major high-tech centre, particularly in IT and wellness technology. Other prominent industries include wood refining, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, paper, and steel.
Oulu is chosen as the European Capital of Culture in 2026.
Etymology
The city is named after the river Oulujoki, which originates in the lake Oulujärvi. There have been a number of other theories for the origin of the name Oulu. One possible source is a word in the Sami language meaning 'flood water', but there are other suggestions. At minimum, the structure of the word requires that, if originally given by speakers of a Uralic language, the name must be a derivative. In all likelihood, it also predates Finnish settlement and is thus a loanword from one of the now-extinct Saami languages once spoken in the area.
The most probable theory is that the name derives from the Finnish dialectal word oulu, meaning "floodwater", which is related to e.g. Southern Sami åulo, meaning "melted snow", åulot meaning "thaw" (of unknown ultimate origin). Two other word families have also been speculated to be related. The first is seen in the Northern Savo dialectal word uula and its Sami counterpart oalli, both meaning "river channel". The second is the Uralic root reconstructed as *uwa, meaning "river bed" (reflected as vuo in modern Finnish, also in derivatives such as vuolas "heavy-flowing"). To either of these roots, some Sami variety would have to be assumed having added further derivational suffixes.
History
Oulu is situated by the Gulf of Bothnia, at the mouth of river Oulujoki, which is an ancient trading site. The city proper was founded on 8 April 1605 by King Charles IX of Sweden, opposite the fort built on the island of Linnansaari. This took place after favourable peace settlements with Russia, which removed the threat of attack via the main east–west waterway, the river Oulu. The surrounding areas were populated much earlier. Oulu was the capital of the Province of Oulu from 1776 to 2009.
In 1822, a major fire destroyed much of the city. The architect Carl Ludvig Engel, chiefly known for the neoclassical (empire style) buildings around Helsinki Senate Square, was enlisted to provide the plan for its rebuilding. With minor changes, this plan remains the basis for the layout of Oulu's town center. The Oulu Cathedral was built in 1832 to his designs, with the spire being finished in 1844. During the Åland War, part of the Crimean War, Oulu's harbour was raided by the British fleet, who destroyed ships and burned tar houses, leading to international criticism.
Geography
Oulu is located in northern Finland, a considerable distance from the other cities in the country. It is located north of the capital city Helsinki. Mainland Finland's northernmost and southernmost points are roughly equidistant from Oulu. Oulu's coast sits at the Bothnian Bay (Perämeri in Finnish) and the Swedish mainland is about 180 km directly west across the Bothnian Bay. From the center of Oulu in the direction of Oulunsalo, there is , a smaller but wide, meadow-belted bay, and part of it has been listed as a nature conservation area. The nearby island Hailuoto is just off the coast, away in the Bothnian Bay.
Subdivisions
Oulu is divided into 106 city districts. The largest of these are Haukipudas, Oulunsalo, Kaakkuri, Ritaharju, Tuira, and .
The municipality of Ylikiiminki was merged with the city of Oulu on 1 January 2009. Oulu and the municipalities of Haukipudas, Kiiminki, Oulunsalo, and Yli-Ii were merged on 1 January 2013.
Climate
Oulu has a subarctic continental climate (Köppen Dfc). It is the largest Finnish city entirely in this climatic zone as well as one of the largest such in the world. The typical features are cold and snowy winters with short and warm summers. Average annual temperature is . The average annual precipitation is falling 105 days per year, mostly in late summer and fall. The warmest temperature ever recorded in Oulu was in July 1957, while the coldest temperature on record was in February 1966.
On June 21, 2021, Oulu was struck by the Ahti thunderstorm, causing flooding and fall of trees with the wind blowing at more than 30 meters per second. The storm is known to have killed one person and injured two people.
Demographics
In 2008, there were 316 Swedish-speaking inhabitants as mother tongue, which was 0.2% of the total population, making the city unilingually Finnish-speaking similar to other areas in Northern Finland. With English and Swedish being compulsory school subjects, functional bi- or trilingualism acquired through language studies is not uncommon. In 2007, there were 2,417 foreign citizens living in the city, of whom 618 were from elsewhere in the EU. 51.1% of the population is female.
Oulu, as well as other parts of North Ostrobothnia, is well-known as a strong support area of the Conservative Laestadianism revival movement. A Laestadian background has been estimated to be common in construction sector management.
In 2017, the population grew to over 200,000 inhabitants, making Oulu the fourth Finnish locality with at least 200,000 inhabitants after Helsinki, Tampere and Turku.
Oulu was the site of the 2018 Oulu child sexual exploitation scandal. Prime Minister Juha Sipilä declared that “Sex crimes against children are inhumane acts of incomprehensible evil.”
Population
Culture
The best known cultural exports of the city of Oulu are the Air Guitar World Championships held annually in August, Mieskuoro Huutajat (also known as Screaming Men), the now defunct metal band Sentenced, and one of the best ice hockey teams in Europe, Oulun Kärpät.
Many artists, writers, and musicians live in the city. A variety of concerts — rock, classical, and jazz — as well as other cultural events take place each year. Examples include the Oulu Music Video Festival, the Air Guitar World Championships, and the Musixine Music Film Competition, all in August. In July, the annual rock festival Qstock takes place. The Oulu Music Festival is held in winter and the Oulunsalo Music Festival in summer. The Irish Festival of Oulu takes place each October, and the International Children's Film Festival each November.
Museums in Oulu include the Northern Ostrobothnia museum, the Oulu Museum of Art (OMA), the Tietomaa science center, and the Turkansaari open-air museum.
Notable statues and sculptures in Oulu include a sculpture of Frans Michael Franzén and The Bobby at the Market Place statue.
Finlands' Eurovision representatives 2021 rock band Blind Channel are from Oulu. They placed 6th in the competition.
Kalmah is a melodic death metal-band from Oulu that formed in 1998.
Food
In the 1980s, rössypottu, salmon soup and sweet cheese (juhannusjuusto) were named Oulu's traditional parish dishes.
Sights
Tietomaa, a science center with over 150 exhibits
The Rapids Center, the area in the estuary of the Oulu river consisting of small islands connected with bridges and fountains in the middle of the river, and including a housing area of building blocks planned by Alvar Aalto
The Market Square with the City Library, the City Theatre and old salt and tar storehouses
Hupisaaret Islands, a large park area located in the estuary of the Oulu river
The F. M. Franzen memorial
The Koitelinkoski rapids
The Northern Ostrobothnia museum
The Pateniemi Sawmill Museum
The Vehicle Museum
The University of Oulu Botanical Gardens (situated in Linnanmaa)
The Arctic Gallery
Technopolis, the technology village
Turkansaari (historical open-air museum)
Churches
Cathedral
Haukipudas Church
Holy Family of Nazareth Church
Holy Trinity Cathedral of Oulu
Kiiminki Church
Oulujoki Church
Oulunsalo Church
St. Luke's Chapel
Tuira Church
Ylikiiminki Church
Other points of interest
Oulu Music Video Festival
Air Guitar World Championships
Jalometalli Metal Music Festival
The Irish Festival of Oulu
Laitakari beacon tower
Madetoja Hall, housing the Oulu Music Centre (website) the residence of the Oulu Symphony Orchestra
Oulu Hall (a large indoor sports facility consisting of a low dome, which looks somewhat like a landed flying saucer)
Terwa Marathon & Run event in late May (since 1989)
The Terva-skiing event in early March (since 1889)
The Winter Swimming World Championship
Education
The University of Oulu and Oulu University of Applied Sciences have their main campuses located in Oulu.
Oulu is home to the most northerly architecture school in the world. The school is best known for its strong regionalistic ideas for developing architecture. This movement is named "the Oulu school" ("Oulun koulu") of architecture.
Oulu Vocational College has over 13 000 students. It houses several different study subjects in different units which are spread over Oulu and neighbouring municipalities. Oulu Vocational College School of Business Studies is one of the few vocational schools which has game programming in its curriculum.
Oulu International School is one of nine schools in Finland offering basic education in English. There's also a Swedish-speaking private school (Swedish Svenska Privatskolan i Uleåborg) for students up until high school. The school is the northernmost Swedish-speaking school in Finland.
Transport
Oulu is served by Oulu Airport, the second largest airport in Finland by passenger volume. It is located south-west of the city centre.
The Port of Oulu is one of the busiest harbours on the Bothnian Bay. It includes four separate harbour areas: Vihreäsaari oil and bulk docks, Nuottasaari docks and Oritkari docks. There is also a ferry service in Oulu, which is mostly used between Oulunsalo and the Hailuoto Island.
The shortest travel time from Oulu railway station to Helsinki Central railway station is 5 h 34 min, operated by VR. Other destinations include Kolari, Rovaniemi, Seinäjoki and Tampere.
The most important road in Oulu is Highway 4 (E8/E75) that runs from Helsinki to Utsjoki via Lahti, Jyväskylä, Oulu, Kemi and Rovaniemi. Other highways running to and from Oulu are Highway 20 to Kuusamo and Highway 22 to Kajaani.
Oulu is notable for its transportation network dedicated to non-motor vehicular traffic, including pedestrians and bicycles (termed "light" traffic in Finland). In 2010, the city contained more than of pathways and more than 100 underpasses and bridges devoted exclusively to light traffic. The network is used year-round. The ratio of light traffic pathways to residents is the highest in Finland and the cycling mode share is 20 percent. Oulu is often touted as an excellent city for bicycling.
In 2015, a large underground parking facility, Kivisydän (Stone Heart), opened in the city center directly beneath main shopping streets. The network of parallel roads for cars and pedestrians was drilled in the rock at the depth of . The parking facility includes two ramps, 900 visitor parking lots (expandable to 1500), six access points to the ground served by 19 elevators (expandable to nine and 25), a service facility for commercial delivery vehicles, and ubi-screens that guide the driver to the selected ground access point and help locate the parked car by its license number.
Solar power
In 2015, the Kaleva Media printing plant in Oulu became the most powerful photovoltaic solar plant in Finland, with 1,604 solar photovoltaic (PV) units on its roof. Although the city of Oulu, located near the Arctic Circle, has only two hours of weak sunlight in December, the photovoltaic cells work almost around the clock in the summer. The cold climate means the PV panels can get up to a 25% boost per hour, as they don't overheat.
Because the sun is quite low in the sky at this latitude, vertical PV installations are popular on the sides of buildings. These solar walls also capture light reflected from snow.
Snow is not necessarily cleared from rooftop solar installations.
The local utility, Oulun Energia, is owned by the city of Oulu. The energy mix it receives from the Nordic-wide grid includes wood pellets, waste incineration, bioenergy, hydro-electric, geothermal, wind, nuclear, peat, natural gas and coal.
Employment
As of 31 December 2008, the active working population was employed as follows:
In 2011, the most important employers were:
Sports
Ice hockey is the most popular spectator sport in Oulu. The local club Kärpät has won the SM-liiga championship title eight times (1981, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2014, 2015 and 2018). It has also twice been the runner-up in the IIHF European Champions Cup, in 2005 and in 2006.
In football AC Oulu plays in Ykkönen, the second tier of the Finnish league system. So far OPS has claimed the Finnish football championship only twice by winning Mestaruussarja in 1979 and in 1980. Other notable football clubs include OLS, OTP and JS Hercules.
Oulu has one well-known bandy club, OLS, which plays in Bandyliiga and has become Finnish champions 14 times, most recently in 2014. The other bandy club, OPS, with its 7 championships and a bronze medal as late as in 2009, announced it would be closing down after the 2009–10 season. In 2001 the city was the main venue for the Bandy World Championship.
Oulu is also home to several other sports clubs such as Oulu Northern Lights (American football), Oulun NMKY (Basketball), Oulun Lippo (Pesäpallo), Oulun Pyrintö (Track and field), SK Pohjantähti (Orienteering)), OYUS (Rugby union), Oulu Irish Elks (Gaelic football) and ETTA (Volleyball).
Oulun Tervahiihto is an annual ski marathon event held since 1889.
Terwa Run & Marathon is an annual running event held since 1989 in late May.
Notable people from Oulu
Saara Aalto, singer, X Factor UK finalist
Peter von Bagh, film historian and director
Blind Channel, a post-hardcore and nu metal band
Vladislav Delay, electronic musician
Lars Gallenius, 17th century painter
Matti Hautamäki, ski jumper
Aaro Hellaakoski, poet
John von Julin, pharmacist, factory owner and vuorineuvos
V.A. Koskenniemi, poet
Taavetti Lukkarinen, former foreman of Kemi Oy; man who convicted to death and hanged of treason
Leevi Madetoja, composer
Frans Michael Franzén, poet
Impaled Nazarene, nuclear metal band
Iivo Niskanen, Olympic champion cross-country skier
Kerttu Niskanen, cross-country skier
Leena Peltonen-Palotie, geneticist
Susanna Pöykiö, figure skater
Mika Ronkainen, filmmaker
Keke Rosberg, 1982 Formula One world champion
Kauko Röyhkä, author and rock musician
Sara Wacklin, teacher and writer
Mikael Toppelius, church painter
Three former presidents of the country Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg, Kyösti Kallio and Martti Ahtisaari, also a Nobel Peace Prize laureate
Ice Hockey players: Kari Jalonen, Mikael Granlund, Markus Granlund, Joni Pitkänen, Reijo Ruotsalainen, Mika Pyörälä, Lasse Kukkonen, Markus Nutivaara and Sebastian Aho
Football/soccer players: Niko Heiskanen, Aki Lahtinen, Antti Niemi and Mika Nurmela, Seppo Pyykkö
International relations
Twin towns and sister cities
Oulu is twinned with:
Alta, Norway (since 1948)
Arkhangelsk, Russia (since 1993)
Boden, Sweden (since 1948)
Bursa, Turkey (since 1978)
Halle, Germany (since 1968)
Leverkusen, Germany (since 1968)
Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan (since 2013)
Odessa, Ukraine (since 1957)
Siófok, Hungary (since 1978)
Partnership and twinning cities
In addition Oulu has eight 'Partnership & Twinning cities':
Glasgow, UK
Ilembula, Tanzania
Karlsruhe, Germany
Luleå, Sweden
Matagalpa, Nicaragua
Sendai, Japan (since 2005)
Umeå, Sweden
Vienne, France
International municipal projects
The educational department was a part of the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013 in Finland.
See also
Air Guitar World Championships
Bothnian Bay
Hailuoto Island
Kastelli community centre
Laanila Highschool
Lake Oulujärvi
Oulu Aircraft Hijacking
Oulu Castle
Oulu Highway
Oulu University Hospital
Rotuaari
Toppila Power Station
References
External links
Visitoulu.fi – VisitOulu.fi – Official tourism website of Oulu
Lunch restaurants in Oulu
Cities and towns in Finland
Grand Duchy of Finland
Seaside resorts in Finland
Port cities and towns of the Baltic Sea
1605 establishments in Sweden
Populated places established in 1605
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillian%20Hellman
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Lillian Hellman
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Lillian Florence Hellman (June 20, 1905 – June 30, 1984) was an American playwright, author, and screenwriter known for her success on Broadway, as well as her communist sympathies and political activism. She was blacklisted after her appearance before the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) at the height of the anti-communist campaigns of 1947–1952. Although she continued to work on Broadway in the 1950s, her blacklisting by the American film industry caused a drop in her income. Many praised Hellman for refusing to answer questions by HUAC, but others believed, despite her denial, that she had belonged to the Communist Party.
As a playwright, Hellman had many successes on Broadway, including Watch on the Rhine, The Autumn Garden, Toys in the Attic, Another Part of the Forest, The Children's Hour and The Little Foxes. She adapted her semi-autobiographical play The Little Foxes into a screenplay, which starred Bette Davis. Hellman became the first female screenwriter to receive an individual Academy Award nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay in 1941. Three years prior, Joan Harrison had been nominated alongside Charles Bennett.
Hellman was romantically involved with fellow writer and political activist Dashiell Hammett, author of the classic detective novels The Maltese Falcon and The Thin Man, who also was blacklisted for 10 years. The couple never married.
Beginning in the late 1960s, and continuing through to her death, Hellman turned to writing a series of popular memoirs of her colorful life and acquaintances. Hellman's accuracy was challenged in 1979 on The Dick Cavett Show, when Mary McCarthy said of her memoirs that "every word she writes is a lie, including 'and' and 'the'." Hellman brought a defamation suit against McCarthy and Cavett, and during the suit, investigators found errors in Hellman's Pentimento. They said that the "Julia" section of Pentimento, which had been the basis for the Oscar-winning 1977 movie of the same name, was actually based on the life of Muriel Gardiner. Martha Gellhorn, one of the most prominent war correspondents of the twentieth century, as well as Ernest Hemingway's third wife, said that Hellman's remembrances of Hemingway and the Spanish Civil War were wrong. McCarthy, Gellhorn and others accused Hellman of lying about her membership in the Communist Party and of being a committed Stalinist.
The defamation suit was unresolved at the time of Hellman's death in 1984; her executors eventually withdrew the complaint. Hellman's modern-day literary reputation rests largely on the plays and screenplays from the first three decades of her career, and not on the memoirs published later in her life.
Biography
Early life and marriage
Lillian Florence Hellman was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, into a Jewish family. Her mother was Julia Newhouse of Demopolis, Alabama, and her father was Max Hellman, a New Orleans shoe salesman. Julia Newhouse's parents were Sophie Marx, from a successful banking family, and Leonard Newhouse, a Demopolis liquor dealer. During most of her childhood she spent half of each year in New Orleans, in a boarding home run by her aunts, and the other half in New York City. She studied for two years at New York University and then took several courses at Columbia University.
On December 31, 1925, Hellman married Arthur Kober, a playwright and press agent, although they often lived apart. In 1929, she traveled around Europe for a time and settled in Bonn to continue her education. She felt an initial attraction to a Nazi student group that advocated "a kind of socialism" until their questioning about her Jewish ties made their antisemitism clear, and she returned immediately to the United States. Years later she wrote, "Then for the first time in my life I thought about being a Jew."
1930s
Beginning in 1930, for about a year she earned $50 a week as a reader for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in Hollywood, writing summaries of novels and periodical literature for potential screenplays. Although she found the job rather dull, it created many opportunities for her to meet a greater range of creative people while she became involved in more political and artistic scenes during that time. While there she met and fell in love with mystery writer Dashiell Hammett. She divorced Kober and returned to New York City in 1932. When she met Hammett in a Hollywood restaurant, she was 24 and he was 36. They maintained their relationship off and on until his death in January 1961.
Hellman's drama The Children's Hour premiered on Broadway on November 24, 1934, and ran for 691 performances. It depicts a false accusation of lesbianism by a schoolgirl against two of her teachers. The falsehood is discovered, but before amends can be made one teacher is rejected by her fiancé and the other commits suicide. Following the success of The Children's Hour, Hellman returned to Hollywood as a screenwriter for Goldwyn Pictures at $2,500 a week. She first collaborated on a screenplay for The Dark Angel, an earlier play and silent film.
Following that film's successful release in 1935, Goldwyn purchased the rights to The Children's Hour for $35,000 while it still was running on Broadway. Hellman rewrote the play to conform to the standards of the Motion Picture Production Code, under which any mention of lesbianism was impossible. Instead, one schoolteacher is accused of having sex with the other's fiancé. It appeared in 1936 under the title, These Three. She next wrote the screenplay for Dead End (1937), which featured the first appearance of the Dead End Kids and premiered in 1937.
On May 1, 1935, Hellman joined the League of American Writers (1935–1943), whose members included Dashiell Hammett, Alexander Trachtenberg of International Publishers, Frank Folsom, Louis Untermeyer, I.F. Stone, Myra Page, Millen Brand, and Arthur Miller. (Members were largely either Communist Party members or fellow travelers.)
Also in 1935, Hellman joined the struggling Screen Writers Guild, devoted herself to recruiting new members, and proved one of its most aggressive advocates. One of its key issues was the dictatorial way producers credited writers for their work, known as "screen credit." Hellman had received no recognition for some of her earlier projects, although she was the principal author of The Westerner (1934) and a principal contributor to The Melody Lingers On (1935).
In December 1936, her play Days to Come closed its Broadway run after just seven performances. In it, she portrayed a labor dispute in a small Ohio town during which the characters try to balance the competing claims of owners and workers, both represented as valid. Communist publications denounced her failure to take sides. That same month she joined several other literary figures, including Dorothy Parker and Archibald MacLeish, in forming and funding Contemporary Historians, Inc., to back a film project, The Spanish Earth, to demonstrate support for the anti-Franco forces in the Spanish Civil War.
In March 1937, Hellman joined a group of 88 U.S. public figures in signing "An Open Letter to American Liberals" that protested an effort headed by John Dewey to examine Leon Trotsky's defense against his 1936 condemnation by the Soviet Union. The letter has been viewed by some critics as a defense of Stalin's Moscow Purge Trials. It charged some of Trotsky's defenders with aiming to destabilize the Soviet Union and said the Soviet Union "should be left to protect itself against treasonable plots as it saw fit." It asked U.S. liberals and progressives to unite with the Soviet Union against the growing threat of fascism and avoid an investigation that would only fuel "the reactionary sections of the press and public" in the United States. Endorsing this view, the editors of the New Republic wrote that "there are more important questions than Trotsky's guilt." Those who signed the Open Letter called for a united front against fascism, which, in their view, required uncritical support of the Soviet Union.
In October 1937, Hellman spent a few weeks in Spain to lend her support, as other writers had, to the International Brigades of non-Spaniards who had joined the anti-Franco side in the Spanish Civil War. As bombs fell on Madrid, she broadcast a report to the U.S. on Madrid Radio. In 1989, journalist and Ernest Hemingway's third wife, Martha Gellhorn, herself in Spain at that period, disputed the account of this trip in Hellman's memoirs and claimed that Hellman waited until all the witnesses were dead before describing events that never occurred. Nevertheless, Hellman had documented her trip in the New Republic in April 1938 as "A Day in Spain." Langston Hughes wrote admiringly of the radio broadcast in 1956.
Hellman was a member of the Communist Party from 1938 to 1940, by her own account written in 1952, "a most casual member. I attended very few meetings and saw and heard nothing more than people sitting around a room talking of current events or discussing the books they had read. I drifted away from the Communist Party because I seemed to be in the wrong place. My own maverick nature was no more suitable to the political left than it had been to the conservative background from which I came."
The Little Foxes and controversy
Her play The Little Foxes opened on Broadway on February 13, 1939, and ran for 410 performances. The play starred Tallulah Bankhead as Regina, and after its success on Broadway the play toured extensively in the United States. The play was Hellman's personal favorite, and by far the most commercially and critically successful play she originated. However, she had an epic feud with Bankhead when Tallulah wanted to perform for a benefit for Finnish Relief, as the USSR had recently invaded Finland. Without thinking Hellman's approval was necessary, Bankhead and the cast told the press the news of the benefit. They were shocked when Hellman and Shumlin declined to give permission for the benefit performance, with the pretense of non-intervention and anti-militarism. Bankhead told reporters, "I've adopted Spanish Loyalist orphans and sent money to China, causes for which both Mr. Shumlin and Miss Hellman were strenuous proponents ... why should [they] suddenly become so insular?"
Hellman countered her star: "I don't believe in that fine, lovable little Republic of Finland that everyone gets so weepy about. I've been there and it seems like a little pro-Nazi Republic to me." Bankhead, who hated Nazism and had become a strong critic of Communism since the mid 1930s Great Purge and for what she saw as a communist betrayal of the Second Spanish Republic, was outraged by Hellman's actions and thought Hellman a moral hypocrite. Hellman had never been to Finland. Bankhead and the cast suspected that Hellman's refusal was motivated by her fanatical devotion to the Stalinist regime in Soviet Russia. Hellman and Bankhead became adversaries as a result of the feud, not speaking to each other for a quarter of a century afterwards.
Hellman had aggravated the matter further by claiming that the real reason for turning down the benefit was because when the Spanish Republican government fell to Franco's fascists, Hellman and Shumlin requested that Bankhead put on a benefit for the Spanish loyalists fleeing to neighboring France, and the actress and company refused. Bankhead was further incensed by these comments, as she had helped many Spanish Republican fighters and families to flee the Spanish Civil War in 1937, after they had been turned on by Stalinist fighters behind their own Republican lines. Hellman and Bankhead would not speak again until late 1963. Years later, drama critic Joseph Wood Krutch recounted how he and fellow critic George Jean Nathan had shared a cab with Hellman and Bankhead:
Bankhead said: "That's the last time I act in one of your god-damned plays". Miss Hellman responded by slamming her purse against the actress's jaw. ... I decided that no self-respecting Gila monster would have behaved in that manner.
1940s
On January 9, 1940, viewing the spread of fascism in Europe and fearing similar political developments in the United States, she said at a luncheon of the American Booksellers Association:
Her play Watch on the Rhine opened on Broadway on April 1, 1941, and ran for 378 performances. It won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award. She wrote the play in 1940, when its call for a united international alliance against Hitler directly contradicted the Communist position at the time, following the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of August 1939. Early in 1942, Hellman accompanied the production to Washington, D.C., for a benefit performance where she spoke with President Roosevelt. Hammett wrote the screenplay for the movie version that appeared in 1943.
In October 1941, Hellman and Ernest Hemingway co-hosted a dinner to raise money for anti-Nazi activists imprisoned in France. New York Governor Herbert Lehman agreed to participate, but withdrew because some of the sponsoring organizations, he wrote, "have long been connected with Communist activities." Hellman replied: "I do not and I did not ask the politics of any members of the committee and there is nobody who can with honesty vouch for anybody but themselves." She assured him the funds raised would be used as promised and later provided him with a detailed accounting. The next month she wrote him: "I am sure it will make you sad and ashamed as it did me to know that, of the seven resignations out of 147 sponsors, five were Jews. Of all the peoples in the world, I think, we should be the last to hold back help, on any grounds, from those who fought for us."
In 1942, Hellman received an Academy Award nomination for her screenplay for the film version of The Little Foxes. Two years later, she received another nomination for her screenplay for The North Star, the only original screenplay of her career. She objected to the film's production numbers that, she said, turned a village festival into "an extended opera bouffe peopled by musical comedy characters", but still told the New York Times that it was "a valuable and true picture which tells a good deal of the truth about fascism". To establish the difference between her screenplay and the film, Hellman published her screenplay in the fall of 1943. British historian Robert Conquest wrote that it was "a travesty greater than could have been shown on Soviet screens to audiences used to lies, but experienced in collective-farm conditions."
In April 1944, Hellman's The Searching Wind opened on Broadway. Her third World War II project, it tells the story of an ambassador whose indecisive relations with his wife and mistress mirror the vacillation and appeasement of his professional life. She wrote the screenplay for the film version that appeared two years later. Both versions depicted the ambassador's feckless response to anti-Semitism. The conservative press noted that the play reflected none of Hellman's pro-Soviet views, and the communist response to the play was negative.
Hellman's applications for a passport to travel to England in April 1943 and May 1944 were both denied because government authorities considered her "an active Communist", although in 1944 the head of the Passport Division of the Department of State, Ruth Shipley, cited "the present military situation" as the reason. In August 1944, she received a passport, indicative of government approval, for travel to Russia on a goodwill mission as a guest of VOKS, the Soviet agency that handled cultural exchanges. During her visit from November 5, 1944, to January 18, 1945, she began an affair with John F. Melby, a foreign service officer, that continued as an intermittent affair for years and as a friendship for the rest of her life.
In May 1946, the National Institute of Arts and Letters made Hellman a member. In November of that year, her play Another Part of the Forest premiered, directed by Hellman. It presented the same characters twenty years younger than they had appeared in The Little Foxes. A film version to which Hellman did not contribute followed in 1948.
In 1947, Columbia Pictures offered Hellman a multi-year contract, which she refused because the contract included a loyalty clause that she viewed as an infringement on her rights of free speech and association. It required her to sign a statement that she had never been a member of the Communist Party and would not associate with radicals or subversives, which would have required her to end her life with Hammett. Shortly thereafter, William Wyler told her he was unable to hire her to work on a film because she was blacklisted.
In November 1947, the leaders of the motion picture industry decided to deny employment to anyone who refused to answer questions posed by the House Un-American Activities Committee. Following the Hollywood Ten's defiance of the committee, Hellman wrote an editorial in the December issue of Screen Writer, the publication of the Screen Writers Guild. Titled "The Judas Goats", it mocked the committee and derided producers for allowing themselves to be intimidated. It said in part:
Melby and Hellman corresponded regularly in the years following World War II while he held State Department assignments overseas. Their political views diverged as he came to advocate containment of communism while she was unwilling to hear criticism of the Soviet Union. They became, in one historian's view, "political strangers, occasional lovers, and mostly friends." Melby particularly objected to her support for Henry Wallace in the 1948 presidential election.
In 1949, she adapted Emmanuel Roblès' French-language play, Montserrat, for Broadway, where it opened on October 29. Again, Hellman directed it. It was revived again in 1961.
1950s
The play that is recognized by critics and judged by Hellman as her best, The Autumn Garden, premiered in 1951.
In 1952, Hellman was called to testify before House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), which had heard testimony that she had attended Communist Party meetings in 1937. She initially drafted a statement that said her two-year membership in the Communist Party had ended in 1940, but she did not condemn the party nor express regret for her participation in it. Her attorney, Joseph Rauh, opposed her admission of membership on technical grounds because she had attended meetings, but never formally become a party member. He warned that the committee and the public would expect her to take a strong anti-communist stand to atone for her political past, but she refused to apologize or denounce the party. Faced with Hellman's position, Rauh devised a strategy that produced favorable press coverage and allowed her to avoid the stigma of being labeled a "Fifth Amendment Communist". On May 19, 1952, Hellman authored a letter to HUAC that one historian has described as "written not to persuade the Committee, but to shape press coverage." In it she explained her willingness to testify only about herself and that she did not want to claim her rights under the Fifth Amendment–"I am ready and willing to testify before the representatives of our Government as to my own actions, regardless of any risks or consequences to myself." She wrote that she found the legal requirement that she testify about others if she wanted to speak about her own actions "difficult for a layman to understand." Rauh had the letter delivered to the HUAC's chairman Rep. John S. Wood on Monday.
In public testimony before HUAC on Tuesday, May 21, 1952, Hellman answered preliminary questions about her background. When asked about attending a specific meeting at the home of Hollywood screenwriter Martin Berkeley, she refused to respond, claiming her rights under the Fifth Amendment and she referred the committee to her letter by way of explanation. The Committee responded that it had considered and rejected her request to be allowed to testify only about herself and entered her letter into the record. Hellman answered only one additional question: she denied she had ever belonged to the Communist Party. She cited the Fifth Amendment in response to several more questions and the committee dismissed her. Historian John Earl Haynes credits both Rauh's "clever tactics" and Hellman's "sense of the dramatic" for what followed the conclusion of Hellman's testimony. As the committee moved on to other business, Rauh released to the press copies of her letter to HUAC. Committee members, unprepared for close questioning about Hellman's stance, offered only offhand comments. The press reported Hellman's statement at length, its language crafted to overshadow the comments of the HUAC members. She wrote in part:
Reaction divided along political lines. Murray Kempton, a longtime critic of her sympathy for communist causes, praised her: "It is enough that she has reached into her conscience for an act based on something more than the material or the tactical ... she has chosen to act like a lady." The FBI increased its surveillance of her travel and her mail. In the early 1950s, at the height of anti-communist fervor in the United States, the State Department investigated whether Melby posed a security risk. In April 1952, the department stated its one formal charge against him: "that during the period 1945 to date, you have maintained an association with one, Lillian Hellman, reliably reported to be a member of the Communist Party," based on testimony from unidentified informants. When Melby appeared before the department's Loyalty Security Board, he was not allowed to contest Hellman's Communist Party affiliation or learn who informed against her, but only to present his understanding of her politics and the nature of his relationship with her, including the occasional renewal of their physical relationship. He said he had no plans to renew their friendship, but never promised to avoid contact with her.
In the course of a series of appeals, Hellman testified before the Loyalty Security Board on his behalf. She offered to answer questions about her political views and associations, but the board only allowed her to describe her relationship with Melby. She testified that she had many longstanding friendships with people of different political views and that political sympathy was not a part of those relationships. She described how her relationship with Melby changed over time and how their sexual relationship was briefly renewed in 1950 after a long hiatus: "The relationship obviously at this point was neither one thing nor the other: it was neither over nor was it not over." She said that:
The State Department dismissed Melby on April 22, 1953. As was its practice, the board gave no reason for its decision.
In 1954, Hellman declined when asked to adapt Anne Frank's The Diary of a Young Girl (1952) for the stage. According to writer and director Garson Kanin, she said that the diary was "a great historical work which will probably live forever, but I couldn't be more wrong as the adapter. If I did this it would run one night because it would be deeply depressing. You need someone who has a much lighter touch" and recommended her friends, Frances Goodrich and Albert Hackett.
Hellman made an English-language adaption of Jean Anouilh's play, L'Alouette, based on the trial of Joan of Arc, called The Lark. Leonard Bernstein composed incidental music for the first production, which opened on Broadway on November 17, 1955. Hellman edited a collection of Chekhov's correspondence that appeared in 1955 as The Selected Letters of Anton Chekhov.
Following the success of The Lark, Hellman conceived of another play with incidental music, based on Voltaire's Candide. Bernstein convinced her to develop it as a comic operetta with a much more substantial musical component. She wrote the spoken dialogue, which many others then worked on, and wrote some lyrics as well for what became the often-revived, Candide. Hellman hated the collaboration and revisions on deadline that Candide required: "I went to pieces when something had to be done quickly, because someone didn't like something, and there was no proper time to think it out ... I realized that I panicked under conditions I wasn't accustomed to."
1960s
Toys in the Attic opened on Broadway on February 25, 1960, and ran for 464 performances. It received a Tony Award nomination for Best Play. In this family drama set in New Orleans, money, marital infidelity, and revenge end in a woman's disfigurement. Hellman had no hand in the screenplay, which altered the drama's tone and exaggerated the characterizations, and the resulting film received bad reviews. Later that year she was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
A second film version of The Children's Hour, less successful both with critics and at the box office, appeared in 1961 under that title, but Hellman played no role in the screenplay, having withdrawn from the project following Hammett's death in 1961. In the 1961 version of The Children's Hour, however, despite the continued existence of the Motion Picture Production Code, the lead characters (played by Audrey Hepburn and Shirley MacLaine) were explicitly accused of lesbianism.
In 1961, Brandeis University awarded her its Creative Arts Medal for outstanding lifetime achievement and the women's division of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University gave her its Achievement Award. The following year, in December 1962, Hellman was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters and inducted at a May 1963 ceremony.
Another play, My Mother, My Father, and Me, proved unsuccessful when it was staged in March 1963. It closed after 17 performances. Hellman adapted it from Burt Blechman's novel How Much?
Hellman wrote another screenplay in 1965 for The Chase, starring Marlon Brando, based on a play and novel by Horton Foote. Although Hellman received sole credit for the screenplay, she worked from an earlier treatment, and producer Sam Spiegel made additional changes and altered the sequence of scenes. In 1966, she edited a collection of Hammett's stories, The Big Knockover. Her introductory profile of Hammett was her first exercise in memoir writing.
Hellman wrote a reminiscence of gulag-survivor Lev Kopelev, husband of her translator in Russia during 1944, to serve as the introduction to his anti-Stalinist memoirs, To Be Preserved Forever, which appeared in 1976. In February 1980, she, John Hersey, and Norman Mailer wrote to Soviet authorities to protest retribution against Kopelev for his defense of Soviet dissident Andrei Sakharov. Hellman was a long-time friend of author Dorothy Parker and served as her literary executor after her death in 1967.
Hellman published her first volume of memoirs that touched upon her political, artistic, and social life, An Unfinished Woman: A Memoir, in 1969, for which she received the U.S. National Book Award in category Arts and Letters, which was an award category from 1964 to 1976.
1970s
In the early 1970s, Hellman taught writing for short periods at the University of California, Berkeley, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Hunter College in New York City. Her second volume of memoirs, Pentimento: A Book of Portraits, appeared in 1973. In an interview at the time, Hellman described the difficulty of writing about the 1950s:
Hellman published her third volume of memoirs, Scoundrel Time, in 1976. These writings illustrated not only the exciting artistic time, but also depicted an influential tone, closely associated with the beginning of the feminist movement. In 1976, she posed in a fur coat for the Blackglama national advertising campaign "What Becomes a Legend Most?". In August of that year she was awarded the prestigious Edward MacDowell Medal for her contribution to literature. In October, she received the Paul Robeson Award from Actors' Equity.
In 1976, Hellman's publisher, Little Brown, canceled its contract to publish a book of Diana Trilling's essays because Trilling refused to delete four passages critical of Hellman. When Trilling's collection appeared the next year, in 1977, the New York Times critic felt the need to posit his own preference for the "simple confession of error" Hellman made in Scoundrel Time for her "acquiescence in Stalinism" to what he described as Trilling's excuses for her own behavior during McCarthyism. Arthur L. Herman, however, later described Scoundrel Time as "breathtaking dishonesty".
Hellman presented the Academy Award for Best Documentary Film at a ceremony on March 28, 1977. Greeted by a standing ovation, she said:
The 1977 Oscar-winning film Julia was based on the "Julia" chapter of Pentimento. On June 30, 1976, as the film was going into production, Hellman wrote about the screenplay to its producer:
In a 1979 television interview, author Mary McCarthy, long Hellman's political adversary and the object of her negative literary judgment, said of Hellman that "every word she writes is a lie, including 'and' and 'the'." Hellman responded by filing a US$2,500,000 defamation suit against McCarthy, interviewer Dick Cavett, and PBS. McCarthy in turn produced evidence she said proved that Hellman had lied in some accounts of her life. Cavett said he sympathized more with McCarthy than Hellman in the lawsuit, but "everybody lost" as a result of it. Norman Mailer attempted unsuccessfully to mediate the dispute through an open letter he published in the New York Times. At the time of her death, Hellman was still in litigation with McCarthy; her executors dropped the suit.
Later years and death
In 1980, Hellman published a short novel, Maybe: A Story. Though presented as fiction, Hellman, Hammett, and other real-life people appeared as characters. It received a mixed reception and was sometimes read as another installment of Hellman's memoirs. Hellman's editor wrote to the New York Times to question a reviewer's attempt to check the facts in the novel. He described it as a work of fiction whose characters misremember and dissemble.
In 1983, New York psychiatrist Muriel Gardiner claimed she was the basis for the title character in Julia and that she had never known Hellman. Hellman denied the character was based on Gardiner. As the events Hellman described matched Gardiner's account of her life and Gardiner's family was closely tied to Hellman's attorney, Wolf Schwabacher, some critics believe that Hellman appropriated Gardiner's story without attribution.
Hellman died on June 30, 1984, aged 79, from a heart attack near her home on Martha's Vineyard and is buried beneath a pine tree on a rise at one end of Abels Hill/Chilmark Cemetery, Chilmark, Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts.
Archive
Hellman's papers are held by the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin. Her archive includes an extensive collection of manuscript drafts, contracts, correspondence, scrapbooks, speeches, teaching notes, awards, legal documents, appointment books, and honorary degrees.
Legacy
Institutions that awarded Hellman honorary degrees include Brandeis University (1955), Wheaton College (1960), Mt. Holyoke College (1966), Smith College (1974), Yale University (1974), and Columbia University (1976).
Human Rights Watch administers the Hellman/Hammett grant program named for the two writers.
Hellman is the central character in Peter Feibleman's 1993 play Cakewalk, which depicts his relationship with Hellman, based in turn on Feibleman's 1988 memoir of their relationship, Lilly, which described "his tumultuous time as her lover, caretaker, writing partner and principal heir."
In 1999, Kathy Bates directed a television film, Dash and Lilly, based on the relationship between Hellman and Hammett.
Hellman's feud with Mary McCarthy formed the basis for Nora Ephron's 2002 play Imaginary Friends, with music by Marvin Hamlisch and lyrics by Craig Carnelia.
William Wright wrote The Julia Wars, based on the legal battle between Hellman and McCarthy. Chuck Palahniuk's novel Tell-All (2010) was described by Janet Maslin in the New York Times as "a looney pipe dream that savages Lillian Hellman". Dorothy Gallagher wrote a biography of Hellman, Lillian Hellman: An Imperious Life.
Works
Plays
The Children's Hour (1934)
Days to Come (1936)
The Little Foxes (1939)
Watch on the Rhine (1941)
The Searching Wind (1944)
Another Part of the Forest (1946)
Montserrat (1949) (English-language adaptation of the play by Emmanuel Robles)
The Autumn Garden (1951)
The Lark (1955) (English-language adaptation of Jean Anouilh's play L'Alouette)
Toys in the Attic (1960)
My Mother, My Father and Me (1963) (based on Burt Blechman's novel How Much?)
Novel
Maybe: A Story (1980)
Operetta
Candide (1956) (book, with Hugh Wheeler)
Screenplays
The Dark Angel (1935) (with Mordaunt Shairp; based on the play by Guy Bolton)
These Three (1936) (based on her play The Children's Hour)
Dead End (1937) (based on the play by Sidney Kingsley)
The Little Foxes (1941) (based on her play)
The North Star (1943)
The Searching Wind (1946) (based on her play)
The Chase (1966) (based on the play and novel by Horton Foote)
Memoirs
An Unfinished Woman: A Memoir (1969)
Pentimento: A Book of Portraits (1973)
Scoundrel Time (1976)
Eating Together: Recipes and Recollections, with Peter Feibleman (1984)
also:
Preface to The Big Knockover, a collection of Hammett's stories (1963)
Three, a 1980 collection of her first three memoirs
Notes
References
Alan Ackerman, Just Words: Lillian Hellman, Mary McCarthy, and the Failure of Public Conversation in America (Yale University Press, 2011)
Thomas Carl Austenfeld., American Women Writers and the Nazis: Ethics and Politics in Boyle, Porter, Stafford, and Hellman (University Press of Virginia, 2001)
Jackson R. Bryer, ed., Conversations with Lillian Hellman (University Press of Mississippi, 1986), a collection of 27 interviews published between 1936 and 1981
Bernard F. Dick, Hellman in Hollywood (East Brunswick, NJ: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1982)
Peter Feibleman, Lilly: Reminiscences of Lillian Hellman (NY: Morrow, 1988)
Alice Griffin and Geraldine Thorsten, Understanding Lillian Hellman (University of South Carolina Press, 1999)
John Earl Haynes, "Hellman and the Hollywood Inquisition: The Triumph of Spin-Control over Candour," Film History, vol 10, No. 3, 1998, pp. 408–14
Barbara Lee Horn, Lillian Hellman: A Research and Production Sourcebook (Greenwood Press, 1998)
Alice Kessler-Harris, A Difficult Woman: The Challenging Life and Times of Lillian Hellman (Bloomsbury Press, 2012)
Rosemary Mahoney, A Likely Story: One Summer With Lillian Hellman (NY: Doubleday, 1998)
Deborah Martinson, Lillian Hellman: A Life with Foxes and Scoundrels (Counterpoint Press, 2005; )
Joan Mellen, Hellman and Hammett: The Legendary Passion of Lillian Hellman and Dashiell Hammett, (NY: HarperCollins, 1996)
Richard Moody, Lillian Hellman: Playwright (NY: Pegasus, 1972)
Robert P. Newman, The Cold War Romance of Lillian Hellman and John Melby (University of North Carolina Press, 1989)
Carl E. Rollyson, Lillian Hellman: Her Legend and Her Legacy (NY: St. Martin's Press, 1988)
Alan Barrie Spitzer, Historical Truth and Lies about the Past: Reflections on Dewey, Dreyfus, de Man, and Reagan (University of North Carolina Press, 1996), ch. 1: "John Dewey, the 'Trial' of Leon Trotsky, and the Search for Historical Truth"
William Wright, Lillian Hellman: The Image, the Woman (NY: Simon and Schuster, 1986)
Doris V. Falk, "Lillian Hellman" (Ungar; 1978)
External links
Lillian Hellman Papers at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin
“Profile: Lillian Hellman Episode 5,” 1981-04-10, The Walter J. Brown Media Archives & Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia, American Archive of Public Broadcasting
1905 births
1984 deaths
American people of German-Jewish descent
20th-century American memoirists
Screenwriters from New York (state)
Hollywood blacklist
American women dramatists and playwrights
American Communist writers
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
National Book Award winners
Writers from New Orleans
People from Mount Pleasant, New York
Jewish American dramatists and playwrights
Writers from New York City
New York University alumni
Columbia University alumni
American Marxist writers
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
American women memoirists
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American screenwriters
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208803
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Shaw%20%28editor%29
|
Joseph Shaw (editor)
|
Joseph T. "Cap" Shaw (1874–1952) was the editor of Black Mask magazine from 1926 to 1936.
Prior to becoming Black Mask editor, Shaw had worked as a newspaper reporter and as a soldier in World War I, attaining the
rank of captain (Shaw's friends gave him the nickname "Cap").
Shaw was also a professional fencer,
and even won an Olympic medal for his fencing ability.
Under his editorship, Black Mask published many works of crime fiction now recognised as classics of the genre, by authors such as Dashiell Hammett, Raymond Chandler,
and Erle Stanley Gardner.
Chandler greatly admired Shaw's ability to encourage Black Mask writers, claiming in a letter,
"We wrote better for him than we could have written for anybody else".
Despite Black Mask's critical and commercial popularity, Shaw was eventually fired from the magazine, succeeded by Fanny Ellsworth. Shaw then
worked as a literary agent, though without notable success.
Further reading
Bodin, Ed. "An Interview With Joseph T. Shaw," The Author and Composer, August 1932.
Lenniger, August. "Black Mask" (interview), Writer's Digest, October 1929.
Safire, William. "The Way We Live Now: 4-30-00: On Language; Dirigiste", New York Times, April 30, 2000.
Shaw, Joseph. "Do You Want to Become a Writer," Writer's Digest, May 1934.
Shaw, Joseph. "Dialogue," Writer's Digest, June 1939.
Shaw, Milton. Joseph T. Shaw: The Man Behind Black Mask. Black Mask, 2019. Biography, by his son.
References
American magazine editors
American crime fiction writers
Literary agents
American male fencers
1874 births
1952 deaths
Place of birth missing
American male novelists
American male non-fiction writers
|
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208804
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandhurst%2C%20Berkshire
|
Sandhurst, Berkshire
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Sandhurst is a town and civil parish in the Bracknell Forest borough in Berkshire, England. It is in the south eastern corner of Berkshire, and is situated west-southwest of central London, north west of Camberley and south of Bracknell. Sandhurst is known worldwide as the location of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst (often referred to simply as "Sandhurst", "The Academy" or "The RMA"). Despite its close proximity to Camberley, Sandhurst is also home to a large and well-known out-of-town mercantile development. The site is named "The Meadows" and has a Tesco Extra hypermarket and a Marks & Spencer, two of the largest in the country. A large Next clothing and homeware store is open on the site of the old Homebase.
Geography
Sandhurst is in South East England near the junction of Berkshire, Hampshire and Surrey. The town has four main districts, from west to east: Little Sandhurst, Sandhurst (central) and College Town, with Owlsmoor to the northeast. North of the town are Edgbarrow Woods and a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) called Sandhurst to Owlsmoor Bogs and Heaths which includes the nature reserve of Wildmoor Heath. To the east is Broadmoor Bottom, an expanse of heathland together with fir tree plantations. This backs onto the high-security Broadmoor Hospital.
Sandhurst is bordered, on the south, by the River Blackwater, and several of the Yateley Lakes along its course are within the parish, notably Trilakes with its country park. This is also the county boundary with Hampshire at Blackwater. The town of Crowthorne is to the north, the village of Finchampstead to the west, and Camberley, across the Surrey county boundary, is on its southeastern side. This is the closest sizeable town, though Sandhurst is also only south of the new town of Bracknell. The soil is sandy, with a subsoil of sand and gravel.
Communications
Sandhurst lies just off the A30, which is close to junction 4 of the M3 motorway (3.4 miles) and within easy reach of the M4 (10.3 miles) via the Crowthorne bypass (A3095) to Bracknell and the A329(M) towards Reading. Sandhurst railway station is served by Great Western Railway, on the line between Gatwick, Guildford and Reading.
Local government
Sandhurst has representation through several tiers of government – town council, unitary authority, and parliamentary (UK). Its Town Council is divided into four wards, Central Sandhurst, Little Sandhurst, College Town and Owlsmoor, all represented by twenty-four councillors. It is also part of the Bracknell Forest District. The ancient parish of Sandhurst also covered Crowthorne, until this became an ecclesiastical parish in its own right in 1874 and a civil parish in 1894. The current Mayor of Sandhurst is Councillor Sheila Davenport.
History
Saxon and Medieval periods
The name of the village is Anglo-Saxon and originates from the sandy soils and the hurst (a wooded eminence) of the area. In the early 14th century records, Sandhurst appears as part of the township of Sonning, a large minster parish spreading over much of eastern Berkshire, which later became a hundred when its villages obtained their own churches. These lands belonged to the Bishops of Salisbury. There were two manors in Sandhurst: ‘Hall’ in the grounds of what is now the Royal Military Academy and ‘Sandhurst’ on the site of Sandhurst Lodge. Nothing remains of the original buildings. The first mention of the village of Sandhurst is to be found in the Exchequer Rolls of Henry II in 1175 where the receipt of one mark for the Villata de Sandhurst is recorded.
Tudor to Georgian periods
In the early modern era, Sandhurst parish was a small farming community on the very edge of Windsor Forest, Sandhurst Walke being an important forest division subject to forest laws. Locals had the right to cut turf, bracken, heather and wood that was primarily cultivated to feed the forest deer. These were hunted by Royal parties from a hunting lodge in the vicinity of Hart's Leap Road. A number of disputes are on record, showing how Sandhurst people sometimes took more resources than was allowed. Farming has always remained a major part of village life here and some defunct farms are still remembered in the names of housing estates, roads and even a restaurant: Sandhurst Farm, Snaprails, Caves Farm, Ambarrow Farm, College Farm, Rectory Farm, Beech Farm and Rackstraws Farm. In the mid-16th century, William, Lord Sandys, the Lord Chancellor to King Henry VIII, owned a supposed manor called 'Buckhurst' in the area between College Town and Central Sandhurst.
Victorian and Modern periods
Life changed very little in Sandhurst until the 19th century when large sections of land were sold for the building of the Royal Military College, which moved from Marlow in 1813. The railway arrived in 1849 and a number of large country residences were subsequently erected in the area: amongst them, Harts Leap, Forest End, St Helens Upland, The Warren, Longdown Lodge, Ryefield, Snaprails, and Ambarrow Court. Sandhurst Lodge was erected in about 1858 by Robert W. Gibson and leased to John Walter, of the Times Newspaper, and then Sir William Farrer, solicitor to Queen Victoria and The Duke of Wellington. Perry Hill and The Ceders came later. Only a few remain today. The others have been demolished and land developed.
Such large houses and institutions, including the Broadmoor Hospital and Wellington College in nearby Crowthorne, led to a great expansion of the local population as people moved into the area looking for work. Further residential housing was erected for these workers, as well as more schools for their children, more places of worship and other community resources. Until Sandhurst Comprehensive – now Sandhurst School – was built in 1969 in Owlsmoor, Secondary-age pupils were sent to Edgbarrow School in Crowthorne, Forest Grammar School for boys in Winnersh or Holt School for girls in Wokingham. From the late 1950s to the 80s, large housing estates have been built creating the conglomerate town of today from the original four villages of College Town, Central Sandhurst, Little Sandhurst and Owlsmoor.
St Michael's Parish Church, Little Sandhurst, dates from the 13th century, but was largely rebuilt in 1853.
The Baptist Church, Central Sandhurst, was built in 1884.
The Wesleyan Methodist chapel, Central Sandhurst, followed in 1906.
The Church of England parish church of St George's , Owlsmoor, was built as an iron church in 1880 and was rebuilt in 1993.
The Roman Catholic Church of the Immaculate Conception, Yorktown Road, was built in 1959.
St Michael's Church of England School, Little Sandhurst, was opened in 1862 and other schools followed in quick succession:
Old Scotland Hill, Little Sandhurst, in 1871,
The Methodist, Central Sandhurst, in 1906,
College Town in 1907,
Uplands, Central Sandhurst, in 1962 and
Owlsmoor Primary was added in 1974.
Recreation and sport
The Tug of War Association National Outdoor Tug of War Championships were held in Sandhurst in the year 2000 and 2013.
The Sandhurst tug of war team have been three times World champions, as seen on sign posts entering the town.
Sandhurst's football team, Sandhurst Town F.C., has its home ground at Bottom Meadow. It currently plays in the Combined County League Division 1.
The boys and girls football club, offers football to all children aged 6 to 21 in the area and has over 750 registered players. The kit consists of the badge, the number in grey at the back and vertical red and white stripes which fade into white at the bottom. The shorts are black.
Sandhurst Cricket Club field two teams in the Berkshire League with the 1st XI in the premier division. They also have a Sunday side and a Midweek XI, plus a growing junior section (U11s & U9s).
Sandhurst Joggers has more than 400 members ranging from novices to athletes competing in a variety of local races, regional and National Championships and organises runs on 6 days of the week. It was founded in 1987.
Sandhurst Memorial Park contains tennis and basketball courts, cricket and football pitches, a playground (with a large sand-play area) and a small skatepark. Pistachios in the Park is in the vicinity. The park has a large water area (called a balancing pond) where a firework show is held once a year, usually on the closest Saturday to Guy Fawkes Night and the Sandhurst Donkey Derby is also an annual event. The Memorial Park is home to Sandhurst Memorial parkrun, a weekly 5k run held in the United Kingdom. It is held every Saturday at 9.00am and takes in a route that includes the River Blackwater and Shepherd Meadows.
Sandhurst Leisure Centre is in the Owlsmoor area. It is facilitated by Sandhurst School and has various facilities for sporting and recreational activities.
Sandhurst has an active Historical Society.
Sandhurst Silver Band Organisation rehearse in their own facility in the town and maintain two separate bands - The Sandhurst Community Band and the Sandhurst Silver Band. In March 2018, Sandhurst Silver Band became London and Southern Counties First Section Champions, earning an invitation to the National Finals in September 2018.
Notable people
The Duke of Cambridge (then Prince William of Wales) resided at the Royal Military Academy between January and December 2006.
Greg Davies, the actor and comedian, was an English & Drama teacher at Sandhurst School in the 1990s.
Max and Harvey, British twin singing duo
References
Sources
PH Ditchfield (1923), The Victoria County History of Berkshire.
External links
Sandhurst Town Council Website: History Page
Sandhurst Town Council Website: FAQ Page
Sandhurst Town Council
Royal Berkshire History: Sandhurst
Sandhurst Weather Station
Towns in Berkshire
Bracknell Forest
Civil parishes in Berkshire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Military%20Academy%20Sandhurst
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Royal Military Academy Sandhurst
|
The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst (RMAS or RMA Sandhurst), commonly known simply as Sandhurst, is one of several military academies of the United Kingdom and is the British Army's initial officer training centre. It is located in the town of Sandhurst, Berkshire, though its ceremonial entrance is in Camberley, southwest of London. The academy's stated aim is to be "the national centre of excellence for leadership". All British Army officers, including late-entry officers who were previously Warrant Officers, as well as other men and women from overseas, are trained at the academy. Sandhurst is the British Army equivalent of the Britannia Royal Naval College and the Royal Air Force College Cranwell.
Location
Despite its name, the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst's address is located in Camberley; the boundaries of the academy straddle the counties of Berkshire and Surrey. The county border is marked by a small stream known as the Wish Stream, after which the academy journal is named. The "Main Gate" is located on the east of the Academy on the London Road in Camberley. The "College Town Gate", which is used for regular access, is located on the west of the Academy on Yorktown Road in Sandhurst.
History
The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst was formed on the site of the former Royal Military College (founded in 1801 for the training of officers for arms other than the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers) in 1947 when it amalgamated with the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich, (founded in 1741 for the training of officers for the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers).
Following the ending of National Service in the UK and the closing of the Mons Officer Cadet School in Aldershot in 1972, the RMAS became the sole establishment for male initial officer training in the British Army, taking over the responsibilities of Mons for training Short Service Officer Cadets, Territorial Army officers, and those joining the Regular Army as graduates. In 1984, the Women's Officer Training College Bagshot was also merged into Sandhurst. In 1992, a new Commissioning Course finally unified the training of male, female, and overseas cadets.
The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst Collection illustrates the history of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. The collection includes the Gentlemen Cadet registers, historic archives, uniforms, paintings, photographs, and other artefacts.
For the 1948 Summer Olympics in London, the newly created Academy hosted the running leg of the modern pentathlon competition.
In 2012 Sandhurst accepted a £15 million donation from the government of United Arab Emirates for the Zayed Building, an accommodation block, named after the UAE's founding ruler. In 2013 Sandhurst accepted a donation of £3 million from the Government of Bahrain for the refurbishment of Mons Hall, named in honour of the men who fell in the Battle of Mons. It was renamed as King Hamad Hall in honour of the King of Bahrain, which generated some controversy in the United Kingdom.
In 2015 Sandhurst appointed Lucy Giles as the first female college commander in its history.
In 2019 Sandhurst gained widespread media attention in Britain after cadet Olivia Perks committed suicide after an alleged affair with a superior at Sandhurst and amid fears she was going to be dismissed. An inquest into her death is set to take place in 2022.
Selection
Potential officers, for regular, reserve, or professional qualified service, are identified by the Army Officer Selection Board (formerly the Regular Commissions Board, or RCB) situated in Westbury in Wiltshire. Assessment for regular or reserve direct entry service is undertaken at the same time, in the same groups, to the same standard. Nearly 10 percent of British cadets are female and nearly 10 percent of all cadets come from overseas. More than eighty percent of entrants are university graduates, although a degree is not required for admission.
Instructors
The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst instructors' cadre (group of trainers) is run once every year. The aim is to select 30 Senior Non-Commissioned Officers (SNCOs) from 60 over the course of 3–4 weeks. Instructors can come from any part of the British Army although most are historically from the Infantry. Typically before the 60 candidates arrive on the cadre, they would have had to have passed a 'Divisional pre-selection' course, meaning it would not be unusual for over double the 60 places to be contested. Sergeants and Colour Sergeants (Staff Sergeants from non-Infantry units) attend the Instructors Cadre. The Instructors Cadre is known to be demanding, both physically and mentally, compressing all the prominent physical tests and mental assessments that each officer cadet undertakes over the year course, into 3/4 weeks. This proves and produces the best instructors the British Army has at their disposal. No other instructor posting has a selection to pass in order to be a part of a training team.
Courses
There are three commissioning courses run at the academy. All are accredited by various academic and professional institutions, in particular the Chartered Management Institute. The Regular Commissioning Course, and increasingly the Short Course, are attended by international officer cadets from other nations' land forces. The three courses are:
1. The Regular Commissioning Course, which lasts 44 weeks, for Direct Entry officers into the Regular service.
2. The Short Commissioning Course, which is for Army Reserve officers and both regular and reserve service professionally qualified officers (e.g., doctors, dentists, nurses, lawyers, pharmacists, veterinary surgeons and chaplains). which lasts eight weeks. The short course consists of four training modules; the first two, Modules A and B, can be completed under the supervision of RMAS with University Officer Training Corps over a number of weekends, or at RMAS where each module lasts two weeks. The final two modules, modules C and D, of the Officers' training and assessment must be conducted at Sandhurst. This training can all be completed in an eight-week period at RMAS, or over a number of years. Upon completion, Officer Cadets become Second Lieutenants in the AR or Officer Training Corps (OTC), or Captains in PQO roles.
3. The Late Entry Officer Course (LEOC) for senior soldiers commissioning from the ranks.
The RMAS has an academic faculty staffed by civilian researchers with expertise in Communication and Applied Behavioural Science, Defence and International Affairs, and War Studies.
Unlike some other national military academies such as West Point in the United States, the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr in France, the Pakistan Military Academy in Pakistan, the Nigerian Defence Academy in Nigeria or the Australian Defence Force Academy in Australia, Sandhurst is not a university. It only works with the Open University to award the Regular Commissioning Course 120 credit points towards a distance learning Honours Degree in International Studies which ultimately requires 360 points. Graduate entrants can gain a Postgraduate Certificate in Leadership and Conflict Studies from the Regular Commissioning Course and then embark on a pathway post-commissioning to complete a full master's degree from a university through further electives and a dissertation. Alternatively, non-graduate cadets have the opportunity to earn a BSc in Leadership and Strategic Studies through their military service, which is awarded by the University of Reading.
Organisation
In overall command of the RMAS is the commandant of the academy, usually an officer of Major General rank. The senior warrant officer, the Academy Sergeant Major (AcSM), is one of the most senior warrant officers in the British Army. The regular commissioning course is split into three terms, each lasting fourteen weeks (referred to as the Junior, Intermediate and Senior Divisions, identified by differently coloured badges). Basic army training is covered in the first five weeks, which, by reputation, are the most gruelling (the families of the cadets are encouraged to support the cadets' morale by maintaining home contacts). The main RMAS Commissioning Courses start in January, May and September of each year. Each intake numbers approximately 200 cadets, each of whom is assigned to a platoon within one of two companies. Platoons are commanded by captains, with a colour sergeant who takes the main burden of day-to-day training, especially during the first term (unlike West Point, RMAS entrusts the majority of officer training to Senior Non-Commissioned Officers). There can be as many as ten companies within the RMAS at any one time, for all courses, each commanded by a Major and named after a famous battle or campaign in which the British Army has fought. The company names change from year to year.
Cadets on the regular course nominate two regiments or corps that they seek to join; this may be influenced by their instructors, if particular strengths or weaknesses or aptitudes are seen to be important. In the middle term, interviews are held and final selections are made by the recruiting regiments and corps; there is competition for strong cadets by the units and, conversely, by cadets for prestigious or specialised units. Exceptionally, so-called "confirmed cadets" may have guaranteed places in regiments before the formal selections or even before starting at Sandhurst. Cadets on the short course will have already been sponsored by a reserve unit, a professionally qualified unit, or a University Officers' Training Corps, and will return to their unit post completion of the course.
Regular Army
A small number of regular army units are based at the RMAS to provide support for the colleges and their training:
Gurkha Demonstration Company (Sittang): this is a company-sized unit drawn from all units of the Brigade of Gurkhas, to provide an opposing force in battle training for the cadets.
44 Support Squadron, Royal Logistic Corps: this is the RMAS's permanently based transport, logistic and signals support unit.
Until 1984, the RMAS had its own band—The RMAS Band Corps.
Sovereign's Parade
The first Sovereign's Parade was held on 14 July 1948, in front of King George VI. Three Sovereign's Parades are held each year outside the Old College to mark the "passing-out" and the final parade at Sandhurst of the Senior Division. All cadets, except for those who have been back-termed through injury or other reasons, are inspected by the Sovereign (or their representative), participate in the Trooping the Colour and parade past the Sovereign (or her representative) and guests. Guests consist of invited dignitaries and friends and families of the graduating cadets.
One of the highlights of the Parade is Trooping the Colour. The Colour trooped is the Sovereign's Banner and the current banner is the third generation of itself, presented by HM the Queen in March 1999; the first Sovereign's Banner, known as the "King George V's Banner", was presented by George V in 1918 and the second one was presented by Her Majesty in October 1978. The honour of Trooping the Colour falls to the Sovereign's Platoon, the then-Champion Company/Platoon. The Sovereign's Platoon, which wears multi-coloured lanyards, using the colours of all three Divisions, is selected on merit and is the best platoon amongst the Division; these officer cadets are chosen from a competition in drill, orienteering, shooting and a cross-country race, ensuring they are of the best in endurance and teamwork.
In the past, the Sovereign's Platoon from the Senior Division formed the Colour Party with the Banner on the left flank of the parade; after the inspecting officer had completed inspection, the Colour Party would move to the centre place of the parade before the Saluting Base, awaiting the new Sovereign's Platoon to take possession of the Banner. The new Sovereign's Platoon would keep the Banner until handing it to the next Sovereign's Platoon in the next Sovereign's Parade; they had the privilege of leaving the parade before other divisions after the Senior Division officer cadets had marched into the Old College and the remainders of the parade would salute the banner while they were leaving the parade square.
Nowadays, the handover of the Sovereign's Banner from the senior Sovereign's Platoon to a new one dissipates. What replaces it is that the Sovereign's Platoon of Senior Division, instead of the new one, marches to receive the Banner. The Ensign, at the end of the parade, also marches into the Old College whilst carrying the Banner.
At the end of the Parade, the Colours and the Senior Division leave the parade ground via the Grand Steps of the Old College building. They are followed by the Academy Adjutant on horseback (the origins of this tradition are unclear).
Awards
Each Commissioning Course has awards granted to outstanding cadets. The following awards are presented during the Sovereign's Parade. Others are merely listed in the Parade programme. A system of Cadet Government also recognises merit by the appointment of Senior Under Officers, Junior Under Officers, Cadet Sergeants and Cadet Corporals.
Sword of Honour
The Sword of Honour is awarded to the British Army Officer Cadet considered by the Commandant to be, overall, the best of the Regular Commissioning Course. The swords were formerly made by Wilkinson Sword but after the closure of their sword making division they are now presented by Pooley Sword.
Queen's Medal
The Queen's Medal is awarded to the British Army Officer Cadet who achieved the highest scores in military, practical and academic studies on the Regular Commissioning Course.
Overseas Sword
The Overseas Sword is awarded to one of the many cadets from other Commonwealth countries and from foreign armies. The Overseas Sword goes to the Overseas Cadet considered by the Commandant to be the best on each course.
Overseas Award
The Overseas Award is the equivalent of the Queen's Medal, and is awarded to the Overseas Officer Cadet who achieved the best overall results in military, academic and practical studies.
MacRobert Sword
The MacRobert Sword is awarded to the Officer Cadet considered by the Commandant to be, overall, the best of the Short Commissioning Course. This sword is also donated by the MacRobert Trust and produced by Pooley Sword.
Sandhurst Medal
In December 2016, the academy and its charitable trust created the Sandhurst Medal. Unlike most British medals, it is not awarded or authorised by the Sovereign and is instead awarded privately by the Sandhurst Trust. It may only be awarded to international cadets who have passed out from Sandhurst, not British graduates, and must be purchased for £215. Notable graduates such as Abdullah II of Jordan have mounted the medal on their military uniforms.
Alumni
Chapel
There are two chapels within the academy, The Roman Catholic Chapel (Christ the King) and The Royal Memorial Chapel, dedicated as Christ Church, which also contains the South Africa Chapel, which was originally the sanctuary of the second Chapel before it was enlarged. The original chapel was what is now known as the Indian Army Memorial Room. The Royal Engineers designed the original Chapel, which features red brick, terracotta moulding, interlocking pediment copies and corbels in 1879. The chapel was dedicated by King George VI on 2 May 1937, after architect Captain Arthur C. Martin enlarged the building in a Byzantine style. The Memorial stained glass and Windows in the chapel honour the Brigade of Guards, Rifle Brigade, Royal Fusiliers, and the Hampshire Regiment, among other units. Some memorials, including one honouring alumni of the US Military Academy at West Point, are carved into the black marble flooring. On panels devoted to the particular campaigns in which they lost their lives, are the names of former cadets killed in action. At intervals above the panels are circular tablets to the memory of College Governors. The names of former cadets who have died on active service in the field, or elsewhere are listed in the spaces between the panels. Other tablets on the walls of the porch of the Church were moved there from the old Chapel. At the nave near the chancel steps, old Regimental colours hang from the pillars.
The college cemetery has (in 2017) 21 graves and headstones maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.
Lineage
|- style="text-align: center; background: #ADD8E6;"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="3"|Lineage
|-
| rowspan="5" style="width:25%; text-align:center;"| Royal Military Academy Sandhurst
| rowspan="2" style="width:25%; text-align:center;"| Royal Military Academy
| style="width:25%; text-align:center;"| Royal Military Academy
|-
| style="width:25%; text-align:center;"| East India Company Military Seminary
|-
| colspan="2" style="width:25%; text-align:center;"| Royal Military College, Sandhurst
|-
| colspan="2" style="width:25%; text-align:center;"| Mons Officer Cadet School
|-
| colspan="2" style="width:25%; text-align:center;"| Women's Royal Army Corps College
See also
List of Governors and Commandants of Sandhurst
Sandhurst Competition
References
Notes
Bibliography
Mockler-Ferryman, A. F. Annals of Sandhurst: A Chronicle of the Royal Military College From Its Foundation to the Present. Whitefish, Montana: Kessinger Publishing, 2007 (reprint; original 1900). .
Thomas, Hugh, 1931– The story of Sandhurst London, Hutchinson 1961
Christchurch the Chapel of The Royal Military College: Enlarged and Beautified to the Glory of God and in memory of The Sandhurst Cadets who have died in the service of their country Gale & Polden Ltd, Aldershot, 1937.
Goodley, Heloise An Officer and a Gentlewoman Constable and Robinson, London, 2012
External links
Royal Military Academy Sandhurst Official website
Military academies of the United Kingdom
Training establishments of the British Army
1947 establishments in the United Kingdom
Venues of the 1948 Summer Olympics
Olympic modern pentathlon venues
Racquets venues
Sandhurst, Berkshire
|
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208810
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington%20luminosity
|
Eddington luminosity
|
The Eddington luminosity, also referred to as the Eddington limit, is the maximum luminosity a body (such as a star) can achieve when there is balance between the force of radiation acting outward and the gravitational force acting inward. The state of balance is called hydrostatic equilibrium. When a star exceeds the Eddington luminosity, it will initiate a very intense radiation-driven stellar wind from its outer layers. Since most massive stars have luminosities far below the Eddington luminosity, their winds are mostly driven by the less intense line absorption. The Eddington limit is invoked to explain the observed luminosity of accreting black holes such as quasars.
Originally, Sir Arthur Eddington took only the electron scattering into account when calculating this limit, something that now is called the classical Eddington limit. Nowadays, the modified Eddington limit also counts on other radiation processes such as bound-free and free-free radiation (see Bremsstrahlung) interaction.
Derivation
The limit is obtained by setting the outward radiation pressure equal to the inward gravitational force. Both forces decrease by inverse square laws, so once equality is reached, the hydrodynamic flow is the same throughout the star.
From Euler's equation in hydrostatic equilibrium, the mean acceleration is zero,
where is the velocity, is the pressure, is the density, and is the gravitational potential. If the pressure is dominated by radiation pressure associated with a radiation flux ,
Here is the opacity of the stellar material which is defined as the fraction of radiation energy flux absorbed by the medium per unit density and unit length. For ionized hydrogen , where is the Thomson scattering cross-section for the electron and is the mass of a proton. Note that is defined as the energy flux over a surface, which can be expressed with the momentum flux using for radiation. Therefore, the rate of momentum transfer from the radiation to the gaseous medium per unit density is , which explains the right hand side of the above equation.
The luminosity of a source bounded by a surface may be expressed with these relations as
Now assuming that the opacity is a constant, it can be brought outside of the integral. Using Gauss's theorem and Poisson's equation gives
where is the mass of the central object. This is called the Eddington Luminosity. For pure ionized hydrogen,
where is the mass of the Sun and is the luminosity of the Sun.
The maximum luminosity of a source in hydrostatic equilibrium is the Eddington luminosity. If the luminosity exceeds the Eddington limit, then the radiation pressure drives an outflow.
The mass of the proton appears because, in the typical environment for the outer layers of a star, the radiation pressure acts on electrons, which are driven away from the center. Because protons are negligibly pressured by the analog of Thomson scattering, due to their larger mass, the result is to create a slight charge separation and therefore a radially directed electric field, acting to lift the positive charges, which are typically free protons under the conditions in stellar atmospheres. When the outward electric field is sufficient to levitate the protons against gravity, both electrons and protons are expelled together.
Different limits for different materials
The derivation above for the outward light pressure assumes a hydrogen plasma. In other circumstances the pressure balance can be different from what it is for hydrogen.
In an evolved star with a pure helium atmosphere, the electric field would have to lift a helium nucleus (an alpha particle), with nearly 4 times the mass of a proton, while the radiation pressure would act on 2 free electrons. Thus twice the usual Eddington luminosity would be needed to drive off an atmosphere of pure helium.
At very high temperatures, as in the environment of a black hole or neutron star, high energy photon interactions with nuclei or even with other photons, can create an electron-positron plasma. In that situation the combined mass of the positive-negative charge carrier pair is approximately 918 times smaller (the proton to electron mass ratio), while the radiation pressure on the positrons doubles the effective upward force per unit mass, so the limiting luminosity needed is reduced by a factor of ≈ 918×2.
The exact value of the Eddington luminosity depends on the chemical composition of the gas layer and the spectral energy distribution of the emission. A gas with cosmological abundances of hydrogen and helium is much more transparent than gas with solar abundance ratios. Atomic line transitions can greatly increase the effects of radiation pressure, and line driven winds exist in some bright stars (e.g., Wolf-Rayet and O stars).
Super-Eddington luminosities
The role of the Eddington limit in today's research lies in explaining the very high mass loss rates seen in for example the series of outbursts of η Carinae in 1840–1860. The regular, line driven stellar winds can only stand for a mass loss rate of around 10−4–10−3 solar masses per year, whereas mass loss rates of up to 0.5 solar masses per year are needed to understand the η Carinae outbursts. This can be done with the help of the super-Eddington broad spectrum radiation driven winds.
Gamma-ray bursts, novae and supernovae are examples of systems exceeding their Eddington luminosity by a large factor for very short times, resulting in short and highly intensive mass loss rates. Some X-ray binaries and active galaxies are able to maintain luminosities close to the Eddington limit for very long times. For accretion-powered sources such as accreting neutron stars or cataclysmic variables (accreting white dwarfs), the limit may act to reduce or cut off the accretion flow, imposing an Eddington limit on accretion corresponding to that on luminosity. Super-Eddington accretion onto stellar-mass black holes is one possible model for ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs).
For accreting black holes, not all the energy released by accretion has to appear as outgoing luminosity, since energy can be lost through the event horizon, down the hole. Such sources effectively may not conserve energy. Then the accretion efficiency, or the fraction of energy actually radiated of that theoretically available from the gravitational energy release of accreting material, enters in an essential way.
Other factors
The Eddington limit is not a strict limit on the luminosity of a stellar object. The limit does not consider several potentially important factors, and super-Eddington objects have been observed that do not seem to have the predicted high mass-loss rate. Other factors that might affect the maximum luminosity of a star include:
Porosity. A problem with steady winds driven by broad-spectrum radiation is that both the radiative flux and gravitational acceleration scale with r −2. The ratio between these factors is constant, and in a super-Eddington star, the whole envelope would become gravitationally unbound at the same time. This is not observed. A possible solution is introducing an atmospheric porosity, where we imagine the stellar atmosphere to consist of denser regions surrounded by lower density gas regions. This would reduce the coupling between radiation and matter, and the full force of the radiation field would only be seen in the more homogeneous outer, lower density layers of the atmosphere.
Turbulence. A possible destabilizing factor might be the turbulent pressure arising when energy in the convection zones builds up a field of supersonic turbulence. The importance of turbulence is being debated, however.
Photon bubbles. Another factor that might explain some stable super-Eddington objects is the photon bubble effect. Photon bubbles would develop spontaneously in radiation-dominated atmospheres when the radiation pressure exceeds the gas pressure. We can imagine a region in the stellar atmosphere with a density lower than the surroundings, but with a higher radiation pressure. Such a region would rise through the atmosphere, with radiation diffusing in from the sides, leading to an even higher radiation pressure. This effect could transport radiation more efficiently than a homogeneous atmosphere, increasing the allowed total radiation rate. In accretion discs, luminosities may be as high as 10–100 times the Eddington limit without experiencing instabilities.
Humphreys–Davidson limit
Observations of massive stars show a clear upper limit to their luminosity, termed the Humphreys–Davidson limit after the researchers who first wrote about it. Only highly unstable objects are found, temporarily, at higher luminosities. Efforts to reconcile this with the theoretical Eddington limit have been largely unsuccessful.
See also
Hayashi limit
List of most massive stars
References
External links
External links
Surpassing the Eddington Limit.
Astrophysics
|
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208811
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menger%20sponge
|
Menger sponge
|
In mathematics, the Menger sponge (also known as the Menger cube, Menger universal curve, Sierpinski cube, or Sierpinski sponge) is a fractal curve. It is a three-dimensional generalization of the one-dimensional Cantor set and two-dimensional Sierpinski carpet. It was first described by Karl Menger in 1926, in his studies of the concept of topological dimension.
Construction
The construction of a Menger sponge can be described as follows:
Begin with a cube.
Divide every face of the cube into nine squares, like Rubik's Cube. This sub-divides the cube into 27 smaller cubes.
Remove the smaller cube in the middle of each face, and remove the smaller cube in the very center of the larger cube, leaving 20 smaller cubes. This is a level-1 Menger sponge (resembling a void cube).
Repeat steps two and three for each of the remaining smaller cubes, and continue to iterate ad infinitum.
The second iteration gives a level-2 sponge, the third iteration gives a level-3 sponge, and so on. The Menger sponge itself is the limit of this process after an infinite number of iterations.
Properties
The th stage of the Menger sponge, , is made up of smaller cubes, each with a side length of (1/3)n. The total volume of is thus . The total surface area of is given by the expression . Therefore the construction's volume approaches zero while its surface area increases without bound. Yet any chosen surface in the construction will be thoroughly punctured as the construction continues, so that the limit is neither a solid nor a surface; it has a topological dimension of 1 and is accordingly identified as a curve.
Each face of the construction becomes a Sierpinski carpet, and the intersection of the sponge with any diagonal of the cube or any midline of the faces is a Cantor set. The cross section of the sponge through its centroid and perpendicular to a space diagonal is a regular hexagon punctured with hexagrams arranged in six-fold symmetry. The number of these hexagrams, in descending size, is given by , with .
The sponge's Hausdorff dimension is ≅ 2.727. The Lebesgue covering dimension of the Menger sponge is one, the same as any curve. Menger showed, in the 1926 construction, that the sponge is a universal curve, in that every curve is homeomorphic to a subset of the Menger sponge, where a curve means any compact metric space of Lebesgue covering dimension one; this includes trees and graphs with an arbitrary countable number of edges, vertices and closed loops, connected in arbitrary ways. In a similar way, the Sierpinski carpet is a universal curve for all curves that can be drawn on the two-dimensional plane. The Menger sponge constructed in three dimensions extends this idea to graphs that are not planar, and might be embedded in any number of dimensions.
The Menger sponge is a closed set; since it is also bounded, the Heine–Borel theorem implies that it is compact. It has Lebesgue measure 0. Because it contains continuous paths, it is an uncountable set.
Experiments also showed that for the same material, cubes with a Menger sponge structure could dissipate shocks five times better than a cubes without any pores.
Formal definition
Formally, a Menger sponge can be defined as follows:
where is the unit cube and
MegaMenger
MegaMenger was a project aiming to build the largest fractal model, pioneered by Matt Parker of Queen Mary University of London and Laura Taalman of James Madison University. Each small cube is made from six interlocking folded business cards, giving a total of 960 000 for a level-four sponge. The outer surfaces are then covered with paper or cardboard panels printed with a Sierpinski carpet design to be more aesthetically pleasing. In 2014, twenty level-three Menger sponges were constructed, which combined would form a distributed level-four Menger sponge.
Similar fractals
Jerusalem cube
A Jerusalem cube is a fractal object described by Eric Baird in 2011. It is created by recursively drilling Greek cross-shaped holes into a cube. The construction is similar to the Menger sponge but with two different-sized cubes. The name comes from a face of the cube resembling a Jerusalem cross pattern.
The construction of the Jerusalem cube can be described as follows:
Start with a cube.
Cut a cross through each side of the cube, leaving eight cubes (of rank +1) at the corners of the original cube, as well as twelve smaller cubes (of rank +2) centered on the edges of the original cube between cubes of rank +1.
Repeat the process on the cubes of rank 1 and 2.
Iterating an infinite number of times results in the Jerusalem cube.
Since the edge-length of a cube of rank N is equal to that of 2 cubes of rank N+1 and a cube of rank N+2, it follows that the scaling factor must satisfy , therefore which means the fractal cannot be constructed on a rational grid.
Since a cube of rank N gets subdivided into 8 cubes of rank N+1 and 12 of rank N+2, the Hausdorff dimension must therefore satisfy . The exact solution is
which is approximately 2.529
As with the Menger sponge, the faces of a Jerusalem cube are fractals with the same scaling factor. In this case the Hausdorff dimension must satisfy . The exact solution is
which is approximately 1.786
Others
A Mosely snowflake is a cube-based fractal with corners recursively removed.
A tetrix is a tetrahedron-based fractal made from four smaller copies, arranged in a tetrahedron.
A Sierpinski-Menger snowflake is a cube-based fractal in which eight corner cubes and the one central cube are kept each time at the lower and lower recursion steps. This peculiar three dimensional fractal has the Hausdorff dimension of the natively two dimensional object like the plane i.e. =2
See also
Apollonian gasket
Cantor cube
Koch snowflake
Sierpiński tetrahedron
Sierpiński triangle
List of fractals by Hausdorff dimension
References
Further reading
.
External links
Menger sponge at Wolfram MathWorld
The 'Business Card Menger Sponge' by Dr. Jeannine Mosely – an online exhibit about this giant origami fractal at the Institute For Figuring
An interactive Menger sponge
Interactive Java models
Puzzle Hunt — Video explaining Zeno's paradoxes using Menger–Sierpinski sponge
Menger sphere, rendered in SunFlow
Post-It Menger Sponge – a level-3 Menger sponge being built from Post-its
The Mystery of the Menger Sponge. Sliced diagonally to reveal stars
Woolly Thoughts Level 2 Menger Sponge by two "Mathekniticians"
Dickau, R.: Jerusalem Cube Further discussion.
Iterated function system fractals
Curves
Topological spaces
Cubes
Fractals
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Blue%20Dahlia
|
The Blue Dahlia
|
The Blue Dahlia is a 1946 American crime film and film noir with an original screenplay by Raymond Chandler directed by George Marshall and starring Alan Ladd, Veronica Lake and William Bendix. It was Chandler's first original screenplay.
Plot
Three demobilized United States Navy aviators, Johnny Morrison, Buzz Wanchek, and George Copeland, arrive in Hollywood, California. All three flew together in the same flight crew from Kwajalein Atoll in the South Pacific. Buzz has shell shock and a metal plate in his head above his ear.
While George and Buzz get an apartment together, Johnny surprises his wife, Helen, at her hotel bungalow where she is hosting a riotous party with many drunken revellers. Johnny discovers that Helen is having an affair with Eddie Harwood, the owner of the Blue Dahlia nightclub on the Sunset Strip. Johnny punches Eddie as he leaves and then apologizes for losing his temper. The party ends and everybody leaves. Helen, drunk, confesses to Johnny that their son, Dickie, who Johnny believed died of diphtheria, actually died in a car crash that happened because she was driving while drunk. Johnny and Helen scuffle, which is witnessed by the hotel detective, "Dad" Newell. Johnny decides to leave. He pulls a gun on Helen, states 'that's what you deserve,' but drops the gun on a chair and leaves.
Buzz goes out to find Johnny at his hotel bungalow. He meets Helen Morrison in the hotel bar and, unaware of her identity, goes to her bungalow for a drink to wait for Mrs Morrison.
Helen rings Eddie who breaks up with her over the phone. However, she then blackmails him into seeing her again. Eddie visits Helen at her bungalow; this is witnessed by the hotel detective.
Johnny is picked up by Joyce Harwood (who is driving to Malibu) while walking in the rain. She is estranged from Eddie. Neither reveals their names. Although attracted to each other, they part ways and Johnny spends the night in a beach-side inn. The next morning, at the same inn, Joyce sees Johnny at breakfast and reveals that she stayed at the same inn. They decide to walk on the beach to look for moonstones. Whilst purchasing a bus ticket for Los Angeles, Johnny hears the radio announce that Helen has been murdered and that Johnny is suspected. He then quickly leaves to board a bus.
The police interview Newell, Harwood, Buzz, and George.
After Johnny checks in to a cheap hotel in Los Angeles under an assumed name, Corelli, the hotel manager, finds Johnny's framed photo of himself with Dickie and tries to blackmail him. Johnny punches Corelli out, smashing the frame in the process; he discovers on the back of the photo that Helen has written an insurance note revealing that Eddie is really Bauer, a murderer who is wanted in New Jersey.
Corelli revives and sells information on Johnny's identity to a gangster named Leo (the nightclub partner of Eddie), who then kidnaps Johnny when he visits George and Buzz.
Buzz and George visit Eddie at the Blue Dahlia. Joyce, who has agreed to meet Eddie, introduces herself. As Joyce picks at a blue dahlia flower, the nightclub's music sets off a painful ring in Buzz's head. Lapsing into a fit, he remembers the agonizing music that he heard at Helen's bungalow, as she played with a blue dahlia.
Johnny escapes Leo and his side-kick, knocking them both out just before Eddie arrives. They talk and Eddie admits with regret that, fifteen years earlier, he was involved in the shooting of a bank messenger.
Leo comes around and tries to shoot Johnny, but during a scuffle, he shoots Eddie instead. Johnny ends up shooting Leo and flees to the Blue Dahlia, where the police are trying to force a confused Buzz to admit that he killed Helen.
Johnny enters and suggests that Joyce turn up the jazz music that Buzz hates. As his head pounds, Buzz remembers leaving Helen alive in her bungalow. Newell tries to shift suspicion towards George, then attempts to leave as Police Captain Hendrickson confronts Newell with the accusation that he tried to blackmail Helen about her affair, and that he killed her when she refused to comply. Newell then tries to escape from the office but is shot dead by Hendrickson when he pulls his own gun.
Later, outside the Blue Dahlia, Buzz and George decide to go for a drink, leaving Johnny and Joyce together.
Cast
Alan Ladd as Johnny Morrison
Veronica Lake as Joyce Harwood
William Bendix as Buzz Wanchek
Howard Da Silva as Eddie Harwood
Doris Dowling as Helen Morrison
Hugh Beaumont as George Copeland
Tom Powers as Captain Hendrickson
Howard Freeman as Corelli
Don Costello as Leo
Will Wright as "Dad" Newell
Frank Faylen as man recommending motel
Walter Sande as Heath
Uncredited performances include Mae Busch as Jenny the maid, Anthony Caruso as a corporal playing a jukebox, and Noel Neill as Nolie the hatcheck girl.
Production
Development
In 1945 Alan Ladd was one of Paramount's top stars. He had served for ten months in the army in 1943 before being honorably discharged due to illness; however, he had recently been reclassified 1-A for the military draft, and he might have had to go back into the Army. Paramount kept applying for deferments so he could make films but Ladd was due for induction in May 1945.
The studio wanted to make a movie starring him before that happened, but had nothing suitable. Producer John Houseman knew Raymond Chandler from having collaborated on Paramount's The Unseen, which Houseman produced and Chandler rewrote. Houseman says Chandler had started a novel but was "stuck" and was considering turning it into a screenplay for the movies instead. Houseman read the 120 pages Chandler had written and, within 48 hours, it was sold to Paramount. Houseman would produce it under the supervision of Joseph Sistrom.
It was the first original script for the screen that Chandler had ever written. He wrote the first half of the script in under six weeks and sent it to Paramount. Delighted, the studio arranged for filming to start in three weeks' time.
Paramount announced the film in February 1945, with Ladd, Lake, Bendix and Marshall all attached from the beginning. Houseman said George Marshall had a reputation for rewriting extensively on the set and had to persuade him to stick to the script. (Marshall said he was so impressed with the writing he never had any intention of rewriting.)
Houseman recalled that Ladd was unhappy with the casting of Doris Dowling as his wife because she was half a foot taller than he but this was disguised during their scenes together.
Shooting
Shooting began in March 1945 without a completed screenplay. Houseman was not worried initially because of his confidence in Chandler. He says four weeks into filming the studio began to worry as they were running out of script. "We had shot sixty-two pages in four weeks; Chandler, during that time, had turned in only twenty-two—with another thirty to go."
The problem was the ending. Originally, Chandler intended the killer to be Buzz having a blackout. However, the Navy did not want a serviceman to be portrayed as a murderer, and Paramount told Chandler that he had to come up with a new ending. Chandler responded at first with writer's block. Paramount offered Chandler a $5,000 incentive to finish the script, which did not work, according to Houseman:It was the front-office calculation, I suppose, that by dangling this fresh carrot before Chandler's nose they were executing a brilliant and cunning maneuver. They did not know their man. They succeeded, instead, in disturbing him in three distinct and separate ways: One, his faith in himself was destroyed. By never letting Ray share my apprehensions, I had convinced him of my confidence in his ability to finish the script on time. This sense of security was now hopelessly shattered. Two, he had been insulted. To Ray, the bonus was nothing but a bribe. To be offered a large additional sum of money for the completion of an assignment for which he had already contracted and which he had every intention of fulfilling was by his standards a degradation and a dishonor. Three, by going to him behind my back they had invited him to betray a friend and fellow Public School man. The way the interview had been conducted ('sneakily') filled Ray with humiliation and rage.
Chandler wanted to quit, but Houseman convinced him to sleep on it. The next day, Chandler said he would be able to finish the film if he resumed drinking. Houseman said that the writer's requirements were "two Cadillac limousines, to stand day and night outside the house with drivers available", "six secretaries", and "a direct line open at all times to my office by day, to the studio switchboard at night and to my home at all times." Houseman agreed and says Chandler then started drinking:
[Chandler] did not minimize the hazards [of drinking]", said Houseman in 1964, "He pointed out that his plan... would call for deep faith on my part and supreme courage on his, since he would in effect be completing the script at the risk of his life. (It wasn't the drinking that was dangerous, he explained, since he had a doctor who gave him such massive injections of glucose that he could last for weeks with no solid food at all. It was the sobering up that was parlous; the terrible strain of his return to normal living)."
At the end of that time, Chandler presented the finished script.
Chandler was unhappy with the forced ending, saying it made "a routine whodunnit out of a fairly original idea." He also disliked the performance of Lake. "The only times she's good is when she keeps her mouth shut and looks mysterious", he told a friend. "The moment she tries to behave as if she had a brain she falls flat on her face. The scenes we had to cut out because she loused them up! And there are three godawful close shots of her looking perturbed that make me want to throw my lunch over the fence."
Chandler received a lot of deference on the set, but Lake was not familiar with him so, upon asking about him and being told, "He's the greatest mystery writer around", she made a point of listening intently to an analysis of his work by the film's publicity director to impress newspaper reporters with her knowledge of a writer she had never read. Chandler developed an intense dislike for Lake and referred to her as "Moronica Lake".
Lake later said about her role, "I'm not much of a motivating force, but the part is good."
By May 1945, the government ruled that all men aged 30 or over would be released from the obligation to go back into the Army. Ladd did not have to re-enlist after all.
Reception
Box office
It was one of the most popular films at the British box office in 1946.
Critical response
The staff at Variety magazine gave the film a positive review and wrote:
Playing a discharged naval flier returning home from the Pacific first to find his wife unfaithful, then to find her murdered and himself in hiding as the suspect, Alan Ladd does a bangup job. Performance has a warm appeal, while in his relentless track down of the real criminal, Ladd has a cold, steel-like quality that is potent. Fight scenes are stark and brutal, and tremendously effective.
Critic Dennis Schwartz wrote:
A fresh smelling film noir directed with great skill by George Marshall from the screenplay of Raymond Chandler (the only one he ever wrote for the screen, his other films were adapted from his novels). It eschews moral judgment in favor of a hard-boiled tale that flaunts its flowery style as its way of swimming madly along in LA's postwar boom and decadence.
Diabolique called it "a fantastic film noir, full of atmosphere, intrigue, crackling dialogue and sensational performances, which was recognized as a classic almost immediately and made a tonne of money."
The film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 100% of its critics gave the film a positive review, based on 9 reviews.
Awards and honors
Chandler was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay.
Adaptations
The Blue Dahlia was dramatized as a half-hour radio play on the April 21, 1949 broadcast of The Screen Guild Theater, starring Lake and Ladd in their original film roles. The movie was also adapted into a stage play in 1989.
Houseman's narrative of the film's creation was dramatized for BBC Radio by Ray Connolly in 2009.
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Review of film at New York Times
Review of film at Variety
Streaming audio
The Blue Dahlia on Screen Guild Theater: April 21, 1949
1946 films
1940s crime thriller films
American crime thriller films
American films
American black-and-white films
English-language films
Film noir
Films scored by Victor Young
Films directed by George Marshall
Films set in Los Angeles
Paramount Pictures films
Films with screenplays by Raymond Chandler
Films about infidelity
|
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208816
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FITS
|
FITS
|
Flexible Image Transport System (FITS) is an open standard defining a digital file format useful for storage, transmission and processing of data: formatted as multi-dimensional arrays (for example a 2D image), or tables. FITS is the most commonly used digital file format in astronomy. The FITS standard was designed specifically for astronomical data, and includes provisions such as describing photometric and spatial calibration information, together with image origin metadata.
The FITS format was first standardized in 1981; it has evolved gradually since then, and the most recent version (4.0) was standardized in 2016. FITS was designed with an eye towards long-term archival storage, and the maxim once FITS, always FITS represents the requirement that developments to the format must be backward compatible.
Image metadata is stored in a human-readable ASCII header. The information in this header is designed to calculate the byte offset of some information in the subsequent data unit to support direct access to the data cells. Each FITS file consists of one or more headers containing ASCII card images that carry keyword/value pairs, interleaved between data blocks. The keyword/value pairs provide information such as size, origin, coordinates, binary data format, free-form comments, history of the data, and anything else the creator desires: while many keywords are reserved for FITS use, the standard allows arbitrary use of the rest of the name-space.
FITS is also often used to store non-image data, such as spectra, photon lists, data cubes, or structured data such as multi-table databases. A FITS file may contain several extensions, and each of these may contain a data object. For example, it is possible to store x-ray and infrared exposures in the same file.
Images
The earliest and still most commonly used type of FITS data is an image header/data block. The term 'image' is somewhat loosely applied, as the format supports data arrays of arbitrary dimension—normal image data are usually 2-D or 3-D, with the third dimension representing for example time or the color plane. The data themselves may be in one of several integer and floating-point formats, specified in the header.
FITS image headers can contain information about one or more scientific coordinate systems that are overlaid on the image itself. Images contain an implicit Cartesian coordinate system that describes the location of each pixel in the image, but scientific uses usually require working in 'world' coordinates, for example the celestial coordinate system. As FITS has been generalized from its original form, the world coordinate system (WCS) specifications have become more and more sophisticated: early FITS images allowed a simple scaling factor to represent the size of the pixels; but recent versions of the standard permit multiple nonlinear coordinate systems, representing arbitrary distortions of the image. The WCS standard includes many different spherical projections, including, for example, the HEALPix spherical projection widely used in observing the cosmic microwave background radiation.
Tables
FITS also supports tabular data with named columns and multidimensional rows. Both binary and ASCII table formats have been specified. The data in each column of the table can be in a different format from the others. Together with the ability to string multiple header/data blocks together, this allows FITS files to represent entire relational databases.
Using FITS files
FITS support is available in a variety of programming languages that are used for scientific work, including C, C++, C#, Fortran, IGOR Pro, IDL, Java, Julia, LabVIEW, Mathematica, MATLAB, Perl, Perl Data Language (PDL), Python, R, and Tcl. The FITS Support Office at NASA/GSFC maintains a list of libraries and platforms that currently support FITS.
Image processing programs such as ImageJ, GIMP, Photoshop, Chasys Draw IES, XnView and IrfanView can generally read simple FITS images, but frequently cannot interpret more complex tables and databases. Scientific teams frequently write their own code to interact with their FITS data, using the tools available in their language of choice. The FITS Liberator software is used by imaging scientists at the European Space Agency, the European Southern Observatory and NASA. The SAOImage DS9 Astronomical Data Visualization Application is available for many OSs, and handles images and headers.
Many scientific computing environments make use of the coordinate system data in the FITS header to display, compare, rectify, or otherwise manipulate FITS images. Examples are the coordinate transform library included with PDL, the PLOT MAP library in the Solarsoft solar-physics-related software tree, the Starlink Project AST library in C, and the PyFITS package in Python, now merged into the Astropy library.
Current status
The FITS standard version 4.0 was officially approved by the IAU FITS Working Group in July 2016.
See also
Advanced Scientific Data Format (ASDF)
FITS Liberator
Hierarchical Data Format (HDF)
Common Data Format (CDF)
NetCDF
Aperture Photometry Tool (APT)
Notes
References
External links
, Goddard Support Office
FITS Birthday Announcement - Historical note from Don Wells on the events leading up to the 'birth' of the FITS format in 1979.
FITS I/O Libraries, a list of software for reading and writing FITS files for various languages
SAOImage DS9
Astronomical imaging
Graphics file formats
High dynamic range file formats
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bury%20St%20Edmunds
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Bury St Edmunds
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Bury St Edmunds (), commonly referred to locally as Bury, is a historic market, cathedral town and civil parish in Suffolk, England. Bury St Edmunds Abbey is near the town centre. Bury is the seat of the Diocese of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich of the Church of England, with the episcopal see at St Edmundsbury Cathedral.
The town, originally called Beodericsworth, was built on a grid pattern by Abbot Baldwin around 1080. It is known for brewing and malting (Greene King brewery) and for a British Sugar processing factory, where Silver Spoon sugar is produced. The town is the cultural and retail centre for West Suffolk and tourism is a major part of the economy.
Etymology
The name Bury is etymologically connected with borough, which has cognates in other Germanic languages such as the German meaning "fortress, castle"; Old Norse meaning "wall, castle"; and Gothic meaning "city". They all derive from Proto-Germanic meaning "fortress". This in turn derives from the Proto-Indo-European root meaning "fortified elevation", with cognates including Welsh ("stack") and Sanskrit - ("high, elevated building").
The second section of the name refers to Edmund King of the East Angles, called Edmund the Martyr, who was killed by the Vikings in the year 869. He became venerated as a saint and a martyr, and his shrine made Bury St Edmunds an important place of pilgrimage.
The formal name of the diocese is "St Edmundsbury", and the town is colloquially known as Bury.
History
An archaeological study in the 2010s on the outskirts of Bury St Edmunds (Beodericsworth, Bedrichesworth, St Edmund's Bury) uncovered evidence of Bronze Age activity in the area. The dig also uncovered Roman coins from the first and second centuries. Samuel Lewis, writing in 1848, notes the earlier discovery of Roman antiquities, and as with several other writers connects Bury St Edmunds with Villa Faustini or Villa Faustina, although the location of this Roman site is also discussed by E. Gillingwater (1804), who notes the lack of evidence for it being here.
The town was one of the royal boroughs of the Saxons. Sigebert, king of the East Angles, founded a monastery here about 633, which in 903 became the burial place of King Edmund the Martyr, who was slain by the Danes in 869, and owed most of its early celebrity to the reputed miracles performed at the shrine of the martyr king. The town grew around Bury St Edmunds Abbey, a site of pilgrimage. By 925 the fame of St Edmund had spread far and wide, and the name of the town was changed to St Edmund's Bury.
In 942 or 945, King Edmund I had granted to the abbot and convent jurisdiction over the whole town, free from all secular services, and Canute in 1020 freed it from episcopal control. Edward the Confessor made the abbot lord of the franchise. Sweyn, in 1020, having destroyed the older monastery and ejected the secular priests, built a Benedictine abbey on St Edmund's Bury. Count Alan Rufus is said to have been interred at Bury St Edmunds Abbey in 1093. In the 12th and 13th centuries the head of the de Hastings family, who held the Lordship of the Manor of Ashill in Norfolk, was hereditary Steward of this abbey.
On 18 March 1190, two days after the more well-known massacre of Jews at Clifford Tower in York, the people of Bury St Edmunds massacred 57 Jews. Later that year, Abbot Samson successfully petitioned King Richard I for permission to evict the town's remaining Jewish inhabitants "on the grounds that everything in the town... belonged by right to St Edmund: therefore, either the Jews should be St Edmund's men or they should be banished from the town." This expulsion predates the Edict of Expulsion by 100 years. In 1198, a fire burned the shrine of St Edmund, leading to the inspection of his corpse by Abbot Samson and the translation of St Edmund's body to a new location in the abbey.
The town is associated with Magna Carta. In 1214 the barons of England are believed to have met in the abbey church and sworn to force King John to accept the Charter of Liberties, the document which influenced the creation of the Magna Carta, a copy of which was displayed in the town's cathedral during the 2014 celebrations. By various grants from the abbots, the town gradually attained the rank of a borough.
Henry III in 1235 granted to the abbot two annual fairs, one in December (which still survives) and the other the great St Matthew's fair, which was abolished by the Fairs Act of 1871. In 1327, the Great Riot occurred, in which the local populace led an armed revolt against the abbey. The burghers were angry at the overwhelming power, wealth and corruption of the monastery, which ran almost every aspect of local life with a view to enriching itself. The riot destroyed the main gate, and a new, fortified gate was built in its stead. However, in 1381 during the Great Uprising, the abbey was sacked and looted again. This time, the prior was executed; his severed head was placed on a pike in the Great Market. On 11 April 1608 a great fire broke out in Eastgate Street, which resulted in 160 dwellings and 400 outhouses being destroyed.
The town developed into a flourishing cloth-making town, with a large woollen trade, by the 14th century. In 1405 Henry IV granted another fair.
Elizabeth I in 1562 confirmed the charters which former kings had granted to the abbots. The reversion of the fairs and two markets on Wednesday and Saturday were granted by James I in fee farm to the corporation. James I in 1606 granted a charter of incorporation with an annual fair in Easter week and a market. James granted further charters in 1608 and 1614, as did Charles II in 1668 and 1684.
Parliaments were held in the borough in 1272, 1296 and 1446, but the borough was not represented until 1608, when James I conferred on it the privilege of sending two members. The Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 reduced the representation to one.
The borough of Bury St Edmunds and the surrounding area, like much of East Anglia, being part of the Eastern Association, supported Puritan sentiment during the first half of the 17th century. By 1640, several families had departed for the Massachusetts Bay Colony as part of the wave of emigration that occurred during the Great Migration. Bury's ancient grammar school also educated such notables as the puritan theologian Richard Sibbes, master of St Catherine's Hall in Cambridge, antiquary and politician Simonds d'Ewes, and John Winthrop the Younger, who became governor of Connecticut.
The town was the setting for witch trials between 1599 and 1694.
Modern history
The population had reached 12,538 by 1841.
A permanent military presence was established in the town with the completion of the Militia Barracks in 1857 and of Gibraltar Barracks in 1878.
During the Second World War, the USAAF used Rougham Airfield outside the town.
On 3 March 1974 a Turkish Airlines DC10 jet Flight 981 crashed near Paris killing all 346 people on board. Among the victims were 17 members of Bury St Edmunds Rugby Football Club, returning from France.
Notable features
Near the abbey gardens stands Britain's first internally illuminated street sign, the Pillar of Salt, which was built in 1935. The sign is at the terminus of the A1101, Great Britain's lowest road.
There is a network of tunnels which are evidence of chalk-workings, though there is no evidence of extensive tunnels under the town centre. Some buildings have inter-communicating cellars. Due to their unsafe nature the chalk-workings are not open to the public, although viewing has been granted to individuals. Some have caused subsidence within living memory, for instance at Jacqueline Close.
Among noteworthy buildings is St Mary's Church, Bury St Edmunds, where Mary Tudor, Queen of France and sister of Tudor king Henry VIII, was re-buried, six years after her death, having been moved from the abbey after her brother's Dissolution of the Monasteries. Queen Victoria had a stained glass window fitted into the church to commemorate Mary's interment. Moreton Hall, a Grade II*listed building by Robert Adam, now houses the Moreton Hall Preparatory School. Bury St Edmunds Guildhall dates back to the late 12th century.
Bury St Edmunds has one of the full-time fire stations run by Suffolk Fire and Rescue Service. Originally located in the Traverse (now the Halifax bank), it moved to Fornham Road in 1953. The Fornham Road site (now Mermaid Close) closed in 1987 and the fire station moved to its current location on Parkway North.
Since March 2015, Bury St Edmunds has been the home town of the London and South East Regional Divorce Unit and the Maintenance Enforcement Business Centre (for issues with maintenance payments outside Greater London). The former processes divorce documents from across London and South East England as one of five centralised units covering the United Kingdom. Both units are based with Bury St Edmunds County Court in Triton House, St Andrews Street North.
Geography
Bury is located in the middle of an undulating area of East Anglia known as the East Anglian Heights, with land to the east and west of the town rising to above , though parts of the town itself are as low as above sea level where the Rivers Lark and Linnet pass through it.
Climate
There are two Met Office reporting stations in the vicinity of Bury St Edmunds, Brooms Barn (elevation ), west of the town centre, and Honington (elevation ), about north. According to Usman Majeed, head of Honington, it ceased weather observations in 2003, though Brooms Barn remains operational. Brooms Barn's record maximum temperature stands at , recorded in August 2003. The lowest recent temperature was during December 2010.
Rainfall is generally low, at under , and spread fairly evenly throughout the year.
Religion
The town has a Christian heritage dating back to the foundation of the abbey in 1020. Today there are many active churches in the town.
Abbey
In the centre of Bury St Edmunds lie the remains of an abbey, surrounded by the abbey gardens. The abbey is a shrine to Saint Edmund, the Saxon King of the East Angles. The abbey was sacked by the townspeople in the 14th century and then largely destroyed during the 16th century with the Dissolution of the Monasteries, but the town remained prosperous throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, only falling into relative decline with the Industrial Revolution.
Anglican Churches
Until the building of St John's in 1840, the town had just two parishes, St James's and St Mary's. The former has now become the Cathedral. The town now has seven Anglican churches in six parishes, St Peter's being in the same parish as St Mary's.
Cathedral
St James' parish church became St Edmundsbury Cathedral when the Diocese of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich was formed in 1914. The cathedral was extended with an eastern end in the 1960s. A new Gothic revival cathedral tower was built as part of a Millennium project running from 2000 to 2005. The opening for the tower took place in July 2005, and included a brass band concert and fireworks. Parts of the cathedral remain uncompleted, including the cloisters. The tower makes St Edmundsbury the most recently completed Anglican cathedral in the UK, and was constructed using original fabrication techniques by six masons who placed the machine-cut stones individually as they arrived.
St Mary's Church
St Mary's Church is the civic church of Bury St Edmunds and the third largest parish church in England. It was part of the abbey complex and originally was one of three large churches in the town (the others being St James, now St Edmundsbury Cathedral, and St Margaret's, now gone). It is renowned for its magnificent hammer-beam "angel" roof, and is the final resting place of Mary Tudor, Queen of France, Duchess of Suffolk and favourite sister of Henry VIII. St Mary's is also home to the Chapel of the Suffolk and Royal Anglian Regiments.
The town has other Anglican churches:
All Saints, Park Road; built 1953
Christ Church, Moreton Hall; founded 1983, built 1993
St George, Anselm Avenue; built 1951
St John, St John's Street, built 1840
St Peter, Hospital Road (district church; daughter church of St Mary's); built 1856-58
Non-Conformist Churches and chapels
Baptist Church, Garland Street
Beacon Church Bury St Edmunds, Oakes Road, an evangelical, charismatic and pentecostal church; part of Assemblies of God in Great Britain
Bridge Community Church, West Road, until September 2021 known as West Road Church; affiliated to the Evangelical Alliance
Horringer Court Community Church, Glastonbury Road
Kingsgate Church, Grove Road; affiliated to the Evangelical Alliance
Evangelical Presbyterian Church, St Olaves Road
Quaker Meeting House, St John's Street
Seventh Day Adventist Church, Fornham Road, built as a Railway Mission "tin tabernacle"
Southgate Church, Caie Walk
Trinity Methodist Church, Brentgovel Street
Unitarian Meeting House, Churchgate Street, built as Presbyterian Meeting House
United Reformed Church, Whiting Street, formerly Congregational Church
Westgate Chapel, Hospital Road, an independent evangelical church; affiliated to the FIEC
West Suffolk Vineyard Church, Northern Way
Catholic church
St Edmund's Catholic Church, located in Westgate Street, is the Roman Catholic parish church of Bury St Edmunds. Founded by the Jesuits in 1763, the present church building is grade II listed. It was built in 1837. It is administered by the Diocese of East Anglia in its Bury St Edmunds deanery.
Former churches
Bury St Edmunds has several former church and chapel buildings:
Methodist Chapel, 4A St Mary's Square (converted to residential)
Rehoboth Strict Baptist Chapel, Out Westgate (now called Chapel House)
Victory Congregational Chapel, Northgate Street (converted to commercial)
Chapel, St Botholph's Lane (now called Old Mission House)
Culture
The Theatre Royal was built by National Gallery architect William Wilkins in 1819 and is the sole surviving Regency Theatre in the country. The theatre, owned by the Greene King brewery, is leased to the National Trust for a nominal charge, and underwent restoration between 2005 and 2007. It presents a full programme of performances and is also open for public tours. An additional arts venue, The Apex, was built on the site of the former cattle market in 2010.
Moyse's Hall Museum is one of the oldest (c. 1180) domestic buildings in East Anglia open to the public. It has collections of fine art, for example Mary Beale, costume, e.g. Charles Frederick Worth, horology, local and social history, including Witchcraft.
It holds an original death mask of William Corder who was hanged for the infamous 1827 Red Barn murder.
The Market Cross, today an events venue, was a market cross restored by Robert Adam in the late 1700s. Between 1972 and 2018 the MArket Cross was an art gallery called Smiths Row, hosting a programme of changing contemporary art and craft exhibitions and events by British and international artists. Artists featured in the Gallery included Cornelia Parker, David Batchelor, Anri Sala and Mark Fairnington.
The town holds several festivals a year. The largest festival is held in May and includes concerts, plays, dance, and lecturers culminating in fireworks. There is an annual Christmas Fair in the town, with food, drink, local crafts and fairground rides available, stretching from the abbey gardens to the Arc Shopping Centre. Bury St Edmunds is home to England's oldest Scout group, 1st Bury St Edmunds (Mayors Own).
Sport
The town's main football club, Bury Town, is the fourth oldest non-league team in England. They are members of the Isthmian League and have played at Ram Meadow since moving from Kings Road in the 1970s.
Suffolk County Cricket Club play occasional games at the Victory Ground, which is also the home ground of Bury St Edmunds Cricket Club. The cricket club previously played at Cemetry Road. Bury St Edmunds Rugby Football Club has an extensive history, including the devastating plane crash that killed several members who had attended the 1974 Five Nations Championship match. Eastgate Amateur Boxing club was established in 1981. The club has been headquartered at various locations in and around the town, but are now training in an old World War I gym in Rougham. West Suffolk Swimming Club formed in 1998 from the merger of two local swimming clubs and operates from pools in Bury St Edmunds, Haverhill and Culford. West Suffolk Athletics Club are based at the West Suffolk College sports ground.
Public houses
Many pubs in the town have closed over the years, but the town still has a variety of pubs
Local economy
Tourism
The Angel Hotel, a Georgian building on Angel Hill, was used by Charles Dickens while giving readings in the nearby Athenaeum and mentioned in The Pickwick Papers. Angelina Jolie also used the hotel as a base during the filming of Tomb Raider. A coaching inn has stood on this spot since the 15th century.
Brewing
The nation's largest British-owned brewery, Greene King, is situated in Bury St Edmunds, as is the smaller Old Cannon Brewery. Just outside the town, on the site of RAF Bury St Edmunds, is Bartrums Brewery, originally based in Thurston.
The Greene King pub The Nutshell is situated in the centre of the town, and is one of several that claim to be Britain's smallest public house.
Sugar Beet
Bury's largest landmark is the British Sugar factory near the A14, which processes sugar beet into refined crystal sugar. It was built in 1925 when the town's MP, Walter Guinness, was Minister of Agriculture, and for many of its early years was managed by Martin Neumann, former manager of a sugar beet refinery in Šurany, then part of Czechoslovakia. Neumann was invited by the British government to oversee the refinement of sugar in Bury St Edmunds and, with his family, immigrated to the United Kingdom. The actor and writer Stephen Fry is a grandson of Martin Neumann, as recounted in the BBC programme Who Do You Think You Are?
The refinery processes beet from 1,300 growers. 660 lorry-loads of beet can be accepted each day when beet is being harvested. Not all the beet can be crystallised immediately, and some is kept in solution in holding tanks until late spring and early summer, when the plant has spare crystallising capacity. The sugar is sold under the Silver Spoon name (the other major British brand, Tate & Lyle, is made from imported sugar cane). By-products include molassed sugar beet feed for cattle and LimeX70, a soil improver. The factory has its own power station, which powers around 110,000 homes. A smell of burnt starch from the plant is noticeable on some days.
Governance
Parish Level
The town council was formed in 2003. The election on 3 May 2007 was won by the "Abolish Bury Town Council" party. The party lost its majority following a by-election in June 2007 and, to date, the Town Council is still in existence.
In March 2008 a further by-election put Conservatives in control but in the council election of May 2011 the lack of Conservative and other parties' candidates resulted a Labour majority before the election was held. By 2013 a number of by-elections put Conservatives in control again and in the 2015 election Conservatives won 14 of the 17 vacancies. In 2020 it was announced that the Town Council would meet in the Guildhall, the historic home of the Borough Council between 1606 and 1966.
District Level
Bury St Edmunds has been part of the non-metropolitan district West Suffolk since April 2019. Before April 2019 Bury St Edmunds was part of the district and borough of St Edmundsbury which in turn was created in April 1974 as a result of the merger of several smaller districts, including the Borough of Bury St Edmunds which had been established in 1835. This led to the loss of the town's borough status which had been held since 1606. No charter trustees have taken on the charter.
West Suffolk Council has offices in Bury St Edmunds at West Suffolk House, Western Way.
County Level
Bury St Edmunds has been in the unified county of Suffolk since April 1974. Previously the town had been part of the county of West Suffolk of which Bury St Edmunds was the county town. The county of West Suffolk had been established in 1889.
Since 2009, Suffolk County Council has its Bury St Edmunds offices at West Suffolk House.
Parliamentary Constituency
Bury St Edmunds is also the main town of the Westminster parliamentary constituency also named Bury St Edmunds. Since becoming a single-seat constituency in 1885 it has always returned Conservative MPs. The current representative, Jo Churchill, was first elected in the 2015 General Election.
Notable people
Notable people from Bury St Edmunds include Bishop of Winchester and Lord High Chancellor of England Stephen Gardiner, the 18th-century landscape architect Humphry Repton, the hymn writer Alice Flowerdew, the micrographer and micromosaic artist Henry Dalton, the artist and photographer William Silas Spanton, the author Maria Louise Ramé (also known as Ouida), the engineer and inventor Hiram Codd, the cyclist James Moore, and the portrait painter Rose Mead. More recent figures from the town include artist and printer Sybil Andrews, artist and suffragette Helen Margaret Spanton, Canadian World War II general Guy Simonds, theatre director Sir Peter Hall, Canadian journalist and author Richard Gwyn, actors Bob Hoskins and Michael Maloney, speedway rider Danny Ayres, television presenter Becky Jago, digital writer and artist Chris Joseph, and writer/director Adrian Tanner.
Thomas Clarkson, a leading abolitionist, lived in the town for parts of his life. Though born in Bedford, actor John Le Mesurier grew up in the town. Sir James Reynolds, junior, Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer, lived in the town for much of his life and was buried in the Cathedral in 1739. Messenger Monsey, later physician to the Royal Hospital Chelsea and a man notorious in London society for his bad manners, practised in Bury in the 1720s. Children's writer A.M. Howell moved to Bury St Edmunds in 2001.
Notable bands and performers from Bury St Edmunds include Adam Evans (Singer), Jacob's Mouse, Miss Black America, The Dawn Parade and Kate Jackson of The Long Blondes.
Among notable people who have chosen to retire to or have second homes in Bury St Edmunds are former members of parliament and government ministers Lord Tebbit, Sir John Wheeler, Sir Eldon Griffiths, and former senior Royal Air Force commander, Air Marshal Sir Reginald Harland.
Education
Primary and secondary
At present Suffolk County Council operates a two-tier school system. However, some state education in Bury St Edmunds and its catchment area form a three-tier system. On 17 February 2014, Suffolk County Council announced that its cabinet would be advised to recommend moving 20 schools in the town from three-tier to a two-tier system – including the closure of four middle schools. Under the recommendations, Hardwick, Howard, St James and St Louis middle schools have all closed under the changes in September 2016.
State primary schools that serve the town are Howard, Westgate, Hardwick, Sebert Wood, Abbot's Green, Sexton's Manor, Guildhall Feoffment, St Edmund's, St Edmundsbury and Tollgate Primary Schools. The towns middle schools are Westley and Horringer Court Middle Schools.
Shortly after the appointment of Sally Kennedy as headmistress of County Upper School, it was announced in January 2022 that the trust governing the school and others in the town had the intetntion of closing Horringer Court and Westley Middle Schools. Pupils and staff would be re-located to Tollgate Primary School, and the schools – following years of standing against the system – would be brought in line with the two-tier system in place across the county.
The town has three upper schools: County Upper School, King Edward VI School, and St Benedict's Catholic School.
The public school (for a period post-war, a Direct grant grammar school) Culford School is located just north of the town in the village of Culford. The town has one independent preparatory school, South Lee School. Moreton Hall Preparatory School closed in 2020.
Higher and further
The town's largest further education provider is West Suffolk College, with over 10,000 students studying with the college every year. The college was set to expand in September 2018, following a £7m government grant to help pay for an £8m energy, engineering and manufacturing teaching centre. From 2015, students have been able to study foundation and undergraduate degrees at the University of Suffolk at West Suffolk College.
Transport
Bury St Edmunds railway station serves the town, operated by Greater Anglia, on the Ipswich to Ely Line. Trains run seven days a week, every two hours to Peterborough and hourly to Ipswich and Cambridge. Trains from Peterborough continue to Ipswich after Bury St Edmunds. Onward train connections from Cambridge link with London King's Cross, London Liverpool Street and Stansted Airport, whilst Ipswich provides connections to Liverpool Street via Colchester.
The main interchange for bus and coach services for Bury St Edmunds is the bus and coach station, located on St Andrews Street North in the town centre. Bus services link the town centre with the main residential housing areas of the town. From November 2012 Sunday bus services were introduced over some of these routes. There are regular bus services to the neighbouring towns of Brandon, Cambridge, Diss, Haverhill, Ipswich, Mildenhall, Newmarket, Stowmarket, Sudbury and Thetford and many of the villages in between. Daily National Express coach services between Victoria Coach Station in London and Bury stop at the town's bus and coach station, as does the cross-country service between Clacton-on-Sea and Liverpool which travels via Cambridge, Peterborough, Leicester, Nottingham, Sheffield and Manchester.
Twin towns
Compiègne, Oise, Picardy, France
Huy, Wallonia, Liège, Belgium
Kevelaer, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
Affiliations
HMS Vengeance: Royal Navy Vanguard Class SSBN
Literature
Bury St Edmunds is a location mentioned several times in the short ghost story The Ash-tree by M.R. James published in Ghost Stories of an Antiquary in 1904.
Author Norah Lofts, though born in Shipham, Norfolk, bases many of her stories in Baildon, a fictionalised Bury St Edmunds, where she was educated and lived.
Arms
See also
Bury St Edmunds Cross
References
External links
St Edmundsbury Council
Bury St Edmunds Past and Present Society
We Love Bury St Edmunds! Reference Gallery
"The delightful English town with a very horrible history" by Tom Ough, "Daily Telegraph" 17 February 2020"
Towns in Suffolk
Market towns in Suffolk
Towns with cathedrals in the United Kingdom
Civil parishes in Suffolk
Borough of St Edmundsbury
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%E2%80%932004%20SARS%20outbreak
|
2002–2004 SARS outbreak
|
The 2002–2004 outbreak of SARS, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-1), infected over 8,000 people from 29 different countries and territories, and resulted in at least 774 deaths worldwide.
The outbreak was first identified in Foshan, Guangdong, China, in November 2002. The World Health Organization (WHO) was notified of the outbreak in February 2003, and issued a global alert in March 2003. Initially, the cause of the outbreak was unknown, and some media outlets reported that an influenza virus was a potential culprit. The major part of the outbreak lasted about 8 months, and the World Health Organization declared SARS contained on 5 July 2003. However, several SARS cases were reported until May 2004.
In late December 2019, SARS-CoV-2, a new strain of coronavirus closely related to the one that caused SARS, was discovered in Wuhan, Hubei, China. The new strain causes COVID-19, a disease which has since spread worldwide, leading to an ongoing pandemic that has killed millions.
Outbreak by country and territory
Timeline
November 2002
On 16 November 2002, an outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) began in China's Guangdong province, bordering Hong Kong. The first case of infection was traced to Foshan. This first outbreak affected people in the food industry, such as farmers, market vendors, and chefs. The outbreak spread to healthcare workers after people sought medical treatment for the disease. The People's Republic of China notified the World Health Organization (WHO) about this outbreak on 10 February 2003, reporting 305 cases including 105 health-care workers and five deaths. Later it reported that the outbreak in Guangdong had peaked in mid-February 2003. However, this appears to have been false because subsequently 806 cases of infection and 34 deaths were reported. Italian physician Carlo Urbani was the first to identify SARS as probably a new and dangerously contagious viral disease.
Early in the epidemic, the Chinese government discouraged its press from reporting on SARS, delayed reporting to WHO, and initially did not provide information to Chinese outside Guangdong province, where the disease is believed to have originated. Also, a WHO team that travelled to Beijing was not allowed to visit Guangdong province for several weeks. This resulted in international criticism, which seems to have led to a change in government policy in early April.
January 2003
The first super-spreader, Zhou Zuofen, a fishmonger, checked in to the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital in Guangzhou on 31 January, where he infected 30 nurses and doctors. The virus soon spread to nearby hospitals.
February 2003
Hong Kong
In February 2003, Hong Kong's SARS index patient was Liu Jianlun, who had come to attend a family wedding gathering; Liu was on the staff at Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital in Guangzhou and had treated SARS patients.
On 21 February, Liu and his wife checked into room 911 on the ninth floor of the Metropole Hotel. Despite feeling ill he visited with his family and they traveled around Hong Kong. By the morning of 22 February, he knew he was very sick and walked to the Accident and Emergency Department of Kwong Wah Hospital to seek treatment, he was treated by the Triage Nurse and doctor without protective measures even though a memorandum on surveillance on Severe Community-Acquired Pneumonia had been issued by the Hospital Authority of Hong Kong. After the Liu's Chest X-ray taken in Kwong Wah Hospital became available, staff became aware of the situation, wearing personal protective equipment and full isolation inside ICU.
Liu is believed to have been a SARS super-spreader: 23 other Metropole guests developed SARS, including seven from the ninth floor. Liu's brother-in-law, who sought treatment in late February, was hospitalized in Kwong Wah Hospital on 1 March and died on 19 March. It is estimated that around 80% of the Hong Kong cases were due to Liu.
Vietnam
The virus was carried to Hanoi, Vietnam, by Chinese-American Johnny Chen, a resident of Shanghai who had roomed across the hall from Liu at the Metropole. He was admitted to the French Hospital of Hanoi on 26 February, where he infected at least 38 members of the staff. Even though he was evacuated to Hong Kong, he died on 13 March. Carlo Urbani, a World Health Organization (WHO) infectious disease specialist, was among the staff who examined Chen. Urbani observed that other hospital staff were already falling ill and realized that he was dealing with a new and dangerous disease. He himself became infected and died on 29 March.
Canada
On 23 February, an elderly woman named Kwan Sui-Chu who had also been a Metropole Hotel guest, returned to Toronto, Canada, from Hong Kong. She died at home on 5 March, after infecting her son Tse Chi Kwai, who subsequently spread the disease to Scarborough Grace Hospital and died on 13 March.
March 2003
Singapore
On 1 March, 26-year-old Esther Mok, another Metropole guest, was admitted to Tan Tock Seng Hospital after visiting Hong Kong, starting the outbreak in Singapore. Although she recovered, various family members did not.
Taiwan
The first cases of atypical pneumonia in Taiwan were identified in a Guangdong-based businessman and his wife on 14 March and confirmed on 17 March. He had returned to Taiwan via Hong Kong on 23 February and reported a fever two days later. His wife became ill after caring for him, and both were admitted to National Taiwan University Hospital. Taiwan's third case of the disease was identified in a Yilan hospital on 15 March. Like the first case, the third case had traveled to Guangdong and transited through Hong Kong before arriving in Taiwan. Shortly after the third case was diagnosed, officials from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States traveled to Taiwan to study the disease. The fourth case, another traveler to Guangdong, was identified in Chiayi on 18 March, after he sought treatment at a hospital the previous day. By 22 March, six cases in Taiwan had matched the World Health Organization definition of probable.
Hong Kong
On 4 March, a 27-year-old man, who had visited a guest on the Metropole's 9th floor 11 days earlier, was admitted to Hong Kong's Prince of Wales Hospital. At least 99 hospital workers (including 17 medical students) were infected while treating him.
On 11 March, Carlo Urbani travelled to Bangkok, Thailand, to attend a medical conference. He fell ill during the flight and told a friend waiting at Bangkok not to touch him, to call an ambulance and take him to a hospital. He was isolated in an intensive care unit. A similar outbreak of a mysterious respiratory infection was reported among Hong Kong healthcare workers.
On 12 March, WHO issued a global alert about a new infectious disease of unknown origin in both Vietnam and Hong Kong. On 15 March, WHO issued a heightened global health alert about a mysterious pneumonia with a case definition of SARS after cases in Singapore and Canada were also identified. The alert included a rare emergency travel advisory to international travelers, healthcare professionals, and health authorities. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) issued a travel advisory stating that persons considering travel to the affected areas in Asia (Hong Kong, Singapore, Vietnam, and China) should not go.
On 17 March, an international network of 11 laboratories was established to determine the cause of SARS and develop potential treatments. The CDC held its first briefing on SARS and said that 14 suspected SARS cases were being investigated in the US. On 20 March, WHO reported that several hospitals in Vietnam and Hong Kong were operating with half the usual staff because many workers stayed home out of fear of getting infected. WHO raised the concern that substandard care of the infected patients might contribute to the spread of the disease.
On 25 March, Hong Kong authorities stated that nine tourists had contracted the disease from a mainland Chinese man who had boarded the same plane on 15 March, Air China Flight 112 to Beijing. The Singapore Government started to enforce compulsory quarantine of any infected person.
On 27 March, Arthur K. C. Li, head of the Hong Kong Education and Manpower Bureau, announced cancellation of all classes in educational institutions. The Ministry of Education in Singapore announced that all primary schools, secondary schools, and junior colleges were to be shut until 6 April 2003. Polytechnics and universities were not affected. On 29 March, Urbani died in Bangkok of a heart attack.
On 30 March, Hong Kong authorities quarantined estate E of the Amoy Gardens housing estate due to a massive (200+ cases) outbreak in the building. The balcony was completely closed and guarded by the police. The residents of the building were later transferred to the quarantined Lei Yue Mun Holiday Camp and Lady MacLehose Holiday Village on 1 April because the building was deemed a health hazard.
Most of the cases were linked to apartments with a north-western orientation which shared the same sewage pipe. According to government officials, the virus was brought into the estate by an infected kidney patient (the type of kidney illness was not specified) after discharge from Prince of Wales Hospital, who visited his elder brother living on the seventh floor. Through excretion, the virus spread through drainage. One theory speculated that the virus was spread by airborne transmission, through dried up U-shaped P-traps in the drainage system which a maritime breeze blew into the estate's balconies and stairwell ventilation. It was confirmed that the virus spread via droplets, but this later outbreak made officials question the possibility that the virus could be spread through the air.
April 2003
On 1 April, the U.S. government called back non-essential personnel in their consulate office in Hong Kong and Guangzhou. The US government also advised US citizens not to travel to the region.
On 2 April, Chinese medical officials began reporting the status of the SARS outbreak. China's southern Guangdong province reported 361 new infections and 9 new deaths, increasing the total Mainland China figures previously reported at end-February. The virus was also detected in Beijing and Shanghai. The WHO also advised travellers to avoid Hong Kong and Guangdong during a press briefing.
On 3 April, a WHO team of international scientists landed in Guangzhou from Beijing to discuss with officials, but the team was yet to inspect any suspected origin or any medical facilities on the progress of infection control. Fifteen of the quarantined Amoy Gardens residents at Lei Yue Mun Holiday Camp were relocated to the Sai Kung Outdoor Recreation Centre after an overnight protest on washroom sharing. The first medical worker infected with SARS died in Hong Kong. The doctor's daughter and infected wife survived his illness, even though the wife was also among the quarantined medical workers under intensive care. Hong Kong school closures were extended by two weeks to 21 April.
On 4 April, the WHO team inspected the first infection case in Foshan County. The male infected four people but did not infect his family. A 40-year-old woman became the first local case in Shanghai. A Chinese health specialist admitted at a press conference of not informing the public early enough about the outbreak. The PRC Health Minister also claimed that the disease has been under control in most parts of mainland China. He also released the names of seven drugs which he claimed to be effective in curing SARS. WHO officials said that the information provided by the PRC about the disease has been "very detailed". US government enforced compulsory quarantine of an infected person.
On 5 April, the Singapore government announced that school closures would be extended. Junior colleges were to reopen on 9 April, secondary schools would reopen on 14 April and primary schools and pre-schools would reopen on 16 April. On 6 April, a SARS case was found in Manila, a person who had returned from Hong Kong.
On 8 April, SARS started to plague the Lower Ngau Tau Kok Estate near Amoy Gardens in Kowloon. Hong Kong health officials warned that SARS had spread so far domestically and abroad that it was here to stay. Nevertheless, WHO officials remained cautiously optimistic that the disease could still be contained.
On 9 April, James Earl Salisbury died of SARS at a hospital in Hong Kong. An American Mormon and a teacher at Shenzhen Polytechnic, he had been sick for approximately one month before his death, but he was originally diagnosed with pneumonia. His son Michael "Mickey" Salisbury was with him in China and also contracted the disease, but he survived it. Salisbury's death led to more open admissions by the Chinese government about the spread of SARS.
On 10 April, Jim Hughes, the head of infectious disease at the CDC, confirming the warnings of Hong Kong health officials, claimed that he believed that SARS could no longer be eradicated in the Far East. However, he remained hopeful that it could be prevented from spreading widely in North America. On 11 April, the World Health Organization issued a global health alert for SARS as it became clear the disease was being spread by global air travel.
On 12 April, Marco Marra, director of the Michael Smith Genome Sciences Centre, which is part of the British Columbia Cancer Agency, announced that scientists at his centre had broken the genetic code of the virus suspected of causing the disease. In Toronto, three more people died of SARS, bringing the Canadian death toll to 13. On 16 April, the WHO issued a press release stating that the coronavirus identified by a number of laboratories was the official cause of SARS. The virus was officially named the SARS virus.
On 17 April, the first confirmed case of SARS from India was reported. On 19 April, Premier of the People's Republic of China Wen Jiabao announced that there would be severe consequences for local officials who did not report SARS cases in a timely and accurate manner, signaling a major change in policy. SARS had also been gaining prominence in the mainland Chinese media; by late April, it had jumped from virtual invisibility onto the front page, with daily reports from all provinces on new cases and measures.
On 20 April, Beijing's mayor Meng Xuenong and the health minister of the PRC Zhang Wenkang were replaced respectively by Wang Qishan from Hainan and the former deputy health minister Gao Qiang. They were the first two high-rank officials in the PRC to be dismissed because of the fallout of the epidemic. In the news conference chaired by Gao Qiang several hours earlier, the PRC admitted that in Beijing there were more than 300 cases, as opposed to the previous figure of only 37. The figure had increased to 407 the following day. Chinese officials also admitted to major underreporting of cases, which were attributed to bureaucratic ineptitude.
On 22 April, schools in Hong Kong started to reopen in stages. On 23 April, Beijing announced that all primary and secondary schools would be closed for two weeks. A few days before, some colleges in Peking University had been closed because some students had been infected. The WHO issued travel advisories against Beijing, Toronto, and Shanxi.
After several cases of SARS were diagnosed in Taiwan throughout the month of April, including a cluster at Taipei Municipal Hospital's Hoping branch, the Taipei City Government closed that hospital and quarantined its 930 staff and 240 patients for two weeks. The decision to lock down the medical facility was protested by hospital staff.
On 24 April, the Hong Kong Government announced an HK$11.8 billion relief package designed to assist Hong Kong's battered tourism, entertainment, retail, and catering sectors, consisting of a waiver of tourism- and transport-related license fees, and HK$1 billion allocated for tourism promotion overseas. The package also includes a salaries tax rebate and reduced rates.
On 26 April, Wu Yi was named Zhang Wenkang's replacement as PRC health minister. On 26–27 April, Chinese authorities locked down Beijing, closing down theatres, discos, and other entertainment venues in Beijing as the death toll in Beijing continued to rise, threatening to become the worst-hit area of the country, eclipsing the province of Guangdong. People who may have been exposed were ordered to stay home. Authorities were bolstered by the fact that the infection rate seemed to have declined, with Guangdong only exporting three new infections over the weekend. The economic impact was becoming dramatic as shops, restaurants, markets, bars, universities, schools, and many other businesses had closed, while some government ministries and large state banks were working with minimal staff levels.
On 28 April, WHO declared the outbreak in Vietnam to be over as no new cases were reported for 20 days. On 29 April, leaders of member countries of ASEAN and the PRC premier held an emergency summit in Bangkok, Thailand to address the outbreak. Among the decisions made were the setting-up of a ministerial-level task force and uniform pre-departure health screening in airports.
On 30 April, the World Health Organization lifted the SARS travel warning for Toronto. The decision was made because "it is satisfied with local measures to stop the spread of SARS". Canadian officials said they would step up screenings at airports.
May 2003
On 3 May, the 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup was abruptly moved to the United States due to the outbreak. China maintained its automatic qualification and later hosted the Women's World Cup four years later. On 4 May, the newly infected number of people in Hong Kong dropped to single digits. On 19 May, the WHO Annual Meeting was held in Geneva. Hong Kong pushed for the Tourism Warning to be lifted.
On 20 May, the WHO refused to lift the Tourism Warning for Hong Kong and Guangdong, but did so three days later after a recount of the number of SARS patients. On 24 May, the number of newly infected patients reached zero for in Hong Kong, the first time since the outbreak in the territory in March.
On 24 May, a new cluster of about 20 suspected patients was reported in Toronto. By 29 May, more than 7,000 people were instructed to quarantine themselves in Canada by authorities seeking to control the potential spread of the SARS outbreak.
In Taiwan, administrators and staff of Taipei Municipal Hospital's Hoping branch faced disciplinary action from the Taipei City Government. The Control Yuan also launched an investigation into the hospital's closure. Taipei City Bureau of Health director Chiu Shu-ti resigned from Ma Ying-jeou's mayoral administration on 25 May. On 27 May, the Taichung City Government, led by mayor Jason Hu, established a command center in central Taiwan to handle SARS. The Department of Health worked with several hospitals in Taiwan to expand medical facilities and treatment for SARS patients.
On 31 May, Singapore was removed from WHO's list of 'Infected Areas'.
June 2003
On 10 June, the government of Ontario created the SARS Commission inquiry in order to "investigate the recent introduction and spread of SARS" in the province.
On 23 June, Hong Kong was removed from WHO's list of 'Affected Areas', while Toronto, Beijing, and Taiwan remained. On 27 June, the World Health Organization stated that the world population should be SARS-free within the next two to three weeks, but warned the disease could emerge in China next winter.
July 2003
On July 2, Canada was removed from the WHO's list of 'Infected Areas'.
On 5 July, WHO declared the SARS outbreak contained and removed Taiwan from the list of affected areas. Taiwan's removal from the list signified the end of the outbreak.
September 2003
On 8 September, Singapore announced that a post-doctoral worker in a SARS research lab in the National University of Singapore had contracted the disease while working on the West Nile virus but recovered shortly thereafter. It was suspected that the two viruses mixed while he was doing his research.
December 2003
On 10 December, a researcher in a SARS lab in Taiwan was found infected with SARS after returning from Singapore attending a medical conference; 74 people in Singapore were quarantined but none of them were infected.
On 27 December, China announced the first suspected case of SARS in six months in Guangdong in an individual who was not a SARS researcher.
January 2004
On 5 January, China confirmed that the case reported in December was a case of wild source SARS. The Philippines announced a possible case in a person just returned from Hong Kong. The patient was later determined to be suffering from pneumonia and not SARS. In China, Asian palm civets were culled in markets (the civets were thought to be a reservoir for the disease).
On 10 January, a restaurant worker in Guangdong was confirmed as the second wild source SARS since the outbreak was contained. Guangzhou was also the site of the first case in December and was thought to be the origin of the virus in the original outbreak. Three Hong Kong television reporters who visited SARS-related sites in Guangzhou were declared free of the disease. On 17 January, China announced a third case of SARS in Guangzhou. WHO officials urged more testing to bring the three recently announced cases into line with their standards; however, they also announced SARS virus had been detected by a WHO team in civet cages at the restaurant where the second case worked and in civet cages in the market.
On 31 January, China announced the fourth case of SARS as a 40-year-old doctor from the southern city of Guangzhou, and gave his family name as Liu. He was discharged when the announcement was made.
April 2004
SARS broke out again in Beijing and in Anhui Province. On 22 April, China announced that a 53-year-old woman had died on 19 April, its first SARS death since June. One person died and nine were infected in the outbreak which was first reported on 22 April. The first 2 infected cases involved a postgraduate student and a researcher at the National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention (abbrev.: Institute of Virology) of the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention; an additional 7 cases were diagnosed, which were linked with close personal contact with the student, the lab or with a nurse who treated the student.
May 2004
Two additional confirmed cases of SARS and three additional suspected cases were reported in Beijing on 1 May, all related to a single research lab, the Diarrhea Virus Laboratory in the CDC's National Institute of Virology in Beijing. "The cases had been linked to experiments using live and inactive SARS coronavirus in the CDC's virology and diarrhea institutes where interdisciplinary research on the SARS virus was conducted." The total number of cases was six, with four in Beijing and two in Anhui.
On 2 May, China announced the three suspected cases as genuine cases of SARS, bringing the total cases in a recent outbreak to nine. 189 people were released from quarantine. On 18 May, after no new infections had been reported in a three-week period, WHO announced China as free of further cases of SARS, but stated that "biosafety concerns remain".
Subsequent status
In May 2005, Jim Yardley of the New York Times wrote:
See also
List of medical professionals who died during the SARS outbreak
Severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus
COVID-19 pandemic
References
Citations
Sources
CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report – SARS section
SARS: An Open Scar
SARS: Timeline of an Outbreak
Severe acute respiratory syndrome
Disease outbreaks in China
Disease outbreaks in Hong Kong
Disease outbreaks in Taiwan
Disease outbreaks in Singapore
Disease outbreaks in Canada
21st-century epidemics
2000s disease outbreaks
2002 health disasters
2003 health disasters
2004 health disasters
2002 disasters in China
2003 disasters in China
2004 disasters in China
2003 disasters in Canada
2003 in Hong Kong
2003 in Singapore
2003 in Toronto
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Song%20Contest%201999
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Eurovision Song Contest 1999
|
The Eurovision Song Contest 1999 was the 44th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Jerusalem, Israel, following the country's victory at the with the song "Diva" by Dana International. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Israel Broadcasting Authority (IBA), the contest was held at the International Convention Center on Saturday 29 May 1999 - at the time the latest the contest had ever been hosted. The contest was presented by Israeli television presenter Yigal Ravid, actress Dafna Dekel and model Sigal Shachmon marking the first time that there had been 3 hosts presenting the contest.
Twenty-three countries participated in the contest. It saw the return of Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark and Iceland after being relegated from competing the previous year. Lithuania also returned to the contest, after their last participation in 1994. Finland, Greece, Macedonia, Romania, Slovakia and Switzerland were relegated due to having the lowest average scores over the previous five editions. Hungary decided not to participate, which left a spot open for Portugal, who otherwise would have been relegated from competing. Russia had intended to participate, but were not allowed to, due to not having broadcast the previous year's contest.
The winner was Sweden with the song "Take Me to Your Heaven", performed by Charlotte Nilsson, written by Gert Lengstrand and Marcos Ubeda, and composed by Lars Diedricson. Iceland, Germany, Croatia and Israel rounded out the top five. Iceland achieved their best result in the contest at this point. Further down the table, Bosnia and Herzegovina also achieved their best result as an independent country at this point, finishing seventh.
Location
In the run-up to the contest, many speculated that it would not be held in Israel, but would be moved to either Malta or stay at the United Kingdom (the countries that completed the top 3 of the 1998 contest). This came about after major concerns over funding for the event from the Israeli government arose, alongside the opposition from Orthodox Jews that they would attempt to stop the contest from coming to Israel after Dana International won the previous year's contest. This, however, provided no hindrance for IBA or to the organizing team of the event, and the Ussishkin Auditorium at International Convention Center in Jerusalem was selected as the venue for the 44th contest.
Format
Long-standing rules in place for decades were abolished during this contest: rules that each country had to sing in one of their national languages was abolished for the first time since 1977. A majority of the participating countries, fourteen out of twenty-three, chose to sing entirely or partly in English and only eight entirely in their respective national languages; Lithuania, Spain, Croatia, Poland, France, Cyprus, Portugal and Turkey, not counting the United Kingdom, Ireland and Malta, who have English as a national or official language. Furthermore, live music became optional for the first time in the contest's history. IBA took advantage of this and decided to drop the orchestra from the contest as a way to conserve money for the show. This meant that for the first time all entries used backing track during their performances. This caused controversy for Eurovision traditionalists, with two-time winner Johnny Logan criticising the move, describing the event now as "karaoke".
Draw for the order of performances took place on 17 November 1998.
Television news anchor Yigal Ravid, singer and 1992 contestant Dafna Dekel and model/actress Sigal Shachmon presented the show, and it was the first time that three presenters were used to host the contest. Israel's two previous winners, Izhar Cohen, who won in 1978 with "A-Ba-Ni-Bi" and Milk and Honey's Gali Atari who won it the next year with "Hallelujah" attended as spectators.
Postcards
The postcards' theme was "interactive tour in the Land of the Bible". It featured paintings of biblical stories, "coming to life" with a humorous animation (created by cartoonist Yossi Abulafia), and then continuing to modern locations in Israel or modern themes that represent Israel's culture and industries. The various themes were as following, listed in appearance order:
Jacob's Ladder; Israel Museum, Jerusalem
Pharaoh and his Army; Eilat
Noah's Ark; landscapes of Galilee
Ruth; Israeli agriculture
Jonah and the Whale; Jaffa
Adam and Eve; Israeli fashion
The Sea of Galilee; Tiberias and surroundings
Workers of the Tabernacle; Israeli tech and virtual reality
Joseph and His Brothers; Haifa
The Golden Calf; Israeli jewellery industry
The Prophet; Tel Aviv nightlife
David and Goliath; Israeli sports
The Manna from Heaven; Israeli culinary
The Basket of Moses; rafting on the Jordan River
David and Bathsheba; music and art on the roofs of Tel Aviv
Daniel and the Lions; Acre
Cain and Abel; Judaean Desert
The Judgement of Solomon; Jerusalem
The Promised Land; Jezreel Valley
David and Michal; Suzanne Dellal Centre for Dance and Theatre, Tel Aviv
The Tower of Babel; Israeli beaches
Samson; Caesarea National Park
The Zodiac mosaic at the Old Beth Alfa Synagogue; love at the Dead Sea
Participating countries
It was announced in 1999 that, as of the 2000 contest, the four biggest financial contributors to the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) – , , and the – would all be given automatic entry into the contest, regardless of their average scores over the past five years.
had attempted to participate in the contest for the first time, but later withdrew; this gave a chance to enter the contest, however, Magyar Televízió decided not to take part, allowing to compete as the 23rd country. returned to the contest for the first time in five years. The Lithuanian delegation had budget problems to contend with, and so the EBU allowed the Lithuanians to arrive in Israel a day later than everyone else. The first delegation on the other hand, to arrive were . 's Channel One had decided not to broadcast the 1998 contest, in order to allow for a strong comeback in Israel; however, as only countries which had broadcast the previous year's contest were allowed to enter the next year's contest under the rules at the time, Russia was forced to miss another year.
Qualification
In addition the host country, Israel, the 17 countries with the highest average scores between 1994 and 1998 were allowed to take part in the 1999 contest alongside new or returning countries.
Table key
Automatic qualifier
Qualifier
Replacement qualifier
Withdrew
Returning artists
Results
The favourites to win the contest were Iceland's Selma with "All Out of Luck", and Cyprus's Marlain with "Tha 'Ne Erotas", after an internet poll by fans. However, while Iceland finished second to Sweden (the country's best showing in the contest to date), Cyprus failed to inspire televotes, finishing second last with only two points, both from the United Kingdom.
The winning song, "Take Me To Your Heaven", had been seen as rather old-fashioned in Sweden, but voters thought differently. It won at a time when ABBA were enjoying a revival in the European charts and the similarities in musical style were noted by the media.
Scoreboard
Each country had a televote, where the top ten most voted-for songs were awarded the 12, 10, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 points, with the exceptions of Turkey, Lithuania, Ireland and Bosnia and Herzegovina who used juries.
12 points
Below is a summary of all 12 point in the final:
Spokespersons
The spokespersons announced the score from their respective country's televote (or, in some cases, national jury) in running order.
Andrius Tapinas
Hugo de Campos
Marko Rašica
Colin Berry
Mira Berginc
Osman Erkan
Ragnhild Sælthun Fjørtoft
Kirsten Siggaard
Marie Myriam
Edsilia Rombley
Jan Chojnacki
Áslaug Dóra Eyjólfsdóttir
Marina Maleni
Pontus Gårdinger
Manuel Luís Goucha
Clare McNamara
Nirvana Azzopardi
Renan Demirkan
Segmedina Srna
Mart Sander
Broadcasts
Most countries sent commentators to Jerusalem or commented from their own country, in order to add insight to the participants and, if necessary, the provision of voting information.
Incidents
A number of controversies occurred before the contest. Two songs selected to compete in Israel were found to be ineligible: Bosnia and Herzegovina's Hari Mata Hari were disqualified after their entry was discovered to have been released in Finland some years previously; Germany's Corinna May was also disqualified after her song was revealed to have been released in 1997 by a different singer. Both artists would eventually represent their countries in Eurovision, in 2006 and 2002 respectively.
Croatia's entry, Marija Magdalena, attracted objections from the Norwegian delegation, due to synthesised male vocals being used on the backing track of Doris Dragović's entry. The EBU decided to reduce the country's score by a third for the purpose of calculating its five-year average to determine participation in future contests, though it was decided to leave its placement in the 1999 result unaffected.
The interval act was provided by Dana International, who performed a cover of the Stevie Wonder song "Free", which although was a smash hit in Israel at the time, caused some controversy there due to the song's lyrics. Dana International also appeared at the end of the show, handing the winning trophy to Nilsson. After pretending that the trophy was too heavy to lift, she fell to the stage, bringing down the winning composers with her. After the encore of the winning entry coming from Sweden, the three presenters re-appeared inviting everyone on stage to sing a rendition of the English version of "Hallelujah", the Israeli winner from the 1979 contest, as a tribute to the victims of the Kosovo War (particularly then-Yugoslavia, which was banned from participation as penalty due this conflict), who were unable to view the contest after bombings destroyed television transmitters.
Compilation album
Eurovision Song Contest: Israel 1999 is a compilation CD was released in Israel by the host broadcaster and IMP Records. Due to licensing problems, the CD omitted the songs from Poland, Cyprus, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom. Since then, all compilation CDs have featured all the songs.
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
1999
Music festivals in Israel
1999 in music
1999 in Israel
1999 in Europe
Music in Jerusalem
May 1999 events in Asia
Events in Jerusalem
1990s in Jerusalem
May 1999 events in Europe
|
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Weird Tales
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Weird Tales is an American fantasy and horror fiction pulp magazine founded by J. C. Henneberger and J. M. Lansinger in late 1922. The first issue, dated March 1923, appeared on newsstands February 18. The first editor, Edwin Baird, printed early work by H. P. Lovecraft, Seabury Quinn, and Clark Ashton Smith, all of whom went on to be popular writers, but within a year, the magazine was in financial trouble. Henneberger sold his interest in the publisher, Rural Publishing Corporation, to Lansinger, and refinanced Weird Tales, with Farnsworth Wright as the new editor. The first issue under Wright's control was dated November 1924. The magazine was more successful under Wright, and despite occasional financial setbacks, it prospered over the next 15 years. Under Wright's control, the magazine lived up to its subtitle, "The Unique Magazine", and published a wide range of unusual fiction.
Lovecraft's Cthulhu mythos stories first appeared in Weird Tales, starting with "The Call of Cthulhu" in 1928. These were well-received, and a group of writers associated with Lovecraft wrote other stories set in the same milieu. Robert E. Howard was a regular contributor, and published several of his Conan the Barbarian stories in the magazine, and Seabury Quinn's series of stories about Jules de Grandin, a detective who specialized in cases involving the supernatural, was very popular with the readers. Other well-liked authors included Nictzin Dyalhis, E. Hoffmann Price, Robert Bloch, and H. Warner Munn. Wright published some science fiction, along with the fantasy and horror, partly because when Weird Tales was launched, no magazines were specializing in science fiction, but he continued this policy even after the launch of magazines such as Amazing Stories in 1926. Edmond Hamilton wrote a good deal of science fiction for Weird Tales, though after a few years, he used the magazine for his more fantastic stories, and submitted his space operas elsewhere.
In 1938, the magazine was sold to William Delaney, the publisher of Short Stories, and within two years, Wright, who was ill, was replaced by Dorothy McIlwraith as editor. Although some successful new authors and artists, such as Ray Bradbury and Hannes Bok, continued to appear, the magazine is considered by critics to have declined under McIlwraith from its heyday in the 1930s. Weird Tales ceased publication in 1954, but since then, numerous attempts have been made to relaunch the magazine, starting in 1973. The longest-lasting version began in 1988 and ran with an occasional hiatus for over 20 years under an assortment of publishers. In the mid-1990s, the title was changed to Worlds of Fantasy and Horror because of licensing issues, with the original title returning in 1998.
The magazine is regarded by historians of fantasy and science fiction as a legend in the field, with Robert Weinberg, author of a history of the magazine, considering it "the most important and influential of all fantasy magazines". Weinberg's fellow historian, Mike Ashley, is more cautious, describing it as "second only to Unknown in significance and influence", adding that "somewhere in the imagination reservoir of all U.S. (and many non-U.S.) genre-fantasy and horror writers is part of the spirit of Weird Tales".
Background
In the late 19th century, popular magazines typically did not print fiction to the exclusion of other content; they would include nonfiction articles and poetry, as well. In October 1896, Frank A. Munsey Company's Argosy magazine was the first to switch to printing only fiction, and in December of that year, it changed to using cheap wood-pulp paper. This is now regarded by magazine historians as having been the start of the pulp magazine era. For years, pulp magazines were successful without restricting their fiction content to any specific genre, but in 1906, Munsey launched Railroad Man's Magazine, the first title that focused on a particular niche. Other titles that specialized in particular fiction genres followed, starting in 1915 with Detective Story Magazine, with Western Story Magazine following in 1919. Weird fiction, science fiction, and fantasy all appeared frequently in the pulps of the day, but by the early 1920s, still no single magazine was focused on any of these genres, though The Thrill Book, launched in 1919 by Street & Smith with the intention of printing "different", or unusual, stories, was a near miss.
In 1922, J. C. Henneberger, the publisher of College Humor and The Magazine of Fun, formed Rural Publishing Corporation of Chicago, in partnership with his former fraternity brother, J. M. Lansinger. Their first venture was Detective Tales, a pulp magazine that appeared twice a month, starting with the October 1, 1922 issue. It was initially unsuccessful, and as part of a refinancing plan, Henneberger decided to publish another magazine that would allow him to split some of his costs between the two titles. Henneberger had long been an admirer of Edgar Allan Poe, so he created a fiction magazine that would focus on horror, and titled it Weird Tales.
Publication history
Rural Publishing Corporation
Henneberger chose Edwin Baird, the editor of Detective Tales, to edit Weird Tales; Farnsworth Wright was first reader, and Otis Adelbert Kline also worked on the magazine, assisting Baird. Payment rates were low, usually between a quarter and a half cent per word; the budget went up to one cent per word for the most popular writers. Sales were initially poor, and Henneberger soon decided to change the format from the standard pulp size to large pulp, to make the magazine more visible. This had little long-term effect on sales, though the first issue at the new size, dated May 1923, was the only one that first year to sell out completely—probably because it contained the first instalment of a popular serial, The Moon Terror, by A.G. Birch.
The magazine lost a considerable amount of money under Baird's editorship: after thirteen issues, the total debt was over $40,000. In the meantime, Detective Tales had been retitled Real Detective Tales and was making a profit, as was College Humor. Henneberger decided to sell both magazines to Lansinger and invest the money in Weird Tales. This did not address the $40,000 in debts, much of which was owed to the magazine's printer. The printing company was owned by B. Cornelius, who agreed to Henneberger's suggestion that the debt should be converted to a majority interest in a new company, Popular Fiction Publishing. This did not eliminate all of the magazine's debts, but it meant that Weird Tales could continue to publish, and perhaps return to profitability. Cornelius agreed that if the magazine ever became profitable enough to repay him the $40,000 he had been owed, he would give up his shares in the company. Cornelius became the company treasurer; the business manager was William (Bill) Sprenger, who had been working for Rural Publishing. Henneberger had hopes of eventually refinancing the debt with the help of another printer, Hall Printing Company, owned by Robert Eastman.
Baird stayed with Lansinger, so Henneberger wrote to H. P. Lovecraft, who had sold some stories to Weird Tales, to see if he would be interested in taking the job. Henneberger offered ten weeks advance pay, but made it a condition that Lovecraft move to Chicago, where the magazine was headquartered. Lovecraft described Henneberger's plans in a letter to Frank Belknap Long as "a brand-new magazine to cover the field of Poe-Machen shudders". Lovecraft did not wish to leave New York, where he had recently moved with his new bride; his dislike of cold weather was another deterrent. He spent several months considering the offer in mid-1924 without making a final decision, with Henneberger visiting him in Brooklyn more than once, but eventually either he declined or Henneberger simply gave up. By the end of the year Wright had been hired as the new editor of Weird Tales. The last issue under Baird's name was a combined May/June/July issue, with 192 pages—a much thicker magazine than the earlier issues. It was assembled by Wright and Kline, rather than Baird.
Popular Fiction Publishing
Henneberger gave Wright full control of Weird Tales, and did not get involved with story selection. In about 1921, Wright had begun to suffer from Parkinson's disease, and over the course of his editorship the symptoms grew gradually worse. By the end of the 1920s he was unable to sign his name, and by the late 1930s Bill Sprenger was helping him get to work and back home. The first issue with Wright as editor was dated November 1924, and the magazine immediately resumed a regular monthly schedule, with the format changing back to pulp again. The pay rate was initially low, with a cap of half a cent per word until 1926, when the top rate was increased to one cent per word. Some of Popular Fiction Publishing's debts were paid off over time, and the highest pay rate eventually rose to one and a half cents per word. The magazine's cover price was high for the time. Robert Bloch recalled that "in the late Twenties and Thirties of this century...at a time when most pulp periodicals sold for a dime, its price was a quarter". Although Popular Fiction Publishing continued to be based in Chicago, the editorial offices were in Indianapolis for a while, at two separate addresses, but moved to Chicago toward the end of 1926. After a short period on North Broadway, the office moved to 840 North Michigan Avenue, where it would remain until 1938.
In 1927, Popular Fiction Publishing issued Birch's The Moon Terror, one of Weird Tales more popular serials, as a hardcover book, including three other stories from the magazine's first year. One of the stories, "An Adventure in the Fourth Dimension", was by Wright himself. The book sold poorly, and it remained on offer in the pages of Weird Tales, at reduced prices, for twenty years. It was at one point provided as a bonus to readers who subscribed. In 1930 Cornelius launched a companion magazine, Oriental Stories, but the magazine was not a success, though it managed to last for over three years before Cornelius gave up. Another financial blow occurred in late 1930 when a bank failure froze most of the magazine's cash. Henneberger changed the schedule to bimonthly, starting with the February/March 1931 issue; six months later, with the August 1931 issue, the monthly schedule returned. Two years later Weird Tales' bank was still having financial problems, and payment to authors was being substantially delayed.
The Depression also hit the Hall Printing Company, which Henneberger had been hoping would take over the debt from Cornelius; Robert Eastman, the owner of Hall, at one point was unable to meet payroll. Eastman died in 1934, and with him went Henneberger's plans for recovering control of Weird Tales. The magazine advertised in the early science fiction pulps, usually highlighting one of the more science-fictional stories. Often the advertised story was by Edmond Hamilton, who was popular in the sf magazines. Wright also sold hardcovers of books by some of his more popular authors, such as Kline, in the pages of Weird Tales. Although the magazine was never greatly profitable, Wright was paid well. Robert Weinberg, author of a history of Weird Tales, records a rumor that Wright was unpaid for much of his work on the magazine, but according to E. Hoffmann Price, a close friend of Wright's who occasionally read manuscripts for him, Weird Tales was paying Wright about $600 a month in 1927.
Delaney
Cornelius retired in 1938, and Popular Fiction Publishing was sold to William J. Delaney, who was the publisher of Short Stories, a successful general fiction pulp magazine based in New York. Sprenger and Wright both received a share of the stock from Cornelius; Sprenger did not remain with the company but Wright moved to New York and stayed on as editor. Henneberger's share of Popular Fiction Publishing was converted to a small interest in the new company, Weird Tales, Inc., a subsidiary of Delaney's Short Stories, Inc. Dorothy McIlwraith, the editor of Short Stories, became Wright's assistant, and over the next two years Delaney tried to increase profits by adjusting the page count and price. An increase from 144 pages to 160 pages starting with the February 1939 issue, along with the use of cheaper (and hence thicker) paper, made the magazine thicker, but this failed to increase sales. In September 1939 the page count went down to 128, and the price was cut from 25 cents to 15 cents. From January 1940 the frequency was reduced to bimonthly, a change which stayed in effect until the end of the magazine's run fourteen years later. None of these changes had the intended effect, and sales continued to languish. In March 1940, Wright left and was replaced by McIlwraith as editor; histories of the magazine differ as to whether he was fired because of poor sales, or quit because of his health—he was by now suffering from Parkinson's so severely that he had trouble walking unassisted. Wright then had an operation to reduce the pain with which he suffered, but never fully recovered. He died in June of that year.
McIlwraith's first issue was dated April 1940. From 1945 through 1949, she was assisted by Lamont Buchanan, who worked for her as associate editor and art editor for both Weird Tales and Short Stories. August Derleth also provided assistance and advice, although he had no formal connection with the magazine. Most of McIlwraith's budget went to Short Stories, since that was the more successful magazine; the payment rate for fiction in Weird Tales by 1953 was one cent per word, well below the top rates of other science fiction and fantasy magazines of the day. War shortages also caused problems, and the page count was reduced, first to 112 pages in 1943, and then to 96 pages the following year.
The price was increased to 20 cents in 1947, and again to 25 cents in 1949, but it was not only Weird Tales that was suffering—the entire pulp industry was in decline. Delaney switched the format to digest with the September 1953 issue, but there was to be no reprieve. In 1954, Weird Tales and Short Stories ceased publication; in both cases the last issue was dated September 1954. For Weird Tales, the September 1954 issue was its 279th.
1970s and early 1980s
In the mid-1950s, Leo Margulies, a well-known figure in the magazine publishing world, launched a new company, Renown Publications, with plans to publish several titles. He acquired the rights to both Weird Tales and Short Stories, and hoped to bring both magazines back. He abandoned a plan to restart Weird Tales in 1962, using reprints from the original magazine, after being advised by Sam Moskowitz that there was little market for weird and horror fiction at the time. Instead Margulies mined the Weird Tales backfile for four anthologies which appeared in the early 1960s: The Unexpected, The Ghoul-Keepers, Weird Tales, and Worlds of Weird. The latter two were ghost-edited by Moskowitz, who proposed to Margulies that when the time was right to start the magazine up again, it should include reprints from obscure sources that Moskowitz had found, rather than just stories reprinted from the first incarnation of Weird Tales. These stories would be as good as new for most readers, and the money saved could be used for an occasional new story.
The new version of Weird Tales finally appeared from Renown Publications, in April 1973, edited by Moskowitz. It had weak distribution and sales were too low for sustainability; according to Moskowitz the average sales were 18,000 copies per issue, well short of the 23,000 that would have been needed for the magazine to survive. The fourth issue, dated Summer 1974, was the last, as Margulies closed down all his magazines except for Mike Shayne Mystery Magazine, which was the only one that was making a profit. Mike Ashley, a science fiction magazine historian, records that Moskowitz was unwilling to continue in any case, as he was annoyed by Margulies's detailed involvement in the day-to-day editorial tasks such as editing manuscripts and writing introductions.
Margulies died the following year, and his widow, Cylvia Margulies, decided to sell the rights to the title. Forrest Ackerman, a science fiction fan and editor, was one of the interested parties, but she chose instead to sell to Victor Dricks and Robert Weinberg. Weinberg in turn licensed the title to Lin Carter, who interested a publisher, Zebra Books, in the project. The result was a series of four paperback anthologies, edited by Lin Carter, appearing between 1981 and 1983; these were originally planned to be quarterly, but in fact the first two both appeared in December 1980 and were both dated Spring 1981. The next was dated Fall 1981; Carter's rights to the title were terminated by Weinberg in 1982 for non-payment, but the fourth issue was already in the works and finally appeared with a date of Summer 1983.
In 1982 Sheldon Jaffery and Roy Torgeson met with Weinberg to propose taking over as licensees, but Weinberg decided not to pursue the offer. The following year, Brian Forbes approached Weinberg with another offer. Forbes' company, the Bellerophon Network, was an imprint of a Los Angeles company named The Wizard. Ashley reports that Weinberg was only able to contact Forbes by phone, and even that was not always reliable, so negotiations were slow. Forbes' editorial director was Gordon Garb and the fiction editor was Gil Lamont; Forrest Ackerman also assisted, mainly by obtaining material to include. There was a good deal of confusion between the various participants in the project: according to Locus, a science fiction trade journal, "Ackerman says he has had no contact with publisher Forbes, does not know what will happen to the material he put together, and is as much in the dark as everybody else. Lamont says that he is still renegotiating his contract and is not sure where he stands". The original plan was for the first issue to appear in August 1984, dated July/August, but before it appeared the decision was taken to change the contents, and a new, completely reset issue finally appeared at the end of the year, dated Fall 1984. Even with this delay a final agreement had not yet been reached with Weinberg over licensing. Only 12,500 copies were printed; these were sent to two distributors who both went into bankruptcy. As a result, few copies were sold, and Forbes was not paid by the distributors. Despite the financial setback, Forbes attempted to continue, and a second issue eventually appeared. Its cover date was Winter 1985 but it was not published until June 1986. Few copies were printed; reports vary between 1,500 and 2,300 in total. Mark Monsolo was the fiction editor, but Garb continued as editorial director; Lamont was no longer involved with the magazine.
Terminus and successors
Weird Tales was more lastingly revived at the end of the 1980s by George H. Scithers, John Gregory Betancourt and Darrell Schweitzer, who formed Terminus Publishing, based in Philadelphia, and licensed the rights from Weinberg. Rather than focus on newsstand distribution, which was expensive and had become less effective in the 1980s, they planned to build a base of direct subscribers and distribute the magazine for sale through specialist stores. The first issue had a cover date of Spring 1988, but it was produced early enough to be available at the 1987 World Fantasy Convention in Nashville, Tennessee. The size was the same as the original pulp version, though it was printed on better paper. There were also limited edition hardcover versions of each issue, signed by the contributors. A special World Fantasy Award Weird Tales received in 1992 made it apparent that the magazine was successful in terms of quality, but sales were insufficient to cover costs. To save money the format was changed to a larger flat size, starting with the Winter 1992/1993 issue, but the magazine remained in financial trouble, with issues becoming irregular over the next couple of years. The Summer 1993 issue was the last to have a hardcover edition; it was also the last, for a while, to bear the name Weird Tales, as Weinberg did not renew the license. The magazine was retitled Worlds of Fantasy & Horror, and the volume numbering was restarted at volume 1 number 1, but in every other way the magazine was unchanged, and the four issues under this title, issued between 1994 and 1996, are regarded by bibliographers as part of the overall Weird Tales run.
In April 1995, HBO announced they had plans to turn Weird Tales into a three-episode anthology show similar to their Tales from the Crypt series. The deal for the rights was facilitated by screenwriters Mark Patrick Carducci and Peter Atkins. Directors Tim Burton, Francis Ford Coppola, and Oliver Stone were executive producers, with each one expected to direct an episode. Stone was to be director of the pilot, but the series never came to fruition.
No issues appeared in 1997, but in 1998 Scithers and Schweitzer negotiated a deal with Warren Lupine of DNA Publications which allowed them to start publishing Weird Tales under license once again. The first issue was dated Summer 1998, and, other than the omission of the Winter 1998 issue, a regular quarterly schedule was maintained for the next four and a half years. Sales were weak, never rising above 6,000 copies, and DNA began to experience financial difficulties. Wildside Press, owned by John Betancourt, joined DNA and Terminus Publishing as co-publisher, starting with the July/August 2003 issue, and Weird Tales returned to a mostly regular schedule for a few months. A long hiatus ended with the December 2004 issue, which appeared in early 2005; this was the last issue under the arrangement with DNA. Wildside Press then bought Weird Tales, and Betancourt again joined Scithers and Schweitzer as co-editor.
The first Wildside Press edition appeared in September 2005, and starting with the following issue, dated February 2006, the magazine was able to stay on a more or less bimonthly schedule for some time. In early 2007, Wildside announced a revamp of Weird Tales, naming Stephen H. Segal the editorial and creative director and later recruiting Ann VanderMeer as the new fiction editor. In January 2010, the magazine announced Segal was leaving the top editorial post to become an editor at Quirk Books. VanderMeer was elevated to editor-in-chief, Mary Robinette Kowal joined the staff as art director and Segal became senior contributing editor.
On August 23, 2011, John Betancourt announced that Wildside Press would be selling Weird Tales to Marvin Kaye and John Harlacher of Nth Dimension Media. Marvin Kaye took over chief editorial duties. Issue 359, the first under the new publishers, was published in late February 2012. Some months before the release of issue 359, a special World Fantasy Convention preview issue was given away for free to interested attendees. Four issues then appeared, with issue #362 published in Spring of 2014.
On August 14, 2019, the official Weird Tales Facebook magazine announced the return of Weird Tales with author Jonathan Maberry as the editorial director. Issue #363 became available to purchase at the Weird Tales website.
Contents and reception
Henneberger gave Weird Tales the subtitle "The Unique Magazine" from the first issue. Henneberger had been hoping for submissions of "off-trail", or unusual, material. He later recalled talking to three well-known Chicago writers, Hamlin Garland, Emerson Hough, and Ben Hecht, each of whom had said they avoided writing stories of "fantasy, the bizarre, and the outré" because of the likelihood of rejection by existing markets. He added "I must confess that the main motive in establishing Weird Tales was to give the writer free rein to express his innermost feelings in a manner befitting great literature".
Edwin Baird
Edwin Baird, the first editor of Weird Tales, was not an ideal choice for the job as he disliked horror stories; his expertise was in crime fiction, and most of the material he acquired was bland and unoriginal. The writers Henneberger had been hoping to publish, such as Garland and Hough, failed to submit anything to Baird, and the magazine published mostly traditional ghost fiction, with many of the stories narrated by characters in lunatic asylums, or told in diary format. The cover story for the first issue was "Ooze", by Anthony M. Rud; there was also the first installment of a serial, "The Thing of A Thousand Shapes", by Otis Adelbert Kline, and 22 other stories. Ashley suggests that the better pulp writers from whom Baird did manage to acquire material, such as Francis Stevens and Austin Hall, were sending Baird stories which had already been rejected elsewhere.
In the middle of the year Baird received five stories submitted by H. P. Lovecraft; Baird bought all five of them. Lovecraft, who had been persuaded by friends to submit the stories, included a cover letter that was so remarkably negative about the quality of the manuscripts that Baird published it in the September 1923 issue, with a note appended saying that he had bought the stories "despite the foregoing, or because of it". However, Baird insisted that the stories be resubmitted as typed double-spaced manuscripts; Lovecraft disliked typing, and initially decided to resubmit only one story, "Dagon". It appeared in the October 1923 issue, which was the most noteworthy of Baird's tenure, since it included stories by three writers who would become frequent contributors to Weird Tales: as well as Lovecraft, it marked the first appearance in the magazine of Frank Owen and Seabury Quinn.
Robert Weinberg, in his history of Weird Tales, agrees with Ashley that the quality of Baird's issues was poor, but comments that some good stories were published: "it was just that the percentage of such stories was dismally small". Weinberg singles out "A Square of Canvas" by Rud, and "Beyond the Door" by Paul Suter as "exceptional"; both appeared in the April 1923 issue. Weinberg also regards "The Floor Above" by M. L. Humphries and "Penelope" by Vincent Starrett, both from the May 1923 issue, and "Lucifer" by John Swain, from the November 1923 issue, as memorable, and comments that "The Rats in the Walls", in the March 1924 issue, was one of Lovecraft's finest stories. It is unclear whether Baird or Henneberger was responsible for buying Lovecraft's stories; in one of Lovecraft's letters he makes it clear that Baird was keen to acquire his stories, but Henneberger has said that he overrode Baird and that Baird did not like Lovecraft's writing. It was Henneberger who came up with another idea involving Lovecraft: Henneberger contacted Harry Houdini and made arrangements to have Lovecraft ghost-write a story for him using a plot supplied by Houdini. The story, "Imprisoned with the Pharaohs", appeared under Houdini's name in the May/June/July 1924 issue, though it was nearly lost—Lovecraft left the typed manuscript on the train he took to New York to get married, and as a result spent much of his wedding day retyping the manuscript from the longhand copy he still had.
The May/June/July 1924 issue included another story: "The Loved Dead", by C. M. Eddy Jr. which included a mention of necrophilia. According to Eddy, this led to the magazine being removed from the newsstands in several cities, and beneficial publicity for the magazine, helping sales, but in his history of Weird Tales Robert Weinberg reports that he found no evidence of the magazine being banned, and the financial state of the magazine implies there was no benefit to sales either. However, S. T. Joshi has said the magazine was indeed removed from newsstands in Indiana.
The cover art during Baird's tenure was dull; Ashley calls it "unattractive", and Weinberg describes the color scheme of the first issue's cover as "less than inspired", though he considers the next month's cover to be an improvement. He adds that from the May 1923 issue "the covers plunged into a pit of mediocrity". In Weinberg's opinion the poor cover art, frequently by R. M. Mally, was probably partly to blame for the magazine's lack of success under Baird. Weinberg also regards the interior art during the magazine's first year as very weak; most of the interior drawings were small, and with little of the atmosphere one would expect from a horror magazine. All the illustrations were by Heitman, whom Weinberg describes as "... notable for his complete lack of imagination. Heitman's specialty was taking the one scene in a frightening story that featured nothing at all frightening or weird and illustrating that".
Farnsworth Wright
The new editor, Farnsworth Wright, was much more willing than Baird had been to publish stories that did not fit into any of the existing pulp categories. Ashley describes Wright as "erratic" in his selections, but under his guidance the magazine steadily improved in quality. His first issue, November 1924, was little better than those edited by Baird, although it included two stories by new writers, Frank Belknap Long and Greye La Spina, who became popular contributors. Over the following year, Wright established a group of writers as regulars, including Long and La Spina, and published many stories by writers who would be closely associated with the magazine for the next decade and more. In April 1925, Nictzin Dyalhis's first story, "When the Green Star Waned", appeared; although Weinberg regards it as very dated, it was highly regarded at the time, with Wright listing it in 1933 as the most popular story to appear in Weird Tales. That issue also contained the first instalment of La Spina's novel Invaders from the Dark, which Baird had rejected as "too commonplace". It proved to be extremely popular with readers, and Weinberg comments that Baird's rejection was "just one of the many mistakes made by the earlier editor".
Arthur J. Burks, who would go on to be a very successful pulp writer, appeared under both his real name and under a pseudonym, used for his first sale, in January 1925. Robert Spencer Carr's first story appeared in March 1925; H. Warner Munn's "The Werewolf of Ponkert" appeared in July 1925, and in the same issue Wright printed "Spear and Fang", the first professional sale of Robert E. Howard, who would become famous as the creator of Conan the Barbarian. In late 1925 Wright added a "Weird Tales reprint" department, which showcased old weird stories, typically horror classics. Often these were translations, and in some cases the appearance in Weird Tales was the story's first appearance in English.
Wright initially rejected Lovecraft's "The Call of Cthulhu", but eventually bought it, and printed it in the February 1928 issue. This was the first tale of the Cthulhu Mythos, a fictional universe in which Lovecraft set several stories. Over time other writers began to contribute their own stories with the same shared background, including Frank Belknap Long, August Derleth, E. Hoffmann Price, and Donald Wandrei. Robert E. Howard and Clark Ashton Smith were friends of Lovecraft's, but did not contribute Cthulhu stories; instead Howard wrote sword and sorcery fiction, and Smith produced a series of high fantasy stories, many of which were part of his Hyperborean cycle. Robert Bloch, later to become well known as the writer of the movie Psycho, began publishing stories in Weird Tales in 1935; he was a fan of Lovecraft's work, and asked Lovecraft's permission to include Lovecraft as a character in one of his stories, and to kill the character off. Lovecraft gave him permission, and reciprocated by killing off a thinly disguised version of Bloch in one of his own stories not long afterward. Edmond Hamilton, a leading early writer of space opera, became a regular, and Wright also published science fiction stories by J. Schlossel and Otis Adelbert Kline. Tennessee Williams' first sale was to Weird Tales, with a short story titled "The Vengeance of Nitocris". This was published in the August 1928 issue under the author's real name, Thomas Lanier Williams. Weird Tales' subtitle was "The Unique Magazine", and Wright's story selections were as varied as the subtitle promised; he was willing to print strange or bizarre stories with no hint of the fantastic if they were unusual enough to fit in the magazine. Although Wright's editorial standards were broad, and although he personally disliked the restrictions that convention placed on what he could publish, he did exercise caution when presented with material that might offend his readership. E. Hoffmann Price records that his story "Stranger from Kurdistan" was held after purchase for six months before Wright printed it in the July 1925 issue; the story includes a scene in which Christ and Satan meet, and Wright was worried about the possible reader reaction. The story nevertheless proved to be very popular, and Wright reprinted it in the December 1929 issue. He also published "The Infidel's Daughter" by Price, a satire of the Ku Klux Klan, which drew an angry letter and a cancelled subscription from a Klan member. Price later recalled Wright's response: "a story that arouses controversy is good for circulation ... and anyway it would be worth a reasonable loss to rap bigots of that caliber". Wright also printed George Fielding Eliot's "The Copper Bowl", a story about a young woman being tortured; she dies when her torturer forces a rat to eat through her body. Weinberg suggests that the story was so gruesome that it would have been difficult to place in a magazine even fifty years later.
On several occasions Wright rejected a story of Lovecraft's only to reconsider later; de Camp suggests that Wright's rejection at the end of 1925 of Lovecraft's "In the Vault", a story about a mutilated corpse taking revenge on the undertaker responsible, was because it was "too gruesome", but Wright changed his mind a few years later, and the story eventually appeared in April 1932. Wright also rejected Lovecraft's "Through the Gates of the Silver Key" in mid-1933. Price had revised the story before passing it to Wright, and after Wright and Price discussed the story, Wright bought it, in November of that year. Wright turned down Lovecraft's novel At the Mountains of Madness in 1935, though in this case it was probably because of the story's length—running a serial required paying an author for material that would not appear until two or three issues later, and Weird Tales often had little cash to spare. In this case he did not change his mind.
Quinn was Weird Tales' most prolific author, with a long-running sequence of stories about a detective, Jules de Grandin, who investigated supernatural events, and for a while he was the most popular writer in the magazine. Other regular contributors included Paul Ernst, David H. Keller, Greye La Spina, Hugh B. Cave, and Frank Owen, who wrote fantasies set in an imaginary version of the Far East. C.L. Moore's story "Shambleau", her first sale, appeared in Weird Tales in November 1933; Price visited the Weird Tales offices shortly after Wright read the manuscript for it, and recalls that Wright was so enthusiastic about the story that he closed the office, declaring it "C.L. Moore day". The story was very well received by readers, and Moore's work, including her stories about Jirel of Joiry and Northwest Smith, appeared almost exclusively in Weird Tales over the next three years. As well as fiction, Wright printed a substantial amount of poetry, with at least one poem included in most issues. Originally this often included reprints of poems such as Edgar Allan Poe's "El Dorado", but soon most of the poetry was original, with contributions coming from Lovecraft, Howard, and Clark Ashton Smith, among many others. Lovecraft's contributions included ten of his "Fungi from Yuggoth" poems, a series of sonnets on weird themes that he wrote in 1930.
The artwork was an important element of the magazine's personality, with Margaret Brundage, who painted many covers featuring nudes for Weird Tales, perhaps the best known artist. Many of Brundage's covers were for stories by Seabury Quinn, and Brundage later commented that once Quinn realized that Wright always commissioned covers from Brundage that included a nude, "he made sure that each de Grandin story had at least one sequence where the heroine shed all her clothes". For over three years in the early 1930s, from June 1933 to August/September 1936, Brundage was the only cover artist Weird Tales used. Another prominent cover artist was J. Allen St. John, whose covers were more action-oriented, and who designed the title logo used from 1933 until 2007. Hannes Bok's first professional sale was to Weird Tales, for the cover of the December 1939 issue; he became a frequent contributor over the next few years.
Virgil Finlay, one of the most important figures in the history of science fiction and fantasy art, made his first sale to Wright in 1935; Wright only bought one interior illustration from Finlay at that time because he was concerned that Finlay's delicate technique would not reproduce well on pulp paper. After a test print on pulp stock demonstrated that the reproduction was more than adequate, Wright began to buy regularly from Finlay, who became a regular cover artist for Weird Tales starting with the December 1935 issue. Demand from readers for Finlay's artwork was so high that in 1938 Wright commissioned a series of illustrations from Finlay for lines taken from famous poems, such as "O sweet and far, from cliff and scar/The horns of Elfland faintly blowing", from Tennyson's "The Princess". Not every artist was as successful as Brundage and Finlay: Price suggested that Curtis Senf, who painted 45 covers early in Wright's tenure, "was one of Sprenger's bargains", meaning that he produced poor art, but worked fast for low rates.
During the 1930s, Brundage's rate for a cover painting was $90. Finlay received $100 for his first cover, which appeared in 1937, over a year after his first interior illustrations were used; Weinberg suggests that the higher fee was partly to cover postage, since Brundage lived in Chicago and delivered her artwork in person, but it was also because Brundage's popularity was beginning to decline. When Delaney acquired the magazine in late 1938, the fee for a cover painting was cut to $50, and in Weinberg's opinion the quality of the artwork declined immediately. Nudes no longer appeared, though it is not known if this was a deliberate policy on Delaney's part. In 1939 a campaign by Fiorello LaGuardia, the mayor of New York, to eliminate sex from the pulps led to milder covers, and this may also have had an effect. In 1936, Howard committed suicide, and the following year Lovecraft died. There was so much unpublished work by Lovecraft that Wright was able to use that he printed more material under Lovecraft's byline after his death than before. In Howard's case, there was no such trove of stories available, but other writers such as Henry Kuttner provided similar material. By the end of Wright's tenure as editor, many of the writers who had become strongly associated with the magazine were gone; Kuttner, and others such as Price and Moore, were still writing, but Weird Tales''' rates were too low to attract submissions from them. Clark Ashton Smith had stopped writing, and two other writers who were well-liked, G.G. Pendarves and Henry Whitehead, had died.
Except for a couple of short-lived magazines such as Strange Tales and Tales of Magic and Mystery, and a weak challenge from Ghost Stories, all between the late 1920s and the early 1930s, Weird Tales had little competition for most of Wright's sixteen years as editor. In the early 1930s, a series of pulp magazines began to appear that became known as "weird menace" magazines. These lasted until the end of the decade, but despite the name there was little overlap in subject matter between them and Weird Tales: the stories in the weird menace magazines appeared to be based on occult or supernatural events, but at the end of the tale the mystery was always revealed to have a logical explanation. In 1935 Wright began running weird detective stories to try to attract some of the readers of these magazines to Weird Tales, and asked readers to write in with comments. Reader reaction was uniformly negative, and after a year he announced that there would be no more of them.
In 1939 two more serious threats appeared, both launched to compete directly for Weird Tales' readers. Strange Stories appeared in February 1939 and lasted for just over two years; Weinberg describes it as "top-quality", though Ashley is less complimentary, describing it as largely unoriginal and imitative. The following month the first issue of Unknown appeared from Street & Smith. Fritz Leiber submitted several of his "Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser" stories to Wright, but Wright rejected all of them (as did McIlwraith when she took over the editorship). Leiber subsequently sold them all to John W. Campbell for Unknown; Campbell commented each time to Leiber that "these would be better in Weird Tales". The stories grew into a very popular sword and sorcery series, but none of them ever appeared in Weird Tales. Leiber did eventually sell several stories to Weird Tales, beginning with "The Automatic Pistol", which appeared in May 1940.Jaffery & Cook (1985), p. 104.Weird Tales included a letters column, titled "The Eyrie", for most of its existence, and during Wright's time as editor it was usually filled with long and detailed letters. When Brundage's nude covers appeared, a lengthy debate over whether they were suitable for the magazine was fought out in the Eyrie, with the two sides divided about equally. For years it was the most discussed topic in the magazine's letter column. Many of the authors Wright published wrote letters too, including Lovecraft, Howard, Kuttner, Bloch, Smith, Quinn, Wellman, Price, and Wandrei. In most cases these letters praised the magazine, but occasionally a critical comment was raised, as when Bloch repeatedly expressed his dislike for Howard's stories of Conan the Barbarian, referring to him as "Conan the Cimmerian Chipmunk". Another debate that was aired in the letter column was the question of how much science fiction the magazine should include. Until Amazing Stories was launched in April 1926, science fiction was popular with Weird Tales' readers, but after that point letters began to appear asking Wright to exclude science fiction, and only publish weird fantasy and horror. The pro-science fiction readers were in the majority, and as Wright agreed with them, he continued to include science fiction in Weird Tales. Hugh B. Cave, who sold half-a-dozen stories to Wright in the early 1930s, commented on "The Eyrie" in a letter to a fellow writer: "No other magazine makes such a point of discussing past stories, and letting the authors know how their stuff is received".
Dorothy McIlwraith
McIlwraith was an experienced magazine editor, but she knew little about weird fiction, and unlike Wright she also had to face real competition from other magazines for Weird Tales' core readership. Although Unknown folded in 1943, in its four years of existence it transformed the field of fantasy and horror, and Weird Tales was no longer regarded as the leader in its field. Unknown published many successful humorous fantasy stories, and McIlwraith responded by including some humorous material, but Weird Tales rates were less than Unknown, with predictable effects on quality. In 1940 the policy of reprinting horror and weird classics ceased, and Weird Tales began using the slogan "All Stories New – No Reprints". Weinberg suggests that this was a mistake, as Weird Tales readership appreciated getting access to classic stories "often mentioned but rarely found". Without the reprints Weird Tales was left to survive on the rejects from Unknown, with the same authors selling to both markets. In Weinberg's words, "only the quality of the stories [separated] their work between the two pulps".
Delaney's personal taste also reduced McIlwraith's latitude. In an interview with Robert A. Lowndes in early 1940, Delaney spoke about his plans for Weird Tales. After saying that the magazine would still publish "all types of weird and fantasy fiction", Lowndes reported that Delaney did not want "stories which center about sheer repulsiveness, stories which leave an impression not to be described by any other word than 'nasty. Lowndes later added that Delaney had told him he found some of Clark Ashton Smith's stories on the "disgusting side".
McIlwraith continued to publish many of Weird Tales' most popular authors, including Quinn, Derleth, Hamilton, Bloch, and Manly Wade Wellman. She also added new contributors; as well as publishing many of Ray Bradbury's early stories, Weird Tales regularly featured Fredric Brown, Mary Elizabeth Counselman, Fritz Leiber, and Theodore Sturgeon. As Wright had done, McIlwraith continued to buy Lovecraft stories submitted by August Derleth, though she abridged some of the longer pieces, such as "The Shadow over Innsmouth". Sword and sorcery stories, a genre which Howard had made much more popular with his stories of Conan, Solomon Kane and Bran Mak Morn in Weird Tales in the early 1930s, had continued to appear under Farnsworth Wright; they all but disappeared during McIlwraith's tenure. McIlwraith also focused more on short fiction, and serials and long stories were rare.Clute (1997), pp. 481–482.
In May 1951 Weird Tales once again began to include reprints, in an attempt to reduce costs, but by that time the earlier issues of Weird Tales had been extensively mined for reprints by August Derleth's publishing venture, Arkham House, and as a result McIlwraith often reprinted lesser-known stories. They were not advertised as reprints, which led in a couple of cases to letters from readers asking for more stories from H. P. Lovecraft, whom they believed to be a new author. In Weinberg's opinion, the magazine lost variety under McIlwraith's editorship, and "much of the uniqueness of the magazine was gone". In Ashley's view, the magazine became more consistent in quality, rather than worse; Ashley comments that though the issues edited by McIlwraith "seldom attain[ed] Wright's highpoints, they also omitted the lows". L. Sprague de Camp, toward the end of McIlwraith's time as editor, agreed that the 1930s were the magazine's heyday, citing Wright's death and the departure for other, better-paying, markets of several of its contributors as factors in the magazine's decline.
The quality of Weird Tales artwork suffered when Delaney cut the rates. Bok, whose first cover had appeared in December 1939, moved to New York and joined the office art staff for a while; he eventually left because of the low pay. Boris Dolgov began contributing in the 1940s; he was a friend of Bok's and the two occasionally collaborated, signing the result "Dolbokgov". Weinberg regards Dolgov's illustration for Robert Bloch's "Yours Truly, Jack the Ripper" as one of his best works. Weird Tales paper was of very poor quality, which meant that the reproductions were poor, and along with the low pay rate for art this meant that many artists treated Weird Tales as a last resort for their work. Damon Knight, who sold some interior artwork to Weird Tales in the early 1940s, recalled later that he was paid $5 for a single-page drawing, and $10 for a double-page spread; he worked slowly and the low pay meant Weird Tales was not a viable market for him.
The art editor, Lamont Buchanan, was able to establish five artists as regulars by the mid-1940s; they remained regular contributors until 1954, when the magazine's first incarnation ceased publication. The five were Dolgov, John Giunta, Fred Humiston, Vincent Napoli, and Lee Brown Coye. In Weinberg's review of Weird Tales interior art, he describes Humiston's work as ranging "from bad to terrible", but he is more positive about the others. Napoli had worked for Weird Tales from 1932 to the mid-1930s, when he began selling to the science fiction pulps, but his work for Short Stories brought him back to Weird Tales in the 1940s. Weinberg speaks highly of both Napoli and Coye, whom Weinberg describes as "the master of the weird and grotesque illustration". Coye did a series of full-page illustrations for Weird Tales called "Weirdisms", which ran intermittently from November 1948 to July 1951.Weinberg (1999d), pp. 86–88.
The letter column, "The Eyrie", was much reduced in size during McIlwraith's tenure, but as a gesture to the readers a "Weird Tales Club" was started. Joining the Club simply meant writing in to receive a free membership card; the only other benefit was that the magazine listed all the members' names and addresses, so that members could contact each other. Among the names listed in the January 1943 issue was that of Hugh Hefner, later to become famous as the founder of Playboy.
Toward the end of McIlwraith's time as editor a couple of new writers appeared, including Richard Matheson and Joseph Payne Brennan. Brennan had already sold over a dozen stories to other pulps when he finally made a sale to McIlwraith, but he had always wanted to sell to Weird Tales, and three years after the magazine folded he launched a small-press horror magazine named Macabre, which he published for some years, in imitation of Weird Tales.
Moskowitz, Carter, and Bellerophon
The four issues edited by Sam Moskowitz in the early 1970s included a detailed biography of William Hope Hodgson, serialized over three issues, along with some rare stories of Hodgson's that Moskowitz had unearthed. Many of the other stories were reprints, either from Weird Tales or from other early pulps such as The Black Cat or Blue Book. In Ashley's opinion, the magazine "had the feel of a museum piece with nothing new or progressive", though Weinberg describes the magazine as having "an interesting jumble of contents". The subsequent paperback series edited by Lin Carter was criticized in similar terms: Weinberg regards it as having "too much reliance ... on the old names like Lovecraft, Howard and Smith by reprinting mediocre material ... New writers were not sufficiently encouraged", though Weinberg does add that Ramsey Campbell, Tanith Lee and Steve Rasnic Tem were among the newer writers who contributed good material. Ashley's opinion of the two Bellerophon issues is low: he describes them as lacking "any clear editorial direction or acumen".
Ann VanderMeer
The April/May 2007 edition featured the magazine's first all-new design in almost seventy-five years. With Stephen H. Segal as editorial and creative director and Ann VanderMeer as fiction editor, during the next few years the magazine "won a number of awards and great acclaim." In 2010 VanderMeer became the magazine's editor-in chief.
During this time Weird Tales published works by a wide range of strange-fiction authors including Michael Moorcock and Tanith Lee, as well as newer writers such as N. K. Jemisin, Jay Lake, Cat Rambo, and Rachel Swirsky. This period also saw the addition of a broader range of content, ranging from narrative essays to comics to features on weird culture. The magazine won its first Hugo Award in August 2009, in the semiprozine category, along with receiving two Hugo Award nominations in subsequent years and its first World Fantasy Award nomination, for Segal and Vandermeer, in more than seventeen years.
In addition to winning or being nominated for awards, under VanderMeer's editorship Weird Tales saw the number of subscriptions triple as the magazine "came to symbolise what was good about the changes in the SF community.
Marvin Kaye and after
in 2011 Marvin Kaye and John Harlacher purchased Weird Tales from John Gregory Betancourt with Kaye taking over chief editorial duties from VanderMeer. Issue 359, the first under the new publishers, was published in late February 2012. Some months before the release of issue 359, a special World Fantasy Convention preview issue was given away for free to interested attendees.
In August 2012, Weird Tales became involved in a media altercation after Kaye announced the magazine was going to publish an excerpt from Victoria Foyt's controversial novel Save the Pearls, which many critics accused of featuring racist stereotyping. The decision was made despite the protests of VanderMeer, and prompted her to end her association with the magazine. Kaye wrote an essay titled "A Thoroughly NONRACIST Novel" defending his decision to publish the excerpt. However, both the essay and Kaye's decision to publish the excerpt were heavily criticized, with N. K. Jemisin saying "This is how you destroy something beautiful" with regards to the magazine and Jim C. Hines saying he was "highly disturbed that the editor ever thought this was in any way a good idea, that he was so supportive of this novel that he was going out of his way to defend and support it … up until the Internet landed on his head."
The publisher subsequently overruled Kaye and announced that Weird Tales no longer had plans to run the excerpt.
After the fall 2012 issue #360, Kaye only published two more issues of Weird Tales, issue #361 in the summer of 2013 and #362 in the spring of 2014.
In 2019 Weird Tales returned with author Jonathan Maberry as the editorial director, with issue #363 being released at the end of that year. This issue featured the story "Up from Slavery" by Victor LaValle, which later won the Stoker Award for Best Long Fiction."The 2019 Bram Stoker Award finalists ," Bram Stoker Website, accessed March 28, 2021.
Legacy Weird Tales was one of the most important magazines in the fantasy field; in Ashley's view, it is "second only to Unknown in significance and influence". Weinberg goes further, calling it "the most important and influential of all fantasy magazines". Weinberg argues that much of the material Weird Tales published would never have appeared if the magazine had not existed. It was through Weird Tales that Lovecraft, Howard, and Clark Ashton Smith became widely known, and it was the first and one of the most important markets for weird and science fantasy artwork. Many of the horror stories adapted for early radio shows such as Stay Tuned for Terror originally appeared in Weird Tales. The magazine's "Golden Age" was under Wright, and de Camp argues that one of Wright's accomplishments was to create a "Weird Tales school of writing". Justin Everett and Jeffrey H. Shanks, the editors of a recent scholarly collection of literary criticism focused on the magazine, argue that "Weird Tales functioned as a nexus point in the development of speculative fiction from which emerged the modern genres of fantasy and horror".
The magazine was, unusually for a pulp, included by the editors of the annual Year in Fiction anthologies, and was generally regarded with more respect than most of the pulps. This remained true long after the magazine's first run ended, as it became the main source of fantasy short stories for anthologists for several decades. Weinberg argues that the fantasy pulps, of which, in his opinion, Weird Tales was the most influential, helped to form the modern fantasy genre, and that Wright, "if he was not a perfect editor ... was an extraordinary one, and one of the most influential figures in modern American fantasy fiction", adding that Weird Tales and its competitors "served as the bedrock upon which much of modern fantasy rests". Everett and Shanks agree, and regard Weird Tales as the venue where writers, editors and an engaged readership "elevated speculated fiction to new heights" with influence that "reverberates through modern popular culture". In Ashley's words, "somewhere in the imagination reservoir of all U.S. (and many non-U.S.) genre-fantasy and horror writers is part of the spirit of Weird Tales".
Bibliographic details
The editorial succession at Weird Tales was as follows:
The publisher for the first year was Rural Publishing Corporation; this changed to Popular Fiction Publishing with the November 1924 issue, and to Weird Tales, Inc. with the December 1938 issue. The four issues in the early 1970s came from Renown Publications, and the four paperbacks in the early 1980s were published by Zebra Books. The next two issues were from Bellerophon, and then from Spring 1988 to Winter 1996 the publisher was Terminus. From Summer 1998 to July/August 2003 the publisher was DNA Publications and Terminus, listed either as DNA Publications/Terminus or just as DNA Publications. The September/October 2003 issue listed the publisher as DNA Publications/Wildside Press/Terminus, and through 2004 this remained the case, with one issue dropping Terminus from the masthead. Thereafter Wildside Press was the publisher, sometimes with Terminus listed as well, until the September/October 2007 issue, after which only Wildside Press were listed. The issues published from 2012 through 2014 were from Nth Dimension Media.Weird Tales was in pulp format for its entire first run except for the issues from May 1923 to April 1924, when it was a large pulp, and the last year, from September 1953 to September 1954, when it was a digest. The four 1970s issues were in pulp format. The two Bellerophon issues were quarto. The Terminus issues reverted to pulp format until the Winter 1992/1993 issue, which was large pulp. A single pulp issue appeared in Fall 1998, and then the format returned to large pulp until the Fall 2000 issue, which was quarto. The format varied between large pulp and quarto until January 2006, which was large pulp, as were all issues after that date until Fall 2009, except for a quarto-sized November 2008. From Summer 2010 the format was quarto.
The first run of the magazine was priced at 25 cents for the first fifteen years of its life except for the oversized May/June/July 1924 issue, which was 50 cents. In September 1939 the price was reduced to 15 cents, where it stayed until the September 1947 issue, which was 20 cents. The price went up again to 25 cents in May 1949; the digest-sized issues from September 1953 to September 1954 were 35 cents. The first three paperbacks edited by Lin Carter were priced at $2.50; the fourth was $2.95. The two Bellerophon issues were $2.50 and $2.95. The Terminus Weird Tales began in Spring 1988 priced at $3.50; this went up to $4.00 with the Fall 1988 issue, and to $4.95 with the Summer 1990 issue. The next price increase was to $5.95, in Spring 2003, and then to $6.99 with the January 2008 issue. The first two issues from Nth Dimension Media were priced at $7.95 and $6.99; the last two were $9.99 each.
Some of the early Terminus editions of Weird Tales were also printed in hardcover format, in limited editions of 200 copies. These were signed by the contributors, and were available at $40 as part of a subscription offer. Issues produced in this format include Summer 1988, Spring/Fall 1989, Winter 1989/1990, Spring 1991, and Winter 1991/1992.
Anthologies
Starting in 1925, Christine Campbell Thomson edited a series of horror story anthologies, published by Selwyn and Blount, titled Not at Night. These were considered an unofficial U.K. edition of the magazine, with the stories sometimes appearing in the anthology before the magazine's U.S. version appeared. The ones which drew a substantial fraction of their contents from Weird Tales were:
There was also a 1937 anthology titled Not at Night Omnibus, which selected 35 stories from the Not at Night series, of which 20 had originally appeared in Weird Tales. In the U.S. an anthology titled Not at Night!, edited by Herbert Asbury, appeared from Macy-Macius in 1928; this selected 25 stories from the series, with 24 of them drawn from Weird Tales.Numerous other anthologies of stories from Weird Tales have been published, including:
Canadian and British editions
A Canadian edition of Weird Tales appeared from June 1935 to July 1936; all fourteen issues are thought to be identical to the U.S. issues of those dates, though "Printed in Canada" appeared on the cover, and in at least one case another text box was placed on the cover to conceal part of a nude figure. Another Canadian series began in 1942, as a result of import restrictions placed on U.S. magazines. Canadian editions from 1942 up to January 1948 were not identical to the U.S. editions, but they match closely enough that the originals are easily identified. From the May 1942 to January 1945 issues, they correspond to the U.S. editions two issues earlier, that is, from January 1942 to September 1944. There was no Canadian issue corresponding to the November 1944 U.S. issue, so from that point the Canadian issues were only one behind the U.S. ones: the issues from March 1945 to January 1948 correspond to the U.S. issues from January 1945 to November 1947. There was no Canadian issue of the January 1948 U.S. issue, and from the next issue, March 1948, till the end of the Canadian run in November 1951, the issues were identical to the U.S. versions.
There were numerous differences between the Canadian issues from May 1942 to January 1948 and the corresponding U.S. issues. All the covers were repainted by Canadian artists until the January 1945 issue; thereafter the artwork from the original issues was used. Initially the fiction content of the Canadian issues was unchanged from the U.S., but starting in September 1942 the Canadian Weird Tales dropped some of the original stories in each issue, replacing them with either stories from other issues of Weird Tales, or, occasionally, material from Short Stories.
In a couple of instances a story appeared in the Canadian edition of the magazine before its appearance in the U.S. version, or simultaneously with it, so it is evident that whoever assembled the issues had access to the Weird Tales pending story file. Because of the reorganization of material, it often happened that one of the Canadian issues would have more than a single story by the same author. In these cases a pseudonym was invented for one of the stories.
There were four separate editions of Weird Tales distributed in the United Kingdom. In early 1942, three issues abridged from the September 1940, November 1940, and January 1941 U.S. issues were published in the U.K. by Gerald Swan; they were undated, and had no volume numbers. The middle issue was 64 pages long; the other two were 48 pages. All were priced at 6d. A single issue was released in late 1946 by William Merrett; it also was undated and unnumbered. It was 36 pages long, and was priced at 1/6. The three stories included came from the October 1937 U.S. issue.
A longer run of 23 issues appeared between November 1949 and December 1953, from Thorpe & Porter. These were all undated; the first issue had no volume or issue number but subsequent issues were numbered sequentially. Most were priced at 1/-; issues 11 to 15 were 1/6. All were 96 pages long. The first issue corresponds to the July 1949 U.S. issue; the next 20 issues correspond to the U.S. issues from November 1949 to January 1953, and the final two issues correspond to May 1953 and March 1953, in that order. Another five bimonthly issues appeared from Thorpe & Porter dated November 1953 to July 1954, with the volume numbering restarted at volume 1 number 1. These correspond to the U.S. issues from September 1953 to May 1954.
Collectability Weird Tales is widely collected, and many issues command very high prices. In 2008, Mike Ashley estimated the first issue to be worth £3,000 in excellent condition, and added that the second issue is much rarer and commands higher prices. Issues with stories by Lovecraft or Howard are very highly sought-after, with the October 1923 issue, containing "Dagon", Lovecraft's first appearance in Weird Tales, fetching comparable prices to the first two issues. The first few volumes are so rare that very few academic collections have more than a handful of these issues: Eastern New Mexico University, the holder of a remarkably complete early science fiction archive, has "only a few scattered issues" from the early years, and the librarian recorded in 1983 that "dealers laugh when Eastern enquires about these".
Prices of the magazine drop over the succeeding decades, with the McIlwraith issues worth far less than the ones edited by Wright. Ashley quotes the digest-sized issues from the end of McIlwraith's tenure as fetching £8 to £10 each as of 2008. The revived editions are not particularly scarce, with two exceptions. The two Bellerophon issues received such poor distribution that they fetch high prices: Ashley quotes a 2008 price of £40 to £50 for the first one, and twice that for the second one. The other valuable recent issues are the hardback versions of the Terminus Weird Tales; Ashley gives prices of between £40 and £90, with some of the special author issues fetching a premium.
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
William Fulwiler and Graeme Flanagan. Weird Tales on Television. Crypt of Cthulhu'', 4, No 5 (whole number 30) (Eastertide 1985):29-32, 52.
Weird Tales: The Unique Magazine pulpmags.org
External links
1923 establishments in Illinois
Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Fantasy fiction magazines
Horror fiction magazines
Magazines established in 1923
Magazines published in Chicago
Pulp magazines
Science fiction magazines established in the 1920s
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] |
208828
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seabury%20Quinn
|
Seabury Quinn
|
Seabury Grandin Quinn (also known as Jerome Burke; December 1889 – December 24, 1969) was an American government lawyer, journalist, and pulp magazine author, most famous for his stories of the occult detective Jules de Grandin, published in Weird Tales.
Biography
Seabury Quinn was born and lived in Washington, D.C. in 1889. In 1910 Quinn graduated from the law school of the National University and was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar.
Quinn served in the Army in World War I. After his service he became editor of a group of trade papers in New York, where he taught medical jurisprudence and wrote technical articles and pulp magazine fiction.
His first published work was "The Law of the Movies", in The Motion Picture Magazine, December 1917. (His story "Painted Gold" may have been written earlier.) "Demons of the Night" was published in Detective Story Magazine on March 19, 1918, followed by "Was She Mad?" on March 25, 1918. He published "The Stone Image" in 1919. He introduced Jules de Grandin as a character in 1925 (taking the character's surname from his own middle name), and continued writing stories about him until 1951. The longest of the de Grandin stories is the 1932 novel-length story The Devil's Bride, strongly influenced by Robert W. Chambers' 1920 novel The Slayer of Souls.
In 1937 he returned to Washington to represent a chain of trade journals, and there subsequently became a government lawyer for the duration of World War II. He alternated between law and journalism all his life. He published over five hundred short stories.
His first book, Roads (a surprising new origin for Santa Claus, drawn from the original Christian legends), was published by Arkham House in 1948.
Ten of the Jules de Grandin stories were collected in The Phantom Fighter (Mycroft & Moran, an imprint of Arkham House), 1966. A broader selection of the stories, including the novel The Devil's Bride, was issued in a six-volume Popular Library paperback edition in 1967–77. A three-volume omnibus reportedly including all the de Grandin stories was issued by Battered Silicon Dispatch Box in 2001.
Although the De Grandin stories were enormously popular on their initial publication, modern critics tend to regard them as the weakest part of Quinn's work, with Brian Stableford describing the De Grandin stories "as indeed rather undistinguished", claiming they are full of stereotyped characters and poorly resolved plots. Quinn wrote several non-De Grandin tales in the 1940s and 1950s; Stableford states Quinn's "best stories here are ironically perverted love stories", such as "The Globe of Memories" (1937) and
"Glamour" (1939).
His writing was secondary to his career as a lawyer specializing in mortuary jurisprudence. He taught this subject at mortuary schools for many years, and for some 15 years was the editor of Casket & Sunnyside, a leading trade journal. His Jerome Burke stories are still published in the Dodge embalming magazine.
Of his professional work, only two books were published. The first was A Syllabus of Mortuary Jurisprudence, published in book form in 1933 by Clement Williams of Kansas City, Kansas, with a foreword by C. A. Renouard (of the Renouard School of Embalming) and Clement Williams (of the Clement Williams School of Embalming). This was distilled from a lecture he gave in 1914. The text was extant as early as least 1924 / 1925, being serialized in Casket and Sunnyside. Quinn became editor of Casket and Sunnyside in December 1925.
The second was An Encyclopedic Law Glossary For Funeral Directors and Embalmers, published by the Williams Institute of Mortuary Science, Kansas City 1940, with an introduction by Quinn, dated January 1940. This had a series of definitions of terms that had puzzled his students.
Besides contributing to the then De-Ce-Co Magazine, later the Dodge Magazine, for the Dodge Chemical Co, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, Quinn wrote articles for The American Funeral Director and other trade journals.
His Jerome Burke material, not necessarily in sequence, is available in This I Remember: Memoirs of a Funeral Director, published by the Battered Silicon Dispatch Box, with a foreword by Arnold Dodge.
Quinn was a contemporary of Robert E. Howard, H. P. Lovecraft, and Clark Ashton Smith. Mary Elizabeth Counselman was a friend of Quinn's and wrote a tribute to him after he died.
Quinn's posthumously published novel Alien Flesh (1977) is a sexually explicit erotic fantasy about a male Egyptologist who has a magical sex change into a beautiful young woman. It has been described as a "bold and striking celebration of sexual confusion" in the style of Pierre Louÿs. It was illustrated by Stephen Fabian.
Recent publications
Night Creatures, a collection of stories by Quinn, edited by Peter Ruber and Joseph Wrzos for Ash-Tree Press appeared in (2003).
Demons of the Night, another collection of his stories, was published by Black Dog Books, of Normal, Illinois. Edited by Gene Christie, it contains his early stories. It has two of the "Major Sturdevant and his Washington Nights' Entertainment series", subtitled "Stories of the Secret Service", and two more featuring Professor Forrester, another amateur detector of crimes. It also contains one of the most complete bibliographies of Quinn yet published.
Someday I'll Kill You!, was published by Black Dog Books, of Normal, Illinois. Edited by Gene Christie, it contains all of Quinn's non-series stories published outside of Weird Tales between 1925 and 1963.
All of the Jules deGrandin stories were reprinted in 5 hardcover volumes in 2018 & 2019 by Night Shade Books.
A facsimile of the 1948 Arkham House edition of "Roads" was published 2017 by Shadowridge Press.
References
External links
Biographical information
1889 births
1969 deaths
20th-century American novelists
American erotica writers
American fantasy writers
American horror writers
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
Pulp fiction writers
Writers from Washington, D.C.
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American lawyers
National University School of Law alumni
|
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] |
208829
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules%20de%20Grandin
|
Jules de Grandin
|
Jules de Grandin is a fictional occult detective created by Seabury Quinn for Weird Tales.
He fought ghosts, werewolves, and satanists in over ninety stories, and one novel, between 1925 and 1951, assisted by Dr. Trowbridge (serving the same narrative purpose as Dr. Watson). Jules de Grandin and Dr. Trowbridge lived in Harrisonville, New Jersey. De Grandin was a French physician and expert on the occult and a former member of the French Sûreté who resembled a more physically dynamic blond, blue-eyed Hercule Poirot. Often (but by no means always), the supernatural entities in the mysteries are revealed not to be supernatural at all but the actions of insane, evil and depraved human beings.
Collected editions
In 1966 Mycroft & Moran published a ten-story, hardcover de Grandin collection, The Phantom Fighter. The collection included stories published between 1925 and 1930; Quinn provided an introductory essay.
Beginning in 1976, Popular Library issued five paperback collections of de Grandin stories, assembled and edited by Robert Weinberg. The collections included about one-third of the series as well as the only full-length de Grandin novel, The Devil's Bride. The volumes carried covers by Vincent DiFate and included interior illustrations by Stephen Fabian. Aside from The Devil's Bride, originally serialized in 1932, only three of the stories included had been published after 1930.
The Adventures of Jules de Grandin (August 1976)
The Casebook of Jules de Grandin (September 1976)
The Skeleton Closet of Jules de Grandin (October 1976)
The Devil's Bride (November 1976)
The Hellfire Files of Jules de Grandin (December 1976)
The Horror Chambers of Jules de Grandin (February 1977)
No further volumes in the series were released, though more were planned, and the initial volumes were never reprinted. Weinberg reprinted three more stories in some of his reprint fanzines.
A collection of six stories in French translation, Les archives de Jules de Grandin, was issued by the Librairie des Champs-Elysées in 1979.
The entire series of stories has been reprinted by Night Shade Books in a five volume set called The Complete Tales of Jules de Grandin. The individual volumes are
The Horror on the Links (covering stories from 1925 to 1928)
The Devil's Rosary (1929 & 1930)
The Dark Angel (1931 to July 1933, including the novel The Devil's Bride)
The Rival from the Grave (August 1933 to March 1938)
Black Moon (June 1938 through to the last story in September 1951).
The Devil's Bride was issued in an Italian edition, Jules de Grandin: La Sposa del Diavolo, in 2015, translated by Nicola Lombardi and published by La Zona Morta.
Weird Tales
de Grandin stories were often selected for the cover of Weird Tales. particularly when Margaret Brundage was the regular cover artist.
References
"The Complete Adventures of Jules de Grandin". The Battered Silicon Dispatch Box. 16 November 2006. <http://www.batteredbox.com/SeaburyQuinn/Jules.htm>.
External links
Jules de Grandin
Fictional occult and psychic detectives
Characters in pulp fiction
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund%20Allenby%2C%201st%20Viscount%20Allenby
|
Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby
|
Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby, (23 April 1861 – 14 May 1936) was an English soldier and British Imperial Governor. He fought in the Second Boer War and also in the First World War, in which he led the British Empire's Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign against the Ottoman Empire in the conquest of Palestine.
The British succeeded in capturing Beersheba, Jaffa, and Jerusalem from October to December 1917. His forces occupied the Jordan Valley during the summer of 1918, then went on to capture northern Palestine and defeat the Ottoman Yildirim Army Group's Eighth Army at the Battle of Megiddo, forcing the Fourth and Seventh Army to retreat towards Damascus. Subsequently, the EEF Pursuit by Desert Mounted Corps captured Damascus and advanced into northern Syria.
During this pursuit, he commanded T. E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia"), whose campaign with Faisal's Arab Sherifial Forces assisted the EEF's capture of Ottoman Empire territory and fought the Battle of Aleppo, five days before the Armistice of Mudros ended the campaign on 30 October 1918. He continued to serve in the region as High Commissioner for Egypt and Sudan from 1919 until 1925.
Early life
Allenby was born in 1861, the son of Hynman Allenby and Catherine Anne Allenby (née Cane) and was educated at Haileybury College. He had no great desire to be a soldier, and tried to enter the Indian Civil Service but failed the entry exam. He sat the exam for the Royal Military College, Sandhurst in 1880 and was commissioned as a lieutenant in the 6th (Inniskilling) Dragoons on 10 May 1882. He joined his regiment in South Africa later that year, taking part in the Bechuanaland Expedition of 1884–85. After serving at the cavalry depot in Canterbury, he was promoted to captain on 10 January 1888 and then returned to South Africa.
Allenby returned to Britain in 1890 and he sat – and failed – the entry exam for the Staff College in Camberley. Not deterred, he sat the exam again the next year and passed. Captain Douglas Haig of the 7th Hussars also entered the Staff College at the same time, thus beginning a rivalry between the two that ran until the First World War. Allenby was more popular with fellow officers, even being made Master of the Draghounds in preference to Haig who was the better rider; Allenby had already developed a passion for polo. Their contemporary James Edmonds later claimed that the staff at Staff College thought Allenby dull and stupid but were impressed by a speech that he gave to the Farmers' Dinner, which had in fact been written for him by Edmonds and another.
He was promoted to major on 19 May 1897 and was posted to the 3rd Cavalry Brigade, then serving in Ireland, as the Brigade-Major in March 1898.
Second Boer War
Following the outbreak of the Second Boer War in October 1899, Allenby returned to his regiment, and the Inniskillings embarked at Queenstown and landed at Cape Town, South Africa, later that year. He took part in the actions at Colesberg on 11 January 1900, Klip Drift on 15 February 1900 and Dronfield Ridge on 16 February 1900, and was mentioned in despatches by the commander-in-chief, Lord Roberts on 31 March 1900.
Allenby, by now a major, was appointed to command the squadron of New South Wales Lancers, who were camped beside the Australian Light Horse outside Bloemfontein. Both men and horses suffered from the continuous rain and men with cases of enteric fever were taken away every day. Allenby soon established himself as a strict disciplinarian, according to A. B. Paterson even imposing a curfew on the officer's mess.
Allenby participated in the actions at Zand River on 10 May 1900, Kalkheuval Pass on 3 June 1900, Barberton on 12 September 1900 and Tevreden on 16 October 1900 when the Boer General Jan Smuts was defeated. He was promoted to local lieutenant-colonel on 1 January 1901, and to local colonel on 29 April 1901. In a despatch dated 23 June 1902, Lord Kitchener, Commander-in-Chief during the latter part of the war, described him as "a popular and capable Cavalry Brigadier". For his services during the war, he was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) in the South Africa honours list published on 26 June 1902, and he received the actual decoration of CB from King Edward VII during an investiture at Buckingham Palace on 24 October 1902.
In between wars
Allenby returned to Britain in 1902 and became commanding officer of the 5th Royal Irish Lancers in Colchester with the substantive rank of lieutenant-colonel on 2 August 1902, and the brevet rank of colonel from 22 August 1902. He was promoted to the substantive rank of colonel and to the temporary rank of brigadier general on 19 October 1905. He assumed command of the 4th Cavalry Brigade in 1906. He was promoted again to the rank of major-general on 10 September 1909 and was appointed Inspector-General of Cavalry in 1910 due to his extensive cavalry experience. He was nicknamed "The Bull" due to an increasing tendency for sudden bellowing outbursts of explosive rage directed at his subordinates, combined with his powerful physical frame. Allenby stood 6'2 with a barrel chest and his very bad temper made "The Bull" a figure who inspired much consternation among those who had to work under him.
First World War
During the First World War, Allenby initially served on the Western Front. At the outbreak of war in August 1914, a British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was sent to France. It consisted of four infantry divisions and one cavalry division, the latter commanded by Allenby. The cavalry division first saw action in semi-chaotic circumstances covering the retreat after the Battle of Mons opposing the German Army's invasion of France. One of Allenby's subordinates claimed at the time: "He cannot explain verbally, with any lucidity at all, what his plans are". When a headquarters officer asked why Hubert Gough's cavalry brigade was miles from where it was supposed to be, he received the reply: "He told me he was getting as far away from the Bull as possible. It was a most scandalous affair, and he was in an almost open rebellion against Allenby at the time". The division distinguished itself under Allenby's direction in the subsequent fighting, with minimal resources at its disposal, at the First Battle of Ypres.
Western Front
Allenby was promoted to temporary lieutenant general on 10 October 1914. As the BEF was expanded in size to two Armies, he was rewarded by being made commander of the Cavalry Corps. On 6 May 1915, Allenby voluntarily left the Cavalry Arm to take up command of V Corps which was engaged at that moment in severe fighting at the Second Battle of Ypres. Commanding a corps seemed to make Allenby's bad temper even worse where anything from a split infinitive in a staff paper to discovering a corpse in the field without the tin helmet that Allenby ordered his men to wear sent Allenby off into a rage. The V Corps was victorious in defeating the German assault but incurred controversially heavy losses in the process through Allenby's tactical policy of continual counter-attacks at the German attacking force. In September 1915, V Corps attempted a diversion of German strength to facilitate the concurrent British offensive at Loos. They executed a minor attack in the Hooge Sector in the Ypres Salient under Allenby's direction, which once again incurred substantial losses to its units involved in the affair. In October 1915, Allenby was promoted to lead the British Third Army, being made lieutenant-general (substantive rank) on 1 January 1916. In mid-Summer 1916, he was the Army Commander in support of the launch of the Battle of the Somme offensive, with responsibility for the abortive assault by 3rd Army troops on the trench fortress of the Gommecourt salient, which failed with severe casualties to the units under his command in the operation. By this time in 1916, Archibald Wavell who was one of Allenby's staff officers and supporters, wrote that Allenby's temper seemed to "confirm the legend that 'the Bull' was merely a bad-tempered, obstinate hot-head, a 'thud-and-blunder' general". Allenby harboured doubts about the leadership of the commander of the BEF, General Sir Douglas Haig, but refused to allow any of his officers to say anything critical about Haig. However, despite Allenby's rages and obsession with applying the rules in a way that often seemed petty, Allenby's staff officers found an intellectually curious general who was interested in finding new ways of breaking the stalemate. J. F. C. Fuller called Allenby "a man I grew to like and respect", a man who always asked his staff if they had any new ideas about how to win the war. Allenby had wider interests than many other British generals, reading books on every conceivable subject from botany to poetry and was noted for his critical intellect. An officer who had dinner with Allenby at his headquarters in a French château recalled:
His keen grey-blue eyes, under heavy brows, search the face while he probes the mind with sharp, almost staccato questions about everything under the sun except what is expected. He cannot suffer fools gladly and demands an unequivocal affirmative or negative to every query he makes. He has a habit of asking questions on the most abstruse subjects, and an unpleasant knack of catching out anyone who gives an evasive answer for the sake of politeness.
Many of Allenby's officers believed that he was incapable of any emotion except rage, but he was a loving father and husband who was intensely concerned about his only child, Michael, who was serving at the front. Before Allenby went to bed every night, Allenby would enter the office of the officer who took the daily casualty returns, ask "Have you any news of my little boy today?" and after the officer replied "No news sir", Allenby would then go to bed a reassured man. His son, a lieutenant in the Royal Horse Artillery, was to die of wounds on 29 July 1917 aged 19, at Coxyde, Belgium.
In early 1917, Allenby was ordered by Haig to start preparations for a major offensive around the city of Arras. During his planning Allenby insisted upon putting into practice many of the ideas that his staff officers had offered. Allenby rejected the normal week-long bombardment of the German trenches before making an assault, instead planning on a 48-hour bombardment before the assault went ahead. In addition, Allenby had made careful plans to control traffic in the rear to prevent traffic jams that would block his logistics, a second echelon behind the first echelon that would only be sent in to exploit successes, tunnels to bring up new divisions behind the German lines while avoiding German fire and finally new weapons like tanks and aircraft were to play prominent roles in the offensive. In March 1917, the Germans pulled back to the Hindenburg Line, which led Allenby to argue that the planned offensive in the Arras sector in April should be changed, a request Haig refused. Despite refusing Allenby's request for more time to change his plans, Haig informed him that the entire responsibility for the failure of the Arras offensive would rest with him. As the Zero Hour for the offensive at 5: 30 am on 9 April 1917 approached, Allenby was thus unusually worried as he knew his entire career was in the balance.
At first, the Arras offensive went well with the Third Army breaking through the German lines and advancing three and a half miles in one day. In a letter to his wife on 10 April 1917, Allenby wrote: "I had a very big success yesterday. I won all along the line; killed a host of Boche and took over 7,500 prisoners...We have, at last, brought off what I been working on all winter. My staff has been splendid". There were weeks of heavy fighting during 3rd Army's offensive at the Battle of Arras in the Spring of the 1917, where an initial breakthrough had deteriorated into trench-fighting positional warfare—once more with heavy casualties to 3rd Army's units involved. Allenby lost the confidence of his Commander-in-chief, Haig. He was promoted to full General on 3 June 1917, but he was replaced at the head of 3rd Army on 9 June 1917 and returned to England.
Egypt and Palestine
British change of grand strategy
The British War Cabinet was divided in debate in May 1917 over the allocation of British resources between the Western Front and other fronts, with Allied victory over Germany far from certain. Curzon and Hankey recommended that Britain seize ground in the Middle East. Lloyd George also wanted more effort on other fronts. Previously, leaders had been concerned that taking over Palestine would divide it and leave it for other countries to take, but repeated losses to the Turkish Army and the stalled Western Front changed their minds.
Lloyd George wanted a commander "of the dashing type" to replace Sir Archibald Murray in command of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force. Jan Christian Smuts refused the command (late May) unless promised resources for a decisive victory. Lloyd George appointed Allenby to the role, although it was not decided immediately whether he would be authorised to launch a major offensive. Allenby believed his new assignment to be a joke, because he still believed that the war would be decided on the Western Front.
Although many of the War Cabinet wanted more efforts on the Palestine Front, Chief of the Imperial General Staff ("CIGS") Robertson believed that Western Front commitments did not justify a serious attempt to capture Jerusalem (Third Ypres was in progress from 31 July until November), and throughout 1917 he put pressure on Allenby to demand unrealistically large reinforcements to discourage the politicians from authorising Middle East offensives.
Palestine Campaign
Allenby arrived on 27 June 1917. On 31 July 1917, he received a telegram from his wife saying that Michael Allenby had been killed in action, leading to Allenby's breaking down in tears in public while he recited a poem by Rupert Brooke. Afterwards, Allenby kept his grief to himself and his wife, and instead threw himself into his work with icy determination, working very long hours without a break. Wavell recalled: "He went on with his work and asked no sympathy. Only those who stood close to him knew how heavy the blow had been, how nearly it had broken him, and what courage it had taken to withstand it". Allenby assessed the Turkish Army's fighting force that he was facing to be 46,000 rifles and 2,800 sabres, and estimated that he could take Jerusalem with 7 infantry and 3 cavalry divisions. He did not feel that there was a sufficient military case to do so, and felt that he would need reinforcements to advance further. Allenby understood the problems posed by logistics in the desert and spent much time working to ensure his soldiers would be well supplied at all times, especially with water. The logistics of getting water to the soldiers and through the desert is thought to be the biggest challenge and accomplishment Allenby made in the Middle East campaign. Allenby also saw the importance of good medical treatment and insisted that proper medical facilities be created to treat all of the diseases common to the Middle East like ophthalmia and enteric fever. Allenby was eventually ordered to attack the Turks in southern Palestine, but the extent of his advance was not yet to be decided, advice which Robertson repeated in "secret and personal" notes (1 and 10 August).
Allenby quickly won the respect of his troops by making frequent visits to the EEF's front-line units, in a marked change from the leadership style of his predecessor Murray, who had commanded primarily from Cairo. Allenby moved the EEF's GHQ from the Egyptian capital city to Rafah, nearer to the front lines at Gaza, and re-organized the disparate forces of the EEF into a three primary corps order of battle: XX, XXI, and the Desert Mounted Corps. He also approved the utilisation of Arabic irregular forces which were operating at that time to the Turkish Army's open left flank in the Arabian interior, under the direction of a young British Army Intelligence officer named T. E. Lawrence. He sanctioned £200,000 a month for Lawrence to facilitate his work amongst the tribes involved.
In early October 1917, Robertson asked Allenby to state his extra troop requirements to advance from the Gaza-Beersheba line (30 miles wide) to the Jaffa-Jerusalem line (50 miles wide), urging him to take no chances in estimating the threat of a German-reinforced threat. Allenby's estimate was that he would need 13 extra divisions (an impossible demand even if Haig's forces went on the defensive on the Western Front) and that he might face 18 Turkish and 2 German divisions. Yet, in private letters, Allenby and Robertson agreed that sufficient British Empire troops were already in place to take and hold Jerusalem.
Having reorganised his regular forces, Allenby won the Third Battle of Gaza (31 October – 7 November 1917) by surprising the defenders with an attack at Beersheba. The first step in capturing Beersheba was to send out false radio messages prompting the Turkish forces to think Britain was going to attack Gaza. After that, one brave intelligence officer, Colonel Richard Meinertzhagen, rode right up to the Turkish line, barely evading capture. In the fray, he dropped a bloodstained bag, smeared with horse blood, with fake military plans in it. The plans falsely described how the British force was on its way to capture Gaza. Additional radio messages threatening Meinertzhagen made up the Turkish Army's mind: the British Army was going to attack Gaza. Instead, they went through with the capture of Beersheba. “The Turks at Beersheba were undoubtedly taken completely by surprise, a surprise from which the dash of London troops and Yeomanry, finely supported by their artillery, never gave them time to recover. The charge of the Australian Light Horse completed their defeat” – Allenby His force captured the water supply there, and was able to push onward through the desert. His force pushed northwards towards Jerusalem. “Favoured by a continuance of fine weather, preparation for a fresh advance against the Turkish positions... of Jerusalem proceeded rapidly” – Allenby The Ottomans were beaten at Junction Station (10–14 November), and retreated out of Jerusalem, which was on 9 December 1917. During the Palestine campaign, Allenby entered a bacteriological laboratory near Ludd, where he saw some charts on the wall. When he asked about their meanings, he was told that they were of the seasonal incidence of malignant malaria in the Plain of Sharon, then he replied:
The capture of Jerusalem
Allenby's official proclamation of martial law following the fall of Jerusalem on 9 December 1917 read as follows:
{{quotation|<poem>To the Inhabitants of Jerusalem the Blessed and the People Dwelling in Its Vicinity:
The defeat inflicted upon the Turks by the troops under my command has resulted in the occupation of your city by my forces. I, therefore, here now proclaim it to be under martial law, under which form of administration it will remain so long as military considerations make necessary.
However, lest any of you be alarmed by reason of your experience at the hands of the enemy who has retired, I hereby inform you that it is my desire that every person pursue his lawful business without fear of interruption. Furthermore, since your city is regarded with affection by the adherents of three of the great religions of mankind and its soil has been consecrated by the prayers and pilgrimages of multitudes of devout people of these three religions for many centuries, therefore, do I make it known to you that every sacred building, monument, holy spot, shrine, traditional site, endowment, pious bequest, or customary place of prayer of whatsoever form of the three religions will be maintained and protected according to the existing customs and beliefs of those to whose faith they are sacred.
Guardians have been established at Bethlehem and on Rachel's Tomb. The tomb at Hebron has been placed under exclusive Moslem control.
The hereditary custodians at the gates of the Holy Sepulchre have been requested to take up their accustomed duties in remembrance of the magnanimous act of the Caliph Omar, who protected that church.</poem>}} Allenby received Christian, Jewish and Muslim community leaders in Jerusalem and worked with them to ensure that religious sites of all three faiths were respected. Allenby sent his Indian Muslim soldiers to guard Islamic religious sites, feeling that this was the best way of reaching out to the Muslim population of Jerusalem.
Allenby dismounted and entered the city on foot through the Jaffa Gate, together with his officers, in deliberate contrast to the perceived arrogance of the Kaiser's entry into Jerusalem on horseback in 1898, which had not been well received by the local citizens. He did this out of respect for the status of Jerusalem as the Holy City important to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (see his proclamation of martial law above). The people of Jerusalem saw Allenby's entrance on foot as a sign of his modesty.
He subsequently stated in his official report:
“[The citizens of Jerusalem were] at first welcoming because they were glad the Ottomans were gone and they wanted a good relationship with the British. [They were] also cautious as they did not want the British to stay.”
The British press printed cartoons of Richard Coeur de Lion - who had himself failed to capture Jerusalem - looking down on the city from the heavens with the caption reading, "The last Crusade. My dream comes true!" The crusade imagery was used to describe the campaign by the British press and later by the British Ministry of Information. There were reports that on entering the city Allenby had remarked "only now have the crusades ended." However, mindful of the Pan-Islamic propaganda of the Ottomans who had proclaimed a jihad against the Allies in 1914, Allenby himself discouraged the use of the crusader imagery, banned his press officers from using the terms crusade and crusader in their press releases and always went out of his way to insist that he was fighting merely the Ottoman Empire, not Islam. Allenby stated that "The importance of Jerusalem lay in its strategic importance, there was no religious impulse in this campaign".
In May 1918, Allenby publicly met with Chaim Weizmann and the Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem in Jerusalem.
Defeat of the Ottoman Empire
Asked again after the Fall of Jerusalem, Allenby wrote that he could complete the conquest of Palestine with his existing forces, but would need 16–18 divisions, on top of the 8-10 he already had, for a further advance of 250 miles to the Damascus-Beirut Line and then to Aleppo to cut Turkish communications to Mesopotamia (where by early 1918, 50,000 Turks were tying down a British Empire ration strength of over 400,000, of whom almost half were non-combatants, and 117,471 were British troops).
Smuts was sent to Egypt to confer with Allenby and Marshall (C-in-C Mesopotamia), with Robertson's clash with the government now moving to its final stages, and the new Supreme War Council at Versailles drawing up plans for more efforts in the Middle East. Allenby told Smuts of Robertson's private instructions (sent by hand of Walter Kirke, appointed by Robertson as Smuts' adviser) that there was no merit in any further advance. Allenby worked with Smuts to draw up plans to reach Haifa by June and Damascus by the autumn, reinforced by 3 divisions from Mesopotamia. The speed of the advance was limited by the need to lay fresh rail track. This met with War Cabinet approval (6 March 1918).
The German spring offensive on the Western Front meant that Allenby was without reinforcements after his forces failed to capture Amman in March and April 1918. He halted the offensive in the spring of 1918 and had to send 60,000 men to the Western Front, although the Dominion Prime Ministers in the Imperial War Cabinet continued to demand a strong commitment to the Middle East in case Germany could not be beaten.
New troops from the British Empire (specifically Australia, New Zealand, India, and South Africa) led to the resumption of operations in August 1918. Following an extended series of deceptive moves, the Ottoman line was broken at the Battle of Megiddo (19–21 September 1918), and the Allied cavalry passed through and blocked the Turkish retreat. The EEF then advanced at an impressive rate, as high as 60 miles in 55 hours for cavalry, and infantry slogging 20 miles a day and encountering minimal resistance. Damascus fell on 1 October, Homs on 16 October, and Aleppo on 25 October. With the threat of Asia Minor being invaded, the Ottoman Empire capitulated on 30 October 1918 with the signing of the Armistice of Mudros.
Governor of Egypt
Allenby was made a field marshal on 31 July 1919, and created Viscount Allenby, of Megiddo and of Felixstowe in the County of Suffolk, on 7 October.
His appointment in 1919 as Special High Commissioner of Egypt came as the country was being disrupted by demonstrations against British rule. It had been under Martial Law since 1914 and several of Egyptian leaders, including Saad Zaghlul, had been exiled to Malta.
These deportations had led to rioting across the country, with Cairo isolated. Allenby's first response was conciliatory. He persuaded the Colonial Office to allow Zaghlul and his delegation, from the Wafd, to travel to France. Their intention was to present the Egyptian case to the Paris Peace Conference but they received no official recognition and returned to Egypt in failure.
In early 1921 there were more riots and demonstrations that were blamed on Zaghlul. This time Allenby ordered that Zaghlul and five other leaders be deported to the Seychelles. Sixteen rioters were executed. The following year Allenby travelled to London with proposals which he insisted be implemented. They included the end of Martial Law, the drafting of an Egyptian Constitution and the return of Zaglul. Progress was made: Egypt was granted limited self-government, and a draft constitution was published in October 1922 leading to the formation of a Zaghlul government in January 1924. The following November the commander of British forces in Egypt and Sudan, Sir Lee Stack, was assassinated in Cairo. Allenby's response was draconian and included a humiliating £500,000 fine to be paid by the Egyptian Government. In May 1925, Allenby resigned and returned to England.
Retirement
Allenby was appointed Honorary Colonel of the Cinque Ports Fortress Royal Engineers on 12 September 1925 and made Captain of Deal Castle.
Murray and Allenby were invited to give lectures at Aldershot in 1931 about the Palestine Campaign. Exchanging letters beforehand, Murray asked whether it had been worth risking the Western Front (in the autumn of 1917) to transfer troops to Palestine. Allenby avoided that question, but commented that in 1917 and into the spring of 1918 it had been far from clear that the Allies were going to win the war. Russia was dropping out, but the Americans were not yet present in strength. France and Italy were weakened and might have been persuaded to make peace, perhaps by Germany giving up Belgium or Alsace-Lorraine, or Austria-Hungary giving up the Trentino. In those circumstances, Germany was likely to be left in control of Eastern Europe and the Balkans, and it had been sensible for Britain to grab some land in the Middle East to block Germany's route to India. Allenby's views mirrored those of the War Cabinet at the time.
Allenby went to Patagonia for a last fishing trip, aged 74, to see if the salmon really were as big as those in the Tay.
Death
He died suddenly from a ruptured cerebral aneurysm on 14 May 1936 at his house in Kensington, London, at the age of 75 years. His body was cremated, and his ashes were buried in Westminster Abbey.
Family
In 1897, Allenby married Miss Adelaide Chapman (d.1942), the daughter of a Wiltshire landowner. Their only child, Lieutenant Horace Michael Hynman Allenby, MC (1898–1917), was killed in action at Koksijde in Flanders whilst serving with the Royal Horse Artillery. The personal inscription on his gravestone reads: "HOW SHALL I DECK MY SONG FOR THE LARGE SWEET SOUL THAT HAS GONE AND WHAT SHALL MY PERFUME BE FOR THE GRAVE OF HIM I LOVE". This is a quotation from "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" by American poet Walt Whitman.
On Allenby's death, leaving no direct issue, his title passed to his nephew Lt-Col. Dudley Allenby, son of Captain Frederick Allenby, who succeeded as 2nd Viscount.
Tributes
Allenby supposedly once said that people would have to visit a war museum to learn of him, but that T. E. Lawrence would be remembered and become a household name. This was quoted by Robert Bolt in his screenplay for the 1962 film Lawrence of Arabia, directed by David Lean. A blue plaque unveiled in 1960 commemorates Allenby at 24 Wetherby Gardens, South Kensington, London.
Publicity surrounding Allenby's exploits in the Middle East was at its highest in Britain in the immediate aftermath of the First World War.
Allenby enjoyed a period of celebrity in the United States, as well. He and his wife went on an American tour in 1928, receiving a standing ovation when he addressed Carnegie Hall in New York City. Biographer Raymond Savage claimed that, for a time, Allenby was better known in America than Lawrence.
Allenby was the subject of a 1923 documentary film by British Instructional Films entitled Armageddon, detailing his military leadership during World War I. However, the film is believed lost.
The epic film Lawrence of Arabia depicts the Arab Revolt during World War I. Allenby is given a major part in it and is portrayed by Jack Hawkins in one of his best-known roles. Screenwriter Bolt called Allenby a "very considerable man" and hoped to depict him sympathetically. Nonetheless, many view Allenby's portrayal as negative.Caton, Steven C. Lawrence of Arabia: A Film's Anthropology (University of California Press, 1999), p. 59
The efforts of T. E. Lawrence ("Lawrence of Arabia") were greatly aided by Allenby in the Arab Revolt, and he thought highly of Allenby: "(He was) physically large and confident, and morally so great that the comprehension of our littleness came slow to him".
Into the 1990s, residents of Ismaïlia in north-eastern Egypt burned effigies to mark an annual spring holiday, including one of Allenby more than 70 years after he led forces in the Sinai.
The British journalist Mark Urban has argued that Allenby is one of the most important British generals who ever lived, writing that Allenby's use of air power, mechanised forces and irregulars led by Lawrence marked one of the first attempts at a new type of war while at the same time he had to act as a politician holding together a force comprising men from many nations, making him "the first of the modern supreme commanders". Urban further argued during the war, the British government had made all sorts of plans for the Middle East such as the Sykes–Picot Agreement in 1916 and the Balfour Declaration of 1917, but as long as the Ottoman Empire continued to hold much of the Near East, these plans meant nothing. By defeating the Ottomans in 1917–18, Allenby, if he did not create the modern Middle East, at the very least made the creation of the modern Middle East possible. If the Ottoman Empire had continued in its pre-war frontiers after the war — and before Allenby arrived in Egypt the British had not advanced very far — then it is probable that the nations of Israel, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq would not exist today.
Honours
Ribbon bar (as it would look today):
British
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, Military Division (GCB) – 5 November 1918 (KCB: 18 February 1915; CB: 26 June 1902)
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (GCMG) – 17 December 1917
Viscount Allenby of Meggido and of Felixstowe in the County of Suffolk – 18 October 1919
Knight of Justice of the Venerable Order of St. John (KJStJ) – 19 June 1925 (Knight of Grace: 21 December 1917)
Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) – 4 June 1934
Campaign and commemorative medals
Queen's South Africa Medal
King's South Africa Medal
1914 Star and bar
British War Medal
Victory Medal, with mention in despatches oak spray
King George V Coronation Medal
King George V Silver Jubilee Medal
Others
Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour of France – 18 March 1915
Belgian Croix de Guerre – 11 March 1918
Grand Cross of the Order of the White Eagle with Swords of the Kingdom of Serbia – 10 September 1918
Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer of the Kingdom of Greece – 10 October 1918
Croix de Guerre of France – 11 March 1919
Army Distinguished Service Medal of the United States – 12 July 1919
Grand Officer of the Military Order of Savoy of the Kingdom of Italy – 21 August 1919
Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Romania of the Kingdom of Romania – 20 September 1919
Order of Wen-Hu, 1st Class of the Republic of China – 17 February 1920
Order of the Renaissance, 1st Class with Brilliants of the Kingdom of Hejaz – 5 March 1920
Order of Michael the Brave, 1st Class of the Kingdom of Romania – 7 May 1920
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun of the Empire of Japan – 21 January 1921
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers of the Empire of Japan – 20 January 1922
Grand Cross (Mil.) of the Order of Leopold of the Kingdom of Belgium – 23 March 1935 (Grand Officer: 26 July 1917)
Arms
See also
Allenby Bridge
Allenby Gardens, South Australia
Allenby Square, Jerusalem
Allenby Street, Tel Aviv
Allenby, British Columbia
Allenby, Toronto
Army Manoeuvres of 1912
Mandatory Palestine
Victory Services Club
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
Faught, C. Brad (2020). Allenby: Making the Modern Middle East''. London: I.B. Tauris/Bloomsbury. .
Savage, Raymond (1925). Allenby of Armageddon: A Record of the Career and Campaigns of Field-Marshal Viscount Allenby. London: Hodder & Stoughton oclc=221977744.
External links
General Allenby, PBS feature on Lawrence of Arabia
Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby (1861–1936), Field Marshal: Sitter in 29 portraits (National Portrait Gallery)
Lord Allenby – High Commissioner of Egypt. The New York Times, 5 March 1922
Lord Allenby's Special Train, Dock Siding, Port Said, Egypt
Historic film footage of General Edmund Allenby entering Jerusalem on foot and reading Jerusalem proclamation, 11 December 1917.
His introduction to The New Zealanders in Sinai nd Palestine
British Pathe video of 1926 Corps of Commissionaires inspection by Viscount Allenby
Signed Photo of Edmund Allenby Entering Jerusalem
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1861 births
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20th century in Jerusalem
Viscounts in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
History of Mandatory Palestine
Ottoman Palestine
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Viscount Allenby
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208833
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C4%9Flama
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Bağlama
|
The bağlama or saz is a family of plucked string instruments, long-necked lutes used in Ottoman classical music, Turkish folk music, Turkish Arabesque music, Azerbaijani music, Kurdish music, Armenian music and in parts of Syria, Iraq and the Balkan countries.
Bağlama () is Turkish from bağlamak, "to tie". It is . Saz () means "to make; to compose" in Persian. It is .
According to The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, "the terms 'bağlama' and 'saz' are used somewhat interchangeably in Turkey."
Like the Western lute and the Middle-Eastern oud, it has a deep round back, but a much longer neck. It can be played with a plectrum or with a fingerpicking style known as şelpe.
In the music of Greece the name baglamas () is given to a treble bouzouki, a related instrument. The Turkish settlement of Anatolia from the late eleventh century onward saw the introduction of a two-string Turkmen dutar, which was played in some areas of Turkey until recent times.
Turkish bağlama
The most commonly used string folk instrument in Turkey, the bağlama has seven strings divided into courses of two, two and three. It can be tuned in various ways and takes different names according to region and size: Bağlama, Divan Sazı, Bozuk, Çöğür, Kopuz Irızva, Cura, Tambura, etc. The cura is the smallest member of the bağlama family: larger than the cura is the tambura, tuned an octave lower. The Divan sazı, the largest instrument in the family, is tuned one octave lower still.
A bağlama has three main parts, the bowl (called tekne), made from mulberry wood or juniper, beech, spruce or walnut, the spruce sound board (göğüs) and a neck of beech or juniper (sap). The tuning pegs are known as burgu (literally screw). Frets are tied to the sap with fishing line, which allows them to be adjusted. The bağlama is usually played with a mızrap or tezene (similar to a guitar pick) made from cherrywood bark or plastic. In some regions, it is played with the fingers in a style known as Şelpe or Şerpe.
There are also electric bağlamas, which can be connected to an amplifier. These can have either single or double pickups.
Azerbaijani saz
The Azerbaijani saz was mainly used by Ashiqs. The art of Azerbaijani Ashiqs combines poetry, storytelling, dance and vocal and instrumental music into a traditional performance art. This art is one of the symbols of Azerbaijani culture and considered an emblem of national identity and the guardian of Azerbaijani language, literature and music.
Characterized by the accompaniment of the kopuz, a stringed musical instrument, the classical repertoire of Azerbaijani Ashiqs includes 200 songs, 150 literary-musical compositions known as dastans, nearly 2,000 poems and numerous stories.
Since 2009 the art of Azerbaijani Ashiqs has been inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
The kopuz and the bağlama
The bağlama is a synthesis of historical musical instruments in Central Asia and pre-Turkish Anatolia. It is partly descended from the Turkic komuz. The kopuz, or komuz, differs from the bağlama in that it has a leather-covered body and two or three strings made of sheep gut, wolf gut, or horsehair. It is played with the fingers rather than a plectrum and has a fingerboard without frets. Bağlama literally translates as "something that is tied up", probably a reference to the tied-on frets of the instrument. The word bağlama is first used in 18th-century texts. The French traveler Jean Benjamin de Laborde, who visited Turkey during that century, recorded that "the bağlama or tambura is in form exactly like the cogur, but smaller." The Çoğur/Çöğur was in many ways a transitional Instrument between old Komuz and new Bağlama style and has a body shape similar to the Instrument called panduri in Georgia.
According to the historian Hammer, metal strings were first used on a type of komuz with a long fingerboard known as the kolca kopuz in 15th-century Anatolia. This was the first step in the emergence of the çöğür (cogur), a transitional instrument between the komuz and the bağlama. According to 17th-century writer Evliya Çelebi, the cogur was first made in the city of Kütahya in western Turkey. To take the strain of the metal strings the leather body was replaced with wood, the fingerboard was lengthened and frets were introduced. Instead of five hair strings there were now twelve metal strings arranged in four groups of three. Today, the cogur is smaller than a medium-size bağlama.
Bağlama (Saz) family
Bağlama tunings
There are three string groups, or courses, on the bağlama, with strings double or tripled. These string groups can be tuned in a variety of ways, known as düzen (literally, "order"). For the bağlama düzeni, the most common tuning, the courses are tuned from top downward, A-G-D. Some other düzens are Kara Düzen (C-G-D), Misket Düzeni (A-D-F#), Müstezat (A-D-F), Abdal Düzeni, and Rast Düzeni.
Bağlama düzeni (La, Sol, Re) (A, G, D)
Bozuk düzen, kara düzen (Sol, Re, La) (G, D, A)
Misket düzeni (Fa#, Re, La) (F#, D, A)
Fa müstezat düzeni (Fa, Re, La) (F, D, A)
Abdal düzeni (La, La, Sol) (A, A, G)
Zurna düzeni (Re, Re, La) (D, D, A)
Do müstezat düzeni (Sol, Do, La) (G, C, A)
Aşık düzeni (La (bottom string set), Re (middle string set), Mi (Top string set) (A, D, E)
Bağlama scale
The musical scale of the bağlama differs from that of many western instruments – such as the guitar – in that it features ratios that are close to quarter tones. The traditional ratios for bağlama frets are listed by Yalçın Tura:
Fret 1: 18/17
Fret 2: 12/11
Fret 3: 9/8
Fret 4: 81/68
Fret 5: 27/22
Fret 6: 81/64
Fret 7: 4/3
Fret 8: 24/17
Fret 9: 16/11
Fret 10: 3/2
Fret 11: 27/17
Fret 12: 18/11
Fret 13: 27/16
Fret 14: 16/9
Fret 15: 32/17
Fret 16: 64/33
Fret 17: 2/1
However, as confirmed by Okan Öztürk, instrument makers now often set frets on the bağlama with the aid of fret calculators and tuners based on the 24-tone equal temperament.
Notable performers
Asik Veysel (1894–1973)
Muharrem Ertaş (1913–1984)
Neşet Ertaş (1938–2012)
Ali Ekber Çiçek (1935–2006)
Ruhi Su
Erol Parlak
Muharrem Aslan
Murat Çobanoğlu
Sinan Ayyıldız
Nevid Müsmir
Musa Eroğlu
Erdal Erzincan
Orhan Gencebay
Hasret Gültekin
Ahmet Koç
Erkan Oğur
Arif Sağ
Zülfü Livaneli
Trey Spruance from the band Secret Chiefs 3 plays an electric bağlama
Lu Edmonds from the bands Public Image Ltd and the Mekons plays an electric bağlama.
Mikołaj Rybacki from the Polish folk band Percival
David Lindley on Transverse City, the seventh studio album by Warren Zevon.
Erdinç Ecevit from the band Altın Gün
See also
Alevism
Art of Azerbaijani Ashiqs
Baglamas
Bouzouki (Greece)
Buzuq (Lebanon & Syria)
Çiftelia
Dombra
Dutar
Hicaz Hümâyun Saz Semâisi
Innaby, Azerbaijani dance
Komuz
Music of Turkey
Sallaneh (lute)
Šargija
Setar
Tambura (instrument)
Tanbur
References
External links
Article about documentary featuring the saz: "From Berlin to Khorasan: seeking the roots of saz music"
Azerbaijani musical instruments
Turkish folk music instruments
Necked bowl lutes
Armenian musical instruments
Bosnian musical instruments
Macedonian musical instruments
Turkmen musical instruments
Turkish words and phrases
Turkish inventions
Kurdish musical instruments
|
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208836
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial%20institution
|
Financial institution
|
Financial institutions, sometimes called banking institutions, are business entities that provide services as intermediaries for different types of financial monetary transactions. Broadly speaking, there are three major types of financial institutions:
Depository institutions – deposit-taking institutions that accept and manage deposits and make loans, including banks, building societies, credit unions, trust companies, and mortgage loan companies;
Contractual institutions – insurance companies and pension funds
Investment institutions – investment banks, underwriters, and other different types of financial entities managing investments.
Financial institutions can be distinguished broadly into two categories according to ownership structure:
Commercial banks
Cooperative banks
Some experts see a trend toward homogenisation of financial institutions, meaning a tendency to invest in similar areas and have similar business strategies. A consequence of this might be fewer banks serving specific target groups, and small-scale producers may be under-served. This is why a target of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 is to improve the regulation and monitoring of global financial institutions and strengthen such regulations.
Standard settlement instructions
Standard Settlement Instructions (SSIs) are the agreements between two financial institutions which fix the receiving agents of each counterparty in ordinary trades of some type. These agreements allow the related counterparties to make faster operations since the time used to settle the receiving agents is conserved. Limiting each subject to an SSI also lowers the likelihood of a fraud. SSIs are used by financial institutions to facilitate fast and accurate cross-border payments.
Regulation
Financial institutions in most countries operate in a heavily regulated environment because they are critical parts of countries' economies, due to economies' dependence on them to grow the money supply via fractional-reserve banking. Regulatory structures differ in each country, but typically involve prudential regulation as well as consumer protection and market stability. Some countries have one consolidated agency that regulates all financial institutions while others have separate agencies for different types of institutions such as banks, insurance companies and brokers.
Countries that have separate agencies include the United States, where the key governing bodies are the Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council (FFIEC), Office of the Comptroller of the Currency - National Banks, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) State "non-member" banks, National Credit Union Administration (NCUA) - Credit Unions, Federal Reserve (Fed) - "member" Banks, Office of Thrift Supervision - National Savings & Loan Association, State governments each often regulate and charter financial institutions.
Countries that have one consolidated financial regulator include: Norway with the Financial Supervisory Authority of Norway, Germany with Federal Financial Supervisory Authority and Russia with Central Bank of Russia.
Merits
Merits of raising funds through financial institutions are as follows:
Financial institutions provide long term finance, which are not provided by commercial banks;
The funds are made available even during periods of depression, when other sources of finance are not available;
Obtaining loan from financial institutions increases the goodwill of the borrowing in the capital market . Consequently, such a company can raise funds easily from other sources as well;
Besides providing funds, many of these institutions provide financial, managerial and technical advice and consultancy to business firms;
As repayment of loan can be made in easy installments, it does not prove to be much of burden on the business.
See also
Bank
Consumer Credit Act 1974 (UK law)
Credit union
Capital market
Ethical banking
Financial economics
Fractional-reserve banking
International financial institutions
List of financial regulatory authorities by country
Non-bank financial institution
Savings and loan association
Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication
Cooperative banking
References
Financial institution
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bouzouki
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Bouzouki
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The bouzouki (, also ; ; alt. pl. bouzoukia, from Greek ), also spelled buzuki or buzuci, is a musical instrument popular in Greece. It is a member of the long-necked lute family, with a round body with a flat top and a long neck with a fretted fingerboard. It has steel strings and is played with a plectrum producing a sharp metallic sound, reminiscent of a mandolin but pitched lower. There are two main types of bouzouki: the trichordo (three-course) has three pairs of strings (known as courses) and the tetrachordo (four-course) has four pairs of strings. The instrument was brought to Greece in the early 1900s by Greek refugees from Anatolia, and quickly became the central instrument to the rebetiko genre and its music branches. It is now an important element of modern Laïko pop Greek music.
Etymology
The name bouzouki comes from the Turkish word , meaning "broken" or "modified", and comes from a particular re-entrant tuning called , which was commonly used on its Turkish counterpart, the . It is in the same instrumental family as the mandolin and the lute. Originally the body was carved from a solid block of wood, similar to the saz, but upon its arrival in Greece in the early 1910s it was modified by the addition of a staved back borrowed from the Neapolitan mandola, and the top angled in the manner of a Neapolitan mandolins so as to increase the strength of the body to withstand thicker steel strings. The type of the instrument used in rebetiko music was a three-course instrument with three pairs of strings, but in the 1950s a four-course variety was developed and was made popular by Manolis Chiotis.
Construction
From a construction point of view, the bouzouki can have differences not only in the number of strings but also in other features, e.g. neck length, width, height, depth of the bowl or main body, the width of the staves (the wooden gores or slices of the bowl) etc. These differences are determined by the manufacturer, who in his experience and according to the sound that the instrument should make, modifies his functional elements to achieve a more piercing, deeper or heavier sound.
The size and type of the resonating body largely determine the instrument's timbre, while the length of the neck, and by extension the strings, determines the instrument's pitch range, as well as influencing the timbre. While neck length can vary from instrument to instrument, most bouzoukis have the same number of frets (27), spaced such as to provide a chromatic scale in 12-tone equal temperament. On modern instruments the frets are metal, and set into a fixed position in the fingerboard (in contrast to early instruments and the related baglama, in which frets were of gut or cord tied onto the neck, and moveable.) The quality of the wood from which the instrument is made is of great importance to the sound. For the construction of the bowl, mulberry, apricot, cherry, acacia, and elm are considered to be the best woods, with walnut, plane, and chestnut being slightly inferior. The wood must be solid and sourced from slow-growth trees. The top or soundboard should be cedar or spruce (preferably spruce) if possible, cut in one piece. The top plays a major role in the sound because it resonates and strengthens and prolongs the vibration of the strings. Another factor that affects the quality of the sound is the varnish and the method of its application. The best varnish is a natural one made of shellac, which is applied by hand in many layers in the traditional way, for both acoustic and visual effects. The neck must be of very dry hardwood in order not to warp and increase the distance of the strings from the fret board (the action height) which makes playing the instrument more laborious. Manufacturers use different techniques to achieve this, each one having its own secrets. Many modern instruments have a metal rod or bar (truss-rod) set into a channel in the neck, under the fingerboard, which adds some weight but increases rigidity, and allows adjustment of the neck should it begin to warp.
History
The Greek bouzouki is a plucked musical instrument of the lute family, called the thabouras or tambouras family. The tambouras existed in ancient Greece as the pandura, and can be found in various sizes, shapes, depths of body, lengths of neck and number of strings. The bouzouki and the baglamas are the direct descendants. The Greek marble relief, known as the Mantineia Base (now exhibited at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens), dating from 330–320 BC, shows a muse playing a variant of the pandoura.
From Byzantine times it was called first pandoura and then tambouras. On display in the National Historical Museum of Greece is the tambouras of a hero of the Greek revolution of 1821, General Makriyiannis.
Other sizes have appeared and include the Greek instrument tzouras, an instrument smaller in size than standard bouzoukia.
The bouzouki arrived in Greece following the 1919–1922 war in Asia Minor and the subsequent exchange of Orthodox and Muslim populations between Greece and Turkey when the Orthodox Ottoman citizens (both Greek- and non-Greek-speaking) fled to Greece. The early bouzoukia mostly had three courses (six strings in three pairs, known as trichordo) and were tuned in different ways, according to the scale one wanted to play. At the end of the 1950s, four-course (tetrachordo) bouzoukia started to gain popularity. The four-course bouzouki was made popular by Manolis Chiotis, who also used a tuning akin to standard guitar tuning, which made it easier for guitarists to play bouzouki; this angered purists, but allowed for greater virtuosity and helped elevate the bouzouki into a truly popular instrument capable of a wide range of musical expression. Recently the three-course bouzouki has gained in popularity. The first recording with the four-course instrument was made in 1956.
The Irish bouzouki, with four courses, a flatter back, and differently tuned from the Greek bouzouki, is a more recent development, stemming from the introduction of the Greek instrument into Irish music by Johnny Moynihan around 1965. It was subsequently adopted by Andy Irvine, Dónal Lunny, and many others, although some Irish musicians, such as the late Alec Finn, continued to use the Greek-style instruments.
Three-course bouzouki (trichordo)
This is the classic style of bouzouki, introduced around 1900, that was the mainstay of most rebetiko music. It has fixed frets and 6 strings in three pairs. In the lower-pitched (bass) course, the pair consists of a thick wound string and a thin string, tuned an octave apart. The conventional modern tuning of the trichordo bouzouki is D3D4–A3A3–D4D4. This tuning was called the "European tuning" by Markos Vamvakaris, who mentioned (but failed to describe) several other tunings, or douzenia, in his autobiography. The illustrated bouzouki was made by Karolos Tsakirian of Athens, and is a replica of a trichordo bouzouki made by his grandfather for Markos Vamvakaris. The absence of the heavy mother-of-pearl ornamentation often seen on modern bouzoukia is typical of bouzoukia of the period. It has tuners for eight strings, but has only six strings, the neck being too narrow for eight. The luthiers of the time often used sets of four tuners on trichordo instruments, as these were more easily available, being also used on mandolins.
Four-course bouzouki (tetrachordo)
This type of bouzouki has 8 metal strings, which are arranged in 4 pairs, known as courses, typically tuned C3C4–F3F4–A3A3–D4D4 (i.e., one whole step below the four high strings of a guitar). In the two higher-pitched (treble) courses, the two strings of the pair are tuned to the same note. In the two lower-pitched (bass) courses, the pair consists of a thick wound string and a thin string tuned an octave apart. On the bouzouki the lower-pitched string comes first in these courses, the reverse of most other instruments with octave-paired courses (such as the 12-string guitar, charango or bajo sexto). These 'octave strings' add to the fullness of the sound and are used in chords and bass drones (continuous low notes that are played throughout the music). The guitar-like tuning was introduced by composer and soloist Manolis Hiotis, who found it better suited to the kind of virtuoso playing he was famous for. Today, the tetrachordo is the most common bouzouki used in Greek music, though a few traditionalists still prefer the trichordo, particularly for the older rebetiko style of playing.
Amplification
In addition to developing the modern tetrachordo bouzouki, Manolis Hiotis was a pioneer of the use of amplification for the instrument, which he may have been using as early as 1945. However, the earliest documented use of amplification for the bouzouki comes from a 1952 photograph, showing Vasilis Tsitsanis and Yiannis Papaioannou playing bouzoukis, each with an electric guitar-style pick-up attached in the soundhole. There are also numerous photographs between 1953 and 1959 showing bands in which both vocalists and bouzouki players are using microphones for amplification. By 1960 special bouzouki pickups (such as the German "Ideal") were being produced and permanently mounted in the instruments. Similar pickups are widely used by several Greek artists today and come in active and passive versions.
Related instruments
The Greek baglamas () or baglamadaki () is very different from the Turkish bağlama. It is tuned the same as the trichordo bouzouki but pitched an octave higher (nominally D–A–D), with unison pairs on the four highest strings and an octave pair on the lower D. Musically, the baglamas is most often found supporting the bouzouki in the Piraeus style of rebetiko.
Tzouras
Irish bouzouki
Balkan tambura
Lute
Mandolin
Pandura
Bağlama
Šargija
Notable players
Angelo Avramakis
Manolis Chiotis
Anestis Delias
Alec Finn
Dimitris Gogos
Apostolos Kaldaras
Charis Lemonopoulos
Colin Meloy
Giannis Papaioannou
Spyros Peristeris
Giannis Tatasopoulos
Vangelis Trigas
Babis Tsertos
Vassilis Tsitsanis
Markos Vamvakaris
Nikos Vrachnas
Giorgos Zambetas
Phil X
Frank Zappa
See also
Celtic music
Cittern
Greek folk music
Greek music
Irish folk music
Laiko
Laouto, another Greek lute
Lute
Mandola
Mandolin
Octave mandolin
Rebetiko
Stringed instrument tunings
Tzouras
References
Further reading
External links
Greek Bouzouki musical instrument at britannica.com
Greek musical instruments
Cypriot musical instruments
String instruments
Necked bowl lutes
Turkish words and phrases
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial%20regulation
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Financial regulation
|
Financial regulation is a form of regulation or supervision, which subjects financial institutions to certain requirements, restrictions and guidelines, aiming to maintain the stability and integrity of the financial system. This may be handled by either a government or non-government organization. Financial regulation has also influenced the structure of banking sectors by increasing the variety of financial products available. Financial regulation forms one of three legal categories which constitutes the content of financial law, the other two being market practices and case law.
History
In the early modern period, the Dutch were the pioneers in financial regulation. The first recorded ban (regulation) on short selling was enacted by the Dutch authorities as early as 1610.
Aims of regulation
The objectives of financial regulators are usually:
market confidence – to maintain confidence in the financial system
financial stability – contributing to the protection and enhancement of stability of the financial system
consumer protection – securing the appropriate degree of protection for consumers.
Structure of supervision
Acts empower organizations, government or non-government, to monitor activities and enforce actions. There are various setups and combinations in place for the financial regulatory structure around the globe.
Supervision of stock exchanges
Exchange acts ensure that trading on the exchanges is conducted in a proper manner. Most prominent the pricing process, execution and settlement of trades, direct and efficient trade monitoring.
Supervision of listed companies
Financial regulators ensure that listed companies and market participants comply with various regulations under the trading acts. The trading acts demands that listed companies publish regular financial reports, ad hoc notifications or directors' dealings. Whereas market participants are required to publish major shareholder notifications. The objective of monitoring compliance by listed companies with their disclosure requirements is to ensure that investors have access to essential and adequate information for making an informed assessment of listed companies and their securities.
Supervision of investment management
Asset management supervision or investment acts ensures the frictionless operation of those vehicles.
Supervision of banks and financial services providers
Banking acts lay down rules for banks which they have to observe when they are being established and when they are carrying on their business. These rules are designed to prevent unwelcome developments that might disrupt the smooth functioning of the banking system. Thus ensuring a strong and efficient banking system.
Authority by country
The following is a short listing of regulatory authorities in various jurisdictions, for a more complete listing, please see list of financial regulatory authorities by country.
United States and its territories
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA)
Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC)
Federal Reserve System ("Fed")
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC)
National Credit Union Administration (NCUA)
Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB)
United Kingdom
Bank of England (BoE)
Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA)
Financial Conduct Authority (FCA)
Financial Services Agency (FSA), Japan
Federal Financial Supervisory Authority (BaFin), Germany
Autorité des marchés financiers (France) (AMF), France
Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS), Singapore
Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority (FINMA), Switzerland
People's Republic of China
China Banking Regulatory Commission (CBRC)
China Insurance Regulatory Commission (CIRC)
China Securities Regulatory Commission (CSRC)
India:
Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)
Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI)
Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI)
Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA)
Unique jurisdictions
In most cases, financial regulatory authorities regulate all financial activities. But in some cases, there are specific authorities to regulate each sector of the finance industry, mainly banking, securities, insurance and pensions markets, but in some cases also commodities, futures, forwards, etc. For example, in Australia, the Australian Prudential Regulation Authority (APRA) supervises banks and insurers, while the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) is responsible for enforcing financial services and corporations laws.
Sometimes more than one institution regulates and supervises the banking market, normally because, apart from regulatory authorities, central banks also regulate the banking industry. For example, in the USA banking is regulated by a lot of regulators, such as the Federal Reserve System, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, the National Credit Union Administration, as well as regulators at the state level.
In the European Union, the European System of Financial Supervision consists of the European Banking Authority (EBA), the European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA) and the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority (EIOPA) as well as the European Systemic Risk Board. The Eurozone countries are forming a Single Supervisory Mechanism under the European Central Bank as a prelude to Banking union.
There are also associations of financial regulatory authorities. At the international level, there is the International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), the International Association of Insurance Supervisors, the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, the Joint Forum, and the Financial Stability Board, where national authorities set standards through consensus-based decision-making processes.
The structure of financial regulation has changed significantly in the past two decades, as the legal and geographic boundaries between markets in banking, securities, and insurance have become increasingly "blurred" and globalized.
Regulatory reliance on credit rating agencies
Think-tanks such as the World Pensions Council (WPC) have argued that most European governments pushed dogmatically for the adoption of the Basel II recommendations, adopted in 2005, transposed in European Union law through the Capital Requirements Directive (CRD), effective since 2008. In essence, they forced European banks, and, more importantly, the European Central Bank itself e.g. when gauging the solvency of EU-based financial institutions, to rely more than ever on the standardized assessments of credit risk marketed by two private US agencies- Moody's and S&P, thus using public policy and ultimately taxpayers’ money to strengthen an anti-competitive duopolistic industry.
See also
Bank regulation
Finance
Financial ethics
Financial repression
Global financial system
Group of Thirty
Insurance law
International Organization of Securities Commissions
International Centre for Financial Regulation
LabEx ReFi - European Laboratory on Financial Regulation
Macroprudential regulation
Microprudential regulation
Regulatory capture
Regulatory economics
Securities commission
Virtual currency law in the United States
References
Further reading
Labonte, Marc. (2017). Who Regulates Whom? An Overview of the U.S. Financial Regulatory Framework. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service.
Simpson, D., Meeks, G., Klumpes, P., & Andrews, P. (2000). Some cost-benefit issues in financial regulation. London: Financial Services Authority.
External links
Securities Lawyer's Deskbook from the University of Cincinnati College of Law
Ana Carvajal, Jennifer Elliott: IMF Study Points to Gaps in Securities Market Regulation
IOSCO: Objectives and Principles of Securities Regulation (PDF-Datei 67 Seiten)
Financial law
|
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] |
208841
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu%20Hamza
|
Abu Hamza
|
Abu Hamza () meaning father of Hamza, is a given name and a common alias used by several people, it may refer to:
Given name
Abu Hamza Rabia (died 2005), al-Qaeda leader
Abu Hamza al-Thumali (died 772), disciple of Ali al-Rida
Surname
Mona Abou Hamze (née Abu Alwan; born 1968), Lebanese TV personality and presenter
Alias
Zabiuddin Ansari, Lashkar-e-Taiba militant involved in 2008 Mumbai attacks, known as Abu Hamza
Mahmoud al-Majzoub (1965–2006), leader of the Palestinian Islamic Jihad
Abu Hamza al-Masri (born Mustafa Kamel Mustafa in 1958), Egyptian Muslim cleric, former imam of Finsbury Park mosque in London, imprisoned in the US
Faheem Khalid Lodhi (born 1969), Australian convicted of militancy, known as Abu Hamza
Samir Mohtadi, Australian Muslim cleric known as Abu Hamza
Abu Hamza al-Muhajir (1968–2011), leader of Al-Qaeda in Iraq
Arabic masculine given names
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banking%20license
|
Banking license
|
A banking licence is a legal prerequisite for a financial institution that wants to carry on a banking business. Under the laws of most jurisdictions, a business is not permitted to carry words like a bank, insurance, national in their name, unless it holds a corresponding licence. Depending to their banking regulations, jurisdictions may offer different types of banking licences, such as
full banking licenses for general banking activities, such as taking deposits from the general public
international banking licences (offshore banking licences), which prohibits any local business activities
non-banking financial institution (NBFI) is an institution that provides financial services but has to comply with fewer regulations than one with a full banking licence.
License issuance
Licenses are typically issued by a national banking regulator to applicant corporations that meet its banking requirements. The requirements may include minimum capital requirements, minimum number of directors, residence of shareholders, spread of shareholdings, disclosure of beneficial shareholders, besides other matters. These requirements may differ between jurisdictions, and may differ depending on the type of license being sought. Some jurisdictions, sometimes called tax havens, have a reputation for lax or corrupt standards in bank licensing, granting a license, for example, to shell companies, or to companies with nominee directors, or with dummy shareholders, etc.
The granting of the license may involve a long, complex and expensive procedure, which may depend on the type of bank license being sought. There are a number of sectors in which banks may be involved. The general bank license allows a bank to engage in all banking activities, such as retail banking, merchant acquiring, cash management, asset management and trading. An applicant can apply for a limited banking license, such as an offshore banking license.
Banking licenses in the United States
Most state legislatures in the United States ban general corporations from accepting banker's deposits, which covers any service where a general corporation acts as a funds drawee that transfers current funds (i.e., credit payable upon demand) to make payments as a substitute for coins on behalf of an account holder. Historically, in some states, this ban did not extend to a sole proprietor acting as a banker.
One argument for justifying the policy of requiring banking licenses under the U.S. Constitution is that bankers credit sometimes interferes with the regulation of the value of coins, and therefore it is necessary and proper to make laws which regulate banking.
U.S. states tend to include a license to conduct the banking business as part of the standard terms of the corporate franchise in the state bank charters of incorporation. The license may be implied by a reference in the charter application to the bank being created "under" the state banking law. Federal depository institutions such as National Banks, or federally chartered credit unions derive their authority from federal statutory charter law. Opening or operating a bank also requires regulatory compliance, which may include Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) approval for coverage and opening an account at a Federal Reserve Bank (or otherwise establishing a facility to settle checks via settlement with Federal Reserve Bank issued credit).
If a bank wishes to perform any substantial fiduciary services, such as trust department services, or acting as a securities holding intermediary, then the bank must apply for an additional special license for trust powers. Depending on the specifics of the bank charter, these licenses are available variously from FDIC, Federal Reserve Board of Governors, or state regulators. Another option for such a bank is to create a State-chartered Trust Company and hold it as a subsidiary corporation.
See also
Finance
References
Bank regulation
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] |
208846
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shearwater
|
Shearwater
|
Shearwaters are medium-sized long-winged seabirds in the petrel family Procellariidae. They have a global marine distribution, but are most common in temperate and cold waters, and are pelagic outside the breeding season.
Description
These tubenose birds fly with stiff wings and use a "shearing" flight technique (flying very close to the water and seemingly cutting or "shearing" the tips of waves) to move across wave fronts with the minimum of active flight. This technique gives the group its English name. Some small species, like the Manx shearwater are cruciform in flight, with their long wings held directly out from their bodies.
Behaviour
Movements
Many shearwaters are long-distance migrants, perhaps most spectacularly sooty shearwaters, which cover distances in excess of from their breeding colony on the Falkland Islands (52°S 60°W) to as far as 70° north latitude in the North Atlantic Ocean off northern Norway. One study found Sooty shearwaters migrating nearly a year, which would give them the longest animal migration ever recorded electronically. Short-tailed shearwaters perform an even longer "figure of eight" loop migration in the Pacific Ocean from Tasmania to as far north as the Arctic Ocean off northwest Alaska. They are long-lived. A Manx shearwater breeding on Copeland Island, Northern Ireland, was (as of 2003/2004) the oldest known wild bird in the world: ringed as an adult (when at least 5 years old) in July 1953, it was retrapped in July 2003, at least 55 years old. Manx shearwaters migrate over to South America in winter, using waters off southern Brazil and Argentina, so this bird had covered a minimum of on migration alone.
Breeding
Shearwaters come to islands and coastal cliffs only to breed. They are nocturnal at the colonial breeding sites, preferring moonless nights to minimize predation. They nest in burrows and often give eerie contact calls on their night-time visits. They lay a single white egg. The chicks of some species, notably short-tailed and sooty shearwaters, are subject to harvesting from their nest burrows for food, a practice known as muttonbirding, in Australia and New Zealand.
Feeding
They feed on fish, squid, and similar oceanic food. Some will follow fishing boats to take scraps, commonly the sooty shearwater; these species also commonly follow whales to feed on fish disturbed by them. Their primary feeding technique is diving, with some species diving to depths of .
Taxonomy
There are about 30 species: a few larger ones in the genera Calonectris and Ardenna and many smaller ones in Puffinus. The Procellaria and Bulweria petrels were believed to belong to this group, but are only distantly related based on more recent studies, while the Pseudobulweria and Lugensa "petrels" are more closely related. The genus Puffinus can be divided into a group of small species close to Calonectris and a few larger ones more distantly related to both.
List of species
The group contains 3 genera with 32 species.
Puffinus
Christmas shearwater, Puffinus nativatis
Manx shearwater, Puffinus puffinus
Yelkouan shearwater, Puffinus yelkouan
Balearic shearwater, Puffinus mauretanicus
Bryan's shearwater, Puffinus bryani – first described in 2011
Black-vented shearwater, Puffinus opisthomelas
Townsend's shearwater, Puffinus auriculatus
Newell's shearwater, Puffinus newelli (split from Townsend's shearwater)
Rapa shearwater, Puffinus myrtae (split from Newell's shearwater)
Fluttering shearwater, Puffinus gavia
Hutton's shearwater, Puffinus huttoni
Audubon's shearwater, Puffinus lherminieri
Persian shearwater, Puffinus persicus (split from Audubon's shearwater)
Tropical shearwater, Puffinus bailloni (split from Audubon's shearwater)
Galápagos shearwater, Puffinus subalaris (split from Audubon's shearwater)
Bannerman's shearwater, Puffinus bannermani
Heinroth's shearwater, Puffinus heinrothi
Little shearwater, Puffinus assimilis
Subantarctic shearwater, Puffinus elegans (split from little shearwater)
Barolo shearwater or Macronesian shearwater, Puffinus baroli
Boyd's shearwater, Puffinus boydi (split from Barolo shearwater)
Calonectris
Streaked shearwater, Calonectris leucomelas
Scopoli's shearwater, Calonectris diomedea (split from Cory's shearwater)
Cory's shearwater, Calonectris diomedea
Cape Verde shearwater, Calonectris edwardsii
Ardenna
Wedge-tailed shearwater, Ardenna pacifica
Buller's shearwater, Ardenna bulleri
Sooty shearwater, Ardenna grisea
Short-tailed shearwater or mutton bird, Ardenna tenuirostris
Pink-footed shearwater, Ardenna creatopus
Flesh-footed shearwater, Ardenna carneipes
Great shearwater, Ardenna gravis
There are two extinct species that have been described from fossils.
† Lava shearwater or Olson's shearwater, Puffinus olsoni
† Dune shearwater or Hole's shearwater, Puffinus holeae
Phylogeny
Phylogeny of the shearwaters based on a study by Joan Ferrer Obiol and collaborators published in 2022. Only 14 of the 21 recognised species in the genus Puffinus were included.
References
External links
Shearwater videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Seabirds
Bird common names
|
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] |
208847
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedaromys
|
Cedaromys
|
Cedaromys ("Cedar mouse") is an extinct mammal which lived during the Upper Cretaceous, at the same time as many dinosaurs. It was a member of the also extinct order of Multituberculata. It's within the suborder of Cimolodonta, and a possible member of the Paracimexomys group.
Species
The species Cedaromys bestia was originally named Paracimexomys bestia in 1991, but later reassigned to Cedaromys by Eaton and Cifelli in 2001. Fossils have been found in Albian (late) - Cenomanian (early), (both Upper Cretaceous)-aged strata of the Cedar Mountain Formation in Utah (United States).
Fossils of the species Cedaromys parvus (Eaton & Cifelli, 2001) have been found in strata of the same age in the Cedar Mountain Formation. This species is also in the Oklahoma collection. Suggested bodyweight is around 90 g.
References
Eaton & Cifelli (2001), "Multituberculate mammals from near the Early-Late Cretaceous boundary, Cedar Mountain Formation, Utah". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 46(4), p. 453-518.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Eaton, J.G. (2009). Cenomanian (Late Cretaceous) mammals from Cedar Canyon, southwestern Utah, and a revision of Cenomanian Alphadon-like marsupials; pp. 97–110 in Albright, L.B.I. (ed.), Papers on Geology, Vertebrate Paleontology, and Biostratigraphy in Honor of Michael O. Woodburne. Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin 65.
Late Cretaceous mammals of North America
Cimolodonts
Extinct mammals of North America
Prehistoric mammal genera
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208849
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposit
|
Deposit
|
Deposit may refer to:
Deposit (finance) (also security deposit)
Deposit (town), New York
Deposit (village), New York
Deposit account, a bank account that allows money to be deposited and withdrawn by the account holder
Demand deposit, the funds held in demand deposit accounts in commercial banks
Damage deposit, a sum of money paid in relation to a rented item or property to ensure it is returned in good condition
Container deposit, a deposit on a beverage container paid when purchased and refunded when returned
Deposition (geology), material added to a landform
Election deposit, a sum that a candidate must pay in return for the right to stand in an election
Precipitation (chemistry)
For ore deposits, see the "ore deposits" section on Ore.
See also
Deposit formation or fouling, the accumulation of unwanted material on solid surfaces
Deposit model, a method of identifying the character and degree of survival of buried archaeological remains
Deposit of faith or Fidei depositum, the Apostolic constitution by which Pope John Paul II ordered the publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church
Deposition (disambiguation)
|
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208850
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient%20of%20a%20formal%20language
|
Quotient of a formal language
|
In mathematics and computer science, the right quotient (or simply quotient) of a language with respect to language is the language consisting of strings w such that wx is in for some string x in Formally:
In other words, we take all the strings in which have a suffix in , and remove this suffix.
Similarly, the left quotient of with respect to is the language consisting of strings w such that xw is in for some string x in . Formally:
In other words, we take all the strings in which have a prefix in , and remove this prefix.
Note that the operands of are in reverse order: the first operand is and is second.
Example
Consider
and
Now, if we insert a divider into an element of , the part on the right is in only if the divider is placed adjacent to a b (in which case i ≤ n and j = n) or adjacent to a c (in which case i = 0 and j ≤ n). The part on the left, therefore, will be either or ; and can be written as
Properties
Some common closure properties of the quotient operation include:
The quotient of a regular language with any other language is regular.
The quotient of a context free language with a regular language is context free.
The quotient of two context free languages can be any recursively enumerable language.
The quotient of two recursively enumerable languages is recursively enumerable.
These closure properties hold for both left and right quotients.
See also
Brzozowski derivative
References
Formal languages
|
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208852
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loan
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Loan
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In finance, a loan is the lending of money by one or more individuals, organizations, or other entities to other individuals, organizations etc. The recipient (i.e., the borrower) incurs a debt and is usually liable to pay interest on that debt until it is repaid as well as to repay the principal amount borrowed.
The document evidencing the debt (e.g., a promissory note) will normally specify, among other things, the principal amount of money borrowed, the interest rate the lender is charging, and the date of repayment. A loan entails the reallocation of the subject asset(s) for a period of time, between the lender and the borrower.
The interest provides an incentive for the lender to engage in the loan. In a legal loan, each of these obligations and restrictions is enforced by contract, which can also place the borrower under additional restrictions known as loan covenants. Although this article focuses on monetary loans, in practice, any material object might be lent.
Acting as a provider of loans is one of the main activities of financial institutions such as banks and credit card companies. For other institutions, issuing of debt contracts such as bonds is a typical source of funding.
Personal loan
Secured
A secured loan is a form of debt in which the borrower pledges some asset (i.e., a car, a house) as collateral.
A mortgage loan is a very common type of loan, used by many individuals to purchase residential or commercial property. The lender, usually a financial institution, is given security a lien on the title to the property until the mortgage is paid off in full. In the case of home loans, if the borrower defaults on the loan, the bank would have the legal right to repossess the house and sell it, to recover sums owing to it.
Similarly, a loan taken out to buy a car may be secured by the car. The duration of the loan is much shorter often corresponding to the useful life of the car. There are two types of auto loans, direct and indirect. In a direct auto loan, a bank lends the money directly to a consumer. In an indirect auto loan, a car dealership (or a connected company) acts as an intermediary between the bank or financial institution and the consumer.
Other forms of secured loans include loans against securities – such as shares, mutual funds, bonds, etc. This particular instrument issues customers a line of credit based on the quality of the securities pledged. Gold loans are issued to customers after evaluating the quantity and quality of gold in the items pledged. Corporate entities can also take out secured lending by pledging the company's assets, including the company itself. The interest rates for secured loans are usually lower than those of unsecured loans. Usually, the lending institution employs people (on a roll or on a contract basis) to evaluate the quality of pledged collateral before sanctioning the loan.
Unsecured
Unsecured loans are monetary loans that are not secured against the borrower's assets. These may be available from financial institutions under many different guises or marketing packages:
Credit cards
Personal loans
Bank overdrafts
Credit facilities or lines of credit
Corporate bonds (may be secured or unsecured)
Peer-to-peer lending
The interest rates applicable to these different forms may vary depending on the lender and the borrower. These may or may not be regulated by law. In the United Kingdom, when applied to individuals, these may come under the Consumer Credit Act 1974.
Interest rates on unsecured loans are nearly always higher than for secured loans because an unsecured lender's options for recourse against the borrower in the event of default are severely limited, subjecting the lender to higher risk compared to that encountered for a secured loan. An unsecured lender must sue the borrower, obtain a money judgment for breach of contract, and then pursue execution of the judgment against the borrower's unencumbered assets (that is, the ones not already pledged to secured lenders). In insolvency proceedings, secured lenders traditionally have priority over unsecured lenders when a court divides up the borrower's assets. Thus, a higher interest rate reflects the additional risk that in the event of insolvency, the debt may be uncollectible.
Demand
Demand loans are short-term loans that typically do not have fixed dates for repayment. Instead, demand loans carry a floating interest rate, which varies according to the prime lending rate or other defined contract terms. Demand loans can be "called" for repayment by the lending institution at any time. Demand loans may be unsecured or secured.
Subsidized
A subsidized loan is a loan on which the interest is reduced by an explicit or hidden subsidy. In the context of college loans in the United States, it refers to a loan on which no interest is accrued while a student remains enrolled in education.
Concessional
A concessional loan, sometimes called a "soft loan", is granted on terms substantially more generous than market loans either through below-market interest rates, by grace periods, or a combination of both. Such loans may be made by foreign governments to developing countries or may be offered to employees of lending institutions as an employee benefit (sometimes called a perk).
Target markets
Loans can also be categorized according to whether the debtor is an individual person (consumer) or a business.
Personal
Common personal loans include mortgage loans, car loans, home equity lines of credit, credit cards, installment loans, and payday loans. The credit score of the borrower is a major component in and underwriting and interest rates (APR) of these loans. The monthly payments of personal loans can be decreased by selecting longer payment terms, but overall interest paid increases as well. A personal loan can be obtained from banks, alternative (non-bank) lenders, online loan providers and private lenders.
Commercial
Loans to businesses are similar to the above but also include commercial mortgages and corporate bonds and government guaranteed loans. Underwriting is not based upon credit score but rather credit rating.
Loan payment
The most typical loan payment type is the fully amortizing payment in which each monthly rate has the same value over time.
The fixed monthly payment P for a loan of L for n months and a monthly interest rate c is:
For more information, see monthly amortized loan or mortgage payments.
Abuses in lending
Predatory lending is one form of abuse in the granting of loans. It usually involves granting a loan in order to put the borrower in a position that one can gain advantage over them; subprime mortgage-lending and payday-lending are two examples, where the moneylender is not authorized or regulated, the lender could be considered a loan shark.
Usury is a different form of abuse, where the lender charges excessive interest. In different time periods and cultures, the acceptable interest rate has varied, from no interest at all to unlimited interest rates. Credit card companies in some countries have been accused by consumer organizations of lending at usurious interest rates and making money out of frivolous "extra charges".
Abuses can also take place in the form of the customer defrauding the lender by borrowing without intending to repay the loan.
United States taxes
Most of the basic rules governing how loans are handled for tax purposes in the United States are codified by both Congress (the Internal Revenue Code) and the Treasury Department (Treasury Regulations another set of rules that interpret the Internal Revenue Code).
1. A loan is not gross income to the borrower. Since the borrower has the obligation to repay the loan, the borrower has no accession to wealth.
2. The lender may not deduct (from own gross income) the amount of the loan. The rationale here is that one asset (the cash) has been converted into a different asset (a promise of repayment). Deductions are not typically available when an outlay serves to create a new or different asset.
3. The amount paid to satisfy the loan obligation is not deductible (from own gross income) by the borrower.
4. Repayment of the loan is not gross income to the lender. In effect, the promise of repayment is converted back to cash, with no accession to wealth by the lender.
5. Interest paid to the lender is included in the lender's gross income. Interest paid represents compensation for the use of the lender's money or property and thus represents profit or an accession to wealth to the lender. Interest income can be attributed to lenders even if the lender doesn't charge a minimum amount of interest.
6. Interest paid to the lender may be deductible by the borrower. In general, interest paid in connection with the borrower's business activity is deductible, while interest paid on personal loans are not deductible. The major exception here is interest paid on a home mortgage.
Income from discharge of indebtedness
Although a loan does not start out as income to the borrower, it becomes income to the borrower if the borrower is discharged of indebtedness. Thus, if a debt is discharged, then the borrower essentially has received income equal to the amount of the indebtedness. The Internal Revenue Code lists "Income from Discharge of Indebtedness" in Section 61(a)(12) as a source of gross income.
Example: X owes Y $50,000. If Y discharges the indebtedness, then X no longer owes Y $50,000. For purposes of calculating income, this is treated the same way as if Y gave X $50,000.
For a more detailed description of the "discharge of indebtedness", look at Section 108 (Cancellation of Debt (COD) Income) of the Internal Revenue Code.EUGENE A. LUDWIG AND PAUL A. VOLCKER, 16 November 2012 Banks Need Long-Term Rainy Day Funds
See alsoUS specific:'''
References
Loans
Banking terms
Notary
|
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] |
208855
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RKP
|
RKP
|
RKP can stand for:
Swedish People's Party (Finland)
Swedish National Bureau of Investigation, , abbreviated RKP
RKP (b), Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks). In Russian, Российская Коммунистическая Партия (большевиков), РКП(б))
Native Polish Church - Polish acronym for the Slavic pagan religious association
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spina%20bifida
|
Spina bifida
|
Spina bifida (Latin for "split spine"; SB) is a birth defect in which there is incomplete closing of the spine and the membranes around the spinal cord during early development in pregnancy. There are three main types: spina bifida occulta, meningocele and myelomeningocele. Meningocele and myelomeningocele may be grouped as spina bifida cystica. The most common location is the lower back, but in rare cases it may be in the middle back or neck. Occulta has no or only mild signs, which may include a hairy patch, dimple, dark spot or swelling on the back at the site of the gap in the spine. Meningocele typically causes mild problems, with a sac of fluid present at the gap in the spine. Myelomeningocele, also known as open spina bifida, is the most severe form. Problems associated with this form include poor ability to walk, impaired bladder or bowel control, accumulation of fluid in the brain (hydrocephalus), a tethered spinal cord and latex allergy. Learning problems are relatively uncommon.
Spina bifida is believed to be due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. After having one child with the condition, or if one of the parents has the condition, there is a 4% chance that the next child will also be affected. Not having enough folate (vitamin B9) in the diet before and during pregnancy also plays a significant role. Other risk factors include certain antiseizure medications, obesity and poorly controlled diabetes. Diagnosis may occur either before or after a child is born. Before birth, if a blood test or amniocentesis finds a high level of alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), there is a higher risk of spina bifida. Ultrasound examination may also detect the problem. Medical imaging can confirm the diagnosis after birth. Spina bifida is a type of neural tube defect related to but distinct from other types such as anencephaly and encephalocele.
Most cases of spina bifida can be prevented if the mother gets enough folate before and during pregnancy. Adding folic acid to flour has been found to be effective for most women. Open spina bifida can be surgically closed before or after birth. A shunt may be needed in those with hydrocephalus, and a tethered spinal cord may be surgically repaired. Devices to help with movement such as crutches or wheelchairs may be useful. Urinary catheterization may also be needed.
Rates of other types of spina bifida vary significantly by country, from 0.1 to 5 per 1,000 births. On average, in developed countries, including the United States, it occurs in about 0.4 per 1,000 births. In India, it affects about 1.9 per 1,000 births. Europeans are at higher risk compared to Africans.
Types
Spina bifida occulta
is Latin for "hidden". This is the mildest form of spina bifida.
In occulta, the outer part of some of the vertebrae is not completely closed. The splits in the vertebrae are so small that the spinal cord does not protrude. The skin at the site of the lesion may be normal, or it may have some hair growing from it; there may be a dimple in the skin, or a birthmark. Unlike most other types of neural tube defects, spina bifida occulta is not associated with increased AFP, a common screening tool used to detect neural tube defects in utero. This is because, unlike in most of the other neural tube defects, the dural lining is maintained.
Many people with this type of spina bifida do not even know they have it, as the condition is asymptomatic in most cases.
A systematic review of radiographic research studies found no relationship between spina bifida occulta and back pain. More recent studies not included in the review support the negative findings.
However other studies suggest spina bifida occulta is not always harmless. One study found that among patients with back pain severity is worse if spina bifida occulta is present.
Incomplete posterior fusion is not a true spina bifida and is very rarely of neurological significance.
Meningocele
A posterior meningocele () or meningeal cyst () is the least common form of spina bifida. In this form, a single developmental defect allows the meninges to herniate between the vertebrae. As the nervous system remains undamaged, individuals with meningocele are unlikely to suffer long-term health problems, although cases of tethered cord have been reported. Causes of meningocele include teratoma and other tumors of the sacrococcyx and of the presacral space, and Currarino syndrome.
A meningocele may also form through dehiscences in the base of the skull. These may be classified by their localisation as occipital, frontoethmoidal or nasal. Endonasal meningoceles lie at the roof of the nasal cavity and may be mistaken for a nasal polyp. They are treated surgically. Encephalomeningoceles are classified in the same way and also contain brain tissue.
Myelomeningocele
Myelomeningocele (MMC), also known as meningomyelocele, is the type of spina bifida that often results in the most severe complications and affects the meninges and nerves. In individuals with myelomeningocele, the unfused portion of the spinal column allows the spinal cord to protrude through an opening. Myelomeningocele occurs in the third week of embryonic development, during neural tube pore closure. MMC is a failure of this to occur completely. The meningeal membranes that cover the spinal cord also protrude through the opening, forming a sac enclosing the spinal elements, such as meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and parts of the spinal cord and nerve roots. Myelomeningocele is also associated with Arnold–Chiari malformation, necessitating a VP shunt placement.
Toxins and conditions associated with MMC formation include: calcium-channel blockers, carbamazepine, cytochalasins, hyperthermia, and valproic acid.
Myelocele
Spina bifida with myelocele is the most severe form of myelomeningocele. In this type, the involved area is represented by a flattened, plate-like mass of nervous tissue with no overlying membrane. The exposure of these nerves and tissues make the baby more prone to life-threatening infections such as meningitis.
The protruding portion of the spinal cord and the nerves that originate at that level of the cord are damaged or not properly developed. As a result, there is usually some degree of paralysis and loss of sensation below the level of the spinal cord defect. Thus, the more cranial the level of the defect, the more severe the associated nerve dysfunction and resultant paralysis may be. Symptoms may include ambulatory problems, loss of sensation, deformities of the hips, knees or feet, and loss of muscle tone.
Signs and symptoms
Physical problems
Physical signs of spina bifida may include:
Leg weakness and paralysis
Orthopedic abnormalities (i.e., club foot, hip dislocation, scoliosis)
Bladder and bowel control problems, including incontinence, urinary tract infections, and poor kidney function
Pressure sores and skin irritations
Abnormal eye movement
68% of children with spina bifida have an allergy to latex, ranging from mild to life-threatening. The common use of latex in medical facilities makes this a particularly serious concern. The most common approach to avoid developing an allergy is to avoid contact with latex-containing products such as examination gloves and condoms and catheters that do not specify they are latex-free, and many other products, such as some commonly used by dentists.
The spinal cord lesion or the scarring due to surgery may result in a tethered spinal cord. In some individuals, this causes significant traction and stress on the spinal cord and can lead to a worsening of associated paralysis, scoliosis, back pain, and worsening bowel and/or bladder function.
Neurological problems
Many individuals with spina bifida have an associated abnormality of the cerebellum, called the Arnold Chiari II malformation. In affected individuals, the back portion of the brain is displaced from the back of the skull down into the upper neck. In about 90% of the people with myelomeningocele, hydrocephalus also occurs because the displaced cerebellum interferes with the normal flow of cerebrospinal fluid, causing an excess of the fluid to accumulate. In fact, the cerebellum also tends to be smaller in individuals with spina bifida, especially for those with higher lesion levels.
The corpus callosum is abnormally developed in 70–90% of individuals with spina bifida myelomeningocele; this affects the communication processes between the left and right brain hemispheres. Further, white matter tracts connecting posterior brain regions with anterior regions appear less organized. White matter tracts between frontal regions have also been found to be impaired.
Cortex abnormalities may also be present. For example, frontal regions of the brain tend to be thicker than expected, while posterior and parietal regions are thinner. Thinner sections of the brain are also associated with increased cortical folding. Neurons within the cortex may also be displaced.
Executive function
Several studies have demonstrated difficulties with executive functions in youth with spina bifida, with greater deficits observed in youth with shunted hydrocephalus. Unlike typically developing children, youths with spina bifida do not tend to improve in their executive functioning as they grow older. Specific areas of difficulty in some individuals include planning, organizing, initiating, and working memory. Problem-solving, abstraction, and visual planning may also be impaired. Further, children with spina bifida may have poor cognitive flexibility. Although executive functions are often attributed to the frontal lobes of the brain, individuals with spina bifida have intact frontal lobes; therefore, other areas of the brain may be implicated.
Individuals with spina bifida, especially those with shunted hydrocephalus, often have attention problems. Children with spina bifida and shunted hydrocephalus have higher rates of ADHD than children without those conditions (31% vs. 17%). Deficits have been observed for selective attention and focused attention, although poor motor speed may contribute to poor scores on tests of attention. Attention deficits may be evident at a very early age, as infants with spina bifida lag behind their peers in orienting to faces.
Academic skills
Individuals with spina bifida may struggle academically, especially in the subjects of mathematics and reading. In one study, 60% of children with spina bifida were diagnosed with a learning disability. In addition to brain abnormalities directly related to various academic skills, achievement is likely affected by impaired attentional control and executive functioning. Children with spina bifida may perform well in elementary school, but begin to struggle as academic demands increase.
Children with spina bifida are more likely than their peers without spina bifida to be dyscalculic. Individuals with spina bifida have demonstrated stable difficulties with arithmetic accuracy and speed, mathematical problem-solving, and general use and understanding of numbers in everyday life. Mathematics difficulties may be directly related to the thinning of the parietal lobes (regions implicated in mathematical functioning) and indirectly associated with deformities of the cerebellum and midbrain that affect other functions involved in mathematical skills. Further, higher numbers of shunt revisions are associated with poorer mathematics abilities. Working memory and inhibitory control deficiencies have been implicated for math difficulties, although visual-spatial difficulties are not likely involved. Early intervention to address mathematics difficulties and associated executive functions is crucial.
Individuals with spina bifida tend to have better reading skills than mathematics skills. Children and adults with spina bifida have stronger abilities in reading accuracy than in reading comprehension. Comprehension may be especially impaired for text that requires an abstract synthesis of information rather than a more literal understanding. Individuals with spina bifida may have difficulty with writing due to deficits in fine motor control and working memory.
Cause
Spina bifida is believed to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. After having one child with the condition, or if a parent has the condition, there is a 4% chance the next child will also be affected. A folic acid deficiency during pregnancy also plays a significant role. Other risk factors include certain antiseizure medications, obesity, and poorly managed diabetes. Alcohol misuse can trigger macrocytosis which discards folate. After stopping the drinking of alcohol, a time period of months is needed to rejuvenate bone marrow and recover from the macrocytosis.
Those who are white or Hispanic have a higher risk. Girls are more prone to being born with spina bifida.
Pathophysiology
Spina bifida occurs when local regions of the neural tube fail to fuse or there is failure in formation of the vertebral neural arches. Neural arch formation occurs in the first month of embryonic development (often before the mother knows she is pregnant). Some forms are known to occur with primary conditions that cause raised central nervous system pressure, raising the possibility of a dual pathogenesis.
In normal circumstances, the closure of the neural tube occurs around the 23rd (rostral closure) and 27th (caudal closure) day after fertilization. However, if something interferes and the tube fails to close properly, a neural tube defect will occur. Medications such as some anticonvulsants, diabetes, obesity, and having a relative with spina bifida can all affect the probability of neural tube malformation.
Extensive evidence from mouse strains with spina bifida indicates that there is sometimes a genetic basis for the condition. Human spina bifida, like other human diseases, such as cancer, hypertension and atherosclerosis (coronary artery disease), likely results from the interaction of multiple genes and environmental factors.
Research has shown the lack of folic acid (folate) is a contributing factor in the pathogenesis of neural tube defects, including spina bifida. Supplementation of the mother's diet with folate can reduce the incidence of neural tube defects by about 70%, and can also decrease the severity of these defects when they occur. It is unknown how or why folic acid has this effect.
Spina bifida does not follow direct patterns of heredity as do muscular dystrophy or haemophilia. Studies show a woman having had one child with a neural tube defect such as spina bifida has about a 3% risk of having another affected child. This risk can be reduced with folic acid supplementation before pregnancy. For the general population, low-dose folic acid supplements are advised (0.4 mg/day).
Prevention
There is neither a single cause of spina bifida nor any known way to prevent it entirely. However, dietary supplementation with folic acid has been shown to be helpful in reducing the incidence of spina bifida. Sources of folic acid include whole grains, fortified breakfast cereals, dried beans, leaf vegetables and fruits. However it is difficult for women to get the recommended 400 micrograms of folic acid a day from unfortified foods. Globally, fortified wheat flour is credited with preventing 50 thousand neural tube birth defects like spina bifida a year, but 230,000 could be prevented every year through this strategy.
Folate fortification of enriched grain products has been mandatory in the United States since 1998. This prevents an estimated 600 to 700 incidents of spina bifida a year in the U.S. and saves $400 - $600 million in healthcare expenses. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Public Health Agency of Canada and the UK Department of Health and Social Care (DHSC) recommended amount of folic acid for women of childbearing age and women planning to become pregnant is at least 0.4 mg/day of folic acid from at least three months before conception, and continued for the first 12 weeks of pregnancy.
Women who have already had a baby with spina bifida or other type of neural tube defect, or are taking anticonvulsant medication, should take a higher dose of 4–5 mg/day.
Certain mutations in the gene VANGL1 have been linked with spina bifida in some families with a history of the condition.
Screening
Open spina bifida can usually be detected during pregnancy by fetal ultrasound. Increased levels of maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (MSAFP) should be followed up by two tests – an ultrasound of the fetal spine and amniocentesis of the mother's amniotic fluid (to test for alpha-fetoprotein and acetylcholinesterase). AFP tests are now mandated by some state laws (including California) and failure to provide them can have legal ramifications. In one case, a man born with spina bifida was awarded a $2-million settlement after court found his mother's OBGYN negligent for not performing these tests. Spina bifida may be associated with other malformations as in dysmorphic syndromes, often resulting in spontaneous miscarriage. In the majority of cases, though, spina bifida is an isolated malformation.
Genetic counseling and further genetic testing, such as amniocentesis, may be offered during the pregnancy, as some neural tube defects are associated with genetic disorders such as trisomy 18. Ultrasound screening for spina bifida is partly responsible for the decline in new cases, because many pregnancies are terminated out of fear that a newborn might have a poor future quality of life. With modern medical care, the quality of life of patients has greatly improved.
Treatment
There is no known cure for the nerve damage caused by spina bifida. Standard treatment is surgery after delivery. This surgery aims to prevent further damage of the nervous tissue and to prevent infection; pediatric neurosurgeons operate to close the opening on the back. The spinal cord and its nerve roots are put back inside the spine and covered with meninges. In addition, a shunt may be surgically installed to provide a continuous drain for the excess cerebrospinal fluid produced in the brain, as happens with hydrocephalus. Shunts most commonly drain into the abdomen or chest wall.
Pregnancy
Standard treatment is after delivery. There is tentative evidence about treatment for severe disease before delivery while the baby is inside the womb. As of 2014, however, the evidence remains insufficient to determine benefits and harms.
Treatment of spina bifida during pregnancy is not without risk. To the mother, this includes scarring of the uterus. To the baby, there is the risk of preterm birth.
Broadly, there are two forms of prenatal treatment. The first is open fetal surgery, where the uterus is opened and the spina bifida repair performed. The second is via fetoscopy. These techniques may be an option to standard therapy.
Childhood
Most individuals with myelomeningocele will need periodic evaluations by a variety of specialists:
Physiatrists coordinate the rehabilitation efforts of different therapists and prescribe specific therapies, adaptive equipment, or medications to encourage as high of a functional performance within the community as possible.
Orthopedists monitor growth and development of bones, muscles, and joints.
Neurosurgeons perform surgeries at birth and manage complications associated with tethered cord and hydrocephalus.
Neurologists treat and evaluate nervous system issues, such as seizure disorders.
Urologists to address kidney, bladder, and bowel dysfunction – many will need to manage their urinary systems with a program of catheterization. Bowel management programs aimed at improving elimination are also designed.
Ophthalmologists evaluate and treat complications of the eyes.
Orthotists design and customize various types of assistive technology, including braces, crutches, walkers, and wheelchairs to aid in mobility. As a general rule, the higher the level of the spina bifida defect, the more severe the paralysis, but paralysis does not always occur. Thus, those with low levels may need only short leg braces, whereas those with higher levels do best with a wheelchair, and some may be able to walk unaided.
Physical therapists, occupational therapists, psychologists, and speech/language pathologists aid in rehabilitative therapies and increase independent living skills.
Transition to adulthood
Although many children's hospitals feature integrated multidisciplinary teams to coordinate healthcare of youth with spina bifida, the transition to adult healthcare can be difficult because the above healthcare professionals operate independently of each other, requiring separate appointments, and communicate among each other much less frequently. Healthcare professionals working with adults may also be less knowledgeable about spina bifida because it is considered a childhood chronic health condition. Due to the potential difficulties of the transition, adolescents with spina bifida and their families are encouraged to begin to prepare for the transition around ages 14–16, although this may vary depending on the adolescent's cognitive and physical abilities and available family support. The transition itself should be gradual and flexible. The adolescent's multidisciplinary treatment team may aid in the process by preparing comprehensive, up-to-date documents detailing the adolescent's medical care, including information about medications, surgery, therapies, and recommendations. A transition plan and aid in identifying adult healthcare professionals are also helpful to include in the transition process.
Further complicating the transition process is the tendency for youths with spina bifida to be delayed in the development of autonomy, with boys particularly at risk for slower development of independence. An increased dependence on others (in particular family members) may interfere with the adolescent's self-management of health-related tasks, such as catheterization, bowel management, and taking medications. As part of the transition process, it is beneficial to begin discussions at an early age about educational and vocational goals, independent living, and community involvement.
Epidemiology
Rates of other types of spina bifida vary significantly by country from 0.1 to 5 per 1000 births. On average in developed countries it occurs in about 0.4 per 1000 births. In the United States it affected about 0.7 per 1000 births, and in India about 1.9 per 1000 births. Part of this difference is believed to be due to race, with Caucasians at higher risk, and part due to environmental factors. It is most common in the Celtic people (12.5 per 10,000 live births), and it is rare in Asians and people of African descent.
In the United States, rates are higher on the East Coast than on the West Coast, and higher in white people (one case per 1000 live births) than in black people (0.1–0.4 case per 1000 live births). Immigrants from Ireland have a higher incidence of spina bifida than do natives. Highest rates of the defect in the USA can be found in Hispanic youth.
The highest incidence rates worldwide were found in Ireland and Wales, where three to four cases of myelomeningocele per 1000 population have been reported during the 1970s, along with more than six cases of anencephaly (both live births and stillbirths) per 1000 population. The reported overall incidence of myelomeningocele in the British Isles was 2.0–3.5 cases per 1000 births. Since then, the rate has fallen dramatically with 0.15 per 1000 live births reported in 1998, though this decline is partially accounted for because some fetuses are aborted when tests show signs of spina bifida (see Pregnancy screening above).
Research
1980 – Fetal surgical techniques using animal models were first developed at the University of California, San Francisco by Michael R. Harrison, N. Scott Adzick and research colleagues.
1994 – A surgical model that simulates the human disease is the fetal lamb model of myelomeningocele (MMC) introduced by Meuli and Adzick in 1994. The MMC-like defect was surgically created at 75 days of gestation (term 145 to 150 days) by a lumbo-sacral laminectomy. Approximately 3 weeks after creation of the defect a reversed latissimus dorsi flap was used to cover the exposed neural placode and the animals were delivered by cesarean section just prior term. Human MMC-like lesions with similar neurological deficit were found in the control newborn lambs. In contrast, animals that underwent closure had near-normal neurological function and well-preserved cytoarchitecture of the covered spinal cord on histopathological examination. Despite mild paraparesis, they were able to stand, walk, perform demanding motor test and demonstrated no signs of incontinence. Furthermore, sensory function of the hind limbs was present clinically and confirmed electrophysiologically. Further studies showed that this model, when combined with a lumbar spinal cord myelotomy leads to the hindbrain herniation characteristic of the Chiari II malformation and that in utero surgery restores normal hindbrain anatomy by stopping the leak of cerebrospinal fluid through the myelomeningocele lesion.
Surgeons at Vanderbilt University, led by Joseph Bruner, attempted to close spina bifida in 4 human fetuses using a skin graft from the mother using a laparoscope. Four cases were performed before stopping the procedure - two of the four fetuses died.
1998 – N. Scott Adzick and team at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia performed open fetal surgery for spina bifida in an early gestation fetus (22-week gestation fetus) with a successful outcome. Open fetal surgery for myelomeningocele involves surgically opening the pregnant mother's abdomen and uterus to operate on the fetus. The exposed fetal spinal cord is covered in layers with surrounding fetal tissue at mid-gestation (19–25 weeks) to protect it from further damage caused by prolonged exposure to amniotic fluid. Between 1998 and 2003, Dr. Adzick, and his colleagues in the Center for Fetal Diagnosis and Treatment at The Children's Hospital Of Philadelphia, performed prenatal spina bifida repair in 58 mothers and observed significant benefit in the babies.
Fetal surgery after 25 weeks has not shown benefit in subsequent studies.
MOMS trial
Management of myelomeningocele study (MOMS) was a phase III clinical trial designed to compare two approaches to the treatment of spina bifida: surgery before birth and surgery after birth.
The trial concluded that the outcomes after prenatal spina bifida treatment are improved to the degree that the benefits of the surgery outweigh the maternal risks. This conclusion requires a value judgment on the relative value of fetal and maternal outcomes on which opinion is still divided.
To be specific, the study found that prenatal repair resulted in:
Reversal of the hindbrain herniation component of the Chiari II malformation
Reduced need for ventricular shunting (a procedure in which a thin tube is introduced into the brain's ventricles to drain fluid and relieve hydrocephalus)
Reduced incidence or severity of potentially devastating neurologic effects caused by the spine's exposure to amniotic fluid, such as impaired motor function
At one year of age, 40 percent of the children in the prenatal surgery group had received a shunt, compared to 83 percent of the children in the postnatal group. During pregnancy, all the fetuses in the trial had hindbrain herniation. However, at age 12 months, one-third (36 percent) of the infants in the prenatal surgery group no longer had any evidence of hindbrain herniation, compared to only 4 percent in the postnatal surgery group. Further surveillance is ongoing.
Fetoscopic surgery
In contrast to the open fetal operative approach performed in the MOMS trial, a minimally invasive fetoscopic approach (akin to 'keyhole' surgery) has been developed. This approach has been evaluated by independent authors of a controlled study which showed some benefit in survivors, but others are more skeptical.
The observations in mothers and their fetuses that were operated over the past two and a half years by the matured minimally invasive approach showed the following results: Compared to the open fetal surgery technique, fetoscopic repair of myelomeningocele results in far less surgical trauma to the mother, as large incisions of her abdomen and uterus are not required. In contrast, the initial punctures have a diameter of 1.2 mm only. As a result, thinning of the uterine wall or dehiscence which have been among the most worrisome and criticized complications after the open operative approach do not occur following minimally invasive fetoscopic closure of spina bifida aperta. The risks of maternal chorioamnionitis or fetal death as a result of the fetoscopic procedure run below 5%. Women are discharged home from hospital one week after the procedure. There is no need for chronic administration of tocolytic agents since postoperative uterine contractions are barely ever observed. The current cost of the entire fetoscopic procedure, including hospital stay, drugs, perioperative clinical, ECG, ultrasound and MRI-examinations, is approximately €16,000.
In 2012, these results of the fetoscopic approach were presented at various national and international meetings, among them at the 1st European Symposium “Fetal Surgery for Spina bifida“ in April 2012 in Giessen, at the 15th Congress of the German Society for Prenatal Medicine and Obstetrics in May 2012 in Bonn, at the World Congress of the Fetal Medicine Foundation in June 2012 and at the World Congress of the International Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology (ISUOG) in Copenhagen in September 2012, and published in abstract form.
Since then more data has emerged. In 2014, two papers were published on fifty one patients. These papers suggested that the risk to the mother is small. The main risk appears to be preterm labour, on average at about 33 weeks.
See also
Meningohydroencephalocoele
Rachischisis
Congenital dermal sinus
References
External links
CDC: Spina bifida
Dermal and subcutaneous growths
Congenital disorders of nervous system
Congenital disorders of musculoskeletal system
Articles containing video clips
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False%20memory%20syndrome
|
False memory syndrome
|
In psychology, false memory syndrome (FMS) describes a condition in which a person's identity and relationships are affected by false memories, recollections that are factually incorrect yet strongly believed. Peter J. Freyd originated the term, which his False Memory Syndrome Foundation (FMSF) subsequently popularized. The principle that individuals can hold false memories and the role that outside influence can play in their formation is widely accepted by scientists. However FMS is not recognized as a psychiatric illness in any medical manuals including the ICD-10 or the DSM-5.
False memory syndrome may be the result of recovered memory therapy, a term also defined by the FMSF in the early 1990s, which describes a range of therapy methods that are prone to creating confabulations. Some of the influential figures in the genesis of the theory are forensic psychologist Ralph Underwager, psychologist Elizabeth Loftus, and sociologist Richard Ofshe.
Definition
False memory syndrome is a condition in which a person's identity and interpersonal relationships center on a memory of a traumatic experience that is objectively false but that the person strongly believes occurred.
The FMS concept is controversial, and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders does not include it. Paul R. McHugh, member of the FMSF, stated that the term was not adopted into the fourth version of the manual due to the pertinent committee being headed by believers in recovered memory.
Recovered memory therapy
Recovered memory therapy is used to describe the therapeutic processes and methods that are believed to create false memories and false memory syndrome. These methods include hypnosis, sedatives and probing questions where the therapist believes repressed memories of traumatic events are the cause of their client's problems. The term is not listed in DSM-IV or used by any mainstream formal psychotherapy modality.
Memory consolidation becomes a critical element of false memory and recovered memory syndromes. Once stored in the hippocampus, the memory may last for years or even for life, regardless that the memorized event never actually took place. Obsession to a particular false memory, planted memory, or indoctrinated memory can shape a person's actions or even result in delusional disorder.
Mainstream psychiatric and psychological professional associations now harbor strong skepticism towards the notion of recovered memories of trauma. The American Psychiatric Association and American Medical Association condemn practices fitting the description of "Recovered Memory Therapy". In 1998, the Royal College of Psychiatrists Working Group on Reported Recovered Memories of Sexual Abuse wrote:
That such techniques have been used in the past is undeniable. Their continued use is cause for malpractice litigation worldwide. An Australian psychologist was de-registered for engaging in them.
Psychiatric controversy concerning recovered memories
In psychiatry, confabulation is a memory error defined as the production of fabricated, distorted, or misinterpreted memories about oneself or the world, without the conscious intention to deceive. Psychotherapists tried to reveal “repressed memories” in mental therapy patients through “hypnosis, guided imagery, dream interpretation and narco-analysis” in the 1980s. The reasoning was that if abuse couldn't be remembered, then it needed to be recovered by the therapist. This type of therapy became popular in the 1990s.
Many victims don't remember their abuse, making the underlying phenomenon of trauma-induced amnesia nonetheless legitimate.
Therapists who subscribe to recovered memory theory point to a wide variety of common problems, ranging from eating disorders to sleeplessness, as evidence of repressed memories of sexual abuse. The legal phenomena developed in the 1980s, with civil suits alleging child sexual abuse on the basis of “memories” recovered during psychotherapy. The term “repressed memory therapy” gained momentum and with it social stigma surrounded those accused of abuse. The “therapy” led to other psychological disorders in persons whose memories were recovered.
Evidence for false memories
Human memory is created and highly suggestible, and can create a wide variety of innocuous, embarrassing, and frightening memories through different techniques—including guided imagery, hypnosis, and suggestion by others. Though not all individuals exposed to these techniques develop memories, experiments suggest a significant number of people do, and will actively defend the existence of the events, even if told they were false and deliberately implanted. Questions about the possibility of false memories created an explosion of interest in suggestibility of human memory and resulted in an enormous increase in the knowledge about how memories are encoded, stored and recalled, producing pioneering experiments such as the lost in the mall technique. In Roediger and McDermott's (1995) experiment, subjects were presented with a list of related items (such as candy, sugar, honey) to study. When asked to recall the list, participants were just as, if not more, likely to recall semantically related words (such as sweet) than items that were actually studied, thus creating false memories. This experiment, though widely replicated, remains controversial due to debate considering that people may store semantically related items from a word list conceptually rather than as language, which could account for errors in recollection of words without the creation of false memories. Susan Clancy discovered that people claiming to have been victims of alien abductions are more likely to recall semantically related words than a control group in such an experiment.
The lost in the mall technique is a research method designed to implant a false memory of being lost in a shopping mall as a child to test whether discussing a false event could produce a "memory" of an event that did not happen. In her initial study, Elizabeth Loftus found that 25% of subjects came to develop a "memory" for the event which had never actually taken place. Extensions and variations of the lost in the mall technique found that an average of one third of experimental subjects could become convinced that they experienced things in childhood that had never really occurred—even highly traumatic, and impossible events.
Experimental researchers have demonstrated that memory cells in the hippocampus of mice can be modified to artificially create false memories.
Court cases
Sexual abuse cases
The question of the accuracy and dependability of a repressed memory that someone has later recalled has contributed to some investigations and court cases, including cases of alleged sexual abuse or child sexual abuse (CSA). The research of Elizabeth Loftus has been used to counter claims of recovered memory in court and it has resulted in stricter requirements for the use of recovered memories being used in trials, as well as a greater requirement for corroborating evidence. In addition, some U.S. states no longer allow prosecution based on recovered memory testimony. Insurance companies have become reluctant to insure therapists against malpractice suits relating to recovered memories.
Supporters of recovered memories believe that there is "overwhelming evidence that the mind is capable of repressing traumatic memories of child sexual abuse." Whitfield states that the "false memory" defense is "seemingly sophisticated, but mostly contrived and often erroneous." He states that this defense has been created by "accused, convicted and self-confessed child molesters and their advocates" to try to "negate their abusive, criminal behavior." Brown states that when pro-false memory expert witnesses and attorneys state there is no causal connection between CSA and adult psychopathology, that CSA doesn't cause specific trauma-related problems like borderline and dissociative identity disorder, that other variables than CSA can explain the variance of adult psychopathology and that the long-term effects of CSA are non-specific and general, that this testimony is inaccurate and has the potential of misleading juries.
Malpractice cases
During the late 1990s, there were multiple lawsuits in the United States in which psychiatrists and psychologists were successfully sued, or settled out of court, on the charge of propagating iatrogenic memories of childhood sexual abuse, incest, and satanic ritual abuse.
Some of these suits were brought by individuals who later declare that their recovered memories of incest or satanic ritual abuse had been false. The False Memory Syndrome Foundation uses the term retractors to describe these individuals, and have shared their stories publicly. There is debate regarding the total number of retractions as compared to the total number of allegations, and the reasons for retractions.
Injuries resulting from malpractice
Sexual abuse of children and adolescents can lead to severe negative consequences. Child sexual abuse is a risk factor for many classes of psychiatric disorders, including anxiety disorders, affective disorders, dissociative disorders and personality disorders. Failure to meet recognized medical standards by psychiatrists causes injury to patients and the accused. Ramona v. Isabella was a prominent case of malpractice in 1994. A California Jury awarded $500,000 to Gary Ramona, whose daughter Holly had falsely accused him of sexual abuse as a child, based on false memories retrieved by therapists during treatment for bulimia. Los Angeles Superior Court Judge Burton Bach dismissed Holly Ramona's civil case against her father, holding that the outcome of her father's malpractice suit had resolved the issue of whether any abuse took place. The Washington Post titled the article Sex Abuse Suit Dismissed in False-Memory Case on December 14, 1994. There were numerous cases brought to trial in the 1990s. Most included combinations of the misuse of hypnosis, guided imagery, sodium amytal, and anti-depressants.
The term "false memory syndrome" describes the phenomenon in which a mental therapy patient “remembers” an event such as childhood sexual abuse, that never occurred. The link between certain therapy practices and the development of psychological disorders such as dissociative identity disorder comes from malpractice suits and state licensure actions against therapists. These cases demonstrate the ease with which an individual can be led to exhibit dissociative symptoms, especially when hypnosis, sodium amytal, strong medications, or readings involving traumatic imagery magnify the effect of therapist suggestions or expectations. These cases also show that once the symptoms become established, the standard treatment modality often leads to a deterioration of the mental and emotional well-being of the patient.
In popular culture
False Memory Syndrome has become so widely known that television shows and movies have been made about the phenomenon, such as the USA Network series The Sinner, which touches on the idea of recovering forgotten memories. The show focuses on a woman who kills a seemingly random man on the beach one day for playing a song that triggered a traumatic event from her past, which she has temporarily forgotten. Throughout the first season detectives try to trigger her memory and find a motive for her actions.
See also
Alien abduction
False allegation of child sexual abuse
McMartin preschool trial
Memory bias
Memory conformity
Memory implantation
Footnotes
External links
Memory Wars is a website with information from all sides of the issue. Primary resources include an extensive bibliography / abstract database and pre-print archive. Also available are sections for criminal investigation, criminal defense and many other useful resources.
False Memory Syndrome, Child & Woman Abuse Studies Unit of London Metropolitan University. Argues that "false memories" are real memories.
False Memory Syndrome Foundation
The false memory archive
The false memory archive: did that really happen?
Memory biases
Memory disorders
|
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208875
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underclocking
|
Underclocking
|
Underclocking, also known as downclocking, is modifying a computer or electronic circuit's timing settings to run at a lower clock rate than is specified. Underclocking is used to reduce a computer's power consumption, increase battery life, reduce heat emission, and it may also increase the system's stability, lifespan/reliability and compatibility. Underclocking may be implemented by the factory, but many computers and components may be underclocked by the end user.
Types
CPU underclocking
For microprocessors, the purpose is generally to decrease the need for heat dissipation devices or decrease the electrical power consumption. This can provide increased system stability in high-heat environments, or can allow a system to run with a lower airflow (and therefore quieter) cooling fan or without one at all. For example, a Pentium 4 processor normally clocked at 3.4 GHz can be "underclocked" to 2 GHz and can then be safely run with reduced fan speeds. This invariably comes at the expense of some system performance. However, the proportional performance reduction is usually less than the proportional reduction in clock speed because performance is often limited by other bottlenecks: the hard disk, GPU, disk controller, Internet, network, etc. Underclocking refers to alterations of the timing of a synchronous circuit in order to lower a device's energy needs. Deliberate underclocking involves limiting a processor's speed, which may affect the speed of operations, but may or may not make a device noticeably less able, depending on other hardware and desired use.
Many computers and other devices allow for underclocking. Manufacturers add underclocking options for many reasons. Underclocking can help with excessive heat buildup, because lower performance will not generate as much heat inside the device. It can also lower the amount of energy needed to run the device. Laptop computers and other battery-operated devices often have underclocking settings, so that batteries can last longer without being charged.
In addition to providing underclocking features, manufacturers can choose to limit the capability of a machine in order to make it more efficient. Reduced instruction set computer (RISC) models can help makers build devices that work on less power.
Graphics cards
Underclocking can also be performed on graphics card processor's GPUs, usually with the aim of reducing heat output. For instance, it is possible to set a GPU to run at lower clock rates when performing everyday tasks (e.g. internet browsing and word processing), thus allowing the card to operate at lower temperature and thus lower, quieter fan speeds. The GPU can then be overclocked for more graphically intense applications, such as games. Underclocking a GPU will reduce performance, but this decrease will probably not be noticeable except in graphically intensive applications.
Memory underclocking
Newer and faster RAM may be underclocked to match older systems as an inexpensive way to replace rare or discontinued memory. This might also be necessary if stability problems are encountered at higher settings, especially in a PC with several memory modules of different clock speed. If you underclock a PC processor, and do not change the clock factor or multiplier (the ratio between the processor and the memory clock speed), the memory will also be underclocked.
When used
Dynamic frequency scaling (automatic underclocking) is very common on laptop computers and has become common on desktop computers as well. In laptops, the processor is usually underclocked automatically whenever the computer is operating on batteries. Most modern notebook and desktop processors (utilizing power-saving schemes like AMD's Cool'n'Quiet and PowerNow!) will underclock themselves automatically under a light processing load, when the machine BIOS and the operating system support it. Intel has also used this method on numerous processors through a feature called SpeedStep. SpeedStep first appeared on chips like the Core 2 Duo and selective Pentium models, later becoming a standard in mid to high-end Core i3, i5, and i7 models.
Some processors underclock automatically as a defensive measure, to prevent overheating which could cause permanent damage. When such a processor reaches a temperature level deemed too high for safe operation, the thermal control circuit activates, automatically decreasing the clock and CPU core voltage until the temperature has returned to a safe level. In a properly cooled environment, this mechanism should trigger rarely (if ever).
There are several different underclocking competitions similar in format to overclocking competitions, except the goal is to have the lowest clocked computer, as opposed to the highest.
Advantages
Reduced electrical power consumption, especially when combined with undervolting (i.e., reducing the component's voltage below the nominal). For instance, by underclocking an Athlon XP 1700+ processor from 1466 to 1000 MHz and reducing the core voltage from 1.75 to 1.15V, a computer user reduced the power consumption from 64.0 to 21.6W, i.e., 66% power reduction, with only 26% less performance. The same is true for newer processors: When a single-core Intel CPU was 20% underclocked, the PC's performance was down only 13% with a 49% power reduction.
In general, the power consumed by a CPU with a capacitance C, running at frequency f and voltage V is approximately
Reduced heat generation, which is exactly proportional to the power consumption.
Less noise because the cooling fans may be slowed down, or even eliminated. A cooling fan's efficiency is proportional to its rotation speed, but as it increases, so does the noise.
Longer hardware lifespan.
Increased stability.
Increased battery life.
Better compatibility with old applications.
Proper performance of very old computer games that were dependent on CPU timing.
In practice
Linux
Linux kernel supports CPU frequency modulation. In supported processors, using cpufreq to gain access to this feature gives the system administrator a variable level of control over the CPU's clock rate. The kernel includes five governors by default: Conservative, Ondemand, Performance, Powersave, and Userspace. The Conservative and Ondemand governors adjust the clock rate depending on the CPU load, but each with different algorithms. The Ondemand governor jumps to maximum frequency on CPU load and decreases the frequency step by step on CPU idle, whereas the Conservative governor increases the frequency step by step on CPU load and jumps to lowest frequency on CPU idle. The Performance, Powersave and Userspace governors set the clock rate statically: Performance to the highest available, Powersave to the lowest available, and Userspace to a frequency determined and controlled by the user.
Windows
Underclocking can be done manually in the BIOS or with Windows applications, or dynamically using features such as Intel's SpeedStep or AMD's Cool'n'Quiet. In Windows 7 and 10, underclocking can be set within the "advanced" settings of a power management plan.
Asus Eee PC
Earlier models of the Asus Eee PC used a 900 MHz Intel Celeron M processor underclocked to 630 MHz.
Mac OS X
Underclocking can be performed in the EFI.
Smartphones and PDAs
Most smartphones and PDAs, such as the Motorola Droid, Palm Pre, and Apple iPhone, use underclocking of a more powerful processor, rather than the full clocking of a less powerful processor, to maximize battery life. The designers for such mobile devices often discover that a slower processor gives worse battery life than a more powerful processor at a lower clock rate.
They select a processor on the basis of the performance per watt of the processor.
Performance
The performance of an underclocked machine will often be better than might be expected. Under normal desktop use, the full power of the CPU is rarely needed. Even when the system is busy, a large amount of time is usually spent waiting for data from memory, disk, or other devices. Such devices communicate with the CPU through a bus which operates at a much lower bandwidth. Generally, the lower the CPU multiplier (and thus clockrate of a CPU), the closer its performance will be to that of the bus, and the less time it will spend waiting.
See also
big.LITTLE
References
External links
CPU "Undervolting" & "Underclocking" A Primer From SilentPCReview.com
"Underclocking" a Game Boy classic tutorial
Clock signal
Computer hardware tuning
Computer hardware cooling
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin%20Osman%20Spare
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Austin Osman Spare
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Austin Osman Spare (30 December 1886 – 15 May 1956) was an English artist and occultist who worked as both a draughtsman and a painter. Influenced by symbolism and art nouveau his art was known for its clear use of line, and its depiction of monstrous and sexual imagery. In an occult capacity, he developed idiosyncratic magical techniques including automatic writing, automatic drawing and sigilization based on his theories of the relationship between the conscious and unconscious self.
Born into a working-class family in Snow Hill in London, Spare grew up in Smithfield and then Kennington, taking an early interest in art. Gaining a scholarship to study at the Royal College of Art in South Kensington, he trained as a draughtsman, while also taking a personal interest in Theosophy and Occultism, becoming briefly involved with Aleister Crowley and his A∴A∴. Developing his own personal occult philosophy, he wrote a series of occult grimoires, namely Earth Inferno (1905), The Book of Pleasure (1913) and The Focus of Life (1921). Alongside a string of personal exhibitions, he also achieved much press attention for being the youngest entrant at the 1904 Royal Academy summer exhibition.
After publishing two short-lived art magazines, Form and The Golden Hind, during the First World War he was conscripted into the armed forces and worked as an official war artist. Moving to various working class areas of South London over the following decades, Spare lived in poverty, but continued exhibiting his work to varying degrees of success. With the arrival of surrealism onto the London art scene during the 1930s, critics and the press once more took an interest in his work, seeing it as an early precursor to surrealist imagery. Losing his home during the Blitz, he fell into relative obscurity following the Second World War, although he continued exhibiting till his death in 1956.
Spare's spiritualist legacy was largely maintained by his friend, the Thelemite author Kenneth Grant in the latter part of the 20th century, and his beliefs regarding sigils provided a key influence on the chaos magic movement and Thee Temple ov Psychick Youth. Spare's art once more began to receive attention in the 1970s, due to a renewed interest in art nouveau in Britain, with several retrospective exhibitions being held in London. Books about Spare and his art have been written by Robert Ansell (2005), Phil Baker (2011) and others.
Biography
Childhood: 1886–1900
Austin's father, Philip Newton Spare, was born in Yorkshire in 1857, and moved to London, where he gained employment with the City of London Police in 1878, being stationed at Snow Hill Police Station. Austin's mother, Eliza Osman, was born in Devon, the daughter of a Royal Marine, and married Philip Newton Spare at St Bride's Church in Fleet Street in December 1879. Together they moved into a tenement called Bloomfield House on Bloomfield Place, King Street in Snow Hill, which was inhabited by the families of police officers, drivers, clerks and market workers. The Spare's first child to survive was John Newton Spare, born in 1882, with William Herbert Spare following in 1883 and then Susan Ann Spare in 1885.
The couple's fourth surviving child, Austin Osman Spare was born shortly after four o'clock on the morning of 30 December 1886. Spare first attended the school attached to St. Sepulchre's Church, at the top of Snow Hill (1891), and each day he would pass by Smithfield meat market, which being an animal lover, he detested. In 1894, when Spare was seven, the family moved from Smithfield to Kennington, South London, setting up home at 15 Kennington Park Gardens. Here, Spare attended St. Agnes School, attached to a prominent High Anglican church, and as a child he was brought up within the Anglican denomination of Christianity. In later life he claimed to have met an elderly woman, Mrs Patterson (known as "Witch Patterson") at this time. Patterson claimed to be a descended from a line of Salem witches that Cotton Mather had failed to extirpate. She seduced him and first taught him how to practise magic, although later biographer Phil Baker has noted that there is "very little evidence" that she was ever a real figure, instead perhaps being a later fictional invention of his. Spare, who did not get on well with his real mother as a child, referred to Patterson as his 'second mother' or 'witch-mother'. Taking an interest in drawing, from about the age of 12, he began taking evening classes at Lambeth School of Art under the tutorship of Philip Connard.
Artistic training: 1900–1905
In 1900, Spare left St. Agnes School and gained employment at Sir Joseph Causton and Sons, a company that focused on the design of posters. Not wanting the commitment of an apprenticeship, after nine months he quit this job and instead began working as a designer at Powell's glass-working business in Whitefriars Street, which had links to the Arts and Crafts movement and William Morris. In the evenings he attended the Lambeth School of Art. Two visitors to Powell's, Sir William Blake Richmond and FH Richmond RBA, came across some of Spare's drawings, and impressed, they recommended him for a scholarship to the Royal College of Art (RCA) in South Kensington. He achieved further attention when his drawings were exhibited in the British Art Section of the St. Louis Exposition and the Paris International Exhibition, and in 1903 he won a silver medal at the National Competition of Schools of Art, where the judges, who included Walter Crane and Byam Shaw, praised his "remarkable sense of colour and great vigour of conception."
Soon, he began studying at the RCA, but was dissatisfied with the teaching he received there, becoming a truant and being disciplined by his tutors as a result. Influenced by the work of Charles Ricketts, Edmund Sullivan, George Frederic Watts and Aubrey Beardsley, his artistic style focused on clear lines, which was in stark contrast to the College's emphasis on shading. Still living in his parents' home, he began dressing in unconventional and flamboyant garb, and became popular with other students at the college, with a particularly strong friendship developing between Spare and Sylvia Pankhurst, a prominent Suffragette and leftist campaigner.
Rejecting Christianity and developing an interest in western esotericism, he read several books on Theosophy by Madame Blavatsky, namely Isis Unveiled, and wanting to explore the topic further, he also read the works of prominent occultists Cornelius Agrippa and Eliphas Levi. Becoming a practising occultist, during his college years he wrote and illustrated his first grimoire, titled Earth Inferno (1905), in which he took as his premise Blavatsky's idea that Earth already was Hell. The work exhibited a variety of influences, including Theosophy, the Bible, Omar Khayyám, Dante's Inferno and his own mystical ideas regarding Zos and Kia. Self-published by Spare through the Co-Operative Printing Society, copies of Earth Inferno were purchased by Pankhurst and other friends from the college.
In May 1904, Spare held his first public art exhibition in the foyer of the Newington Public Library in Walworth Road. Here, his paintings illustrated many of the themes that would continue to inspire him throughout his life, including his mystical views about Zos and Kia. His father then surreptitiously submitted two of Spare's drawings to the Royal Academy, one of which, a design for a bookplate, was accepted for exhibition at that year's prestigious summer exhibition. Journalists from the British press took a particular interest in his work, highlighting the fact that, at seventeen years of age, he was the youngest artist in the exhibition, with some erroneously claiming that he was the youngest artist to ever exhibit at the show. According to the media, G. F. Watts allegedly stated that "Young Spare has already done enough to justify his fame", while Augustus John was quoted as remarking that his draughtsmanship was "unsurpassed" and John Singer Sargent apparently thought that Spare was a "genius" who was the greatest draughtsman in England. Gaining a significant level of press attention, journalists arrived at the Spare family household in Kennington to interview him, leading to a string of articles in which he was praised as an artistic prodigy. One alleged that he aspired to eventually become the President of the Royal Academy itself, something he would quickly deny. In 1905, in the midst of this media interest, he left the RCA without having received any qualifications.
Early career: 1906–1910
Having left higher education, Spare became employed as a bookplate designer and illustrator, with his first book commission being for Ethel Rolt Wheeler's Behind the Veil, published by the company David Nutt in 1906. In ensuing years he would also illustrate such texts as Charles Grindrod's The Shadow of the Raggedstone (1909) and Justice Darling's On the Oxford Circuit and other Verses (1909). In 1905, he once more exhibited at the Royal Academy's summer exhibition, having submitted a drawing known as The Resurrection of Zoroaster, featuring beaked serpents swirling around the figure of the ancient Persian philosopher who founded Zoroastrianism. Diversifying his employment, In 1906, Spare published his first political cartoon, a satire on the use of Chinese wage slave labourers in British South Africa, which appeared in the pages of The Morning Leader newspaper. When not involved in these jobs, he devoted much of his time to illustrating a second publication, A Book of Satyrs, which consisted of a series of nine satirical images lampooning such institutions as politics and the clergy. The volume contained a number of self-portraits; he also filled many of the images with illustrations of bric-a-brac, of which he was a great collector. The book was finished off with an introduction authored by Scottish painter James Guthrie. Proud of his son's achievement, Spare's father would later inquire as to whether the publisher John Lane of Bodley Head would be interested in re-printing A Book of Satyrs, leading to the release of an expanded second edition in 1909. Meanwhile, in 1907 Spare produced one of his most significant illustrations, a drawing titled Portrait of the Artist, featuring himself sitting behind a table covered in assorted bric-a-brac. His later biographer Phil Baker would later characterise it as "a remarkable work of Edwardian black-and-white art" which was "far more confidently drawn and better finished than the work of the Satyrs".
In October 1907 Spare held his first major exhibition, titled simply "Black and White Drawings by Austin O Spare", at the Bruton Gallery in London's West End. Attracting widespread interest and sensational views in the press, he was widely compared to Aubrey Beardsley, with reviewers commenting on what they saw as the eccentric and grotesque nature of his work. The World commented that "his inventive faculty is stupendous and terrifying in its creative flow of impossible horrors", while The Observer noted that "Mr. Spare's art is abnormal, unhealthy, wildly fantastic and unintelligible". On the other hand, he could, and often did, produce straightforward works of art as fine as any by Durer or Rembrandt, as his friend Hannen Swaffer once observed.
One of those attracted to Spare's work was Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), an occultist who had founded the religion of Thelema in 1904, taking as its basis Crowley's The Book of the Law. Crowley introduced himself to Spare, becoming a patron and champion of his art, which he proclaimed to be a message from the Divine. Spare subsequently submitted several drawings for publication in Crowley's Thelemite journal, The Equinox, receiving payment in the form of an expensive ritual robe. Spare would also be invited to join Crowley's new Thelemite magical order, the A∴A∴ or Argenteum Astrum, which had been co-founded with George Cecil Jones in 1907. Becoming the seventh member of the order in July 1907, where he used the magical name of Yihovaeum, it was through doing so that he befriended the occultist Victor Neuburg, but although he remained in A∴A∴ until 1912, ultimately Spare never became a full member, disliking Crowley's emphasis on strict hierarchy and organisation and becoming heavily critical of the practice of ceremonial magic. Spare would grow to dislike Crowley, with some rumours arising within the British esoteric community that Crowley had actually made sexual advances toward the young artist, something Spare had found repellent, although these have never been proven. In turn, Crowley would claim that Spare was only interested in "black magic" and for that reason had kept him back from fully entering the Order.
Spare's major patron during this period was the wealthy property developer Pickford Waller, although other admirers included Desmond Coke, Ralph Strauss, Lord Howard de Walden and Charles Ricketts. Spare became popular among avant-garde homosexual circles in Edwardian London, with several known gay men becoming patrons of his work. In particular he became good friends with the same-sex couple Marc-André Raffalovich and John Gray, with Spare later characterising the latter as "the most wonderful man I have ever met." Gray would introduce Spare to the Irish novelist George Moore, whom he would subsequently befriend. The actual nature of Spare's sexuality at the time remains debated; his friend Frank Brangwyn would later claim that he was "strongly" homosexual but had suppressed these leanings. In contrast to this, in later life Spare would refer to a wide variety of heterosexual encounters that took place at this time, including with an intersex person, a dwarf with a protuberant forehead and a Welsh maid. He would unsuccessfully also attempt to woo both Sybil Waller, the daughter of Pickford Waller, as well as a younger girl named Constance "Connie" Smith.
Marriage and The Book of Pleasure: 1911–1916
On one occasion, Spare met a middle-aged woman named Mrs Shaw in a pub in Mayfair. Eager to marry off her daughter, who already had one child from an earlier relationship, Mrs Shaw soon introduced Spare to her child, Eily Gertrude Shaw (1888-1938). Spare fell in love, producing a number of portraits of Eily, before marrying her on 4 September 1911. There are differing accounts as to where the wedding took place, with Spare claiming that it occurred in St George's, Hanover Square, although later biographer Phil Baker suggested that it might instead have been at St George's Register Office. At the wedding, Spare choked on his wedding cake, something his bride thought hilarious. Together, they moved into a flat at 8b Golders Green Parade, located in the North London suburb of Golders Green. Here, they became neighbours to Spare's old friend Sylvia Pankhurst, with Spare also befriending several local Jews, reading works of Jewish literature such as the Zohar and The Song of Solomon in order to impress them. Within a few years they would move to a ground floor flat at 298 Kennington Park Road. However, the relationship between Spare and his wife was strained; unlike him, she was "unintellectual and materialistic", and disliked many of his friends, particularly the younger males, asking him to cease his association with them.
Around 1910, Spare illustrated The Starlit Mire, a book of epigrams written by two doctors, James Bertram and F. Russell, in which his illustrations once more displayed his interest in the abnormal and the grotesque. Another notable work from this period was an illustration known as A Fantasy, which included a self-portrait of Spare surrounded by a variety of horned animals and a horned hermaphrodite creature, visually depicting his belief in the innate mental connection between humanity and our non-human ancestors.
Over a period of several years, Spare began work on his third tome, The Book of Pleasure (Self Love): The Psychology of Ecstasy, which he self-published in 1913. Exploring his own mystical ideas regarding the human being and their unconscious mind, it also discussed magic and the use of sigils. In a note included in the publication, Spare stated that there were still many sections of the book missing, including a proposed introduction written by Daniel Phaer, but that he hoped these would be included in a second edition; ultimately this would never come about. "Conceived initially as a pictorial allegory the book quickly evolved into a much deeper work, drawing inspiration from Taoism and Buddhism, but primarily from his experiences as an artist." The book sold poorly, and received a mixed review from the Times Literary Supplement, which while accepting Spare's "technical mastery", was more critical of much of the content.
In July 1914, Spare held another exhibition of his work, this time at the Baillie Gallery in Bruton St, London. This was his first one-man exhibition. At the same time, he was involved in a newly launched popular art magazine known as Colour, which was edited in Victoria Street, submitting a number of contributions to its early issues. He soon developed the idea of founding his own art magazine, suggesting the idea to the publisher John Lane, who had formerly produced The Yellow Book, an influential periodical that had appeared between 1894 to 1897. Envisioning his new venture, titled Form, as a successor to The Yellow Book, he was joined as co-editor by the etcher Frederick Carter, who used the pseudonym of Francis Marsden. The first issue appeared in the summer of 1916, containing contributions from Edmund Joseph Sullivan, Walter de la Mare, Frank Brangwyn, W.H. Davies, J.C. Squire, Ricketts and Shannon. Spare and Carter co-wrote an article discussing automatic writing, arguing that it allowed the unconscious part of the mind to produce art, a theme that Spare had previously dealt with in The Book of Pleasure. Generally, Form was poorly received by the critics and the public, being described as a "very horrible publication" by George Bernard Shaw, who proclaimed its design and layout to be "ancient Morrisian" and thereby out of fashion. Although initially designed to be a quarterly, the second edition of Form only emerged in April 1917, and soon after, Carter would resign due to arguments with Spare.
World War I, The Focus of Life and The Anathema of Zos: 1917–1927
In 1917, with the First World War still raging, the British government implemented the Military Service Act III, conscripting into the armed forces men who had previously been rejected on medical grounds. As a result, Spare was forced to join the Royal Army Medical Corps, initially being stationed at its depot in Blackpool, where he worked as a medical orderly, giving tetanus vaccine injections to British troops before they were sent abroad. At Blackpool, he was reprimanded for scruffiness, and complained that a part of his pay was being taken away for a "sports fund." Towards the end of 1918 he was posted back to London, where he was based at the King George's Hospital Barracks in Stamford Street, Waterloo. Here, he was appointed to the position of Acting Staff-Sergeant, and given the task of illustrating the conflict along with other artists based in a studio at 76 Fulham Road. In later life, he would glamorize his time serving in the army during the conflict, falsely claiming that he served in Egypt, where he studied ancient hieroglyphics, and that he fought on the Western Front, claiming he had to hide under a pile of corpses in No Man's Land.
Spare was demobilized in 1919. Following the victory of Britain and its allies, Spare had moved into a small flat at 8 Gilbert Place in Bloomsbury, Central London, where he lived alone; although they never gained a divorce, Spare had separated from his wife Eily, who had begun a relationship with another man. Focusing on the writing and illustration of a new book, 1921 saw the publication of The Focus of Life The Mutterings of AOS by Morland Press. Edited and introduced by Frederick Carter, the book once more dealt with Spare's mystical ideas, continuing many of the themes explored in The Book of Pleasure. The success of this book led Spare to decide to revive Form, with the first issue appearing in a new format in October 1921, edited by Spare and his friend W.H. Davies. Intended to be populist in tone, contributions came from Sidney Sime, Robert Graves, Herbert Furst, Laura Knight, Frank Brangwyn, Glyn Philpot, Edith Sitwell, Walter de la Mare, J.F.C. Fuller and Havelock Ellis. However, Spare discontinued the magazine after the third issue, which was published in January 1922. He then moved on the production of another art journal, The Golden Hind, co-edited with Clifford Bax and published by Chapman and Hall. The first issue appeared in October 1922, featuring a lithograph from Spare titled "The New Eden." Faced with problems, the journal eventually decreasing in size from a folio to a quarto, and in 1924 it folded after eight issues.
Spare had moved to South London, to a run-down council flat at 52 Becket House, Tabard Street in Southwark, describing his life there as that of "a swine, with swine." Here, he developed a great love of radio after the launch of Radio 2LO in 1922. The summer of 1924 saw Spare produce a sketchbook of "automatic drawings" titled The Book of Ugly Ecstasy, which contained a series of grotesque creatures; the sole copy of the book would be purchased by the art historian Gerald Reitlinger. The spring of 1925 then saw the production of a similar sketchbook, A Book of Automatic Drawings, and then a further suite of pictures, titled The Valley of Fear. He also began work on a new book, a piece of automatic writing titled The Anathema of Zos: The Sermon to the Hypocrites, which served as a criticism of British society influenced by the ideas of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. Spare would self-publish it in an edition of 100 copies from his sister's house in Goodmayes, Essex, in 1927. That year he also produced a series of six pictures, each depicting a female head in a different pose, which biographer Phil Baker thought were particularly good; Baker remarked that, during the late 1920s, Spare was actually producing "some of his finest drawing", reminiscent in many respects of the work of the Pre-Raphaelites.
Surrealism and World War II: 1927–1945
Spare held exhibitions of his work at the St. George's Gallery in Hanover Square in 1927, and then at the Lefevre Gallery in 1929, but his work received little praise in the press or attention from the public. Two major supporters of Spare died around this time, in the form of his father in 1928, and then his primary patron Pickford Waller in 1930, although at his 1927 exhibit (titled "The Journey of the Soul Through Death to Rebirth") he did gain an important new patron and friend in the form of journalist Hannen Swaffer. Living in poverty and with his work becoming unpopular in the mainstream London art scene, Spare contemplated suicide. He then undertook a series of anamorphic portraits, predominantly of young women, which he termed the "Experiments in Reality". Influenced by the work of El Greco, they were exhibited at the Godfrey Phillips Galleries in St James's, Central London in November 1930, an exhibit that proved to be Spare's last in London's West End. In 1932, he moved into a flat at 148 York Road, Waterloo, from where he would hold art shows that had been co-organised by G.S. Sandilands of the Royal College of Art. He proceeded to move to Lambeth for a while, and then in 1936 to Elephant and Castle, a poverty-stricken working class area of South London, where he set up his home in the flat at 56a Walworth Road, situated above the loading bay of a Woolworth's store. He would often be visited at his flat by friends and people interested in purchasing his work, and formed friendships with both Dennis Bardens, whom he had met through Victor Neuberg, Oswell Blakeston and Frank Letchford.
In the summer of 1936, the artistic movement known as surrealism first appeared in London as Salvador Dalí held his first British exhibition at the Alex, Reid and Lefevre Gallery, while the International Surrealist Exhibition opened at the New Burlington Gallery. Surrealism took an interest in automatism and the unconscious, just like Spare's work, and although he did not think highly of the surrealists, he was often described at the time as a British forerunner of the surrealist movement; indeed, the reporter Hubert Nicholson ran a story on him titled "Father of Surrealism – He's a Cockney!". Jumping onto this new craze for surrealism, Spare released a set of what he described as "SURREALIST Racing Forecast Cards" for use in divination. The renewed interest benefited him, with his 1936, 1937 and 1938 exhibitions in Walworth Road proving a success, and he began teaching students at his studio in what he called his Austin Spare School of Draughtsmanship.
Spare would later claim that the German Fuhrer Adolf Hitler took an interest in his work after one of his portraits was purchased by the German embassy in London. According to this story, (the accuracy of which has never been verified), in 1936 Hitler requested that Spare travel to Berlin to produce a portrait of the Nazi leader, but that Spare refused, remarking that "If you are a superman, let me be forever animal." In the late 1930s, Spare would again tell this story, but changed several components of it, claiming that he had actually traveled to Berlin and produced the portrait, but that he had returned to London with it, where he had actually made use of it in the production of an anti-Nazi artwork. When the Second World War broke out against Nazi Germany in 1939, Spare, an ardent anti-Nazi, tried to enlist into the army, but was deemed too old. In the ensuing Blitz of London by the German Luftwaffe, Spare's flat and all the artwork in it was destroyed by a bomb on 10 May 1941, leaving him homeless. His arms were also injured in the blast. At first taking up residence at the working men's hostel in Walworth Road, he then moved into a sculptor's studio in Spitalfields and finally the Brixton basement of his friend Ada Pain at 5 Wynne Road. In these cramped confines, Spare had to sleep on two chairs in lieu of a bed, and was regularly surrounded by stray cats, whom he fed. Despite his personal problems, with this period marking a growing poverty for Spare, he continued working, and proposed the creation of a new art journal with his friend, the poet Vera Wainwright, although this never materialised.
Kenneth Grant and later life: 1946–1956
Following the culmination of the war, Spare held a comeback show in November 1947 at the Archer Gallery. A commercial success, the works on display showed the increasing influence of Spiritualism on his thought, and included a number of portraits of prominent Spiritualists like Arthur Conan Doyle and Kate Fox-Jencken. He also featured a number of portraits of famous movie stars in the exhibit, leading him to later gain the moniker of "the first British Pop Artist".
In the spring of 1949, a recently married woman named Steffi Grant introduced herself to Spare, having developed a fascination with what she read about him in the press. She introduced him to her husband Kenneth Grant (1924–2011), a former disciple of Aleister Crowley's who was greatly interested in the occult. Spare and the Grants became great friends, frequenting a number of London pubs together and sharing books on the subject of the esoteric. Grant gave Spare the title of "Zos vel Thanatos", meaning "Zos or Death", something typical of Grant's "dark sensibility."
The Grants' influence led Spare to begin writing several new occult manuscripts, the Logomachy of Zos and the Zoetic Grimoire of Zos, both published in 1998 in Zos Speaks! by Fulgur Press, edited by Kenneth and Steffi Grant. Under Grant's influence, Spare began to show an increasing interest in witchcraft and the witches' sabbath, producing artworks with titles such as "Witchery", "Walpurgis Vampire" and "Satiated Succubi" and claiming that on a bus he had encountered a group of female witches on their way to the Sabbath. Interested in witchcraft, he was introduced to Gerald Gardner, the founder of Gardnerian Wicca, but remained unconvinced that he offered anything of spiritual worth. In his later publications, Grant would make a variety of different claims regarding Spare that have been widely considered to be dubious or erroneous. Notably, Grant claimed that Spare had been a member of the secretive Cult of Ku, a Chinese occult sect who met in Stockwell to worship a serpent goddess. Spare also apparently painted an altar piece for Grant's magical Nu Isis Lodge.
Spare held his first pub show at the Temple Bar in Walworth Road in late 1949, which again proved successful, earning Spare 250 guineas. One of those who had seen the show was publisher Michael Hall, and impressed by Spare's work, he commissioned him to help provide illustrations for his new periodical, The London Mystery Magazine. The fifth issue, for August–September 1950, contained an article on Spare and his work, while the sixth contained an article written by Algernon Blackwood that was illustrated by Spare. Much of the art that Spare produced in what the biographer Phil Baker called "the Grant period" reflected Spare's interest in tribal art, which both Grant and Spare collected. Many of these works were exhibited in the summer of 1952 at the Mansion House Tavern in Kennington, and then at The White Bear pub in the autumn of 1953, but the latter proved to be a commercial failure. In 1954 he would write that he was fed up of exhibiting in pubs, wishing to return to selling his works from actual galleries. That year he organised a home show, followed by another exhibition at the Archer Gallery in October 1955, displaying his increasing interest in works executed in pastels.
In April 1955, Spare was asked to give an interview for the BBC radio show People Talking, presented by Denis Mitchell. A great fan of the wireless, he eagerly agreed, but was deeply upset by the result, which appeared on an episode titled "Unusual Beliefs", believing that he had been ridiculed.
In failing health, in May 1956 he was submitted to the South Western Hospital in Stockwell with a burst appendix; the doctor noted that he had also been suffering from anaemia, bronchitis, high blood pressure and gall stones. Rushing to see him at his hospital bed, it was here that Spare's two dearest friends, Kenneth Grant and Frank Letchford, met one another for the first time. Spare died on the afternoon of 15 May 1956, at the age of 69. In his will, Spare left Letchford his first choice of 15 pictures, with Grant getting the second choice of 10 others, along with all of his books and papers. His funeral was paid for by his friend Hannen Swaffer, and he was buried alongside his father at St. Mary's Church in Ilford.
As artist
Spare's work is remarkable for its variety, including paintings, a vast number of drawings, work with pastel, a few etchings, published books combining text with imagery, and even bizarre bookplates. He was productive from his earliest years until his death. According to Haydn Mackay, "rhythmic ornament grew from his hand seemingly without conscious effort."
Spare was regarded as an artist of considerable talent and good prospects, but his style was apparently controversial. Critical reaction to his work in period ranged from baffled but impressed, to patronizing and dismissive. An anonymous review of The Book of Satyrs published in December 1909, which must have appeared around the time of Spare's 23rd birthday, is by turns condescending and grudgingly respectful, "Mr. Spare's work is evidently that of young man of talent." However, "What is more important is the personality lying behind these various influences. And here we must credit Mr. Spare with a considerable fund of fancy and invention, although the activities of his mind still find vent through somewhat tortuous channels. Like most young men he seems to take himself somewhat too seriously". Our critic ends his review with the observation that Spare's "drawing is often more shapeless and confused than we trust it will be when he has assimilated better the excellent influences upon which he has formed his style."
Two years later another anonymous review (this time of The Starlit Mire, for which Spare provided ten drawings) suggests, "When Mr. Spare was first heard of six or seven years ago he was hailed in some quarters as the new Beardsley, and as the work of a young man of seventeen his drawings had a certain amount of vigour and originality. But the years have not dealt kindly with Mr. Spare, and he must not be content with producing in his majority what passed muster in his nonage. However, his designs are not inappropriate for the crude paradoxes that form the text of this book. It is far easier to imitate an epigram than to invent one."
In a 1914 review of The Book of Pleasure, the critic (again anonymous) seems resigned to bewilderment, "It is impossible for me to regard Mr. Spare's drawings otherwise than as diagrams of ideas which I have quite failed to unravel; I can only regret that a good draughtsman limits the scope of his appeal".
From October 1922 to July 1924 Spare edited, jointly with Clifford Bax, the quarterly, Golden Hind for Chapman and Hall publishers. This was a short-lived project, but during its brief career it reproduced impressive figure drawing and lithographs by Spare and others. In 1925 Spare, Alan Odle, John Austen, and Harry Clarke showed together at the St George's Gallery, and in 1930 at the Godfrey Philips Galleries. The 1930 show was the last West End show Spare would have for 17 years.
Spare's obituary printed in The Times of 16 May 1956 states:
Thereafter Spare was rarely found in the purlieus of Bond St. He would teach a little from January to June, then up to the end of October, would finish various works, and from the beginning of November to Christmas would hang his products in the living-room, bedroom, and kitchen of his flat in the Borough. There he kept open house; critics and purchasers would go down, ring the bell, be admitted, and inspect the pictures, often in the company of some of the models - working women of the neighbourhood. Spare was convinced that there was a great potential demand for pictures at 2 or 3 guineas each, and condemned the practice of asking £20 for "amateurish stuff". He worked chiefly in pastel or pencil, drawing rapidly, often taking no more than two hours over a picture. He was especially interested in delineating the old, and had various models over 70 and one as old as 93.
But Spare did not entirely disappear. During the late 1930s he developed and exhibited a style of painting based on a logarithmic form of anamorphic projection which he called "siderealism". This work appears to have been well received. In 1947 he exhibited at the Archer Gallery, producing over 200 works for the show. It was a very successful show and led to something of a post-war renaissance of interest.
Public awareness of Spare seems to have declined somewhat in the 1960s before the slow but steady revival of interest in his work beginning in the mid-1970s. The following passage in a discussion of an exhibit including Spare's work in the summer of 1965 suggests some critics had hoped he would disappear into obscurity forever. The critic writes that the curator of the exhibit
has resurrected an unknown English artist named Austin Osman Spare, who imitates etchings in pen and ink in the manner of Beardsley but really harks back to the macabre German romanticism. He tortured himself before the first war and would have inspired the surrealist movement had he been discovered early enough. He has come back in time to play a belated part in the revival of taste for art nouveau.
Robert Ansell summarized Spare's artistic contributions as follows:
During his lifetime, Spare left critics unable to place his work comfortably. Ithell Colquhoun supported his claim to have been a proto-Surrealist and posthumously the critic Mario Amaya made the case for Spare as a Pop Artist. Typically, he was both of these - and neither. A superb figurative artist in the mystical tradition, Spare may be regarded as one of the last English Symbolists, following closely his great influence George Frederick Watts. The recurrent motifs of androgyny, death, masks, dreams, vampires, satyrs and religious themes, so typical of the art of the French and Belgian Symbolists, find full expression in Spare's early work, along with a desire to shock the bourgeois.
Zos Kia Cultus
From his early years, Spare developed his own magico-religious philosophy which has come to be known as the Zos Kia Cultus (also Zos–Kia Cultus), a term coined by the occultist Kenneth Grant. Raised in the Anglican denomination of Christianity, Spare had come to denounce this monotheistic faith when he was seventeen, telling a reporter that "I am devising a religion of my own which embodies my conception of what; we are, we were, and shall be in the future."
Zos and Kia
Key to Spare's magico-religious views were the dual concepts of Zos and Kia. Spare described "Zos" as the human body and mind, and would later adopt the term as a pseudonym for himself. Biographer Phil Baker believed that Spare derived the word from the Ancient Greek words zoe, meaning life, and zoion, meaning animal or beast, with Spare also being attracted to the exotic nature of the letter "z", which rarely appears in the English language. The author Alan Moore disagreed, believing that the term "ZOS" had instead been adopted by Spare to counterbalance his own initials, "AOS", in which the A would represent the beginning of the alphabet, and the Z would represent the end. In this way, Moore argued, Spare was offering an "ultimate and transcendent expression of himself at the extremities of his own being."
Spare used the term "Kia", which he pronounced keah or keer, to refer to a universal mind or ultimate power, akin to the Hindu idea of Brahman or the Taoist idea of the Tao. Phil Baker believed that Spare had developed this word either from Eastern or Cabalistic words such as ki, chi, khya or chiah. Alternately, he thought that it might have been adopted from Madame Blavatsky in her book The Secret Doctrine, which refers to the idea of an ultimate power as Kia-yu.
The unconscious mind
Spare placed great emphasis on the unconscious part of the mind, believing that it was the source of inspiration. He considered the conscious part of the mind to be useless for this, believing that it only served to reinforce the separation between ourselves and that which we desire.
It has been argued that Spare's magic depended (at least in part) upon psychological repression. According to one author, Spare's magical rationale was as follows, "If the psyche represses certain impulses, desires, fears, and so on, and these then have the power to become so effective that they can mold or even determine entirely the entire conscious personality of a person right down to the most subtle detail, this means nothing more than the fact that through repression ("forgetting") many impulses, desires, etc. have the ability to create a reality to which they are denied access as long as they are either kept alive in the conscious mind or recalled into it. Under certain conditions, that which is repressed can become even more powerful than that which is held in the conscious mind."
Spare believed that intentionally repressed material would become enormously effective in the same way that "unwanted" (since not consciously provoked) repressions and complexes have tremendous power over the person and his or her shaping of reality. It was a logical conclusion to view the subconscious mind as the source of all magical power, which Spare soon did. In his opinion, a magical desire cannot become truly effective until it has become an organic part of the subconscious mind.
Despite his interest in the unconscious, Spare was deeply critical of the ideas put forward by the psychoanalysts Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, referring to them as "Fraud and Junk."
Atavistic resurgence
Spare also believed in what he called "atavistic resurgence", the idea that the human mind contains atavistic memories that have their origins in earlier species on the evolutionary ladder. In Spare's worldview, the "soul" was actually the continuing influence of "the ancestral animals" that humans had evolved from, that could be tapped into to gain insight and qualities from past incarnations. In many ways this theory offered a unison of reincarnation and evolution, both being factors which Spare saw intertwined which furthered evolutionary progression. For these reasons, he believed in the intimate unity between humans and other species in the animal world; this was visually reflected in his art through the iconography of the horned humanoid figures. Although this "atavistic resurgence" was very different from orthodox Darwinism, Spare greatly admired the evolutionary biologist Charles Darwin, and in later life paid a visit to the Kentish village of Downe, where Darwin had written his seminal text On the Origin of Species (1859).
Magic and sigils
Spare "elaborated his sigils by condensing letters of the alphabet into diagrammatic glyphs of desire, which were to be integrated into postural (yogalike) practices—monograms of thought, for the government of energy." Spare's work is contemporaneous with Hugo Ball's attempts "to rediscover the evangelical concept of the 'word' (logos) as a magical complex image"—as well as with Walter Benjamin's thesis that "Mediation, which is the immediacy of all mental communication, is the fundamental problem of linguistic theory, and if one chooses to call this immediacy magic, then the primary problem of language is its magic. Spare's 'sentient symbols' and his 'alphabet of desire' situate this mediatory magic in a libidinal framework of Tantric—which is to say cosmological—proportions." (An alphabet of desire modelled after Spare's ideas has since been developed by Peter J. Carroll amongst others, especially in his influential Liber Null, a sourcebook of chaos magic.)
Following his experience with Aleister Crowley and other Thelemites, Spare developed a hostile view of ceremonial magic and many of those occultists who practised it, describing them as "the unemployed dandies of the Brothels" in The Book of Pleasure.
Personal life
Spare was often described as "down-to-earth" by friends, who often made note of his kindness. Throughout his life, Spare was an animal lover, taking care of any animals that he found near his home. He was a member of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA), and in many photographs can be seen wearing his RSPCA badge.
Legacy and influence
In art
In 1964, the Greenwich Gallery held an exhibition of Spare's work accompanied by a catalogue essay by the Pop Artist Mario Amaya, who believed that Spare's artworks depicting celebrities, produced in the late 1930s and 1940s, represented "the first examples of Pop art in this country." Furthermore, he proclaimed that Spare's automatic drawings "predicted Abstract Expressionism long before the name of Jack [sic] Pollock was heard of in England." London's The Viktor Wynd Museum of Curiosities, Fine Art & Natural History has a permanent gallery dedicated to his work - The Spare Room
A portrait of an old man, with a beard, by Spare was shown on the BBC Television programme Antiques Roadshow in March 2020, and was described as being very different in style to his usual work.
In esotericism
Some of Spare's techniques, particularly the use of sigils and the creation of an "alphabet of desire" were adopted, adapted and popularized by Peter J. Carroll in the work Liber Null & Psychonaut. Carroll and other writers such as Ray Sherwin are seen as key figures in the emergence of some of Spare's ideas and techniques as a part of a magical movement loosely referred to as chaos magic.
In music
Bulldog Breed, a British psychedelic band, have a song entitled "Austin Osmanspare" on their one and only album Made in England (1969).
Fields of the Nephilim, an English gothic rock band, have a live album title Earth Inferno which shares its name with a self-published book of the same name.
John Balance of the influential early industrial music group Coil described Spare as being his "mentor," and claimed that "what Spare did in art, we try to do through music."
The Polish death metal band Behemoth recorded a studio album entitled Zos Kia Cultus in Warsaw in September 2002.
The British crust band Amebix made heavy use of a face taken from one of his paintings.
On his 2021 album Dies occendium, DJ Muggs of Cypress Hill has a track titled "Alphabet of Desire".
In magic
"Zos Kia Cultus" is a term coined by Kenneth Grant, with different meanings for different people. One interpretation is that it is a form, style, or school of magic inspired by Spare. It focuses on one's individual universe and the influence of the magician's will on it. While the Zos Kia Cultus has very few adherents today, it is widely considered an important influence on the rise of chaos magic.
In culture
In 2016 a new street was named after the artist near his former home in Elephant and Castle. Spare Street, created from a series of refurbished railway arches, is part of Southwark's fledgling 'Low Line' project and is home to local arts organisation Hotel Elephant.
Exhibitions
Bruton Galleries, London, October 1907
The Baillie Gallery, London, 11–31 October 1911
The Baillie Gallery, London, 10–31 October 1912
The Ryder Gallery, London, 17 April – 7 May 1912
The Baillie Gallery, London, July 1914
St. George’s Gallery, London, March 1927
The Lefevre Galleries, London, April 1929
Godfrey Phillips Galleries, London, November 1930
Artist's studio, 56A Walworth Road, Elephant, London, Autumn, 1937
Artist's studio, 56a Walworth Road, Elephant, London, Autumn, 1938
Archer Gallery, London, 3–30 July November 1947
The Temple Bar (Doctors), 286 Walworth Rd. London, 28 October – 29 November 1949
The Mansion House Tavern, 12 June – 12 July 1952
The White Bear, London, 19 November – 1 December 1953
Archer Gallery, London, 25 October – 26 November 1955
The Greenwich Gallery, London, 23 July – 12 August 1964
Alpine Club Gallery (Group Exhibition), London, 22 June – 2 July 1965
The Obelisk Gallery, London, 1972
The Taranman Gallery, London, 2–23 September 1974
Oliver Bradbury & James Birch Fine Art, London, 17 November – 8 December 1984
The Morley College Gallery, London, September 1987
Henry Boxer, London, November 1992
Arnolfini, Bristol, 2007
Cuming Museum, South London, September–November 2010
Atlantis Bookshop, London, 2010
The Viktor Wynd Museum of Curiosities, Fine Art & Natural History, October 2014 -
Bibliography
Books written and illustrated by Spare in his lifetime
Books illustrated by Spare
Behind the Veil by Ethel Rolt Wheeler. Issued by David Nutt 1906
Songs From The Classics by Charles F. Grindrod. Published by David Nutt 1907
The Shadow of the Ragged Stone published by Elkin Mathews. First ed 1887 (no Spare illustration). 2nd edition 1909 has a Spare illustration to the front board.
The Equinox published by Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co. Ltd. 1909
On the Oxford Circuit and Other Verses by Hon Mr Justice Darling. Published by Smith, Elder & Co. 1909
The Starlit Mire by James Bertrand Russell. Published by John Lane 1911 (ed of 350 copies). Reissued London: Temple Press, 1989 (500 copies).
Eight Poems by W.B. Yeats transcribed by Edward Pay. Published by Form at The Morland Press Ltd. 1916 (200 copies)
Twelve Poems by J.C. Squire. Published by The Morland Press Ltd. 1916
The Gold Tree (stories) by J.C. Squire published by Martin Secker 1917
The Youth and the Sage by Warren Retlaw. Privately printed, 1927. Reissued: Oxon: Mandrake Press, 2003.
Magazines edited by Spare
Form - A Quarterly of the Arts 1916–1922
Golden Hind 1922–1924
The majority of the books listed above are available as modern reprints. For a more complete listing see Clive Harper's Revised Notes Towards A Bibliography of Austin Osman Spare.
Significant titles published since Spare's death include Poems and Masks, A Book of Automatic Drawings, 1974, The Collected Works of Austin Osman Spare, 1986, Axiomata & The Witches' Sabbath, 1992, From The Inferno To Zos (3 Vol. Set), The Book of Ugly Ecstasy, 1996, Zos Speaks, 1999, The Valley of Fear, 2008, Dearest Vera, 2010 and Two Grimoires, 2011.
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Drury, Nevill. "The Magic of Austin Spare" in Echoes from the Void: Writings, Visionary Art and the New Consciousness. Woollahra, NSW: Unity Press and Bridgport, Dorset UK: Prism Press, 1994. . See Chapter 5, pp. 86–103.
Drury, Nevill. The History of Magic in the Modern Age: A Quest for Personal Transformation. London: Constable, 2000. . See Chapter 5, "Some Other Magical Visionaries," pp. 121–34.
External links
Jerusalem Press: High-quality books on Spare's art and life
AustinSpare.co.uk: Articles, Genealogy, and Bibliography
Fulgur: Official Publishers, Biography and Articles
Spare's illustrations for The Starlit Mire by James Bertram and F. Russell
Artist and Familiar by Joseph Nechvatal
The London based Austin Osman Spare Society
A psychogeographical film of Austin Spare's London (part 1)
Austin Osman Spare Galleries
Jason (Spaceman) Jones by Jon Lange (A children's novel based on the sorcery of Spare)
1886 births
1956 deaths
British Army personnel of World War I
20th-century English painters
19th-century English painters
English male painters
English occult writers
People from the City of London
Royal Army Medical Corps soldiers
Fantastic art
World War I artists
LGBT writers from England
Artist authors
LGBT artists from the United Kingdom
Art Nouveau painters
Artists from London
People from Holborn
British war artists
19th-century male artists
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] |
208879
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime%20Minister%20of%20Iraq
|
Prime Minister of Iraq
|
The prime minister of Iraq is the head of government of Iraq. On 7 May 2020, Mustafa Al-Kadhimi became the incumbent prime minister after Adil Abdul-Mahdi resigned.
History
The prime minister was originally an appointed office, subsidiary to the head of state, and the nominal leader of the Iraqi parliament. Under the newly adopted constitution the prime minister is the country's active executive authority. Nouri al-Maliki (formerly Jawad al-Maliki) was selected to be prime minister on 21 April 2006. On 14 August 2014, al-Maliki agreed to step down as prime minister of Iraq to allow Haider al-Abadi to take his place. On 25 October 2018, Adil Abdul-Mahdi was sworn into office five months after the 2018 elections until his resignation in 2019. He was once again appointed, this time as a caretaker prime minister due to political dispute. Abdul-Mahdi was replaced by Mustafa Al-Kadhimi, who was approved by the parliament on 7 May 2020.
Appointment
The Council of Representatives elected the president of the Republic and his deputies, including the president of the Council of Ministers. The Presidency Council then shall name a prime minister unanimously. According to this, the Presidency Council must agree on a candidate for the post within two weeks. If it fails to do so, then the responsibility of naming the prime minister reverts to the National Assembly. In that event, the Council of Representatives must confirm the nomination by an absolute majority. If the prime minister is unable to nominate his Council of Ministers within one month, the Presidency Council shall name another prime minister.
Agencies directly subordinate
The Iraqi Counter Terrorism Bureau reports to the prime minister directly. The Iraqi CTB oversees the Iraqi Counter Terrorism Command, a formation that includes all Iraqi Special Operations Forces. As of 30 June 2009, there had been legislation in progress for a year to make the Iraqi CTB a separate ministry.
Seat
The prime minister's office is located in the Al Zaqura Building in Baghdad.
See also
List of prime ministers of Iraq
List of kings of Iraq
List of presidents of Iraq
References
Government of Iraq
Prime Ministers of Iraq
1920 establishments in Iraq
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armored%20cruiser
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Armored cruiser
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The armored cruiser was a type of warship of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was designed like other types of cruisers to operate as a long-range, independent warship, capable of defeating any ship apart from a battleship and fast enough to outrun any battleship it encountered.
For many decades, naval technology had not advanced far enough for designers to produce a cruiser which combined an armored belt with the long range and high speed required to fulfill its mission. For this reason, beginning in the 1880s and 1890s, many navies preferred to build protected cruisers, which only relied on a light armored deck to protect the vital parts of the ship. However, by the late 1880s, the development of modern rapid-fire breech-loading cannon and high-explosive shells made the reintroduction of side armor a necessity. The invention of face-hardened armor in the mid-1890s offered effective protection with less weight than previously.
Varying in size, the armored cruiser was distinguished from other types of cruiser by its belt armor—thick iron (or later steel) plating on much of the hull to protect the ship from shellfire much like that on battleships. The first armored cruiser, the Imperial Russian Navy's , was launched in 1873 and combined sail and steam propulsion. By the 1890s, cruisers had abandoned sail and took on a modern appearance.
In 1908, the armored cruiser was supplanted by the battlecruiser, which, with armament equivalent to that of a dreadnought battleship and speed equivalent to that of a cruiser, was faster and more powerful than an armored cruiser. At around the same time, the term "light cruiser" came into use for small cruisers with armored belts. Despite the fact they were now considered second-rate ships, armored cruisers were widely used in World War I. Most surviving armored cruisers from this conflict were scrapped under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, which imposed limits on warships and defined a cruiser as a ship of 10,000 tons or less carrying guns of 8-inch caliber or less—rather smaller than many of the large armored cruisers. A handful survived in one form or another until World War II. Only one, the Greek Navy's Georgios Averof, has survived to the modern day as a museum ship.
History
Background
The armored cruiser was developed in the 1870s as an attempt to combine the virtues of the armored ironclad warship and the fast and long-ranged, but unarmored, cruisers of the time. Such a ship was desirable to protect overseas trade and, especially for the French and British, to police their vast overseas empires. The concern within higher naval circles was that without ships that could fulfill these requirements and incorporate new technology, their fleet would become obsolete and ineffective should a war at sea arise. Concern over obsolescence in official circles was further fueled by the race between the increasing size of naval guns and of armor strong enough to withstand such fire. In 1860, one of the largest naval cannons in standard use had a bore of and fired a solid shot or approximately spherical shell. By 1884, guns with as wide a bore as , firing an exploding shell, were being mounted on naval vessels. This gun could penetrate up to 34 inches of wrought iron, the earliest form of naval armor. These were muzzle-loading guns, as had been used on ships from the 1500s. Breech-loading cannon, which were readopted into naval use in the 1870s, were more destructive than muzzle loaders due to their higher rate of fire. The development of rifled cannon, which improved accuracy, and advancements in shells were other factors. Although a cruiser would not likely face the largest-caliber guns of a battleship and many navies commonly used smaller weapons as they did not wear out as fast as larger ones did, cruisers still needed some form of protection to preclude being shot to pieces.
The adoption of rolled iron armor in 1865 and sandwich armor in 1870 gave ships a chance to withstand fire from larger guns. Both these protective schemes used wood as an important component, which made them extremely heavy and limited speed, the key factor in a cruiser's ability to perform its duties satisfactorily. While the first ocean-going ironclads had been launched around 1860, the "station ironclads" built for long-range colonial service such as the British and French were too slow, at 13 and 11 knots respectively, to raid enemy commerce or hunt down enemy commerce raiders, tasks usually assigned to frigates or corvettes. Powered by both sail and steam but without the additional weight of armor, these ships could reach speeds of up to 16 or 17 knots. The most powerful among them were the British , the U.S. Navy's and the French . The British especially had hoped to rely on these vessels to serve the more distant reaches of its empire. In the aftermath of the Battle of Hampton Roads in 1862, where United States wooden warships were defeated by the Confederate ironclad , the Admiralty realized that its ships could theoretically encounter an ironclad in any theater of operation.
Ship propulsion was improving but was also taking time to develop. Naval engines in the 1860s were single-expansion types, in which steam was expanded into a cylinder, pushed a piston and was released. Compounding, where steam is passed through a series of cylinders of increasing size before being released, was a more efficient process; it allowed the steam to generate more energy and use less coal to go the same distance. With greater efficiency came increasingly complex machinery and the larger potential for breakdown. However, advances in metallurgy and engineering, the potential for smaller bunkerage and the successful use of compounding in commercial engines made it an attractive option for naval engines, as well. By the 1870s, compound engines had become standard for warships. Compounding by itself did not increase power or speed significantly, although it allowed for a much greater operating range. Forced-draught systems would help increase power and speed but would not come into use until the early 1890s.
1870s: First armored cruisers
The Russian navy became the first to produce an armored warship intended for commerce raiding, with , begun in 1870 and launched in 1873, often referred to as the first armored cruiser. Armed with six and two guns, she and her sister were not fully armored but protected only by a narrow belt along the waterline. This belt, moreover, was so heavy that it sat below the ships' waterlines, which limited its benefit still further. Since they were iron-hulled, however, they were more durable than their wooden counterparts. With a top speed of only and a high coal consumption, which necessitated a full sailing rig, they were not really suited for the role of cruiser. Nevertheless, these ships were considered a new threat to British commerce in the event of war, the rationale being that any vessel, regardless of its speed, could technically be a threat to overseas commerce.
The British responded with , begun in 1873, launched in 1875 and armed with two and seven rifled guns. Two ships of the followed, armed with four 10-inch and eight 9-inch guns. These early armored cruisers were essentially scaled-down versions of the first-rate ironclad warships of the time and, like their Russian counterparts, were essentially belted cruisers. Their 9-inch belts were thicker than that of the Russians but did not extend the full length of the hull due to weight but tapered off at both ends. Past this belt, the designers placed a armored deck, situated deepest in the ships, to guard magazines and machinery against plunging fire. Above this deck, space was allocated for coal bunkers and storerooms. These areas served a two-fold purpose. The bunkers served as added protection, since two feet of coal was considered the equivalent of one foot of steel. Also, if either of the ships became flooded from battle damage, it was hoped the contents of the bunkers and storerooms would aid in their continued buoyancy. Because of this unarmored protection, these ships could be considered the first protected cruisers. However, these ships also shared the liabilities of the Russian ones and because of this, the British navy was never happy with them. Shannons top speed of and Nelsons of made them too slow to deal with fast cruisers and they were not armored well enough to take on a first-class battleship. Their armor belts also sat below the ships' waterlines, which made them of limited benefit.
The underlying problem with these early warships was that technology had not caught up to the demands being made of them; therefore, they represented a series of compromises and could not be fully effective. They were typically powered by double-expansion steam engines fed by boilers which generated steam at perhaps 60 or 70 psi pressure, which gave relatively poor efficiency and short range. Even with improved engines, the dearth of overseas refueling stations made a full sailing rig a necessity. As sailing ships required a high freeboard and a large degree of stability, the use of armored turrets as used on monitors and some battleships was ruled out, because a turret was a very heavy weight high in the ship and its placement necessitated a lower freeboard than was warranted for an oceangoing vessel. (The loss of in 1870 with nearly all of her 500-man crew illustrated graphically what could happen in a heavy sea with a steam-and-sail turret ship.) Consequently, armored cruisers retained a more traditional broadside arrangement. Their armor was distributed in a thick belt around the waterline along most of their length; the gun positions on deck were not necessarily armored at all. The limitations of these ships would not be rectified fully until decades after their construction.
Meanwhile, a battle in May 1877 between the British unarmored cruiser and the Peruvian monitor demonstrated the need for more and better-protected cruisers. Shah and the smaller wooden corvette hit Huáscar more than 50 times without causing significant damage. The Peruvian ship had an inexperienced crew unused to its cumbersome machinery, and managed to fire only six rounds, all of which missed. The engagement demonstrated the value of cruisers with armor protection.
Rise of the protected cruiser in the 1880s
During the 1870s, the rapid increase in the size and power of armor-piercing guns caused problems for the designers of battleships and cruisers alike. Even a ship designed with adequate armor protection from the current generation of guns might be vulnerable to new guns powerful enough to penetrate its armor. Consequently, naval designers tried a novel method of armoring their ships. The vital parts—engines, boilers, magazines and enough hull structure to keep the ship stable in the event of damage—could be positioned underneath an armored deck just below the waterline. This deck, which would only be struck very obliquely by shells, could be thinner and lighter than belt armor. The sides of the ship would be entirely unarmored but would be as effective as an armored belt which would not stop shellfire. Cruisers designed along these guidelines, known as protected cruisers, superseded armored cruisers in the 1880s and early 1890s.
As mentioned earlier, the armored cruiser Shannon was the first ship to make use of an armored deck. However, by the end of the 1870s, ships could be found with full–length armored decks and little or no side armor. The Italian of very fast battleships had armored decks and guns but no side armor. The British used a full-length armored deck in their of corvettes started in 1878; however the Comus class were designed for colonial service and were only capable of speed, not fast enough for commerce protection or fleet duties.
The breakthrough for the protected cruiser design came with the Chilean , designed and built by the British firm Armstrong at their Elswick yard. Esmeralda, with a high speed of , dispensed entirely with sails and carried an armament of two 10-inch and six 6-inch guns, considered very powerful for a ship her size. Her protection scheme, inspired by the Italia class, included a full–length protected deck up to thick, and a cork-filled cofferdam along her sides. Esmeralda set the tone for cruiser construction for the years to come, with "Elswick cruisers" on a similar design being constructed for Italy, China, Japan, Argentina, Austria and the United States. Protected cruisers became attractive for two reasons. First, the concept of the armored cruiser was not embraced wholeheartedly in naval circles. Second, several navies were caught in a race between armor thickness and the size of main guns and did not have the money to spend on battleships and armored cruisers. The use of smaller, cheaper cruisers was a better alternative.
The French navy adopted the protected cruiser wholeheartedly in the 1880s. The Jeune Ecole school of thought, which proposed a navy composed of fast cruisers for commerce raiding and torpedo-boats for coast defense, was particularly influential in France. The first French protected cruiser was , laid down in 1882, and followed by six classes of protected cruiser – and no armored cruisers until , laid down in 1888 but not finished until 1895. Dupuy de Lôme was a revolutionary ship, being the first French armored cruiser to dispose entirely of masts, and sheathed in steel armor. However, she and two other were not sufficiently seaworthy, and their armor could be penetrated by modern quick-firing guns. Thus from 1891–1897 the French reverted to the construction of protected cruisers.
The British Royal Navy was equivocal about which protection scheme to use until 1887. The large , begun in 1881 and finished in 1886, were built as armored cruisers but were often referred to as protected cruisers. While they carried an armored belt some 10 in thick, the belt only covered of the length of the ship, and was submerged below the waterline at full load. The real protection of the class came from the armored deck thick, and the arrangement of coal bunkers to prevent flooding. These ships were also the last armored cruisers to be designed with sails. However, on trials it became clear that the masts and sails did more harm than good; they were removed and replaced by a single military mast with machine guns.
The next class of small cruisers in the Royal Navy, the , were protected cruisers, but the Royal Navy then returned to the armored cruiser with the , begun in 1885 and completed in 1889. The navy judged the Orlandos inferior to protected cruisers and built exclusively protected cruisers immediately afterwards, including some very large, fast ships like the 14,000-ton . However, the Orlandos were the first class of cruiser to use the triple-expansion engine. Because this type of reciprocating engine used the steam in three stages, it was more fuel-efficient than earlier compound engines. It also used steam of higher pressure, 60 poundforce per square inch, as compared to the 25 to 30 poundforce in earlier engines. With these engineering developments, warships could now dispense with sails and be entirely steam-driven.
The only major naval power to retain a preference for armored cruisers during the 1880s was Russia. The Russian Navy laid down four armored cruisers and one protected cruiser during the decade, all being large ships with sails.
Armored cruisers in the pre-dreadnought era
The development of rapid–fire cannons in the late 1880s forced a change in cruiser design. Since a large number of hits at or near the waterline could negate the effect of water–excluding material used in protected cruisers, side armor again became a priority. Four inches (c. 10 cm) was considered adequate. However, it had to cover not just guns and the waterline but also much of the hull structure in–between; otherwise, the equally new high–explosive shells could penetrate and destroy much of the unarmored portion of the ship. Another development was the publication in 1890 of American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan's book The Influence of Sea Power upon History. While Mahan emphasized the importance of battleships above all other types of warships in obtaining command of the sea, armored cruisers and large protected cruisers could still be used as second-class battleships to maintain control of the sea lanes and potentially as fighting units of a battle fleet.
The armored cruisers built in the mid– to late–1890s were often as large and expensive as pre-dreadnought battleships. They combined long range, high speed and an armament approaching that of battleship with enough armor to protect them against quick-firing guns, considered the most important weapons afloat at the time. Their speed was made possible due to another development, case-hardened steel armor—first Harvey armor and then crucially Krupp armor. The higher tensile strength of these armors compared to nickel steel and mild steel made it feasible to put a light yet useful armor belt on a large cruiser. They saved further weight by not requiring a heavy timber backing, as previous armor plating had, to soften and spread the force of the impact from oncoming shells; of teak to give a fair surface upon which to attach them was all that was needed. Moreover, this belt could also be much wider than previously, covering the center of the hull, where the ammunition and engines were located, from the main deck to five feet below the waterline. Steel bulkheads added strength to the hull, while armor as thick as the belt covered the guns and heavier protection surrounded the conning tower. With these improvements, the ships became more fully protected than was possible previously. They were also expensive to maintain at fighting strength as they required a greater number of stokers to feed the boilers than a battleship when steaming at flank speed.
The ideas presented by Mahan prompted French Admiral Ernest François Fournier to write his book La flotte necessaire in 1896. Fournier argued that a fleet of technologically advanced armored cruisers and torpedo craft would be powerful and flexible enough to engage in a wide range of activity and overwhelm potential enemies. French naval and government circles embraced this ideal mutually and even advocates of battleships over cruisers admitted the latter's potential usefulness in scouting and commercial warfare. The result was the building of increasingly large armored cruisers. , laid down in 1896, displaced 11,000 tons, carried a mixed armament of and guns, and had a belt of Harvey armor over her machinery spaces. The 12,300-ton and 14,000-ton followed. With a speed of 22.5 knots, the Léon Gambettas were armed with four guns in twin turrets and 16 in four single and six twin turrets and were protected by up to of Krupp belt armor and nearly on their conning towers and turrets. The Edgar Quinets, slightly faster at 23 knots, were armed with 14 guns and carried up to of armor on their belts, almost on their decks and on their turrets.
Britain, which had concluded as early as 1892 that it needed twice as many cruisers as any potential enemy to adequately protect its empire's sea lanes, responded to the perceived threat from France, Russia and, increasingly, Germany with a resumption of armored cruiser construction in 1898 with the . At 21 knots, the Cressys were slower than the newer French cruisers. However, their belt of Krupp steel was expected to keep out armor-piercing shells from a quick-firing gun at likely battle ranges, while their two 9.2-inch (233.7 mm) and 12 6-inch (152 mm) guns offered comparable firepower. The 2,500-ton weight of their belt armor was an improvement over the 1809 tons of the otherwise similar and very similar to that of the of battleships. The Cressys were the beginning of a rapid expansion in British cruiser construction. Between 1899 and 1905, seven classes of armored cruisers were either completed or laid down, a total of 35 ships.
Japan, which now received British technical assistance in naval matters and purchased larger vessels from France and Britain, began an armored cruiser program of its own. With the end of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895 and the return under pressure from Russia (in what became known as the "Triple Intervention") of the Liaotung peninsula to China, Japan began a 10-year naval build-up program, under the slogan "Perseverance and determination" (, Gashinshōtan) in preparation for further confrontations. The core of this 109-ship build-up was the "Six-Six Program" of six battleships and six (eventually eight) armored cruisers comparable to the British Cressy class. followed the basic pattern for these cruisers—on a displacement, she carried four and twelve guns, was protected by a main belt, armored deck and turret armor and steamed at . They were considered a compromise between cruiser and battleship and were intended to augment capital ship strength in battle squadrons. This practice would persist until World War I.
The first United States armored cruiser, , was launched in 1889 but not completed until 1895 due to a three-year delay in the delivery of her armor plate. Armed with four guns, mounted en echelon (with the fore turret sponsoned to starboard and the aft turret to port) to allow end-on fire for both turrets, and six guns on broadside, she carried between 7 and 12 inches (178 to 305 mm) of belt armor and between 1 and 4 inches (25 to 102 mm) on her decks. However, Maine was laid down before Harvey or Krupp armor was available and could not benefit from the advantage in weight these much lighter armors offered. She was redesignated a "second-class battleship" in 1894, an awkward compromise reflecting that, at 16.45 knots, she was considerably slower than other cruisers and weaker than first-line battleships. Her destruction in Havana harbor in 1898 was a catalyst in starting the Spanish–American War.
Maines immediate successors, and , launched in 1895 and 1896 respectively, carried thinner but newer armor than Maine, with on her belt and 3 to 6 inches (76 to 152 mm) on her deck but better protected overall against rapid-fire weaponry. Their armor was comparable in thickness to that of Dupuy de Lôme but the French ship's armor covered a much greater area of the hull. The hull protection of both ships was superior to their main rival, the British , which were the largest cruisers at the time but had no side armor. Armed with six guns, New York carried more heavy weapons than the French ship. Moreover, New Yorks builder diverged from the Navy blueprint by rearranging her boilers during construction; this allowed the installation of additional transverse and longitudinal bulkheads, which increased her underwater protection. Brooklyn was an improved version of the New York and designs, more heavily armed (with eight and 12 guns) and with better sea-keeping abilities through the addition of a forecastle. After these two ships, the Navy concentrated on battleship construction until the Spanish–American War showed how cruisers could be "useful," in the words of General J. B. Crabtree, "and [showed] how desirable others would be."
Shortly after the war ended, the Navy laid down six armored cruisers to take advantage of lessons learned and better control the large sea areas the nation had just gained. Much larger than their predecessors (displacing 14,500 tons as compared to 8150 for New York), the Pennsylvanias "were closer to light battleships than to cruisers," according to naval historian William Friedman. They carried four and 14 guns, of armor on their belts, on their turrets and on their conning towers. Their deck armor was light at for flat surfaces and for sloped, a compromise made for faster speed (22 knots, compared with 20 knots for Brooklyn). Improved ammunition made their main guns as powerful as the guns of the battleship and their use of state instead of city names, usually reserved for capital ships, emphasized their kinship.
The Spanish-American and First Sino-Japanese wars proved instrumental in spurring cruiser growth among all the major naval powers, according to naval historian Eric Osborne, "as they showcased the abilities of the modern ships in warfare." The only time cruisers were seen in any of their traditional role, he continues, was as blockade ships during the Spanish–American War. More often, they were seen fighting in a battle line. They would not been seen in their designed role until World War I.
Even with all their improvements and apparent performance, opinion on the armored cruiser was mixed. The 1904 edition of the Encyclopedia Americana quotes an otherwise unidentified Captain Walker, USN, in describing the role of the armored cruiser as "that of a vessel possessing in a high degree offensive and defensive qualities, with the capacity of delivering her attack at points far distant from her base in the least space of time." The same source defines an armored cruiser as "a battleship in which the qualities of offense and defense have been much reduced to gain high speed and great coal capacity" and adds, "... there are many who hold that the armored cruiser is an anomaly, something less than a battleship and more than a protected cruiser, performing satisfactorily the duties of neither, with no special function of her own and lacking the great desideratum in warships, ability to fight in proportion to her great size and cost." By 1914 the U.S. Navy in hearings before the House or Representatives gave testimony to the effect that no armored cruisers were further planned nor to it knowledge were armored cruisers being built by any major naval power worldwide.
Battle of Tsushima and appearance of the battlecruiser
Armored cruisers were used with success in the line of battle by the Japanese at the Battle of Tsushima in 1905. Of the battle damage received by the Japanese, the armored cruiser received eight hits, which destroyed three of her guns, killed five crew members and injured 90 more (one of the wounded being Isoroku Yamamoto, who would later plan the attack on Pearl Harbor). None of the other Japanese armored cruisers suffered serious damage or large loss of life. was hit 16 times but no one onboard was killed and only 15 were wounded. Except for , all the cruisers present at Tsushima that morning were still battle-ready in the evening.
The performance of the Japanese armored cruisers led to a boom in the construction of armored cruisers in the world's navies as some naval authorities concluded that the armored cruiser's superior speed could ensure survivability in a naval action against battleships; they did not take into account the Russian Baltic Fleet's inefficiency and tactical ineptitude during the battle. First Sea Lord "Jacky" Fisher, an advocate of armored cruisers as more useful than battleships to safeguard British trade and territorial interests, saw his efforts justified; his belief that "speed is armor" would lead him to create the battlecruiser. Danish Navy Commander William Hovgaard, who would later become president of New York Shipbuilding and serve on the U.S. Navy's Battleship Design Advisory Board, a group which would help plan the fast battleships in the 1930s, said, "The fighting capacity of the armored cruiser has reached a point which renders its participation in future fleet actions almost a certainty" and called for a "battleship-cruiser" which would possess the speed of a cruiser and the firepower of a capital ship Other naval authorities remained skeptical. Mahan called the interest in armored cruisers "a fad," then explained:
She is armored, and she is a cruiser; and what have you got? A ship to "lie in the line"? as our ancestors used to say. No, and Yes; that is to say, she may at a pinch, and at a risk that exceeds her powers. A cruiser? Yes, and No; for, order to give her armor and armament which do not fit the line, you have given tonnage beyond what is needed for the speed and coal endurance proper for a cruiser. By giving this tonnage to armor and armament you have taken it from other uses; either from increasing her own speed and endurance, or from providing another cruiser. You have in her more cruiser than she ought to have and less armored vessel, or less cruiser and more armored ship. I do not call this a combination, though I do call it a compromise.... I do not say you have a useless ship. I do say that you have not as useful a ship as, for the tonnage, you ought to have.
Buoyed with their success at Tsushima, Japan laid down the four s between 1905 and 1908. At a speed of 20.5 knots, they carried an extremely heavy main armament of four guns, of belt and turret armor and of deck armor. The Tsukubas were intended to take the place of aging battleships and thus showed Japan's intention of continuing to use armored cruisers in fleet engagements. The U.S. Navy raised the main gun caliber of its cruisers with its , laid down between 1902 and 1904. These mounted four and 16 guns, the former a size previously allocated to battleships. While they had thinner armor than the Pennsylvanias ( on their belts and on their decks) due to newly imposed congressional restraints on tonnage, they could still steam at 22 knots. They were built as a fast, powerful response in the eventuality of a Pacific war and were the largest and last American armored cruisers built.
The British also considered and guns for its cruisers, the culmination of its armored cruiser building program. They displaced 14,600 tons, were capable of 23 knots and were armed with four and 10 guns. By the time these ships were commissioned, Britain possessed the largest armored cruiser force in the world. Undaunted and fully engaged in a naval arms race with the British, the Germans also continued to build armored cruisers, partly from their faith in them as fighting units and commerce raiders, partly from Japan's success. Between 1897 and 1906 they laid down eight of them for use on overseas stations. The initial two, and , were armed with guns; the six that followed had guns of a more modern design. The final pair, and , displaced 12,781 tons, steamed at 23.5 knots, carried of belt and of deck armor and were armed with eight guns.
Another powerful armored cruiser was the Russian , completed in 1908. Armed with four in two twin turrets fore and aft and eight in turrets along the ship's sides, she displaced 15,190 tons and carried a belt, two armored decks and armor on her turrets and conning tower. Her top speed was 21 knots. Rurik was unusual in that she was Russian designed but British built; the Russian Navy was not usually a customer of British shipyards. She was reportedly one of the best armored cruisers built, with an advanced sprinkler protection for the magazines. Intended as the first of a three-ship class, Ruriks sisters were cancelled with the advent of the battlecruiser .
"The supreme embodiment of the armored cruiser," in historian Robert K. Massie's words, was the German ship . An enlarged version of the Scharnhorst class with a speed of 24.25 knots, armed with 12 and eight guns, Blücher was planned as an armored cruiser in part because the British had misled the Germans on the Invincibles then being constructed. The Germans expected these new British ships to be armed with six or eight guns. One week after the final decision to construct Blücher, the German naval attache learned they would carry eight guns, the same type mounted on battleships. With no funds available to redesign Blücher, work was ordered to proceed as scheduled. Although much more powerful than a typical armored cruiser, she was significantly weaker than the new British battlecruisers.
By the time these ships were entering service, the armored cruiser as it was then known had reached the end of its development. Tactics and technology favored fighting power over long to medium ranges, which demanded an armament of primarily large caliber guns and a speed higher than that of battleships, preferably by at least 30 percent, to fulfill its traditional role as scout for the fleet and the newly acquired one of participating with battleships in a naval encounter. Thirty percent was the ratio by which frigates had been faster than ships of the line in the days of sail. If a battleship sailed at 20 knots, this would mean that an armored cruiser would have to steam at least 26 or 27 knots. To fulfill these criteria, however, armored cruisers would have to be built much larger and take on a different form than they had in the past. The battlecruiser HMS Invincible and her two sister ships were designed specifically to fulfill these requirements. In a sense they were an extension of the armored cruiser as a fast, heavily armed scout, commerce protector and cruiser-destroyer, reflected in the term originally ascribed to them, "large armored cruiser." However, the battlecruisers were much larger than armored cruisers, allowing them to be faster, more heavily armed, and better-protected, so battlecruisers were able to outpace armored cruisers, stay out of range of their weapons and destroy them with relative impunity. Because they carried the heavy guns normally ascribed to battleships, they could also theoretically hold their place in a battle line more readily than armored cruisers and serve as the "battleship-cruiser" for which Hovgaard had argued after Tsushima. All these factors made battlecruisers attractive fighting units, although Britain, Germany and Japan would be the only powers to build them. They also meant that the armored cruiser as it had been known was now outmoded and no more were built after 1910. The United States Naval Institute put the matter bluntly in its 1908 written proceedings:
It is very doubtful if an armored cruiser of the Colorado class would dare even tackle a monitor, for fear that one of the latter's shot might hit a vital spot, and if it did she would lose her only raison d'etre, for a crippled cruiser would be useless as a cruiser, and still not fit to "lie in the line."... It may be urged that an armored cruiser was never intended to fight a battleship. Then what is she intended for? Surely not as a scout or a commerce destroyer, for vessels a fifth the displacement could do this work as well, and numbers are required here, not strength.... If she is to overtake a weaker enemy, you must first assume a smaller enemy, otherwise she could not have superiority in both speed and strength. By escaping from a stronger enemy she will never win wars.
Later in the same address is this: "Every argument used against [armored cruisers] holds true for battle-cruisers of the Invincible type, except that the latter, if wounded, would be fit to lie in the line, owing to her great armament. If it is hoped to fight at such great ranges that her 7-inch belt and 5-inch side will be of value, then the armor of battleships is wrong, not in principle, but in distribution."
World War I
Although pre-dreadnought battleships and armored cruisers were outclassed by modern battleship and battlecruiser designs, respectively, armored cruisers still played an active role in World War I. Their armor and firepower was sufficient to defeat other cruiser types and armed merchant vessels, while their speed and range made them particularly useful for extended operations out in the high seas. Some German and Royal Navy vessels, like , were allocated to remote naval squadrons. Many other vessels however, were formed into independent squadrons for patrolling European waters and accompanied capital ships every time the latter made forays out of port.
At the Battle of Coronel, the German armored cruisers and scored a resounding victory over British naval forces from the West Indies Station. With newer ships, superior gunnery and optimal logistics, the Germans sank the Royal Navy armored cruisers and , with the loss of over 1,500 British sailors and officers (including Rear-Admiral Christopher Cradock). This was one of the last battles involving armored cruisers as the chief adversaries; all subsequent engagements were dominated by battlecruisers and dreadnought battleships. Moreover, the timing could not have been worse for British morale. Six weeks earlier, the armored cruisers , and had all been sunk on the same day by the German submarine U-9.
Five weeks later, the Battle of the Falkland Islands showed graphically how much technology and tactics had changed. SMS Scharnhorst and SMS Gneisenau were sunk by a British force of the battlecruisers HMS Invincible and , three armoured cruisers and two light cruisers. The German armored cruisers were too slow to outrun their pursuers, and their initially accurate gunnery failed to inflict serious damage on the British battlecruisers. The British 12-inch guns turned the tide of battle once they started scoring hits on the Germans, and the German armored cruisers were fatally crippled before they had a chance to close the range and use their superior secondary armament. This victory seemed to validate Lord "Jacky" Fisher's justification in building battlecruisers—to track down and destroy armored cruisers with vessels possessing superior speed and firepower. The German force commander Admiral Maximilian von Spee had been wary of the Allies' battlecruisers, especially the Imperial Japanese Navy and the Royal Australian Navy—in fact he described the latter's flagship, the battlecruiser , as being superior to his entire force by itself. At the Falklands, he had already deduced the battle was lost when he missed the chance to attack the British battlecruisers in port.
During the Battle of Dogger Bank, Blücher was crippled by a shell from a British battlecruiser, which slowed Blücher to 17 knots and eventually sealed her fate. Admiral Franz von Hipper chose to let Blücher go down so his more valuable battlecruisers could escape.
, and were lost at the Battle of Jutland when they inadvertently came into sight and range of the German Navy's battle line, which included several battlecruisers and dreadnought battleships. The armor belt was shown to be far less than required to survive the 28 0mm (11 inch) and 300 mm (12 inch) shells of more modern dreadnoughts and battlecruisers and the cruisers were too slow to get away from them. The final nail in the coffin for the armored cruiser type was in the development of capped armor-piercing shells. The Harvey and Krupp Cemented armor that had looked to offer protection failed when hit with soft capped AP shells of large enough size. Later hard capped AP shell would only make the matter worse.
Post-World War I
After the end of World War I, many of the surviving armored cruisers were sold for scrap. The Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 placed strict limits on the numbers of "capital ships" possessed by the navies of the great powers. A "capital ship" was defined as any vessel of over 10,000 tons displacement or with guns over 8-in caliber, and several more armored cruisers were decommissioned to comply with the terms of the treaty. The London Naval Treaty of 1930 introduced further limits on cruiser tonnage, and the former role of the armored cruiser was occupied by more modern light cruisers and heavy cruisers (and, in the case of the German navy, panzerschiffe).
Only a small number of armored cruisers survived these limitations, though a handful saw action in World War II in marginal roles;
The Hellenic Navy's , constructed in 1909, served with the British Navy as a convoy escort in the Indian Ocean after the fall of Greece, while a number of Japanese armored cruisers were still active as minelayers or training vessels.
The Imperial Japanese Navy armored cruisers Asama, Izumo, Tokiwa, Iwate, Yakumo, Azuma, & Kasuga were used as training, support, and anti-aircraft ships during the war near the Japanese home islands. Most were sunk by Allied bombings in Japanese harbors.
The Regia Marina's San Giorgio was deployed to Spain to protected Italian interests during the Spanish Civil War. During World War II, she was heavily utilized at the Siege of Tobruk. There she provided anti-aircraft cover and naval gunfire support to Italian units. She was heavily damaged by British aircraft and was scuttled to prevent her capture. Her sister ship, San Marco was decommissioned in 1931 and used as a radio controlled target ship. In 1943, she was scuttled to prevent her capture by the Germans.
The United States Navy's USS Rochester, decommissioned since 1933, was moored in Subic Bay and used as a receiving ship and anti-aircraft platform. She was later scuttled to prevent her capture by the Japanese during the Invasion of The Philippines.
The Argentine Navy's ARA General Belgrano and ARA Pueyrredón served until 1947 and 1954 respectfully.
The Swedish Navy's HSwMS Fylgia underwent an extensive modernization from 1939-1940 and conducted neutrality patrols in the Baltic Sea during World War II. She continued service until 1953.
The only armored cruiser still considered to be in existence, as well as in active duty, is the aforementioned Georgios Averof, preserved as a museum in Palaio Faliro, Greece.
Differences with heavy cruisers
The armored cruiser was not a close ancestor of heavy cruisers, even though the name might suggest this. The armored cruiser type had come about in a time of transition as one technology after another presented itself. Boilers had become better (though still in need of improvement), and Krupp cemented armor and compound steam engines had arrived. The rate of change was nothing less than staggering and any ship more than 20 years old was found to be completely obsolete. The Italian Navy, unable to afford battleships, produced the Garibaldi-class cruiser of 7,500 tons displacement which was an international success. William H. White DNC of the British Royal Navy was taken by the design and presented the design for the Cressy-class cruiser of 12,000 tons displacement designed from the onset as an adjunct to the pre-dreadnought battle line, on 5 May 1887. William White would take the idea further by designing the battlecruiser. As such the armored cruiser is the direct predecessor of and inspiration for the battlecruiser.
The heavy cruiser was a direct product of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, which limited cruisers to a standard displacement of no more than 10,000 tons, with main guns not exceeding 8 inches (203 mm) caliber. There were also important technical differences between the heavy cruiser and the armored cruiser, some of which reflected the generational gap between them. Heavy cruisers were typically powered by oil-fired superheated steam boilers and steam turbine engines, and were capable of far faster speeds than armored cruisers (propelled by coal-fired reciprocating steam engines of their era) ever had been. Countries withdrawing from the Washington Treaty and the London Naval Treaty of 1930 and Second London Naval Treaty 1936 eventually rendered all limitations on heavy cruisers moot, although the only supersized or large cruisers actually built were the two members of the Alaska class.
See also
List of ships of the Second World War
List of cruisers of the Second World War
Citations
References
Author unidentified, "Thirty-First Meeting of the British Association—with extracts from the Address of Mr. Fairbairn at the opening." In The American Journal of Science and Arts, Second Series (New Haven, Connecticut), Vol. XXXII No. XCVI, November 1861. At Google Books. Accessed 13 April 2012.
Author unidentified, "Warships, Modern." In Encyclopedia Americana (1904), Volume 16, ed. Beach, Frederick Converse and George Edward Rines. At Google Books. Accessed 9 April 2012.
Andidora, Ronald, Iron Admirals: Naval Leadership in the Twentieth Century (Praeger, 2000). . Accessed 14 April 2012.
Baxter, James Phinney, The Introduction of the Ironclad Warship (Classics of Naval Literature) (Harvard University Press, 1933; reprinted with permission by US Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland, 2000). . Accessed 10 April 2012.
Beeler, John, Birth of the Battleship: British Capital Ship Design 1870–1881. Caxton, London, 2003.
Burr, Lawrence, US Cruisers 1883–1904: The Birth of the Steel Navy (Osprey Publishing, 2008), . Accessed 11 April 2012.
Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1860–1905. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1979. Accessed 11 April 2012.
Crabtree, Jerome Bruce, The Passing of Spain and the Ascendency of America (Springfield, Mass.: The King-Richardson Company, 1898). Accessed 14 April 2012.
Crabtree, Jerome Bruce, The Marvels of Modern Mechanism and Their Relation to Social Betterment (Springfield, Mass.: The King-Richardson Company, 1901). Accessed 9 April 2012.
Fairbairn, William et al, The Life of Sir William Fairbairn, BART (London: Longmans, Green and Company, 1877), ed. Pole, William FRS. Accessed 13 April 2012.
Jane's Fighting Ships 1905/6. Arco Publishing Company, Inc. (reprint) 1970.
Hovgaard, Commander William, "The Cruiser." In Transactions: The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, Volume 13 (New York: Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1905). Accessed 14 April 2012.]
Mahan, Alfred Thayer, Naval strategy compared and contrasted with the principles and practice of military operations on land: Lectures delivered at the U.S. Naval war college, Newport, R.I., between the years 1887 and 1911 (University of Michigan Library, 1915). Accessed 14 April 2012.
Osborne, Eric. W., "Cruisers." In World War I: A Student Encyclopedia, ed. Tucker, Spencer and Priscilla Mary Roberts. Accessed 9 April 2012.
Osborne, Eric W., Cruisers and Battle Cruisers: An Illustrated History of Their Impact (ABC-CLIO, 2004). .
Parkerson, General A. C., ed., How Uncle Sam fights: or, Modern warfare—how conducted (Baltimore: B. H. Woodward Company, 1898). Accessed 9 April 2012.
Ropp, Theodore, The Development of a Modern Navy: French Naval Policy, 1871–1904 (Naval Institute press, 1987), ed. Roberts, Stephen S. . Accessed 9 April 2012.
Sandler, Stanley, Battleships: An Illustrated History of Their Impact (ABC-CLIO, 2004). . At Google Books. Accessed 10 April 2012.
Stirling, Commander Yates, USN, "Another Argument for Speed in Battleship Design." In Naval Institute Proceedings, Volume 34 (Annapolis, Maryland: United States Naval Institute, 1908). Accessed 13 April 2012.
External links
British and German Armored Cruisers of the First World War
Ship types
Cruisers
Russian inventions
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] |
208890
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunt%20%28medical%29
|
Shunt (medical)
|
In medicine, a shunt is a hole or a small passage which moves, or allows movement of, fluid from one part of the body to another. The term may describe either congenital or acquired shunts; and acquired shunts (sometimes referred to as iatrogenic shunts) may be either biological or mechanical.
Types
Cardiac shunts may be described as right-to-left, left-to-right or bidirectional, or as systemic-to-pulmonary or pulmonary-to-systemic.
Cerebral shunt: In cases of hydrocephalus and other conditions that cause chronic increased intracranial pressure, a one-way valve is used to drain excess cerebrospinal fluid from the brain and carry it to other parts of the body. This valve usually sits outside the skull but beneath the skin, somewhere behind the ear. Cerebral shunts that drain fluid to the peritoneal cavity (located in the upper abdomen) are called ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunts.
Lumbar-peritoneal shunt (a.k.a. lumboperitoneal, LP): In cases of chronic increased intracranial pressure such as idiopathic intracranial hypertension and hydrocephalus, a tube or shunt with or without a one-way valve is used to drain the excess cerebrospinal fluid from the brain and transport it to the peritoneal cavity. Unlike the ventriculoperitoneal shunt, however, a lumbar-peritoneal shunt is usually inserted in between two of the vertebrae in the lumbar and punctures the cerebrospinal fluid sack or lumbar subarachnoid space, it then runs beneath the skin to the peritoneal cavity, where it is eventually drained away by the normal bodily fluid drainage system.
A Peritoneovenous shunt: (also called Denver shunt) is a shunt which drains peritoneal fluid from the peritoneum into veins, usually the internal jugular vein or the superior vena cava. It is sometimes used in patients with refractory ascites. It is a long tube with a non-return valve running subcutaneously from the peritoneum to the internal jugular vein in the neck, which allows ascitic fluid to pass directly into the systemic circulation. Possible compilations include bleeding from varices, disseminated intravascular coagulation, infection, superior vena caval thrombosis and pulmonary edema.
Pulmonary shunts exist when there is normal perfusion to an alveolus, but ventilation fails to supply the perfused region.
A portosystemic shunt (PSS), also known as a liver shunt, is a bypass of the liver by the body's circulatory system. It can be either a congenital or acquired condition. Congenital PSS is an uncommon condition in dogs and cats, found mainly in small dog breeds such as Miniature Schnauzers and Yorkshire Terriers, and in cats such as Persians, Himalayans, and mix breeds. Acquired PSS is also uncommon and is found in older dogs with liver disease causing portal hypertension, especially cirrhosis.
A portacaval shunt (portal caval shunt) is a treatment for high blood pressure in the liver.
A transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) is an artificial channel within the liver that establishes communication between the inflow portal vein and the outflow hepatic vein. It is used to treat portal hypertension.
VASP (Vesicoamniotic shunting procedure): Fetal lower urinary tract outflow obstruction prevents the unborn baby from passing urine. This can result in a reduction in the volume of amniotic fluid, and problems with the development of the baby’s lungs and kidneys. A vesico–amniotic shunt is a tube that it is inserted into the unborn baby’s bladder to drain the excess fluid into the surrounding space.
References
Implants (medicine)
Pediatric surgical procedures
Vascular surgical procedures
|
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208892
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoe%20fetishism
|
Shoe fetishism
|
Shoe fetishism is the attribution of attractive sexual qualities to shoes or other footwear as a matter of sexual preference, or an alternative or complement to a relationship with a partner. It has also been known as retifism, after the French novelist Nicolas-Edme Rétif (1734–1806), also known as Rétif de la Bretonne, who wrote a novel about it (presumably based on his own penchants) called Fanchette's Foot, which preference or penchant seems to have been if not "all the rage" at the time at least known to have been practiced or suffered by more than handsful of somewhat important individuals of that period (pre-Revolutionary France).
Individuals with shoe fetishism can be erotically interested in women's shoes. Although shoes may appear to carry sexual connotations in mainstream culture (for example, women's shoes are commonly sold as being "sexy"), this opinion refers to an ethnographic or cultural context, and is likely not intended to be taken literally. Another fetishism, which sometimes is seen as related to shoe fetishism, is boot fetishism.
Prevalence
In order to determine the relative prevalences of different types of fetishes, scientists obtained a sample of at least 5,000 individuals worldwide from 381 discussion groups on the internet. The relative prevalences were estimated based on the number of groups devoted to a particular fetish, the number of individuals participating in the groups and the number of messages exchanged.
Using these measures, feet and shoes were found to be the most common target of preferences. This is consistent with an analysis of millions of search queries by users from the United States that were accidentally released during the AOL search data scandal. 64% of the sampled population that had a preference for an object associated with the body had a preference for shoes, boots, and other footwear.
Popular culture
In the 19th century, Central European students drank wine or Champagne from their lady's shoe or bootlet as a sign of devotion. The custom is noted in the opera of 1882, Der Bettelstudent, where Symon drinks Champagne from Laura's shoe at their wedding. In commemoration of this romantic tradition, the French shoe manufacturer Louboutin issued in 2009, a glass shaped like a woman's shoe, which was reviewed critically by the German daily, Die Welt.
The Sex and the City episode, "La Douleur Exquise!", featured a shoe salesman with a shoe and foot fetish, who allowed Charlotte York to have expensive shoes for free simply for allowing him to assist her in trying on various pairs of open shoes whilst he openly complimented her on the state of her feet and offered her foot reflexology. The relationship came to an end when Charlotte figured out she had been getting discounts because she was letting him hold her feet and was further discomforted by the salesman obviously climaxing while assisting her with the sixth pair of the day.
The movie There's Something About Mary featured a former boyfriend of Mary, Dom "Woogie" Wooganowski, played by Chris Elliott, with a shoe fetish. He tried to steal her shoes.
In the animated comedy show Family Guy, the character Glenn Quagmire has a foot and shoe fetish, among other fetishes.
In the movie from 1993 in Spanish, The Bilingual Lover, written and directed by Vicente Aranda from an adaptation from a novel by Juan Marsé, shoe fetishism pervades the whole story.
In the movie from 1995, While You Were Sleeping, starring Sandra Bullock, the main character's landlord, played by Michael Rispoli, has a shoe fetish.
In the television series from 2000 in Japanese, Bus Stop, the main character, Musashi, has a strong interest in high heels, and at one point repairs a broken high heel for the woman he is pursuing.
See also
Boot fetishism
Clothing fetish
Foot fetishism
Footjob
Fuck-me shoes
Lionel Bussey
Sexual fetishism
References
Fashion-related fetishism
Paraphilias
Uses of shoes
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiari%20malformation
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Chiari malformation
|
Chiari malformation (CM) is a structural defect in the cerebellum, characterized by a downward displacement of one or both cerebellar tonsils through the foramen magnum (the opening at the base of the skull). CMs can cause headaches, difficulty swallowing, vomiting, dizziness, neck pain, unsteady gait, poor hand coordination, numbness and tingling of the hands and feet, and speech problems. Less often, people may experience ringing or buzzing in the ears, weakness, slow heart rhythm, or fast heart rhythm, curvature of the spine (scoliosis) related to spinal cord impairment, abnormal breathing, such as central sleep apnea, characterized by periods of breathing cessation during sleep, and, in severe cases, paralysis.
This can sometimes lead to non-communicating hydrocephalus as a result of obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) outflow. The cerebrospinal fluid outflow is caused by phase difference in outflow and influx of blood in the vasculature of the brain. The malformation is named for Austrian pathologist Hans Chiari. A type II CM is also known as an Arnold–Chiari malformation in honor of Chiari and German pathologist Julius Arnold.
Signs and symptoms
Findings are due to brain stem and lower cranial nerve dysfunction. Onset of symptoms are less likely to be present during adulthood in most patients. Younger children generally have a substantially different presentation of clinical symptoms from older children. Younger children are more likely to have a more rapid neurological degeneration with profound brain stem dysfunction over several days.
Neurogenic dysphagia: Difficulty swallowing. Seen by poor feeding in patient.
Cyanosis: Bluish discoloration of skin while feeding.
Weak crying
Facial weakness
Aspiration
Headaches aggravated by Valsalva maneuvers, such as yawning, laughing, crying, coughing, sneezing or straining, bending over, or getting up suddenly
Tinnitus (ringing in the ears)
Lhermitte's sign (electrical sensation that runs down the back and into the limbs)
Vertigo (dizziness)
Nausea
Schmahmann syndrome
Nystagmus (irregular eye movements; typically, so-called "downbeat nystagmus")
Facial pain
Muscle weakness
Impaired gag reflex
Dysphagia (difficulty swallowing)
Restless leg syndrome
Sleep apnea
Sleep disorders
Impaired coordination
Severe cases may develop all the symptoms and signs of a bulbar palsy
Paralysis due to pressure at the cervico-medullary junction may progress in a so-called "clockwise" fashion, affecting the right arm, then the right leg, then the left leg, and finally the left arm; or the opposite way around.
Papilledema on fundoscopic exam due to Increased intracranial pressure
Pupillary dilation
Dysautonomia: tachycardia (rapid heart), syncope (fainting), polydipsia (extreme thirst), chronic fatigue
Apnea: Sudden pause of breathing, usually during sleep.
Opisthotonos: Spasm of the head which causes head to arch backwards. More common in infants than adults.
Stridor
The blockage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow may also cause a syrinx to form, eventually leading to syringomyelia. Central cord symptoms such as hand weakness, dissociated sensory loss, and, in severe cases, paralysis may occur.
Syringomyelia
Syringomyelia is a chronic progressive degenerative disorder characterized by a fluid-filled cyst located in the spinal cord. Its symptoms include pain, weakness, numbness, and stiffness in the back, shoulders, arms or legs. Other symptoms include headaches, the inability to feel changes in the temperature, sweating, sexual dysfunction, and loss of bowel and bladder control. It is usually seen in the cervical region but can extend into the medulla oblongata and pons or it can reach downward into the thoracic or lumbar segments. Syringomyelia is often associated with type I Chiari malformation and is commonly seen between the C-4 and C-6 levels. The exact development of syringomyelia is unknown but many theories suggest that the herniated tonsils in type I Chiari malformations cause a "plug" to form, which does not allow an outlet of CSF from the brain to the spinal canal. Syringomyelia is present in 25% of patients with type I Chiari malformations.
Pathophysiology
The most widely accepted pathophysiological mechanism by which Chiari type I malformations occur is by a reduction or lack of development of the posterior fossa as a result of congenital or acquired disorders. Congenital causes include hydrocephalus, craniosynostosis (especially of the lambdoid suture), hyperostosis (such as craniometaphyseal dysplasia, osteopetrosis, erythroid hyperplasia), X-linked vitamin D-resistant rickets, and neurofibromatosis type I. Acquired disorders include space occupying lesions due to one of several potential causes ranging from brain tumors to hematomas.
Traumatic brain injury may cause delayed acquired Chiari malformation, but the pathophysiology of this is unknown. Additionally, ectopia may be present but asymptomatic until a whiplash injury causes it to become symptomatic.
Some neurological experts believe that Chiari malformation type I is developed as a result of Filum Disease, an abnormal traction of the spinal cord caused by an excessively tense Filum terminale. This theory was first introduced by Dr. Miguel B. Royo Salvador in 1993.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is made through a combination of patient history, neurological examination, and medical imaging. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is considered the preferred imaging modality for Chiari malformation. The MRI visualizes neural tissue such as the cerebellar tonsils and spinal cord as well as bone and other soft tissues. CT and CT myelography are other options and were used prior to the advent of MRI, unfortunately the resolution of CT based modalities do not characterize syringomyelia and other neural abnormalities as well.
By convention, the cerebellar tonsil position is measured relative to the basion-opisthion line, using sagittal T1 MRI images or sagittal CT images. The selected cutoff distance for abnormal tonsil position is somewhat arbitrary, as not every person will be symptomatic at a certain amount of tonsil displacement, and the probability of symptoms and syrinx increases with greater displacement; however, greater than 5 mm is the most frequently cited cutoff number, though some consider 3–5 mm to be "borderline,"; pathological signs and syrinx may occur beyond that distance. One study showed little difference in cerebellar tonsil position between standard recumbent MRI and upright MRI for patients without a history of whiplash injury. Neuroradiological investigation is used to first rule out any intracranial condition that could be responsible for tonsillar herniation. Neuroradiological diagnostics evaluate the severity of crowding of the neural structures within the posterior cranial fossa and their pressure against the foramen magnum. Chiari 1.5 is a term used when both brainstem and tonsillar herniation through the foramen magnum are present.
The diagnosis of a Chiari II malformation can be made prenatally, through ultrasound.
Classification
In the late 19th century, Austrian pathologist Hans Chiari described seemingly related anomalies of the hindbrain, the so-called Chiari malformations I, II and III. Later, other investigators added a fourth (Chiari IV) malformation. The scale of severity is rated I – IV, with IV being the most severe. Types III and IV are very rare. Since Dr. Chiari's original descriptions Chiari 0, 1.5, 3.5, and 5 have been described in the medical literature.
Types of Chiari malformation
Other conditions sometimes causally associated with Chiari malformation include hydrocephalus, syringomyelia, spinal curvature, tethered spinal cord syndrome, and connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and Marfan syndrome.
Chiari malformation is the most frequently used term for this set of conditions. The use of the term "Arnold–Chiari malformation" has fallen somewhat out of favor over time, although it is used to refer to the type II malformation. Current sources use "Chiari malformation" to describe its four specific types, reserving the term "Arnold-Chiari" for type II only. Some sources still use "Arnold-Chiari" for all four types.
Chiari malformation or Arnold–Chiari malformation should not be confused with Budd-Chiari syndrome, a hepatic condition also named for Hans Chiari.
In Pseudo-Chiari Malformation, leaking of CSF may cause displacement of the cerebellar tonsils and similar symptoms sufficient to be mistaken for a Chiari I malformation.
Treatment
While there is no current cure, the treatments for Chiari malformation are surgery and management of symptoms, based on the occurrence of clinical symptoms rather than the radiological findings. The presence of a syrinx is known to give specific signs and symptoms that vary from dysesthetic sensations to algothermal dissociation to spasticity and paresis. These are important indications that decompressive surgery is needed for patients with Chiari Malformation Type II. Type II patients have severe brain stem damage and rapidly diminishing neurological response.
Decompressive surgery involves removing the lamina of the first and sometimes the second or third cervical vertebrae and part of the occipital bone of the skull to relieve pressure. The flow of spinal fluid may be augmented by a shunt. Since this surgery usually involves the opening of the dura mater and the expansion of the space beneath, a dural graft is usually applied to cover the expanded posterior fossa.
A small number of neurological surgeons believe that detethering the spinal cord as an alternate approach relieves the compression of the brain against the skull opening (foramen magnum), obviating the need for decompression surgery and associated trauma. However, this approach is significantly less documented in the medical literature, with reports on only a handful of patients. The alternative spinal surgery is also not without risk.
Complications of decompression surgery can arise. They include bleeding, damage to structures in the brain and spinal canal, meningitis, CSF fistulas, occipito-cervical instability and pseudomeningeocele. Rare post-operative complications include hydrocephalus and brain stem compression by retroflexion of odontoid. Also, an extended CVD created by a wide opening and big duroplasty can cause a cerebellar "slump". This complication needs to be corrected by cranioplasty.
In certain cases, irreducible compression of the brainstem occurs from in front (anteriorly or ventral) resulting in a smaller posterior fossa and associated Chiari malformation. In these cases, an anterior decompression is required. The most commonly used approach is to operate through the mouth (transoral) to remove the bone compressing the brainstem, typically the odontoid. This results in decompressing the brainstem and therefore gives more room for the cerebellum, thus decompressing the Chiari malformation. Arnold Menzes, MD, is the neurosurgeon who pioneered this approach in the 1970s at the University of Iowa. Between 1984 and 2008 (the MR imaging era), 298 patients with irreducible ventral compression of the brainstem and Chiari type 1 malformation underwent a transoral approach for ventral cervicomedullary decompression at the University of Iowa. The results have been excellent resulting in improved brainstem function and resolution of the Chiari malformation in the majority of patients.
Epidemiology
Congenital Chiari I malformation, defined as tonsilar herniations of 3 to 5 mm or greater, was previously believed to be in the range of one per 1000 births, but is likely much higher. Women are three times more likely than men to have a congenital Chiari malformation. Type II malformations are more prevalent in people of Celtic descent. A study using upright MRI found cerebellar tonsillar ectopia in 23% of adults with headache from motor-vehicle-accident head trauma. Upright MRI was more than twice as sensitive as standard MRI, likely because gravity affects cerebellar position.
Cases of congenital Chiari malformation may be explained by evolutionary and genetic factors. Typically, an infant's brain weighs around 400g at birth and triples to 1100-1400g by age 11. At the same time the cranium triples in volume from 500 cm3 to 1500 cm3 to accommodate the growing brain. During human evolution, the skull underwent numerous changes to accommodate the growing brain. The evolutionary changes included increased size and shape of the skull, decreased basal angle and basicranial length. These modifications resulted in significant reduction of the size of the posterior fossa in modern humans. In normal adults, the posterior fossa comprises 27% of the total intracranial space, while in adults with Chiari Type I, it is only 21%. H. neanderthalensis had platycephalic (flattened) skulls. Some cases of Chiari are associated with platybasia (flattening of the skull base).
History
The history of Chiari malformation is described below and categorized by the year:
1883: Cleland was the first to describe Chiari II or Arnold–Chiari malformation on his report of a child with spina bifida, hydrocephalus, and anatomical alterations of the cerebellum and brainstem.
1891: Hans Chiari, a Viennese pathologist, described the case of a 17-year-old female with elongation of the tonsils into cone shaped projections which accompany the medulla and are crammed into the spinal canal.
1907: Schwalbe and Gredig, pupils of German pathologist Julius Arnold, described four cases of meningomyelocele and alterations in the brainstem and cerebellum, and gave the name "Arnold-Chiari" to these malformations.
1932: Van Houweninge Graftdijk was the first to report the surgical treatment of Chiari malformations. All patients died from surgery or postoperative complications.
1935: Russell and Donald suggested that decompression of the spinal cord at the foramen magnum might facilitate the CSF circulation.
1940: Gustafson and Oldberg diagnosed Chiari malformation with syringomyelia.
1974: Bloch et al. described the tonsils position to be classified between 7 mm and 8 mm below cerebellum.
1985: Aboulezz used MRI for discovery of extension
Society and culture
The condition was brought to the mainstream on the series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation in the tenth-season episode "Internal Combustion" on February 4, 2010.
Chiari malformation was briefly mentioned on the medical drama House M.D. in the fifth-season episode "House Divided", It was the focus of the sixth-season episode "The Choice." It is also the focus of Private Practice Season 4 episode 4, where a pregnant woman is diagnosed with it. It was the a cause of death on the reality television series Dr. G: Medical Examiner in the sixth-season episode "Bruised and Battered". It was also mentioned in the medical drama A Gifted Man, in the first-season episode "In Case of Separation Anxiety".
It is also featured in the 3rd and 4th episode of the 7th season of the series Rizzoli & Isles where Dr. Maura Isles is diagnosed with the condition.
Notable people
Rosanne Cash – U.S. singer-songwriter; daughter of Johnny Cash
Julia Clukey – U.S. luge competitor for Team USA in 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics
Joanna David – British television and stage actress
J. B. Holmes – U.S. professional golfer
Marissa Irwin – U.S. fashion model with Chiari secondary to Ehlers-Danlos syndrome
Bobby Jones – U.S. World Golf Hall of Fame golfer and founder of the Augusta National Golf Club
Allysa Seely – U.S. Gold Medalist at the 2016 Summer Paralympics in the paratriathlon
Leah Shapiro – U.S. drummer for the band Black Rebel Motorcycle Club
Michelle Stilwell – Canadian wheelchair racer and politician
Rachid Taha – Algerian singer
Sabre Norris of The Norris Nuts
References
External links
Congenital disorders of nervous system
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzz%20Lightyear%20of%20Star%20Command
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Buzz Lightyear of Star Command
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Buzz Lightyear of Star Command is an American animated science fiction/adventure/comedy television series produced by Walt Disney Television Animation and Pixar Animation Studios that is originally a spin-off of the Toy Story franchise before being retconned by the upcoming film Lightyear in 2022. It was preceded by the direct-to-video film Buzz Lightyear of Star Command: The Adventure Begins. and aired on UPN and ABC from October 2, 2000, to January 13, 2001, as part of Disney's One Saturday Morning and Disney's One Too programming blocks.
The series follows the adventures of Space Ranger Buzz Lightyear. Lightyear first appeared as an action figure in the 1995 film Toy Story, which features original voice actor Tim Allen in the role; Allen's friend Patrick Warburton voices the character in the television series. A video game of the same name based on the series was released in 2000.
Story
Buzz Lightyear of Star Command takes place in the far future. Capital Planet is the forefront of the Galactic Alliance, a peaceful union of various planets, home to various alien species that coexist in harmony with one another. Star Command is a peacekeeping organization consisting of Space Rangers, who investigate threats to galactic peace. The primary enemy of Star Command is the Evil Emperor Zurg, an intergalactic crime boss and warlord that rules an empire of heavily armed robots and slave races forced to work in opposition to the Galactic Alliance.
The series features Buzz Lightyear, a famous and experienced Space Ranger who takes a crew of rookies under his wing as he investigates criminal activity across the galaxy and attempts to bring down Evil Emperor Zurg once and for all.
Characters
Star Command
Team Lightyear
Captain Buzz Lightyear (voiced by Patrick Warburton): Famed Space Ranger known for heroism and bravery and leader of Team Lightyear. Buzz often suggests that his arch-villain Emperor Zurg is behind every evil plot and is often proven correct. Like his Toy Story incarnation, Buzz is a stickler for procedure, but will tell a cover story if he needs to. However, he has few people skills, and at times displays a lack of integrity. He attended PS- 193 (that's 6859) as a primary school. He wrote at least half of the regulations in the Star Command Manual. He also owns a house on Capital Planet, though as they all look alike and his duties often keep him away, he is confused over just which one is his. To compare this animation and the Toy Story films, the button between the red and blue ones is green in the Toy Story films and yellow in this animation with the releasing of strings when pressed. He seems to have a little crush on Dr. Ozma Furbanna and vice versa.
Princess Mira Nova (voiced by Nicole Sullivan): A rookie ranger and heir to the Tangean throne. She utilizes her people's ability to phase through walls (called "ghosting") and read minds. Buzz has a tendency to refer to her as "Princess" when he's angry with her. She acts as Buzz's co-pilot and second-in-command. She has the most common sense of the team. Mira also has an estranged relationship with her father, King Nova, who disapproves of her choice of being a Space Ranger, though deep down she still cares about him. She has red hair and turquoise skin.
Booster Sinclair Munchapper (voiced by Stephen Furst): A huge dinosaur-like former janitor from the agricultural planet of Jo-ad (a play on the name of the Joad family, from John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath). He has a big appetite and incredible strength, but is sweet and occasionally naive. He is in awe of Buzz Lightyear and has encyclopedic knowledge of his prior adventures.
XR (voiced by Larry Miller and Neil Flynn): A short robot that was originally emotionless and programmed to learn from Buzz, but was blown apart by Agent Z during his first mission. The LGMs rebuilt him, but the temporary loss of the Uni-Mind to Emperor Zurg left them off their game. They rebuilt XR with his slicker, more emotional personality and a variety of attachments. XR stands for Experimental Ranger. (The LGMs have stated that this is the official meaning of the name, though other characters on the show hold the erroneous belief that the X stands for Expendable). He gets blown apart on nearly every mission he goes on, but is easily rebuilt. He considers Commander Nebula his father (due to him unintentionally signing the paperwork authorizing his creation) and is always seeking his approval.
Other personnel
Commander Nebula (voiced by Adam Carolla): The Space Rangers' commander and Buzz's superior, whose left leg was replaced by a pegleg-like plasma cannon. Rather short-tempered and constantly speaks with a loud voice. He has a robotic desk that forces him to do his paperwork. He hates to do so, though, and therefore signs forms without looking at them. By doing so, he inadvertently authorized the creation of XR, which was included on a vacation request form filled by the LGMs.
LGMs, or Little Green Men (voiced by Patrick Warburton): The LGMs are small, three-eyed aliens (originally appeared as squeeze toy aliens in the Toy Story movies). They are the intensely loyal backbone of Star Command, keeping the station running while inventing/maintaining all of the equipment. When one of their own is kidnapped, the other LGMs will instinctively try to rescue him by any means necessary. LGMs are typically in awe of Buzz. While they generally like the other Rangers, they may not be able to tell one from another. Several of their race are also shown to work for Santa Claus, acting as his toy builders.
Ty Parsec (voiced by Steve Hytner): Ty is the infamous old comrade of Buzz Lightyear, who is fed up with Buzz always coming to his rescue. The Space Ranger was accidentally transformed into the robotic Wirewolf (equivalent of a werewolf) on the planet of Canis Lunis, after being bitten by the villain NOS-4-A2 while exposed to radioactive moonrock. Appeared in two episodes, with a cameo appearance in the episode "War, Peace, and War". He is ultimately cured and reinstated as a Space Ranger.
Rocket Crocket (voiced by Phil LaMarr): Member of Star Command and leader of Team Rocket. He has been Buzz's rival since their academy days.
Petra Hammerhold (voiced by Nikki Cox): Senator Hammerhold's daughter. She joined Star Command when her father forced her to do so (largely to keep her from her boyfriend Plasma Boy). She was initially resentful of this, but was moved by Buzz's heroism during a crisis.
Plasma Boy (voiced by Michael Showalter): Petra's boyfriend, who has a Plasma Monster form. Booster competed against him for Petra's affection. When Mira and XR fired a laser at his Plasma Monster form, he destabilized enough to the brink of explosion. He was prevented from explosion when Booster used his suit and Ion Stabilization Matrix on him. He's now a member of Star Command.
42 (voiced by Joy Behar): Usually the name of Buzz Lightyear's ship, it gained A.I. from one of the encounters with the Valkyran Raiders and a new energy projector device inserted on the ship by the LGMs. 42 doesn't like what Buzz says about her and usually controls the ship herself. XR developed a crush on her. When the Valkyran Raiders were thwarted, 42's consciousness was placed into a robot body and she now helps the LGMs.
Villains
Evil Emperor Zurg (voiced by Wayne Knight): Main antagonist of the series. Rules an empire on Planet Z, and wants to rule the entire galaxy while destroying Star Command. Emperor Zurg considers Buzz his arch-enemy and often takes any opportunity to eliminate him. Most of his subjects are robots. His feet double as rockets and he can transform his arms into a variety of weapons. Despite often breaking the seriousness of otherwise purely evil statements, Zurg is widely considered the most evil person in the galaxy, especially by the other villains. He seems to have some neuroses about being touched. In some episodes is shown being sinister. The episode War, and Peace and War was notably the only episode where Zurg teamed up with Buzz Lightyear to defeat the Heed, a common enemy that was trying to take over their galaxy. In Stranger Invasion, he claimed to be Buzz's father (a parody upon The Empire Strikes Back and a nearly identical scene in Toy Story 2), but it turned out to be a lie, using the statement as a 'Made You Look' in order to stun and deceive Buzz and gain the upper hand.
Grubs (voiced by Frank Welker): Zurg's equivalents to the LGMs of Star Command (though far less competent). They perform mechanical and technical duties. The Grubs work for Zurg against their will and also desire freedom, but many of them are simply too afraid to try to defect.
Brain Pods (Various Voices for each one): Cybernetic brains in mobile jars, who serve Zurg as scientists and researchers. Although they take pride in their creations, they secretly harbor a desire to escape from Zurg's control. (Two of which are shown succeeding in doing so on-screen.)
Hornets: The Hornets are Zurg's robotic foot soldiers, extremely expendable, lousy shots and always get vaporized in mass numbers by Lightyear's team. Hornets come in different models, but the most frequently seen are yellow and of average height.
Warp Darkmatter (voiced by Diedrich Bader) was once Buzz's partner and best friend, but he had been secretly working for Zurg since his academy days as a double agent and also betrayed Star Command. He eventually began working for him full-time as "Agent Z." His right arm is robotic (with various weapon attachments) and was grafted to his body after becoming Agent Z. Warp often takes on assignments for Zurg and is paid quite handsomely. (He owns a moon and a summer home.) Though Buzz has vowed to bring him in for treason, he retains some hope that there is still some good in him.
Evil Buzz Lightyear (voiced by Patrick Warburton) is the evil counterpart of Buzz Lightyear from an alternate universe where he is an evil emperor instead of Zurg due to the fact that Zurg in the alternate universe apparently didn’t have what it took to be the ultimate evil (Zurg now works as a server at Cosmo’s Diner) and has destroyed Star Command along with various other planets and the Galactic Alliance. The Evil Buzz looks exactly like Buzz Lightyear, except having facial hair and wearing armour similar to Emperor Zurg, but with pants and without a cape, and the letter L in the center of his chest instead of the letter Z. He appears to be more dangerous and evil than Emperor Zurg but despite being intimidated, Emperor Zurg teams up with the Evil Buzz to eliminate Buzz Lightyear and Star Command in the original universe but was thwarted by Buzz with the help of the alternate counterparts of Booster, Mira, XR and Nebula. Evil Buzz escapes and later teams up and falls in love with Gravitina but eventually betrays her.
Gravitina (voiced by Kerri Kenney-Silver): A large-headed female villain with mental control over gravity. One of Zurg's allies and once hired to destroy Star Command. She's in love with Buzz and later his evil counterpart.
(voiced by Craig Ferguson): NOS-4-A2 is a robotic vampire created by Zurg. He is capable of draining any system or entity driven by electrical power, as well as controlling any machine he bites. His bite (in combination with radioactive moonrock) also transformed Ty Parsec into Wirewolf. Using Wirewolf and XL, he briefly usurped control of Planet Z from Zurg and attempted to transform everyone in the galaxy into robots for him to feed on, but was defeated and destroyed by Buzz, XR, Wirewolf and a reformed XL. His name is a pun on the term Nosferatu.
Torque (voiced by Brad Garrett): Minor alien villain who committed crimes of terrorism, smuggling, arson, and unpaid parking tickets. After being freed from a prison transport by Zurg's Hornets, the Grubs implanted a cell-separation device upon his chest. Torque then possesses the ability to create duplicate versions of himself. They are unstable, however, as a single laser blast is enough to destroy them. In "The Taking of PC-7", he tried to turn Booster evil (and later Buzz) with a memory-altering device built by the Warden of PC-7. The same device also made Torque (temporarily at least) a heroic good guy. Torque rides a motorcycle-shaped spacecraft and his duplication abilities seem to be a reference to the character Lobo (who was also voiced by Brad Garrett in his DCAU appearances).
XL (voiced by Bobcat Goldthwait): XR's predecessor (and technically older brother), who was shut down due to his villainous attitude. When he was reactivated by Zurg, XL rebuilt himself into a larger, more powerful robot with cutting edge (and stolen) robot parts. His head is red, whereas XR's is yellow. He infiltrates Star Command numerous times because its command codes are in his head. Like XR, he considers Commander Nebula his father, though he resents him for shutting him down. He later redeems himself and is converted into an office managing robot capable of photocopying, collating, and other office related functions. His name is a pun referring to his size (extra large).
Wirewolf (voiced by Steve Hytner): A Space Ranger (Ty Parsec; see above) who patrolled the planet Canis Lunis until an attack from NOS-4-A2. While Ty was in combat with the energy vampire, NOS-4-A2, flew himself and Ty up into the beam, which gave power to the planet from the moon's radioactive energy, and bit into Ty's skin. After NOS-4-A2 fled, Ty started to mutate into some sort of electronic canine, later given the title of "Wirewolf." Having discovered that this transformation only happens in the light of the Canis Lunis moon, Buzz told Booster to destroy the moon. Once the moon was destroyed, Team Lightyear believed that the Wirewolf was finished until NOS-4-A2 gave Ty a Canis Lunis moonrock. When NOS-4-A2 was destroyed, Ty was turned back to normal, ending the curse of the Wirewolf.
Galactic Alliance
Madam President (voiced by Roz Ryan): Head of the Galactic Alliance. Her real name is unknown.
Senator Aarrfvox (voiced by Jim Cummings): A Shragorakian senator.
Senator Banda (voiced by Dan Castellaneta): A Bathyosian senator.
Senator Hammerhold (voiced by Corey Burton): Petra Hammerhold's father.
Senator Phlegmex (voiced by Frank Welker): A slime-emitting senator.
Other characters
Becky (voiced by Russi Taylor): A little alien girl from the planet Roswell. She befriended Booster (whom she calls Pickles) when Team Lightyear's ship crashed on her planet.
Brent Starkisser (voiced by Corey Burton): The Galaxy's reporter.
Cosmo (voiced by Paul Rugg): An alien that owns and runs the diner that Team Lightyear eats at. He has a mechanical arm as well as a foreign accent.
Dr. Animus (voiced by Tony Jay): The Galaxy's therapist.
Dr. Ozma Furbanna (voiced by Linda Hamilton): Lead (and only) naturalist on planet Karn. She favors all animals (even the lethal carnivores) and hates to have them hurt, no matter what. Has a crush on Buzz (won't admit it, though), and vice versa. Zurg once used her help to hatch the Millennial Bugs (entirely ticklish) where Zurg used them on Capital Planet.
Ed (voiced by Paul Rugg): A courier who somehow always knows how to track down Buzz Lightyear.
Officer Panchex (voiced by Brian Doyle-Murray): A fish policeman who helped Buzz Lightyear fight Minister Gularis.
Professor Triffid (voiced by Joel Murray): A scientist from Rhizome. He cares a lot for the plants there.
Savy SL2 (voiced by Cree Summer): Her adopted robot parents were attacked by NOS-4-A2 in The Slayer, which lead her to hunting him down for revenge.
Sheriff of Roswell (voiced by Stephen Root): Becky's father and ally of Team Lightyear.
King Nova (voiced by John O'Hurley): Mira's father and the ruler of Tangea. Being more tradition bound he clearly disapproves of his daughter being a Space Ranger and therefore has a complicated relationship with her as well as Buzz. But regardless of his pompous nature he still cares about his daughter and also came to her aid when she had developed a power addiction and helped her get over it, though he almost got his wish of getting his daughter back in this instance had Buzz not saved her career through a cover story.
Santa Claus (voiced by Earl Boen): The holiday figure, who delivers presents to all the good people in the galaxy during the Holiday. He previously used a sleigh powered by belief and later time manipulation to accomplish this massive task. Zurg stole his time manipulation device to destroy the Holiday for everyone, prompting Santa to seek Team Lightyear's help.
The Fixer (voiced by Ed Asner): A character from Trade World. He sells robotic parts to people around Trade World, and once tricked XR into delivering a package to XL.
Crumford Lorak (voiced by Jon Favreau): A conman, informant and criminal commonly seen on Trade World. When this guy gets the chance, he always tricks or turns on the first ranger he sees.
Rentwhistle Swack (voiced by French Stewart): An unscrupulous conman who will do anything for money.
Episodes
Broadcast and syndication
The series was aired during UPN's Disney's One Too programming block from October 2000 to August 2003. One episode, "Super Nova", only aired twice during its original run. It also aired on Disney Channel from June 5, 2006, to May 16, 2008, when it was taken off the air in the U.S.. Two episodes, "Conspiracy" and "Inside Job", were rarely seen after 2001. The show also aired on Toon Disney from 2003 to 2009.
Awards and nominations
Daytime Emmy Awards
2001 – Outstanding Sound Editing - Special Class – Jennifer Mertens, Paca Thomas, Otis Van Osten, Rick Hammel, Eric Hertsguaard, Robbi Smith, Brian F. Mars, Marc S. Perlman, and Dominick Certo (won)
Video game
A video game titled Buzz Lightyear of Star Command was developed by Traveller's Tales and published by Activision, and released for PlayStation, Game Boy Color, Microsoft Windows, and Dreamcast in 2000. The gameplay revolves around Buzz chasing down the various villains from the show, and defeating them using different color coded weapons.
References
External links
Toy Story
2000 American television series debuts
2001 American television series endings
2000s American animated television series
2000s American superhero comedy television series
2000s American comic science fiction television series
American Broadcasting Company original programming
American children's animated action television series
American children's animated space adventure television series
American children's animated comic science fiction television series
American children's animated science fantasy television series
American children's animated superhero television series
American animated television spin-offs
Buzz Lightyear
Disney's One Too
English-language television shows
Television series by Disney Television Animation
Television series based on Disney films
Television series by Pixar
Television series about space
Television series set on fictional planets
Television series created by Bob Schooley and Mark McCorkle
UPN original programming
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208897
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected%20cruiser
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Protected cruiser
|
Protected cruisers, a type of naval cruiser of the late-19th century, gained their description because an armoured deck offered protection for vital machine-spaces from fragments caused by shells exploding above them. Protected cruisers resemble armored cruisers, which had in addition a belt of armour along the sides.
Evolution
From the late 1850s, navies began to replace their fleets of wooden ships-of-the-line with armoured ironclad warships. However, the frigates and sloops which performed the missions of scouting, commerce raiding and trade protection remained unarmoured. For several decades, it proved difficult to design a ship which had a meaningful amount of protective armour but at the same time maintained the speed and range required of a "cruising warship". The first attempts to do so, armored cruisers like , proved unsatisfactory, generally lacking enough speed for their cruiser role.
During the 1870s the increasing power of armour-piercing shells made armouring the sides of a ship more and more difficult, as very thick, heavy armour plates were required. Even if armour dominated the design of the ship, it was likely that the next generation of shells would be able to pierce such armour. The alternative was to leave the sides of the ship vulnerable, but to armour a deck just below the waterline. Since this deck would be struck only very obliquely by shells, it could be less thick and heavy than belt armour. The ship could be designed so that the engines, boilers and magazines were under the armoured deck, and with enough displacement to keep the ship afloat and stable even in the event of damage. Cruisers with armoured decks and no side armour became known as "protected cruisers", and eclipsed the armoured cruisers in popularity in the 1880s and into the 1890s.
HMS Shannon was the first warship to incorporate an armoured deck; hers stretched forward from the armoured citadel to the bow. However, Shannon principally relied on her vertical citadel armour for protection. By the end of the 1870s ships could be found with full-length armoured decks and little or no side armour. The Italian of very fast battleships had armoured decks and guns but no side armour. The British used a full-length armoured deck in their of corvettes started in 1878; however the Comus class were designed for colonial service and were capable of only a speed, not fast enough for commerce protection or for fleet duties.
But even while the Comus class were building the four ship s. Ordered in 1880 and rated as second-class cruisers, these ships combined the speed of the dispatch vessels with a heavy armament, reduced rig and armoured deck. "Leander and her three sisters were very successful and may be seen as the ancestors of most [Royal Navy] cruisers for the rest of the century and beyond. Their general configuration was scaled up to the big First Class cruisers and down to the torpedo cruisers, whilst traces of the protected deck scheme can even be recognised in some sloops."
The breakthrough in protected-cruiser design came with the Chilean cruiser , designed and built by the British firm Armstrong at their Elswick yard. Esmeralda had a high speed of (dispensing entirely with sails), and an armament of two and six guns. Her protection scheme, inspired by the Italia class, included a full-length protected deck up to thick, and a cork-filled cofferdam along her sides. Esmeralda set the tone for cruiser construction for the years to come, with "Elswick cruisers" on a similar design being constructed for Italy, China, Japan, Argentina, Austria and the United States.
The French Navy adopted the protected-cruiser concept wholeheartedly in the 1880s. The Jeune École school of thought, which proposed a navy composed of fast cruisers for commerce raiding and torpedo boats for coastal defence, became particularly influential in France. The first French protected cruiser was , laid down in 1882, and followed by six classes of protected cruiser – and no armoured cruisers.
The Royal Navy remained equivocal about which protection scheme to use until 1887. The large , begun in 1881 and finished in 1886, were built as armoured cruisers but were often referred to as protected cruisers. While they carried an armoured belt some covered only of the length of the ship, and the belt was also submerged below the waterline at full load. The real protection of the class came from the armoured deck thick, and the arrangement of coal bunkers to prevent flooding. These ships were also the last armoured cruisers to be designed with sails. However, on trials it became clear that the masts and sails did more harm than good. The masts, sails and rigging were removed and replaced with a single military mast with machine-guns.
The next class of small cruisers in the Royal Navy, the of 1883, were protected cruisers, but the Royal Navy returned to the armoured cruiser with the , begun in 1885 and completed in 1889. However, in 1887 an assessment of the Orlando type judged them inferior to the protected cruisers and thereafter the Royal Navy built only protected cruisers, even for very large first-class cruiser designs, returning to armoured cruisers only in the late 1890s with the , laid down in 1898.
The sole major naval power to retain a preference for armoured cruisers during the 1880s was Russia. The Imperial Russian Navy laid down four armoured cruisers and one protected cruiser during the decade, all large ships with sails.
Around 1910, armour plate began to increase in quality and steam-turbine engines, lighter and more powerful than previous reciprocating engines, came into use. Existing protected cruisers became obsolete as they were slower and less well protected than new ships. Oil-fired boilers were introduced, making side bunkers of coal unnecessary but losing the protection they afforded. Protected cruisers were replaced by "light armoured cruisers" with a side armoured belt and armoured decks instead of the single deck, later developed into heavy cruisers.
Protected cruisers in service
United States
The first protected cruiser of the United States Navy's "New Navy" was , launched in October 1884, soon followed by in December, and a year later. A numbered series of cruisers began with Newark (Cruiser No. 1), although Charleston (Cruiser No. 2) was the first to be launched, in July 1888, and ending with another Charleston, Cruiser No. 22, launched in 1904. The last survivor of this series is , preserved as a museum ship in Philadelphia.
The reclassification of 17 July 1920 put an end to the U.S. usage of the term "protected cruiser", the existing ships were classified as light or heavy cruisers with new numbers, depending on their level of armor.
Austria-Hungary
The Austro-Hungarian Navy built and operated two classes of protected cruisers. These were two ships of the and three of the .
Britain
The Royal Navy rated cruisers as first, second and third class between the late 1880s and 1905, and built large numbers of them for trade protection requirements. For most of this time these cruisers were built with a "protected", rather than armoured, scheme of protection for their hulls. First class protected cruisers were as large and as well-armed as armoured cruisers, and were built as an alternative to the large first class armoured cruiser from the late 1880s till 1898. Second class protected cruisers were smaller, displacing and were of value both in trade protection duties and scouting for the fleet. Third class cruisers were smaller, lacked a watertight double bottom, and were intended primarily for trade protection duties, though a few small cruisers were built for fleet scout roles or as "torpedo" cruisers during the "protected" era.
The introduction of Krupp armour in six inch thickness rendered the "armoured" protection scheme more effective for the largest first class cruisers, and no large first class protected cruisers were built after 1898. The smaller cruisers, unable to bear the weight of heavy armoured belts retained the "protected" scheme up to 1905, when the last units of the and es were completed. There was a general hiatus in British cruiser production after this time, apart from a few classes of small, fast scout cruisers for fleet duties. When the Royal Navy began building larger cruisers (less than ) again around 1910, they used a mix of armoured decks and/or armoured belts for protection, depending on class. These modern, turbine powered cruisers are properly classified as light cruisers.
France
The French Navy built and operated a series large variety of protected cruisers classes starting with in 1882. The last ship built to this design was in 1897.
Germany
The German Imperial Navy (Kaiserliche Marine) built a series of protected cruisers in the 1880s and 1890s, starting with the two ships of the in the 1880s. The Navy completed only two additional classes of protected cruisers, comprising six more ships: the unique , and the five ships. The type then was superseded by the armored cruiser at the turn of the century, the first of which being . All of these ships tended to incorporate design elements from their foreign contemporaries, though the Victoria Louise class more closely resembled German battleships of the period, which carried lighter main guns and a greater number of secondary guns.
These ships were employed as fleet scouts and colonial cruisers. Several of the ships served with the German East Asia Squadron, and , , and took part in the Battle of Taku Forts in 1900 during the Boxer Rebellion. During a deployment to American waters in 1902, participated in the Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903, where she bombarded Fort San Carlos. Long since obsolete by the outbreak of World War I, the five Victoria Louise-class vessels briefly served as training ships in the Baltic but were withdrawn by the end of 1914 for secondary duties. Kaiserin Augusta and the two Irene-class cruisers similarly served in reduced capacities for the duration of the war. All eight ships were broken up for scrap following Germany's defeat.
Italy
The Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy) ordered twenty protected cruisers between the 1880s and 1910s. The first five ships, and the , were built as "battleship destroyers", armed with a pair of large caliber guns. Subsequent cruisers were more traditional designs, and were instead intended for reconnaissance and colonial duties. Some of the ships, like and the , were designed specifically for service in Italy's colonial empire, while others, like and the , were designed as high speed fleet scouts.
Most of these ships saw action during the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912, where several of them supported Italian troops fighting in Libya, and another group operated in the Red Sea. There, the cruiser and two destroyers sank or destroyed seven Ottoman gunboats in the Battle of Kunfuda Bay in January 1912. Most of the earlier cruisers were obsolescent by the outbreak of World War I, and so had either been sold for scrap or reduced to subsidiary roles. The most modern vessels, including Quarto and the Nino Bixio class, saw limited action in the Adriatic Sea after Italy entered the war in 1915. The surviving vessels continued on in service through the 1920s, with some—Quarto, , and , remaining on active duty into the late 1930s.
The Netherlands
The Royal Netherlands Navy built several protected cruisers between 1880 and 1900. The first protected cruiser was launched in 1890 and called . It was a small cruiser with a heavy main gun; four years later a larger and more heavily armed protected cruiser was commissioned, which was called . In addition to these two cruisers, the Dutch also built six protected cruisers of the . The Holland-class cruisers were commissioned between 1898 and 1901, and featured, besides other armaments, two 15 cm SK L/40 single naval guns.
The Dutch protected cruisers have played a role in several international events. For example, during the Boxer Rebellion two protected cruisers ( and Koningin Wilhelmina der Nederlanden) were sent to Shanghai to protect European citizens and defend Dutch interests.
Russia
The Imperial Russian Navy operated a series of protected cruisers classes (, Armored deck cruiser). The last ships built to this design where the in 1901.
Spain
The Spanish Navy operated a series of protected cruisers classes starting with . The last ship built to this design was in 1899.
Surviving examples
A few protected cruisers have survived as museum ships:
– St Petersburg, Russia
– Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
replica is on display in Dandong, China
Bow section and bridge of – La Spezia, Italy
Bow section of HMS Vindictive is on display at Ostend, Belgium
The hulk of USS Charleston serves as a breakwater in Kelsey Bay, on the north coast of Vancouver Island.
See also
Commerce raiding
Battlecruiser
Armored cruiser
Unprotected cruiser
Footnotes
References
Beeler, John, Birth of the Battleship: British Capital Ship Design 1870–1881. Caxton, London, 2003.
Further reading
External links
Ship types
Cruisers
|
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208900
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural%20tube
|
Neural tube
|
In the developing chordate (including vertebrates), the neural tube is the embryonic precursor to the central nervous system, which is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The neural groove gradually deepens as the neural folds become elevated, and ultimately the folds meet and coalesce in the middle line and convert the groove into the closed neural tube. In humans, neural tube closure usually occurs by the fourth week of pregnancy (the 28th day after conception). The ectodermal wall of the tube forms the rudiment of the nervous system. The centre of the tube is the neural canal.
Development
The neural tube develops in two ways: primary neurulation and secondary neurulation.
Primary neurulation divides the ectoderm into three cell types:
The internally located neural tube
The externally located epidermis
The neural crest cells, which develop in the region between the neural tube and epidermis but then migrate to new locations
Primary neurulation begins after the neural plate forms. The edges of the neural plate start to thicken and lift upward, forming the neural folds. The center of the neural plate remains grounded, allowing a U-shaped neural groove to form. This neural groove sets the boundary between the right and left sides of the embryo. The neural folds pinch in towards the midline of the embryo and fuse together to form the neural tube.
In secondary neurulation, the cells of the neural plate form a cord-like structure that migrates inside the embryo and hollows to form the tube.
Each organism uses primary and secondary neurulation to varying degrees.
Neurulation in fish proceeds only via the secondary form.
In avian species the posterior regions of the tube develop using secondary neurulation and the anterior regions develop by primary neurulation.
In mammals, secondary neurulation begins around the 35th somite.
Mammalian neural tubes close in the head in the opposite order that they close in the trunk.
In the head:
Neural crest cells migrate
Neural tube closes
Overlying ectoderm closes
In the trunk:
Overlying ectoderm closes
Neural tube closes
Neural crest cells migrate
Structure
Four neural tube subdivisions each eventually develop into distinct regions of the central nervous system by the division of neuroepithelial cells: the forebrain (prosencephalon), the midbrain (mesencephalon), the hindbrain (rhombencephalon) and the spinal cord.
The prosencephalon further goes on to develop into the telencephalon (cerebrum) and the diencephalon (the optic vesicles and hypothalamus).
The mesencephalon stays as the midbrain.
The rhombencephalon develops into the metencephalon (the pons and cerebellum) and the myelencephalon (the medulla oblongata).
For a short time, the neural tube is open both cranially and caudally. These openings, called neuropores, close during the fourth week in humans. Improper closure of the neuropores can result in neural tube defects such as anencephaly or spina bifida.
The dorsal part of the neural tube contains the alar plate, which is associated primarily with sensation. The ventral part of the neural tube contains the basal plate, which is primarily associated with motor (i.e., muscle) control.
Dorsal-ventral patterning
The neural tube patterns along the dorsal-ventral axis to establish defined compartments of neural progenitor cells that lead to distinct classes of neurons. According to the French flag model of morphogenesis, this patterning occurs early in development and results from the activity of several secreted signaling molecules. Sonic hedgehog (Shh) is a key player in patterning the ventral axis, while bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs) and Wnt family members play an important role in patterning the dorsal axis. Other factors shown to provide positional information to the neural progenitor cells include fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and retinoic acid. Retinoic acid is required ventrally along with Shh to induce Pax6 and Olig2 during differentiation of motor neurons.
Three main ventral cell types are established during early neural tube development: the floor plate cells, which form at the ventral midline during the neural fold stage; as well as the more dorsally located motor neurons and interneurons. These cell types are specified by the secretion of the Shh from the notochord (located ventrally to the neural tube), and later from the floor plate cells. Shh acts as a morphogen, meaning that it acts in a concentration-dependent manner to specify cell types as it moves further from its source.
The following is a proposed mechanism for how Shh patterns the ventral neural tube: A gradient of Shh that controls the expression of a group of homeodomain (HD) and basic Helix-Loop-Helix (bHLH) transcription factors is created. These transcription factors are grouped into two protein classes based on how Shh affects them. Class I is inhibited by Shh, whereas Class II is activated by Shh. These two classes of proteins then cross-regulate each other to create more defined boundaries of expression. The different combinations of expression of these transcription factors along the dorsal-ventral axis of the neural tube are responsible for creating the identity of the neuronal progenitor cells. Five molecularly distinct groups of ventral neurons form from these neuronal progenitor cells in vitro. Also, the position at which these neuronal groups are generated in vivo can be predicted by the concentration of Shh required for their induction in vitro. Studies have shown that neural progenitors can evoke different responses based on the length of exposure to Shh, with a longer exposure time resulting in more ventral cell types.
At the dorsal end of the neural tube, BMPs are responsible for neuronal patterning. BMP is initially secreted from the overlying ectoderm. A secondary signaling center is then established in the roof plate, the dorsal most structure of the neural tube. BMP from the dorsal end of the neural tube seems to act in the same concentration-dependent manner as Shh in the ventral end. This was shown using zebrafish mutants that had varying amounts of BMP signaling activity. Researchers observed changes in dorsal-ventral patterning, for example, zebrafish deficient in certain BMPs showed a loss of dorsal sensory neurons and an expansion of interneurons.
See also
Neural fold
Neural plate
Neurulation
Neural tube defects
Cdx protein family
List of human cell types derived from the germ layers
References
External links
Diagram at embryology.med.unsw.edu.au
Diagram at brainviews.com
Embryology of nervous system
Neurulation
Ectoderm
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Doig
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Peter Doig
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Peter Doig ( ; born 17 April 1959) is a Scottish painter. One of the most renowned living figurative painters, he has settled in Trinidad since 2002. In 2007, his painting White Canoe sold at Sotheby's for $11.3 million, then an auction record for a living European artist. In February 2013, his painting, The Architect's Home in the Ravine, sold for $12 million at a London auction. Art critic Jonathan Jones said about him: "Amid all the nonsense, impostors, rhetorical bullshit and sheer trash that pass for art in the 21st century, Doig is a jewel of genuine imagination, sincere work and humble creativity."
Early life
Peter Doig was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. In 1962 he moved with his family to Trinidad, where his father worked with a shipping and trading company, and then in 1966 to Canada. He moved to London to study at the Wimbledon School of Art in 1979–1980, Saint Martin's School of Art from 1980 to 1983, and Chelsea School of Art, in 1989–1990, where he received an MA. In 1989, the artist held a part-time job as a dresser at the English National Opera with his friend Haydn Cottam.
Doig was invited to return to Trinidad in 2000, to take up an artist's residency with his friend and fellow painter Chris Ofili. In 2002, Doig moved back to the island, where he set up a studio at the Caribbean Contemporary Arts Centre near Port of Spain. He also became professor at the Fine Arts Academy in Düsseldorf, Germany.
Artistic practice
Many of Doig's paintings are landscapes, somewhat abstract, with a number harking back to the snowy scenes of his childhood in Canada. He draws inspiration for his figurative work from photographs, newspaper clippings, movie scenes, record album covers and the work of earlier artists like Edvard Munch. His landscapes are layered formally and conceptually, and draw on assorted art historical artists, including Munch, H. C. Westermann, Friedrich, Monet and Klimt. While his works are frequently based on found photographs (and sometimes on his own) they are not painted in a photorealist style. Doig instead uses the photographs simply for reference. In a 2008 interview, Doig referred to his use of photographs and postcards as painting "by proxy" and noted that his paintings "made no attempt to reflect setting".
Shortly after Doig's graduation from the Chelsea College of Arts, he was awarded the prestigious Whitechapel Artist Prize culminating in a solo exhibition at the Whitechapel Art Gallery in 1991. Included in the Whitechapel exhibition were major works including Swamped (1990), Iron Hill (1991), and The Architect's Home in the Ravine (1991). The Architect's Home in the Ravine (1991) shows Eberhard Zeidler's modernist central Toronto home in the Rosedale ravine.
Doig created a series of paintings of Le Corbusier's modernist communal living apartments known as l’Unité d’Habitation located at Briey-en-Forêt, in France. In the early 1990s Doig was involved with a group of architects and artists who operated from the building. The modern urban structures are partially revealed and hidden by the forest that surrounds them. As Doig explains: "When you walk through an urban environment, you take the strangeness of the architecture for granted."
Created in the late 1990s, a series of paintings – including works such as Country-Rock (Wing Mirror) (1999) – depict a tunnel, a familiar landmark for Toronto residents since an anonymous artist painted a rainbow over it, at the northbound Don Valley Parkway, in 1972. The rainbow has been repainted more than 40 times over two decades, despite authorities’ attempts to remove it. His 1997 painting Canoe-Lake was inspired by the 1980 slasher film Friday the 13th.
In 2003, Doig started a weekly film club called StudioFilmClub in his studio together with Trinidadian artist Che Lovelace. Doig not only selects and screens the films; he also paints the poster advertising the week's film. He told an interviewer that he finds this ongoing project liberating because it is "much more immediate" than his usual work. In 2005, he was one of the artists exhibited in part 1 of The Triumph of Painting at the Saatchi Gallery in London.
Exhibitions
Doig has had major solo exhibitions at Tate Britain (2008), touring to Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris and Schirn Kunsthalle Frankfurt, Dallas Museum of Art (2005), Pinakothek der Moderne, Munich (2004), Bonnefanten Museum, Maastricht (2003), and Whitechapel Art Gallery, London (1998). Doig's first major exhibition in his home country was entitled No Foreign Lands, taking place in the Scottish National Gallery, in Edinburgh, from 3 August to 3 November 2013. It was critically acclaimed and showed works created in the previous ten years, mostly during his residence in Trinidad. The Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, in collaboration with the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, presented his own exhibition, the first major held in North America, from 25 January to 4 May 2014. An retrospective opened at Fondation Beyeler, Basel, in 2014, which travelled in 2015 to Louisiana Museum of Modern Art in Humlebaek, Denmark. Also in 2015, an exhibition of recent works opened at Fondazione Bevilacqua La Masa in Venice, Italy, coinciding with the 56th Venice Biennale. Recently his work was included in the group exhibition Cooperations at Fondation Beyeler (2017).
From 6 September to 16 November 2019, Michael Werner Gallery has hosted an exhibition of new paintings by Peter Doig.
Collections
Doig is represented at many international museum collections, with famous paintings including The House that Jacques Built (1992) at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art; Boiler House (1994), at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art; and Ski Jacket (1994), at Tate Modern, London. He is also represented at the British Museum, in London, Walker Art Gallery, in Liverpool, Southampton City Art Gallery, the National Galleries of Scotland, in Edinburgh, Musée National d'Art Moderne, in Paris, Bonnefanten Museum, in Maastricht, Goetz Collection, in Munich, Kunsthalle, in Nuremberg, Museo Cantonale d'Arte, in Lugano, Museu de Arte Moderna - Colecção Berardo, in Sintra, National Gallery of Canada, in Ottawa, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum of Modern Art, in New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York, Whitney Museum of American Art, in New York, National Gallery of Art, in Washington, The Hirshhorn Museum, in Washington, Philadelphia Museum of Art and Dallas Museum of Art, among other public collections.
Recognition
In 1993, Doig won the first prize at the John Moores exhibition with his painting Blotter. This brought public recognition, cemented in 1994, when he was nominated for the Turner Prize. From 1995 to 2000, he was a trustee of the Tate Gallery. He was honoured with amfAR’s Award of Excellence for Artistic Contributions to the Fight Against AIDS in 2009. He was also named the 2017 Whitechapel Gallery Art Icon.
Art market
In 2007, a painting of Doig's entitled White Canoe sold at Sotheby's for $11.3 million, then an auction record for a work by a living European artist. Paul Schimmel, chief curator at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles said in an interview that the sale made Doig go from being "a hero to other painters to a poster child of the excesses of the market". In 2009, Night Playground (1997–98), a densely painted landscape painting being sold by Joel Mallin, a New York collector, went for $5 million at a Christie's auction in London, well above its high estimate of $3 million. Also at Christie's London, The Architect’s Home in the Ravine (1991) was auctioned at £7.66 million in early 2013. Later that year, César Reyes, a psychiatrist who lives in Puerto Rico and is one of the artist's biggest collectors, sold Jetty, a 1994 canvas of a lone figure on a dock at sunset, for $11.3 million. His painting Gasthof zur Muldentalsperre was sold at Christie's in 2014 for $17,038,276. This price was surpassed by Swamped, also sold at Christie's in 2015 for $25,950,000 and in 2021 for $39,000,000. Phillips auctioned Peter Doig's 1991 canvas, “Rosedale,” of a Toronto snowfall, which was guaranteed for $25 million and sold for $28.8 million to a telephone bidder, an auction high for the artist.
In 2016, a former Canadian corrections officer began a $5 million lawsuit against Doig over a picture he claimed was by Doig despite the artist's denial it was his work. A Chicago court ruled in Doig's favour later that year, finding that the painting was actually the work of a similarly named man, Peter Doige.
References
Bibliography
Derek Walcott, Morning, Paramin, Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2016),
Ulf Küster and Richard Shiff, Peter Doig, Hatje Cantz (2015),
Hilton Als, Stéphane Aquin, Angus Cook, Keith Hartley, Peter Doig: No Foreign Lands, Hatje Cantz (2013),
Richard Shiff, Peter Doig: Early Works, Michael Werner (2013),
Kevin Power, Peter Doig: New Paintings, Michael Werner (2012),
Catherine Lampert and Richard Shiff, Peter Doig, Rizzoli (2011),
Philip Hoare, Peter Doig: New Paintings, Michael Werner and Gavin Brown's enterprise (2009),
Judith Nesbitt (ed.), Peter Doig, Tate (2008),
Rudi Fuchs and Hans-Werner Schmidt, Go West Young Man, Walther Koenig (2007),
Catherine Grenier, Adrian Searle, and Kitty Scott, Peter Doig, Phaidon Press (2007),
Kadee Robbins (ed.), Peter Doig: Works on Paper, Rizzoli (2006)
Nicholas Laughlin and Alice Koegel, Peter Doig: STUDIOFILMCLUB, Walther Koenig (2006),
Bernhard Schwenk and Hilke Wagner, Peter Doig: Metropolitain, Walther Koenig (2004),
Adrian Searle, Peter Doig: Works on Paper, Michael Werner (2002),
1959 births
Living people
Artists from Edinburgh
Scottish landscape painters
20th-century Scottish painters
Scottish male painters
21st-century Scottish painters
Alumni of Chelsea College of Arts
Trinidad and Tobago painters
Kunstakademie Düsseldorf faculty
Scottish contemporary artists
British emigrants to Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago people of Scottish descent
Alumni of Saint Martin's School of Art
Alumni of Wimbledon College of Arts
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unocal%20Corporation
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Unocal Corporation
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Union Oil Company of California, and its holding company Unocal Corporation, together known as Unocal was a major petroleum explorer and marketer in the late 19th century, through the 20th century, and into the early 21st century. It was headquartered in El Segundo, California, United States.
Unocal was involved in domestic and global energy projects. Unocal was one of the key players in the CentGas consortium, which attempted to build the Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline to run from the Caspian area, through Afghanistan, to the Indian Ocean, at a time after the Taliban siege of Kabul in 1996.
On August 10, 2005, Unocal merged its entire upstream petroleum business with Chevron and became a wholly-owned subsidiary. Unocal then ceased operations as an independent company.
History
The Union Oil Company of California was founded on October 17, 1890, in Santa Paula, California, by Lyman Stewart, Thomas Bard, and Wallace Hardison. It was a merger of three Southern Californian oil companies: the Sespe Oil Company and the Torrey Canyon Oil Company (both owned by Bard) and the Hardison and Stewart Oil Company. All three were notable as being completely unaffiliated with Standard Oil. Union Oil moved its headquarters to Los Angeles in 1901. The original headquarters in Santa Paula is a California Historical Landmark and museum.
About 1910, Union Oil made a strategic alliance with the Independent Producers Agency, a group of small oil producers, to build pipelines from the Kern County oil fields to Union Oil facilities on the Pacific coast. This gave the independent producers an alternative to what they perceived as the low prices paid by Standard Oil and the high freight rates charged by the railroads to move crude oil. It gave Union access to a large volume of crude oil. The situation was later fictionalized in the 2007 film There Will Be Blood.
In 1919, the Union Oil Company of Delaware was incorporated as a holding company for the Union Oil Company of California. In 1920, Union Oil purchased the Central Petroleum Company from the Texas Company. In 1922, the Union Oil Associates, Inc. was incorporated in California as a holding company to prevent control of the Union Oil Company of California passing to foreign interests after the merger of the Union Oil Company of Delaware with Royal Dutch Company.
In 1961, Union entered the Indonesian oil market. Henry L. Brandon, Union's vice president of international development wrote a "contract of work" arrangement, which was a first for Indonesia. In a speech on Indonesian Independence Day in August 1961, then president Sukarno talked at some length about "production sharing", which included language written into the contract by Union executives.
The company expanded to national status in 1965, when Union Oil merged with the Pure Oil Company, headquartered in what was then Palatine, Illinois, and now Schaumburg, Illinois. Over the next two decades, Union became the major oil producer in southern Alaska and a major natural gas producer in the Gulf of Mexico. The company was reorganized in 1983, and Union Oil Company of California became an operating subsidiary of a new Delaware-based holding company, Unocal Corporation. In 1985, Mesa Petroleum, controlled by billionaire T. Boone Pickens, attempted a takeover of Unocal Corp. that resulted in the Delaware Supreme Court landmark decision Unocal v. Mesa Petroleum, which upheld Unocal's takeover defense. Virtually all operations are conducted by Union Oil Company of California (Union Oil).
In 1977, Unocal acquired The Molybdenum Corporation of America (now Molycorp). Among the assets acquired was Mountain Pass rare earth mine, then the world's largest producer of rare earth elements.
In 1989, Unocal placed its midwest refining and marketing assets, including Union's refinery in Lemont, Illinois, into a 50/50 joint venture with Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A. (P.D.V.S.A.). The joint venture, known as the Uno-Ven Company, was headquartered in Arlington Heights, Illinois, and primarily comprising employees from Union Oil's then Schaumburg, Illinois, division headquarters and Lemont, Illinois, refinery. The joint venture was dissolved in 1997, with P.D.V.S.A. receiving full ownership. During the life of the joint venture, the familiar Union 76 brand name continued in full force. At the termination of the joint venture, most stations were converted to Citgo, which is controlled by P.D.V.S.A.
In 1997, Unocal sold its western United States refining and marketing operations to Tosco Corporation, including the rights to the Union 76 brand for refining and marketing (except in states where Uno-Ven operated). Tosco was later acquired by Phillips Petroleum, which later merged with Conoco to form ConocoPhillips.
Acquisition
In April 2005, the United States oil company Chevron made an offer to acquire Unocal for US$16.6 billion, which was followed, after the companies had agreed to the transaction, by a competing unsolicited bid from the Chinese firm CNOOC Limited of US$18.5 billion on June 22. The final Chevron offer of $17.9 billion was approved by Unocal shareholders on August 10. The final CNOOC bid was nearly 5% greater than that of Chevron, but faced significant political opposition from the United States Congress and was finally withdrawn by CNOOC August 2 citing the associated political uncertainty. Following a vote in the United States House of Representatives, the CNOOC bid was referred to President George W. Bush, on the grounds that its implications for national security needed to be reviewed.
Operations
Central Asia
Unocal was one of the key players in the CentGas consortium, an attempt to build the Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline to run from the Caspian area, through Afghanistan and probably Pakistan, to the Indian Ocean. One of the consultants to Unocal at that time was Zalmay Khalilzad, former US ambassador to Afghanistan, Iraq, and the United Nations.
In the 1980s, CIA chief Bill Casey had revived the agency's practice of gaining intelligence from traveling businessmen. Marty Miller, one of Unocal's top executives, conducted negotiations in several Central Asian countries from 1995, and voluntarily provided information gained on these trips to the CIA's Houston station.
In 1996, Unocal opened an office in Kandahar, Afghanistan, while the Taliban were in the process of taking control of the country.
In 1997,
Unocal seems to have had a deeper role. Intelligence "whistleblower" Julie Sirrs claimed that anti-Taliban leader Ahmad Shah Massoud told her he had "proof that Unocal had provided money that helped the Taliban take Kabul [in 1996]". And French journalist Richard Labeviere said, referring to the later 1990s, "The CIA and Unocal's security forces ... provided military weapons and instructors to several Taleban militia[s] ..." US State Department officials openly promoted the pipeline, and former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger served as a Unocal consultant.
The Taliban and Unocal were in negotiations in Texas to discuss arrangements for the gas pipeline from Turkmenistan to Pakistan in 1997 although it faced competition with from the Argentine Bridas Corporation.
While no deal was ultimately agreed with either company, the Taliban were leaning toward making a deal with Unocal as of August 1998. The company suspended work on the project following the U.S. cruise missile strikes on Afghanistan in response to the 1998 U.S. Embassy bombings and completely pulled out in December 1998 citing low oil prices and a need to cut costs in addition to regional instability.
Unocal was also the third-largest member of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.
Indonesia
Unocal entered the Indonesian Market in 1961. Under the leadership of Henry L. Brandon (VP of International Development), Union Oil was the first US Oil Company to sign a production sharing agreement (contract of work) with President Suharto.
Sponsorships
Union Oil was the sponsor of the Major Burnham Bowling Trophy, an annual California bowling event supported by the Boy Scouts of America and named after Major Frederick Russell Burnham.
76 was the official fuel and motor oil of NASCAR from the sport's inaugural season in 1948 until the end of the 2003 season when Sunoco became the official fuel and Mobil 1 became the official motor oil. The 76 logo is often seen in Major League Baseball and National Football League stadiums on the west coast and a 76 gas station has been located in the Dodger Stadium parking lot for decades.
Controversy
Domestic US criticism
In 1969, a blowout on the ocean bottom near Union Oil's Platform "A" on the Dos Cuadras field leaked between 80,000 and of oil into the water of the Santa Barbara Channel, near Santa Barbara, California. The event led to widespread criticism of both Union Oil and the offshore oil drilling industry, and was one of the events leading to the passage of the 1970 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).
Oil pipes under Avila Beach, California, leaked from the 1950s until 1996. A real estate firm determined the soil to be contaminated in 1989 and Unocal agreed to clean up the soil they contaminated. To clean up the massive spill, the crew had to excavate enough soil to fill a football field up to high.
Between the mid 1950s and 1994, Unocal leaked of diluent—a petroleum derivative pumped into heavy oil fields to make the oil flow freely—under the Guadalupe-Nipomo Dunes and nearby ocean water, the largest oil spill in California's history. The pipelines had leaks in at least 90 places. Locals had noticed a strange sheen on the ocean surface, and dead seals and sea lions began washing up onto the beach. Although Unocal denied having any problems, records discovered by state fish and game officers disclosed that Unocal had long been aware of the leaks. Unocal has been actively cleaning up the site since the mid-90s, receiving praise from the Sierra Club for their habitat restoration work.
Doe v. Unocal
In the Doe v. Unocal case, Burmese villagers sued Unocal for complicity in forced labor, rape, torture, and murder. EarthRights International, the Center for Constitutional Rights, Paul Hoffman, Hadsell & Stormer, and Judith Brown Chomsky served as co-counsel to the plaintiffs. In 2005, a settlement agreement was reached to compensate the plaintiffs.
See also
Unocal Corp. v. Mesa Petroleum Co.
References
Eviatar, Daphne (May 9, 2005). A Big Win for Human Rights. The Nation.
Global Business vs. Global Justice NOW with Bill Moyers, January 9, 2004.
Howard, John E. (Oct. 2002). The Alien Tort Claims Act: Is Our Litigation-Run-Amok Going Global?. Retrieved Oct. 6, 2005.
Unocal. The story you haven't heard about. . . The Yadana Project in Myanmar Retrieved October 6, 2005.
Zagaris, Bruce (October 2002). US Asks US Court to Stop Human Rights Suit by Indonesian Villagers Against ExxonMobil for Counterterrorism Purposes. International Enforcement Law Reporter.
Footnotes
Further reading
Welty, Earl M, and Frank J Taylor. The 76 bonanza: The fabulous life and times of the Union Oil Company of California (1966) 351pp
External links
02
Defunct oil companies of the United States
Petroleum in California
Companies based in Los Angeles County, California
Defunct companies based in Greater Los Angeles
Chevron Corporation
Energy companies established in 1890
Non-renewable resource companies established in 1890
Non-renewable resource companies disestablished in 2005
1890 establishments in California
2005 disestablishments in California
2005 mergers and acquisitions
American companies established in 1890
American companies disestablished in 2005
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charenton-le-Pont
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Charenton-le-Pont
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Charenton-le-Pont () is a commune in the southeastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the centre of Paris, to the north of the confluence of the Seine and Marne rivers; the () part of the name refers to the stone bridge across the Marne. It is one of the most densely populated municipalities in Europe.
The Charenton Psychiatric Hospital is located in the neighbouring commune Charenton-Saint-Maurice, which changed its name in 1842 to Saint Maurice.
History
A Bronze Age hoard of weapons was found in the river Seine at Charenton in the late nineteenth century. Comprising swords, axes, spearheads and other miscellaneous objects, it is now in the British Museum.
Charenton was always a point of importance for the defence of the capital, and was frequently the scene of bloody conflicts. The fort of Charenton, located in Maisons-Alfort but intended to defend Charenton, is one of the older forts of the Paris defence.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Charenton was the scene of the ecclesiastical councils of the Protestant party, which had its principal church in the town.
In the now-named commune St Maurice, adjoining Charenton to the east, is the Hospice de Charenton, a psychiatric hospital, the foundation of which dates from 1641. Until the time of the Revolution it was used as a general hospital, and even as a prison, but from 1802 onwards it was specially appropriated to the treatment of mental illness.
On 1 January 1860, the city of Paris was enlarged by annexing neighbouring communes. On that occasion, half of the commune of Bercy was annexed to the city of the Paris, and the remaining half was annexed to Charenton-le-Pont.
In 1929, the commune of Charenton-le-Pont lost about a third of its territory when the city of Paris annexed the Bois de Vincennes, a small part of which belonged to Charenton-le-Pont.
Population
Transport
Charenton-le-Pont is served by two stations on Paris Métro Line 8: Liberté and Charenton — Écoles.
Education
the commune has 14 public and private schools.
Public preschools (écoles maternelles): 4 vents, Cerisae, Champ des Alouettes, Conflans, Port au Lions, and Valmy
Public elementary schools: Briand A, Briand B, Desnos, Pasteur, and Valmy
Collège la Cerisaie (junior high school)
Lycée Robert Schuman (public senior high school/sixth-form college)
Notre dame des Missions (private school, elementary through senior high school/sixth form college)
Sport
Charenton shares the association football club CA Paris-Charenton with the nearby town Maisons-Alfort. They play in all red with blue shorts. They are a merger between CA Paris (founded in 1892)—who won the 1920 Coupe de France, were second place in the 1928 Coupe de France, played in the first two seasons of Ligue 1, and then played in Ligue 2 until 1963—and SO Charentonnais (founded in 1904). The two merged in 1964. The club is chaired by Oscar Gonçalves. They mainly play at the Stade Henri Guérin in Charenton, but also play many matches at the Stade Charentonneau in Maisons-Alfort.
Twin towns - Sister cities
Charenton-le-Pont is twinned with:
Borgo Val di Taro, Emilia Romagna, Italy
Büren, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
Trowbridge, Wiltshire, United Kingdom
Tempelhof-Schöneberg, Berlin, Germany
Zikhron Ya'akov, Haifa District, Israel
Economy
Essilor, headquarters
Natixis, the bank has three sites (Liberté 1, Liberté 2 et Bercy) with around people
Crédit Foncier de France, headquarters at 4 quai de Bercy
Porto Cruz, plant and distribution platform
See also
Communes of the Val-de-Marne department
References
External links
Charenton-le-Pont city council website (in French)
Historical notes (in French)
Communes of Val-de-Marne
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] |
208917
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coventry%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Coventry (disambiguation)
|
Coventry is a city in the West Midlands, England.
Coventry may also refer to:
Places
United States
Coventry, Connecticut
Coventry, New York
Coventry, Rhode Island
Coventry, Vermont, a New England town
Coventry (CDP), Vermont, the main village in the town
Coventry Township, Summit County, Ohio
Coventry Village, a commercial district in Cleveland Heights, Ohio
Military
HMS Coventry, names of several former warships of the Royal Navy
Coventry armoured car, a British four-wheel-drive armoured fighting vehicle
Arts and entertainment
"Coventry Carol", a Christmas carol dating from the 16th century
Coventry (Phish festival), a 2004 Phish music festival
"Coventry" (short story), a short story by Robert A. Heinlein
Coventry, a fictional location in the movie Twitches
Sergeant Coventry, a local police officer in the Sherlock Holmes' short story Thor Bridge
People
Charles Coventry (disambiguation)
Francis Coventry (1725–c.1754), English satirist
George Coventry, 3rd Baron Coventry (1628–1680)
George Coventry, 6th Earl of Coventry (1722–1809)
George Coventry, 9th Earl of Coventry (1838–1930)
Gertrude Mary Coventry (1886–1964), Scottish painter
Gordon Coventry (1901–1968), Australian rules footballer
Kirsty Coventry (born 1983), Zimbabwean swimmer and world record holder
Paul Coventry (born 1952), English rugby league footballer of the 1970s and 1980s
Robert McGowan Coventry (1855–1941), Scottish painter
Syd Coventry (1899–1976), Australian rules footballer
Thomas Coventry, 1st Baron Coventry (1578–1640)
Thomas Coventry, 1st Earl of Coventry (c.1629–1699)
William Coventry, 5th Earl of Coventry (c.1676–1751)
Coventry Patmore (1823–1896), English poet and critic
Other uses
3009 Coventry, an asteroid
Coventry Health Care, a managed health care company in the US
Coventry (horse), American racehorse
Coventry Building Society
Coventry City F.C., a football club who compete in the English league system
See also
Coventry Climax, a Coventry-based forklift truck, fire pump, and speciality engine manufacturer
Coventry Blitz, the 1940 German bombing of Coventry, England
Send to Coventry, an English idiom meaning to deliberately ostracise someone
South Coventry (disambiguation)
East Coventry Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania, US
North Coventry Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania, US
South Coventry Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania, US
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quatuor%20pour%20la%20fin%20du%20temps
|
Quatuor pour la fin du temps
|
Quatuor pour la fin du temps (), also known by its English title Quartet for the End of Time, is a piece of chamber music by the French composer Olivier Messiaen. It was premiered in 1941. The piece is scored for clarinet (in B-flat), violin, cello, and piano; a typical performance of the complete work lasts about 50 minutes. Messiaen wrote the piece while a prisoner of war in German captivity and it was first performed by his fellow prisoners. It is generally considered one of his most important works.
Composition and first performance
Messiaen was 31 years old when France entered World War II. He was captured by the German army in June 1940 and imprisoned in Stalag VIII-A, a prisoner-of-war camp in Görlitz, Germany (now Zgorzelec, Poland). While in transit to the camp, Messiaen showed the clarinetist Henri Akoka, also a prisoner, the sketches for what would become Abîme des oiseaux. Two other professional musicians, violinist and cellist Étienne Pasquier, were among his fellow prisoners, and after he managed to obtain some paper and a small pencil from a sympathetic guard (, 1902–1989), Messiaen wrote a short trio for them; this piece developed into the Quatuor for the same trio with himself at the piano. The combination of instruments was unusual at the time, but not without precedent: Walter Rabl had composed for it in 1896, as had Paul Hindemith in 1938.
The quartet was premiered at the camp on 15 January 1941 in front of about 400 prisoners and guards. Messiaen claimed that 5,000 people attended the performance and that the musicians had decrepit instruments, but those claims are now considered "somewhat exaggerated". The cello was bought with donations from camp members. Messiaen later recalled, "Never was I listened to with such rapt attention and comprehension."
Several months later, Messiaen was released (with the help of Brüll) thanks to an entreaty by his former organ teacher and professor at the Paris Conservatoire, Marcel Dupré, as Messiaen scholar Nigel Simeone writes:
Messiaen and Etienne Pasquier (cellist at the initial premiere) later recorded the quartet on LP for Club Français du Disc (1956), together with Jean Pasquier (violin) and André Vacellier (clarinet).
Inspiration
Messiaen wrote in the Preface to the score that the work was inspired by text from the Book of Revelation (Rev 10:1–2, 5–7, King James Version):
And I saw another mighty angel come down from heaven, clothed with a cloud: and a rainbow was upon his head, and his face was as it were the sun, and his feet as pillars of fire ... and he set his right foot upon the sea, and his left foot on the earth .... And the angel which I saw stand upon the sea and upon the earth lifted up his hand to heaven, and sware by him that liveth for ever and ever ... that there should be time no longer: But in the days of the voice of the seventh angel, when he shall begin to sound, the mystery of God should be finished ...
Structure
The work is in eight movements:
Below, quotations are translated from Messiaen's Preface to the score.
I. "Liturgie de cristal"
In his preface to the score, Messiaen describes the opening of the quartet:
Written for the full quartet, the opening movement begins with the solo clarinet imitating a blackbird's song and the violin imitating a nightingale's song. The underlying pulse is provided by the cello and piano: the cello cycles through the same five-note melody (using the pitches C, E, D, F-sharp, and B-flat) and a repeating pattern of 15 durations. The piano part consists of a 17-note rhythmic pattern permuted strictly through 29 chords, as if to give the listener a glimpse of something eternal.
II. "Vocalise, pour l'Ange qui annonce la fin du Temps"
Also for the full quartet, Messiaen writes of this movement:
III. "Abîme des oiseaux"
Messiaen writes:
A solo for the clarinet, this movement is a test for even the most accomplished clarinetist, with an extremely slow tempo marking .
IV. "Intermède"
A trio for violin, cello, and clarinet, Messiaen writes of this movement:
V. "Louange à l'Éternité de Jésus"
Messiaen writes:
A duet for cello and piano, the music is arranged from an earlier composition, "IV. L'Eau" from "Fête des belles eaux" for 6 Ondes Martenots, performed at the Paris International Exposition of 1937. The tempo marking is infiniment lent, extatique ("infinitely slow, ecstatic").
VI. "Danse de la fureur, pour les sept trompettes"
Messiaen writes of this movement, which is for full quartet:
Toward the end of the movement the theme returns, fortissimo, in augmentation and with wide changes of register.
VII. "Fouillis d'arcs-en-ciel, pour l'Ange qui annonce la fin du Temps"
Messiaen writes of this quartet movement:
VIII. "Louange à l'Immortalité de Jésus"
Messiaen writes:
A duet for violin and piano, the music is an arrangement of the second part of his earlier organ piece "Diptyque", transposed up a major third from C to E.
Derivative works
The piece is the inspiration for Quartet for the End of Time, a 2014 novel by Johanna Skibsrud that borrows its title and structure from the piece.
Primary sources
Olivier Messiaen, Quatuor pour la fin du temps (score) (Paris: Durand)
Anthony Pople, Messiaen: Quatuor pour la fin du temps, Cambridge Music Handbooks (Cambridge University Press, 2003)
References
External links
Nigel Simeone on Quatuor pour la fin du temps
"Sur le Quatuor pour la fin du temps" – extensive analysis by François Nicolas (in French).
Boston University Messiaen Project: performances, studies and information
"Quatuor pour la fin du temps" – Musical and Biblical Analysis from Lawrence University Freshman Studies curriculum
"Music for the End of Time" – an appreciation by Michael R. Linton
Quartet for the End of Time – the documentary film by H. Paul Moon
Compositions by Olivier Messiaen
Compositions for piano quartet
1941 compositions
Apocalyptic music
|
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] |
208921
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch%20Airlines
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Monarch Airlines
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Monarch Airlines, also known as Monarch, was a British charter and scheduled airline founded by Bill Hodgson and Don Peacock and financed by the Swiss Sergio Mantegazza family. The company later became a low-cost airline in 2004 before abandoning charter flying completely. The airline's headquarters were at Luton, and it had operating bases at Birmingham, Leeds/Bradford, Gatwick and Manchester.
When Monarch entered administration in 2017, it was the biggest airline collapse in UK history up to that point, leaving nearly 100,000 passengers and holidaymakers stranded. However, on 23 September 2019, Thomas Cook also collapsed, leaving 150,000 people stranded, and went on to become the largest UK airline ever to collapse. The airline held a United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) Type A Operating Licence. This license allowed Monarch to carry passengers, cargo, and mail on aircraft with 20 or more seats.
History
1960s
On 5 June 1967, Monarch Airlines was established by a pair of British businesspeople, Bill Hodgson and Don Peacock, both of whom had previously been directors at the airline British Eagle. Unlike typical airlines at the time, Monarch was founded with the express intent of conveying British holidaymakers to tourism hotspots and desirable getaway destinations throughout Europe. Particularly at a time when air travel was traditionally feasible only to the rich, Monarch took another unusual step. The airline's ambition was to promote the service towards the demands and needs of the average family, rather than it being marketed solely for wealthier clients.
The business was operated as a subsidiary of Globus Getaway Holdings and received financial backing from the Swiss Sergio Mantegazza family. At the time of Monarch's inception, the Mantegazza family were the owners of UK-based tour operator Cosmos Tours. Sister company Engineering Limited (which would later become Monarch Aircraft Engineering Limited) performed maintenance on the company's aircraft. On 5 April 1968, Monarch commenced commercial airline operations. Monarch conducted a charter flight from Luton Airport, London to Madrid, Spain, using a Bristol 175 Britannia 300 turboprop formerly operated by British airline company Caledonian Airways.
The airline's initial fleet comprised a pair of Bristol Britannias (both ex-Caledonian Airways) serviced in a single hangar at Luton. During 1969, the firm's second year of operation, Monarch was able to acquire additional Britannias from the administrators of troubled airline British Eagle. Shortly after, the airliner reached a milestone in the form of 250,000 passengers carried within a 12-month period, which at that point was operating an expanded fleet of six Britannias.
1970s
During 1971, Monarch entered the jet age, having completed arrangements for the acquisition of an initial batch of three Boeing 720B jetliners to its fleet. The airline's first commercial jet service took to the air on 13 December 1971. Co-founder Bob Hodgson later praised the low noise levels of the Boeing 720, favourably referring to them as being "whispering giants". The introduction of the company's first jet aircraft type also coincided with the adoption of a revised livery.
By the 1970s, there was a strong demand amongst the wider British population for the package holiday format, to which Monarch was able to capitalise upon greatly. During 1972, the airline recorded having carried 500,000 passengers with the space of a single year for the first time. However, during the 1970s energy crisis, in which the price of oil spiked dramatically, many airlines experienced periods of considerable financial hardship. One of Monarch's rivals in the package holiday sector, Court Line, was forced into receivership. While the company took on several former staff from Court Line, Monarch itself was not immune to these difficulties either.
By 1976, Monarch had transitioned to an all-jet fleet, following the sale of the airline's last Britannia to Greek cargo charter airline Afrek on 21 May of that year. Two years earlier, the airline had retired its last passenger-configured Britannia, which operated the type's final commercial passenger flight in Europe on 9 October 1974. The changeover to an all-jet fleet was brought about as a result of (first) the acquisition of a further two second-hand Boeing 720Bs, as well as (second) the addition of a pair of BAC One-Eleven 500s, sourced from (first) British Caledonian and (second) the administrators of the failed Court Line respectively.
1980s
At the end of 1980, Monarch Airlines took delivery of its first new jet aircraft, a pair of Boeing 737-200 Advanced. Monarch acquired the aircraft on an operating lease from Bavaria Leasing (then a unit of Hapag Lloyd Airlines). One of the newly delivered 737s operated from Tegel Airport in then West Berlin (in the days before the German reunification) at the beginning of the 1981 summer season. The Berlin-based aircraft operated short to medium-haul charter flights to the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands under contract to Flug-Union Berlin, at the time one of West Berlin's leading package tour operators. Monarch had taken over Flug-Union Berlin's charter programme from Laker Airways. The addition of the 737s expanded Monarch's fleet to 11 jet aircraft, comprising one Boeing 707-320C, five Boeing 720Bs, three BAC One-Eleven 500s and two Boeing 737-200 Advs.
During 1981, new stations opened at Gatwick, Glasgow, Manchester and Berlin Tegel making it the first time Monarch Airlines carried a million passengers in a single year. 1981 was also the year Monarch became the first charter airline to order the Boeing 757-200, a high-capacity medium-haul single-aisle plane powered by Rolls-Royce RB211-535C engines. Monarch's 757 order represented a significant change for a small airline. The first delivered 757 entered service in the spring of 1983, coinciding with the introduction of an updated livery, the third in the airline's history. During the mid-1980s, sister company Monarch Aircraft Engineering Limited opened several new facilities at Luton to expand the firm's maintenance capabilities. Amongst other things, it enabled the 757 fleet to be maintained in-house.
During spring 1985, the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) awarded Monarch licences to commence scheduled services to Málaga, Menorca and Tenerife. These licences allowed the airline to launch its first-ever scheduled service from Luton to Menorca on 5 July 1986, under the brand name "Monarch crown service". This event signified the first time in which Monarch was in direct competition with rival airlines, rather than just as a component of a tour operator.
During 1986, Monarch acquired their first Boeing 737-300 airliner. From November 1988, four of Monarch's 737-300s were leased out to Euroberlin France, a Berlin Tegel-based Franco-German joint venture airline that was 51% owned by Air France and 49% by Lufthansa. Apart from the aircraft itself, Monarch Airlines also provided the flight deck crew and maintenance support (through sister company Monarch Aircraft Engineering) for this airline. By 1990, seven 737-300s are assigned to the Euroberlin wet lease.
On 1 May 1988, Monarch operated the first ETOPS Transatlantic operation under CAA regulations. The Boeing 757-200ER G-MONJ operated Luton to Orlando via Gander with 235 passengers. This operation became the first British-operated twin-jet ever to cross the North Atlantic with passengers. Since then, this feat has become commonplace for North Atlantic crossings. That same year, Monarch Airlines reached another milestone; the firm carried more than two million passengers within a year.
1990s
In 1990, Monarch introduced the Airbus A300-600R, its first wide-body aircraft type. Monarch also opened a new purpose-built headquarters that housed the airline's Boeing 757 flight simulator at its Luton base. During the early 1990s, the company operated several Boeing 767-300ER wide-body aircraft on behalf of Alitalia Team, a subsidiary of Italy's flag carrier, under a wet-lease arrangement similar to a previous deal Monarch formed with Euroberlin France. In 1993, Monarch Airlines introduced the Airbus A320 aircraft followed by the larger Airbus A321 in 1997. The Airbus A320 replaced the airline's fleet of Boeing 737-300s.
After 1995, Monarch came under increasing pressure from newly formed budget airlines. It would eventually stop all charter flying ten years later. This announcement was in response to customers abandoning Monarch's offering of package tours in favour of independent tours on seat-only low-cost airlines.
During May 1997, Monarch Airlines launched a new scheduled route between Gibraltar and Luton, with additional flights to Gibraltar by the company established from Birmingham, Gatwick and Manchester. Monarch continued to operate flights on the Gibraltar-Luton route until the firm's collapse. During the late 1990s, a new in-flight service referred to as Monarch Plus, included pre-booked seats, free headsets and improved dining options, such as duck breast instead of turkey stroganoff, for an additional £30 per person.
During 1998, Monarch Airlines leased a pair of McDonnell Douglas MD-11 wide-body aircraft from American airline World Airways for its long-haul operations. This lease was interim for the delivery of a pair of new Airbus A330-200 wide-body aircraft. Following the arrival of the A330 in 1999, Monarch opted to return the leased MD-11s to World Airways. The adoption of the A330 wide-bodies permitted Monarch to serve long-haul charter destinations with a two class seating configuration, which was another first for the airline.
2000s
During 2002, Monarch retired the sole McDonnell Douglas DC-10 from service and donated it to the Manchester Airport Aviation Viewing Park. That same year, Monarch also unveiled a brand-new livery – the airline's fourth. Also, the company rebranded its Monarch Crown Service scheduled division as Monarch Scheduled. Monarch Scheduled continued to offer a full-service product, including free catering, bar service, hot towels, newspapers and in-flight entertainment (IFE).
During 2003, Monarch Scheduled announced that it would open a new base at Gatwick Airport. On 1 May 2003, this base opened, initially offering services to Alicante, Faro and Málaga. On 15 December 2004, Monarch Scheduled announced that it would open a new base at Birmingham Airport. The station opened in April 2005 with new routes to Málaga and Tenerife.
In 2004, following the success of the low-fares, no-frills airlines such as easyJet, Monarch decided to adopt a modified low-cost model, featuring additional charges for food and drink. In 2005 (until 2010), Monarch leased a Boeing 767-300ER from MyTravel Airways (which then became Thomas Cook Airlines) to expand its long-haul fleet.
During November 2005, Monarch opened a base in Málaga. The airline based one Airbus A320 aircraft there. Monarch launched three scheduled services from Málaga to Aberdeen, Blackpool and Newquay. The Málaga-Newquay route was discontinued on 30 April 2006. About a year later, Monarch retired the Málaga-Blackpool service due to low demand. On 27 October 2007, the airliner withdrew the Málaga-Aberdeen route as well, resulting in the closure of Monarch's Málaga base.
To operate scheduled services from Manchester, an Airbus A321 was acquired. Monarch became the airport's second-largest passenger airline in 2005 with 1.72m passengers using its services from/to the airport. Monarch's total passenger numbers increased from 4.55m in 2002 to 6.5m in 2008.
In August 2006, Monarch ordered six Boeing 787-8 Dreamliner widebodied jets, primarily for use on long-haul routes. Delivery was planned to start in 2010; however, delays to the 787 project pushed back delivery to 2013, and in September 2011, the airline announced the cancellation of the order, citing its strategic decision to concentrate on its short-/medium-haul operations.
On 27 April 2007, Monarch Airlines started flights to Ibiza partnered with club brand HedKandi, naming the partnership "FlyKandi". One of Monarch's Boeing 757s (G-MOND) received a special FlyKandi livery with billboard FlyKandi titles and a special tail motif. The HedKandi partnership lasted for the 2007 summer season, with flights to Ibiza sold from four major UK airports. It was then renewed for the 2008 summer season, offering the same services. This time FlyKandi livery was applied to G-MONJ. HedKandi CDs and radio stations were available for purchase and to listen to onboard Monarch aircraft.
In October 2007, Monarch became the first airline in Europe to accept PayPal as a flight payment option on its website.
During 2008, Monarch changed the name of its website from flymonarch.com to monarch.co.uk. It also changed its advertising slogan to "The Low Fare Airline That Cares".
During 2008, Monarch provided the aircraft, an Airbus A321, to launch the ITV2 television programme CelebAir. Celebrities were trained and took on duties performed by airline staff, such as cabin crew. The destinations to which CelebAir flew were mainly Monarch's scheduled destinations, including Málaga, Alicante, Tenerife, Faro, Ibiza, Mahón and Larnaca. These flights carried fare-paying passengers. The programme first aired on 2 September 2008. The programme has now finished with Lisa Maffia winning the series, Amy Lamé finishing second and Chico Slimani finishing third.
2010 to 2014
After many years of operating profitably, Monarch Group, the parent company of Monarch Airlines and Cosmos Holidays, reported a large pre-tax loss of £32.3m in the financial year ending in 2009. This loss necessitated a £45m cash injection from the Mantegazzas who had co-owned the group since its inception. Monarch Airlines also changed its focus from being primarily a charter airline to becoming a predominantly "scheduled leisure airline." Monarch targeted 80% of its business to being "scheduled" (compared with only 20% in 2005). The new strategy resulted in the introduction of additional scheduled services to new destinations in Egypt, Turkey, Greece, Spain and Portugal, including the launch on 23 May 2011 of a three-times-weekly scheduled service to the Greek island of Corfu — the airline's first scheduled Greek destination – from London Luton.
Monarch abolished all debit card charges in favour of a single £10 flat rate applied to credit card transactions. This change was a bid to increase the airliner's attractiveness as a viable alternative to EasyJet and Ryanair, its main low-cost competitors. To highlight these differences as additional selling points, Monarch introduced the advertising slogan Fly Your Way Every Day. Monarch also introduced a rebrand incorporating the airline's old capital "M" and crown, as well as the airline's fifth livery.
Although Monarch made a £1.4m profit in 2010, it reported a £45m loss in the financial year ending 31 October 2011. This loss was a result of high jet fuel prices against the backdrop of a stagnant economy, as well as political turmoil in the Middle East. Higher fuel prices increased the airline's annual fuel bill by £50m.
On 3 November 2011, Monarch received a £75m rescue package for the airline. Monarch also announced a launch of 14 additional routes serving new destinations in Italy, Croatia and Greece from their bases. The new flights commenced at the start of the 2012 summer season. Monarch also received two Airbus A320 aircraft to support the increased level of activity. The addition of these aircraft was the first stage of a medium-term plan to increase the fleet size to 40 aircraft in support of the airline's goal to carry 10 million passengers annually. Growing the fleet to increase passenger numbers was supposed to allow the airline to spread its fixed costs over a higher output level, resulting in greater economies of scale.
On 3 May 2012, Monarch announced that they were to open a new base at East Midlands Airport in Autumn 2012. The new station will replace some routes previously flown by Bmibaby, who ceased operations completely on 9 September 2012. On 8 May 2012, the airline announced operations from Leeds/Bradford with two new winter destinations, Munich and Grenoble. They also announced plans for a large expansion in summer 2013.
On 10 July 2012, Monarch announced a launch of a new base at Leeds/Bradford with 12 new destinations. The base opened on 22 March 2013. As of mid-2012, Globus Travel's shareholders included Amerald Investments (88%), Atlantic Financial Services (7%) and Abaco Holdings (4%). On 13 December 2012, Monarch announced that they had come on board as a new sponsor for Leeds United AFC. This sponsorship promotes Monarch's base and routes at Leeds Bradford Airport.
On 1 July 2013, Monarch announced an order for a further two Airbus A321s. The aircraft was due to be delivered in April and May 2015, but it changed to just a single A320 in April 2015. On 12 December 2013, Monarch announced that Monarch Airlines had returned to profit in the year ending October 2013 and that passenger numbers were up 9.5% to 7 million and in line to carry more than 10 million by 2016. In the same announcement, Monarch confirmed that it planned to order 60 new aircraft in an order worth $6 Billion for delivery up to 2024 and would announce the successful tender in Q1 of 2014 from either Airbus/Boeing and Bombardier.
In July 2014 the airline announced that it had selected Boeing, with the 737MAX, as the preferred bidder for 30 new aircraft. Monarch confirmed the order in October 2014, with deliveries due to take place from Q2 of 2018.
2014 to 2017: troubles and end of operations
In August 2014, Monarch announced it was undergoing a strategic review of the company which would involve cost reduction initiatives. As part of the plan, Monarch announced the closure of their East Midlands base on 14 August 2014. The company also embarked on a heavy redundancy exercise and reduction of payroll mainly aimed at onboard cabin management in preparation for the company sale in October 2014.
On 24 October 2014, Monarch Holdings was acquired from the Globus Travel Group by the private investment company and turnaround specialist Greybull Capital. This purchase, for a nominal sum, was just hours before Monarch's licence with the Civil Aviation Authority expired. Greybull was to own 90% of the airline, with the remaining 10% held by the group's pension fund and provide access to £125m of new capital. As part of the deal, Monarch announced that it would downsize its fleet from 42 to 34 aircraft, as well as renegotiate leases on ten aircraft. Monarch will also cease long-haul and charter operations from April 2015, converting to a low-cost model focusing on short-haul leisure routes. However, the new finance was said to secure the order for 30 Boeing 737 MAX 8 aircraft signed up to at the 2014 Farnborough Air Show.
Following the downsize in operations, Monarch Airlines carried 5.7 million passengers during 2015, a 19% reduction compared with 2014. However, demand for flights on Monarch's major holiday routes to Egypt and Turkey continued to fall because of passenger fears raised by the Syrian civil war, the Egyptian political crisis and the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt.
On 25 September 2016, online rumours surfaced about Monarch Airlines' imminent bankruptcy, which the airline strongly denied. The Civil Aviation Authority had commenced commandeering spare planes from other airlines for potential repatriation of British citizens at short notice. However, in the following days, Monarch obtained additional funds from shareholders, and on 30 September 2016, its Civil Aviation Authority ATOL licence was temporarily extended until 12 October. On 12 October 2016, Monarch Airlines successfully retained its ATOL licence after it received an additional £165m in investment funding. At the time, the cash injection was believed to have come from Greybull Capital. However, one year later, it was revealed that Boeing had provided the majority of the sum to save the struggling airline.
In September 2017, reports emerged of Monarch facing difficulties over its license, as had happened in the previous year. On Saturday 30 September 2017, the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) extended Monarch's licence for 24 hours due to financial issues. Once again the Civil Aviation Authority had commenced commandeering spare planes from other airlines which included ten planes from Qatar Airways. Furthermore, although Monarch had received an extension to its license, it tripled fares. These price increases showed a deliberate attempt to effectively price itself out of the market and reduce exposure to any claims.
During the late evening on 1 October 2017, the airline cancelled late-night flights to Ibiza at the boarding stage as the deadline for its licence loomed. On the morning of 2 October at 03:19 BST, the airline's final flight, ZB3785 from Tel Aviv to Manchester, landed. Shortly afterwards at approximately 04:00 BST, the CAA confirmed that Monarch Airlines (along with its subsidiaries) ceased operations with immediate effect and had entered administration. This announcement left 110,000 passengers stranded overseas, and 300,000 future bookings cancelled.
A total of 38 aircraft from 15 European, Middle Eastern, and Canadian operators, including Qatar Airways (10 aircraft), Titan Airways (five aircraft), Air Transat (four aircraft), Freebird Airlines and Wamos Air (three aircraft each), and smaller numbers from other airlines and charter operators, were chartered to repatriate British citizens from abroad. The aircraft used for the operation ranged in size from a Boeing 737-300 to a Boeing 747-400. In total, the operation cost £60 million, funded by the Air Travel Trust Fund which in turn is funded by an airline and passenger levy. The operation was the UK's biggest ever post-war repatriation at the time. Two years later, Thomas Cook made an even bigger collapse.
Monarch was also the largest airline ever to have ceased trading in the UK until the collapse of Thomas Cook in 2019. The causal factors of Monarch's demise were various. First, vicious competition and excess capacity on routes to southern Europe from other low-cost rivals must have played a part in this scenario. Second, travel fears resulting from terrorism in North Africa and also around Europe such as the military coup in Turkey and the 2016 Nice truck attack became the suspect reason. Third, Brexit fears caused the depreciation of the pound sterling, which increased operating costs such as fuel costs, aircraft leasing costs, and airport landing fees.
In April 2021, Monarch Airlines was dissolved after moving out of administration.
Cabin and services
As Monarch positioned itself as a low-cost carrier, the airline offered several services for an optional extra fee. This included options such as hold luggage, increased luggage allowance, allocated seating, priority services and in-flight catering.
Cabin
Monarch's aircraft operated in an all-economy layout. Several extra space seats were located towards the front of the cabin and adjacent to exit doors.
In-flight entertainment
Monarch provided an in-flight magazine named Passport. Its contents included travel guides, a map of Monarch's destinations, interviews and company news.
In-flight catering and retail
Monarch offered food and drink available to purchase on board all flights. The menu included a range of hot and cold food items as well as hot and cold drinks, alcoholic beverages and soft drinks.
A range of onboard tax-free/duty-free goods was available to purchase from the Love to Shop inflight magazine.
Vantage Club loyalty scheme
Monarch operated a loyalty scheme named Vantage Club. It rewarded regular customers travelling with the airline with additional travel privileges and benefits. There were three membership tier levels - Indigo, Silver and Gold.
Corporate affairs
At the time of closure Monarch's head office, along with that of Monarch Group, was in Prospect House, on the grounds of London Luton Airport.
Ownership and structure
Monarch Airlines was part of the Monarch Group, of which the holding company was Monarch Holdings Ltd., which is 90% owned by Greybull Capital. The group's pension fund holds the remaining 10%.
Other subsidiaries of the Monarch Group include Monarch Holidays (previously branded as Cosmos Holidays, but reverted to Globus in 2017), Monarch Hotels, Avro Flights, and Monarch Aircraft Engineering Limited (MAEL). Following the collapse of the other companies, MAEL would survive for another 15 months as a stand-alone company focused on third-party maintenance checks. Burdened by the debt load of the collapsed airline, MAEL would meet the same fate as the rest of the Monarch business on 4 January 2019, with portions sold off piecemeal to competitors
Business trends
Operational activities over recent years, broken down between scheduled and charter flights, were:
Destinations
Fleet
Fleet at closure
At the time of closure, the Monarch Airlines fleet consisted of the following aircraft:
Historical fleet
Monarch had operated the following aircraft in its history:
Awards
FlightOnTime.info Most Improved UK Charter Airline for Punctuality – Summer 2007
Travel Trade Gazette Airline of the Year – Leisure 2006 and 2007
TravelWeekly Globe Travel Awards – Best Charter Airline 2009, 2010 and 2011
World's greenest airline ITB Berlin travel show – The number 1 greenest airline 2011
TravelMole Best Airline Website 2012
Accidents and incidents
During January 1985, a Boeing 757 flying Monarch Flight 390 from Tenerife to Luton suffered two mid-flight explosions. Soon after, the aircraft lost electrical power, and smoke began filling the cabin, leading to an emergency landing in Portugal. The cause was leaking lavatory fluid which had come into contact with electrical wiring, resulting in severe electrical arcing. This event created smoke and power surges and caused the aircraft's electronic flight interfaces to fail and blank out. It was the first known British-operated aircraft to suffer a severe Kapton-related problem.
On 22 May 2002, a Boeing 757-200 (Registration G-MONC) suffered structural damage to the forward fuselage in the area of the nose landing gear during landing at Gibraltar Airport while operating a flight from Luton. The captain had used an incorrect landing technique, applying full nose-down elevator. This control input resulted in a high pitch-down rate at nosewheel touchdown, exceeding the design limits, before the aircraft's nosewheel had touched the ground. No fatalities occurred.
On 17 March 2006, the flight deck crew of a Boeing 757-200 (Registration G-MONE) lost visual contact with the runway after passing the Visual Decision Point (VDP) while attempting to land at Gibraltar Airport. During the subsequent go-around, the crew did not follow the correct missed approach procedures. However, air traffic control (ATC) provided effective heading control to avoid striking the high ground. The lowest altitude of the aircraft when overland was 2,100 ft. (The highest point overland, just south of the airfield, is 1,420 ft.) Following the incident, ATC and Monarch Airlines changed their procedures to reduce the chances of repeating a similar occurrence.
See also
List of defunct airlines of the United Kingdom
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
British Independent Airlines since 1946, Volume 3 of 4. A.C. Merton Jones. Merseyside Aviation Society & LAAS. Liverpool, 1976. .
(various backdated issues relating to Monarch Airlines, 1968–2007)
External links
operated by the Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)
Monarch website from KPMG
Monarch Airlines Careers
Group Voyagers
British Air Transport Association
British brands
Defunct low-cost airlines
Airlines established in 1967
Companies based in Luton
1967 establishments in England
2017 disestablishments in England
Airlines disestablished in 2017
Defunct charter airlines of the United Kingdom
Defunct companies of England
British companies established in 1967
British companies disestablished in 2017
Companies that have entered administration in the United Kingdom
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace%20Porter
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Horace Porter
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Horace Porter (April 15, 1837May 29, 1921) was an American soldier and diplomat who served as a lieutenant colonel, ordnance officer and staff officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War, personal secretary to General and President Ulysses S. Grant. He also was secretary to General William T. Sherman, vice president of the Pullman Palace Car Company and U.S. Ambassador to France from 1897 to 1905.
Early life
Porter was born in Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, on April 15, 1837, the son of David Rittenhouse Porter (1788–1867), an ironmaster who later served as Governor of Pennsylvania, and Josephine McDermott.
His paternal grandfather was Andrew Porter, the Revolutionary War officer and his paternal uncles included George Bryan Porter, the Territorial Governor of Michigan, and James Madison Porter, the Secretary of War. Among his first cousins was Andrew Porter, a Mexican–American War veteran and Union Army brigadier general. His aunt, Elizabeth Porter, was the grandmother of Mary Todd Lincoln.
Porter was educated at The Lawrenceville School in Lawrenceville, New Jersey (class of 1856) and Harvard University. He graduated from West Point July 1, 1860.
Career
Porter was commissioned a second lieutenant on April 22, 1861 and a first lieutenant on June 7, 1861. During the American Civil War, Porter served in the Union Army, reaching the grade of lieutenant colonel by the end of the war.
During the war, he served as Chief of Ordnance in the Army of the Potomac, Department of the Ohio and the Army of the Cumberland. He was distinguished in the Battle of Fort Pulaski, Georgia, at the Battle of Chickamauga, the Battle of the Wilderness and the Second Battle of Ream's Station (New Market Heights). On June 26, 1902 or July 8, 1902, Porter received the Medal of Honor for the Battle of Chickamauga as detailed in the citation noted below. In the last year of the war, he served on the staff of Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, later writing a lively memoir of the experience, Campaigning With Grant (1897).
From April 4, 1864 to July 25, 1866, Porter was aide-de-camp to General Ulysses S. Grant with the grade of lieutenant colonel in the regular army. On July 17, 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated Porter for appointment as brevet brigadier general, to rank from March 13, 1866, and the U.S. Senate confirmed the appointment on July 23, 1866. From July 25, 1866 to March 4, 1869, Porter was aide-de-camp to General Ulysses S. Grant with the grade of colonel in the regular army.
Grant administration
From 1869 to 1872, Porter served as President Grant's personal secretary in the White House. At the same time, he held the grade of colonel and an appointment as aide-de-camp to General William T. Sherman.
Porter had refused to take a $500,000 vested interest bribe from Jay Gould, a Wall Street financier, in the Black Friday gold market scam. He told Grant about Gould's attempted bribery, thus warning Grant about Gould's intention of cornering the gold market. However, during the Whiskey Ring trials in 1876, Treasury Solicitor Bluford Wilson claimed that Porter was involved with the scandal. Porter testified before the committee investigating the scandal, and was never formally charged with wrongdoing. Porter resigned from the U.S. Army on December 31, 1873.
Later life
After resigning from the Army, Porter became vice president of the Pullman Palace Car Company, and later, president of the West Shore Railroad. He was U.S. Ambassador to France from 1897 to 1905, paying for the recovery of the body of John Paul Jones and sending it to the United States for re-burial. He received the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor from the French government in 1904. In addition to Campaigning with Grant, he also wrote West Point Life (1866).
Porter was president of the Union League Club of New York from 1893 to 1897. In that capacity, he was a major force in the construction of Grant's Tomb.
He was elected an honorary member of the Pennsylvania Society of the Cincinnati in 1902. He was also a member of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, the Sons of the American Revolution and a Hereditary Companion of the Military Order of Foreign Wars by right of his descent from Lieutenant Colonel Andrew Porter who served in the American Revolution.
In 1891 he joined the New York Society of the Sons of the American Revolution, where he served as President General from 1892 through 1896. He was assigned national membership number 4069 and state membership number 69.
He died in Manhattan, New York and is interred at the Old First Methodist Church Cemetery in West Long Branch, New Jersey.
Personal life
In 1863, Porter was married to Sophie King McHarg (1840–1903), the daughter of John McHarg (1813–1884) and Martha Whipple Patch. Together, they were the parents of:
Horace Porter Jr., who died at the age of 23 of typhoid fever.
Clarence Porter, who died after the first World War.
Elsie Porter, who married Edwin Mende of Berne, Switzerland.
William Porter, who died in infancy.
After a period of suffering, Porter died at New York, New York, May 29, 1921. He was buried in West Long Branch Cemetery, West Long Branch, New Jersey. In his will, he left the Grant Association $10,000 and the flag that flew at General Grant's field headquarters during the Civil War.
Medal of Honor citation
Rank and Organization:
Captain, Ordnance Department, U.S. Army. Place and date: At Chickamauga, Ga., September 20, 1863. Entered service at: Harrisburgh, Pa. Born: April 15, 1837, Huntington, Pa. Date of issue: July 8, 1902.
Citation:
While acting as a volunteer aide, at a critical moment when the lines were broken, rallied enough fugitives to hold the ground under heavy fire long enough to effect the escape of wagon trains and batteries.
See also
List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: M–P
List of American Civil War brevet generals (Union)
Notes
References
Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
McFeely, William S. Grant: A Biography (1981).
Further reading
, contains a number of speeches by Porter.
Porter, Horace. Campaigning With Grant. New York: The Century Co., 1897. Time-Life Books reprint 1981. . (deluxe)
External links
1837 births
1921 deaths
Ambassadors of the United States to France
American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor
Grant administration personnel
Harvard University alumni
People from Huntingdon, Pennsylvania
People of Pennsylvania in the American Civil War
Personal secretaries to the President of the United States
Porter family
Union Army colonels
United States Army officers
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
United States Military Academy alumni
Lawrenceville School alumni
Sons of the American Revolution
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208927
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Ness
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Mike Ness
|
Michael James Ness (born April 3, 1962) is an American musician and producer who is the lead guitarist, vocalist and songwriter for the punk rock band Social Distortion, which was formed in 1978.
Early life
Ness was born in Lynn, Massachusetts on April 3, 1962. His family relocated to Orange County, California, later that year, and he grew up roaming the streets of Fullerton. As a child, he idolized gangsters such as John Dillinger and Bonnie and Clyde. At a young age, his parents divorced and he was later kicked out of his father and stepmother's home in Fullerton when he was around 15 or 16 years old for incorrigible behavior.
During his early years, he was raised on the blues, country and early rock n' roll. As he drifted around Orange County, Ness became involved in the punk rock scene.
In the 1980s, Ness was the original renter of the one-bedroom apartment described in The Adolescents song "Kids of the Black Hole". The punk house is located in Fullerton, California and still exists today.
Career
Inspired by The Sex Pistols, Ness founded Social Distortion in 1978 with Casey Royer. He later recruited his high school friend Dennis Danell into the band in 1979, and Ness dropped out of high school at age 17 to focus on his music career. Social Distortion released the Mainliner/Playpen 7" record on Robbie Field's indie label Posh Boy Records in 1981. Two years later, they released the album Mommy's Little Monster (1983) on 13th Floor Records, which was owned by Monk Rock, their manager at the time.
Ness was featured in the independent film Another State of Mind, which chronicled Social Distortion's first cross-country tour with Youth Brigade. It was on the DVD commentary where he claimed to have never had anything to do with the armed forces or religion. This prompted many fans to consider him an atheist, though some of his lyrics seem to indicate otherwise. Five years passed before Social Distortion released their next album, 1988's Prison Bound, on the heels of Ness's recovery from drug addiction. Ness has been sober and clean from heroin since 1985. Furthermore, in the mid-1980s, he briefly was employed as a house painter and assistant speech therapist in an elementary school.
Ness performed in the band Easter from 1986–1988 and appeared in the music video for the songs "Slipping Away" and "Lights Out". In 1989, Social Distortion signed a deal with Epic Records and released three albums with that label: Social Distortion (1990), Somewhere Between Heaven and Hell (1992) and White Light, White Heat, White Trash (1996).
The band left Epic Records after White Light, White Heat, White Trash (1996) and Ness formed Time Bomb Recordings, releasing Mainliner: Wreckage From the Past (a collection of old recordings and singles that were done in the early '80s), a re-issue of the long out of print Mommy's Little Monster, along with a re-issue of their second album Prison Bound, and Live at the Roxy (1998). Ness married his wife, Christine Marie, in the late 1990s and they have two sons, Julian (born in 1992) and Johnny, Mike's stepson (born 1997).
In 1999, Ness released his first solo album, Cheating at Solitaire. Although some of Social Distortion's songs paid homage to country music artists, Cheating at Solitaire was an unalloyed expression of Ness' country influences. Solitaire included guest appearances by Bruce Springsteen, Brian Setzer, Billy Zoom and Josh Freese, as well as members of Royal Crown Revue. Springsteen had touted Social Distortion's Heaven and Hell as his favorite record of the year in a Rolling Stone interview in 1992.
Ness continued in this vein, releasing a compilation of country covers entitled Under the Influences that same year. Both albums came out on Time Bomb Recordings. Ness toured extensively in the U.S. in support of these albums, backed by the 2006 partial incarnation of Social Distortion: ex-Plugz and Bob Dylan drummer Charlie Quintana and Brent Harding (upright and electric bass). Ness and the band played at Woodstock '99.
Childhood friend and founding member of Social Distortion guitarist Dennis Danell died on February 29, 2000 at 38 due to a brain aneurysm. According to other sources, the Orange County Coroner’s Office lists his death as “Idiopathic Dilated Cardiomyopathy.” Ness was devastated, stating "I am saddened beyond any possible form of expression. Dennis and I have been friends since boyhood, starting Social Distortion together while we were in high school. My deepest regrets to his family."
Social Distortion went back to work in June 2000 on the album Sex, Love and Rock 'n' Roll. Many of the songs on this new album are dedicated to Danell, such as "Don't Take Me For Granted", "Reach for the Sky" and "Angel's Wings" (At an October 2010 concert in New York City Ness dedicated "Don't Take Me For Granted" to Joey Ramone).
In 2003, Social Distortion recorded a live DVD called Live in Orange County at the House of Blues in Anaheim, California which was released in 2004 along with Sex, Love and Rock 'n' Roll, both of which were released on Time Bomb Recordings.
These efforts marked the first recordings with a line-up consisting of Ness on guitar and vocals, Wickersham replacing Danell on guitar, and Quintana on drums. It also consisted of a number of songs co-written by Ness and Wickersham. This is the first time Ness collaborated with another songwriter since his 1990 self-titled album, on which he and then bassist John Maurer wrote "So Far Away". The band's lineup changed twice after Maurer left the band, just a month before the release of Sex, Love and Rock 'n' Roll.
In February 2006, Ness broke his wrist while skateboarding in Las Vegas. He continued to perform vocals on the tour while T.S.O.L. guitarist Ron Emory filled in on guitar until Ness recovered from the injury. On January 18, 2007, former Social Distortion bass player Brent Liles died after being hit by a tractor trailer truck. Ness dedicated a performance at the Anaheim House of Blues to him shortly after.
Despite earlier reports that the band would begin recording their next studio album by 2008, Social Distortion took a hiatus from touring and recording, when Ness was on tour with his solo band which is composed of two current members of Social Distortion, Brent Harding and Jonny Wickersham.
Also touring with Ness were Chris Lawrence on Telecaster and pedal steel guitar and Dave Raven on drums. In a July 2009 interview with Tarakany! Bad TV, Ness stated that Social Distortion was planning to return to the studio in December of that year or the beginning of 2010 to begin recording their seventh album. The album, now known as Hard Times and Nursery Rhymes, was finally released on January 18, 2011. As of August 2011, according to Ness, another Social Distortion album is in the works.
On May 17, 2008, Ness and his band were joined on stage by Bruce Springsteen at the Stone Pony in Asbury Park, New Jersey for the encore. Songs played were "Misery Loves Company", "Ball and Chain", "If You Leave Before Me" and "I Fought the Law".
On April 16, 2009, Ness joined Springsteen and the E Street Band on stage at the Los Angeles Sports Arena. Songs played included Social Distortion's "Bad Luck" and Springsteen's "The Rising". On May 18, 2009 Mike Ness and Social Distortion played a benefit show at the House of Blues in Anaheim, California called "Rock to Recovery" and his son joined him on stage and played lead guitar for the song "Ball and Chain".
Personal life
Ness currently lives in Santa Ana, California, with his wife Christine and two sons. He is an avid collector of vintage ephemera such as Hamburglar toys and hot rods, owning a 1954 Chevrolet and a 1936 Ford. In 2003, he founded Black Kat Kustoms with "long time hot rodder and builder" Don Nemarnik. Black Kat Kustoms is an expression of his love for hot rods, cats, bikes, and counter-culture clothing.
In a 2015 interview with Eric Walden, he said in reference to the song "Ball and Chain", "It was basically, 'I've seen God,' I guess if you will — God of my understanding; I'm not a religious guy; I do consider myself a spiritual man."
Equipment
Electric Guitars
Early in his career, Ness was seen using Gibson SGs and SG Juniors but he currently uses 1970s Gibson Les Paul Deluxes (a 1971 sunburst, a 1975 sunburst, a 1975 goldtop and a 1976 goldtop). His 1976 goldtop is his favorite and most used guitar currently, however his 1971 sunburst was his main guitar for many years, especially through the 1990s. Ness uses Eb Standard tuning and usually uses a capo on the second fret while using his goldtops. He has used Seymour Duncan P-90 pickups in all of his guitars since touring with Neil Young in the early 1990s (Ness recalled seeing Young's guitar tech take the stock mini humbucker pickups out of a Les Paul Deluxe, throw them in the trash and replace them with the P-90s). Ness' goldtops have maple necks which he says contribute to his tone especially when using a capo on the second fret. He also once used a non-reverse Gibson Firebird, as seen on the back cover of Social Distortion's 1983 debut Mommy's Little Monster, and a white Gibson Les Paul Custom in the videos for "Ball and Chain" and "Story of My Life".
Acoustic Guitars
In an interview with Guitar.com Ness said: "The guitar that I write on is a 1940 Gibson J-45. I have three of them – I searched high and low for them. I had a 1940 Martin D-18 that I sold last year; I'm just a Gibson guy. I gravitate to the Gibson J-45 every time I write. It's a balladeer's guitar". Ness also plays a 1939 Gibson J-35, that he says "...very rarely leaves the house...".
Amplifiers
Ness uses Fender Bassman amps modified by Fred Taccone of Divided by 13 through Marshall 4x12 slant cabs with Celestion Greenback speakers. Most of his touring amps were modded by Billy Zoom of the band X fame. Billy's mods include a wattage switch to select between 40, 20 or 10 watts, replacing the bass channel with a higher gain channel. The only effect pedal Ness uses live is an overdrive, previously a Boss SD-1 and currently a Klon Centaur, though he has used various delays in the studio.
Discography
Solo
Cheating at Solitaire (1999)
Under the Influences (1999)
Social Distortion
Mommy's Little Monster (1983)
Prison Bound (1988)
Social Distortion (1990)
Somewhere Between Heaven And Hell (1992)
White Light, White Heat, White Trash (1996)
Sex, Love and Rock 'n' Roll (2004)
Hard Times and Nursery Rhymes (2011)
Other appearances
The Band Easter (1980)
Another State of Mind (1984)
Frezno Smooth
Easter (1986–1988)
Live at the Hootenanny, Vol. 1 (2000)
Live in Orange County (2004)
Punk's Not Dead (2007)
References
External links
BlackKatCustoms.com
Interview with Mike Ness (2007)
Interview with Mike Ness (2005)
Living people
1962 births
American alternative country singers
American country guitarists
American country rock singers
American country rock musicians
American male guitarists
American baritones
House painters
American male singer-songwriters
American punk rock guitarists
American punk rock singers
American country singer-songwriters
Cowpunk
Lead guitarists
Musicians from Fullerton, California
Social Distortion members
Guitarists from California
20th-century American guitarists
Singer-songwriters from California
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securities%20Act%20of%201933
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Securities Act of 1933
|
The Securities Act of 1933, also known as the 1933 Act, the Securities Act, the Truth in Securities Act, the Federal Securities Act, and the '33 Act, was enacted by the United States Congress on May 27, 1933, during the Great Depression and after the stock market crash of 1929. It is an integral part of United States securities regulation. It is legislated pursuant to the Interstate Commerce Clause of the Constitution.
It requires every offer or sale of securities that uses the means and instrumentalities of interstate commerce to be registered with the SEC pursuant to the 1933 Act, unless an exemption from registration exists under the law. The term "means and instrumentalities of interstate commerce" is extremely broad and it is virtually impossible to avoid the operation of the statute by attempting to offer or sell a security without using an "instrumentality" of interstate commerce. Any use of a telephone, for example, or the mails would probably be enough to subject the transaction to the statute.
History
The 1933 Act was the first major federal legislation to regulate the offer and sale of securities. Prior to the Act, regulation of securities was chiefly governed by state laws, commonly referred to as blue sky laws. When Congress enacted the 1933 Act, it left existing state blue sky securities laws in place. It was originally enforced by the FTC, until the SEC was created by the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.
The original law was separated into two titles. Title I is formally entitled the Securities Act of 1933, while title 2 is the Corporation of Foreign Bondholders Act, 1933. In 1939, the Trust Indenture Act of 1939 was added as Title 3. The original Title I contained 26 sections. In 1980, the Small Business Issuers' Simplification Act of 1980 amended section 4. In 1995, section 27 was added by the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act.
The '33 Act is based upon a philosophy of disclosure, meaning that the goal of the law is to require issuers to fully disclose all material information that a reasonable shareholder would need in order to make up his or her mind about the potential investment. This is very different from the philosophy of the blue sky laws, which generally impose so-called "merit reviews". Blue sky laws often impose very specific, qualitative requirements on offerings, and if a company does not meet the requirements in that state then it simply will not be allowed to do a registered offering there, no matter how fully its faults are disclosed in the prospectus. The National Securities Markets Improvement Act of 1996 added a new Section 18 to the '33 Act which preempts blue sky law merit review of certain kinds of offerings.
Part of the New Deal, the Act was drafted by Benjamin V. Cohen, Thomas Corcoran, and James M. Landis, and signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Purpose
The primary purpose of the '33 Act is to ensure that buyers of securities receive complete and accurate information before they invest in securities. Unlike state blue sky laws, which impose merit reviews, the '33 Act embraces a disclosure philosophy, meaning that in theory, it is not illegal to sell a bad investment, as long as all the facts are accurately disclosed. A company that is required to register under the '33 act must create a registration statement, which includes a prospectus, with copious information about the security, the company, the business, including audited financial statements. The company, the underwriter and other individuals signing the registration statement are strictly liable for any inaccurate statements in the document. This extremely high level of liability exposure drives an enormous effort, known as "due diligence", to ensure that the document is complete and accurate. The law bolsters and helps to maintain investor confidence which in turn supports the stock market.
Registration process
Unless they qualify for an exemption, securities offered or sold to a United States Person must be registered by filing a registration statement with the SEC. Although the law is written to require registration of securities, it is more useful as a practical matter to consider the requirement to be that of registering offers and sales. If person A registers a sale of securities to person B, and then person B seeks to resell those securities, person B must still either file a registration statement or find an available exemption.
The prospectus, which is the document through which an issuer's securities are marketed to a potential investor, is included as part of the registration statement. The SEC prescribes the relevant forms on which an issuer's securities must be registered. The law describes required disclosures in Schedule A and Schedule B; however, in 1982, the SEC created Regulation S-K to consolidate duplicate information into an "integrated disclosure system". Among other things, registration forms call for:
a description of the securities to be offered for sale;
information about the management of the issuer;
information about the securities (if other than common stock); and
financial statements certified by independent accountants.
Registration statements and the incorporated prospectuses become public shortly after they are filed with the SEC. The statements can be obtained from the SEC's website using EDGAR. Registration statements are subject to SEC examination for compliance with disclosure requirements. It is illegal for an issuer to lie in, or to omit material facts from, a registration statement or prospectus. Furthermore, when some true fact is disclosed, even if disclosing the fact would not have been required, it is illegal to not provide all other information required to make the fact not misleading.
Exemptions
Not all offerings of securities must be registered with the SEC. Section 3(a) outlines various classes of exempt securities, and Section 3(b) allows the SEC to write rules exempting securities if the agency determines that registration is not needed due to "the small amount involved or the limited character of the public offering". Section (4)(a)(2) exempts "transactions by an issuer not involving any public offering" which has historically created confusion due to the lack of a specific definition of "public offering"; the Supreme Court provided clarification in SEC v. Ralston Purina Co.
Some exemptions from the registration requirements include:
private offerings to a specific type or limited number of persons or institutions;
offerings of limited size;
intrastate offerings; and
securities of municipal, state, and federal governments.
Regardless of whether securities must be registered, the 1933 Act makes it illegal to commit fraud in conjunction with the offer or sale of securities. A defrauded investor can sue for recovery under the 1933 Act.
Rule 144
Rule 144, promulgated by the SEC under the 1933 Act, permits, under limited circumstances, the public resale of restricted and controlled securities without registration. In addition to restrictions on the minimum length of time for which such securities must be held and the maximum volume permitted to be sold, the issuer must agree to the sale. If certain requirements are met, Form 144 must be filed with the SEC. Often, the issuer requires that a legal opinion be given indicating that the resale complies with the rule. The amount of securities sold during any subsequent 3-month period generally does not exceed any of the following limitations:
1% of the stock outstanding
the average weekly reported volume of trading in the securities on all national securities exchanges for the preceding 4 weeks
the average weekly volume of trading of the securities reported through the consolidated transactions reporting system (NASDAQ)
Notice of resale is provided to the SEC if the amount of securities sold in reliance on Rule 144 in any 3-month period exceeds 5,000 shares or if they have an aggregate sales price in excess of $50,000. After one year, Rule 144(k) allows for the permanent removal of the restriction except as to 'insiders'. In cases of mergers, buyouts, or takeovers, owners of securities who had previously filed Form 144 and still wish to sell restricted and controlled securities must refile Form 144 once the merger, buyout, or takeover has been completed.
SIFMA, the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association, issued "SIFMA Guidance: Procedures, Covenants, and Remedies in Light of Revised Rule 144" after revisions were made to Rule 144.
Rule 144A
Rule 144 is not to be confused with Rule 144A. Rule 144A, adopted in April 1990, provides a safe harbor from the registration requirements of the Securities Act of 1933 for certain private (as opposed to public) resales of restricted securities to qualified institutional buyers. Rule 144A has become the principal safe harbor on which non-U.S. companies rely when accessing the U.S. capital markets.
Regulation S
Regulation S is a "safe harbor" that defines when an offering of securities is deemed to be executed in another country and therefore not be subject to the registration requirement under Section 5 of the 1933 Act. The regulation includes two safe harbor provisions: an issuer safe harbor and a resale safe harbor. In each case, the regulation demands that offers and sales of the securities be made outside the United States and that no offering participant (which includes the issuer, the banks assisting with the offer, and their respective affiliates) engage in "directed selling efforts". In the case of issuers for whose securities there is substantial U.S. market interest, the regulation also requires that no offers and sales be made to U.S. persons (including U.S. persons physically located outside the United States).
Section 5 of the 1933 Act is meant primarily as protection for United States investors. As such, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission had only weakly enforced regulation of foreign transactions, and had only limited Constitutional authority to regulate foreign transactions. This law applies to its own unique definition of United States person.
Civil liability; Sections 11 and 12
Violation of the registration requirements can lead to near-strict civil liability for the issuer, underwriters, directors, officers, and accountants under §§ 11, 12(a)(1), or 12(a)(2) of the 1933 Act. However, in practice the liability is typically covered by directors and officers liability insurance or indemnification clauses.
To have "standing" to sue under Section 11 of the 1933 Act, such as in a class action, a plaintiff must be able to prove that he can "trace" his shares to the registration statement and offering in question, as to which there is alleged a material misstatement or omission. In the absence of an ability to actually trace his shares, such as when securities issued at multiple times are held by the Depository Trust Company in a fungible bulk and physical tracing of particular shares may be impossible, the plaintiff may be barred from pursuing his claim for lack of standing.
Additional liability may be imposed under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (Rule 10b-5) against the "maker" of the alleged misrepresentation in certain circumstances.
See also
Chicago Stock Exchange
Commodity Futures Trading Commission
Financial regulation
New York Stock Exchange
Regulation D (SEC)
Securities commission
Securities regulation in the United States
Stock exchange
Related legislation
1934 – Securities Exchange Act of 1934
1939 – Trust Indenture Act of 1939
1940 – Investment Advisers Act of 1940
1940 – Investment Company Act of 1940
1968 – Williams Act (Securities Disclosure Act) of 1968
1975 – Securities Acts Amendments of 1975
1982 – Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act of 1982
1999 – Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999
2000 – Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000
2002 – Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002
2006 – Credit Rating Agency Reform Act of 2006
2010 – Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010
References
Further reading
External links
Securities Act of 1933 from SEC (pdf)
Introduction to the Federal Securities Laws by seclaw.com Copyright 2010. VGIS Communications LLC accessed March 13, 2014
sec.gov SEC Proposed changes
1933 in law
New Deal legislation
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
United States federal securities legislation
73rd United States Congress
1933 in economics
|
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] |
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|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20sustainable%20agriculture
|
Outline of sustainable agriculture
|
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to sustainable agriculture:
Sustainable agriculture – applied science that integrates three main goals, environmental health, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. These goals have been defined by various philosophies, policies, and practices, from the vision of farmers and consumers. Perspectives and approaches are very diverse. The following topics intend to help understand sustainable agriculture.
Introduction
Agroecology
Alan Chadwick
Biodynamic agriculture
Ecoagriculture
French intensive gardening
Horticulture
John D. Hamaker
Lady Eve Balfour
Organic farming
Polyculture
Resilience (ecology)
Rudolf Steiner
Sustainability
Branches of sustainable agriculture
Fisheries management – protecting fishery resources in an effort to maintain sustainable fisheries
Sustainable farming
Sustainable forest management
Sustainable gardening
Sustainable farming
Sustainable farming
Natural farming
Masanobu Fukuoka
Perennial foods
Achillea millefolium
Asparagus
Blitum bonus-henricus
Breadfruit
Cassava
Crambe maritima
Fruit
Herb
Nut (fruit)
Olericulture
Perennial vegetable
Rhubarb
Sacred herbs
Shrub
Sium sisarum
Sorrel
Taro
Sustainable forestry management
Sustainable forest management
Coppicing
Forest gardening
Pollarding
Short rotation coppice
Woodland
Sustainable landscaping
Sustainable landscaping
A Sand County Almanac
Aldo Leopold
Biodiversity
Calvert Vaux
Central Park
Ecology
Ecosystem
Food miles
Frederick Law Olmsted
John Muir
Land ethic
Sierra Club
Soil food web
Approaches in sustainable agriculture
Hydroculture
Hydroculture
Aeroponics
Aquaponics
Hydroponics
Integrated pest control
Apiaceae
Asteraceae
Bee
Beneficial insects
Beneficial weed
Biological pest control
Bumblebee
Chrysopidae
Coccinellidae
Companion planting
Hoverfly
Ichneumonoidea
Insectary plant
Integrated pest management
List of beneficial weeds
List of companion plants
List of pest-repelling plants
Pastured poultry
Pollinator
Rotational Grazing
Soldier beetle
Tachinidae
Trap crop
Trichogramma
Permaculture
Permaculture
Berm
Bill Mollison
David Holmgren
Holzer Permaculture
Hügelkultur
Keyline design
P. A. Yeomans
Sepp Holzer
Swale (landform)
Regenerative agriculture
Biointensive agriculture
Booker T. Whatley
J. I. Rodale
The Rodale Institute
Sustainable development
Agricultural economics
Agronomy
Community-supported agriculture
Development economics
Economic development
Grameen Bank
Microcredit
Microfinance
Muhammad Yunus
Supply chain
Value chain
Economic considerations
Action plan
Cash flow
Comparative advantage
Competitive advantage
Conditional budgeting
Consumer behaviour
Core competency
Economies of scale
Elasticity (economics)
Enterprise life cycle
Enterprise modelling
Enterprise planning system
Gross margin
Land grabbing
Micro-enterprise
Opportunity cost
Product differentiation
Resource-based view
Risk
Risk management
Social enterprise
Socially optimal firm size
Substitute good
Supply and demand
Uncertainty
Water grabbing
Farming and natural resources
Water
Aquaculture
Aquaponics
Aqueduct
Aquifer
Brackish water
Dam
Drainage basin
Estuary
Hydrology
Lake
Mariculture
Reservoir
River
Land
Soil
Soil life
Soil salination
Soil science
Terra preta
Energy
Biogas
Biomass
Air
Arctic climate
Climate
Climate change
Climate model
Climate of the Alps
Global climate change
Meteorology
Microclimate
Microclimate
Subarctic climate
Temperate climate
Wind
Weather
Extreme weather
Meteorology
Monsoon
Precipitation
Rain
Severe weather
Subtropical cyclone
Weather forecasting
Wind
Vegetation, Plant, animal, List of domesticated plants, List of vegetables, List of herbs, List of fruit, List of domesticated animals, Cereal
Biodiversity
Allelopathy
Artificial selection
Commensalism
Ecological selection
Genetic erosion
Halotolerance
Heterosis
Kin selection
Natural selection
Protocooperation
Species
Trophic level
xerophyte
Sustainable agricultural practices
Genetic engineering
Bioinformatics
Biostatistics
Biotechnology
GIS
Gardening
Garden (list)
Edible schoolyard
Indoor garden
Wild garden
Allotment (gardening)
Forest gardening
Grass
Organic gardening
Vegetable growing
List of vegetables
Water-wise gardening
Herbicide
Biocide
Biological pest control
Insecticide
Integrated pest management
List of companion plants
Pesticide
Push–pull technology
Sustainable farming
Aquaponics
Buffer zone
Cash crop
Chillcuring
Controlled burn
Crop rotation
Drip irrigation
Fertilizer
Good Agricultural Practices
Grass (or Lawn)
Grazing management
Green manure
Irrigation
Living mulch
Monoculture
Multiple cropping
Open pollination -Pollination management
Orchard
Polyculture
Primary succession
Raingauge
Relay cropping
Secondary succession
Shifting cultivation
Sowing
Tillage
Vermicomposting
Wood
List of forests
Forestry
Coppicing
Deforestation
Driftwood
Logging
Pollarding
Reforestation
Wildfire
Woodland management
Rural development
Planning
Regional planning
Zoning
Green Belt
Hima
Rural community development
Landscape ecology
Land use
Food and food transformation
Food
Ethical eating
Genetically modified food
Organic food
Local food
Low carbon diet
Food and agricultural policy
Biosafety
Chronic toxicity
Slow Food
Ark of taste
Food quality
Industrial ecology
Heirloom plant
Economic, social and political context
Ecological Economics
patrimony
Total quality management
Biosecurity
Trade
Safe trade
Equity
Smart growth
Life cycle assessment
Willingness-to-pay
Cost-effectiveness
Cost-benefit analysis
Full cost accounting
Utility
Bioregional democracy
Top-down approach
Environment
Environmental organization
Environmental movement
Environmentalism
Radical environmentalism
Environmental agreements
Environmental law
International environmental law
Environmental finance
Environmental economics
Green economist
Green economics
Ecology movement -
Land ethic
Theoretical ecology
Ecological
Ecological niche
Ecological selection
Individuals
René Dumont
Donella Meadows
José Bové
Masanobu Fukuoka
Wes Jackson
Bill Mollison
Vandana Shiva
Wendell Berry
Willie Smits
Conventions, protocols, panels and summits
Agenda 21
NATURA 2000
Biosafety protocol - Montreal 2000
Convention on Biological Diversity
Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat
Earth Summit 2002 (World summit on Sustainable Development), Johannesburg 2002
International Seabed Authority
International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983
Kyoto Protocol
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)
Oxfam
Index
Category: Sustainable agriculture
See also
Outline of agriculture
Agrarianism
Agriculture
Arid-zone agriculture
Agricultural engineering
Agricultural science
Agricultural science basic topics
Agritourism
Agroecology
Allotment gardens
Aquaponics
Biodynamic agriculture
Biogeography
Collective farming
Ecology
Agricultural cooperative
Forest gardening
Intensive agriculture
Mariculture
Organic food
Organic farming
Organic gardening -Permaculture
Precision agriculture
Urban agriculture
Water-wise gardening
Sustainability
Sustainable development
Sustainable consumption
Sustainable use
Productivism
Value of life
Life-style choice
Allotment (gardening)
Green wall
Eco-village
Autonomous building
Subsistence farming
Nature
Natural capitalism
Natural medicine
Natural order
Natural resource
Natural selection
Environment
Renewable resource
Dynamic equilibrium
Culture
Cultural diversity
Cultural Resources Management
Ecotourism
Ecological Economics
Palm sugar
Arenga pinnata
Related lists
Urban economics
List of ecology topics
List of environment topics
List of ethics topics
List of economics topics
List of organic gardening and farming topics
References
External links
FoodPrint: Sustainable Agriculture vs. Industrial Agriculture
Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education
List
Sustainable agriculture
Ecology lists
Gardening lists
*List
Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture
|
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] |
208935
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Voyager
|
USS Voyager
|
USS Voyager can refer to:
, a motorboat that served in the United States Navy from 1917 to 1919 and in the United States Coast Guard from 1919 to c. 1936
USS Voyager (Star Trek) (NCC-74656), a fictional starship that is the primary setting for the television series Star Trek: Voyager
See also
, two ships of the Royal Australian Navy
, the proposed name for the second vessel in the Virgin Galactic fleet
Voyager (disambiguation)
United States Navy ship names
|
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208938
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent%20Television%20Commission
|
Independent Television Commission
|
The Independent Television Commission (ITC) licensed and regulated commercial television services in the United Kingdom (except S4C in Wales) between 1 January 1991 and 28 December 2003.
History
The creation of ITC, by the Broadcasting Act 1990 to replace the television regulation functions of the Independent Broadcasting Authority (formed by the Sound Broadcasting Act 1972) and Cable Authority. From 1 January 1991 it regulated the existing ITV network. The 1990 Act also established the Channel Four Television Corporation to run Channel 4, regulated by the ITC. There was no fanfare, as control was passed from Channel Four Television Company Limited.
Activities
The establishing Act required the auction of Channel 3 licences for the fifteen ITV regions and nationwide breakfast time. Most of the Channel 3 licences were awarded to the incumbent ITV companies; however there were some controversial decisions:
Carlton Television outbid Thames Television for the London Weekday licence; CPV-TV was the highest bidder, but its bid failed due to quality considerations.
GMTV (changed to Good Morning Television as the bid name 'Sunrise Television' was already used by Sky News) outbid TV-am for the Breakfast television licence.
TVS and TSW were deemed to have overbid for their licences, and hence their franchises were awarded to lower bidders Meridian Broadcasting and Westcountry Television, respectively.
On 1 January 1993 these new arrangements came into force, and the ITC began its job of 'light-touch regulation'. During this time, the ITC regulated the Channel 3 system as well as Channel 4. It issued licences to new satellite broadcasters and awarded the Channel 5 licence in the mid-1990s. It also regulated cable TV.
In the early 2000s, the British government, in a white paper, declared its intention to merge the ITC with the Radio Authority, Office of Telecommunications, and Radiocommunications Agency. This merger, under the Communications Act 2003, took effect on 29 December 2003. Most powers of the ITC are now exercised by the Office of Communications (Ofcom), making some powers – and the ITC itself – defunct.
At this point, technical standards regulation, previously carried out in accordance with the IBA engineering "Code of Practice", seems to have disappeared from the regulatory landscape.
The ITC's co-regulators and origins
Timeline of communications regulators (1953–present)
* Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications
Alongside the ITC, two other independent bodies also dealt with complaints: the Broadcasting Complaints Commission dealt with injustices against individuals, whereas the Broadcasting Standards Council dealt with complaints about the moral content of programs, with no redress for individuals.
Historically, all of independent television (from 22 September 1955) and radio (from 8 October 1973) was governed by the IBA (Independent Broadcasting Authority) – joined by the Cable Authority in 1984. On 1 July 1985, the Home Secretary asked the IBA to review prospects for commercial DBS.
In 1988, the Broadcasting Standards Council was set up to monitor 'taste and decency' on television. In 1990, large-scale changes brought about the Radio Authority, the privatization of the IBA's engineering division as NTL, and formation of the Independent Television Commission.
Since its formation, the BBC has been primarily responsible for its own governance - initially through the Corporation's Board of Governors and since 1 January 2007 through the BBC Trust.
See also
Ofcom Code on Sports and Other Listed and Designated Events
References
Communications authorities
Defunct public bodies of the United Kingdom
1991 establishments in the United Kingdom
2003 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Television channels and stations established in 1991
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2003
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivatives%20market
|
Derivatives market
|
The derivatives market is the financial market for derivatives, financial instruments like futures contracts or options, which are derived from other forms of assets.
The market can be divided into two, that for exchange-traded derivatives and that for over-the-counter derivatives. The legal nature of these products is very different, as well as the way they are traded, though many market participants are active in both. The derivatives market in Europe has a notional amount of €660 trillion.
Participants in a derivative market
Participants in a derivative market can be segregated into four sets based on their trading motives.
Hedgers
Speculators
Margin Traders
Arbitrageurs
Types of trades in a derivative market
Directional Trades
Spreads
Arbitrage positions
Hedged Trades
Futures markets
Futures exchanges, such as Euronext.liffe and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, trade in standardized derivative contracts. These are options contracts,swaps contracts and futures contracts on a whole range of underlying products. The members of the exchange hold positions in these contracts with the exchange, who acts as central counterparty. When one party goes long (buys a futures contract), another goes short (sells). When a new contract is introduced, the total position in the contract is zero. Therefore, the sum of all the long positions must be equal to the sum of all the short positions. In other words, risk is transferred from one party to another is a type of a zero sum game. The total notional amount of all the outstanding positions at the end of June 2004 stood at $53 trillion (source: Bank for International Settlements (BIS): ). That figure grew to $81 trillion by the end of March 2008 (source: BIS )
Over-the-counter markets
Tailor-made derivatives, not traded on a futures exchange are traded on over-the-counter markets, also known as the OTC market. These consist of investment banks with traders who make markets in these derivatives, and clients such as hedge funds, commercial banks, government-sponsored enterprises, etc. Products that are always traded over-the-counter are swaps, forward rate agreements, forward contracts, credit derivatives, accumulators etc. The total notional amount of all the outstanding positions at the end of June 2004 stood at $220 trillion (source: BIS: ). By the end of 2007 this figure had risen to $596 trillion and in 2009 it stood at $615 trillion (source: BIS: )
OTC Markets are generally separated into two key segments: the customer market and the interdealer market. Customers almost exclusively trade through dealers because of the high search and transaction costs. Dealers are large institutions that arrange transactions for their customers, utilizing their specialized knowledge, expertise, and access to capital. In order to hedge the risks incurred by transacting with customers, dealers turn to the interdealer market, or the exchange-traded markets. Dealers can also trade for themselves or act as market makers in the OTC market (source: Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago ).
Netting
US: Figures below are from the second quarter of 2008
Total derivatives (notional amount): $182.2 trillion (second quarter, 2008)
Interest rate contracts: $145.0 trillion (86%)
Foreign exchange contracts: $18.2 trillion(10%)
2008 Second Quarter, banks reported trading revenues of $1.6 billion
Total number of commercial banks holding derivatives: 975
Positions in the OTC derivatives market have increased at a rapid pace since the last triennial survey was undertaken in 2004. Notional amounts outstanding of such instruments totalled $516 trillion at the end of June 2007 (according to the Bank for International Settlements ), 135% higher than the level recorded in the 2004 survey (Graph 4). This corresponds to an annualised compound rate of growth of 34%, which is higher than the approximatively 25% average annual rate of increase since positions in OTC derivatives were first surveyed by the BIS in 1995. Notional amounts outstanding provide useful information on the structure of the OTC derivatives market but should not be interpreted as a measure of the riskiness of these positions. Gross market values, which represent the cost of replacing all open contracts at the prevailing market prices, have increased by 74% since 2004, to $11 trillion at the end of June 2007. (page 28)
Notional amounts outstanding as of December 2012 are $632 trillion as per recent survey.
Role in the financial crisis of 2007–2008
The derivative markets have played an important role in the financial crisis of 2007–2008. Specifically the credit default swaps CDSs, financial instruments traded on the over the counter derivatives markets, and the mortgage-backed securities MBSs, a type of securitized debt. The leveraged operations are said to have generated an "irrational appeal" for risk taking, and the lack of clearing obligations also appeared as very damaging for the balance of the market.
The G-20's proposals for financial markets reform all stress these points, and suggest:
higher capital standards
stronger risk management
international surveillance of financial firms' operations
dynamic capital rules.
See also
Commodity market
Securitization
Financial engineering
References
Further reading
Damodaran, A. (2013). Living with noise: Valuation in the face of uncertainty. Journal of Applied Finance, 23(2), 6-22.
Weinberg, Ari, "The Great Derivatives Smackdown", Forbes magazine, May 9, 2003.
European Central Bank (Editor: Tom Kokkola), "The Payment System", Frankfurt am Main 2010, Chapter 3, .
External links
Understanding Derivatives: Markets and Infrastructure – Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago
PBS (WGBH, Boston), "The Warning", Frontline TV public affairs program, October 20, 2009. "At the center of it all he finds Brooksley Born, who speaks for the first time on television about her failed campaign to regulate the secretive, multitrillion-dollar derivatives market whose crash helped trigger the financial collapse in the fall of 2008."
Derivatives (finance)
Financial markets
|
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] |
208942
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDGAR
|
EDGAR
|
EDGAR, the Electronic Data Gathering, Analysis, and Retrieval system, performs automated collection, validation, indexing, acceptance, and forwarding of submissions by companies and others who are required by law to file forms with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (the "SEC"). The database contains a wealth of information about the Commission and the securities industry which is freely available to the public via the Internet.
In September 2017, SEC Chairman Clayton revealed the database had been hacked and that companies' data may have been used by criminals for insider trading.
Filings
Not all SEC filings by public companies are available on EDGAR. Development began in 1983, and companies were phased in to EDGAR filing over a three-year period, ending 6 May, 1996. As of that date, all public domestic companies were required to submit their filings via EDGAR, except for hardcopy paper filings, which were allowed under a hardship exemption. Third-party filings with respect to these companies, such as tender offers and Schedule 13D filings, are also filed via EDGAR.
The vast majority of documents are now filed electronically, with over 3,000 filings per day.
As of 4 November, 2002, the SEC required all foreign companies and foreign governments to file their documents via EDGAR. Prior to that time, electronic filing by foreign companies also was voluntary.
Actual annual reports to shareholders (except in the case of mutual fund companies) need not be submitted on EDGAR, although some companies do so voluntarily. However, the annual report on Form 10-K is required to be filed on EDGAR. As of March 31, 2018, there are over 12 million filings filed to SEC EDGAR.
See also
Securities and Exchange Commission
Central Index Key
Electronic Municipal Market Access system (EMMA), providing disclosure information for the municipal securities market
List of company registers
Other countries' equivalents to EDGAR
Federal Public Service Economy (Belgium)
SEDAR, Canada
Central Business Register (Denmark)
Companies Registration Office (Ireland)
Kamer van Koophandel, Netherlands
Brønnøysund Register Centre, Norway
Comisión Nacional del Mercado de Valores, Spain
Companies House, United Kingdom
Securities and Exchange Board of India, India
References
External links
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
Government databases in the United States
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch%20%28sport%29
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Touch (sport)
|
Touch (also known as touch football or touch rugby) is a variant of rugby league that is organised by the Federation of International Touch (FIT).
Touch is a variation of rugby league with the tackling of opposing players replaced by a touch. As touches must be made with minimal force, touch is therefore a limited-contact sport. The basic rules of touch were established in the 1960s by the South Sydney Junior Rugby League Club.
Distinctive features of touch football include the ease of learning it, minimal equipment requirements and the ability to play it without fear of major injury. While it is generally played with two teams of six on-field players, some social competitions allow different number of players per team on the field. It is played by both sexes, and in age divisions from primary school children to over-50s. The mixed version of the game (where both male and female players are on the field at the same time) is particularly popular with social players.
History
While it is often claimed that Touch started in Australia in 1963 as a social or "park" game and as a training technique for rugby league, at least as early as 1956, supervised Touch and Pass was already being played at several inner city schools in the North of England, where asphalt playgrounds made normal rugby league too dangerous. Although the rules were set out by the schools' sports teachers, it was not then viewed as a sport in its own right. It was formalised into a sport proper by the "Founders of Touch", Bob Dyke and Ray Vawdon of the South Sydney Junior Rugby League Club. On 13 July 1968 the "South Sydney Touch Football Club" was formed and the sport of Touch Football was born. The first actual official game of Touch was played in late 1968 and the first official competition, organised by Dyke & Vawdon, was held at Rowland Park Sydney in 1968. From these humble beginnings the game quickly became a fully regulated and codified sport. It was first played in Brisbane in 1972 and by 1973 there were representative games. It had spread to New Zealand by 1975.
Rules and Equipment
Rules
The current rules are the 8th Edition published by Touch Football Australia in 2020. The rules include a section of touch-specific terms and phrases, many of which are shared with rugby league (e.g. offside, intercept).
Playing Field
Touch is played on a grass, rectangular field measuring 70 x 50 metres (i.e. one half of a rugby league field). As kicking is not allowed, goal posts are not required.
Ball
Touch balls are oval and slightly smaller than rugby league balls. The official size is 36 cm long and 55 cm in circumference, also sometimes known as rugby size 4.
Clothing
Players typically wear light clothing such as singlets, T-shirts or polo shirts and shorts. All shirts must be numbered. Women generally wear lycra bike shorts, athletic briefs or swimsuit-style lycra bodysuits. Head caps are also common on the touch field, although if they fall off they too can be touched by the opposition team which qualifies as a touch if the person still has the ball in hand.
Footwear
Players normally wear soft rubber cleated shoes, similar to those used in other grass sports such as cricket and field hockey. Screw-in cleats are strictly prohibited, though moulded-sole football boots may be worn.
Referee
Touch must have at least one referee to manage the game but most major games feature one central referee and two sideline referees, who interchange roles repeatedly throughout the game.
Positions
Teams are generally split into three positions: two "wings" (the players on either edge of the field i.e. 'right wing' and 'left wing'); two "middles" (the central players); and two "links" (the players between the wings and middles, one on each side of the field i.e. 'right link' and 'left link').
Possession
A team normally retains possession for a set of six consecutive touches as in rugby league. Possession (or a Turnover) transfers to the opposing team. This can occur after 6 touches are completed or if the ball is passed forward or dropped by the attacking team.
Scoring
A try is awarded when an attacking player, who is not the acting-half places the ball on or over the opposition's try line. Each try is worth one point. In many mixed social competitions 2 points are awarded to female tries to encourage ball sharing.
Half
The Half (or Acting-Half) is subject to a number of restrictions that do not apply to other players:
If the Half is touched with the ball, the attacking team loses possession.
The Half cannot score a try. Attempting to do so (even grounding the ball not purposefully) results in a change of possession.
If the Half takes too long to retrieve the ball the referee can call play on and defenders are allowed to move forward before the Half has touched the ball.
These restrictions do not apply to a Half who passes the ball to a teammate (or indeed opposition player) and then receives it back.
Interchanges
Interchanges can be made any number of times throughout the match. However, the game remains continuous and does not stop to allow interchanges.
Players coming onto the field must wait until the player they are interchanging with has come off the field. Failing to do so may result in a penalty for an incorrect interchange.
Players in a team who are not on the field must remain inside their allocated interchange area (sometimes called substitution box) until they come onto the field.
Composition of teams
The teams can be male, female or mixed.
Each team can consist of up to 14 players, of which 6 players can be on the field at any one time.
Mixed teams typically comprise 3 females and 3 males on the field at one time. The rules state that there must be at least 1 male, at least 1 female, and no more than 3 males on the field at any time.
Mode of play
The ball can be passed or knocked (but not kicked) sideways or backwards between teammates who attempt to evade opposition defenders and score tries.
Match Duration
The standard duration is 40 minutes (two x 20-minute halves) with a 5-minute halftime, though other time frames are often used to suit local conditions and competitions.
World Rugby
World Rugby, world governing body of the rules of Rugby Union, published in November 2010 a draft of leisure rules of Touch Rugby IRB for developmental purposes. Those Laws were adapted from the FIT playing rules for the sport of Touch.
The document states: "Council agreed that these Leisure Rugby Laws are issued as a guide for developmental purposes and Unions are not bound to apply the Laws" and "IRB Leisure Rugby Laws have been designed so that Unions may develop non-Contact Rugby. These Laws have been produced so that there are some guidelines and principles in place for IRB Leisure Rugby. Unions having jurisdiction over their developmental processes, matches, competitions and festivals may need to vary these Laws as deemed appropriate. This allows domestic Rugby clubs to adapt to the FIT playing rules, provided domestic Touch Associations are in agreeance."
International Competitions
World Cup
The inaugural Touch World Cup was held on the Gold Coast, Australia in 1988. Since then, the event has been hosted in Auckland (New Zealand)(1991), Waikiki Beach (Hawaii)(1995), Sydney (Australia)(1999), Kamagaya (Japan)(2003), Stellenbosch (South Africa) (2007), Edinburgh (Scotland) (2011), Coffs Harbour (Australia) (2015) and Putrajaya (Malaysia) (2019) .
Trans-Tasman Tests
There is a regular program of Test matches between Australia and New Zealand known as Trans-Tasman Tests.
Tests are divided into separate events for each age category, being:
Open (Unrestricted)
Youth (Under 21)
Senior (Over 30)
Pacific Games
Touch has been played at the Pacific Games since 2003. It is an optional sport for the Pacific Games program and the tournaments include men's, women's and mixed competitions.
European Championships
The Federation of International Touch (FIT) conducts the European Touch Championships, affectionately known as "The Euro's", biannually.
The 2010 Euro's in Bristol, UK attracted 54 teams and over 900 players to the event.
The 2012 Euro's were held in Treviso, Italy from 8–12 September 2012
Masters Games
Touch is a very popular sport at the various Masters Games events.
World All Schools
The World All Schools event attracts hundreds of teams from schools around the world. It is held every 2 years. In 2006 the event was held in Singapore, prior to that it was held in Brisbane. The 2008 event (held in Brisbane after the event was cancelled in New Zealand) was by far the largest, hosting over 250 teams.
Touch worldwide
Australia
Touch is played in every Australian state and territory, and is particularly popular in the rugby league and rugby union strongholds of Queensland, New South Wales and the ACT. There are currently over 700,000 registered Touch players, 500,000 school children, and up to 100,000 casual players playing the sport. The peak governing body is Touch Football Australia.
Australia's main domestic competition is the National Touch League (NTL) and Elite 8 Series. Thirteen permits, representing all parts of Australia, compete in open-age, under-20 and over-age (Masters) divisions in men's, women's and mixed categories. The permits have been designed to equalise competition between the traditionally strong Touch states of ACT, Queensland and NSW and the remainder of the country.
Touch has a State of Origin series every 2 years. The series is played between Touch strongholds Queensland and New South Wales.
School Sport Australia runs the National Championship Tournament and Exchange for Touch every year – the location moves from state to state. Most Australian States and Territories enter Boys and Girls teams in both the High School (15 and under) and Primary School (12 and under) divisions.
Touch Football Australia (TFA) and the National Rugby League (NRL) signed a memorandum of understanding in August 2013, bringing together the two entities under a partnership agreement to develop the sport across both codes. The agreement recognises the similarities between both Touch and Rugby league and that there are significant benefits to both through a dual-track pathway. The agreement resulted in the creation of a unified "NRL Touch Football" brand in Australia, which has since resulted in a major profile and funding boost for the sport within the country, including the signing of a commercial partnership agreement between the two entities and the principle "whole of game sponsor", Harvey Norman.
In May 2018, under the NRL Touch Football partnership, the organisation launched the NRL Touch Premiership, to be played alongside NRL matches by teams drawn from the Elite 8 Series and aligned to NRL clubs.
Austria
The Touch Austria Association became an associate member of F.I.T (Federation International Touch) in October 2009 with 3 official member clubs (Touch Rugby Vienna, ACC Touch, Touch Voralberg). 2009 saw the establishment of the Austrian Touch League (ATL) plus the first ever national Touch teams (Mixed and Men's) that competed in the 2009 Mainland Cup. Touch Austria also sends teams to contest regular events in other tournaments in Europe.
Chile
Touch has been played in Chile since 1998 by initiative of foreign residents in the country, where Chilean players and teams were added, giving way to the creation of the official body Touch Rugby Chile.
Currently in Chile, touch is played in different cities:
Santiago:
Santiago Touch Rugby league, which brings together 16 teams and played in mixed category.
Senior Touch league: which brings together 7 teams, it is played only by men over 40 years, once a month. The league adopted the official Touch rules in 2016, being supported by referees who belong to the Federation of Chile Touch.
Schools: It is practiced in several schools where rugby is played.
Touch is also developing in regions outside of Santiago like Rancagua and Paine.
Chile participates in the following international tournaments:
Torneo Trasandino: This tournament has been held since 2014 in the cities of Cordoba, Mendoza and Santiago (three tournaments a year), with the participation of teams from the cities mentioned, plus Rancagua and Paine.
USA Touch Nationals & International Club Open. This league is held annually in the United States, with the participation of several states of that nation plus other countries like Chile, which is attending since 2012.
Touch World Cup. The last edition was 2015 in Australia. Chile participated for the first time, achieving an outstanding participation: Bronze group winners and ranked No. 13 of the FIT Open Mixed Division.
England
An England Touch Association was formed in 1995 and had over 65 member clubs and 1,000 individual members by the end of 2016.
France
Touch France is the national association in charge of the development of the Touch in France. The French Men's Over 30s is the first French team to win an international competition by winning the 2012 Euros in Treviso. In the very same category, France Men's Over 30s won a bronze medal in Putrajaya, Malaysia in the 9th Touch Football World Cup.
Germany
Touch is played in Germany since 2003 by round about 500 active players. In 2005 the official national governing body Touch Deutschland Sportverein (TDSV) was founded, which is a full member of the FIT and has sent teams to the European Cup and World Championships. Clubs now exist in Berlin, Bonn, Frankfurt, Freiburg, Gießen, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Cologne (Köln), Leipzig, Munich, Osnabrück, Paderborn and Rüthen. The German Championships are held every year since 2005. Record title holder is the club from Munich.
Italy
Touch Rugby Italia (TRI) is the official body recognised by FIT for the development of the Touch in Italy. Currently there are 14 teams affiliated to TRI. TRI send regularly national teams to International Events in Europe
Japan
Japan Touch Association (JTA) is the official body recognised by FIT for the development of the Touch in Japan. In 2016, there are 32 clubs recognized by JTA, while 55 teams played for Tokyo Touch tournament. Assuming the recognition rate is 40%, it is estimated 2000 active players in 110 clubs.
Malaysia
Touch Malaysia (TM) is the official body for the sport in Malaysia and the Malaysian member of the Federation International Touch (FIT) – the International Federation. A number of touch football teams can be found in Malaysia including the Penang Panthers. The Panthers were founded in 2011 by Christopher Woodhams, a Birmingham born philanthropist and educator. Matt Lee, a star player in Australia, helps run the club. Matt took the Asian Club Championships, held in KL in June 2013, by storm and dominated the opposition with his pace and shrewd passing abilities. The Panthers were the best placed Malaysian team at the Asian Club Championship and were the Men's Masters runners up.
Scotland
Touch has been played in Scotland since 1991 in informal leagues in Edinburgh and Glasgow. The sport soon spread to Aberdeen with a well established league forming soon afterwards.
In 2005, the Scottish Touch Association (STA) was formally constituted as the governing body to help develop the sport. By 2007 the association had welcomed new participants from Dundee, Perth and Stirling to join existing leagues, held its first formal national championships, trained over 150 referees and won the tender to host the 2011 World Cup in Edinburgh.
Singapore
Touch Singapore (TSG) is the governing body recognised by FIT for Touch Football. Established in 2017, Touch Singapore hosts two league competitions every year with over 95 teams entering across 12 category divisions. Singapore has won bronze at two Touch World Cups in 2011 & 2015 in the Women's Open category. There are over 5,000 players playing competitively and socially in Singapore with 2,000 registered players in the league competitions. TSG also host the Singapore International Touch Knockout tournament which see clubs from all over Asia competing over a two-day competition.
South Africa
Touch in South Africa is overseen by the [South African Touch Association, and is often known as 'Six Down'.
South Africa has had national representation at all Touch World Cups since 1995. There are already over 6,000 registered players in South Africa.
Switzerland
Touch Switzerland (TS) is the official body recognised by FIT for the development of Touch in Switzerland. Switzerland has competed in all European Championships since 2006 and in the 2007 and 2011 World Cup. Switzerland sends teams to contest regular events in other tournaments in Europe. The biggest accomplishment so far is winning the Mainland Cup in Heidelberg in 2009 – coming third in the Women's Open and first in the Men's Open divisions. As of 2020, there are TS-affiliated clubs in Baden, Bagnes, Basel, Bern, Egg, Geneva, Lausanne, Lucerne, Zug and Zurich.
United States
There are touch communities in Fort Lauderdale, FL, Orlando, FL, Portland, OR, Phoenix, AZ, Los Angeles, San Francisco, California, Washington, DC, New York City, Chicago, IL, Houston, TX, Dallas, TX, San Diego, California, West Palm Beach, FL, Boston, MA, and Sandy, UT. The current President of United States Federation of Touch is OJ Hawea.
Thailand
Touch is played regularly in various parts of Thailand, mostly by expats, many of whom are teachers living in Thailand. Touch is particularly popular in Phuket and Bangkok, and is also popular with Thai locals who are gaining an interest in rugby yearly.
See also
League tag
Tag rugby
Flag football – the equivalent spinoff from American football.
References
External links
Federation of International Touch Website
FIT Playing Rules
Variations of rugby league
Sports originating in Australia
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] |
208949
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20Shop%20of%20Horrors
|
Little Shop of Horrors
|
Little Shop of Horrors may refer to:
The Little Shop of Horrors, a 1960 film directed by Roger Corman
Little Shop of Horrors (musical), a 1982 musical based on the 1960 film
Little Shop of Horrors (film), a 1986 film adaptation of the musical, directed by Frank Oz
See also
Little Shop, a 1991 animated TV series spin-off from the original 1960 film.
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide%20of%20Saxe-Meiningen
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Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen
|
Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen (Adelaide Amelia Louise Theresa Caroline; 13 August 1792 – 2 December 1849) was Queen of the United Kingdom and Hanover from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837 as the wife of King William IV. Adelaide was the daughter of George I, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, and Luise Eleonore of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. Adelaide, the capital city of South Australia, is named after her.
Early life
Adelaide was born on 13 August 1792 at Meiningen, Thuringia, Germany, the eldest child of George I, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. Her mother was Luise Eleonore, daughter of Christian Albrecht, Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. She was baptised at the castle chapel on 19 August and was titled Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, Duchess in Saxony with the style Serene Highness. Her godparents numbered twenty-one, including her mother, the Holy Roman Empress, the Queen of Naples and Sicily, the Crown Princess of Saxony, the Duchess of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, the Duchess of Saxe-Coburg, the Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, the Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, and the Landgrave of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld.
Saxe-Meiningen was a small state, covering about . It was the most liberal German state and, unlike its neighbours, permitted a free press and criticism of the ruler. At the time, no statute existed which barred a female ruling over the small duchy and it was not until the birth of her brother, Bernhard, in 1800, that the law of primogeniture was introduced.
Marriage
By the end of 1811, King George III was incapacitated and, although he was still king in name, his heir-apparent and eldest son, Prince George, was regent. On 6 November 1817 the Prince Regent's only child, Princess Charlotte, died in childbirth. Princess Charlotte was second in line to the throne: had she outlived her father and grandfather, she would have become queen. With her death, the King was left with twelve children and no legitimate grandchildren. The Prince Regent was estranged from his wife, who was 49 years old, thus there was little likelihood that he would have any further legitimate children. To secure the line of succession, Prince William, Duke of Clarence, and the other sons of George III sought quick marriages with the intent of producing offspring who could inherit the throne. William already had ten children by the popular actress Dorothea Jordan, but, being illegitimate, they were barred from the succession.
Considerable allowances were likely to be voted by Parliament to any royal duke who married, and this acted as a further incentive for William to marry. Adelaide was a princess from an unimportant German state. However, William had a limited choice of available princesses, and, after deals with other candidates fell through, a marriage to Adelaide was arranged. The allowance proposed was slashed by Parliament, and the outraged Duke considered calling off the marriage. However, Adelaide seemed the ideal candidate: amiable, home-loving, and willing to accept William's illegitimate children as part of the family. The arrangement was settled and William wrote to his eldest son, "She is doomed, poor dear innocent young creature, to be my wife."
Adelaide's dowry was set at 20,000 florins, with additional three separate annuities being promised by her future husband, the English regent, and the state of Saxe-Meiningen.
Adelaide married William in a double wedding with William's brother, Prince Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, and his bride Victoria, Dowager Princess of Leiningen, on 11 July 1818, at Kew Palace in Surrey, England. They had only met for the first time a week earlier on 4 July at Grillon's Hotel in Bond Street. Neither William nor Adelaide had been married before, and William was 27 years her senior.
Despite these unromantic circumstances, the couple settled amicably in Hanover (where the cost of living was much lower than in England), and by all accounts were devoted to each other throughout their marriage. Adelaide improved William's behaviour; he drank less, swore less, and became more tactful. Observers thought them parsimonious, and their lifestyle simple, even boring. William eventually accepted the reduced increase in his allowance voted by Parliament.
On the Continent, Adelaide became pregnant, but in her seventh month of pregnancy, she caught pleurisy and gave birth prematurely on 27 March 1819 at the Fürstenhof Palace in Hanover. Her daughter, Charlotte Augusta Louise, lived only a few hours. Another pregnancy in the same year caused William to move the household to England so his future heir would be born on British soil; however, Adelaide miscarried at Calais or Dunkirk during the journey on 5 September 1819. Back in London, they moved into Clarence House, but preferred to stay at Bushy House near Hampton Court, where William had already lived with Dorothea Jordan. She became pregnant again, and a second daughter, Elizabeth Georgiana Adelaide, was born on 10 December 1820 at St James's Palace. Elizabeth seemed strong but died less than three months old on 4 March 1821 of "inflammation in the Bowels". Ultimately, William and Adelaide had no surviving children. Twin boys were stillborn on 8 April 1822 at Bushy Park and a possible brief pregnancy may have occurred within the same year.
Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent came to be acknowledged as William's heir presumptive, as Adelaide had no further pregnancies. While there were rumours of pregnancies well into William's reign (dismissed by the King as "damned stuff"), they seem to have been without basis.
Queen consort
At the time of their marriage, William was not heir-presumptive to the throne, but became so when his brother Frederick, Duke of York, died childless in 1827. Given the small likelihood of his older brothers producing heirs, and William's relative youth and good health, it had long been considered extremely likely that he would become king in due course. In 1830, on the death of his elder brother, George IV, William acceded to the throne. One of King William's first acts was to confer the Rangership of Bushy Park (for 33 years held by himself) on Queen Adelaide. This act allowed Adelaide to remain at Bushy House for her lifetime.
William and Adelaide were crowned on 8 September 1831 at Westminster Abbey. Adelaide was deeply religious and took the service very seriously. William despised the ceremony and acted throughout, it is presumed deliberately, as if he was "a character in a comic opera", making a mockery of what he thought to be a ridiculous charade. Adelaide, alone among those attending received praise for her "dignity, repose and characteristic grace".
Adelaide was beloved by the British people for her piety, modesty, charity, and her tragic childbirth history. A large portion of her household income was given to charitable causes. She also treated the young Princess Victoria of Kent (William's heir presumptive and later Queen Victoria) with kindness, despite her inability to produce an heir and the open hostility between her husband and Victoria's mother, the Dowager Duchess of Kent. She refused to have women of questionable virtue attend her Court. The Clerk of the Privy Council, Charles Greville, wrote, "The Queen is a prude and refuses to have the ladies come décolletées to her parties. George the 4th, who liked ample expanses of that kind, would not let them be covered."
Adelaide attempted, perhaps unsuccessfully, to influence the King politically. She never spoke about politics in public; however, she was strongly Tory. It is unclear how much of William's attitudes during the passage of the Reform Act 1832 were due to her influence. The Press, the public, and courtiers assumed that she was agitating behind the scenes against reform, but she was careful to be non-committal in public. As a result of her alleged partiality, she became unpopular with reformers. False rumours circulated that she was having an affair with her Lord Chamberlain, the Tory Lord Howe, but almost everyone at court knew that Adelaide was inflexibly pious and was always faithful to her husband. The Whig prime minister, Lord Grey, had Lord Howe removed from Adelaide's household. Attempts to reinstate him after the Reform Bill had passed were not successful, as Lord Grey and Lord Howe could not agree as to how independent Howe could be of the government.
In October 1834, a great fire destroyed much of the Palace of Westminster, which Adelaide considered divine retribution for the vagaries of reform. When the King dismissed the Whig ministry of Lord Melbourne, The Times newspaper blamed the Queen's influence, though she seems to have had very little to do with it. Influenced by her similarly reactionary brother-in-law, the Duke of Cumberland, she did write to the King against reform of the Church of Ireland.
Both William and Adelaide were fond of their niece, Princess Victoria of Kent, and wanted her to be closer to them. Their efforts were frustrated by Victoria's mother, the Duchess of Kent. The Duchess refused to acknowledge Adelaide's precedence, left letters from Adelaide unanswered, and commandeered space in the royal stables and apartments for her use. The King, aggrieved at what he took to be disrespect from the Duchess to his wife, bluntly announced in the presence of Adelaide, the Duchess, Victoria, and many guests, that the Duchess was "incompetent to act with propriety", that he had been "grossly and continually insulted by that person", and that he hoped to have the satisfaction of living beyond Victoria's age of majority so that the Duchess of Kent would never be regent. Everyone was aghast at the vehemence of the speech, and all three ladies were deeply upset. The breach between the Duchess and the King and Queen was never fully healed, but Victoria always viewed both of them with kindness.
Queen dowager
Queen Adelaide was dangerously ill in April 1837, at around the same time that she was present at her mother's deathbed in Meiningen, but she recovered. By June, it became evident that the King was fatally ill himself. Adelaide stayed beside William's deathbed devotedly, not going to bed herself for more than ten days. William IV died from heart failure in the early hours of the morning of 20 June 1837 at Windsor Castle, where he was buried. Victoria was proclaimed as queen, but subject to the rights of any issue that might be born to Adelaide on the remotely possible chance that she was pregnant.
The first queen dowager in over a century (Charles II's widow, Catherine of Braganza, had died in 1705, and Mary of Modena, wife of the deposed James II, died in 1718), Adelaide survived her husband by twelve years.
In early October 1838, for health reasons, Adelaide travelled to Malta aboard HMS Hastings, stopping at Gibraltar on the way, and staying on Malta for three months. Lacking a Protestant church on Malta, the queen dowager paid for the construction of St Paul's Pro-Cathedral in Valletta. In the summer of 1844, she paid her last visit to her native country, visiting Altenstein Palace and Meiningen.
Queen Adelaide had been given the use of Marlborough House, Pall Mall in 1831, and held it until her death in 1849. She also had the use of Bushy House and Bushy Park at Hampton Court. Suffering from chronic illness, Adelaide often moved her place of residence in a vain search for health, staying at the country houses of various British aristocracy. She became a tenant of William Ward and took up residence at the latter's newly purchased house, Witley Court in Worcestershire, from 1842 until 1846. While at Witley Court, she had two chaplains – Rev. John Ryle Wood, Canon of Worcester and Rev. Thomas Pearson, Rector of Great Witley. She financed the first village school in Great Witley. From 1846 to 1848, she rented Cassiobury House from Lord Essex. During her time there, she played host to Victoria and Albert. Within three years, Adelaide had moved on again, renting Bentley Priory in Stanmore from Lord Abercorn.
Semi-invalid by 1847, Adelaide was advised to try the climate of Madeira for the winter that year, for her health. She donated money to the poor of the island and paid for the construction of a road from Ribeiro Seco to Camara de Lobos.
Queen Adelaide's last public appearance was to lay the foundation stone of the church of St John the Evangelist, Great Stanmore. She gave the font and when the church was completed after her death, the east window was dedicated to her memory.
She died during the reign of her niece Queen Victoria on 2 December 1849 of natural causes at Bentley Priory in Middlesex. She was buried at St. George's Chapel, Windsor. She wrote instructions for her funeral during an illness in 1841 at Sudbury Hall:
I die in all humility … we are alike before the throne of God, and I request therefore that my mortal remains be conveyed to the grave without pomp or state … to have as private and quiet a funeral as possible. I particularly desire not to be laid out in state … I die in peace and wish to be carried to the fount in peace, and free from the vanities and pomp of this world.
Legacy
Queen Adelaide's name is probably best remembered in the Australian state of South Australia, founded during the brief reign of William IV. In 1836, the capital city of Adelaide was named after her. The Queen Adelaide Club for women is still active, and a bronze statue of Queen Adelaide stands in the foyer of the Town Hall. The Queen Adelaide Society was inaugurated in Adelaide in 1981 by the late Dorothy Howie with the twin objectives of promoting public awareness of Queen Adelaide and to provide an annual donation to a South Australian children's charity.
There is a village named Queen Adelaide in Cambridgeshire, which takes its name from one of the many public houses named after her.
There are Adelaide Streets, Adelaide Avenues, and Adelaide Roads throughout the former empire. There is also Adelaide Hospital (now the Adelaide and Meath Hospital, Tallaght) in Dublin, and an Adelaide railway station in Belfast. Australia has two Adelaide Rivers, in the Northern Territory and Tasmania, and an Adelaide Reef in Queensland. The town of Adelaide (originally Fort Adelaide) in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, as well as Sir Benjamin D'Urban's short-lived colony in the same area, Queen Adelaide Province. Queen's Park, Brighton is also named in her honour, as is Adelheidsdorf in Lower Saxony, Germany. The Citadel in Port Louis, capital of the Republic of Mauritius, is named Fort Adelaide, the building having been started during the reign of William in 1834. In 1832 Adelaide Township was surveyed in what became the western part of Middlesex County in Ontario (now part of the municipality of the Township of Adelaide-Metcalfe). There is a small group of islands in southern Chile named Queen Adelaide Archipelago and Adelaide Island in the British Antarctic Territory.
In honour of the Queen's many visits, several places in Leicestershire were named after Queen Adelaide. They include Queen Street in Measham and the Queen Adelaide Inn (now demolished) in Appleby Magna. There is also the Queen Adelaide Oak in Bradgate Park (once home to Lady Jane Grey), under which Queen Adelaide had picnicked on venison and crayfish from the estate.
Asteroid 525 Adelaide is also named in her honour.
In 1849 there was a cholera epidemic in the East End of London. The following year, Queen Adelaide's dispensary opened in Warner Place, Bethnal Green. It moved to William Street in 1866 and by 1899 was handling 10,000 medical and dental patients a year. In 1963, the funds that had set up the dispensary became Queen Adelaide's charity, which still operates today.
Queen Victoria's firstborn child, Victoria Adelaide Mary Louise, took her second name from her great-aunt, who was also the child's godmother.
Cultural depictions
Queen Adelaide was played by Harriet Walter in the 2009 film The Young Victoria, as a kindly but practical counsellor to the inexperienced queen. Delena Kidd portrayed her in the 2001 television serial Victoria & Albert.
Honours
: Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, 23 February 1836
Arms
The Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom are impaled with her father's arms as Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. The arms were Quarterly of nineteen, 1st, Azure, a lion barry Argent and Gules (Landgrave of Thuringia); 2nd, Gules, an escarbuncle Or and a shield at the centre point Argent (Cleves); 3rd, Or, a lion rampant Sable (Meissen); 4th, Or, a lion rampant Sable (Jülich); 5th, Argent, a lion rampant Gules crowned Azure (Berg); 6th, Azure, an eagle displayed Or (Palatinate of Saxony); 7th, Or, two pales Azure (Landsberg); 8th, Sable, an eagle displayed Or (Palatinate of Thuringia); 9th, Or, semé of hearts Gules a lion rampant Sable crowned of the second (Orlamünde); 10th, Argent, three bars Azure (Eisenberg); 11th, Azure, a lion passant per fess Or and Argent (Tonna in Gleichen); 12th, Argent, a rose Gules barbed and seeded Proper (Burgraviate of Altenburg); 13th, Gules plain (Sovereign rights); 14th, Argent, three beetles' pincers Gules (Engern); 15th, Or a fess chequy Gules and Argent (Marck); 16th, Per pale, dexter, Gules, a column Argent crowned Or (Roemhild), sinister, Or, on a mount Vert, a cock Sable, wattled Gules (Hannenberg); 17th, Argent three chevronels Gules (Ravensberg); and over all an inescutcheon barry Or and Sable, a crown of rue (or a crancelin) in bend Vert (Saxony).
As the Duchess of Clarence, she used the arms of her husband (the royal arms with a label of three points Argent, the centre point bearing a cross Gules, the outer points each bearing an anchor Azure) impaled with those of her father, the whole surmounted by a coronet of a child of the sovereign.
Issue
Ancestry
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
Biography
Queen Adelaide Society (City of Adelaide, South Australia)
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1792 births
1849 deaths
18th-century German people
19th-century German people
18th-century German women
19th-century German women
19th-century British people
19th-century British women
British royal consorts
Wives of British princes
House of Hanover
Hanoverian royal consorts
Hanoverian princesses by marriage
House of Saxe-Meiningen
Duchesses of Brunswick-Lüneburg
People from Meiningen
Princesses of Saxe-Meiningen
William IV of the United Kingdom
Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
Dames of the Order of Saint Isabel
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaylord%20Nelson
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Gaylord Nelson
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Gaylord Anton Nelson (June 4, 1916July 3, 2005) was an American politician and environmentalist from Wisconsin who served as a United States Senator and governor. He was a member of the Democratic Party and the founder of Earth Day, which launched a new wave of environmental activism.
Early life and education
Nelson was born in 1916 in Clear Lake, Wisconsin, the son of Mary (Bradt), a nurse, and Anton Nelson, a country doctor. He had Norwegian and Irish ancestry. He grew up and was educated in the local public schools. In 1939, he received a bachelor's in political science at what is now San Jose State University in San Jose, California. In 1942, he received an LL.B. degree from the University of Wisconsin Law School in Madison and was admitted to the bar. He practiced as a lawyer before serving in the United States Army, during which time he saw action in the Okinawa campaign during World War II.
Career
In 1948, Nelson was elected to the Wisconsin State Senate. He remained there until 1958, when he was elected governor of Wisconsin. He served for four years as governor, in two two-year terms, before being elected to the United States Senate in 1962. He served three consecutive terms as a senator from 1963 to 1981. In 1963 he convinced President John F. Kennedy to take a national speaking tour to discuss conservation issues. Senator Nelson founded Earth Day, which began as a teach-in about environmental issues on April 22, 1970.
During his 1968 re-election campaign, Nelson was praised by Vince Lombardi, the General Manager and former coach of the Green Bay Packers, as the "nation's #1 conservationist" at a banquet in Oshkosh. Nelson's campaign turned Lombardi's banquet speech into a radio and television campaign commercial, infuriating Lombardi, the Wisconsin Republican Party, and Vince's wife, Marie, who was a staunch Republican.
Although known primarily for his environmental work, Nelson also was a leading consumer advocate, strong supporter of civil rights and civil liberties, and one of the early outspoken opponents of the Vietnam War. In 1969, Nelson was one of four senators to introduce a bill to establish the Wisconsin Islands Wilderness.
In 1970, Nelson called for Congressional hearings on the safety of combined oral contraceptive pills, which were famously called "The Nelson Pill Hearings." As a result of the hearings, side-effect disclosure in patient inserts was required for the pillthe first such disclosure for a pharmaceutical drug.
Nelson was also a noted advocate of small business. While chairman of the Senate Small Business Committee, he led successful efforts to authorize the first modern White House Conference on Small Business, create the system of Small Business Development Centers at U.S. universities, and improve the way that federal agencies regulate small businesses and other small entities, the Regulatory Flexibility Act.
In 1973, Nelson was one of the three senators who opposed the nomination of Gerald Ford to be Vice President. (The other two were Thomas Eagleton and William Hathaway.)
Life after politics
After Nelson's 1980. defeat for re-election, he became counselor for The Wilderness Society in January 1981. He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in September 1995 in recognition of his environmental work.
Nelson viewed the stabilization of the nation's population as an important aspect of environmentalism. In his words:
The bigger the population gets, the more serious the problems become ... We have to address the population issue. The United Nations, with the U.S. supporting it, took the position in Cairo in 1994 that every country was responsible for stabilizing its own population. It can be done. But in this country, it's phony to say "I'm for the environment but not for limiting immigration."
He also rejected the suggestion that economic development should take precedence over environmental protection:
The economy is a wholly owned subsidiary of the environment, not the other way around.
In 2002, Nelson appeared on To Tell the Truth as a contestant, with his founding of Earth Day highlighted.
Death and legacy
Nelson died of cardiovascular failure at age 89 on July 3, 2005.
The Gaylord Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies (or Nelson Institute) at the University of Wisconsin–Madison is named after him in recognition of his love for nature. In addition, the Gaylord Nelson Wilderness in the Apostle Islands National Lakeshore –comprising more than 80% of the land area of the park – was named after him in honor of his efforts to have the park created. Governor Nelson State Park near Waunakee, Wisconsin, is also named after him. The elementary school in Clear Lake, Wisconsin is named Gaylord A. Nelson Educational Center.
References
Further reading
Christofferson, Bill. The Man from Clear Lake: Earth Day Founder Gaylord Nelson. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004.
Jones, Clayton R. "Gaylord Nelson, Father of Earth Day: Bridging the Gap from Conservation to Environmentalism" (Senior thesis). University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, 2009.
Nelson, Gaylord, Susan Campbell and Paul R Wozniak. Beyond Earth Day: Fulfilling the Promise. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2002.
External links
Gaylord Nelson and Earth Day: The Making of the Modern Environmental Movement – a narrative account of the origins of Earth Day, Gaylord Nelson's political career
Gaylord Nelson papers, 1954–2006 held by the Wisconsin Historical Society.
Retrieved on 2008-02-06
Gaylord Nelson (Gamma Nu) – Former U.S. Senator – Gaylord Nelson Biography.
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1916 births
2005 deaths
20th-century American politicians
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Democratic Party United States senators
Governors of Wisconsin
Military personnel from Wisconsin
United States Army personnel of World War II
People from Polk County, Wisconsin
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
San Jose State University alumni
Sierra Club awardees
United States Army officers
United States senators from Wisconsin
University of Wisconsin Law School alumni
Wisconsin Democrats
Wisconsin state senators
Burials in Wisconsin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Brown%20%28singer%29
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Joe Brown (singer)
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Joseph Roger Brown, MBE (born 13 May 1941) is an English entertainer. As a rock and roll singer and guitarist, he has performed for more than six decades. He was a stage and television performer in the late 1950s and has been a recording star since the early 1960s. He has made six films, presented specialist radio series for BBC Radio 2, appeared on the West End stage alongside Dame Anna Neagle and has written an autobiography. In recent years he has again concentrated on recording and performing music, playing two tours of around 100 shows every year and releasing an album almost every year.
Described by the Guinness Book of British Hit Singles & Albums as a "chirpy Cockney", Brown was one of the original artists managed by the early rock impresario and manager Larry Parnes. He is highly regarded in the music business as a "musician's musician" who "commands respect and admiration from a wide spectrum of artists".
Career
Brown was born in Swarby, Lincolnshire. His family moved to London when he was two and ran the Sultan public house in Grange Road, Plaistow, then in Essex, now part of the London Borough of Newham. In 1956, Brown formed a skiffle group, The Spacemen, which lasted until the skiffle movement faded towards the end of the 1950s. He worked for British Railways at their Plaistow Locomotive works for two years in the late 1950s, becoming a steam locomotive fireman. He left the job because "the smell of the diesels drove me out when they took over from steam".
In 1958 Brown was spotted by television producer Jack Good who hired him as lead guitarist in the orchestra of his new TV series, Boy Meets Girls. During this period he backed a number of US musicians such as Gene Vincent and Eddie Cochran on their UK tours.
1960s
Brown signed a management agreement with Larry Parnes and signed to Decca Records. He charted with "The Darktown Strutters' Ball" in 1960, and had UK Top 10 hits on the Piccadilly label in 1962–63 with "A Picture of You", which reached number two on the NME charts (the main chart of the day); "It Only Took A Minute", and "That's What Love Will Do". Piccadilly's release of Brown's "Crazy Mixed Up Kid" in April 1961 was the label's first single. Brown's recording band was a collection of session musicians, and was named the Bruvvers by Jack Good to give Brown the identity of having his own backing band for record releases. It was in 1962 when he needed a band to tour with him that 'Joe Brown and the Bruvvers' was cemented, containing two members of the Spacemen, brothers Tony and Pete Oakman, who had also remained with him in the "Boy Meets Girls" band.
Brown was voted 'Top UK Vocal Personality' in the 1962 NME magazine poll. During the 1960s he appeared in a number of films, pantomime and stage musicals. In December 1963, the film What a Crazy World, based on a stage play, starring Brown and Marty Wilde among others, had its world premiere in London. Brown also starred in the hit musical Charlie Girl in the West End between 1965 and 1968; and in the musical comedy film Three Hats for Lisa in 1965 with Una Stubbs, Sophie Hardy and Sid James. He also made a cameo appearance as himself in the 1964 film The Beauty Jungle, and presented the children's television series Joe & Co on BBC Television.
1970s and after
In 1972, he formed another band, Brown's Home Brew, which played rock and roll, country and gospel music and featured his wife, Vicki Brown, and Pete Oakman from the Bruvvers. This eclectic collection of musical styles, together with his hits, became the basis of his live sets ever since.
In the 1980s, Brown presented a daytime quiz show on Granada TV called Square One; its success led him to recording a pilot for the prime time game show The Price Is Right but ATV selected Leslie Crowther for the full-time presenting role when the series launched.
He also hosted Show Me, an early evening game show produced by Anglia Television and aired on ITV for one series in 1987, and made a brief appearance as Dudley, a crooked club owner, in the 1986 film Mona Lisa, opposite Bob Hoskins.
George Harrison was best man at Brown's second wedding in 2000; Brown had appeared on two songs on Harrison's album Gone Troppo, and also was featured on a track on Harrison's last album, Brainwashed. Following Harrison's death from lung cancer on 29 November 2001, Brown appeared with his group at the tribute concert Concert for George, held on the first anniversary of his death. Brown played guitar whilst singing "Here Comes the Sun", mandolin on "That's The Way It Goes," and ukulele on the closing number, "I'll See You in My Dreams".
Brown still performs and makes occasional television appearances. In 2005 he co-wrote a musical, Don't You Rock Me Daddio, with songwriter Roger Cook, while in December 2006, he was one of three guest hosts of Sounds of the '60s on BBC Radio 2 during the absence of host Brian Matthew, having already presented two series on rock and roll for the same station.
In 2008, Brown's 50th anniversary celebrations included a UK gold album for sales over 100,000 copies of Joe Brown - The Very Best Of, a 37-date spring tour, an all-star concert at the Royal Albert Hall with Mark Knopfler, Jools Holland, Dennis Locorriere, Dave Edmunds, Sam Brown, Chas & Dave and others, and a 36-date autumn-winter tour.
His album More of the Truth was released in the UK on 13 October 2008, and in 2009 the US musical instrument manufacturer Kala launched a series of 'Joe Brown' ukuleles. At the Mojo magazine's awards in London on 11 June 2009, Brown was presented with the lifetime award for outstanding contribution to music after 51 years' recording. Mojo'''s album, Harrison Covered'' (November 2011), to mark the tenth anniversary of George Harrison's death, included Brown's recording of the former's "That's the Way It Goes".
in 2014 Brown pulled out of the Village Pump Folk Festival for medical reasons. Due to headline the Friday night of the event taking place from 25 July, he was replaced by Peatbog Faeries.
Honours
Brown was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) for services to music in the 2009 Birthday Honours.
In late 2010, Brown was asked by Rick Parfitt of Status Quo to support them for the arena section (nine shows) of their UK tour in late 2010, and he continued to tour throughout 2011. A triple DVD and CD set of the latter tour was released of his show at the Liverpool Philharmonic.
Personal life
Brown married Victoria Mary Haseman, a singer with both the Vernons Girls and the Breakaways, who then became known as Vicki Brown. Latterly a session singer, she died of cancer in 1991. Their daughter, Sam Brown, is also a singer, and their son, Pete Brown, is a record producer, who produced all but one of Brown's nine most recent albums, and also tours with him. In 2000, Joe Brown married Manon Pearcey, former partner of the former Small Faces singer Steve Marriott.
Discography
References
External links
IMDB Profile
Album discography
1941 births
Living people
English male singers
English rock guitarists
English male guitarists
English radio presenters
English television presenters
English male film actors
English male stage actors
Members of the Order of the British Empire
People from North Kesteven District
People from Plaistow, Newham
British mandolinists
British rock and roll musicians
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Right%20Honourable
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The Right Honourable
|
The Right Honourable (abbreviation: The Rt Hon. or Rt Hon.) is an honorific style traditionally applied to certain persons and collective bodies in the United Kingdom, the former British Empire and the Commonwealth of Nations. The term is predominantly used today as a style associated with the holding of certain senior public offices in the United Kingdom, Canada, and New Zealand.
"Right" in this context is an adverb meaning "thoroughly" or "very".
Major current title
United Kingdom
The prefix is customarily abbreviated to "The", always capitalised, in many cases, e.g. "The Earl Mountbatten of Burma", short for "The Right Honourable The Earl Mountbatten of Burma", but never abbreviated for Privy Counsellors for whom, however, abbreviation to "The Rt Hon." or "Rt Hon." is often used.
The following persons are entitled to the style in a personal capacity:
Peers below the rank of marquess, i.e. earls, viscounts and barons. The wife of a peer is accorded her husband's style by courtesy. Dukes are styled "The Most Noble" or "His Grace", and marquesses are styled "The Most Honourable". If a duke or a marquess becomes a Privy Counsellor, they retain the higher style but may use the post-nominals of "PC" to indicate their Privy Council membership (All this applies for men and women).
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, including current and former members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, as well as some other senior ministers.
Members of the Privy Council of Northern Ireland
The following persons are entitled to the style . The style is added to the name of the office, not the name of the person:
The Right Honourable Lord Mayor of London
The Right Honourable Lord Mayor of Cardiff
The Right Honourable Lord Mayor of Belfast
The Right Honourable Lord Mayor of York
The Right Honourable Lord Lyon King of Arms
The Right Honourable Lord Provost of Edinburgh
The Right Honourable Lord Provost of Glasgow
All other lord mayors are "The Right Worshipful"; other lords provost do not use an honorific. By the 1920s, a number of city mayors, including the Lord Mayor of Leeds, were unofficially using the prefix "The Right Honourable", and the matter was consequently raised in Parliament. The Lord Mayor of Bristol at present still uses the prefix "Right Honourable", without official sanction.<ref>The Title of Lord Mayor – Use of the Prefix "Right Honourable", in The Times, 7 July 1932, p. 16</ref> The Chairman of the London County Council (LCC) was granted the style in 1935 as part of the celebrations of the silver jubilee of King George V. The chairman of the Greater London Council, the body that replaced the LCC in 1965, was similarly granted the prefix until the GLC was abolished in 1986.
Privy Counsellors are appointed for life by the monarch, on the advice of the prime minister. All members of the British Cabinet (technically a committee of the Privy Council) are appointed to the Privy Council, as are certain other senior ministers in the government, senior members of the Shadow Cabinet, and leaders of the major political parties. The Privy Council thus includes all current and former members of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, excepting those who have resigned from the Privy Council. The first ministers of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are also so appointed, as is the leader of the largest opposition party in the Scottish Parliament.
In order to differentiate peers who are Privy Counsellors—entitled to the honorific in both capacities—from those who are not, Debrett's Peerage rules that the suffix "PC" should be added after the name.Debrett's recommends the use of the post-nominal letters "PC" in a social style of address for a peer who is a Privy Counsellor. This is not, however, considered correct by Who's Who.
In the House of Commons, members are not permitted to address each other directly or name other members, but must instead address the Speaker and refer to each other indirectly by their job. A non-Privy Council member is thus "my hon. Friend (the member for constituency)" if in the same party as the person speaking, and "the hon. Member/Gentleman/Lady (the member for constituency)" otherwise. ("Honourable" is abbreviated as "hon." in Hansard.) "Honourable" becomes "right honourable" for those members entitled to this style, in particular Privy Counsellors. Members with government or opposition jobs may be referred to as such, for example "my right hon. Friend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer", "the right hon. Lady, the Leader of the Opposition", "his right hon. Friend, the Secretary of State for Department", "the Secretary of State" (where this is unambiguous, such as while asking questions of a minister), or "the Prime Minister". Other honorifics are used for members in relevant professions, a practice recommended abolished in 2010 following a report of the Modernisation Committee but in practice continued:
"(right) honourable and reverend" for clergy
"(right) honourable and gallant" for military officers
"(right) honourable and learned" for barristers This video is of the speech of Speaker John Bercow after his re-election as Speaker after the 2017 general election, referring to "the right honourable and learned gentleman, the member for Rushcliffe", i.e. Father of the House Kenneth Clarke, who is a barrister.
Non-British Commonwealth-citizen judges appointed to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council are also entitled to the honorific, although the appellation may be ignored in the judge's home country.
Collective entities
In the United Kingdom, "The Right Honourable" is added as a prefix to the name of various collective entities such as:
The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal (of the United Kingdom, etc.) in Parliament Assembled (the House of Lords)
The Right Honourable the Knights, Citizens and Burgesses (of the House of Commons/Commons House) in Parliament Assembled (the House of Commons) (archaic, now simply The Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom, etc.)
The Right Honourable the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty (the former Board of Admiralty)
The Right Honourable the Lords of the Committee of the Privy Council appointed for the consideration of all matters relating to Trade and Foreign Plantations (the Board of Trade)
See also the collective use of "the Most Honourable", as in "The Lords of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council" (the Privy Council).
Canada
In Canada, occupants of only the three most senior public offices are styled as "The Right Honourable" ( in French). Formerly, this was by virtue of their appointment to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom. However, Canadian appointments to the British Privy Council were ended by the government of Lester Pearson. Currently, individuals who hold, or have held, one of the following offices are awarded the style of Right Honourable for life:
Governor General of Canada
Prime Minister of Canada
Chief Justice of Canada
"The Right Honourable" is not to be confused with "His/Her Excellency", used by governors general during their term of office, or "The Honourable", used only while in office by provincial premiers and cabinet ministers, and for life by senators and members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada (chiefly cabinet ministers, as well as other figures such as party leaders or provincial premiers who may be appointed from time to time).
The title may also be granted for life by the Governor General to eminent Canadians who have not held any of the offices that would otherwise entitle them to the style. This has been done on two occasions: to eight prominent political figures to mark the 125th anniversary of Canadian Confederation in 1992, and to longtime Member of Parliament Herb Gray upon his retirement in 2002.
Over the years, a number of prominent Canadians became members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom and thus were entitled to use the style of Right Honourable, either because of their services in Britain (e.g. serving as envoys to London) or as members of the Imperial War Cabinet, or due to their prominence in the Canadian Cabinet. These included all but three of Canada's early prime ministers (Alexander Mackenzie, John Abbott, and Mackenzie Bowell), who governed before the title was used domestically.
New Zealand
Previously in New Zealand the prime minister and some other senior cabinet ministers were customarily appointed to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom and thus styled The Right Honourable.
In her resignation honours, the former prime minister Helen Clark did not recommend the appointment of any new Privy Counsellors. In 2009 it was announced that her successor, John Key, had decided not to make any further recommendations to the Crown for appointments to the Privy Council.
In August 2010, the Queen of New Zealand announced that, with immediate effect, individuals who hold, and those persons who after the date of the signing of these rules are appointed to, the following offices are awarded the style The Right Honourable for life:
the Governor-General of New Zealand
the Prime Minister of New Zealand
the Chief Justice of New Zealand
the Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives
This change was made because the practice of appointing New Zealanders to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom had ceased. However, the change had little immediate effect, as all but two of the holders or living former holders of the offices granted the style had already been appointed to the Privy Council.This did not apply to former governor-generals Sir Paul Reeves, Dame Catherine Tizard and Dame Silvia Cartwright and former speakers Sir Kerry Burke, Sir Robin Gray, Sir Peter Tapsell, Sir Doug Kidd and Margaret Wilson
The living New Zealanders holding the style The Right Honourable as a result of membership of the Privy Council are:
Sir Geoffrey Winston Russell Palmer (1985) — prime minister
Jonathan Lucas Hunt (1989) — cabinet minister
Sir Michael Hardie Boys (1989) — governor-general
Helen Elizabeth Clark (1990) — prime minister
James Brendan Bolger (1991) — prime minister
Sir Donald Charles McKinnon (1992) — deputy prime minister
Sir William Francis Birch (1992) — cabinet minister
Sir John Steele Henry (1996) — court of appeal justice
Sir Edmund Walter Thomas (1996) — supreme court justice
Dame Jennifer Mary Shipley (1998) — prime minister
Winston Raymond Peters (1998) — deputy prime minister
Sir Douglas Arthur Montrose Graham (1998) — cabinet minister
Paul Clayton East (1998) — cabinet minister
Sir Kenneth James Keith (1998) — court of appeal justice
Sir Peter Blanchard (1998) — supreme court justice
Sir Andrew Patrick Charles Tipping (1998) — supreme court justice
Wyatt Beetham Creech (1998) — deputy prime minister
Dame Sian Seerpoohi Elias (1999) — chief justice
Simon David Upton (1999) — cabinet minister
The living New Zealanders holding the style The Right Honourable for life as a result of the 2010 changes are:
Minor or historic title
Australia
In Australia, the lord mayors of Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney are entitled to be styled "The Right Honourable" while in office.
Historically, a number of Australians were entitled to the style as members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom. Appointment to the Australian equivalent of the Privy Council, the Federal Executive Council, does not entitle a person to the style. Typical appointees to the Imperial Privy Council included senior politicians and judges at state and federal level. Malcolm Fraser in 1976 was the most recent prime minister to accept appointment to the Privy Council and thus to be styled "The Right Honourable". Of his 21 predecessors, only four were not members of the Privy Council – Alfred Deakin (declined appointment), Chris Watson (never offered), Arthur Fadden (accepted after leaving office), and Gough Whitlam (declined appointment). The last Governor-General to be entitled to the style was Sir Ninian Stephen, who left office in 1988. The last active politician to be entitled to the style was Ian Sinclair, who retired in 1998. The few Australian recipients of British peerages were also entitled to the style.
Present-day Australian governments no longer recommend Australians for elevation to the peerage or appointment to the Privy Council. However, some present-day Australian citizens either hold hereditary peerages (e.g. Malcolm Murray, 12th Earl of Dunmore) or have been awarded life peerages on the recommendation of the UK government (e.g. Trixie Gardner, Baroness Gardner of Parkes).
Ireland
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland were entitled to be addressed as The Right Honourable, even after the Privy Council ceased to have any functions or to meet on the creation of the Irish Free State in December 1922. Nevertheless, the Lord Mayor of Dublin, like some of his counterparts in Great Britain, retained the use of the honorific style as a result of its having been conferred separately by legislation; in 2001 it was removed, as a consequence of local government law reform.
Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka (formerly known as Ceylon) the British practice was followed with Ceylonese members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom were styled The Right Honourable and were referred to as in Sinhala. Ceylonese appointees to the privy council included D. S. Senanayake and Sir John Kotelawala.
East Africa
During the periods of its existence, the Prime Minister of Kenya was styled The Right Honourable. The prime ministers of Namibia and Uganda are both currently styled with the same honorific. The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Parliament of Uganda are also entitled to the title.
Caribbean
The Prime Ministers of Grenada, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Trinidad and Tobago are styled as The Right Honourable''. The Prime Minister of the West Indies Federation was also styled as such.
Nepal
The president and Prime Minister of Nepal are formally addressed as "The Right Honourable" (). It can also be spelled in English as "The Rt. Hon’ble".
See also
Eminence
Excellency
The Honourable
The Much Honoured
The Most Honourable
The Reverend
Style (manner of address)
Notes
References
External links
Privy Council members
Styles (forms of address)
|
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] |
208962
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altoids
|
Altoids
|
Altoids are a brand of mints, sold primarily in distinctive metal tins. The brand was created by the London-based Smith & Company in the 1780s, and became part of the Callard & Bowser company in the 19th century. Their advertising slogan is "The Original Celebrated Curiously Strong Mints", referring to the high concentration of peppermint oil used in the original flavour lozenge. The mints were originally conceived as a lozenge intended to relieve intestinal discomfort.
Marketing
Altoids are less widely available in the United Kingdom, their country of origin, than in the US. Marks & Spencer produces a near identical product called "Curiously Strong Mints". Unlike their marketing in the US, Altoids have never been heavily marketed in the UK. Callard & Bowser-Suchard once manufactured Altoids at a plant in Bridgend, Wales, but has since moved production to a Mars Wrigley plant in Chattanooga, Tennessee, United States, in order to manufacture the products closer to where they are primarily marketed. They were marketed for a brief period in the 1990s under the "Nuttall's" brand when Callard and Bowser was under the ownership of Terry's.
Flavours and varieties
Mints
, Altoids mints are available in four flavours: peppermint, wintergreen, spearmint, and cinnamon. "Sugar-Free Smalls", tiny square mints sweetened with sorbitol and sucralose, are also available in peppermint, wintergreen, and cinnamon. In 2007, dark chocolate-dipped mints were introduced in three flavours: peppermint, cinnamon and ginger and in 2008, dark chocolate-dipped mints were introduced in crème de menthe. The chocolate-dipped varieties were discontinued in 2010. Also historically made but no longer available were liquorice, cool honey, and (non-chocolate dipped) ginger and crème de menthe varieties. Circa early 2011, Altoids altered the ingredients of their wintergreen mints, adding blue food colouring. Altoid mints other than those labelled "sugar-free smalls" contain gelatin.
Sours
Sour hard candies in round tins were introduced in 2001 but were discontinued in 2010 due to low sales. Flavours included raspberry, citrus, apple, tangerine, and mango. Limited edition passion fruit sours were also released around Valentine's Day in 2005 in a larger 2.3 oz tin instead of the standard 1.76 oz sours tins that had been released up until then.
Gum
The sugar-free chewing gum, introduced in 2003, was made in the United States. Flavors include peppermint, cinnamon, spearmint, wintergreen and two sour flavours, cherry and apple. The gum has not been seen in stock in US stores since January 2010 and has been discontinued.
Altoids Strips
In 2003, breath strips in peppermint and cinnamon flavors were introduced. They were discontinued.
Altoids Arctic
In 2014, Eclipse Mints, another Wrigley product, were rebranded as Altoids Arctic, with the tin remaining identical save for labelling. The rebranded mints were released in only Peppermint, Wintergreen, and Strawberry, doing away with the wider varieties of Eclipse such as Cinnamon, Winterfrost, and several other flavors, as well as the chewable. As before, each tin contains 1.2 oz (34g), or about 50 mints.
Tins
The distinctive tins in which Altoids mints are packaged are often reused for other purposes. They have long been used as containers for household items like paper clips, coins, sewing materials and other small items.
Altoids tins have also been popular with outdoor enthusiasts for many years as first-aid or mini survival kit containers. A name for these kits is Bug-Out Altoids Tins, or BOATs.
The tins are sometimes used to house electronics projects. BeagleBone, a single-board computer made by Texas Instruments, is deliberately shaped with rounded corners to fit inside the tin.
A Retrocomputing hobbyist computer, the RCA 1802-based Membership Card microcomputer kit, is designed to fit in an Altoids tin, and CMoy pocket headphone amplifiers often use the containers as an enclosure.
The mintyPi is a kit that uses an Altoids tin to house a portable retro gaming machine.
Altoids Award
At the grand opening of The New Museum of Contemporary Art in 2007, Altoids announced the biennial Altoids Award. A cash prize of is awarded to four individual artists from around the US. Winners have their art exhibited at the museum after the rigorous selection process is completed. The first winners were chosen by Paul McCarthy, Cindy Sherman, and Rirkrit Tiravanija.
See also
Fisherman's Friend
List of breath mints
Victory V
References
Further reading
Grant, Jeremy. "New brands take a toll on Wrigley" Financial Times, London Ed. 26-Oct-2005, pg 27.
Terdiman, Daniel. "Altoids, the curiously strong tin; The container stylishly stores battery chargers, iPods and more." New York Times 2-Feb-2005.
"Wrigley to buy Altoids and Life Savers from Kraft." Candy Industry ISSN 0745-1032; Volume 169; Issue 11 1-Nov-2004.
What's News. The Wall Street Journal, Business and Finance, pg A1. 15-Nov-2004.
Pare, Mike. "Wrigley to invest $14M to make Altoids in its Chattanooga, Tenn., plant." Chattanooga Times/Free Press, Knight Ridder/Tribune Business News. 23-Aug-2005.
External links
Former site (redirects)
The Altoids Curiously Strong Awards Video Clip
Wrigley Company brands
Breath mints
Mars confectionery brands
British confectionery
1780s introductions
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208963
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy%20Award%20for%20Best%20Male%20Country%20Vocal%20Performance
|
Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance
|
The Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance was awarded between 1965 and 2011. The award has had several minor name changes:
From 1965 to 1967 the award was known as Best Country & Western Vocal Performance - Male
In 1968 it was awarded as Best Country & Western Solo Vocal Performance, Male
From 1969 to 1994 it was awarded as Best Country Vocal Performance, Male
From 1995 to 2011 it was awarded as Best Male Country Vocal Performance
The award was discontinued after the 2011 awards season in a major overhaul of Grammy categories. From 2012, all solo performances (male, female and instrumental) in the country category will be shifted to the newly formed Best Country Solo Performance category.
Years reflect the year in which the Grammy Awards were presented, for works released in the previous year.
Category facts
Most Wins in Category
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
References
Grammy Awards for country music
Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance winners
|
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208966
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian%20Watt
|
Ian Watt
|
Ian Watt (9 March 1917 – 13 December 1999) was a literary critic, literary historian and professor of English at Stanford University. His The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding (1957) is an important work in the history of the genre. Published in 1957, The Rise of the Novel is considered by many contemporary literary scholars as the seminal work on the origins of the novel, and an important study of literary realism. The book traces the rise of the modern novel to philosophical, economic and social trends and conditions that become prominent in the early 18th century. He is the subject of an intellectual biography by Marina MacKay, Ian Watt: The Novel and the Wartime Critic (2018).
Biography
Born 9 March 1917, in Windermere, Westmorland, in England, Watt was educated at the Dover County School for Boys and at St John's College, Cambridge, where he earned first-class honours in English.
Watt joined the British Army at the age of 22 and served with distinction in the Second World War as an infantry lieutenant from 1939 to 1946. He was wounded in the Battle of Singapore in February 1942 and listed as "missing, presumed killed in action".
He had been taken prisoner by the Japanese and remained at the Changi Prison until 1945, working with other prisoners on the construction of the Burma Railway which crossed Thailand, a feat that inspired the Pierre Boulle book The Bridge over the River Kwai, and the film adaptation, The Bridge on the River Kwai by David Lean. Watt criticised both the book and the film for the liberties they took with the historical details of the prisoner of war experience and, more subtly, their refusal to acknowledge the moral complexities of the situation. More than 12,000 prisoners died during the building of the railway, most of them from disease, and Watt was critically ill from malnutrition for several years. "There was a period when I expected to die", Watt told The San Francisco Examiner in a 1979 interview. "But I didn't know how sick I was until they gave me some of the vitamin pills that had just come into the camp. I remember being very surprised that I was considered sick enough to receive vitamins."
Watt died in Menlo Park, California, after a long illness and a spell in a nursing home.
Literary criticism
A key element Watt explores is the decline in importance of the philosophy of classical antiquity, with its various strains of idealistic thought that viewed human experience as composed of universal Platonic "forms" with an innate perfection. Such a view of life and philosophy dominated writers from ancient times to the Renaissance, resulting in classical poetic forms and genres with essentially flat plots and characters. (Russian theorist Mikhail Bakhtin has written that such literature can literally be read front to back, or back to front, with no significant difference in effect.) These philosophical beliefs began to be replaced perhaps in the later Renaissance, into the Enlightenment, and, most importantly, in the early 18th century. The importance of rationalist philosophers such as John Locke, Descartes, Spinoza, and many others who followed them, and the scientific, social and economic developments of this period, began to have ever greater impact. In place of the older classical idealism, a realistic, pragmatic, empirical understanding of life and human behaviour, which recognised human individuality and conscious experience, began to emerge. This was reflected in the novels of Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, and Henry Fielding, who began to write about unique individual lives and experiences lived in realistic, intersubjective (the term is Husserl's), environments. Watt wrote that the novel form's "primary criterion was truth to individual experience". This focus on individual experience characterises the novel in Wattian terms.
A second major trend that Watt studies is the "rise of the reading public" and the growth of professional publishing during this period. Publishers at this time "occupied a strategic position between author and printer, and between both of these and the public". The growth of profit concerns impelled publishers to reach out to a wider reading public. In addition the specialisation of professions, which narrowed the everyday experiences of this new reading public, created a market for portrayals of a greater array of different classes, peoples, ages, sexes, etc. (Writing intended for women, and writing by women, is an important trend of 18th century literature.) Such detailed writings of the experiences of different people can be seen in the novels Watt examines, and had rarely been seen before. Watt presents many statistical details in this section of the book in support of his argument.
Works by Watt
The Rise of the Novel
Myths of Modern Individualism: Faust, Don Quixote, Don Juan, Robinson Crusoe
Essays on Conrad
Essays on The Social Function Of Literature
Conrad's "Secret Agent" (Casebook)
Conrad in the Nineteenth Century
Conrad: Nostromo [Landmarks of World Literature]
Jane Austen, ed. (20th Century Views)
The Victorian Novel: Modern Essays in Criticism, ed.
The humanities on the River Kwai (The Grace A. Tanner Lecture in human values)
Conrad criticism and The Nigger of the 'Narcissus'''
The Literal Imagination: selected essays Editor and with others
Introduction to The Secret Sharer: An Episode from the Coast by Joseph Conrad
The Literal Imagination: Selected Essays by Ian P. Watt, edited by Bruce Thompson
The Consequences of Literacy (with Jack Goody)
Editor: The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman by Laurence Sterne
Notes
References
Stanford University obituary
The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding''; University of California Press (4 June 2001);
MacKay, Ian Watt: The Novel and the Wartime Critic (Oxford University Press, 2018)
1917 births
1999 deaths
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Academics of the University of East Anglia
University of California, Berkeley faculty
Stanford University Department of English faculty
English literary critics
Literacy and society theorists
People from Windermere, Cumbria
English literary historians
Writers from the San Francisco Bay Area
20th-century English historians
Burma Railway prisoners
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excellency
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Excellency
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Excellency is an honorific style given to certain high-level officers of a sovereign state, officials of an international organization, or members of an aristocracy. Once entitled to the title "Excellency", the holder usually retains the right to that courtesy throughout their lifetime, although in some cases the title is attached to a particular office, and is held only for the duration of that office.
Generally people addressed as Excellency are heads of state, heads of government, governors, ambassadors, Catholic bishops and high-ranking ecclesiastics and others holding equivalent rank (e.g., heads of international organizations). Members of royal families generally have distinct addresses (Majesty, Highness, etc.)
It is sometimes misinterpreted as a title of office in itself, but in fact is an honorific that precedes various titles (such as Mr. President, and so on), both in speech and in writing. In reference to such an official, it takes the form His or Her Excellency; in direct address, Your Excellency, or, less formally, simply Excellency
The abbreviation HE is often used instead of His/Her Excellency; alternatively it may stand for His Eminence.
Government
Heads of state and government
In most republican nation states, the head of state is formally addressed as His or Her Excellency.
If a republic has a separate head of government, that official is almost always addressed as Excellency as well. If the nation is a monarchy, however, the customs may vary. For example, in the case of Australia, all ambassadors, high commissioners, state governors and the governor-general and their spouses are entitled to the use of Excellency.
Governors of colonies in the British Empire were entitled to be addressed as Excellency and this remains the position for the governors of what are now known as British Overseas Territories.
International diplomacy
In various international organizations, notably the UN and its agencies, Excellency is used as a generic form of address for all republican heads of state and heads of government. It is often granted to the organization's head as well, and to those chiefs of UN diplomatic missions, such as Resident Coordinators (who are the designated representatives of the Secretary-General), who are accredited at the Head of State level (like an Ambassador), or at the lower Head of Government level.
In recent years, some international organizations, such as the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or the European Union, have designated their permanent representatives in third countries as ambassadors, although they do not represent sovereign entities. This is now largely accepted, and because these ambassadors rank after the UN representative in the orders of precedence of representatives of international organizations, the UN coming naturally first as pre-eminent, the UN Resident Coordinators are now also commonly but informally referred to in diplomatic circles as ambassadors, although the UN itself does not refer to them in this way.
International judiciary
Judges of the International Court of Justice are also called Your Excellency.
Monarchy
Royalty
In some monarchies the husbands, wives, or children, of a royal prince or princess, who do not possess a princely title themselves, may be entitled to the style. For example, in Spain spouses or children of a born infante or infanta are addressed as Excellency, if not accorded a higher style.
Also, former members of a royal house or family, who did have a royal title but forfeited it, may be awarded the style afterwards. Examples are former husbands or wives of a royal prince or princess, including Alexandra, Countess of Frederiksborg, following her divorce from Prince Joachim of Denmark. Likewise, Count Carl Johan Bernadotte of Wisborg, who lost his succession rights to the Swedish throne and discontinued use of his royal titles in 1946 when he married the commoner Elin Kerstin Margaretha Wijkmark, was accorded the style.
In some emirates (e.g., Kuwait or Qatar), only the Emir, heir apparent and prime minister are called His Highness. Their children are styled with the lower treatment of His/Her Excellency (unless they possess a higher honorific).
Nobility
In Spain members of the high nobility, holding the dignity of grandee, are addressed as The Most Excellent Lord/Lady.
In Denmark, some counts (lensgrever), historically those related by blood or marriage to the monarch, who have entered a morganatic marriage or otherwise left the Royal Family have the right to be styled as Your Excellency, e.g., the Counts of Danneskiold-Samsøe, some of the counts of Rosenborg and the Countess of Frederiksborg (ad personam).
In the Sultanate of Sulu, senior nobility and holders of royal offices that are granted the title of Datu Sadja are addressed as His/Her Excellency.
Knights
Excellency can also attach to a prestigious quality, notably in an order of knighthood. For example, in the Empire of Brazil, it was attached to the highest classes, each time called Grand Cross, of all three imperial orders: Imperial Order of Pedro I, Imperial Order of the Southern Cross (in this case, also enjoying the military honours of a Lieutenant general) and Order of the Rose.
In modern days, Knights Collar and Knights Grand Cross of the Spanish Orders of Chivalry, like the Order of Charles III, Order of Isabella the Catholic, Order of Civil Merit, Order of Alfonso X the Wise, Royal Order of Sports Merit, Civil Order of Health, as well as recipients of the Grand Cross of Military, Naval, and Aeronautical Merit are addressed as such. Furthermore, Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Gregory the Great and the Order of St. Sylvester of the Holy See, and Grand Cross of The Lion, Crested Crane, Crown, and The Drum of Rwanda, and Knights of the Order of the Golden Fleece, and Knights Grand Cross of several other orders of high prestige, are often addressed as Excellency.
Ecclesiastical use
By a decree of the Sacred Congregation of Ceremonial of 31 December 1930 the Holy See granted bishops of the Catholic Church the title of Most Reverend Excellency (Latin: Excellentia Reverendissima). In the years following the First World War, the ambassadorial title of Excellency, previously given to nuncios, had already begun to be used by other Catholic bishops. The adjective Most Reverend was intended to distinguish the religious title from that of Excellency given to civil officials.
The instruction Ut sive sollicite of the Holy See's Secretariat of State, dated 28 March 1969, made the addition of Most Reverend optional, sanctioning what had been (except possibly for the beginnings of letters and the like) always the practice.
According to the letter of the decree of 31 December 1930, titular patriarchs too were to be addressed with the title of (Most Reverend) Excellency, but in practice the Holy See continued to address them with the title of Beatitude, which was formally sanctioned for them with the motu proprio Cleri sanctitati of 2 June 1957.
Cardinals, even those who were bishops, continued to use the title of Eminence.
Eastern Orthodox titular metropolitans are addressed with the style of "Excellency".
In some English-speaking countries, the honorific of Excellency does not apply to bishops other than the nuncio. In English law, Anglican archbishops are granted the title of Grace (Your Grace, His Grace, as for a duke), and bishops are granted the title of Lord. The same titles are extended by courtesy to their Catholic counterparts, and continue in use in most countries that are or have been members of the Commonwealth. An exception is former British East Africa (Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania).
By country
Albania
The president, the chairman of the Parliament and the prime minister are addressed as "His/Her Excellency".
Armenia
The president, the prime minister, the chairman of the Parliament, as well as ministers and ambassadors of Armenia are addressed as "Excellency" (in Armenian Ձերդ գերազանցութիւն - Dzerd gerazancutiwn). The members of the traditional Armenian nobility are also addressed as "Excellency", although in Armenian it is Ձերդ պայծառութիւն - Dzerd paytzarrowtiwn, literally "Your brightness".
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh the prime minister, the president, the speaker of the Parliament and the international diplomat are styled with "His/Her Excellency".
Brazil
In 1991, the Brazilian Presidential Office issued a composition manual to establish the appropriate usage of the Portuguese language for all government agencies. The manual states that the title of Excelência (Excellency) is the proper form used to address the president and vice president, all members of parliament and judges, among other officials.
Cambodia
In the Kingdom of Cambodia, deputy prime ministers, senior ministers, members of the Council of Ministers, secretary of state, and members of Parliament are addressed as "His/Her Excellency" (, /, ).
Commonwealth of Nations
Within the Commonwealth of Nations, the following officials usually use the style His or Her Excellency:
The Commonwealth secretary-general;
Presidents of Commonwealth republics;
Governors and governors-general, and the spouses of governors-general;
Commonwealth high commissioners (but not their spouses);
Foreign ambassadors (but not their spouses);
Foreign dignitaries who are entitled to the style in their own countries.
While reference may be made to the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty, the style Excellency is not used with reference to the Queen.
Chile
The president of Chile and the president of the Chamber of Deputies of Chile are addressed by the style "His/Her Excellency".
Germany
The president of Germany and chancellor of Germany are both addressed by the style "Excellency" in international diplomacy, albeit not domestically.
India
The president of India and governors of Indian states are addressed as Rāshtrapati Mahoday (राष्ट्रपति महोदय/ महोदया, Honourable President) and Rājyapāl Mahoday or Rājyapāl Mahodaya (if lady) (राज्यपाल महोदय/Honourable Governor) respectively.
His/Her Excellency, a custom dating from the ancient times wherein the Samrāt and Sāmrājñi (सम्राट, साम्राज्ञी/Emperor, Empress), Generals, Kings, Ambassadors were addressed. A classic example is addressing Devvrat (Bhishma) as महामहिम भीष्म (His/Your Excellency Bhishma) in Mahabharat.
However the Constitution makers approved will discontinue "ancient era" styles of Mahāmahim. The same release states that in English (which is the other language in which subsidiary official communications are released in the Central Government of India in its capacity of Sahāyak Rājabhāśhā: Subsidiary Officiating language) the style Honourable shall replace the erstwhile His/Her/Your Excellency. The newer style will be Honourable.
The corresponding changes in releases from the President's Secretariat shall be from Mahāmahim to Rāshtrapatiji. The release also talks about the styles of other dignitaries, like governors. "Hon'ble" will be used before the titles "president" and "governor", while the traditional honorifics Shri or Smt. (Shrimati) should precede the name.
However, "Excellency" will continue to be used, only for interaction of leaders with foreign dignitaries and foreign dignitaries with Indian leaders as is customary international practice.
Ireland
The president of Ireland is addressed as Your Excellency or in the Irish language, a Shoilse. Alternatively, one may address the president simply as President or in the Irish language a Uachtaráin.
Italy
The president of Italy and the prime minister of Italy (officially called President of the Council of Ministers) are addressed as “His/Her Excellency” in international diplomacy. Furthermore, the terms “president” and “premier” are used as well. This latter is an informal and common address for the prime minister of Italy. For both institutional charges, the term “president” is usually exploited in formal and informal situations.
Jordan
Like many countries that once formed part of the Ottoman Empire, His/Her Excellency is used as the style for those with the title of Bey or Pasha. In Arabic the latter titles are often included between the first and last names of the holder, while in English the titles are not usually included and the style of His/Her Excellency is used on its own. Those styled this way include government ministers, senior military officers, and the husbands and children of Princesses.
Kenya
The president of Kenya is addressed as "His/Her Excellency".
The governors of the counties and diplomats are also addressed as "His/Her Excellency".
Malaysia
The governors (Yang di-Pertua Negeri) of Melaka, Penang, Sabah, and Sarawak are addressed as "His Excellency" (Tuan Yang Terutama). High commissioners and ambassadors are also addressed as "His/Her Excellency" (Tuan/Puan Yang Terutama).
Myanmar
The president of Myanmar, first lady, state counsellor, vice-presidents of Myanmar, speaker of the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, speaker of the House of Nationalities, speaker of the House of Representatives of Myanmar, governor of the Central Bank of Myanmar, members of the Cabinet of Myanmar, chief ministers of states and regions of Myanmar, mayors and ambassadors are addressed as "His/Her Excellency" while justices of the Supreme Court of Myanmar are addressed as "The Honourable".
The Netherlands
The prime minister, deputy prime minister(s), other ministers, and state secretaries are entitled to the style of His/her Excellency. Ambassadors (both foreign ambassadors in the Netherlands and Dutch ambassadors to other countries) and judges of the International Court of Justice are titled Excellency as well.
Nigeria
The president of Nigeria and vice-president of Nigeria shares the style "His/Her Excellency" with the various governors and their deputies of the country's regional states as well as their wives.
Pakistan
The prime minister of Pakistan and the president of Pakistan, are both addressed as "His/Her Excellency".
Peru
The president of Peru is addressed as "His/Her Excellency" (In Spanish: Su Excelencia) if in diplomatic context.
Philippines
The president (Filipino: pangulo; Spanish and colloquially: presidente) is addressed in English as "Your Excellency" and "Sir" or "Ma'am" thereafter, and is referred to "His/Her Excellency". The president can also less formally be addressed as "Mister/Madam President". In Filipino, the president may be referred to with the more formal title of "Ang Mahál na Pangulo", with "mahál" connoting greatness and high social importance.
The incumbent president, Rodrigo Duterte, has expressed dislike for the traditional title. After assuming office in June 2016, he ordered that the title, along with all honorifics, be dropped from official communications, events, and materials but instead, he be addressed only as "Mayor" since people are already used to calling him as such due to Duterte being the longest-serving mayor of Davao City and that his cabinet officials only be addressed as "Secretary". Other government officials followed suit by abandoning use of "The Honorable". However, despite the prior unofficial abandonment, the president continues to be addressed as "Excellency" in formal correspondences and petitions, either verbally or written.
All other local and national government officials are styled "The Honorable"; both titles, however, may be glossed in Filipino as Ang Kagalang-galang.
Portugal
In Portugal, the proper style of the president is "His/Her Excellency" (Portuguese: Sua Excelência).
Somalia
The president of Somalia is addressed as "His/Her Excellency" or "Jaale". Jaale was also a title used by armed forces staff officers of all branches, especially in the Aden Adde-Shermarke Era, and the Barre Era but has now is rare and has become a title for civil servants and senior government secretaries.
South Africa
The president of South Africa (and historically the state president of the South African Republic), is (and was) addressed as "His/Her Excellency" if in a formal context.
South Korea
The president of South Korea is addressed as "His/Her Excellency" () if in a formal context both inside and outside of South Korea.
Spain
Spain uses the title "The Most Excellent" extensively as a formal address to high officers of the state. The following officials receive the treatment:
The prime minister and former prime ministers, current and former deputy prime ministers of the central government, current and former government ministers, current junior ministers (secretaries of state) and the undersecretary of the Foreign Ministry.
Government delegates.
Ambassadors and ministers plenipotentiaries of first and second rank.
Captain generals, generals of the army, admiral generals, generals of the Air, lieutenant generals, admirals, divisional generals, vice-admirals, brigadier generals, and counter admirals.
The president, councillors, and secretary general of the Council of State, as well as the chief counsels of the Council of State.
The president and former presidents of each of the autonomous communities, as well as the sitting councillors (regional ministers).
The president of the Congress of Deputies, the president of the Senate, all members of the Cortes Generales (although the later are usually addressed as "His/Her Lordship" (sp. Su señoría).
The members of the General Council of the Judiciary, the president and the judges of the Spanish Supreme Court, the Spanish Attorney General, and the members of the Spanish Constitutional Court.
The presidents and numeraries of the eight Royal Academies.
The governor of the Bank of Spain.
The presidents of the three Foral Deputation (provincial governments) of the Basque Country, and the president of the Deputation of Barcelona.
The rectors of the Universities (usually addressed as His/Her Excellency and Magnificence).
Grandees of Spain and their consort, as well the Heirs of Grandees and their consort
Knights/Dames of the Collar and Knights/Dames Grand Cross of the Spanish military and civilian orders
The style "His Excellency", which has a higher connotation than "The Most Excellent", is instead reserved for the children of an Infante or Infanta, who have the rank (but not the title) of Grandees.
Sri Lanka
The president of Sri Lanka is addressed as His/Her Excellency. Alternatively, one may address the president simply as Mr. President.
Sweden
The Swedish language title and forms of address are Hans/Hennes Excellens (His/Her Excellency) and Ers Excellens (Your Excellency).
During most of the 20th century in Sweden, only three officials (other than foreign ambassadors accredited in Sweden and Swedish ambassadors at their post) were granted to the style of Excellency: the prime minister, the minister for foreign affairs and the marshal of the realm (the highest ranking courtier). They were indeed collectively referred to as "the three excellencies" () In the 1970s it fell out of custom in Sweden to address the prime minister and the minister of foreign affairs as such, although they continue to be addressed as such in United Nations protocol and in other diplomatic writing.
Prior to the 19th century, a Lord of the Realm () and a member of the Council of the Realm were also entitled to the style as Excellency.
Thailand
The prime Minister of Thailand, deputy prime ministers, other cabinet members, governors and ambassadors are addressed as "His/Her Excellency".
Turkey
The president of Turkey is addressed as "His/Her Excellency".
United States
In the United States, the form Excellency was commonly used for George Washington during his service as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and later when president of the United States, but it began to fall out of use with his successor John Adams, and today is sometimes replaced in direct address with the simple Mr. President or the Honorable.
Nevertheless, in the protocol of many foreign countries and United Nations, the president and the secretary of state are usually referred to as Excellency. Diplomatic correspondence to President Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War, as during the Trent Affair, for instance, frequently referred to him as His Excellency.
The form Excellency was used for the governors of most of the original Thirteen Colonies, and the practice formally continued after independence. For example, the term was formerly used in Georgia on the state governor's letterhead, the text of executive orders, any document that requires the governor's signature, and informal settings. However, in most states the practice fell out of use (or was never introduced) and the title Honorable is now used instead.
Though the U.S. president and U.S. ambassadors are traditionally accorded the style elsewhere, the U.S. government does not usually use Excellency for its own chiefs of missions, preferring Honorable instead.
See also
Canadian honorifics
Ecclesiastical titles and styles
His Excellency (opera)
Style (manner of address)
Notes
References
Styles (forms of address)
Royal styles
Ecclesiastical styles
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] |
208986
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20fuming%20nitric%20acid
|
Red fuming nitric acid
|
Red fuming nitric acid (RFNA) is a storable oxidizer used as a rocket propellant. It consists of 84% nitric acid (), 13% dinitrogen tetroxide and 1–2% water. The color of red fuming nitric acid is due to the dinitrogen tetroxide, which breaks down partially to form nitrogen dioxide. The nitrogen dioxide dissolves until the liquid is saturated, and produces toxic fumes with a suffocating odor. RFNA increases the flammability of combustible materials and is highly exothermic when reacting with water.
It is usually used with an inhibitor (with various, sometimes secret, substances, including hydrogen fluoride; any such combination is called inhibited RFNA, IRFNA) because nitric acid attacks most container materials. Hydrogen fluoride for instance will passivate the container metal with a thin layer of metal fluoride, making it nearly impervious to the nitric acid.
It can also be a component of a monopropellant; with substances like amine nitrates dissolved in it, it can be used as the sole fuel in a rocket. This is inefficient and it is not normally used this way.
During World War II, the German military used RFNA in some rockets. The mixtures used were called S-Stoff (96% nitric acid with 4% ferric chloride as an ignition catalyst) and SV-Stoff (94% nitric acid with 6% dinitrogen tetroxide) and nicknamed Salbei (sage).
Inhibited RFNA was the oxidizer of the world's most-launched light orbital rocket, the Kosmos-3M.
Other uses for RFNA include fertilizers, dye intermediates, explosives, and pharmaceutic aid as acidifier. It can also be used as a laboratory reagent in photoengraving and metal etching.
Compositions
IRFNA IIIa: 83.4% HNO3, 14% NO2, 2% H2O, 0.6% HF
IRFNA IV HDA: 54.3% HNO3, 44% NO2, 1% H2O, 0.7% HF
S-Stoff: 96% HNO3, 4% FeCl3
SV-Stoff: 94% HNO3, 6% N2O4
AK20: 80% HNO3, 20% N2O4
AK20F: 80% HNO3, 20% N2O4, fluorine-based inhibitor
AK20I: 80% HNO3, 20% N2O4, iodine-based inhibitor
AK20K: 80% HNO3, 20% N2O4, fluorine-based inhibitor
AK27I: 73% HNO3, 27% N2O4, iodine-based inhibitor
AK27P: 73% HNO3, 27% N2O4, fluorine-based inhibitor
Experiments
Hydrofluoric acid content of IRFNA When RFNA is used as an oxidizer for rocket fuels, it usually has a HF content of about 0.6%. The purpose of the HF is to act as a corrosion inhibitor.
Water content of RFNA To test the water content, a sample of 80% HNO3, 8–20% NO2, and the rest H2O depending on the varied amount of NO2 in the sample. When the RFNA contained HF, there was an average H2O% between 2.4% and 4.2%. When the RFNA did not contain HF, there was an average H2O% between 0.1% and 5.0%. When the metal impurities from corrosion were taken into account, the H2O% increased, and the H2O% was between 2.2% and 8.8%
Corrosion of metals in RFNA Stainless steel, aluminium alloys, iron alloys, chrome plates, tin, gold and tantalum were tested to see how RFNA affected the corrosion rates of each. Experiments were performed using 16% and 6.5% RFNA samples and the different substances listed above. Many different stainless steels showed resistance to corrosion. Aluminium alloys did not hold up as well as stainless steels especially in high temperatures but the corrosion rates were not high enough to prohibit the use of this with RFNA. Tin, gold and tantalum showed high corrosion resistance similar to that of stainless steel. These materials are better though because at high temperatures the corrosion rates did not increase much. Corrosion rates at elevated temperatures increase in the presence of phosphoric acid. Sulfuric acid decreased corrosion rates.
See also
White fuming nitric acid
References
External links
National Pollutant Inventory – Nitric Acid Fact Sheet
https://web.archive.org/web/20030429160808/http://www.astronautix.com/props/nitidjpx.htm
Rocket oxidizers
|
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] |
208995
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20of%20Heaven
|
South of Heaven
|
South of Heaven is the fourth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer, released on July 5, 1988 by Def Jam Recordings. The album was the band's second collaboration with producer Rick Rubin, whose production skills on their previous album Reign in Blood (1986) had helped their sound evolve. Given the frenetic pace of Reign in Blood, Slayer wisely made no attempt to top it on South of Heaven; rather, the band offset and complemented Reign in Blood by deliberately slowing the tempo down on South of Heaven, as well as by utilizing undistorted guitars and toned-down vocals. South of Heaven was the band's last album released by Def Jam, although the rights were transferred to Rubin's new label Def American Recordings after Rubin ended his partnership with Russell Simmons. The album was one of only two Def Jam titles to be distributed by Geffen Records through Warner Bros., as Def Jam's then-distributor Columbia refused to release work by the band.
South of Heaven became Slayer's second album to enter the Billboard 200, peaking at number 57. While some critics praised the change in the band's sound, others more accustomed to the style of their earlier efforts were disappointed. Nonetheless, the songs "Mandatory Suicide" and the title track have since become permanent features of the band's live setlist. South of Heaven was later certified gold by the RIAA in 1992.
Background
The album was recorded in Los Angeles, California with Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin. PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand observed that Rubin's production "shoves [Dave] Lombardo's drumming right up front in the mix". Guitarist Jeff Hanneman has since said that South of Heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing the music. Aware that they "couldn't top Reign in Blood", and that whatever they recorded would be "compared to that album", he believed they "had to slow down", something Slayer had never done on albums before, or since. Guitarist Kerry King cited the need to "keep people guessing" as another reason for the musical shift. "In order to contrast the aggressive assault put forth on Reign in Blood, Slayer consciously slowed down the tempo of the album as a whole", according to Slayer's official biography. "They also added elements like undistorted guitars and toned-down vocal styles not heard on previous albums."
King has since been critical of his performance, which he describes as his "most lackluster". King attributes this to the fact he had recently married, and moved to Phoenix, Arizona. Describing himself as "probably the odd man out at that point", he stated he "didn't participate as much because of that". Hanneman said: "We go through dry spells sometimes, but the good thing about having two guitar players that can write music is that you are never gonna go without. I guess at that time, Kerry was hitting a dry spell." King has also been critical of the album in general, describing it as one of his least favorite Slayer albums. He feels vocalist Tom Araya moved too far away from his regular vocal style, and "added too much singing". Drummer Dave Lombardo has since observed: "There was fire on all the records, but it started dimming when South of Heaven came into the picture. And that's me personally. Again, I was probably wanting something else."
Judas Priest's "Dissident Aggressor" is the first cover version to appear on a Slayer studio album. The song was chosen due to its war-themed lyrics. Hanneman described the track as "more just like one of those odd songs that a lot of people didn't know, but it was a favorite of Kerry and I, so we just picked that one". Meanwhile, "Cleanse the Soul" has been heavily criticized by King who said that he hates the track: "That's one of the black marks in our history, in my book. I just fucking think it's horrible. [Laughs] I hate the opening riff. It's what we call a 'happy riff.' It's just like 'la-lala-la-la-la.' I can't see myself playing it, but after that, where it gets heavier, I like that section. If we ever did a medley, I'd put part of that in there." The Slayer boxset Soundtrack to the Apocalypse featured, along with four songs off the album, an early version of the title track, recorded at Hanneman's home.
Photography and illustration
Artist Larry Carroll and illustrator Howard Schwartzberg designed the cover artwork for South of Heaven, having designed the artwork for Slayer's previous album Reign in Blood. Photographer Glen E. Friedman took the promotional shot which surfaced as the back cover of South of Heaven around the time of 1986's Reign in Blood. Lombardo felt it made Slayer seem as though they "had matured a little bit", while Friedman himself deemed it "a really cool back cover" and "one of the most classic shots of them [Slayer] ever".
Critical reception
South of Heaven was released on July 5, 1988, and was the final Slayer album distributed via Def Jam Records. When label co-founders Russell Simmons and Rubin parted ways, Slayer signed to Rubin's newly founded Def American Recordings label. The album peaked at number 57 on the Billboard 200 album chart, and on November 20, 1992, became Slayer's second album to be certified gold in the United States. South of Heaven was awarded silver certification in the United Kingdom on January 1, 1993, Slayer's first record to do so in that country. Slayer's official biography states that "some critics praised the album as demonstrating Slayer's desire to grow musically and avoid repeating themselves." Alex Henderson of AllMusic described the record as "disturbing and powerful," while Joe Matera of Ultimate Guitar deemed the album a slight departure; he wrote that while the pace was slowed down, it "didn't sacrifice any of the heaviness inherent in Slayer's music".
Reviewing the 2003 Slayer box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse, Adrien Begrand of PopMatters described the album as "their most underrated, and on this set, its five selections show how highly the band thinks of the record". KNAC.coms Peter Atkinson was also positive, saying the album has a "grandiosity and imposing presence" which makes the record "so magnificent". Grave's Ola Lindgren and Bolt Thrower's Karl Willetts both rate South of Heaven as amongst the top five albums of all time, while Max Kolesne of Brazilian death metal group Krisiun remembers hearing the song "Silent Scream" for the first time: "It just blew me away. It was like fast double-bass, fast kicks during the whole song. That was very inspiring for me." When discussing Slayer in an October 2007 interview, Evile frontman Matt Drake stated that while Reign in Blood "was just speed", South of Heaven proved that the group could write "slow material as well". Metal Forces reviewer gives "the band credit for at least making an effort to try something new and not being afraid to experiment at such a crucial stage of their career", creating "one of the more original sounding thrash / speed metal albums he heard in a long while". He remarks, however, that "if you're expecting to hear Reign in Blood Part Two, you'll be in for a major disappointment".
Kim Neely of Rolling Stone dismissed the album as "genuinely offensive satanic drivel". However, the magazine would later rank the album 47th on their 2017 "100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time" list. Slayer's official biography states: "The new sounds disappointed some of the band's fans who were more accustomed to the style of earlier releases." Michael Roberts of Westworld Online said this was due to some of the numbers moving "at the sludgier speed of Black Sabbath". Araya commented that the "album was a late bloomer—it wasn't really received well, but it kind of grew on everybody later". Decibel inducted South of Heaven into the Decibel Magazine Hall of Fame in January 2013. Due to Jeff Hanneman's passing in May of the same year, South of Heaven would be the second and final classic Slayer album to receive an induction into Decibel's Hall of Fame.
Cover versions
The title track and the song "Mandatory Suicide" have received various cover interpretations, particularly on Slayer tribute albums. Toni Ferguson recorded string quartet adaptations of both tracks on the album The String Quartet Tribute to Slayer: The Evil You Dread, with "South of Heaven" being described as having "menacing chord shifts" by AllMusic's Johnny Loftus.
1995 Slayer tribute album Slatanic Slaughter featured three songs which originally appeared on South of Heaven, with "South of Heaven", "Mandatory Suicide" and "Spill the Blood" interpreted by Cemetary, Crown of Thorns and Grope, respectively. Its 1998 follow up Slatanic Slaughter, Vol. 2 only featured two tracks originally from the album: "Silent Scream", arranged by Vader, and "Read Between the Lies", interpreted by Anathema. 1999's Straight to Hell: A Tribute to Slayer collected four Slayer renditions which originated on the album, with versions of "South of Heaven" performed by Abaddon, (Venom) and Electric Hellfire Club, "Mandatory Suicide" cut by Chapter 7 and "Behind the Crooked Cross" adapted by Gigantor. The 2006 Argentine tribute album Al Sur Del Abismo (Tributo Argentino A Slayer) saw Nafak and Climatic Terra also respectively cover "South of Heaven" and "Mandatory Suicide".
Live performances
Two songs taken from the album ("Mandatory Suicide" and "South of Heaven") have become near constant fixtures in the band's live setlist, notching up appearances on the following: the live DVDs Live Intrusion, War at the Warfield, Still Reigning, Soundtrack to the Apocalypse'''s deluxe edition's bonus live disc, and the live double album Decade of Aggression. Lombardo guested with Finnish cellist group Apocalyptica on a live medley of the two tracks at 1998's Headbanger's Heaven festival in the Netherlands. Adrien Begrand of PopMatters described "South of Heaven" as "an unorthodox set opener in theory", noting "the song went over like a megaton bomb detonating the place: dozens of inverted crosses projected behind the high drum riser, the sinewy opening notes kicked in, followed by an overture of bass, cymbal crashes, and tom fills, leading up to the slowly building crescendo" in a concert review. Lombardo remembers listening to a live rendition of "South of Heaven" and thinking, Man! There's just so much groove in that song.' To my kids I was saying, 'Listen to that! Listen to how groovy that is!' And it's heavy." A live version of the track featured on the JÄGERMUSIC Rarities 2004 promotional CD, given away to attendees at the Spring 2004 Jägermeister Music Tour.
A live rendition of "South of Heaven" was also included on a bonus DVD which came with the group's 2007 re-release of ninth studio album Christ Illusion, shot in Vancouver, British Columbia during 2006's Unholy Alliance tour.
"Behind the Crooked Cross" is rarely played live as Hanneman hates the track, though King has always wanted to play it "because it's got a cool intro" despite it not being his favorite song. King said "that's fine" when speaking of the situation, noting "there are songs that he wants to play that I always shoot down". "Ghosts of War" isn't King's favorite song either, which he attests "everybody always wants to hear" performed live. He confessed; "I like the ending, you know, I like the big heavy part and I always say, 'Let's put the heavy ending at the end of "Chemical Warfare" and just do the last half.' But I could never make that fly."
Slayer has toyed with the idea of creating a live set mixed with selections from the album and 1990's Seasons in the Abyss, though Hanneman said it's something which hasn't been "seriously considered". Metal Maniacs asked Slayer in a 2006 interview whether they would consider playing South of Heaven in the footsteps of the Still Reigning tour, to which Araya replied, "It's becoming a trendy thing now. I don't know. We have some really cool albums, but I don't think we'll ever do that again." King was equally unsure, commenting, "Probably not. And I just don't like enough songs off South of Heaven''."
Track listing
Personnel
Slayer
Tom Araya – bass, vocals
Kerry King – guitars
Jeff Hanneman – guitars
Dave Lombardo – drums
Production
Rick Rubin – production
Larry Carroll – artwork
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Andy Wallace – mixing
Charts and certifications
Charts
Certifications
References
Bibliography
Slayer albums
American Recordings (record label) albums
1988 albums
Def Jam Recordings albums
Albums produced by Rick Rubin
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual%20Basic%20.NET
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Visual Basic .NET
|
Visual Basic, originally called Visual Basic .NET (VB.NET), is a multi-paradigm, object-oriented programming language, implemented on .NET, Mono, and the .NET Framework. Microsoft launched VB.NET in 2002 as the successor to its original Visual Basic language, the last version of which was Visual Basic 6.0. Although the ".NET" portion of the name was dropped in 2005, this article uses "Visual Basic [.NET]" to refer to all Visual Basic languages released since 2002, in order to distinguish between them and the classic Visual Basic. Along with C# and F#, it is one of the three main languages targeting the .NET ecosystem. As of March 11, 2020, Microsoft announced that evolution of the VB.NET language has concluded.
Microsoft's integrated development environment (IDE) for developing in Visual Basic is Visual Studio. Most Visual Studio editions are commercial; the only exceptions are Visual Studio Express and Visual Studio Community, which are freeware. In addition, the .NET Framework SDK includes a freeware command-line compiler called vbc.exe. Mono also includes a command-line VB.NET compiler.
Visual Basic is often used in conjunction with the Windows Forms GUI library to make desktop apps for Windows. Programming for Windows Forms with Visual Basic involves dragging and dropping controls on a form using a GUI designer and writing corresponding code for each control.
Syntax
Visual Basic uses statements to specify actions. The most common statement is an expression statement, consisting of an expression to be evaluated, on a single line. As part of that evaluation, functions or subroutines may be called and variables may be assigned new values. To modify the normal sequential execution of statements, Visual Basic provides several control-flow statements identified by reserved keywords. Structured programming is supported by several constructs including two conditional execution constructs (If ... Then ... Else ... End If and Select Case ... Case ... End Select ) and three iterative execution (loop) constructs (Do ... Loop, For ... To, and For Each) . The For ... To statement has separate initialisation and testing sections, both of which must be present. (See examples below.) The For Each statement steps through each value in a list.
In addition, in Visual Basic:
There is no unified way of defining blocks of statements. Instead, certain keywords, such as "If … Then" or "Sub" are interpreted as starters of sub-blocks of code and have matching termination keywords such as "End If" or "End Sub".
Statements are terminated either with a colon (":") or with the end of line. Multiple-line statements in Visual Basic are enabled with " _" at the end of each such line. The need for the underscore continuation character was largely removed in version 10 and later versions.
The equals sign ("=") is used in both assigning values to variables and in comparison.
Round brackets (parentheses) are used with arrays, both to declare them and to get a value at a given index in one of them. Visual Basic uses round brackets to define the parameters of subroutines or functions.
A single quotation mark (') or the keyword REM, placed at the beginning of a line or after any number of space or tab characters at the beginning of a line, or after other code on a line, indicates that the (remainder of the) line is a comment.
Simple example
The following is a very simple Visual Basic program, a version of the classic "Hello, World!" example created as a console application:
Module Module1
Sub Main()
' The classic "Hello, World!" demonstration program
Console.WriteLine("Hello, World!")
End Sub
End Module
It prints "Hello, World!" on a command-line window. Each line serves a specific purpose, as follows:
Module Module1
This is a module definition. Modules are a division of code, which can contain any kind of object, like constants or variables, functions or methods, or classes, but can't be instantiated as objects like classes and cannot inherit from other modules. Modules serve as containers of code that can be referenced from other parts of a program.It is common practice for a module and the code file which contains it to have the same name. However, this is not required, as a single code file may contain more than one module and/or class.
Sub Main()
This line defines a subroutine called "Main". "Main" is the entry point, where the program begins execution.
Console.WriteLine("Hello, world!")
This line performs the actual task of writing the output. Console is a system object, representing a command-line interface (also known as a "console") and granting programmatic access to the operating system's standard streams. The program calls the Console method WriteLine, which causes the string passed to it to be displayed on the console.
Instead of Console.WriteLine, one could use MsgBox, which prints the message in a dialog box instead of a command-line window.
Complex example
This piece of code outputs Floyd's Triangle to the console:
Imports System.Console
Module Program
Sub Main()
Dim rows As Integer
' Input validation.
Do Until Integer.TryParse(ReadLine("Enter a value for how many rows to be displayed: " & vbcrlf), rows) AndAlso rows >= 1
WriteLine("Allowed range is 1 and {0}", Integer.MaxValue)
Loop
' Output of Floyd's Triangle
Dim current As Integer = 1
Dim row As Integer
Dim column As Integer
For row = 1 To rows
For column = 1 To row
Write("{0,-2} ", current)
current += 1
Next
WriteLine()
Next
End Sub
''' <summary>
''' Like Console.ReadLine but takes a prompt string.
''' </summary>
Function ReadLine(Optional prompt As String = Nothing) As String
If prompt IsNot Nothing Then
Write(prompt)
End If
Return Console.ReadLine()
End Function
End Module
Comparison with the classic Visual Basic
Whether Visual Basic .NET should be considered as just another version of Visual Basic or a completely different language is a topic of debate. There are new additions to support new features, such as structured exception handling and short-circuited expressions. Also, two important data-type changes occurred with the move to VB.NET: compared to Visual Basic 6, the Integer data type has been doubled in length from 16 bits to 32 bits, and the Long data type has been doubled in length from 32 bits to 64 bits. This is true for all versions of VB.NET. A 16-bit integer in all versions of VB.NET is now known as a Short. Similarly, the Windows Forms editor is very similar in style and function to the Visual Basic form editor.
The things that have changed significantly are the semantics—from those of an object-based programming language running on a deterministic, reference-counted engine based on COM to a fully object-oriented language backed by the .NET Framework, which consists of a combination of the Common Language Runtime (a virtual machine using generational garbage collection and a just-in-time compilation engine) and a far larger class library. The increased breadth of the latter is also a problem that VB developers have to deal with when coming to the language, although this is somewhat addressed by the My feature in Visual Studio 2005.
The changes have altered many underlying assumptions about the "right" thing to do with respect to performance and maintainability. Some functions and libraries no longer exist; others are available, but not as efficient as the "native" .NET alternatives. Even if they compile, most converted Visual Basic 6 applications will require some level of refactoring to take full advantage of the new language. Documentation is available to cover changes in the syntax, debugging applications, deployment and terminology.
Comparative examples
The following simple examples compare VB and VB.NET syntax. They assume that the developer has created a form, placed a button on it and has associated the subroutines demonstrated in each example with the click event handler of the mentioned button. Each example creates a "Hello, World" message box after the button on the form is clicked.
Visual Basic 6:
Private Sub Command1_Click()
MsgBox "Hello, World"
End Sub
VB.NET (MsgBox or MessageBox class can be used):
Private Sub Button1_Click(sender As object, e As EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
MsgBox("Hello, World")
End Sub
Both Visual Basic 6 and Visual Basic .NET automatically generate the Sub and End Sub statements when the corresponding button is double-clicked in design view. Visual Basic .NET will also generate the necessary Class and End Class statements. The developer need only add the statement to display the "Hello, World" message box.
All procedure calls must be made with parentheses in VB.NET, whereas in Visual Basic 6 there were different conventions for functions (parentheses required) and subs (no parentheses allowed, unless called using the keyword Call).
The names Command1 and Button1 are not obligatory. However, these are default names for a command button in Visual Basic 6 and VB.NET respectively.
In VB.NET, the Handles keyword is used to make the sub Button1_Click a handler for the Click event of the object Button1. In Visual Basic 6, event handler subs must have a specific name consisting of the object's name ("Command1"), an underscore ("_"), and the event's name ("Click", hence "Command1_Click").
There is a function called MessageBox.Show in the Microsoft.VisualBasic namespace which can be used (instead of MsgBox) similarly to the corresponding function in Visual Basic 6. There is a controversy about which function to use as a best practice (not only restricted to showing message boxes but also regarding other features of the Microsoft.VisualBasic namespace). Some programmers prefer to do things "the .NET way", since the Framework classes have more features and are less language-specific. Others argue that using language-specific features makes code more readable (for example, using int (C#) or Integer (VB.NET) instead of System.Int32).
In Visual Basic 2008, the inclusion of ByVal sender as Object, ByVal e as EventArgs has become optional.
The following example demonstrates a difference between Visual Basic 6 and VB.NET. Both examples close the active window.
Visual Basic 6:
Sub cmdClose_Click()
Unload Me
End Sub
VB.NET:
Sub btnClose_Click(sender As Object, e As EventArgs) Handles btnClose.Click
Close()
End Sub
The 'cmd' prefix is replaced by the 'btn' prefix, conforming to the new convention previously mentioned.
Visual Basic 6 did not provide common operator shortcuts. The following are equivalent:
Visual Basic 6:
Sub Timer1_Timer()
'Reduces Form Height by one pixel per tick
Me.Height = Me.Height - 1
End Sub
VB.NET:
Sub Timer1_Tick(sender As Object, e As EventArgs) Handles Timer1.Tick
Me.Height -= 1
End Sub
Comparison with C#
C# and Visual Basic are Microsoft's first languages made to program on the .NET Framework (later adding F# and more; others have also added languages). Though C# and Visual Basic are syntactically different, that is where the differences mostly end. Microsoft developed both of these languages to be part of the same .NET Framework development platform. They are both developed, managed, and supported by the same language development team at Microsoft. They compile to the same intermediate language (IL), which runs against the same .NET Framework runtime libraries. Although there are some differences in the programming constructs, their differences are primarily syntactic and, assuming one avoids the Visual Basic "Compatibility" libraries provided by Microsoft to aid conversion from Visual Basic 6, almost every feature in VB has an equivalent feature in C# and vice versa. Lastly, both languages reference the same Base Classes of the .NET Framework to extend their functionality. As a result, with few exceptions, a program written in either language can be run through a simple syntax converter to translate to the other. There are many open source and commercially available products for this task.
Examples
Hello World!
Windows Forms Application
Requires a button called Button1.Public Class Form1
Private Sub Button1_Click(sender As Object, e As EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
MsgBox("Hello world!", MsgBoxStyle.Information, "Hello world!") ' Show a message that says "Hello world!".
End Sub
End Class
Console Application
Module Module1
Sub Main()
Console.WriteLine("Hello world!") ' Write in the console "Hello world!" and start a new line.
Console.ReadKey() ' The user must press any key before the application ends.
End Sub
End Module
Speaking
Windows Forms Application
Requires a TextBox titled 'TextBox1' and a button called Button1.Public Class Form1
Private Sub Button1_Click(sender As Object, e As EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
CreateObject("Sapi.Spvoice").Speak(TextBox1.Text)
End Sub
End Class
Console Application
Module Module1
Private Voice = CreateObject("Sapi.Spvoice")
Private Text As String
Sub Main()
Console.Write("Enter the text to speak: ") ' Say "Enter the text to speak: "
Text = Console.ReadLine() ' The user must enter the text to speak.
Voice.Speak(Text) ' Speak the text the user has entered.
End Sub
End Module
Version history
Succeeding the classic Visual Basic version 6.0, the first version of Visual Basic .NET debuted in 2002. , ten versions of Visual Basic .NET are released.
2002 (VB 7.0)
The first version, Visual Basic .NET, relies on .NET Framework 1.0. The most important feature is managed code, which contrasts with the classic Visual Basic.
2003 (VB 7.1)
Visual Basic .NET 2003 was released with .NET Framework 1.1. New features included support for the .NET Compact Framework and a better VB upgrade wizard. Improvements were also made to the performance and reliability of .NET IDE (particularly the background compiler) and runtime. In addition, Visual Basic .NET 2003 was available in the Visual Studio.NET Academic Edition, distributed to a certain number of scholars from each country without cost.
2005 (VB 8.0)
After Visual Basic .NET 2003, Microsoft dropped ".NET" from the name of the product, calling the next version Visual Basic 2005.
For this release, Microsoft added many features intended to reinforce Visual Basic .NET's focus as a rapid application development platform and further differentiate it from C#., including:
Edit and Continue feature
Design-time expression evaluation
A pseudo-namespace called "My", which provides:
Easy access to certain areas of the .NET Framework that otherwise require significant code to access like using My.Form2.Text = " MainForm " rather than System.WindowsApplication1.Forms.Form2.text = " MainForm "
Dynamically generated classes (e.g. My.Forms)
Improved VB-to-VB.NET converter
A "using" keyword, simplifying the use of objects that require the Dispose pattern to free resources
Just My Code feature, which hides (steps over) boilerplate code written by the Visual Studio .NET IDE and system library code during debugging
Data Source binding, easing database client/server development
To bridge the gaps between itself and other .NET languages, this version added:
Generics
Partial classes, a method of defining some parts of a class in one file and then adding more definitions later; particularly useful for integrating user code with auto-generated code
Operator overloading and nullable types
Support for unsigned integer data types commonly used in other languages
Visual Basic 2005 introduced the IsNot operator that makes 'If X IsNot Y' equivalent to 'If Not X Is Y'. It gained notoriety when it was found to be the subject of a Microsoft patent application.
2008 (VB 9.0)
Visual Basic 9.0 was released along with .NET Framework 3.5 on November 19, 2007.
For this release, Microsoft added many features, including:
A true conditional operator, "If(condition as boolean, truepart, falsepart)", to replace the "IIf" function.
Anonymous types
Support for LINQ
Lambda expressions
XML Literals
Type Inference
Extension methods
2010 (VB 10.0)
In April 2010, Microsoft released Visual Basic 2010. Microsoft had planned to use Dynamic Language Runtime (DLR) for that release but shifted to a co-evolution strategy between Visual Basic and sister language C# to bring both languages into closer parity with one another. Visual Basic's innate ability to interact dynamically with CLR and COM objects has been enhanced to work with dynamic languages built on the DLR such as IronPython and IronRuby. The Visual Basic compiler was improved to infer line continuation in a set of common contexts, in many cases removing the need for the " _" line continuation characters. Also, existing support of inline Functions was complemented with support for inline Subs as well as multi-line versions of both Sub and Function lambdas.
2012 (VB 11.0)
Visual Basic 2012 was released alongside .NET Framework 4.5. Major features introduced in this version include:
Asynchronous programming with "async" and "await" statements
Iterators
Call hierarchy
Caller information
"Global" keyword in "namespace" statements
2013 (VB 12.0)
Visual Basic 2013 was released alongside .NET Framework 4.5.1 with Visual Studio 2013. Can also build .NET Framework 4.5.2 applications by installing Developer Pack.
2015 (VB 14.0)
Visual Basic 2015 (code named VB "14.0") was released with Visual Studio 2015.
Language features include a new "?." operator to perform inline null checks, and a new string interpolation feature is included to format strings inline.
2017 (VB 15.x)
Visual Basic 2017 (code named VB "15.0") was released with Visual Studio 2017.
Extends support for new Visual Basic 15 language features with revision 2017, 15.3, 15.5, 15.8. Introduces new refactorings that allow organizing source code with one action.
2019 (VB 16.0)
Visual Basic 2019 (code named VB "16.0") was released with Visual Studio 2019.
It is the first version of Visual Basic focused on .NET Core.
Cross-platform and open-source development
The official Visual Basic compiler is written in Visual Basic and is available on GitHub as a part of the .NET Compiler Platform. The creation of open-source tools for Visual Basic development has been slow compared to C#, although the Mono development platform provides an implementation of Visual Basic-specific libraries and a Visual Basic 2005 compatible compiler written in Visual Basic, as well as standard framework libraries such as Windows Forms GUI library.
MonoDevelop is an open-source alternative IDE. The Gambas environment is also similar but distinct from Visual Basic.
See also
Microsoft Visual Studio Express
List of .NET libraries and frameworks
Comparison of C# and Visual Basic .NET
Visual Basic for Applications
Microsoft Small Basic
Comparison of programming languages
References
Further reading
External links
The Visual Basic Team Blog
.NET programming languages
2001 software
Articles with example BASIC code
BASIC programming language family
Microsoft BASIC
Microsoft programming languages
Basic .NET
Object-oriented programming languages
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208999
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-renewable%20resource
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Non-renewable resource
|
A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a natural resource that cannot be readily replaced by natural means at a pace quick enough to keep up with consumption. An example is carbon-based fossil fuels. The original organic matter, with the aid of heat and pressure, becomes a fuel such as oil or gas. Earth minerals and metal ores, fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) and groundwater in certain aquifers are all considered non-renewable resources, though individual elements are always conserved (except in nuclear reactions, nuclear decay or atmospheric escape).
Conversely, resources such as timber (when harvested sustainably) and wind (used to power energy conversion systems) are considered renewable resources, largely because their localized replenishment can occur within time frames meaningful to humans as well.
Earth minerals and metal ores
Earth minerals and metal ores are examples of non-renewable resources. The metals themselves are present in vast amounts in Earth's crust, and their extraction by humans only occurs where they are concentrated by natural geological processes (such as heat, pressure, organic activity, weathering and other processes) enough to become economically viable to extract. These processes generally take from tens of thousands to millions of years, through plate tectonics, tectonic subsidence and crustal recycling.
The localized deposits of metal ores near the surface which can be extracted economically by humans are non-renewable in human time-frames. There are certain rare earth minerals and elements that are more scarce and exhaustible than others. These are in high demand in manufacturing, particularly for the electronics industry.
Fossil fuels
Natural resources such as coal, petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas take thousands of years to form naturally and cannot be replaced as fast as they are being consumed. Eventually it is considered that fossil-based resources will become too costly to harvest and humanity will need to shift its reliance to other sources of energy such as solar or wind power, see renewable energy.
An alternative hypothesis is that carbon based fuel is virtually inexhaustible in human terms, if one includes all sources of carbon-based energy such as methane hydrates on the sea floor, which are vastly greater than all other carbon based fossil fuel resources combined. These sources of carbon are also considered non-renewable, although their rate of formation/replenishment on the sea floor is not known. However their extraction at economically viable costs and rates has yet to be determined.
At present, the main energy source used by humans is non-renewable fossil fuels. Since the dawn of internal combustion engine technologies in the 19th century, petroleum and other fossil fuels have remained in continual demand. As a result, conventional infrastructure and transport systems, which are fitted to combustion engines, remain prominent throughout the globe.
The modern-day fossil fuel economy is widely criticized for its lack of renewability, as well as being a contributor to climate change.
Nuclear fuels
In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) classified fission reactors that produce more fissile nuclear fuel than they consume (i.e. breeder reactors) among conventional renewable energy sources, such as solar and falling water. The American Petroleum Institute likewise does not consider conventional nuclear fission as renewable, but rather that breeder reactor nuclear power fuel is considered renewable and sustainable, noting that radioactive waste from used spent fuel rods remains radioactive and so has to be very carefully stored for several hundred years. With the careful monitoring of radioactive waste products also being required upon the use of other renewable energy sources, such as geothermal energy.
The use of nuclear technology relying on fission requires Naturally occurring radioactive material as fuel. Uranium, the most common fission fuel, is present in the ground at relatively low concentrations and mined in 19 countries. This mined uranium is used to fuel energy-generating nuclear reactors with fissionable uranium-235 which generates heat that is ultimately used to power turbines to generate electricity.
As of 2013 only a few kilograms (picture available) of uranium have been extracted from the ocean in pilot programs and it is also believed that the uranium extracted on an industrial scale from the seawater would constantly be replenished from uranium leached from the ocean floor, maintaining the seawater concentration at a stable level. In 2014, with the advances made in the efficiency of seawater uranium extraction, a paper in the journal of Marine Science & Engineering suggests that with, light water reactors as its target, the process would be economically competitive if implemented on a large scale.
Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity. Nuclear energy production is associated with potentially dangerous radioactive contamination as it relies upon unstable elements. In particular, nuclear power facilities produce about 200,000 metric tons of low and intermediate level waste (LILW) and 10,000 metric tons of high level waste (HLW) (including spent fuel designated as waste) each year worldwide.
Issues entirely separate from the question of the sustainability of nuclear fuel, relate to the use of nuclear fuel and the high-level radioactive waste the nuclear industry generates that if not properly contained, is highly hazardous to people and wildlife. The United Nations (UNSCEAR) estimated in 2008 that average annual human radiation exposure includes 0.01 millisievert (mSv) from the legacy of past atmospheric nuclear testing plus the Chernobyl disaster and the nuclear fuel cycle, along with 2.0 mSv from natural radioisotopes and 0.4 mSv from cosmic rays; all exposures vary by location. natural uranium in some inefficient reactor nuclear fuel cycles, becomes part of the nuclear waste "once through" stream, and in a similar manner to the scenario were this uranium remained naturally in the ground, this uranium emits various forms of radiation in a decay chain that has a half-life of about 4.5 billion years, the storage of this unused uranium and the accompanying fission reaction products have raised public concerns about risks of leaks and containment, however the knowledge gained from studying the Natural nuclear fission reactor in Oklo Gabon, has informed geologists on the proven processes that kept the waste from this 2 billion year old natural nuclear reactor that operated for hundreds of thousands of years.
Land surface
Land surface can be considered both renewable and non-renewable resource depending on the scope of comparison. Land can be reused but new land cannot be created on demand so from economic perspective it's a fixed resource with perfectly inelastic supply.
Renewable resources
Natural resources, known as renewable resources, are replaced by natural processes and forces persistent in the natural environment. There are intermittent and reoccurring renewables, and recyclable materials, which are utilized during a cycle across a certain amount of time, and can be harnessed for any number of cycles.
The production of goods and services by manufacturing products in economic systems creates many types of waste during production and after the consumer has made use of it. The material is then either incinerated, buried in a landfill or recycled for reuse. Recycling turns materials of value that would otherwise become waste into valuable resources again.
In the natural environment water, forests, plants and animals are all renewable resources, as long as they are adequately monitored, protected and conserved. Sustainable agriculture is the cultivation of plant and animal materials in a manner that preserves plant and animal ecosystems and that can improve soil health and soil fertility over the long term. The overfishing of the oceans is one example of where an industry practice or method can threaten an ecosystem, endanger species and possibly even determine whether or not a fishery is sustainable for use by humans. An unregulated industry practice or method can lead to a complete resource depletion.
The renewable energy from the sun, wind, wave, biomass and geothermal energies are based on renewable resources. Renewable resources such as the movement of water (hydropower, tidal power and wave power), wind and radiant energy from geothermal heat (used for geothermal power) and solar energy (used for solar power) are practically infinite and cannot be depleted, unlike their non-renewable counterparts, which are likely to run out if not used sparingly.
The potential wave energy on coastlines can provide 1/5 of world demand. Hydroelectric power can supply 1/3 of our total energy global needs. Geothermal energy can provide 1.5 more times the energy we need. There is enough wind to power the planet 30 times over, wind power could power all of humanity's needs alone. Solar currently supplies only 0.1% of our world energy needs, but there is enough out there to power humanity's needs 4,000 times over, the entire global projected energy demand by 2050.
Renewable energy and energy efficiency are no longer niche sectors that are promoted only by governments and environmentalists. The increasing levels of investment and that more of the capital is from conventional financial actors, both suggest that sustainable energy has become mainstream and the future of energy production, as non-renewable resources decline. This is reinforced by climate change concerns, nuclear dangers and accumulating radioactive waste, high oil prices, peak oil and increasing government support for renewable energy. These factors are commercializing renewable energy, enlarging the market and growing demand, the adoption of new products to replace obsolete technology and the conversion of existing infrastructure to a renewable standard.
Economic models
In economics, a non-renewable resource is defined as goods, where greater consumption today implies less consumption tomorrow. David Ricardo in his early works analysed the pricing of exhaustible resources, where he argued that the price of a mineral resource should increase over time. He argued that the spot price is always determined by the mine with the highest cost of extraction, and mine owners with lower extraction costs benefit from a differential rent. The first model is defined by Hotelling's rule, which is a 1931 economic model of non-renewable resource management by Harold Hotelling. It shows that efficient exploitation of a nonrenewable and nonaugmentable resource would, under otherwise stable conditions, lead to a depletion of the resource. The rule states that this would lead to a net price or "Hotelling rent" for it that rose annually at a rate equal to the rate of interest, reflecting the increasing scarcity of the resources.
The Hartwick's rule provides an important result about the sustainability of welfare in an economy that uses non-renewable source.
See also
Clean technology
Energy conservation
Eurosolar
Fossil fuel
Fossil water
Green design
Hartwick's rule
Hermann Scheer
Hotelling's rule
Hubbert's peak
Liebig's law of the minimum
Natural resource management
Overfishing
Peak oil
Reserves-to-production ratio
Sustainability
References
Natural resources
Environmental conservation
Space
it:Energie non rinnovabili
|
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] |
209003
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poor%20Righteous%20Teachers
|
Poor Righteous Teachers
|
Poor Righteous Teachers was a hip hop group from Trenton, New Jersey, founded in 1989. Often referred to as PRT by its fans, Poor Righteous Teachers was known as a socially and politically conscious hip hop group, with musical content inspired by the teachings of the Nation of Gods and Earths. Wise Intelligent, as the lead MC, was the most visible and well known member of the group. Culture Freedom provided vocals and production, and Father Shaheed served as a DJ and producer. About.com ranked the group's lead MC, Wise Intelligent, number five on its list of the 10 Most Underrated Rappers, calling him "one of the most creative MCs of our time."
Career
PRT debuted in 1989 with the release of the single "Time to Say Peace" b/w "Butt Naked Booty Bless." The trio released its first album, Holy Intellect, in 1990, amid a number of similarly pro-Black albums such as Public Enemy's Fear of a Black Planet, X-Clan's To the East, Blackwards, and Brand Nubian's One for All. While not as commercially successful as these albums, Holy Intellect received critical acclaim and spawned the group's only major radio hit, "Rock Dis Funky Joint." PRT returned in 1991 with its second album, Pure Poverty. The album was not as commercially successful as its debut, and was not as acclaimed. The lead single "Shakiyla (JRH)", became a minor rap hit that year. The group's third, and possibly most successful release to date, Black Business, was released in 1993. Sales were once again limited, but the album was a critical success. The album's lead single, "Nobody Move", received little radio airplay. After a three-year hiatus, PRT returned as a group in 1996 with its fourth album, The New World Order. Released in a new Hip Hop era, the album received little attention, failing to reach the Billboard 200 album chart. The album's lead single, "Word Iz Life", was barely able to reach the Hot Rap Singles chart, peaking at the chart's lowest position, #50. Despite the lack of significant attention, the album, like its past releases, received significant acclaim.
In 2001, Poor Righteous Teachers dropped the rare underground release Declaration of Independence. In 2006, Cha-Ching Records released Rare & Unreleased, a compilation of rare Poor Righteous Teachers songs and remixes.
PRT had a short feud with rapper YZ over reels of tapes that YZ would not give back to its owner, PRT.
Father Shaheed died on May 26, 2014, from a motorcycle accident.
Discography
Albums
Singles
"Time to Say Peace" (1989)
"Holy Intellect" b/w "Self-Styled Wisdom" (1990)
"Rock Dis Funky Joint" (1990)
"Shakiyla (JRH)" b/w "Strictly Mash'ion" (1991)
"Easy Star" (1992)
"Nobody Move" b/w "Da Rill Shit" (1993)
"Conscious Style" (1996)
"Word Iz Life" b/w "Dreadful Day" (1996)
"I Swear Ta God" (2001)
References
External links
East Coast hip hop groups
Musical groups from New Jersey
Profile Records artists
Five percenters
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noon
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Noon
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Noon (or midday) is 12 o'clock in the daytime. It is written as 12 noon, 12:00 m. (for meridiem, literally 12:00 noon), 12 p.m. (for post meridiem, literally "after noon"), 12 pm, or 12:00 (using a 24-hour clock) or 1200 (military time).
Solar noon is the time when the Sun appears to contact the local celestial meridian. This is when the Sun reaches its apparent highest point in the sky, at 12 noon apparent solar time and can be observed using a sundial. The local or clock time of solar noon depends on the longitude and date.
Etymology
The word noon is derived from Latin nona hora, the ninth canonical hour of the day, in reference to the Western Christian liturgical term none, one of the seven fixed prayer times in traditional Christian denominations. The Roman and Western European medieval monastic day began at 6:00 a.m. (06:00) at the equinox by modern timekeeping, so the ninth hour started at what is now 3:00 p.m. (15:00) at the equinox. In English, the meaning of the word shifted to midday and the time gradually moved back to 12:00 local time - that is, not taking into account the modern invention of time zones. The change began in the 12th century and was fixed by the 14th century.
Solar noon
Solar noon (informally high noon and formally local apparent solar noon) is the moment when the Sun contacts the observer's meridian, reaching its highest position above the horizon on that day ("Sun transit time") and leaving the shortest shadow. This is also the origin of the terms ante meridiem (a.m.) and post meridiem (p.m.), as noted below. The Sun is directly overhead at solar noon at the Equator on the equinoxes, at the Tropic of Cancer (latitude N) on the June solstice and at the Tropic of Capricorn ( S) on the December solstice. In the Northern Hemisphere, north of the Tropic of Cancer, the Sun is due south of the observer at solar noon; in the Southern Hemisphere, south of the Tropic of Capricorn, it is due north.
The elapsed time from the local solar noon of one day to the next is exactly 24 hours on only four instances in any given year. This occurs when the effects of Earth's obliquity of ecliptic and its orbital speed around the Sun offset each other. These four days for the current epoch are centered on 11 February, 13 May, 25 July, and 3 November. It occurs at only one particular line of longitude in each instance. This line varies year to year, since Earth's true year is not an integer number of days. This event time and location also varies due to Earth's orbit being gravitationally perturbed by the planets. These four 24-hour days occur in both hemispheres simultaneously. The precise UTC times for these four days also mark when the opposite line of longitude, 180° away, experiences precisely 24 hours from local midnight to local midnight the next day. Thus, four varying great circles of longitude define from year to year when a 24-hour day (noon to noon or midnight to midnight) occurs.
The two longest time spans from noon to noon occur twice each year, around 20 June (24 hours plus 13 seconds) and 21 December (24 hours plus 30 seconds).
The shortest time spans occur twice each year, around 25 March (24 hours minus 18 seconds) and 13 September (24 hours minus 22 seconds).
For the same reasons, solar noon and "clock noon" are usually not the same. The equation of time shows that the reading of a clock at solar noon will be higher or lower than 12:00 by as much as 16 minutes. Additionally, due to the political nature of time zones, it can be off by more than an hour.
Nomenclature
In the US, noon is commonly indicated by 12 p.m., and midnight by 12 a.m. While some argue that such usage is "improper" based on the Latin meaning (a.m. stands for ante meridiem and p.m. for post meridiem, meaning "before midday" and "after midday" respectively), digital clocks are unable to display anything else, and an arbitrary decision must be made. An earlier standard of indicating noon as "12M" or "12m" (for "meridies"), which was specified in the U.S. GPO Government Style Manual, has fallen into relative obscurity; the current edition of the GPO makes no mention of it. However, due to the lack of an international standard, the use of "12 a.m." and "12 p.m." can be confusing. Common alternative methods of representing these times are:
to use a 24-hour clock (00:00 and 12:00, 24:00; but never 24:01)
to use "12 noon" or "12 midnight" (though "12 midnight" may still present ambiguity regarding the specific date)
to specify midnight as between two successive days or dates (as in "midnight Saturday/Sunday" or "midnight December 14/15")
to avoid those specific times and to use "11:59 p.m." or "12:01 a.m." instead. (This is common in the travel industry to avoid confusion to passengers' schedules, especially train and plane schedules.)
See also
Afternoon
Analemma
Dipleidoscope
Hour angle
Solar azimuth angle
Notes
References
External links
Generate a solar noon calendar for your location
U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual (2008), 30th edition
Shows the hour and angle of sunrise, noon, and sunset drawn over a map.
Real Sun Time - gives you an exact unique time to the sun, with yours GPS coordinates position.
Parts of a day
Time in astronomy
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209006
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entombed%20%28band%29
|
Entombed (band)
|
Entombed is a Swedish death metal band formed in 1987 under the name of Nihilist. Entombed began their career as an early pioneer of Scandinavian death metal which initially differed from its American counterpart by its distinct "buzzsaw" guitar tone. However, by the early 1990s their sound had broadened to include garage rock and other influences. This new style would eventually be described as death 'n' roll. Entombed has been influenced by bands such as Slayer, Exodus, Black Sabbath, Celtic Frost, Autopsy, Repulsion, Kiss, The Misfits, Motörhead, Discharge, Death and Testament. Along with Dismember, Grave and Unleashed, Entombed has been referred to as one of the "big four" of Swedish death metal.
History
Early career (1987–1991)
Entombed are rooted in the band Nihilist who were formed by drummer Nicke Andersson, guitarist Alex Hellid and bassist Leif Cuzner, who formed the band in 1987. After using a number of temporary vocalists for their initial shows, the band eventually recruited L.G. Petrov, who was the drummer for the band Morbid, which featured Mayhem vocalist Dead. The band also recruited Morbid's session guitarist Uffe Cederlund as a second guitarist, and recorded a number of demos with tracks that would eventually appear on Entombed's debut album. Following increased tensions between band members, the majority of the band decided to rename themselves as Entombed rather than force these members out.
Entombed's debut album Left Hand Path was released in 1990, a cult favorite that established them as a popular Swedish death metal band. Left Hand Path and its follow-up, Clandestine, were unique in that they featured what was sometimes referred to as a "buzz saw" guitar sound. Prior to the recording of Clandestine, Petrov was fired from the band due to personal disputes. The vocals on the album were recorded by Andersson instead, and for the tour following the album's release in 1991, the band hired vocalist Johnny Dordevic, previously a member of the band Carnage.
1992–2000
Petrov eventually reconciled with the band after releasing an album with the band Comecon, and the band eventually released Wolverine Blues in 1993. The album featured a departure of sound from the band's previous work, with a greater influence of hard rock and heavy metal alongside their initial death metal stylings, in a style now often referred to as death 'n' roll. Although the release was divisive amongst the band's fanbase, it established their mainstream and critical reputation. Wolverine Blues is considered a classic of early 1990s death metal.
1998's Same Difference was the band's first album without drummer and founding member Nicke Andersson, who left the band to concentrate on his new project The Hellacopters. He was replaced by Peter Stjärnvind. In 2000, Entombed released Uprising, followed a year later by Morning Star.
2001–2009
In 2001, the band worked with performance artists Carina Reich and Bogdan Szyberb, and the Royal Swedish Ballet. The production was entitled Unreal Estate.
2003 saw the release of Inferno, which was the last album with guitarist Uffe Cederlund (who joined Disfear), bassist Jörgen Sandström and drummer Peter Stjärnvind.
Nico Elgstrand (who produced the album Uprising) joined as bassist in 2004, Olle Dahlstedt (of Alpha Safari and ex–Misery Loves Co.), replaced Stjärnvind in 2006. When Uffe Cederlund left in 2005, no new guitarist was recruited and Alex Hellid remained as the only guitarist.
Serpent Saints – The Ten Amendments was released on 9 July 2007. The album featured a greater influence from traditional death metal and was the band's first release with drummer Olle Dahlstedt and bassist Nico Elgstrand.
2010–2020
In 2010, Victor Brandt joined as bass player and Nico Elgstrand switched to guitars so the band once again had two guitarists.
In 2013, Petrov and Hellid began a legal battle regarding the name Entombed.
In 2014, L.G. Petrov, Olle Dahlstedt, Nico Elgstrand and Victor Brandt formed Entombed A.D. as a result of the band's trademark being held by Hellid.
Hellid, Cederlund, and Säfström reunited to perform "Clandestine" in its entirety with a symphony orchestra in February 2014. Nicke Andersson intended to participate, but was prevented by scheduling conflicts.
Hellid, Andersson and Cederlund reunited to perform as Entombed in 2016.
2021–present
On 7 March, 2021, former vocalist Lars-Göran Petrov died after a battle with cholangiocarcinoma, aged 49.
Personnel
Current members
Alex Hellid - lead guitar (1987–2014, 2016–present)
Uffe Cederlund – rhythm guitar, keyboards, backing vocals (1987–2005, 2016–present), bass (1989–1990)
Nicke Andersson – drums (1987–1997, 2016–present), vocals (1992), bass (1989–1990)
Edvin Aftonfalk - bass (2016–present)
Robert Andersson - vocals (2016–present)
Former members
Mattias Boström – vocals (1987–1988)
Leif Cuzner – bass (1987–1988; died 2006)
Johnny Hedlund – bass (1988–1989)
Lars-Göran Petrov – vocals, keyboards (1988–2014; died 2021)
David Blomqvist – bass (1989)
Lars Rosenberg – bass (1990–1995)
Johnny Dordevic – vocals (1991–1992)
Orvar Säfström – vocals (1991, 2014)
Jörgen Sandström – bass (1995–2004)
Peter Stjärnvind – drums (1997–2006)
Nico Elgstrand – bass (2004–2010), guitar (2010–2014)
Olle Dahlstedt – drums (2006–2014)
Victor Brandt – bass (2010–2014)
Session/guest musicians
Fred Estby – vocals, drums
Matti Kärki – vocals
Peder Carlsson – harmonica
Anders Lindström – rhythm guitar
Colten Lavalle - drumtar
Daniel Rey – spoken word on one song
Östen Warnerbring – vocals and saxophone for one TV performance
Thomas von Wachenfeldt – Bass and orchestral arrangements on the Classical Clandestine symphonic concerts
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Left Hand Path (1990)
Clandestine (1991)
Wolverine Blues (1993)
DCLXVI: To Ride Shoot Straight and Speak the Truth (1997)
Same Difference (1998)
Uprising (2000)
Morning Star (2001)
Inferno (2003)
Serpent Saints – The Ten Amendments (2007)
References
Bibliography
Ekeroth, Daniel (2008). Swedish Death Metal. Bazillion Points Books. .
External links
Official website
Entombed @ Threeman Recordings
Swedish death metal musical groups
Musical groups established in 1987
Musical groups disestablished in 2014
Musical groups reestablished in 2016
Musical groups from Stockholm
Earache Records artists
|
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209009
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bikini%20Kill
|
Bikini Kill
|
Bikini Kill is an American punk rock band formed in Olympia, Washington, in October 1990. The group consists of singer and songwriter Kathleen Hanna, guitarist Billy Karren, bassist Kathi Wilcox, and drummer Tobi Vail. The band pioneered the riot grrrl movement, with feminist lyrics and fiery performances. Their music is characteristically abrasive and hardcore-influenced. After two full-length albums, several EPs and two compilations, they disbanded in 1997. The band reunited for tours in 2019 and 2020.
Career
Bikini Kill formed in Olympia, Washington, in October 1990, by Kathleen Hanna (vocals), Billy Karren (guitar), Kathi Wilcox (bass), and Tobi Vail (drums). Hanna, Vail, and Wilcox met while attending The Evergreen State College in Washington. Hanna also published a fanzine called Bikini Kill for their first tours in 1991. The band wrote songs together and encouraged a female-centric environment at their shows, urging women to come to the front of the stage and handing out lyric sheets to them. Hanna would also dive into the crowd to personally remove male hecklers. Such male concertgoers would often verbally and physically assault Hanna during shows when the tickets were still inexpensive and easily procured. However, the band's reach included large male audiences as well as young women.
Fellow riot grrrl musician Lois Maffeo originally adopted Bikini Kill as a band name, inspired by the 1967 B-movie The Million Eyes of Sumuru. She and her friend Margaret Doherty used the name for a one-off performance in the late 1980s where they donned faux fur punk cave girl costumes. Vail liked the name and appropriated it after Maffeo settled on the band name Cradle Robbers.
After an independent demo cassette, Revolution Girl Style Now, Bikini Kill released the Bikini Kill EP on the indie label Kill Rock Stars. Produced by Ian MacKaye of Minor Threat and Fugazi, the album began to establish the band's audience. The band's debut album, Pussy Whipped, was released in September 1993. Bikini Kill toured in London, England to begin working with Huggy Bear, releasing a split album, Our Troubled Youth / Yeah Yeah Yeah Yeah, and touring the UK. The tour was the subject of a documentary film by Lucy Thane titled It Changed My Life: Bikini Kill in the U.K. Upon their return to the United States, the band began working with Joan Jett of the Runaways, whose music Hanna described as an early example of the Riot Grrrl aesthetic. Jett produced the single "New Radio"/"Rebel Girl" for the band, and Hanna co-wrote several songs on Jett's Pure and Simple album.
By the following year, Riot Grrrl was receiving constant attention in the media, and Bikini Kill were increasingly referred to as pioneers of the movement. Hanna called for a "media blackout" amongst Riot Grrrls, as they felt the band and the movement were being misrepresented by the media. The pioneer reputation endures but, as Hanna recalls, "[Bikini Kill was] very vilified during the '90s by so many people, and hated by so many people, and I think that that's been kind of written out of the history. People were throwing chains at our heads – people hated us – and it was really, really hard to be in that band."
The band's final album, Reject All American, was released in 1996. After the band's breakup in 1997, a compilation of singles recorded between 1993 and 1995 was released in 1998 under the name The Singles.
Post-breakup
During the summer of 1992, the band The Frumpies was formed by Karren, Wilcox, Vail, and Molly Neuman of Bratmobile, and toured as late as the early 2000s along with a similar Italian punk rock band Dada Swing.
Vail, notorious for her numerous side projects and being in several bands at a time, later resurfaced in a band called Spider and the Webs, and played with the Old Haunts until the band broke up in 2009. Kathi Wilcox played in The Casual Dots, who released only one album to date, and Billy Karren played in Ghost Mom. Hanna first contributed to an LP called 'Real Fiction' as a member of the Fakes, and then turned to more dance-based new wave music (with similar feminist lyrical themes) on her solo debut, Julie Ruin. She then became a member of the political new wave outfit Le Tigre. After Le Tigre broke up, Hanna became the front woman of a band named after her solo project, the Julie Ruin, for which Wilcox plays bass.
In February 2016, a pro-Hillary Clinton clip utilizing the Bikini Kill song "Rebel Girl" began to go viral, but was taken down by Vail (who supported Bernie Sanders in the primary).
Reunions
In 2017, Kathleen Hanna, Kathi Wilcox and Tobi Vail reunited to play one song at a book-release concert for Jenn Pelly’s book about the Raincoats.
On January 15, 2019, Bikini Kill announced four U.S. shows, in New York and Los Angeles. The lineup for these shows included Hanna, Wilcox, Tobi Vail and new guitarist Erica Dawn Lyle, who replaces Billy Karren in the lineup. The first show was April 25 at the Hollywood Palladium with Alice Bag as opener. In June the band played two European dates, in London at Brixton Academy, supported by Big Joanie, and with the Tuts and Child's Pose opening. On September 15, they headlined the third day of the Riot Fest event in Chicago.
On November 6, 2019, Bikini Kill announced a thirteen date North American Tour for 2020, beginning in Olympia, Washington. The lineup for these shows was the same for the previous dates in 2019, starting in March 13, 2020 at Olympia's Capitol Theater. The remainder of the West-coast tour includes shows in Victoria, B.C., where they will be supported by Mecca Normal, and in Portland supported by the Lithics. Dates in the US Midwest, East coast & the South will follow, and the tour includes some European dates in June and August, including Oslo's Øya Festival.
In an interview with Pitchfork, Hanna stated that the band had no plans at the time to create new material.
Members
Current
Kathleen Hanna – vocals (1990-1997, 2017, 2019–present), bass guitar (1990-1991)
Kathi Wilcox – bass guitar (1990-1997, 2017, 2019–present), guitars (1990-1991)
Tobi Vail – drums (1990-1997, 2017, 2019–present)
Erica Dawn Lyle – guitars (2019–present)
Former
Billy Karren – guitars (1991-1997)
Timeline
Discography
Revolution Girl Style Now (1991)
Yeah Yeah Yeah Yeah (1993)
Pussy Whipped (1993)
Reject All American (1996)
The Singles (1998)
See also
DIY ethic
Ladyfest
References
External links
Kathleen Hanna's Bikini Kill Archive at WordPress.com
Bikini Kill at tigerbomb.net
Bikini Kill at Rolling Stone
Hanna And Her Sisters at The New Yorker
Kathleen Hanna Papers in the Riot Grrrl Collection at Fales Library & Special Collections at New York University Special Collections
Kill Rock Stars
Punk rock groups from Washington (state)
Musical groups from Olympia, Washington
Radical feminism
Riot grrrl bands
Third-wave feminism
Musical groups established in 1990
Musical groups disestablished in 1997
Musical groups reestablished in 2019
Musical quartets
Feminist musicians
American women in electronic music
|
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209015
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep%20%28band%29
|
Sleep (band)
|
Sleep is an American heavy metal band from San Jose, California. The band earned critical and record label attention early in its career. Critic Eduardo Rivadavia describes them as "perhaps the ultimate stoner rock band" and notes they exerted a strong influence on metal in the 1990s. However, conflict with its record company contributed to Sleep's breakup by the end of the decade. The band reformed in 2009 and has played sporadic live dates internationally since. In 2018, Sleep released their comeback album, The Sciences, on Third Man Records, to critical acclaim.
History
Early years
Sleep evolved in the early 1990s from the band Asbestosdeath, which was established by vocalist/bassist Al Cisneros, drummer Chris Hakius, and guitarist Tom Choi. Asbestosdeath expanded to a quartet with the introduction of Matt Pike on guitar, and recorded two singles - "Dejection" for Profane Existence and the self-released "Unclean". Choi departed, and later founded Operator Generator, It Is I, Noothgrush, and Las Vegas' Black Jetts. Asbestosdeath recruited Justin Marler as replacement and the band adopted the new name, Sleep.
Recording era
Their debut album Volume One was released in 1991. Frequently compared to bands like Saint Vitus, Sleep soon gained a devoted fanbase within the developing doom metal scene. Marler quit the band soon after to take up life as a monk, leaving the band as a power trio for the recording of their Volume Two EP, which was released officially by Off the Disk Records in 1991.
The band's next album was sent to the independent label Earache as a demo. Recorded at Razors Edge studios in San Francisco, with Billy Anderson as engineer, the tape showcased Sleep's love of all things retro, from the blatant Black Sabbath/Blue Cheer influences, to their fixation with 1970's-style tube amplification. The label immediately signed the band and released the tape exactly as it was received.
Sleep's Holy Mountain (1992) is widely considered the seminal album in the evolution of stoner metal. The album's release was followed by a potentially lucrative offer from London Records, and Sleep signed with them. Around this time, Earache released its first Black Sabbath tribute album, and Sleep contributed a cover of "Snowblind".
Under their new contract, Sleep began work on its third album, Dopesmoker, in 1995. Much to the dismay of executives at London Records, Dopesmoker was a single song, over an hour long. London Records declared the album unmarketable and refused to release it. They had it remixed, cut up into sections by David Sardy, which led to a deadlock with the band, Sleep being unhappy with the result. Frustrated and generally unhappy with the situation, the members of Sleep decided to disband.
After Sleep
In 1998, Sleep released Jerusalem as an "official bootleg". One year later, Jerusalem was given an official legitimate release by The Music Cartel in the US and Rise Above Records in Europe.
Finally, in 2003 the original version of Dopesmoker was officially released by Tee Pee Records. It is generally considered the definitive version of the album. An excerpted version can be heard on Jim Jarmusch's Broken Flowers original soundtrack.
Cisneros and Hakius later formed the doom metal band Om while Pike formed sludge metal band High on Fire.
In 2007 a CD compilation of both 7-inch releases of the pre-Sleep band Asbestosdeath was released on Southern Lord Records.
Reunion and The Sciences
In May 2009, Sleep reformed to perform two exclusive reunion sets in Britain as part of the All Tomorrow's Parties music festival. In the shows the band performed for the first time an unheard song that had been written during the Dopesmoker recording sessions, which was titled "Antarcticans Thawed."
After the band's initial reunion performance, original drummer Chris Hakius decided to retire from music to raise a family, and he was replaced on drums by Jason Roeder of experimental metal band Neurosis. The reconfigured lineup played the ATP New York 2010 music festival in Monticello, New York, where it performed Holy Mountain in its entirety. The band followed up this performance with a tour of the rest of the United States, playing headlining dates and festivals, through September.
From 2010 onward, Sleep performed similar sporadic festival and touring engagements when the member's otherwise busy touring schedules permitted. In late 2012, in conjunction with an upcoming appearance at Maryland Deathfest, the band stated that it considers Sleep to be a "full, reunited band." In 2014, Al Cisneros announced in an interview that the band was working on a new record. On July 21, 2014, a new song titled "The Clarity" was released via Adult Swim Singles.
In November 2017 the band members posted a message in Morse code stating that they had almost finished recording material for a new album. On April 19, 2018, the band announced The Sciences, their first album in nearly 20 years, to be released the next day on Third Man Records. The release of The Sciences was a surprise, being released the day after it was announced, and created a lot of excitement within their fanbase. The album's release date, April 20, 2018, was also Record Store Day weekend. Third Man Records released a limited edition split-colored vinyl with an alternate cover to be sold at a limited number of record stores in the US on the release date. The album was met with critical acclaim. Pitchfork wrote in their review, "[The Sciences] makes everything that was originally great about Sleep even better." Spin declared that the record gives "stoner-metal acolytes a bonafide miracle."
On May 23, 2018, Sleep released a new song titled "Leagues Beneath" through Adult Swim Singles and Third Man Records.
On November 11, 2019, the band announced an indefinite hiatus.
Style
Musically, Sleep's sound has been characterized as stoner rock built upon slow, down-tuned bass playing alongside similarly low guitar riffs. Repetition is frequently employed, working to create a "hypnotic state" supplemented by Al Cisneros' vocals.
Sleep has used cannabis-influenced imagery since the release of their second album, often delivered in a "quasi-religious" manner. In an interview about the making of Dopesmoker, Matt Pike acknowledged that the band spent "a lot" of their label advance on cannabis, and "a lot of time." Pike also said that about $75,000 was spent on customized amplifiers so the album would have numerous tone layers. He said the songwriting process for Dopesmoker was long, with the band "working on [the song] for like four years." Al Cisneros stated that smoking cannabis was vital to the song's creative process: "I was really dependent on the space I got into when I was using it [...] The line, 'Drop out of life [with bong in hand],' was kind of a creed at that point."
Their record The Sciences makes multiple allusions to Black Sabbath, whose sound heavily inspired Sleep. Tony Iommi is referenced in the lyrics of "Marijuanaut's Theme", and the song "Giza Butler" is a play on the city Giza and the name of Black Sabbath's bassist, Geezer Butler. Also in "Giza Butler", references are made to several things in Frank Herbert's 1965 novel Dune, including the gom jabbar (referred to as the "bong jabbar") and Muad'Dib (as "Muad'Doob").
Members
Current lineup
Al Cisneros – bass, vocals, waterpipe (1990–1998, 2009–2019)
Matt Pike – guitars (1990–1998, 2009–2019)
Jason Roeder – drums (2010–2019)
Former members
Chris Hakius – drums (1990–1998, one performance in 2009)
Justin Marler – guitars (1990–1991)
Timeline
Discography
Albums
Note: The band's album Dopesmoker (2003) was originally released as Jerusalem in 1999 by The Music Cartel. This release was unauthorized by the band who discredit the validity of its quality and release.
Volume One (1991) Tupelo Recording Company
Sleep's Holy Mountain (1992) Earache Records
Jerusalem and Dopesmoker (1999) The Music Cartel; (2003) Tee Pee Records; (2012) Southern Lord Records
The Sciences (2018) Third Man Records
EPs
Volume Two (1992) Off the Disk Records
Iommic Life (2021) Third Man Records
Released on 4/20/21, contains the remixed version of the single "The Clarity" and the single "Leagues Beneath."
Non-album tracks
"Snowblind" (Black Sabbath cover) on Masters of Misery (1992) Earache Records
"Dopesmoker (abridged version)" on Music from Broken Flowers (2005) Decca Records
"The Clarity" on Adult Swim Singles Program 2014 (2014) Williams Street Records
"Leagues Beneath" on Adult Swim Singles Program 2017 (2018) Williams Street Records/Third Man Records
Music videos
Dragonaut (1993) Earache Records
References
Bibliography
External links
Sleep on Bandcamp
American doom metal musical groups
Stoner rock musical groups
Cannabis culture
Heavy metal musical groups from California
Musical groups from San Jose, California
1990 establishments in California
1998 disestablishments in California
Musical groups established in 1990
Musical groups disestablished in 1998
Musical groups reestablished in 2009
Earache Records artists
Southern Lord Records artists
American musical trios
Third Man Records artists
|
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209016
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.moe
|
.moe
|
The domain name moe is a top-level domain (TLD) in the Domain Name System of the Internet. Its name comes from the Japanese slang word moe, indicating its intended purpose in the marketing of products or services deemed moe.
History
Interlink began developing the top-level domain (TLD) in 2012. On November 13, 2013, ICANN and Interlink entered into a registry agreement under which Interlink operates the TLD. Interlink sponsored a contest held between April 11 and May 6, 2014, to design the domain's logo. The general registration period began on July 22, 2014.
Accredited registrars
As of June 27, 2019.
References
External links
IANA whois information
whois
Computer-related introductions in 2013
Internet in Japan
Moe (slang)
Top-level domains
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moe%20%28band%29
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Moe (band)
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Moe (stylized as moe.) is an American jam band, formed at the University at Buffalo in 1989. The band members are Rob Derhak (bass, vocals), Al Schnier (guitar, vocals, keyboard), Chuck Garvey (guitar, vocals), Vinnie Amico (drums), and Jim Loughlin (percussion).
The band's first record, Fatboy (1992), established the band as a favorite of the 1990s jam band and improvisational rock scene, which grew in popularity with the rise of bands such as Phish and Widespread Panic.
Moe toured with the Furthur Festival in 1997, appeared at Woodstock '99, played Summerstage at the Rumsey Playfield in Central Park, opened for The Allman Brothers and The Who, performed at Radio City Music Hall on New Year's Eve 2006 and returned there for New Year's Eve 2007. They have also performed at Bonnaroo Music Festival five times (2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, and 2009).
History
The origin of the band goes back as far as October 1989, when Chuck Garvey, Rob Derhak, and Ray Schwartz got together to play a Halloween show at a friend's behest. The band's first true form began in the winter of 1990. Chuck was joined by Dave Kessler on guitar and Steve Hunter joined on saxophone and vocals. They called themselves "Five Guys named Moe," the name of a Louis Jordan song. They opened for a band named Monkey Wrench at Broadway Joe's in Buffalo, New York. Monkey Wrench would later be mentioned in Moe's song "Y.O.Y.," where Garvey sings "I wish I could suck like Monkey Wrench."
In the fall of 1990, Hunter exited. Also, the band's name evolved first into "Haggis" (for one week) before settling to be simply "Moe", noticeably without the period. Derhak pushed for the "m" to be capitalized, but a Brooklyn band had that name already.
Al Schnier sat in with the band for a show in 1991 in Buffalo when Kessler was absent. After this show, Schnier was a frequent guest. They became known as the moe guitar army because of the three guitarists. It was around this time that the band also officially adopted the period at the end of its name. Schnier joined Moe full-time in early 1992 and in the spring, Kessler left due to a lack of interest.
After recording a series of cassette-only releases in 1991 (all of which are impossible to find), in June 1992, the band recorded Fatboy, after which Schwartz left the band to go to graduate school. Jim Loughlin joined Moe in September, on drums. During the summer of 1993, Chuck quit the band due to personal issues, but returned two months later and "begged for re-admittance and more abuse."
In the spring of 1994, Moe recorded Headseed, officially quitting their day jobs, and they all moved to Albany, New York. Loughlin left in June 1995 to pursue a band named Yolk, from Binghamton, New York. After Loughlin left, Mike Strazza joined on drums, but only from July until the end of 1995, though he officially quit in September. During their two nights over Thanksgiving weekend at the Wetlands in New York City, Moe recorded Loaf, their first official live release, on which Strazza appears. Chris Mazur joined the band on drums from late 1995 through November 1996, and appeared on the album, No Doy.
On November 21, 1996, at The Bayou, in Washington DC, Vinnie Amico made his debut behind the drumkit and has continued in that position ever since. In 1998 the band really hit their stride as a four-piece, playing nearly 100 shows and recording their fourth album, Tin Cans And Car Tires. In early 1999, Jim Loughlin returned to the lineup on percussion, vibraphone, xylophone, flute, backup bass, acoustic guitar, vocals, and washboard. Since January 23, 1999, the band Moe has officially been Al Schnier, Chuck Garvey, Rob Derhak, Vinnie Amico, and Jim Loughlin.
Signing with Sony/550 Music, Moe released their third album, No Doy in 1996, and 1998 saw the release of Tin Cans And Car Tires, which featured Vinnie Amico's first recordings with the band. Upon leaving Sony in 2000, Moe revived Fatboy Records and issued its second live album, L. In 2001, Moe launched the Warts & All series of complete live performances, released as multi-CD sets. Six such volumes were released between 2001-2008, on Fatboy Records, before the series was retitled Dr. Stan's Prescription, for two further volumes.
2001 also saw the release of Dither, which featured several road-tested originals as well as a cover of "In a Big Country", by Scottish rockers Big Country, while 2002 brought forth the Christmas album, Season's Greetings from Moe, featuring two original seasonal songs as well as several holiday standards.
For 2003's Wormwood and 2007's The Conch Moe utilized several live recordings of new songs as the foundation for studio experimentation, with the results mimicking the band's freewheeling live performances. The ninth Moe album, 2008's Sticks & Stones, focused primarily on material that had never been performed live - a first for the band. Moe released their first "best-of" in 2010, Smash Hits Volume One, which features re-recordings of songs from the Sony era, as well as tracks from their more recent albums. 2012 found Moe inking a deal with Sugar Hill Records and releasing their tenth album, What Happened To The La Las, while No Guts No Glory followed in 2014.
Moe announced an indefinite hiatus beginning August 1, 2017, while bassist Rob Derhak underwent treatment for oropharyngeal cancer. Derhak was declared cancer-free in December 2017 which coincided with Moe announcing a 2018 return to live performance.
Moe returned to the stage, at the Capitol Theatre in Port Chester, New York, on February 2, 2018, and have since resumed a regular touring schedule. Schnier has said that Derhak has brought a new perspective to the band in light of his life-threatening illness since his return.
Fundraising
The band has taken part in a number of fundraising efforts. Moe held a tsunami benefit concert at the Roseland Ballroom in New York City on February 10, 2005. Sharing the stage were Sam Bush; John Medeski of Medeski, Martin, and Wood; Trey Anastasio; and Anastasio collaborator Jennifer Hartswick. All proceeds from the event were matched by the Dave Matthews Band and his Bama Works Village Recovery Fund to assist rebuilding an east coast sea town in Sri Lanka. Bama Works, Dave's philanthropic brainchild, recorded a final tally of $155,000. The performance garnered Moe an award for Live Performance of the Year at the 6th Annual Jammy Awards.
On January 22, 2006, Moe performed at the Landmark Theatre in Syracuse, New York. This concert raised $35,000 in support of the Kelberman Center, a comprehensive community resource for individuals with autism spectrum disorder and their families. The evenings proceeds brought Moe's charitable contributions to over $200,000 between January 2005 and January 2006. Al Schnier said about the Kelberman Center:
On April 11, 2006, Moe donated $38,000 to the Kelberman Center as part of The Face of Autism telethon.
On January 22, 2010, Moe held another benefit concert at Roseland Ballroom in New York, raising funds for WHY (World Hunger Year). This show was also their first of 2010, and of the tour. Guests included Danny Barnes (banjo), Marco Benevento (keyboards), Jeff Austin (mandolin), Butch Trucks (drums), and David Sanborn (saxophone).
Festivals
Moe.lennium
Moe rang in the new millennium with three nights at The Chance in Poughkeepsie, New York, December 29–31, 1999.
Moe.down
Moe hosts the semi annual festival "Moe.down" at Snow Ridge Ski Area in Turin, New York. Started in 2000, the festival runs for three days and occurs every Labor Day weekend. In 2017 and 2019 the festival occurred during the Fourth of
July holiday. The festival has attracted a wide variety of musical talent. Acts range from newer bands just emerging onto the scene (such as Tea Leaf Green, Nellie McKay and Raq) to big-name acts and jam rock staples, such as Les Claypool, Blues Traveler, and Mike Gordon (of Phish fame), to pop rock icons such as Leo Kottke, The Flaming Lips, The Violent Femmes, and Perry Farrell. Each year, the amount of Moe.down attendees has steadily increased: The first Moe.down drew around 3,000 people while Moe.down VI in 2005 had close to 7,000, and 12,000 at Moedown 9.
After ten years in Turin, Moe.down moved to the Gelston Castle Estate in Mohawk, New York for two years. In 2012 the event moved back to Turin, with the dates changing to August 10–12. On January 19, 2015, Moe announced that after 15 years Moe.down would be postponed indefinitely.
In 2017, the band announced the return of Moe.down, pared down into a less-bloated, "return to roots" format.
On April 3, 2019, Moe announced the lineup for their 2019 moe.down running July 4–6 at the Snow Ridge Ski Resort in Turin, NY.
Snoe.down
Moe hosted snoe.down II March 17, 2006 through March 19, 2006. This event, which kicked off the week-long Adirondack Almost Springfest celebration, took place at the Olympic Center in Lake Placid, New York, and at nearby Whiteface. During the concerts (though not during Moe's sets) fans had the option of ice skating while listening to the show. Bands included Soulive, Everyone Orchestra, Assembly of Dust, and Tea Leaf Green. Chuck said about snoe.down II:
Summer Camp Music Festival
The first Summer Camp Music Festival was held in 2001 at Three Sisters Park in Chillicothe, Illinois. About 1,000 attended that year, and enjoyed over 20 bands on two stages over the course of two days. Since then, the festival has grown to more than 15,000 attendees, hosting more than 100 bands on seven stages over three days. Almost tripling the population of Chillicothe for the weekend, Summer Camp creates a city within a city, and greatly impacts the local business economy. Past performers include Moe, Umphrey's McGee, The Flaming Lips, Willie Nelson, Bassnectar, Widespread Panic, Les Claypool, Keller Williams, Pretty Lights, Skrillex, The Roots, George Clinton & Parliament Funkadelic, Medeski Martin & Wood, and Family Groove Company.
Moe cruise
From March 7, 2004 until March 14, 2004, Moe embarked on their first musical cruise aboard the Norwegian Sun through Les and Lynn Berger of Rhythms at Sea Cruises (formerly Rock the Boat Cruises). Setting out from Miami, the Norwegian Sun visited Jamaica, The Cayman Islands, Costa Maya, and Cozumel before returning to Florida. The band performed each day except for the 12th, on the pool deck, Stardust Lounge, and the Observation Lounge. The shows on the 10th in the Observation Lounge were acoustic sets featuring questions and answer sessions with the band.
In January 2007, the band returned for its second cruise, again through Les and Lynn Berger of Rhythms at Sea Cruises. The cruise took place January 7, 2007 through January 14, 2007 on the Norwegian Jewel. Fans were treated to a different itinerary this time: the ship headed east out of Miami and hit the ports of San Juan (Puerto Rico), St. John's (Antigua), and St. Thomas (US Virgin Islands). Unfortunately due to rough seas, the ship did not port at the Great Stirrup Cay (Bahamas).
Other festivals
Moe has also played at a number of established festivals, including;
High Sierra Music Festival, Quincy, CA (2001, 2013)
The New Orleans Jazz and Heritage Festival, New Orleans, LA (2002, 2014)
Bonnaroo, Manchester, TN (2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2009)
Vegoose Festival, Las Vegas, NV (2005, 2007)
Summer Camp Music Festival, Chillicothe, IL (2001–2017)
Woodstock 1999, Rome, NY
Beale Street Music Festival, Memphis, TN (1999, 2002)
Summerfest, Milwaukee, WI (2001, 2002, 2004, 2006)
Nateva Music & Camping Festival, Oxford, ME (2010)
Langerado Music Festival, Ft. Lauderdale, FL (2004, 2007)
Riverbend Festival, Chattanooga, TN (2007)
All Good Music Festival, Masontown, WV (2007, 2009, 2011)
The Echo Project, Fairburn, GA (2007)
10,000 Lakes Festival, Detroit Lakes, MN (2003, 2007)
Lollapalooza, Chicago, IL (2007)
Diversafest, Tulsa, Ok (2008)
Mile High Music Festival, Commerce City, CO (July 2008)
Dunegrass and Blues Festival, Empire, MI (August 2008)
Wanee Music Festival, Live Oak, Fl (April 2008, 2014)
Gathering of the Vibes, Plattsburgh, NY (1998); Bridgeport, CT (1999, 2000, 2009, 2011, 2014)
Bear Creek, Live Oak, FL (November 2010)
Magnolia Fest, Live Oak, FL (October 2011)
Jam Cruise 11, Ft. Lauderdale, FL (January 2012)
Jam In The Dam, Amsterdam, Netherlands (March 2012)
Hangout Fest, Gulf Shores, AL (May 2013)
Body Jam, Baltimore, MD (January 2014)
Southern Brewers Festival, Chattanooga, TN (August 2014)
Peach Festival, Scranton, PA (August 2016)
Mustang Music Festival, Corolla, NC (October 2016)
Lockn', Arrington, VA
(August 2018 (Phil.moe.), 2019 (scheduled))
They received a Jammy for their Bonnaroo performance on June 22, 2002.
Discography
Studio albums
1992: Fatboy – independent release (re-released 1999, Fatboy Records)
1994: Headseed – Fatboy Records
1996: No Doy – 550 Music
1998: Tin Cans and Car Tires – 550 Music
2001: Dither – Fatboy Records
2002: Season's Greetings from Moe – Fatboy Records
2003: Wormwood – Fatboy Records
2007: The Conch – Fatboy Records
2008: Sticks and Stones – Fatboy Records
2012: What Happened to the La Las – Sugar Hill Records
2014: No Guts, No Glory – Sugar Hill Records
2020: This Is Not, We Are – Fatboy Records
2020: Not Normal (EP) – Fatboy Records
Live albums
2000: L – Fatboy Records
2000: L Version 3.1 – Fatboy Records
2001: Warts and All: Volume 1 – Fatboy Records
2002: Warts and All: Volume 2 – Fatboy Records
2003: Warts and All: Volume 3 – Fatboy Records
2005: Warts and All: Volume 4 – Fatboy Records
2007: Warts and All: Volume 5 – Fatboy Records
2008: Warts and All: Volume 6 – Fatboy Records
2008: Dr. Stan's Prescription, Volume 1 – Fatboy Records
2009: Dr. Stan's Prescription, Volume 2 – Fatboy Records
Compilation albums
2010: Smash Hits Volume 1 – Fatboy Records
Promotional releases
1996: meat. – 550 Music
Out of print. 10,000 made. The song clocks in at a little over 45 minutes. The liner notes said, "Lyric by Al Schnier."
1998: Moe Sells Out – 550 Music
2007: High and Congress – Fatboy Records
Limited edition releases
1991: Codename: Weasleshark – independent cassette release
1991: Spine Of A Dog – independent cassette release
1991: Real Live, Nearly Free – independent cassette release
1996: Loaf – Fatboy Records
Video and DVD releases
2006: Moe: Live at the Fillmore – DVD – Fatboy Records
Band members
Current members
Rob Derhak – bass, vocals (October 1989 – present)
Chuck Garvey – guitar, vocals (October 1989 – summer 1993; summer 1993 – present)
Al Schnier – guitar, keyboards, vocals, mandolin (1991 (guest); January 1992 – present)
Vinny Amico – drums (November 21, 1996 – present)
Jim Loughlin – drums (September 1992 – July 15, 1995), percussion, MalletKat, flute, acoustic guitar, drums, piccolo bass, washboard, etc. (January 23, 1999 – present)
Former members
Ray Schwartz – drums (October 1989 – summer 1992)
Dave Kessler – guitar (winter 1990 – spring 1992)
Steve Hunter – saxophone, vocals (fall 1990 – winter 1990)
Mike Strazza – drums (July 22, 1995 – December 9, 1995)
Chris Mazur – drums (December 29, 1995 – November 17, 1996)
Timeline
Audio
Akimbo – from a live concert on November 5, 2004 at the Tower Theater in Upper Darby, Pennsylvania. Taped by Chris Kantner, the show can be freely downloaded here.
See also
List of jam band music festivals
Al and the Transamericans
References
External links
Live moe. Shows at Archive.org
Musical groups established in 1990
Rock music groups from New York (state)
Jam bands
Jammy Award winners
University at Buffalo alumni
550 Music artists
Musical groups from Buffalo, New York
|
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] |
209022
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Obsessed
|
The Obsessed
|
The Obsessed is an American heavy metal band from Potomac, Maryland, led by Scott "Wino" Weinrich. The band combines elements of doom metal, stoner rock, and punk rock. Formed in 1980, they recorded a few demos and played a handful of live shows until they first split up in 1986 when Weinrich joined as lead vocalist for Saint Vitus, but reformed four years later. After releasing three albums (including the one that was originally recorded in 1985), the Obsessed broke up for a second time in 1995. After briefly reuniting for some shows in 2012 and 2013, the Obsessed announced their third reunion in March 2016.
Biography
Early career (1976–1985)
The band formed originally under the name "Warhorse" in 1976 in Potomac, Maryland, led by Wino. In the late 1970s, Wino's band became known as the Leather Nunz. The band played original punk tunes with singer Billy Beam, Jeff Urban on drums, Robert Krug on rhythm guitar and Mark Laue on bass.
Later on, a new more focused and improved group moved into a band house in Rockville, Maryland and renamed the Obsessed, where some of their most creative and hardest music was written. Before this move, however, original guitar player John Reese and Davey WIlliams on drums departed from the band. The band became a trio and remained that way until 1982 when Vance Bockis and later Norman Lawson joined the band. During this time they released the Sodden Jackal EP (spring 1983) and had one track ("Concrete Cancer") featured on Metal Blade's Metal Massacre VI. The Obsessed also managed to record their debut album in 1985 for Metal Blade, but it never officially surfaced.
Splits, first reunion and aftermath (1986–2010)
The band broke up in the late 1980s and Wino went west to California to join up with Saint Vitus. Wino recorded three albums, an EP, and a live album with Saint Vitus. Hellhound Records (Vitus's then current label) released The Obsessed, an album that the Obsessed had recorded in 1985, which prompted Wino to leave Vitus and reform the Obsessed with a new rhythm section consisting of Scott Reeder and Greg Rogers. The band was quickly signed to Hellhound Records and soon released Lunar Womb. Scott Reeder later left to join Kyuss, whereupon he was replaced by Guy Pinhas. After the addition of Pinhas, the Obsessed signed with Columbia Records, through which they released their third album The Church Within to strong critical reviews. To promote The Church Within, the band toured as an opening act for Entombed and Unsane during the first part of 1994. Despite the tour, as well as a large amount of promotion on behalf of Columbia Records (including a 25-minute documentary on the history of the Obsessed), the album did not sell as well as expected. After the demise of the Obsessed, Wino went on to form Shine which changed name to Spirit Caravan and more projects before reuniting with Saint Vitus in 2003 (and again in 2008), while the Obsessed's rhythm section became the basis for Goatsnake.
Reunions (2011–present)
In September 2011, the Roadburn Festival announced that The Church Within lineup (featuring Wino, Greg Rogers and Guy Pinhas) would be reuniting to play their next edition on April 14, 2012. The band later confirmed they would be performing at the Hellfest Open Air 2012. The band performed yet another reunion show at Maryland Death fest XI in May 2013 featuring Wino, Greg Rogers and Reid Raley.
TKO Records re-released the self-titled 7" on November 23, 2012.
Wino announced the full-time return of the Obsessed in March 2016 and the band's official signing to Relapse Records to record the follow up to The Church Within. The new lineup originally consisted of Spirit Caravan bassist Dave Sherman and Wino's longtime friend and former road crew member Brian Costantino (drums). On October 31, 2016, Wino announced that The Obsessed would test the waters for the remainder of 2016 by adding Bruce Falkinburg on bass and Seraphim on guitar, making this the first time in over 35 years that the Obsessed have been a four piece band.
In April 2017, the band released Sacred, their first studio album in 23 years.
Members
Current
Scott "Wino" Weinrich – vocals, guitars (1980–present)
Brian Costantino – drums (2016–present)
Brian "Wendy" White – bass (2019–present)
Former
John Reese – guitars (1980–1982)
Vance Bockis – vocals (1980–1983)
Mark Laue – bass (1980–1986)
Scott Reeder – bass (1990–1992)
Guy Pinhas – bass (1992–1995)
Dave Sherman – bass (2016)
Reid Raley – bass (2017–2019)
Dave Williams – drums (1980–1983)
Ed Gulli – drums (1984–1986)
Greg Rogers – drums (1990–1995)
Timeline
Discography
Demos
Demo 1980Demo 1982
Promo Demo 1985
AlbumsThe Obsessed (Hellhound Records, 1990)Lunar Womb (Hellhound Records, 1991)The Church Within (Hellhound Records/Columbia Records, 1994)Sacred (Relapse Records, 2017)
EPs and singlesSodden Jackal 7" (Invictus Records, 1983)
"Streetside" 7"/CD (Columbia Records, 1994)
"To Protect and to Serve" 7"/CD (Columbia Records, 1994)Altamont Nation 7" (Bong Load Records, 1995)Instrumental 7" (Doom Records, 1996)Sodden Jackal 7" (with different mixes) (Doom Records, 1996)
Split 7" with Mystick Krewe of Clearlight (both sides Lynyrd Skynyrd covers) (Southern Lord Records, 2001)Sodden Jackal 7" (TKO Records, 2012)
Compilation and live albumsHistory of The Obsessed (Doom Records, 1997)Live at the Wax Museum (Doom Records, 1997)Incarnate (Southern Lord Records, 1999)The Obsessed reissue w/live '84 CD (Tolotta Records, 2000)History of The Obsessed Volume II'' (Doom Records, 2002)
References
1976 establishments in Maryland
American doom metal musical groups
Heavy metal musical groups from Maryland
Heavy metal musical groups from Washington, D.C.
Hellhound Records artists
Musical groups established in 1976
Musical groups disestablished in 1986
Musical groups reestablished in 1990
Musical groups disestablished in 1995
Musical groups reestablished in 2016
American musical trios
|
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] |
209023
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptomycin
|
Streptomycin
|
Streptomycin is an antibiotic medication used to treat a number of bacterial infections, including tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium complex, endocarditis, brucellosis, Burkholderia infection, plague, tularemia, and rat bite fever. For active tuberculosis it is often given together with isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide. It is administered by injection into a vein or muscle.
Common side effects include vertigo, vomiting, numbness of the face, fever, and rash. Use during pregnancy may result in permanent deafness in the developing baby. Use appears to be safe while breastfeeding. It is not recommended in people with myasthenia gravis or other neuromuscular disorders. Streptomycin is an aminoglycoside. It works by blocking the ability of 30S ribosomal subunits to make proteins, which results in bacterial death.
Albert Schatz first isolated streptomycin in 1943 from Streptomyces griseus. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies it as critically important for human medicine.
Uses
Medication
Infective endocarditis: An infection of the endocardium caused by enterococcus; used when the organism is not sensitive to gentamicin
Tuberculosis: Used in combination with other antibiotics. For active tuberculosis it is often given together with isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide. It is not the first-line treatment, except in medically under-served populations where the cost of more expensive treatments is prohibitive. It may be useful in cases where resistance to other drugs is identified.
Plague (Yersinia pestis): Has historically been used as the first-line treatment. However streptomycin is approved for this purpose only by the US Food and Drug Administration.
In veterinary medicine, streptomycin is the first-line antibiotic for use against gram negative bacteria in large animals (horses, cattle, sheep, etc.). It is commonly combined with procaine penicillin for intramuscular injection.
Tularemia infections have been treated mostly with streptomycin.
Streptomycin is traditionally given intramuscularly, and in many nations is only licensed to be administered intramuscularly, though in some regions the drug may also be administered intravenously.
Pesticide
Streptomycin also is used as a pesticide, to combat the growth of bacteria beyond human applications. Streptomycin controls bacterial diseases of certain fruit, vegetables, seed, and ornamental crops. A major use is in the control of fireblight on apple and pear trees. As in medical applications, extensive use can be associated with the development of resistant strains. Streptomycin could potentially be used to control cyanobacterial blooms in ornamental ponds and aquaria. While some antibacterial antibiotics are inhibitory to certain eukaryotes, this seems not to be the case for streptomycin, especially in the case of anti-fungal activity.
Cell culture
Streptomycin, in combination with penicillin, is used in a standard antibiotic cocktail to prevent bacterial infection in cell culture.
Protein purification
When purifying protein from a biological extract, streptomycin sulfate is sometimes added as a means of removing nucleic acids. Since it binds to ribosomes and precipitates out of solution, it serves as a method for removing rRNA, mRNA, and even DNA if the extract is from a prokaryote.
Side effects
The most concerning side effects, as with other aminoglycosides, are kidney toxicity and ear toxicity. Transient or permanent deafness may result. The vestibular portion of cranial nerve VIII (the vestibulocochlear nerve) can be affected, resulting in tinnitus, vertigo, ataxia, kidney toxicity, and can potentially interfere with diagnosis of kidney malfunction.
Common side effects include vertigo, vomiting, numbness of the face, fever, and rash. Fever and rashes may result from persistent use.
Use is not recommended during pregnancy. Congenital deafness has been reported in children whose mothers received streptomycin during pregnancy. Use appears to be okay while breastfeeding.
It is not recommended in people with myasthenia gravis.
Mechanism of action
Streptomycin has two mechanism of action depending on what conformation (isomer) is at in the system in which it will work. Isomer A functions as a protein synthesis inhibitor. It binds to the small 16S rRNA of the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome irreversibly, interfering with the binding of formyl-methionyl-tRNA to the 30S subunit. This leads to codon misreading, eventual inhibition of protein synthesis and ultimately death of microbial cells through mechanisms that are still not understood. Speculation on this mechanism indicates that the binding of the molecule to the 30S subunit interferes with 30S subunit association with the mRNA strand. This results in an unstable ribosomal-mRNA complex, leading to a frameshift mutation and defective protein synthesis; leading to cell death. As human and bacterial both have ribosomes, streptomycin has significant side effects in human cells. At low concentrations, however, streptomycin only inhibits growth of the bacteria by inducing prokaryotic ribosomes to misread mRNA.
Streptomycin isomer B is a peptidoglycan synthesis inhibitor much like lysozyme. It binds to the glycosidic linkages and breaks them through a SN2 mechanism. This leads to bacterial cell walls' integrity being compromised, ultimately resulting in death of microbial cells.
Streptomycin is an antibiotic that inhibits both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and is therefore a useful broad-spectrum antibiotic.
History
Streptomycin was first isolated on October 19, 1943, by Albert Schatz, a PhD student in the laboratory of Selman Abraham Waksman at Rutgers University in a research project funded by Merck and Co. Waksman and his laboratory staff discovered several antibiotics, including actinomycin, clavacin, streptothricin, streptomycin, grisein, neomycin, fradicin, candicidin, and candidin. Of these, streptomycin and neomycin found extensive application in the treatment of numerous infectious diseases. Streptomycin was the first antibiotic cure for tuberculosis (TB). In 1952 Waksman was the recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in recognition "for his discovery of streptomycin, the first antibiotic active against tuberculosis". Waksman was later accused of playing down the role of Schatz who did the work under his supervision, claiming that Elizabeth Bugie had a more important role in its development. Schatz sued both Dr. Waksman and the Rutgers Research and Endowment Foundation, wanting to be given credited as co-discover and receive the royalties for the streptomycin. By the end of the settlement, Waksman would receive a 10% royalty, while Schatz got 3% and compensation for his missed royalties. The rest of the lab shared the remaining 7% of the royalties, in which Bugie received 0.2%.
Bugie was pursuing a master's degree in Waksman's lab at Rutgers University at this time. Prior to this, she received her bachelor's degree in microbiology at New Jersey College for Women. Although Bugie was considered to be the second author on the Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology paper, she was not listed on the patent submission. Bugie's contributions to Wakeman's lab were great. In addition to her work on streptomycin, she also helped develop other antimicrobial substances, had two peer-reviewed publications, and researched the use of antimicrobals against plant pathogens, among several other important contributions to the scientific field, particularly in regard to microbiology.
The Rutgers team reported streptomycin in the medical literature in January 1944. Within months they began working with William Feldman and H. Corwin Hinshaw of the Mayo Clinic with hopes of starting a human clinical trial of streptomycin in tuberculosis. The difficulty at first was even producing enough streptomycin to do a trial, because the research laboratory methods of creating small batches had not yet been translated to commercial large-batch production. They managed to do an animal study in a few guinea pigs with just 10 grams of the scarce drug, demonstrating survival. This was just enough evidence to get Merck & Co. to divert some resources from the young penicillin production program to start work toward streptomycin production.
At the end of World War II, the United States Army experimented with streptomycin to treat life-threatening infections at a military hospital in Battle Creek, Michigan. The first person who was treated with streptomycin did not survive; the second person survived but became blind as a side effect of the treatment. In March 1946, the third person—Robert J. Dole, later Majority Leader of the United States Senate and presidential nominee—experienced a rapid and robust recovery.
The first randomized trial of streptomycin against pulmonary tuberculosis was carried out in 1946 through 1948 by the MRC Tuberculosis Research Unit under the chairmanship of Geoffrey Marshall (1887–1982). The trial was neither double-blind nor placebo-controlled. It is widely accepted to have been the first randomized curative trial.
Results showed efficacy against TB, albeit with minor toxicity and acquired bacterial resistance to the drug.
New Jersey
Because streptomycin was isolated from a microbe discovered on New Jersey soil, and because of its activity against tuberculosis and Gram negative organisms, and in recognition of both the microbe and the antibiotic in the history of New Jersey, S. griseus was nominated as the Official New Jersey state microbe. The draft legislation was submitted by Senator Sam Thompson (R-12) in May 2017 as bill S3190 and Assemblywoman Annette Quijano (D-20) in June 2017 as bill A31900. The bill was passed on 2018-01-08 The bill designates Streptomyces griseus as New Jersey State Microbe (New Jersey Senate Bill 3190 (2017). Passed on 2018-01-08 - Senate - Senate Floor: Third Reading - Final Passage (Y: 38 N: 0 NV: 2 Abs: 0). Retrieved on 2021-10-28) ref></ref> The
See also
Philip D'Arcy Hart – The British medical researcher and pioneer in tuberculosis treatment in the early twentieth century.
References
Further reading
. The history behind the discovery of streptomycin.
External links
Aminoglycoside antibiotics
Anti-tuberculosis drugs
Guanidines
World Health Organization essential medicines
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
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209024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratmobile
|
Bratmobile
|
Bratmobile was an American punk band. Bratmobile was a first-generation "riot grrrl" band, which grew from the Pacific Northwest and Washington state underground. It was influenced by several eclectic musical styles, including elements of pop, surf, and garage rock.
Beginnings
Allison Wolfe (from Olympia, Washington) and Molly Neuman (from Washington, D.C.) met during fall 1989 while living next door to each other in dorms at the University of Oregon in Eugene, Oregon. The two had been raised in activist families: Wolfe had been raised by a lesbian activist mother, and Neuman's father worked for the Democratic National Committee and had introduced his daughter to leaders of the Congressional Black Caucus (CBC). Their shared musical influences included punk, hip hop, and the Olympia band Beat Happening. Neuman was influenced by the writings of Eldridge Cleaver. Together, Neuman and Wolfe took classes in women's studies and music, traveled to Olympia on the weekends, and started collaborating on influential feminist fanzine Girl Germs in 1990.
History
Olympia
Neuman's and Wolfe's friend Calvin Johnson, an indie musician in the Olympia scene in The Go Team and Beat Happening who also co-owned K Records, asked them to play a show in Olympia on Valentine's Day in 1991 with Bikini Kill and Some Velvet Sidewalk. At first, Wolfe admitted that they were "a fake band" because they did not play instruments, but they had written some songs which they performed a cappella. After an attempt to get out of the gig, they agreed and sought the help of Some Velvet Sidewalk member Robert Christie. Christie let Bratmobile borrow rehearsal space and equipment and advised them to listen to the Ramones for inspiration. In response to that advice, Wolfe said, "Something in me clicked. Like, okay, if most boy punk rock bands just listen to the Ramones and that's how they write their songs, then we'll do the opposite and I won't listen to any Ramones and that way we'll sound different." With five original songs, the band played its first show as a two-woman act at Olympia's North Shore Surf Club on February 14, 1991, with Neuman and Wolfe sharing duties on guitar, drums, and vocals. They recorded the next day for the first Kill Rock Stars compilation, which was released later that year. Briefly, they were joined by a bass player Michelle Noel. They played only a couple shows with this line-up, including one with The Melvins and Beat Happening, also at the Surf Club on May 16, 1991.
Bratmobile DC
Initially, Wolfe and Neuman thought of Bratmobile as a loose organization that would have different branches in different cities. During spring break 1991, Neuman and Wolfe went to Washington, D.C. to work on this new form of Bratmobile that, at that time, included different musicians Erin Smith on guitar, Christina Billotte of Autoclave on drums and bass, and artist Jen Smith (no relation to Erin). Johnson had previously introduced Neuman to nascent guitarist Erin Smith from Bethesda, Maryland during the Christmas holiday in December, 1990 at a Nation of Ulysses show in D.C. Erin Smith was co-author, with her brother, of the much-revered TV pop culture fanzine Teenage Gang Debs when Neuman and Wolfe asked her to jam with them. They rehearsed at the Embassy, a group house in D.C. that served as headquarters for the Nation of Ulysses. When Beat Happening, Nation of Ulysses, and Autoclave toured the east coast that spring, Bratmobile DC had its first performance at Maxwell's in Hoboken, New Jersey. The newly minted Bratmobile DC lineup of Neuman, Wolfe, Erin Smith, and Billotte spontaneously got on stage. Back in D.C., they recorded with Tim Green of Nation of Ulysses in the Embassy's basement studio. Around this time, Jen Smith, who lived at the Embassy, recorded with Bratmobile DC and played a show with them.
This lineup with Billotte and Jen Smith released a cassette tape entitled Bratmobile DC. Thereafter, Bratmobile became a trio with Wolfe, Neuman, and Erin Smith.
Bratmobile
Bikini Kill toured with Nation of Ulysses in May/June 1991, converging in D.C. with Bratmobile that summer. In July 1991, Bratmobile played their first show as a 3-piece with Neuman on drums, Wolfe on vocals, and Erin Smith on guitar. Bratmobile were just in time to play at the historic International Pop Underground Convention in Olympia in August 1991, becoming the only band to appear twice. They played the opening show "Girl Night". They also played a show at Capitol Lake Park on a bill with Melvins, Mecca Normal, Girl Trouble, Beat Happening, and Fugazi. During the summer of 1992, Bratmobile toured with Heavens to Betsy.
Between 1991 and 1994 Bratmobile released the album Pottymouth and EP The Real Janelle on Kill Rock Stars, as well as The Peel Session. Intense media scrutiny and inner pressures of the Riot Grrrl movement hastened the band's breakup (on stage) in 1994.
In 2018, Kill Rock Stars produced a podcast series about Bratmobile titled Girl Germs.
Hiatus
After the break-up, Molly Neuman moved to the San Francisco Bay Area and began working at East Bay punk record label Lookout! Records. She also played in The PeeChees and The Frumpies. Allison Wolfe moved to Washington, D.C, and she and Maryland-based Erin Smith started a new band together called Cold Cold Hearts. Wolfe has also been active in feminism and activism.
Reformation
In 1999, the band decided to reunite for a low-key show in Oakland's Stork Club and the band was relaunched to go on tour with Sleater-Kinney.
In 2000, Bratmobile released their second full-length studio album, Ladies, Women and Girls. The album was critically acclaimed and earned Bratmobile new fans as they toured with Sleater-Kinney, The Donnas, The Locust, among others. Ladies, Women and Girls was released on Neuman's Lookout! Records and produced by Tim Green of Nation of Ulysses and The Fucking Champs. Jon Nikki (Prima Donnas, Gene Defcon, Mocket, Sarah Dougher, Sir, Puce Moment) added guitar, bass and keyboard parts to the minimal Brat sound.
On May 7, 2002, Bratmobile released their third album, Girls Get Busy. On Girls Get Busy, Audrey Marrs, (Mocket, Gene Defcon) added keyboards that gave the album its distinctive new sound. Marty Violence (Young Pioneers) also contributed bass.
After dedicating most of 2002 and 2003 to promoting Girls Get Busy via touring, each of the principal members went back to do other things. While the band didn't formally break up, Allison Wolfe did post a message on January 30, 2004, in the Bratmobile message board concerning the status of the band:
Discography
Studio albums
Pottymouth (1993) LP/CD/CS (Kill Rock Stars)
Ladies, Women and Girls (2000) CD/LP, (Lookout! Records)
Girls Get Busy (2002) CD/LP (Lookout! Records)
EPs
The Real Janelle (1994) LPEP/CDEP (Kill Rock Stars)
Live albums
The Peel Session CDEP (Strange Fruit)
Singles
Kiss & Ride 7-inch (1992) (Homestead Records)
Split 7-inch
Tiger Trap/ Bratmobile split 7-inch (4-Letter Words)
Heavens to Betsy/ Bratmobile split 7-inch (K Records)
Brainiac/ Bratmobile split 7-inch (12X12)
Veronica Lake/ Bratmobile split 7-inch (Simple Machines)
Compilation albums
Kill Rock Stars compilation, CD/LP, (Kill Rock Stars)
A Wonderful Treat compilation cassette
The Embassy Tapes cassette
Throw compilation CD (Yoyo Recordings)
International Pop Underground live LP/CD/CS (K Records)
Neapolitan Metropolitan boxed 7-inch set (Simple Machines)
Teen Beat 100 compilation 7-inch (Teen Beat)
Julep compilation LP/CD (Yo Yo)
Wakefield Vol. 2 V/A CD boxed set (Teen Beat)
Plea For Peace Take Action compilation CD (Sub City)
Boys Lie compilation CD (Lookout! Records)
Yo Yo A Go Go 1999 compilation CD (Yoyo Recordings)
Lookout! Freakout Episode 2 compilation CD (Lookout! Records)
Songs For Cassavetes compilation CD (Better Looking Records)
Lookout! Freakout Episode 3 CD (Lookout! Records)
Turn-On Tune-In Lookout! DVD (Lookout! Records)
Notes
External links
Kill Rock Stars, Bratmobile's record label (1991–1994)
Lookout! Records, Bratmobile's record label (1999–2003)
1991 establishments in Washington (state)
All-female punk bands
Punk rock groups from Washington (state)
Feminist musicians
Kill Rock Stars
Indie rock musical groups from Washington (state)
Musical groups established in 1991
Musical groups from Olympia, Washington
Riot grrrl bands
|
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209025
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream%20Warriors%20%28band%29
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Dream Warriors (band)
|
Dream Warriors were a Canadian hip hop duo from Toronto, Ontario, comprising King Lou and Capital Q. Described as "a pair of deft, intelligent rappers" by John Bush of AllMusic, they were major contributors to the jazz rap movement of the early 1990s. Their 1991 debut album, And Now the Legacy Begins, was cited by Bush as one of the finest alternative hip hop records of the golden era. Before the release of their second album Subliminal Simulation in 1994, the duo became a group with the addition of rapper Spek and DJ Luv. In 1996, they released a third album, The Master Plan, before the two new members left the group a year later. Though their subsequent releases did not garner similar commercial success as their debut, the duo released a well-received greatest hits album in 1999. Their final album, The Legacy Continues..., was released in 2002.
History
King Lou (Louis Robinson) and Capital Q (Frank Allert) formed Dream Warriors in 1988, hailing from the Jane and Finch and Willowdale neighbourhoods of Toronto. The same year, King Lou made his recording debut, appearing on Michie Mee and L.A. Luv's single "Victory Is Calling", which also featured MC Lyte. The duo began working on music together in 1989 and joined the Beat Factory Productions team. In 1990 they collaborated on the one-off single "Can't Repress the Cause", a plea for greater inclusion of hip hop music in the Canadian music scene, with Dance Appeal, a supergroup of Toronto-area musicians that included Devon, Maestro Fresh Wes, B-Kool, Michie Mee, Lillian Allen, Eria Fachin, HDV, Dionne, Thando Hyman, Carla Marshall, Messenjah, Jillian Mendez, Lorraine Scott, Lorraine Segato, Self Defense, Leroy Sibbles, Zama and Thyron Lee White.
They signed to 4th & B'way/Island Records and released their jazz-influenced debut album And Now the Legacy Begins in 1991. The album was critically acclaimed and sold well in Canada, the United Kingdom, and across Europe — before becoming an underground hit in the United States.
The album spawned the hit singles "Wash Your Face in My Sink", "My Definition of a Boombastic Jazz Style", and "Ludi". The first two singles hit the Top 20 in the UK, while in their own country, the album went gold and collected a Juno Award. The song "My Definition of a Boombastic Jazz Style" featured a sample of "Soul Bossa Nova" by Quincy Jones, which was the theme song for the Canadian game show Definition.
In 1992, they recorded "Man Smart, Woman Smarter" for the Buffy the Vampire Slayer soundtrack.
For their 1994 follow-up, Subliminal Simulation, Dream Warriors added rapper Spek (Hussain Yoosuf) and DJ Luv (formerly L.A. Luv; Phillip Gayle), turning the duo into a four-man group. The album received mixed reviews. It featured an appearance by Butterfly of Digable Planets and Gang Starr (Guru and DJ Premier) contributed to two tracks. Early production by Da Grassroots is found on the track "No Dingbats Allowed". Spoken word is also performed during the interludes. Two singles, "Day in Day Out" and "California Dreamin'", were released.
Dream Warriors released their third album The Master Plan in 1996, however, it was not released in the US. Three singles — "Float On", "What Do You Want 'Ladies'?", and "Sound Clash" (featuring Beenie Man) — supported the album. Later that year, they recorded a hip-hop version of the song "Edmonton Block Heater", which appeared on the compilation album A Tribute to Hard Core Logo. Spek left the group in 1997, before relocating to the UK. DJ Luv also left the group the same year. In 1999, Anthology: A Decade of Hits 1988–1998, a greatest hits compilation, was released on Priority Records. It featured two new tracks by the original duo. The compilation was critically acclaimed, with Robert Christgau stating: "Certainly they belong in the same sentence as De La Soul and A Tribe Called Quest." That year, the band performed in Hamilton as part of Showcase '99.
In 2002, they released their final album, The Legacy Continues..., exclusively in Canada. The Herbaliser produced the single "Road of Many Signs", which also appeared on their Very Mercenary album in 1999. Other singles included "Breathe or Die" and "Unstoppable".
In 2017, Icon, Dream Warriors' second compilation album, was released.
Discography
Studio albums
And Now the Legacy Begins (1991) – CAN #34, UK #18, AUS #53
Subliminal Simulation (1994)
The Master Plan (1996)
The Legacy Continues... (2002)
Compilations
Anthology: A Decade of Hits 1988–1998 (1999)
Icon (2017)
Singles
Awards and nominations
1991 Juno Awards
Rap Recording of the Year for "Wash Your Face in My Sink" (Nominated)
1992 Juno Awards
Rap Recording of the Year for "My Definition of a Boombastic Jazz Style" (Won)
1995 Juno Awards
Best Rap Recording for Subliminal Simulation (Nominated)
1997 Juno Awards
Best Rap Recording for The Master Plan (Nominated)
See also
Canadian hip hop
Music of Canada
References
Further reading
Alternative hip hop groups
Black Canadian musical groups
Canadian hip hop groups
Juno Award for Rap Recording of the Year winners
Canadian musical duos
Musical groups established in 1988
Musical groups disestablished in 2002
Musical groups from Toronto
1988 establishments in Ontario
2002 disestablishments in Ontario
|
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209026
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gang%20Starr
|
Gang Starr
|
Gang Starr were an American hip hop duo, consisting of Texas record producer DJ Premier and Massachusetts rapper Guru. Gang Starr was at its height from 1989 to 2003, and are considered one of the best MC-and-producer duos in hip hop history. They are recognized for being one of the pioneers of jazz rap. Some of their top hits include "Mass Appeal", "Take It Personal", "Moment of Truth" and "Above The Clouds".
Career
Original & second group lineups
The original Gang Starr group was founded in Morehouse College by three friends from Boston, Massachusetts: Guru (then known as MC Keithy E.) who was planned to be a rapper/singer, Big Shug as the main MC and DJ Suave D (Shug's younger brother Dana) as their DJ. After Shug was imprisoned, Suave D quit the group, leaving Guru to enlist the services of MC Damo D-Ski and DJ 1, 2 B-Down (also known as Mike Dee) with various producers, such as Donald D, J.V. Johnson or The 45 King helping out. Their earliest recordings were in 1986 where they made various demos. In 1987 and 1988, Gang Starr released three 12" vinyl singles on Wild Pitch Records.
Breakup and partnering with DJ Premier
In 1989, the group split for the second time and the only member willing to continue under the name was Guru. He got in touch with Houston, Texas native DJ Premier (then known as Waxmaster C) who sent him a beat tape, which Guru liked. He invited DJ Premier to join Gang Starr, relocate with him to Brooklyn and in that same year they released their first single "Words I Manifest" along with the album No More Mr. Nice Guy (1989). In 1990, the group was signed to the Chrysalis record label by then A&R director Duff Marlowe, a former DJ and Los Angeles Times rap music critic. The label offered Guru and Premier unlimited artistic license and major-label distribution worldwide, a platform the group used to become one of the most influential hip hop acts of that decade. During their career Gang Starr helped pioneer the New York City hardcore hip hop sound. The Gang Starr catalog, especially Step in the Arena (1991), Daily Operation (1992), Hard to Earn (1994) and Moment of Truth (1998) are well respected among underground rap fans and critics. Their track "Jazz Thing" was featured on the soundtrack to Spike Lee's film Mo' Better Blues. Gang Starr provided a track, "Battle", for the sound track of the 2002 movie 8 Mile.
After several albums and tours, in late 2002 DJ Premier left Europe to go back to the United States. Once again Guru was faced with continuing alone and became involved in a European tour in 2003–04 with an alternate DJ. In 2006, Guru indicated in several interviews that Gang Starr had reached its end.
Guru's death
In February 2010, Guru suffered a heart attack, went into a coma, and died on April 19, 2010. DJ Solar, a long-time collaborator of Guru, said Guru chose not to go public with the diagnosis of myeloma that was made in 2000. Guru appeared to have fallen out with DJ Premier seven years prior to his death and did "not wish my ex-DJ to have anything to do with my name, likeness, events, tributes, etc." There is speculation that the letter was not written by Guru, but was composed by Solar. The validity of the statement was questioned by Guru's family and his contemporaries.
Post Guru
Soon after DJ Premier stated that there was a "posthumous Gang Starr CD/DVD project in the works," and most likely to have been released in 2014, but nothing was released. DJ Premier confirmed in late 2015 that he was working on a Gang Starr biopic with the cooperation of Guru's sister, Patricia Elam.
In 2019, DJ Premier released a new single under the Gang Starr name entitled "Family and Loyalty" featuring J. Cole, to be followed with a new album titled One of the Best Yet, which was released on November 1 that year.
Legacy
The Gang Starr Foundation was a loose collective of various people who have worked closely with the group, through either Guru's now defunct Ill Kid label, DJ Premier's production work or the management company that Gang Starr was represented by, Empire Management. Members of the foundation included Big Shug, Afu-Ra, Jeru the Damaja, Krumbsnatcha, Bumpy Knuckles, and Group Home.
Each episode title of the first season of the Netflix series Luke Cage, based on the Marvel Comics character, was named after a Gang Starr song.
Discography
Studio albums
No More Mr. Nice Guy (1989)
Step in the Arena (1991)
Daily Operation (1992)
Hard to Earn (1994)
Moment of Truth (1998)
The Ownerz (2003)
One of the Best Yet (2019)
Compilation albums
Full Clip: A Decade of Gang Starr (1999)
Mass Appeal: the Best of Gang Starr (2006)
References
External links
Year Round Records DJ Premier's label site
"Jazz and Hip-Hop" by Jared Pauley, (Jazz.com)
Chrysalis Records artists
DJ Premier
East Coast hip hop groups
American musical duos
Hip hop duos
Five percenters
Musical groups established in 1985
Musical groups disestablished in 2003
Musical groups reestablished in 2019
Musical groups from Boston
Musical groups from Brooklyn
Wild Pitch Records artists
Virgin Records artists
1985 establishments in Massachusetts
Gang Starr Foundation members
|
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] |
209035
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huggy%20Bear%20%28band%29
|
Huggy Bear (band)
|
Huggy Bear were an English riot grrrl band, formed in 1991 and based in Brighton.
History
Evolving in tandem with the Olympia, Washington-based riot grrrl movement led by feminist bands such as Bikini Kill, Huggy Bear called themselves "girl-boy revolutionaries", both in reference to their political philosophy and the gender makeup of their band.
For the majority of their existence, they refused to be photographed or interviewed by mainstream press, nor gave their full names once they began releasing records formally. In spite of a major label bidding war, Huggy Bear stayed with indie label Wiiija.
Their avant-garde debut EP, Rubbing the Impossible to Burst, was released in 1992, and in the same year they began working closely with Bikini Kill as riot grrrl's popularity peaked on both sides of the Atlantic, culminating in a split album on Catcall Records (Huggy Bear) and Kill Rock Stars (Bikini Kill) called Our Troubled Youth/Yeah Yeah Yeah Yeah, the names of the Huggy Bear and Bikini Kill sides, respectively. Huggy Bear then released a series of EPs, which were collected on Taking the Rough with the Smooch. No longer featuring Slade on guitar, Huggy Bear released two more singles and Weaponry Listens to Love in 1994, their first full-length album as well as their final release.
On 14 February 1993, Huggy Bear performed "Her Jazz" on the British television programme, The Word. After their set, the band stayed in the studio to watch a report on two American models who called themselves "the Barbi Twins". Huggy Bear and their fans became upset at this and started shouting at the show's presenter Terry Christian. They were ejected from the studio, and a spokesperson for The Word later claimed that one of the band's friends had "bit the face of a member of our production team." Future Goldblade frontman and editor of music blog Louderthanwar, John Robb was with the band in the studio and said no-one got bitten and the security was heavy-handed and had to be calmed down. The performance was given a Melody Maker cover story, the event being compared to the Sex Pistols' Bill Grundy incident.
Other projects
Members of Huggy Bear also played as the Furbelows. In 1993, Rowley and Johnson released an EP as The Element of Crime on Soul Static Sound records, with members of Linus, Skinned Teen, Sister George and Blood Sausage. Elliott and Johnson also joined Blood Sausage, while Rowley assisted Skinned Teen live and with artwork, and Elliot guested on their 1994 album.
After leaving Huggy Bear, Hill formed Phantom Pregnancies with Delia from Mambo Taxi and Sean from Wat Tyler. Slade briefly joined I'm Being Good, and then Comet Gain.
In 2014, Jo Johnson released a solo ambient album called Weaving on Further Records.
In 2019, Chris Rowley formed a new band called Adulkt Life with former members of Male Bonding. On 27 November of that year, they played their first show at the Lexington in London. They released their first single and a digital zine on 18 August 2020, "County Pride", on What's Your Rupture?.
Line-up
Niki Eliot: bass and vocals
Jo Johnson: guitar and vocals
Karen Hill: drums and piano
Chris Rowley: vocals, trumpet and piano
Jon Slade: guitar
Discography
Albums
Our Troubled Youth (Huggy Bear), mini LP split with Yeah Yeah Yeah Yeah (Bikini Kill), 8 March '93, CATCALL / Kill Rock Stars 206
Weaponry Listens to Love, LP/CD, 21 Nov '94, WIIIJA
Compilations
We Bitched, cass, '92, WIIIJA [demo recordings, inc. exclusive tracks Coral Kill; Sour Creamer Stag, Bumper Sticker, Cherry Cherry]
Huggy Nation / Kisser Boy Kisser Girl, cass, '92, Soul Static Sound [V/A compilation inc. Huggy Bear & side projects]
Taking the Rough with the Smooch, LP/CD, '93, KILL ROCK STARS/WIIIJA [Compilation of WIIIJA 18/WIIIJA 23/Trouble 001]
For Every Wolf That Roams, cass, '94, Famous Monsters of Filmland [Live at the Square, Harlow]
Singles and EPs
Rubbing the Impossible to Burst 7", SEPT'92, WIIIJA 16, Ltd edition of 2000 pressed [Katholic Kunt; High Street Jupiter Supercone // Snail Messenger Loss; Single Bullets]
Kiss Curl for the Kid's Lib Guerrillas, 7", DEC'92, WIIIJA 18 [Derwin; Sizzlemeet // Concrete Life; Carnt Kiss]
"14 February" / "Into the Mission" – one-sided 7" given out at a Brighton gig, 14.2.93
Her Jazz, 7", 93, CATCALL/WIIIJA – Trouble001 [Her Jazz // Prayer; Pro No From Now]
Shimmies in the Super 8, double 7", 4 songs of Huggy Bear, 2 of Darlin', 1 of COLM, 1 of Stereolab, 1993, DUOPHONIC, Ltd edition of 800 [Trafalgar Square; Godziller; More Music From Bells; Snow White, Rose Red]
Don't Die, 7", AUG'93, WIIIJA 23 [Dissthentic Penetration; Teen Tighterns; No Sleep // Shaved Pussy Poetry; Pansy Twist]
Long Distance Lovers, 7", '94, GRAVITY No. 9 [Steppin on Bugs; Limit 2 Surf // Tuff Lovin; Code Fucker]
Main Squeeze, miniCD, '94, FELLAHEEN RECORDS Jack 011-2 [Children Absent From Heaven Says; Red Flipper No. 2; My Best Kiss]
References
External links
Huggy Bear videos at World News
Archive fansite
Huggy Nation – archive fansite
Huggy Bear's last interview, Nov 1994
Huggy Bear gig listing
WIIIJA records biog
Allmusic biog
Taking the Rough with the Smooch review
Weaponry LP review – Allmusic
Weaponry LP review – Furia
Weaponry LP review – Punknews
Huggy Bear tribute – The Guardian, 2008
Musical groups established in 1991
Musical groups disestablished in 1994
Kill Rock Stars artists
English punk rock groups
Riot grrrl bands
Musical groups from Brighton and Hove
1991 establishments in England
1994 disestablishments in England
Underground punk scene in the United Kingdom
|
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] |
209037
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IIS
|
IIS
|
IIS may refer to:
Organizations
Indian Information Service, of the Government of India
Institute of Information Scientists, a professional association now merged into the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals, UK
Institute of Ismaili Studies, in London, England
Iraqi Intelligence Service, the main state intelligence organization in Iraq under Saddam Hussein.
Technology
Immunization information system, an information system that collects vaccination data
Improved iterative scaling, an algorithm in statistics
Internet Information Services, Microsoft web server software
Other uses
Nissan Island Airport, Papua New Guinea, IATA airport code IIS
IIS, a ship prefix for ships of the Imperial Iranian Navy
IIS, shorthand for sestertius, an ancient Roman coin
See also
ISS (disambiguation)
I²S, an electrical serial bus interface standard
|
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209039
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dismember%20%28band%29
|
Dismember (band)
|
Dismember is a Swedish death metal band formed in 1988. They split up in 2011 but reunited in 2019. Pioneers of Swedish death metal, Dismember is now considered one of the country's "big four", alongside Entombed, Grave, and Unleashed.
History
Formation and Nuclear Blast-era (1988–2002)
The band formed in Stockholm in 1988. After a hiatus, during which several members joined Carnage, the band began recording in earnest in 1991 and released their debut album Like an Ever Flowing Stream that year. The album is today heralded as a milestone for the burgeoning Swedish death metal scene and established the band's fanbase, which was further bolstered by the controversy surrounding one song in particular, "Skin Her Alive". The song prompted an obscenity charge in the United Kingdom, against which the band successfully defended themselves.
In 1992, Dismember released the Pieces EP, and the following year continued with second album, Indecent & Obscene, which featured their song "Dreaming in Red"; the "Dreaming in Red" videoclip was shown in MTV's Headbangers Ball. According to an interview with fellow Nuclear Blast group Benediction in metallian.com, Dismember and the said band got into a business dispute and eventually a fisticuff at this stage over tour arrangements and monies owed.
Like many of the other Scandinavian death metal bands, Dismember began softening their sound in the mid-1990s, with 1995's Massive Killing Capacity having more melodic approaches, which had a good public response. Nevertheless, they attempted a return to style with 1997's Death Metal, which ultimately became a sales disappointment. Their last album for Nuclear Blast was 2000's Hate Campaign.
Switching labels (2003–2006)
Around 2003, Dismember set a new path and signed for Karmageddon Records. In 2004, they released their sole album with that label titled Where Ironcrosses Grow which some thought sounds close to Hate Campaign and was inspired by Iron Maiden and Autopsy.
They switched record companies again in 2005, signing to Regain Records, which bought the rights to their earlier albums as well and released them as luxury digipak editions. In 2006, Dismember released their seventh album The God That Never Was, which continued in the style of its predecessor. The band spent February on the road in Europe. In November 2006, Dismember toured Europe as part of the Masters of Death tour, with Grave, Unleashed, Entombed, and Exterminator.
Split with Fred Estby and final album (2007–2010)
After the release of The God That Never Was and some touring, Estby left the band "after long and careful consideration". In a posting on the official site on 20 April 2007, Estby cites the demands of touring and the needs of his family as key reasons for him leaving the band. His statements appears as "My decision to put my family in first hand makes it impossible to keep on touring and commit to the band full time. I want to thank all the fans, friends, bands and all the other cool people I've met through the years and I wish Dismember all the best in the future. Fred."
In April 2008, they released their eighth album, Dismember.
Dismember released a two-disc DVD titled Under Blood Red Skies in late July 2009. The live concerts were filmed in the Netherlands and at the 2008 Party San Open Air Festival in Bad Berka, Germany. The DVD also included a documentary and interviews with band members. The cover art was created by Erik Danielsson of Trident Art.
Breakup and reunion (2011–present)
On 16 October 2011, bassist Tobias Cristiansson revealed in a statement that Dismember had broken up: "After 23 years, Dismember have now decided to quit. We wish to thank all our fans for your support."
On a possible reunion, drummer Fred Estby told Invisible Oranges in August 2016: "People were telling me that all the time. So maybe we should try to do some shows and get everything back. We always owned our rights to the albums and shirts, but there's still loose ends to tie up. I just wanted to set the record straight and hopefully do some shows in the future."
In February 2018, rumors were afloat that Dismember was planning to reunite that year to celebrate the 30th anniversary of its formation. A reunion was teased that summer when the band posted random photos on their Facebook account. After nearly a year of rumors, it was announced on 14 January 2019 that the original lineup of Dismember had reunited and performed together for the first time in over 20 years at Scandinavia Deathfest that October.
In a May 2021 interview MetalBite.com, drummer Fred Estby stated that Dismember might consider releasing their first studio album in over a decade in either 2022 or 2023: "I hope we get out of this situation soon so that we can play some shows and we wanna get more shows going across the globe, a lot of territories that we haven't booked shows for yet and I hope that's gonna happen as soon as this is all over. And maybe we'll have a new record out in a year or two."
Discography
Demos
Dismembered (1988)
Last Blasphemies (1989)
Rehearsal (1989)
Reborn in Blasphemy (1990)
Albums
Like an Ever Flowing Stream (1991)
Indecent & Obscene (1993)
Massive Killing Capacity (1995)
Death Metal (1997)
Hate Campaign (2000)
Where Ironcrosses Grow (2004)
The God That Never Was (2006)
Dismember (2008)
Singles and EPs
"Skin Her Alive" (single, 1991)
Pieces (EP, 1992)
Casket Garden (EP, 1995)
Misanthropic (EP, 1997)
DVDs and videos
Live Blasphemies (DVD, 2004)
Under Blood Red Skies (DVD, 2009)
Members
Line-up
Fred Estby – drums (1988–2007, 2019–present)
David Blomqvist – lead guitar (1988, 1990–2011, 2019–present), rhythm guitar (2003–2005), bass (1988–1990, 2005–2006)
Robert Sennebäck – rhythm guitar (1988–1998, 2019–present), lead guitar (1988–1990), vocals (1988–1989)
Matti Kärki – vocals (1989–2011, 2019–present)
Richard Cabeza (a.k.a. Richard Diamon/Daemon) – bass (1990–1998, 2000–2004, 2019–present)
Former members
Johan Bergebäck – bass (2004–2005)
Sharlee D'Angelo – bass (1998–2000)
Magnus Sahlgren – rhythm guitar (1998–2003)
Erik Gustafsson – bass (1988)
Martin Persson – rhythm guitar (2005–2011), bass (2005–2006)
Tobias Cristiansson – bass (2006–2011)
Thomas Daun – drums (2007–2011)
Timeline
References
Bibliography
Daniel Ekeroth. Swedish Death Metal. Brooklyn: Bazillion Points Books, 2008
Mudrian, Albert. Choosing Death: the Improbable History of Death Metal and Grindcore. New York: Feral House, 2004
External links
Dismember at WorldMusicDatabase
Swedish death metal musical groups
Musical groups established in 1988
Musical groups disestablished in 2011
Musical groups reestablished in 2019
|
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] |
209042
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Like%20an%20Ever%20Flowing%20Stream
|
Like an Ever Flowing Stream
|
Like an Ever Flowing Stream is the debut album by Swedish death metal band Dismember, released in May 1991. The title may refer to the Biblical Book of Amos 5:24, "Let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an ever-flowing stream" (New International Version). A music video was made for the track "Soon to Be Dead". Since Karmageddon Records owns the rights to the album, it wasn't re-issued as a digipack disc in 2005 like every other album (except for Where Ironcrosses Grow). Regain re-issued those digipack versions and also remastered the albums while Karmageddon released an exact copy of the 1996 issue by Nuclear Blast (except for two additional bonus tracks). Nicke Andersson, at the time the drummer in Entombed played all the lead guitars except for the guitar solo on "Override of the Overture", which is played by David Blomqvist. In 2010, the album was inducted into Decibel Magazine's Hall of Fame.
Track listing
Personnel
Dismember
Matti Kärki – Vocals
Robert Senneback – Guitar
David Blomqvist – Guitar, Lead Guitar on Track 1
Richard Diamon – Bass
Fred Estby – Drums
Additional musician
Nicke Andersson – Lead Guitar on All Tracks Except Track 1 and Dismember logo design
Production
Produced & Mixed By Tomas Skogsberg & Fred Estby
Recorded & Engineered By Tomas Skogsberg
Dan Seagrave – Design, Cover Design
Gottfrid Jarnefors – Photography
References
Dismember (band) albums
1991 debut albums
Albums with cover art by Dan Seagrave
Nuclear Blast albums
|
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209048
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish%20death%20metal
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Swedish death metal
|
Swedish death metal is a death metal music scene developed in Sweden. Many Swedish death metal bands are associated with the melodic death metal movement, thus giving Swedish death metal a different sound from other variations of death metal. Unlike American death metal groups, the first Swedish bands were rooted in hardcore punk. Gothenburg has a large melodic death metal scene while Stockholm is known for its more raw death metal scene.
History
Precursors
Unlike American groups, the Swedish death metal scene's earliest originators were influenced by punk rock, especially the D-beat and hardcore punk scene. Bathory, who would subsequently become a primary influence for the black metal scene, were a pivotal group in Swedish extreme metal.
In the early 1990s, two death metal scenes emerged in Gothenburg and Stockholm. The first wave of "Swedish death metal" consisted of the bands Carnage, Morbid and Nihilist, who fragmented later into Entombed, Dismember and Unleashed. Many of these bands used the trademark Tomas Skogsberg/Sunlight Studios "buzzsaw" guitar tone. It was created by using detuned electric guitars (usually C# standard or lower), a maxed out Boss HM-2 Heavy Metal pedal, sometimes in combination with a single guitar through a Boss DS-1 Distortion pedal. The originator of this guitar sound was Nihilist guitarist Leffe Cuzner, though it was evolved and altered over the years. Newer bands playing in the "old school" Swedish style include Bloodbath, Paganizer and Repugnant. According to Stewart Mason of AllMusic, the "increasingly melodic" style of Swedish death metal combines the post-hardcore aggression and guttural vocals of black metal with melodic and technically proficient guitar lines.
Gothenburg scene
Later, Swedish and Finnish bands used grindcore-based riffs and began adding progressive rock influences and the scene moved from Stockholm to Gothenburg. The Gothenburg sound, (also known as "melodic death metal", "Gothenburg melodic death metal" and "melodeath"), propelled by both the Boss HM-2 Heavy Metal distortion effect pedal with cleaner recordings and melded with new wave of British heavy metal guitar lines, was pioneered by bands such as At the Gates, Dark Tranquillity and In Flames for their respective albums: Slaughter of the Soul, The Gallery and The Jester Race. Other groups to have emerged from the Swedish death metal scene include Scar Symmetry, Hypocrisy, Tiamat, Arch Enemy, Soilwork, Meshuggah, Amon Amarth, Edge of Sanity, Opeth, Desultory, Cemetary, Avatar and The Haunted.
Influence
The death metal scene in Sweden has influenced many bands and genres outside Sweden.
Stewart Mason has noted this popularity in the United States, using the term "Swedecore" to describe Scandinavian-style metal as played by non-Nordic bands. The Stockholm sound has been known to be very influenced by the first Entombed album and bands such as Autopsy, Death and Repulsion. The Stockholm sound has less reception but is strictly followed by bands like Trap Them and Rotten Sound. Melodic death metal, on the other hand, has had a notable influence on the melodic metalcore sound of the 2000s.
See also
List of Swedish death metal bands
Early Norwegian black metal scene
References
Footnotes
Works cited
Olivier "Zoltar" Badin, "In the Embrace of Evil: Swedish Death Metal New Blood", Terrorizer #182, April 2009, pp. 32–34.
James Hoare, "Left Hand Pathfinders", Terrorizer #182, April 2009, pp. 28–29.
Perlah, Jeff. "Justin Foley of Killswitch Engage: Playing Heavy, having Fun". Modern Drummer 10 2004: 96,100, 102, 104, 106.
Freeborn, Robert. "A Selective Discography of Scandinavian Heavy Metal Music". Notes - Quarterly Journal of the Music Library Association 66.4 (2010): 840-50.
Death metal
Music scenes
Swedish styles of music
Extreme metal
Heavy metal by location
|
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] |
209050
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20Information%20Services
|
Internet Information Services
|
Internet Information Services (IIS, formerly Internet Information Server) is an extensible web server software created by Microsoft for use with the Windows NT family. IIS supports HTTP, HTTP/2, HTTPS, FTP, FTPS, SMTP and NNTP. It has been an integral part of the Windows NT family since Windows NT 4.0, though it may be absent from some editions (e.g. Windows XP Home edition), and is not active by default.
History
The first Microsoft web server was a research project at the European Microsoft Windows NT Academic Centre (EMWAC), part of the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, and was distributed as freeware. However, since the EMWAC server was unable to handle the volume of traffic going to Microsoft.com, Microsoft was forced to develop its own web server, IIS.
Almost every version of IIS was released either alongside or with a version of Microsoft Windows:
IIS 1.0 was initially released as a free add-on for Windows NT 3.51.
IIS 2.0 was included with Windows NT 4.0.
IIS 3.0, which was included with Service Pack 2 of Windows NT 4.0, introduced the Active Server Pages dynamic scripting environment.
IIS 4.0 was released as part of the "Option Pack" for Windows NT 4.0. It introduced the new MMC-based administration application and also was the first version where you can run multiple instances of web and FTP servers, differenting them by port number and/or host name. It was also the first version to run application pools.
IIS 5.0 shipped with Windows 2000 and introduced additional authentication methods, support for the WebDAV protocol, and enhancements to ASP. IIS 5.0 also dropped support for the Gopher protocol. IIS 5.0 added HTTP.SYS.
IIS 5.1 was shipped with Windows XP Professional, and was nearly identical to IIS 5.0 on Windows 2000.
IIS 6.0 included with Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, added support for IPv6 and included a new worker process model that increased security as well as reliability. HTTP.sys was introduced in IIS 6.0 as an HTTP-specific protocol listener for HTTP requests. Also each component (like for example Server Side Includes or ASP) now has to be explicitly installed, because in earlier versions often hackers entered sites by using security bugs of components that were not even in use by the hacked site, improving security.
IIS 7.0 was a complete redesign and rewrite of IIS, and was shipped with Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008. IIS 7.0 included a new modular design that allowed for a reduced attack surface and increased performance. It also introduced a hierarchical configuration system allowing for simpler site deploys, a new Windows Forms-based management application, new command-line management options and increased support for the .NET Framework. IIS 7.0 on Vista does not limit the number of allowed connections as IIS on XP did, but limits concurrent requests to 10 (Windows Vista Ultimate, Business, and Enterprise Editions) or 3 (Vista Home Premium). Additional requests are queued, which hampers performance, but they are not rejected as with XP.
IIS 7.5 was included in Windows 7 (but it must be turned on in the side panel of Programs and Features) and Windows Server 2008 R2. IIS 7.5 improved WebDAV and FTP modules as well as command-line administration in PowerShell. It also introduced TLS 1.1 and TLS 1.2 support and the Best Practices Analyzer tool and process isolation for application pools.
IIS 8.0 is only available in Windows Server 2012 and Windows 8. IIS 8.0 includes SNI (binding SSL to hostnames rather than IP addresses), Application Initialization, centralized SSL certificate support, and multicore scaling on NUMA hardware, among other new features.
IIS 8.5 is included in Windows Server 2012 R2 and Windows 8.1. This version includes Idle worker-Process page-out, Dynamic Site Activation, Enhanced Logging, ETW logging, and Automatic Certificate Rebind.
IIS 10.0 version 1607 a.k.a. version 10.0.14393 is included in Windows Server 2016 released 2016-09-26 and Windows 10 Anniversary Update released 2016-08-02. This version includes support for HTTP/2, running IIS in Windows containers on Nano Server, a new Rest management API and corresponding web-based management GUI, and Wildcard Host Headers.
IIS 10.0 version 1709 is included in Windows Server, version 1709 (Semi-Annual Channel) and Windows 10 Fall Creators Update both released 2017-10-17. This version adds support for HSTS, container enhancements, new site binding PowerShell cmdlets, and 4 new server variables prefixed with "CRYPT_".
IIS 10.0 version 1809 a.k.a. version 10.0.17763 is included in Windows Server 2019 and Windows 10 October Update released 2018-10-02. This version added flags for control of HTTP/2 and OCSP Stapling per site, a compression API and implementing module supporting both gzip and brotli schemes, and a UI for configuring HSTS.
All versions of IIS prior to 7.0 running on client operating systems supported only 10 simultaneous connections and a single website.
Microsoft was criticized by vendors of other web server software, including O'Reilly & Associates and Netscape, for its licensing of early versions of Windows NT; the "Workstation" edition of the OS permitted only ten simultaneous TCP/IP connections, whereas the more expensive "Server" edition, which otherwise had few additional features, permitted unlimited connections but bundled IIS. It was implied that this was intended to discourage consumers from running alternative web server packages on the cheaper edition. Netscape wrote an open letter to the Antitrust Division of the U.S. Department of Justice regarding this distinction in product licensing, which it asserted had no technical merit. O'Reilly showed that the user could remove the enforced limits meant to cripple NT 4.0 Workstation as a web server with two registry key changes and other trivial configuration file tweaking.
Features
IIS 6.0 and higher support the following authentication mechanisms:
Anonymous authentication
Basic access authentication
Digest access authentication
Integrated Windows Authentication
UNC authentication
.NET Passport Authentication (Removed in Windows Server 2008 and IIS 7.0)
Certificate authentication
IIS 7.0 has a modular architecture. Modules, also called extensions, can be added or removed individually so that only modules required for specific functionality have to be installed. IIS 7 includes native modules as part of the full installation. These modules are individual features that the server uses to process requests.
IIS 7.5 includes the following additional or enhanced security features:
Client certificate mapping
IP security
Request filtering
URL authorization
Authentication changed slightly between IIS 6.0 and IIS 7, most notably in that the anonymous user which was named "IUSR_{machinename}" is a built-in account in Vista and future operating systems and named "IUSR". Notably, in IIS 7, each authentication mechanism is isolated into its own module and can be installed or uninstalled.
IIS 8.0 offers new features targeted at performance and easier administration. The new features are:
Application Initialization: a feature that allows an administrator to configure certain applications to start automatically with server startup. This reduces the wait time experienced by users who access the site for the first time after a server reboot.
Splash page during application initialization: the administrator can configure a splash page to be displayed to the site visitor during an application initialization.
ASP.NET 4.5 support: With IIS 8.0, ASP.NET 4.5 is included by default, and IIS also offers several configuration options for running it side by side with ASP.NET 3.5.
Centralized SSL certificate support: a feature that makes managing certificates easier by allowing the administrator to store and access the certificates on a file share.
Multicore scaling on NUMA hardware: IIS 8.0 provides several configuration options that optimize performance on systems that run NUMA, such as running several worker processes under one application pool, using soft or hard affinity and more.
WebSocket Protocol Support
Server Name Indication (SNI): SNI is an extension to Transport Layer Security, which allows binding of multiple websites with different hostnames to one IP address (similar to how Host Headers are used for non-SSL sites).
Dynamic IP Address Restrictions: a feature that enables an administrator to dynamically block IPs or IP ranges that hit the server with a large number of requests
CPU Throttling: a set of controls that allow the server administrator to control CPU usage by each application pool in order to optimize performance in a multi-tenant environment
IIS 8.5 has several improvements related to performance in large-scale scenarios, such as those used by commercial hosting providers and Microsoft's own cloud offerings. It also has several added features related to logging and troubleshooting. The new features are:
Idle worker-Process page-out: a function to suspend idle site to reduce the memory footprint of idle sites
Dynamic Site Activation: a feature that registers listening queues only to sites that have received requests
Enhanced Logging: a feature to allow collection of Server variables, request headers and response headers in the IIS logs
ETW logging: an ETW provider which allows collecting real-time logs using various Event-tracing tool
Automatic Certificate Rebind: a feature that detects when a site certificate has been renewed, and automatically rebinds the site to it
Express
IIS Express, a lightweight (4.5–6.6 MB) version of IIS, is available as a standalone freeware server and may be installed on Windows XP with Service Pack 3 and subsequent versions of Microsoft Windows. IIS 7.5 Express supports only the HTTP and HTTPS protocols. It is portable, stores its configuration on a per-user basis, does not require administrative privileges and attempts to avoid conflicting with existing web servers on the same machine. IIS Express can be downloaded separately or as a part of WebMatrix or Visual Studio 2012 and later. (In Visual Studio 2010 and earlier, web developers developing ASP.NET apps used ASP.NET Development Server, codenamed "Cassini".) By default, IIS Express only serves local traffic.
Extensions
IIS releases new feature modules between major version releases to add new functionality. The following extensions are available for IIS 7.5:
FTP Publishing Service: Lets Web content creators publish content securely to IIS 7 Web servers with SSL-based authentication and data transfer.
Administration Pack: Adds administration UI support for management features in IIS 7, including ASP.NET authorization, custom errors, FastCGI configuration, and request filtering.
Application Request Routing: Provides a proxy-based routing module that forwards HTTP requests to content servers based on HTTP headers, server variables, and load balance algorithms.
Database Manager: Allows easy management of local and remote databases from within IIS Manager.
Media Services: Integrates a media delivery platform with IIS to manage and administer delivery of rich media and other Web content.
URL Rewrite Module: Provides a rule-based rewriting mechanism for changing request URLs before they are processed by the Web server.
WebDAV: Lets Web authors publish content securely to IIS 7 Web servers, and lets Web administrators and hosters manage WebDAV settings using IIS 7 management and configuration tools.
Web Deployment Tool: Synchronizes IIS 6.0 and IIS 7 servers, migrates an IIS 6.0 server to IIS 7, and deploys Web applications to an IIS 7 server.
Usage
According to Netcraft, in February 2014, IIS had a "market share of all sites" of 32.80%, making it the second most popular web server in the world, behind Apache HTTP Server at 38.22%. Netcraft showed a rising trend in market share for IIS, since 2012. On 14 February 2014, however, the W3Techs shows different results. According to W3Techs, IIS is the third most used web server behind Apache HTTP Server (1st place) and Nginx. Furthermore, it shows a consistently falling trend for IIS use since February 2013.
Netcraft data in February 2017 indicates IIS had a "market share of the top million busiest sites" of 10.19%, making it the third most popular web server in the world, behind Apache at 41.41% and nginx at 28.34%.
Security
IIS 4 and IIS 5 were affected by the CA-2001-13 security vulnerability which led to the infamous Code Red attack; however, both versions 6.0 and 7.0 have no reported issues with this specific vulnerability. In IIS 6.0 Microsoft opted to change the behaviour of pre-installed ISAPI handlers, many of which were culprits in the vulnerabilities of 4.0 and 5.0, thus reducing the attack surface of IIS. In addition, IIS 6.0 added a feature called "Web Service Extensions" that prevents IIS from launching any program without explicit permission by an administrator.
By default IIS 5.1 and earlier run websites in a single process running the context of the System account, a Windows account with administrative rights. Under 6.0 all request handling processes run in the context of the Network Service account, which has significantly fewer privileges, so that should there be a vulnerability in a feature or in custom code it won't necessarily compromise the entire system given the sandboxed environment these worker processes run in. IIS 6.0 also contained a new kernel HTTP stack (http.sys) with a stricter HTTP request parser and response cache for both static and dynamic content.
According to Secunia, , IIS 7 had a total of six resolved vulnerabilities while IIS 6 had a total of eleven vulnerabilities, out of which one was still unpatched. The unpatched security advisory has a severity rating of 2 out of 5.
In June 2007, a Google study of 80 million domains concluded that while the IIS market share was 23% at the time, IIS servers hosted 49% of the world's malware, the same as Apache servers whose market share was 66%. The study also observed the geographical location of these dirty servers and suggested that the cause of this could be the use of unlicensed copies of Windows that could not obtain security updates from Microsoft. In a blog post on 28 April 2009, Microsoft noted that it supplies security updates to everyone without genuine verification.
The 2013 mass surveillance disclosures made it more widely known that IIS is particularly bad in supporting perfect forward secrecy (PFS), especially when used in conjunction with Internet Explorer. Possessing one of the long term asymmetric secret keys used to establish a HTTPS session should not make it easier to derive the short term session key to then decrypt the conversation, even at a later time. Diffie–Hellman key exchange (DHE) and elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman key exchange (ECDHE) are in 2013 the only ones known to have that property. Only 30% of Firefox, Opera, and Chromium Browser sessions use it, and nearly 0% of Apple's Safari and Microsoft Internet Explorer sessions.
See also
IIS Metabase
Logparser
Microsoft Personal Web Server
Windows Activation Services
Comparison of web servers
List of mail servers
References
External links
FTP server software
Message transfer agents
Microsoft server technology
Web server software
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209055
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20Lines
|
Blue Lines
|
Blue Lines is the debut studio album by English electronic music group Massive Attack, released on 8 April 1991 by Wild Bunch and Virgin Records. The recording was led by members Grantley "Daddy G" Marshall, Robert "3D" Del Naja, Adrian "Tricky" Thaws, and Andrew "Mushroom" Vowles, with co-production by Jonny Dollar. It also features contributions by singers Shara Nelson and Horace Andy. Generally regarded as the first "trip hop" album, Blue Lines blended elements of hip hop (such as breakbeats, sampling, and rapping) with dub, soul, reggae, and electronic music.
Blue Lines was named the 21st greatest album of all time in a 1997 "Music of the Millennium" poll conducted by HMV, Channel 4, The Guardian and Classic FM. In 2000, Q readers placed it at number 9 in the magazine's poll of the "100 Greatest British Albums Ever". In 2003, the album was included on Rolling Stones list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time and again in 2012 and 2020. Pitchfork ranked it at number 85 in its list of "The Top 100 Albums of the 1990s".
A remastered version of the album was released on 19 November 2012.
Background
"We worked on Blue Lines for about eight months, with breaks for Christmas and the World Cup," said Robert "3D" Del Naja, "but we started out with a selection of ideas that were up to seven years old. Songs like 'Safe from Harm' and 'Lately' had been around for a while, from when we were The Wild Bunch, or from our time on the sound systems in Bristol. But the more we worked on them, the more we began to conceive new ideas too – like, 'Five Man Army' came together as a jam." The group also drew inspiration from concept albums in various genres by artists such as Pink Floyd, Public Image Ltd., Billy Cobham, Wally Badarou, Herbie Hancock and Isaac Hayes.
Daddy G said about the making of the album:
The font used on the cover of the album is Helvetica Black Oblique. Del Naja has acknowledged the influence of the inflammable material logo used on the cover of Stiff Little Fingers' album Inflammable Material.
Composition
Blue Lines is generally considered the first trip hop album, although the term was not widely used before 1994. A fusion of electronic music, hip hop, dub, 1970s soul and reggae, it established Massive Attack as one of the most innovative British bands of the 1990s and the founder of trip hop's Bristol Sound. AllMusic also affirmed the album as the "first masterpiece" of what later became known as trip-hop, and described it as "filter[ing] American hip-hop through the lens of British club culture, a stylish, nocturnal sense of scene that encompassed music from rare groove to dub to dance. The album featured breakbeats, sampling, and rapping on a number of tracks, but the design of the album differed from traditional hip hop. Music critic Simon Reynolds stated that the album also marked a change in electronic/dance music, "a shift toward a more interior, meditational sound. The songs on Blue Lines run at 'spliff' tempos – from a mellow, moonwalking 90 beats per minute ... down to a positively torpid 67 bpm."
Reception
In a contemporary review of Blue Lines, Dele Fadele of NME described the album as "the sleekest, deadliest, most urbane, most confounding LP 1991 has yet seen", writing that Massive Attack "put current changes on the dancefloor in perspective and map out blueprints for what must surely come next" and that "after Blue Lines the boundaries separating soul, funk, reggae, house, classical, hip-hop and space-rock will be blurred forever." Selects Andrew Harrison similarly complimented the album's diverse mix of styles and called it "a record to transcend every boundary". Robert Christgau was more reserved in his praise, giving the album an honorable mention and writing, "from soul ii skank, those postindustrial blues got them down".
The album reached number 13 on the UK Albums Chart; sales were limited elsewhere. Blue Lines proved to be popular in the club scene, as well as on college radio stations.
According to Acclaimed Music, a site which uses statistics to numerically represent critical reception, Blue Lines is the 43th best-received album of all time, and third best-received of the 1990s. In 1997, Blue Lines was named the 21st greatest album of all time in a "Music of the Millennium" poll conducted by HMV, Channel 4, The Guardian and Classic FM. The following year, Q readers placed it at number 58 in its list of the "100 Greatest Albums Ever", and in 2000, the album was voted at number 9 in the magazine's poll of the "100 Greatest British Albums Ever". In 2003, the album was ranked number 395 on Rolling Stones list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, 397 in a 2012 revised list, and 241 in a 2020 revised list. Pitchfork ranked it at number 85 in its list of "The Top 100 Albums of the 1990s". The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. The track "Unfinished Sympathy" has also been singled out for praise, earning a BRIT Award nomination for the best single of 1991 and being hailed by BBC Music as "one of the most moving pieces of dance music ever, able to soften hearts and excite minds just as keenly as a ballad by Bacharach or a melody by McCartney."
"This album is chill music for me – music to write to", said author Chuck Palahniuk. "I'm writing short stories to this right now. I put this on repeat, something Andy Warhol used to do. He'd put singles on and play them unendingly to the point where the language would break down, and he would paint to that trance-like repetition."
As of February 2010, the album had sold 266,000 copies in the United States, according to Nielsen SoundScan.
Track listing
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Blue Lines.
Studios
Coach House (Bristol) – recording ; mixing
Matrix (London) – mixing
Konk Studios (London) – mixing
Eastcote Studios (London) – recording
Cherry Bear Studios – recording
Abbey Road Studios (London) – recording
Roundhouse (London) – mixing
Hot Nights (London) – recording
Musicians
Shara Nelson – vocals
Horace Andy – vocals
Massive Attack – vocals
Paul Johnson – bass guitar
Tony Bryan – vocals
Wil Malone – string arrangement, conducting
Gavyn Wright – leader
Neneh Cherry – additional arrangement
Mikey General – backing vocal
Technical
Massive Attack – production, mixing
Jonny Dollar – production, mixing
Booga Bear – executive production
Jeremy Allom – mix engineering
Bryan Chuck New – mix engineering
Kevin Petri – engineering
Haydn – string engineering
Artwork
Blame: Judy – art
"3D" Del Naja – art, design
Michael Nash – art, design
Jean-Baptiste Mondino – back cover photo
Eddie Monsoon – single faces
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Notes
References
Bibliography
1991 debut albums
Albums produced by Jonny Dollar
Massive Attack albums
Virgin Records albums
|
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209059
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine%20%28album%29
|
Clandestine (album)
|
Clandestine is the second studio album by Swedish death metal band Entombed. It was released on 12 November 1991 in Europe and on 11 February 1992 in North America. It helped establish a distinctively Swedish sound in the death metal genre. This is the only Entombed album on which original vocalist L.G. Petrov does not appear.
Reception
AllMusic gave Clandestine a rating of four and a half stars. In October 2016, Clandestine was inducted into the Decibel magazine Hall of Fame, becoming the second Entombed album to be featured in the Decibel Hall of Fame.
Track listing
2008 re-issue
Clandestine was re-issued as part of the Earache Classic Series with a DVD. The DVD is identical to their Monkey Puss DVD.
Personnel
Nicke Andersson – drums, vocals, art direction, logo, back cover
Uffe Cederlund – guitar, backing vocals
Lars Rosenberg – bass
Alex Hellid – guitar
Tomas Skogsberg – production, engineering
Entombed – production, engineering
Dan Seagrave – art direction, cover art
Johnny Dordevic is listed on the sleeve as the lead singer, but he does not appear on the album. All vocals were recorded by Nicke Andersson.
References
Entombed (band) albums
1991 albums
Earache Records albums
Albums with cover art by Dan Seagrave
|
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