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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Astrophysical%20Journal
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The Astrophysical Journal
|
The Astrophysical Journal, often abbreviated ApJ (pronounced "ap jay") in references and speech, is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of astrophysics and astronomy, established in 1895 by American astronomers George Ellery Hale and James Edward Keeler. The journal discontinued its print edition and became an electronic-only journal in 2015.
Since 1953 The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series (ApJS) has been published in conjunction with The Astrophysical Journal, with generally longer articles to supplement the material in the journal. It publishes six volumes per year, with two 280-page issues per volume.
The Astrophysical Journal Letters (ApJL), established in 1967 by Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar as Part 2 of The Astrophysical Journal, is now a separate journal focusing on the rapid publication of high-impact astronomical research.
The three journals were published by the University of Chicago Press for the American Astronomical Society until, in January 2009, publication was transferred to IOP Publishing, following the move of the society's Astronomical Journal in 2008. The reason for the changes were given by the society as the increasing financial demands of the University of Chicago Press. Compared to journals in other scientific disciplines, The Astrophysical Journal has a larger (> 85%) acceptance rate, which, however, is similar to other journals covering astronomy and astrophysics.
On January 1, 2022, the AAS Journals, including ApJ, transitioned to Gold open access model, with all new papers released under a Creative Commons Attribution license and access restrictions and subscription charges removed from previously-published papers.
History
The journal was founded in 1895 by George Ellery Hale and James E. Keeler as The Astrophysical Journal: An International Review of Spectroscopy and Astronomical Physics. In addition to the two founding editors, there was an international board of associate editors: M. A. Cornu, Paris; N. C. Dunér, Upsala; William Huggins, London; P. Tacchini, Rome; H. C. Vogel, Potsdam, C. S. Hastings, Yale; A. A. Michelson, Chicago; E. C. Pickering, Harvard; H. A. Rowland, Johns Hopkins; and C. A. Young, Princeton. It was intended that the journal would fill the gap between journals in astronomy and physics, providing a venue for publication of articles on astronomical applications of the spectroscope; on laboratory research closely allied to astronomical physics, including wavelength determinations of metallic and gaseous spectra and experiments on radiation and absorption; on theories of the Sun, Moon, planets, comets, meteors, and nebulae; and on instrumentation for telescopes and laboratories. The further development of ApJ up to 1995 was outlined by Helmut Abt in an article entitled "Some Statistical Highlights of the Astrophysical Journal" in 1995.
Editors
The following persons have been editors-in-chief of the journal:
George Hale (1895–1902)
Edwin Brant Frost (1902–1932)
Edwin Hubble (1932–1952)
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1952–1971)
Helmut A. Abt (1971–1999)
Robert Kennicutt (1999–2006)
Ethan Vishniac (since 2006)
See also
The Astronomical Journal
Astronomy and Astrophysics
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia
References
External links
The Astrophysical Journal
The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series
The Astrophysical Journal Letters
Astrophysics journals
IOP Publishing academic journals
University of Chicago Press academic journals
Publications established in 1895
English-language journals
American Astronomical Society academic journals
Online-only journals
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porridge%20%281974%20TV%20series%29
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Porridge (1974 TV series)
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Porridge is a British sitcom, starring Ronnie Barker and Richard Beckinsale, written by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais, and broadcast on BBC1 from 1974 to 1977. The programme ran for three series, and included two Christmas specials and a feature film of the same name.
The sitcom focuses on two prison inmates, Norman Fletcher (played by Barker) and Lennie Godber (played by Beckinsale), who are serving time at the fictional HMP Slade in Cumberland. The show's title is a reference to both the traditional breakfast that used to be served in British prisons, and a 1950s British slang term for a prison sentence.
Porridge was critically acclaimed and is widely considered to be one of the greatest British sitcoms of all time. It is ranked No. 35 on the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes compiled by the British Film Institute in 2000. In 2004, Porridge placed seventh in a poll to find Britain's Best Sitcom.
The series was followed by a 1978 sequel, Going Straight, which saw Barker reprise his character as he tries to avoid going back to prison. Porridge was revived in 2016 under the same name, with Fletcher's grandson beginning a prison sentence.
Premise
The main storylines of the sitcom focus on its central character, Norman Stanley Fletcher, a man from Muswell Hill, London. Fletcher, described as a "habitual criminal" by the judge who sentences him (and whose words, voiced by Barker, are repeated in the show's opening titles), is sent to HMP Slade, a fictional Category C prison in Cumberland, to serve a prison sentence for his latest crime. The sitcom also follows his cellmate Lennie Godber, a naïve inmate from Birmingham serving his first sentence, whom Fletcher takes under his wing. Each episode's story focuses on their time in prison and the various issues they endure while serving their prison sentences.
While both Fletcher and Godber are the show's main characters, the series features two major supporting characters, both prison officers. The first is Mr Mackay, a tough and austere Scotsman with a clear dislike of Fletcher, with whom he often comes into conflict (and by whom he is often surreptitiously mocked). The other is Mr Barrowclough, Mackay's empathetic, progressively minded subordinate, who is prone to manipulation by his charges because of his well-meaning character and principles.
Cast
Main cast
Ronnie Barker as Norman Stanley Fletcher
Fulton Mackay as Principal officer Mr MacKay
Richard Beckinsale as Lennie Godber
Brian Wilde as Prison officer Mr Henry Barrowclough
Peter Vaughan as "Genial" Harry Grout
Sam Kelly as "Bunny" Warren
Tony Osoba as Jim McLaren
Michael Barrington as Geoffrey Venables (the Governor)
Christopher Biggins as Lukewarm
Recurring cast
David Jason as Blanco Webb
Ken Jones as Bernard "Horrible" Ives
Patricia Brake as Ingrid Fletcher
Maurice Denham as the Honourable Mr Justice Stephen Rawley
Brian Glover as Cyril Heslop
Ronald Lacey as Harris
Paul McDowell as Mr Collinson
Ray Dunbobbin as Evans
Dudley Sutton as Reg Urwin
Philip Madoc as Williams
Alun Armstrong as Spraggon
David Daker as Jarvis
Eric Dodson as Banyard
Peter Jeffrey as Napper Wainwright
John Dair as Crusher
Paul Angelis as Navy Rum
Philip Jackson as Melvin 'Dylan' Bottomley
Jane Wenham as Mrs Dorothy Jamieson
Madge Hindle as Mrs Hesketh
The programme's scriptwriters appear, uncredited, outside Fletch and Godber's cell in the episode "No Peace for the Wicked". Ronnie Barker had suggested the part of Lennie Godber for Paul Henry, but the decision to cast Richard Beckinsale was taken by the production team.
Production
Development
Porridge originated with a 1973 project commissioned by the BBC Seven of One, which would see Ronnie Barker star in seven different situation comedy pilot episodes. The most successful would then be made into a full series. One of the episodes was "Prisoner and Escort", written by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais about a newly sentenced habitual criminal, Norman Stanley Fletcher (Barker), being escorted to prison by two warders: the timid Barrowclough (Brian Wilde) and the stern Mackay (Fulton Mackay). It was broadcast on 1 April 1973 on BBC2. Despite Barker's initial preference for another of the pilots, a sitcom about a Welsh gambling addict, "Prisoner and Escort" was selected. It was renamed Porridge, a British slang term for a prison sentence from the 1950s; Barker, Clement and La Frenais actually came up with the same title independently of each other.
In their research, Clement and La Frenais spoke to Jonathan Marshall, a former prisoner who had written a book, How to Survive in the Nick, and he advised them about prison slang, dress and routines. Struggling to think up plots and humour for such a downbeat, confined environment, a particular phrase used by Marshall – "little victories" – struck a chord and convinced them to base the series on an inmate who made his daily life in prison more bearable by beating the system, even in trivial ways.
The BBC was forced to look around for locations because the Home Office refused permission for any production filming inside or outside a real prison. Instead the main gatehouse of the disused St Albans prison (in the town's Victoria Street) was used in the opening credits. Exteriors were first filmed at a psychiatric hospital near Watford. However, after the completion of the second series, the hospital withdrew permission for more filming following complaints from patients' families. Another institution near Ealing was then used for the third series. Scenes within cells and offices were filmed at the BBC's London studios, but for shots of the wider prison interior, series production designer Tim Gleeson converted an old water tank, used at Ealing Studios for underwater filming, into a multi-storey set.
The first episode, "New Faces, Old Hands", was aired on BBC1 on 5 September 1974, attracting a television audience of over 16 million, and receiving positive reviews from critics. Two further series were commissioned, as well as two Christmas special episodes. The final episode of Porridge, "Final Stretch", was broadcast on 25 March 1977. The producers and the writers were keen to make more episodes, but Barker was wary of being "stuck with a character" and also wanted to move on to other projects, so the series came to a close. Barker did, however, reprise his role as Fletcher in a sequel, Going Straight, which ran for one series in 1978. A feature-length version of the show was made in 1979 and in 2003 a follow-up mockumentary, Life Beyond the Box: Norman Stanley Fletcher, was aired.
Locations
The prison exterior in the title sequence is the old St Albans prison gatehouse and HM Prison Maidstone, which was also featured in the BBC comedy series Birds of a Feather (HMP Slade is referred to in Birds of a Feather when the protagonists' husbands are imprisoned there after reoffending in Series 7). The interior shots of doors being locked were filmed in Shepherds Bush police station – the BBC had a good relationship with officers there. In the episode "Pardon Me" Fletcher speaks to Blanco (David Jason) in the prison gardens: this was filmed in the grounds of an old brewery outside Baldock on the A505 to Royston. The barred windows approximated a prison. The building has since been demolished.
The 1974 episode "A Day Out", which features a prison work party, was filmed in and around the Welsh village of Penderyn, the prisoners' ditch being excavated by a JCB. Loftus Road, the home of Queens Park Rangers Football Club, was briefly featured in "Happy Release", standing in for Elland Road in Leeds.
In the episode "No Way Out", Fletcher tries to get MacKay to fall into a tunnel in a tarmac area, these outside shots were filmed at St Bernard's Hospital in West London, the barred windows in this case being those of the hospital pharmacy. The interior shots for the 1979 film were shot entirely at HM Prison Chelmsford, Essex.
Titles and music
The opening credits consist of outside shots of Slade prison and of several doors and gates being closed and locked, which was intended to set the scene. In the first series, there were also shots of St Pancras railway station, which was changed in subsequent series to shots of Fletcher walking around Slade prison. Title music was thought unsuitable for a show set in prison, so instead there is a booming narration (voiced by Barker himself) given by the presiding judge passing sentence on Fletcher:
For series 1, the narration is 'clean' (i.e. no effects) and plays in one complete piece. For series 2 and 3, it is broken down by sentence into three sections and has an echo effect added to increase the gravity of the 'judge's' words, with each of the three sentences followed by shots of locking various doors around the 'prison' with key locking sound effects.
Subsequently, Barker is reported to have said that he regretted recording himself as the judge, a role subsequently played by Maurice Denham in two episodes of the third series.
The theme music for the closing credits was written by Max Harris, who had also written the theme music for numerous other TV shows, including The Strange World of Gurney Slade, The Gold Robbers and Doomwatch, and would go on to arrange the theme for Open All Hours (which was written by Joseph Ascher), another of the Seven of One pilots. The cheery theme was "deliberately at variance with the dour comedy" and given a music hall feel by Harris because of the lead character's Cockney origins.
Episodes
Following the pilot episode broadcast on 1 April 1973, the sitcom ran for three series between and , with 20 episodes in total. Each episode was 30 minutes except for the two Christmas specials in 1975 and 1976.
Sequels
Going Straight
A sequel to Porridge, Going Straight, was aired between 24 February and 7 April 1978. Beginning with Fletcher's release from prison on parole, it follows his attempts to "go straight" and readjust to a law-abiding life. Richard Beckinsale reprised his role as Godber, now the fiancé of Fletcher's daughter Ingrid (Patricia Brake), and the couple married in the final episode. Nicholas Lyndhurst also featured as Fletcher's gormless son, Raymond. The series lasted six episodes, and generally was not as well received as its predecessor, although it did win two BAFTAs, for Best Situation Comedy and Best Light Entertainment Performance (jointly with The Two Ronnies) for Ronnie Barker.
Life Beyond the Box: Norman Stanley Fletcher
On 29 December 2003, a mockumentary follow-up to Porridge was broadcast on BBC Two. It looked back on Fletcher's life and how the various inmates of Slade had fared 25 years after Fletcher's release from prison. Warren is now a sign painter, Lukewarm is married to Trevor, McLaren is an MSP, Grouty has become a celebrity gangster, Horrible Ives collects money for non-existent charities, Godber is now a lorry driver and still married to Ingrid, and Fletcher runs a pub with his childhood sweetheart, Gloria.
Porridge (2016)
On Sunday 28 August 2016, a one-off sequel to the original series, also titled Porridge, was broadcast on BBC One. It starred Kevin Bishop as Nigel Norman Fletcher, Norman Stanley Fletcher's grandson, who is serving five years in prison for computer hacking.
The special was written by the original creators and writers of Porridge, Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais. It gained praise from both viewers and TV critics, with many calling for a full series to be made. The overnight ratings showed that 4.4 million people had watched it. Following the success of the initial episode, in October 2016 the BBC announced that a full series of six episodes had been commissioned, with production to start in January 2017. The full series was released online on 6 October 2017 on the BBC iPlayer as well as starting a six-week run on Friday Prime BBC One.
International adaptations
An American version entitled On the Rocks (1975–76) ran for a season, while a Dutch version Laat maar zitten (a pun: the title has several meanings, like "Don't mention it" and "Let it be", but in this case it can also be interpreted as "Let them do time") ran from 1988 to 1991; later episodes of the Netherlands version were original scripts, the series also had a very successful Portuguese remake entitled Camilo na Prisão ("Camilo in Prison").
In other media
Film adaptation
Following the example of other sitcom crossovers, such as Dad's Army, Steptoe and Son and The Likely Lads, a feature-length version of Porridge was made in 1979. Barker again starred as Fletcher, and most of the supporting cast also returned. Unlike the television series, it was actually filmed at a real prison as HMP Chelmsford was temporarily vacant following a fire.
Novelisations and audio
Novelisations of the three series of Porridge and the film were issued by BBC Books, as well as an adaptation of Going Straight. BBC Enterprises released an LP record featuring two Porridge episodes, "A Night In" and "Heartbreak Hotel" in 1977.(REB 270) Two volumes of audio cassette releases (comprising four episodes each) were issued in the mid-1990s. They were later re-released on CD.
Stage show
In 2009 Porridge was adapted into a stage show, also written by Clement and La Frenais, starring former EastEnders actor Shaun Williamson as Fletcher and Daniel West as Godber. Peter Kay, a fan of the show, was previously offered the role but turned it down. It opened in September 2009 to positive reviews.
Related publications
Ronnie Barker was the author of Fletcher's Book of Rhyming Slang (Pan, 1979), which includes an introduction by 'Fletch'.
Home releases
Reception
Popularity with prisoners
Porridge was immensely popular with British prisoners. Erwin James, an ex-prisoner who writes a bi-weekly column for The Guardian newspaper, stated that:
He also noted:
Contributions to the English language
The script allowed the prisoners to swear without offending viewers by using the word "naff" in place of ruder words ("Naff off!", "Darn your own naffing socks", "Doing next to naff all"), thereby popularising a word that had been virtually unknown and the first recorded use of which was in 1966. Ronnie Barker did not claim to have invented it and in a television interview in 2003 it was explained to him on camera what the word meant, as he did not have a clue.
A genuine neologism was "nerk", which was used in place of the more offensive "berk". "Berk" has changed meaning since its inception and is generally used now to mean "fool" while the original rhyming slang meaning refers to female genitalia (via 'Berkshire Hunt'). Another term was "scrote" (presumably derived from scrotum), meaning a nasty, unpleasant person.
See also
Birds of a Feather (1989)
Women in Prison (1987)
References
Bibliography
Webber, Richard (2005). Porridge: The Complete Scripts and Series Guide. London: Headline Book Publishing.
External links
BBC Comedy Guide
RonnieBarker.com on Porridge
100 Greatest Sitcoms: Porridge
Porridge at British TV Comedy
Porridge: The Unofficial Homepage
Erwin James (prisoner) article on Porridge in The Guardian
1974 British television series debuts
1977 British television series endings
1970s British sitcoms
1970s prison television series
BBC prison television shows
BBC television sitcoms
Television series by BBC Studios
British crime comedy television series
English-language television shows
Television shows adapted into films
Television shows adapted into novels
Television shows adapted into plays
Television shows set in Cumbria
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209299
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucian%20M%C3%BCller
|
Lucian Müller
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Lucian Müller (17 March 1836 – 24 April 1898) was a German classical scholar.
Life
Müller was born in Merseburg in the Province of Saxony. After studying at the universities of Berlin and Halle, he lived for five years in the Netherlands, working on his Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden (1869). Unable to obtain a university appointment in Germany, he accepted (1870) the professorship of Latin at the Imperial Historico-Philological Institute in St Petersburg.
He died in St Petersburg.
Works
Müller's works display great erudition and critical acumen, and also feature bitter attacks on eminent scholars whose opinions differ from his own. He was a disciple of the methods of Richard Bentley and Karl Lachmann. His De re metrica poetarum latinorum (1861; 2nd ed. 1894) represents a landmark in the investigation of the metrical system of the Roman poets (the dramatists excepted), and his Metrik der Griechen und Römer (2nd ed., 1885) is an excellent treatise on a limited subject (Eng. trans. by Samuel Ball Platner, Boston, 1892).
His other chief publications were:
G. Lucili saturarum reliquiae (1872), including the fragments of Accius and Sueius
Leben und Werke des Gaius Lucilius (1876; suppt. Luciliana, 1884)
edition of Horace (1869; 2nd ed. 1879; 3rd ed. 1897)
edition of Catullus (1870)
edition of Phaedrus (1877)
Quintus Horatius Flaccus, eine litterarhistorische Biographie (1880)
Quintus Ennius (1884), an introduction to the study of Roman poetry
Q. Enni carminum reliquiae (1884)
Livi Andronici et Gnaeus Naevius fabularum reliquiae (1885)
Der saturnische Vers und seine Denkmäler (1885)
Noni Marcelli compendiosa doctrina (1888)
De Pacuvii fabulis (1889)
De Accii fabulis disputatio (1890)
Ein Horazjubiläum (1892), contains a short autobiography
edition of Horace's Odes and Epodes, with German commentaries (1882)
edition of Horace's Satires and Epistles (1891–93)
Notes
References
1836 births
1898 deaths
German classical scholars
People from Merseburg
People from the Province of Saxony
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[
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] |
209300
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back%20office
|
Back office
|
A back office in most corporations is where work that supports front office work is done. The front office is the "face" of the company and is all the resources of the company that are used to make sales and interact with customers and clients. The back office is all the resources of the company that are devoted to actually producing a product or service and all the other labor that isn't seen by customers, such as administration or logistics. Broadly speaking, back office work includes roles that affect the costs side of a business' trading statement and front office work includes roles that affect the income side of a business' trading statement.
Although the operations of a back office are seldom prominent, they are a major contributor to a business' success. They can include functions such as accounting, planning, inventory management, supply-chain management, human resources and logistics.
Back offices are often located somewhere other than company headquarters. Many are in areas and countries with cheaper rent and lower labor costs. Some office parks provide back offices for tenants whose front offices are in more expensive neighborhoods. Back office functions can be outsourced to consultants and contractors, including ones in other countries.
See also
Front office
References
Business terms
|
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209301
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From%20the%20Terrace
|
From the Terrace
|
From the Terrace is a 1960 American DeLuxe Color drama film in CinemaScope directed by Mark Robson, and starring Paul Newman, Joanne Woodward, Myrna Loy, Ina Balin, George Grizzard, and Leon Ames, with a young Barbara Eden appearing in one scene.
The screenplay was written by Ernest Lehman, based on the 1958 novel by John O'Hara that tells the story of the estranged son of a Pennsylvania factory owner who marries into a prestigious family and moves to New York to seek his fortune.
This was the third movie that real-life spouses Paul Newman and Joanne Woodward made together.
Plot
In 1946, David Alfred Eaton (Paul Newman) returns home from the war to Philadelphia. He finds his mother Martha (Myrna Loy) driven to alcoholism by years of neglect and abuse from her husband Samuel Eaton (Leon Ames), owner of a prestigious iron and steel company. Having withdrawn from his family after the death of his firstborn son thirteen years earlier, Samuel's resentment drove Alfred to turn his back on the family business and strike out on his own with Lex Porter (George Grizzard), his closest friend.
While attending a party at the estate of Lex's wealthy uncle, Alfred is dazzled by Mary St. John (Joanne Woodward), the daughter of a wealthy family. Mary is drawn into a relationship with Alfred and breaks her secret engagement to Dr. Jim Roper (Patrick O'Neal), defying her parents. After a humiliating argument, Alfred's father falls ill, and Alfred shuns the family business once again to start an aviation company with Lex.
On his wedding day, Alfred receives word that his father has died. Certain that Samuel has timed his death to spite him, Alfred goes ahead with the ceremony. With his uncle's money, Lex and Alfred then fund the Nassau Aircraft Corporation, but when Lex shows more interest in perfecting aircraft designs than in selling planes, Alfred becomes impatient.
One wintry day, Alfred and Mary are driving home from a party when they see a little boy fall through the thin ice of a frozen pond. Alfred plunges into the icy waters to save him. The boy's grandfather, James Duncan MacHardie (Felix Aylmer), the most famous financier in America, invites Alfred and Mary to dinner. MacHardie, a shrewd businessman, sensing Alfred's drive and ambition, offers him a job in his investment firm.
Obsessed by the need to outdo his father, Alfred travels the country for MacHardie, leaving Mary alone for months at a time. Lonely and self-pitying, Mary begins to resent Alfred's constant absences. Creighton Duffy (Howard Caine), MacHardie's son-in-law, whose position is threatened by Alfred's acumen, suggests that Alfred spend two months in rural Pennsylvania checking out the business aptitude and prospects of Ralph Benziger (Ted de Corsia), a prosperous coal mine owner.
After an ugly argument with his wife, Alfred goes to Pennsylvania. Invited to dinner at Benziger's home, he meets Natalie (Ina Balin), the man's beautiful and compassionate daughter. Lonely and overwhelmed by her sensitivity, Alfred impetuously invites her on a date, but she refuses because he is married. Later that night, however, Natalie reconsiders and meets him at a drive-in movie the following evening.
Alfred confides to Natalie that her warmth and generosity has made him realize what a sham his marriage is. They share a kiss, but Natalie still believes they must end this relationship before it goes any further for both their sakes.
Upon returning to New York, Alfred immediately is summoned to MacHardie's office. He is informed that Mary has been having an affair with Dr. Roper. But the archly conservative MacHardie proceeds to warn Alfred that he will not tolerate divorce within his firm, considering it a failure in the employee's character. MacHardie also assigns him to analyze the Nassau Aircraft Corp., his former firm, as a possible investment.
One night, while leaving a party with his wife, Alfred unexpectedly encounters Natalie in front of the hotel. Sensing that Alfred and Natalie were intimate, Mary vindictively calls Roper and makes a date with him. Alfred goes to meet Natalie and tells her that, although he is estranged from Mary, his career prevents him from requesting a divorce.
Alfred begins to investigate Nassau Aircraft's business practices. Duffy, who has become unethically involved with Nassau and will reap a financial windfall if MacHardie invests in the company, threatens to blackmail Alfred unless he suppresses his report.
Alfred and Natalie find themselves unable to resist their attraction to each other, and they meet for a tryst in a hotel room. Photographers hired by Duffy burst in and capture their indiscretion. Natalie, uncertain if Alfred's main concern is to save her reputation or his career, decides to leave. Mary, meanwhile, suggests to her husband that they share an open marriage, seeing whomever they please. After she seductively retires to her bedroom, the scandalous photos are delivered to Alfred at his home.
At work the next day, MacHardie ushers in Mary to celebrate Alfred's surprise promotion to partner. Duffy smirks, only to see Alfred rise and denounce MacHardie's hypocrisy of placing success and social position above personal responsibility and happiness. Alfred then issues the uncensored report exposing Duffy's duplicity and walks out. Mary runs after him, but it is too late. He leaves her for good and returns to Natalie's home and a new life.
Cast
Paul Newman as David Alfred Eaton
Joanne Woodward as Mary St. John
Ina Balin as Natalie Benziger
Myrna Loy as Martha Eaton
Leon Ames as Samuel Eaton
Elizabeth Allen as Sage Remmington
Barbara Eden as Clemmie Shreve
George Grizzard as Lex Porter
Patrick O'Neal as Dr. Jim Roper
Felix Aylmer as James MacHardie
Raymond Greenleaf as Fritz Thornton
Malcolm Atterbury as George Fry
Raymond Bailey as Mr. Eugene St. John
Ted de Corsia as Ralph Benziger
Howard Caine as Creighton Duffy
Release
The film had its world premiere engagements at the Paramount Theatre and Murray Hill Theatre in New York City on July 15, 1960.
Reception
Howard Thompson of The New York Times wrote: "This is a handsome picture, well-performed and emotionally intriguing ... However, for a drama so sharply and ironically concerned with human foibles, in business, love and marriage, it lacks real culminative power." Variety stated that "the more discriminating film-goer will find 'From the Terrace' seriously deficient. Whether the fault lies with O'Hara's basic material or Ernest Lehman's screenplay is difficult to assay by a reviewer who skipped the novel ... On the assumption that Lehman followed the O'Hara story closely, the blame must be placed squarely on the novelist, for 'From the Terrace' builds up to one big cliche." Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times wrote that the film "has been bolstered a degree above soap opera by its creators and does make a point of sorts against modern materialism", though "one is left with the feeling that its makers were not able to compress the portions that they have used into a drama of much consequence or climax". Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post called the film "an interminable essay on the horrors of money, love, and sex", with a story that "has more gaps than a dial phone". Harrison's Reports was positive, declaring it "Outstanding entertainment ... It is loaded with brilliant dialogue, expert acting, human interest, suspense, and some comic touches." The Monthly Film Bulletin called it "a seriously deficient film. After a long prologue devoted to providing a motivation for Alfred's obsessive pursuit of wealth (in the course of which Myrna Loy's thorough portrayal of alcoholic misery becomes a stiff price to pay for what amounts to very meagre enlightenment), the film builds up to a shapeless monument of banality." John McCarten wrote in The New Yorker that "Mr. Robson's direction is, except for the first few scenes, unimaginative. But then, the screenplay Mr. Lehman has come up with would hardly inspire anybody."
Joanne Woodward later admitted to having "affection" for the film "because of the way I looked like Lana Turner".
The film holds a score of 31% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 13 reviews.
Notes
Additional films that Paul Newman and Joanne Woodward made together:
The Long, Hot Summer (1958)
Rally 'Round the Flag, Boys! (1958)
Paris Blues (1961)
A New Kind of Love (1963)
Rachel, Rachel (1968) – produced and directed by Paul Newman
Winning (1969)
WUSA (1970)
They Might Be Giants (1971)
The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds (1972)
The Drowning Pool (1975)
Harry & Son (1984)
The Glass Menagerie (1987) – produced and directed by Paul Newman
Mr. & Mrs. Bridge (1990)
Our Town (2003 TV Movie)
Empire Falls (2005 TV Mini-Series) – while they co-star here, they have no scenes together
References
External links
1960 films
1960 drama films
English-language films
Films scored by Elmer Bernstein
Films based on American novels
Films directed by Mark Robson
Films set in Philadelphia
Films set in New York City
20th Century Fox films
Films with screenplays by Ernest Lehman
|
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209304
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Nettleship
|
Henry Nettleship
|
Henry Nettleship (5 May 1839 – 10 July 1893) was an English classical scholar.
Life
Nettleship was born at Kettering, and was educated at Lancing College, Durham School and Charterhouse schools, and gained a scholarship for entry to Corpus Christi College, Oxford in 1858. In 1861, he was elected to a fellowship at Lincoln, which he vacated on his marriage in 1870 to Matilda Steel, eldest daughter of his colleague Rev. T.H. Steel at Harrow. In 1868, he became an assistant master at Harrow, but in 1873 he returned to Oxford, and was elected to a fellowship at Corpus. In 1878 he was appointed to succeed Edwin Palmer as the Corpus Professor of Latin, and held the post till his death.
In 1879, Nettleship sat in the committee which was formed to create an Oxford women's college "in which no distinction will be made between students on the ground of their belonging to different religious denominations." This resulted in the founding of Somerville Hall (later Somerville College).
He had a son, Henry Melvill (who died aged 20) and a daughter, Edith.
Works
Nettleship had always been interested in Virgil, and a good deal of his time was devoted to his favourite poet. After John Conington's death in 1869, he saw his edition of Virgil through the press, and revised and corrected subsequent editions of the work. In 1875, he had undertaken to compile a new Latin lexicon for the Clarendon Press, but the work proved more than he could accomplish, and in 1887 he published some of the results of twelve years' labour in a volume entitled Contributions to Latin Lexicography, a genuine piece of original work.
In conjunction with John Edwin Sandys, Nettleship revised and edited Oskar Seyffert's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, and he contributed to a volume entitled Essays on the Endowment of Research an article on "The Present Relations between Classical Research and Classical Education in England," in which he pointed out the great value of the professorial lecture in Germany.
In his views on the research question, he was a follower of Mark Pattison, whose essays he edited in 1889 for the Clarendon Press. In Lectures and Essays on Subjects connected with Latin Literature and Scholarship, Nettleship revised and republished some of his previous publications. A second series of these, published in 1895, and edited by F. Haverfield, contained a memoir by Mrs M. Nettleship.
Legacy
In 1895 Nettleship's widow Matilda donated his library to the Association for Promoting the Higher Education of Women (AEW) where it formed a shared collection for all women students. Based in the attics of the Clarendon Building, it later moved to Jowett Walk and then became the library of the Society of Oxford Home-Students (later St Anne's College) in 1934. In the present day, the library at St Anne's College is referred to as the Nettleship Collection.
Notes
References
Obituary notices appeared in The Times (11 July 1893); Classical Review (October, 1893); Oxford Magazine (18 October 1893); South Australian Register (12 July 1893).
External links
Complete online version of Lectures and Essays, 1895
1839 births
1893 deaths
People educated at Durham School
People educated at Lancing College
People educated at Charterhouse School
English classical scholars
Schoolteachers from Northamptonshire
Fellows of Lincoln College, Oxford
Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Oxford
Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Oxford
Corpus Christi Professors of Latin
English male writers
Somerville College, Oxford
People from Kettering
|
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209308
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djadochtatheriidae
|
Djadochtatheriidae
|
Djadochtatheriidae is a family of fossil mammals within the extinct order Multituberculata. Remains are known from the Upper Cretaceous of Central Asia. These animals lived during the Mesozoic, also known as the "age of the dinosaurs". This family is part of the suborder of Cimolodonta. The taxon Djadochtatheriidae was named by Z. Kielan-Jaworowska and J. H. Hurum in 1997.
Multituberculates are a rather diverse group in terms of locomotion and diet. Forms like Kryptobaatar and Catopsbaatar were hopping, gerboa-like omnivores (and this is probably the ancestral condition for the group, given that Nemegtbaatar also had this lifestyle), while Mangasbaatar was a robust, digging herbivore.
References
Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Hurum J. H. (1997), Djadochtatheria: a new suborder of multituberculate mammals. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 42(2), p. 201–242.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Hurum J. H. (2001), Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals. Paleontology 44, p. 389–429.
Much of this information has been derived from Mesozoic Mammals Djadochtatherioidea, an Internet directory.
Cimolodonts
Late Cretaceous first appearances
Late Cretaceous extinctions
Late Cretaceous taxonomic families
Prehistoric mammal families
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London%20Bridge%20station
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London Bridge station
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London Bridge is a central London railway terminus and connected London Underground station in Southwark, south-east London. It occupies a large area on three levels immediately south-east of London Bridge, from which it takes its name. The main line station is the oldest railway station in London fare zone 1 and one of the oldest in the world having opened in 1836. It is one of two main line termini in London to the south of the River Thames (the other being Waterloo) and is the fourth-busiest station in London, handling over 50 million passengers a year.
The station was originally opened by the London and Greenwich Railway as a local service. It subsequently served the London and Croydon Railway, the London and Brighton Railway and the South Eastern Railway, thus becoming an important London terminus. It was rebuilt in 1849 and again in 1864 to provide more services and increase capacity. Local services from London Bridge began to be electrified in the beginning of the 20th century, and had spread to national routes by the 1930s. The station was extensively rebuilt by British Rail during the 1970s, along with a comprehensive re-signalling scheme and track alignment. It was further redeveloped in the 2010s to better accommodate the Thameslink route which provides a connection to Gatwick Airport, Luton Airport and Crossrail.
London Bridge is served by Southeastern services from Charing Cross and Cannon Street to destinations in southeast London, Kent and East Sussex and is a terminus for many Southern commuter and regional services to south London and numerous destinations in South East England. Thameslink services from Bedford, Cambridge and Peterborough to Brighton and other destinations in Sussex and Kent began serving the station in 2018.
Location
The main line station is one of 19 UK stations managed by Network Rail. It has a ticket hall and entrance area with its main frontage on Tooley Street, and other entrances on Borough High Street and within the main line station concourse. It is one of two mainline London termini south of the River Thames, the other is Waterloo.
The Underground station is on the Jubilee line and the Bank branch of the Northern line. River buses use the nearby London Bridge City Pier.
History
London Bridge station was opened on 14 December 1836, making it the oldest London railway terminus that is still running. It was not the earliest station in the London metropolitan area, as the London and Greenwich Railway had opened stations at Spa Road (in Bermondsey) and on 8 February 1836. The completion of the line into London Bridge was postponed because of delays in constructing a bridge at Bermondsey Street. From 10 October 1836, trains were able to operate as far as the east end of this bridge, with passengers having to walk the last . The station has had several changes of ownership and complete rebuilds since opening.
London and Greenwich Railway station
The original station had four tracks and was wide and long. It was approached through a pair of iron gates. Three tracks led into two platforms as a stub end of a viaduct. The station was entirely exposed to the weather until a tarred canvas roof was erected in 1840. Sixteen columns and fourteen beams from this structure were retrieved in 2013 and given to the Vale of Rheidol Railway in Aberystwyth, Wales for use in a planned railway museum.
Before completing the train shed, the London and Greenwich Railway entered into an agreement with the proposed London and Croydon Railway for the latter to use its tracks from Corbett's Lane, Bermondsey, and to share its station. However, the Greenwich railway had underestimated the cost of building the long viaduct leading to London Bridge and was not able to build a sufficiently large station for the traffic for both companies, and so in July 1836 it sold some land adjacent to its station (then still under construction) to the Croydon railway to build their own independent station.
London and Croydon Railway station
The London and Brighton Railway and the South Eastern Railway (SER) were also planning routes from London to Brighton and Dover respectively, and the British Parliament decided that the London and Greenwich line should become the entry corridor into London from South East England. The two railways were therefore required to share the route of the London and Croydon Railway from near Norwood (which in turn shared the route of the London and Greenwich Railway from Bermondsey to London Bridge). As a result, in 1838 the London and Croydon Railway obtained powers to enlarge the station it was then constructing at London Bridge, before it had opened for traffic.
The London and Croydon Railway opened its line and began using its station on 5 June 1839; the London and Brighton Railway joined it on 12 July 1841, followed by the South Eastern Railway in 26 May 1842. It was soon found that the viaduct approaching London Bridge would be inadequate to deal with the traffic generated by four railways, so it was widened by the Greenwich Railway between 1840 and 1842, doubling the number of tracks to four. The new lines, intended for the Croydon, Brighton and South Eastern trains, were situated on the south side of the existing Greenwich line, whereas their station was to the north of the London Bridge site, leading to an awkward and potentially dangerous crossing of one another's lines. The directors of the companies involved decided to exchange sites; the London and Greenwich Railway would take over the newly completed London and Croydon Railway station, whilst a new joint committee of the Croydon, Brighton and South Eastern companies would demolish the first station and build a new one on its site.
Joint station
Plans for a large new station were drawn up, designed jointly by Lewis Cubitt, John Urpeth Rastrick and Henry Roberts. Drawings were published in the Illustrated London News and George Bradshaw's Guide to the London and Brighton Railway 1844. They show 'a quasi-Italianate building with a picturesque campanile'. It opened for business in July 1844 while only partially complete, but events were taking place which would mean that the bell tower would never be built, and the new building would only last five years.
In 1843 the SER and Croydon railway companies became increasingly concerned by the high tolls charged by the London and Greenwich Railway for the use of the station approaches, and gained Parliamentary approval to build their own independent line into south London to a new station at Bricklayers Arms, which was vaguely described as a "West End terminus". This line opened on 1 May 1844 and most of the services from these two companies were withdrawn from London Bridge, leaving only the Greenwich and Brighton companies using London Bridge station. The Greenwich company was on the brink of bankruptcy and so was forced to lease its lines to the SER, which took effect from 1 January 1845. The next year the Croydon and Brighton companies, along with other small railways, merged to form the London Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR). Consequently, there were only two companies serving London Bridge. The LB&SCR used the unfinished joint station until it was demolished in 1849 and a larger building constructed.
South Eastern Railway station
The SER took over the second London and Greenwich station (which had been built for the London and Croydon Railway) and sought to develop that site rather than continue to invest in the former joint station, which became the property of the LB&SCR. The SER station was therefore rebuilt and enlarged between 1847 and 1850, to a design by Samuel Beazley. At the same time yet further improvements were made to the station approaches, increasing the number of tracks to six, which entirely separated the lines of the two railways. Once these extensions were complete the SER closed its passenger terminus at Bricklayer's Arms and converted the site into a goods depot in 1852.
London Bridge station remained the London terminus of the SER until 1864 when its station was again rebuilt. Five of the existing platforms were converted into a through station to enable the extension of the main line into central London and the opening of Charing Cross railway station, and in 1866 to Cannon Street station. In 1899 the SER entered into a working amalgamation with the London Chatham and Dover Railway (LC&DR) to form the South Eastern and Chatham Railway Companies Joint Management Committee. Junctions were laid to enable trains through London Bridge to reach the LC&DR stations at Holborn Viaduct and St Pauls.
London Brighton and South Coast Railway station
The LB&SCR took over the unfinished joint station, which they demolished in 1849 and opened a temporary station in 1850. This was rebuilt and enlarged in 1853–4 to deal with the additional traffic from the lines to Sydenham and . A three-storey box-like structure in Italian style was erected, with the name of the railway emblazoned on the top parapet.
In 1859 the LC&DR applied to the LB&SCR for running powers from Sydenham to London Bridge, but was refused. However, some ticketing arrangement was made between the two companies as the LC&DR advertised connections to and from London Bridge in its timetables in The Times and Bradshaw's Railway Guide for July 1861. This arrangement was short-lived pending the construction of the LC&DR line to Holborn Viaduct.
The LB&SCR also built the Terminus Hotel at the station in 1861. It was designed by Henry Currey, architect for St Thomas's Hospital, and had 150 public rooms over seven stories. It was unsuccessful because it was on the south bank of the river, so was turned into offices for the railway in 1893. It was destroyed by bombing in 1941.
An Act of Parliament of 1862 gave the LB&SCR power to enlarge the station further. Over the next few years under the direction of new Chief Engineer Frederick Banister, the company built four more platform-faces in an adjoining area to the south of its existing station to cope with additional traffic generated by the completion of the South London Line and other suburban lines to Victoria station. This had a single-span trussed-arch roof measuring , and was designed by J. Hawkshaw and Banister. During the first decade of the twentieth century LB&SCR station at London Bridge was again enlarged, but overall London Bridge station remained a "sprawling confusion".
The chaotic nature of the station at the turn of the century was described in John Davidson's poem, "London Bridge":
The South London Line from London Bridge to Victoria was electrified in 1909 with an experimental overhead system. It was successful and other suburban services were electrified including the line to Crystal Palace in 1912. Because of World War I, the line to Croydon was not electrified until 1920.
Southern Railway station
The Railways Act 1921 led to the Big Four grouping in 1923. All of the railways of southern England combined to form the Southern Railway (SR), bringing the London Bridge complex under single ownership. The wall that divided the Chatham and Brighton stations was partially knocked through in 1928 to provide an easier interchange between stations. This allowed a greater range of platforms to be used for the increasingly frequent suburban rail services to London Bridge.
Between 1926 and 1928 the Southern Railway electrified the SE&CR suburban lines at London Bridge using a third rail system, adapting the existing LB&SCR routes to it at the same time. The first electric services ran on 25 March 1928 from London Bridge to Crystal Palace via Sydenham, followed by a peak hour service to Coulsdon North on 17 June. This was followed by electric services to Epsom Downs via West Croydon, Crystal Palace via Tulse Hill, and Streatham Hill, and to Dorking North and Effingham Junction via Mitcham on 3 March 1929. At the same time as electrification, the SR installed colour light signalling. The Southern Railway electrified the Brighton Main Line services to Brighton and the South Coast, providing a full service to on 17 July 1932. This was following by a full electric service to Brighton and West Worthing on 1 January 1933, followed by services to Seaford, and on 7 July 1935 and to and on 3 July 1938.
By the 1930s, a regular feature of London Bridge traffic was a glut of commuter services all departing at or shortly after 5:00 pm. A typical timetable included 12-car services to Brighton, Eastbourne and Littlehampton, all between 5:00 and 5:05. "The fives" continued to run until the mid-1970s.
Both the London Bridge stations were badly damaged by bombing in the London Blitz in December 1940 and early 1941. The shell of the two stations was patched up but the former Terminus Hotel, then used as railway offices, was rendered unsafe and demolished.
British Railways station
British Railways (BR) took over responsibility for the station in 1948 following nationalisation of the railways. They did not consider London Bridge a priority at first, and the war-torn damage of the station remained into the 1960s. Electrification of the lines into London Bridge continued during the 1950s and 1960s, with the final steam service running in 1964, when the line to Oxted and Uckfield was replaced by diesel / electric multiple units. The very last scheduled steam train was the 4.50am to Tonbridge via Redhill on 4 January that year hauled by an N class locomotive.
By the early 1970s the station could no longer cope with the volume of traffic. Between 1972 and 1978, BR significantly redeveloped the station and its approaches. This included a £21 million re-signalling scheme that consolidated 16 signal boxes into a new London Bridge Area Signalling Centre and a new station concourse designed by N. D. T. Wikeley, regional architect for the Southern Region. This was opened 14 December 1978. New awnings were added over the former SER platforms, but the arched Brighton roof was left. It was described by The Oxford companion to British Railway History as "one of the best modern station reconstructions in Britain".
Patronage to London Bridge tailed off from a peak in the early 1970s. The station remained popular for through routes to the City and the West End, but the number of terminal trains declined significantly by the early 1980s. The bridge over the station's north end became Grade II listed in January 1988, while Platforms 9–16 (the former LB&SCR side) became listed the same that December.
In 1991, a "Thameslink 2000" project was proposed that would improve services between London Bridge and the Great Northern lines. It was originally hoped the work would be complete by 1997. A £500 million refurbishment programme was announced by Railtrack in 1999, which would have seen the station complex rotated by 90 degrees, and large amount of shopping space added.
Thameslink Programme
The station was comprehensively redeveloped between 2009 and 2017 with the rebuilding of all platforms, the addition of two major new street-level entrances, and changes to passenger concourses and retail facilities. The Shard opened next to the station in 2012. It included a new entrance and roof for the terminal level concourse, and a larger bus station was constructed in front of the building.
This was followed by a major transformation programme known as Masterplan, linked to the Thameslink programme.
Work began in 2012 with the terminal platforms adjacent to St Thomas Street, reducing the number from nine to six and extending them to accommodate longer 12-car trains. Through platforms were increased from six to nine, all of which catered for 12-car trains. In the redeveloped station, Charing Cross services were assigned four new dedicated platforms (6, 7, 8 and 9), and Thameslink services to platforms 4 and 5. The existing platforms for Cannon Street services on the north side of the station were also rebuilt.
During the works, Charing Cross trains did not call at the station for most of 2015–16 as the platforms were rebuilt, followed by Cannon Street trains from 2016–17. Thameslink services to/from the Thameslink core did not stop between 2015 and May 2018, when an all day service with significantly enhanced frequency began as the programme of works was completed.
As part of the rebuilding works, the listed northern wall of the terminus train-shed was demolished and replaced with a new retaining wall, and the listed bays of the roof over the terminating platforms were dismantled and stored. Each of the rebuilt platforms has its own full length platform canopy.
The footbridge dating from the 1970s that linked platforms for passenger interchange was also demolished, replaced by an interchange concourse underneath the platforms accessed by lift, stairs and escalator. This required the demolition of brick vaults between Stainer and Weston Streets, which were pedestrianised and became part of the new concourse. A wider route was created through the Western Arcade to Joiner Street and the underground station by relocating existing shops in to renovated barrel vaults. Two major new street level entrances were opened to the south on St Thomas Street, and to the north, on Tooley Street. This required demolishing the 1893 SER office building.
The refurbished station was officially opened by Prince William, Duke of Cambridge on 9 May 2018. The total estimated value of the project was around £1 billion. In July 2019, the refurbished station made the shortlist for the Stirling Prize for excellence in architecture.
In 2020 the Thameslink lines at London Bridge were one of the few locations in the UK to use a digital signalling system.
National Rail station
The station's platform configuration is:
Platforms 1, 2 and 3 serve trains to/from and southeast London and Kent.
Platforms 4 and 5 serve Thameslink trains between the Brighton main line and the Thameslink core via .
Platforms 6–9 serve trains to/from to southeast London, Kent and East Sussex.
Platforms 10–15 serve mainly Southern services toward south London and the south coast.
The platforms are linked together by a large street-level concourse, offering a ticket office, retail facilities and waiting areas, with entrances on St Thomas Street and Tooley Street.
Services
London Bridge is one of the busiest stations in the UK, with an estimated 63.1 million passenger entries/exits in 2019/20. However, as with other stations, patronage dropped dramatically as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. The estimated usage figure fell 78% in 2020/21 to 13.8 million, although it rose in the ranking by one place to the third busiest in the country, behind and Victoria, both also in London.
Typical services from the station are:
Southeastern to/from Charing Cross
The typical weekday off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is:
14 tph to London Charing Cross
2 tph to via
2 tph to Dartford via and
2 tph to via
2 tph to via
2 tph to via
2 tph to via (1 semi-fast, 1 stopping)
2 tph to of which 1 continues to
Southeastern to/from Cannon Street
The typical weekday off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is:
8 tph to London Cannon Street
2 tph to via
2 tph to via
2 tph to via and , returning to London Cannon Street via
2 tph to Slade Green via Sidcup, returning to London Cannon Street via Woolwich Arsenal and Greenwich
Southern
The typical weekday off-peak services in trains per hour (tph) is:
2 tph to London Victoria via
2 tph to Caterham via Tulse Hill
2 tph to Caterham and Tattenham Corner dividing and attaching at Purley
2 tph to Coulsdon Town via Forest Hill
2 tph to Beckenham Junction via Crystal Palace
2 tph to Epsom via West Croydon
1 tph to Uckfield via Oxted
Thameslink
The typical weekday off-peak service in trains per hour (tph) is:
4 tph to Brighton via Gatwick Airport
2 tph to Horsham via and Gatwick Airport
2 tph to Gatwick Airport via Redhill
2 tph to Rainham via Greenwich, Woolwich Arsenal, Dartford and Gravesend
4 tph to Bedford via St Pancras International, St Albans City, Luton Airport and Luton
2 tph to Luton via St Pancras International, St Albans City and Luton Airport
2 tph to Cambridge via St Pancras International and Stevenage
2 tph to Peterborough via St Pancras International and Stevenage
London Underground station
The Underground station is served by the Jubilee line and the Bank branch of the Northern line. In , it was the station on the network with million users. It is the only station on the London Underground network with "London" in its name (while the NR termini are named, for instance, "London Waterloo" the Underground station is simply named "Waterloo").
There are two platforms on each line and two main sets of escalators to and from the Tooley Street ticket hall. All four platforms are directly accessible from the Borough High Street entrance/exit. There is an emergency exit to Joiner Street.
Northern line
The first underground station at London Bridge was part of the second section of the City & South London Railway (C&SLR). The company had been formed on 28 July 1884 with the intention of constructing a line under the Thames from to Stockwell via Elephant and Castle and Kennington, which opened on 18 December 1890. No station was provided at London Bridge; the first station south of the river was at Borough. King William Street was found to be badly placed owing to a steep incline towards the station from underneath the Thames, which limited its capacity.
When the decision was made to extend the C&SLR northwards to Moorgate, a new pair of tunnels was constructed from north of Borough station on a new alignment providing a more convenient route and the opportunity to open a station at London Bridge. The tunnels to King William Street and the station were closed and the extension and London Bridge station opened on 25 February 1900.
The station entrance was originally at Three Castles House on the corner of London Bridge Street and Railway Approach, but has since been moved to Borough High Street and Tooley Street. The original entrance remained standing until March 2013 when it was demolished.
In the aftermath of the King's Cross fire in 1987, an independent report recommended that London Underground investigate "passenger flow and congestion in stations and take remedial action". As a consequence, the congested Northern line platforms were rebuilt during the late 1990s, increasing the platform and circulation areas for the opening of the Jubilee Line Extension.
The station is arranged for right-hand running because it is in a stretch of the Northern line (from just south of Borough to just south of ) where the northbound line is to the east of the southbound, instead of to the west.
Jubilee line
The Jubilee line station is between and . It opened on 7 October 1999 as part of the Jubilee Line Extension, although trains had been running through non-stop from the previous month. It took months of major engineering works to relocate buried services in the surrounding streets to enable the Jubilee line's construction. A new ticket hall was created in the arches under the main-line station, with entrances at Joiner Street and Borough High Street.
During excavations a variety of Roman remains were found, including pottery and fragments of mosaics; some of these are now on display in the station. The Jubilee line platforms have been fitted with platform screen doors in common with all other below-ground stations on the extension.
There is a facing crossover to the west of the station enabling trains to terminate here.
Connections
London Buses routes 17, 21, 35, 43, 47, 133, 141, 149, 343, 344, 381, 388, 521 and night routes N21, N133, N199, N343 and N381 serve the station, some serving London Bridge bus station.
Accidents and incidents
There have been several recorded accidents at London Bridge station, though relatively few of these have caused fatalities. The most serious accidents were:
On 1 February 1884, the 12:05 pm London Bridge to Victoria, hauled by LB&SCR Terrier No.71 Wapping, collided with a D1 tank which was fouling the exit from the platform. Two carriages derailed.
On 27 November 1895, a local train hauled by LB&SCR Terrier No. 70 Poplar collided with the buffer stops.
On August 1926, a F1 class locomotive overran the buffers and crashed into a brewery.
On 9 July 1928, B2X class locomotive No. B210 was in a sidelong collision with an electric multiple unit after the driver of B210 misread signals. Two people were killed and nine were injured, six seriously.
On 23 January 1948, a train formed of a 6PAN and a 6PUL unit, which formed that day's 7:30 am service from coupled with the 8:50 am from Seaford, was allowed to draw up to the inner home signal, where it should have stopped. Instead, it overran the signal and collided at a speed of between with an empty stock which had formed the 8:20 am from and was waiting to depart London Bridge's platform 14 for . This train was formed of two 6PAN units. The train that was struck was forced through the buffers and demolished a bookstall. Two train crew and one passenger were killed and 34 people were injured.
On 11 April 1989, a passenger train arriving from collided with the buffers. Six people were injured.
On 28 February 1992, a bomb planted by the Provisional IRA exploded at the station, injuring 29 people.
On 3 June 2017, the station was closed for several hours during a terrorist attack on London Bridge and in nearby Borough Market.
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
London Transport Museum Photographic Archive
Station information on London Bridge station from Network Rail
Thameslink Programme publicity:
Jubilee line stations
London Underground Night Tube stations
Northern line stations
Tube stations in the London Borough of Southwark
Former City and South London Railway stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1900
Railway termini in London
Railway stations in the London Borough of Southwark
Network Rail managed stations
Former London, Brighton and South Coast Railway stations
Former South Eastern Railway (UK) stations
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1836
Thameslink railway stations
Railway stations served by Southern
Railway stations served by Southeastern
Charles Henry Driver railway stations
Henry Roberts railway stations
Lewis Cubitt railway stations
Railway stations located underground in the United Kingdom
London station group
1836 in London
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] |
209311
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%20engine
|
H engine
|
An H engine is a piston engine comprising two separate flat engines (complete with separate crankshafts), most often geared to a common output shaft. The name "H engine" is due to the engine blocks resembling a letter "H" when viewed from the front. The most successful "H" engine in this form was the Napier Dagger and its derivatives. The name was also applied to engines of the same basic layout, but rotated through 90 degrees—most famously the Napier Sabre series. A variation on the "H" theme were the Fairey Prince (H-16) & Fairey P.24 Monarch, where the two engines retained separate drives, driving Contra-rotating propellers through separate concentric shafts. Although successful, they only existed in prototype form.
The H engine is a relatively rare layout, with its main use being in aircraft engines during the 1930s and 1940s. The 1966 Lotus 43 Formula One car used a 16-cylinder H engine, and an 8-cylinder H engine was used for powerboat racing in the 1970s.
Design
The benefits of an H engine are the ability to share common parts with the flat engine upon which it is based, and the good engine balance which results in less vibration (which is difficult to achieve in many other types of four-cylinder engines).
However, H engines are relatively heavy and have a high centre of gravity. The latter is not only due to the second crankshaft being located near the top of the engine, but also the engine must be high enough off the ground to allow clearance underneath for the exhaust pipes.
The U engine layout uses a similar concept, placing two straight engines side-by-side.
History
Aircraft engines
Lycoming, US
Lycoming H-2470 H-24 "hyper engine" (1930s) 2,300 hp
Fairey Aviation, UK
Fairey Prince (H-16) (1939) – 1,500 hp
Fairey Monarch (1939) – H-24 2,240 hp
Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz DZ 720 – H-32, 102.9 litres diesel
D. Napier & Son, UK.
Napier Rapier (1929) – H-16 air-cooled vertical, 8.83 litres 340 hp
Napier Dagger (1934) – H-24, air-cooled vertical, 16.85 litres 890 hp, a development of the Rapier
Napier Sabre (1938) – H-24, water-cooled horizontal sleeve valves, 36.7 litres 3,500 hp.
Pratt & Whitney, US
XH-2240 - H-24, liquid-cooled,
XH-2600 - H-24, liquid-cooled,
XH-3130 - H-24, liquid-cooled,
XH-3730 - H-24, liquid-cooled,
Rolls-Royce Eagle (1944) – H-24, 46.2 litres, 3,200 hp.
Formula One racing engines
The British Racing Motors (BRM) H-16 Formula One engine won the 1966 US Grand Prix in a Lotus 43 driven by Jim Clark. It was also used by the unsuccessful 1966 BRM P83 car driven by Graham Hill and Jackie Stewart. As a racing-car engine it was hampered by a high center of gravity, and it was heavy and complex, with gear-driven twin overhead cams for each of four cylinder heads, two gear-coupled crankshafts, and mechanical fuel injection.
Motorcycle engines
The Brough Superior Golden Dream motorcycle, first shown in 1938. A 1,000 cc H-4 design and a few units were produced in early 1939. Any development planned was interrupted by World War II and subsequent years of austerity.
Wooler built a motorcycle prototype with a similar configuration to the Brough Superior Golden Dream and exhibited it at the British International Motor Show at Earls Court Exhibition Centre in 1948 and again in 1951. This was replaced by a flat-four engined prototype at the 1953 show.
Powerboat racing engines
German firm Konig, who specialised in racing outboard motors, built a few 1000cc H-8s in the 1970s, which were basically two of their VC500 flat fours mounted one above the other, with the direction of rotation reversed on one of them. Each half of the engine was a water cooled 2-stroke with rotating disc valve driven by a toothed belt via two 45/90 degree pulleys, plus two siamesed expansion chamber exhausts, fed by two single choke carbs. Both cylinders at each end of each engine fired at the same time, hence the siamesed exhausts for each pair.
Other engines named "H"
Subaru has marketed its flat-four and flat-six engines as "H4" and "H6" respectively. The letter "H" in this case refers to "horizontally-opposed", an alternative term for flat engines; these engines can also be said to look like a "H" or conjoined "H"s, albeit from the top and in schematic form.
The Saab H engine is a straight-four engine produced from 1981 to 2009. The letter "H" represents "high compression".
References
Piston engine configurations
Engines by cylinder layout
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumberland
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Cumberland
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Cumberland ( ) is a historic county of North West England that had an administrative function from the 12th century until 1974. It is bordered by the historic counties of Northumberland to the northeast, County Durham to the east, Westmorland to the southeast, Lancashire to the south, and the Scottish counties of Dumfriesshire and Roxburghshire to the north. It formed an administrative county from 1889 to 1974 (excluding Carlisle from 1914) and now forms part of Cumbria.
Early history
In the Early Middle Ages, Cumbria was part of the Kingdom of Strathclyde in the Hen Ogledd, or "Old North", and its people spoke a Brittonic language now called Cumbric. The first record of the term 'Cumberland' appears in 945 CE, when the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that the area was ceded to Malcolm I, king of Alba (Scotland), by King Edmund I of England. As with , the native Welsh name for Wales, the names 'Cumberland' and 'Cumbria' are derived from kombroges in Common Brittonic, which originally meant "compatriots".
At the time of the Domesday Book (1086 CE) most of the future county was part of Scotland, although some villages around Millom, which were the possessions of the Earl of Northumbria, had been incorporated into Yorkshire.
In 1092 CE, King William Rufus of England invaded the Carlisle district, settling it with colonists. He created an Earldom of Carlisle, and granted the territory to Ranulf le Meschin. In 1133, Carlisle was made the see of a new diocese, largely identical with the area of the earldom. However, on the death of King Henry I of England in 1135, the area was regained by King David I of Scotland. He was able to consolidate his power and made Carlisle one of his chief seats of government, while England descended into a lengthy civil war. The Cumbric language is believed to have become extinct in the 12th century.
The area returned to the English crown in 1157, when Henry II of England took possession of the area (from Malcolm IV of Scotland). Henry II formed two new counties from the former earldom: Westmorland and Carliol – originally an abbreviation of the Latin '[bishop] of Carlisle'. Westmorland also included areas formerly part of the Earldom of Lancaster. The lead- and silver-mining area of Alston, previously associated with the Liberty of Tynedale was later also added to the new county of Carliol for financial reasons. By 1177, Carliol had become known as Cumberland. The border between England and Scotland was made permanent by the Treaty of York in 1237.
Geography
The boundaries formed in the 12th century were not changed substantially over the county's existence. There are four English historic counties and two Scottish counties that it borders: Northumberland and County Durham to the east; Westmorland to the south, the Furness part of Lancashire to the southwest; Dumfriesshire to the north and Roxburghshire to the northeast.
To the west the county is bounded by the Solway Firth and the Irish Sea. The northern boundary was formed by the Solway Estuary and the border with Scotland running east to Scotch Knowe at Kershope Burn. The boundary runs south from Scotch Knowe along the Cheviot Hills, then followed a tributary of the River Irthing and crossed Denton Fell to the River Tees. From Tees Head the boundary crosses the Pennines to descend Crowdundale Beck, from where it followed the rivers Eden and Eamont to the centre of Ullswater. The line follows Glencoin Beck to the top of Helvellyn ridge at Wrynose Pass and along the River Duddon (near Millom) to the sea .
The highest point of the county is Scafell Pike, at , the highest mountain in England. Carlisle is the county town.
Sub-divisions
The Earldom of Carlisle was partitioned into baronies. When the County of Cumberland was created, the baronies were subdivided as wards, a county sub-division also used in Durham, Northumberland and Westmorland. These originated as military subdivisions used to organise the male inhabitants for the county's defence from Scottish troop incursions.
Each ward was composed of a number of parishes, areas originally formed for ecclesiastical administration. In common with other northern England counties, many ancient parishes in Cumberland were very large, often consisting of a number of distinct townships and hamlets. Many of these ancient parishes eventually became civil parishes and form the lowest level of local government.
Allerdale above Derwent
Allerdale below Derwent
Eskdale
Leath
The namesake ward
Cumberland Ward included Carlisle and Wigton as well as parts of Inglewood Forest. The parish of Stanwix just to the north of Carlisle was partly in both Eskdale and Cumberland wards.
* Parts or all of these parishes and townships constituted the City of Carlisle, and were largely outside the jurisdiction of Cumberland Ward.
Local government from the 19th century
During the 19th century a series of reforms reshaped the local government of the county, creating a system of districts with directly elected councils.
Poor law and municipal reform
The first changes concerned the administration of the poor law, which was carried at parish level. The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 provided for the grouping of parishes into poor law unions, each with a central workhouse and an elected board of guardians. Cumberland was divided into nine unions: Alston with Garrigill, Bootle, Brampton, Carlisle, Cockermouth, Longtown, Penrith, Whitehaven and Wigton.
In the following year the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 was passed, reforming boroughs and cities in England and Wales as municipal boroughs with a uniform constitution. The corporation of the City of Carlisle was accordingly remodelled with a popularly elected council consisting of a mayor, aldermen and councillors.
Local boards and sanitary districts
Outside of municipal boroughs, there was no effective local government until the 1840s. In response to poor sanitary conditions and outbreaks of cholera, the Public Health Act 1848 and the Local Government Act 1858 allowed for the formation of local boards of health in populous areas. Local boards were responsible inter alia for water supply, drainage, sewerage, paving and cleansing. Eleven local boards were initially formed at Brampton, Cleator Moor, Cockermouth, Egremont, Holme Cultram, Keswick, Maryport, Millom, Penrith, Whitehaven, Wigton and Workington.
Further reform under the Public Health Act 1875 saw the creation of sanitary districts throughout England and Wales. The existing municipal boroughs and local boards became "urban sanitary districts", while "rural sanitary districts" were formed from the remaining areas of the poor law unions.
Three more local boards were formed: Arlecdon and Frizington in 1882, Harrington in 1891 and Aspatria in 1892. In addition Workington and Whitehaven received charters of incorporation to become municipal boroughs in 1883 and 1894 respectively.
Local government acts of 1888 and 1894
In 1889, under the Local Government Act 1888, the Cumberland County Council was created as the county council for Cumberland, taking over administrative functions from the Court of Quarter Sessions. The Local Government Act 1894 reconstituted the existing sanitary districts as urban districts and rural districts, each with an elected council.
The Act of 1888 also allowed any municipal borough with a population of 50,000 people or more to become a "county borough", independent of county council control. In 1914, Carlisle successfully applied for this status, ceasing to form part of the administrative county, although remaining within Cumberland for the purposes such as Lieutenancy and shrievalty.
Reform in 1934
The Local Government Act 1929 imposed the duty on county councils of reviewing the districts within their administrative county so as to form more efficient units of local government. In general, this meant the merging of small or lightly populated areas into larger units. A review was carried in Cumberland in 1934. The following table lists the urban and rural districts before and after the changes.
The distribution of population in 1971 was as follows:1971 Census; Small Area Statistics
In 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, the administrative county and county borough were abolished and their former area was combined with Westmorland and parts of Lancashire and the West Riding of Yorkshire to form the new county of Cumbria. The area from Cumberland went on to form the districts of Carlisle, Allerdale, Copeland and part of Eden.
Legacy
The name continues in use as a geographical and cultural term, and it survives in Cumberland sausages; HMS Cumberland; the Cumberland Fell Runners Club; the Cumberland Athletics Club; and various organisations and companies, such as the local newspapers The Cumberland News, and The West Cumberland Times and Star, and the Cumberland Building Society. It is also mentioned in Macbeth as the kingdom given to Prince Malcolm.
In June 1994, during the 1990s UK local government reform, the Local Government Commission published draft recommendations, suggesting as one option a North Cumbria unitary authority (also including Appleby, the historic county town of Westmorland). It also suggested that Cumberland could be reinstated as an independent ceremonial county. The final recommendations, published in October 1994, did not include such recommendations, apparently due to lack of expression of support for the proposal to the commission.
As part of a 2002 marketing campaign, the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose the Grass-of-Parnassus as the county flower. Parnassus flowers had been associated with the county since 1951, when they were included in the coat of arms granted to the Cumberland County Council. They subsequently featured in the arms granted to Cumbria County Council and Copeland Borough Council, in both cases to represent Cumberland.
In 2012, a flag based on the arms of the former Cumberland County Council was registered as the flag of Cumberland with the Flag Institute.
In 2013, the Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government, Eric Pickles, formally recognised and acknowledged the continued existence of England's 39 historic counties, including Cumberland.
In 2021, it was announced that in April 2023 local government in Cumbria will be reorganised into two unitary authorities, one of which is to be named Cumberland and would include most of the historic county, with the exception of Penrith and the surrounding area.
See also
List of Lord Lieutenants for Cumberland
List of High Sheriffs for Cumberland
Custos Rotulorum of Cumberland - Keepers of the Rolls
List of MPs for Cumberland constituency
Broughan (Cumberland surname)
References
Further reading
Cumberland Heritage by Molly Lefebure (Chapters include Camden, Briathwaite, Millbeck, Fellwalkers, Carlisle Canal, Armboth, John Peel (farmer) and the Blencathra), with endpaper maps of old Cumberland.Detail taken from a copy of Cumberland Heritage published by Victor Gollancz, London in 1970,
External links
Cumberland, England – History and Description, 1868
Map of Cumberland on Wikishire
Counties of England established in antiquity
Counties of England disestablished in 1974
History of Cumbria
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209327
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djadochtatherium
|
Djadochtatherium
|
Djadochtatherium is a mammal genus that lived in Mongolia during the Upper Cretaceous. It coexisted with some of the late dinosaurs. This animal was a member of the extinct order of Multituberculata. It is within the suborder of Cimolodonta, and a member of the family Djadochtatheriidae. It was named by G. G. Simpson in 1925, the name meaning "Djadokhta beast".
The species Djadochtatherium matthewi was also named by G. G. Simpson in 1925 and has also been known as Catopsalis matthewi (Simpson, 1925). It has been found in the Campanian (Upper Cretaceous)-age Djadokhta and Goyot Formations of Mongolia. This was a relatively large Multituberculate, with a skull length of about 4.5 cm. It was originally diagnosed as a species within the North American genus of Catopsalis.
References
Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Hurum J. H. (2001), Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals. Paleontology 44, p. 389–429.
Simpson (1925), A Mesozoic mammal skull from Mongolia. American Museum Novitates 201, p. 1–11.
Much of this information has been derived from Mesozoic Mammals; Djadochtatherioidea, an Internet directory.
Cretaceous mammals
Cimolodonts
Fossils of Mongolia
Prehistoric mammal genera
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20Hector%20St.%20John%20de%20Cr%C3%A8vec%C5%93ur
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J. Hector St. John de Crèvecœur
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Michel Guillaume Jean de Crèvecœur (; December 31, 1735 – November 12, 1813), naturalized in New York as John Hector St. John, was a French-American writer. He was born in Caen, Normandy, France, to the Comte and Comtesse de Crèvecœur (Count and Countess of Crèvecœur).
Biography
He was born December 31, 1735, to a family of minor nobility in Normandy. In 1755 he migrated to New France in North America. There, he served in the French and Indian War as a cartographer in the French Colonial Militia, rising to the rank of lieutenant. Following the British defeat of the French Army in 1759, he moved to the Province of New York, where he took out citizenship, adopted the English-American name of John Hector St. John, and in 1770 married an American woman, Mehitable Tippet, the daughter of a New York merchant. He bought a sizable farm in the Greycourt area of Chester, NY, a small town in Orange County, New York. He named his farm "Pine Hill" and prospered as a farmer. He also traveled about working as a surveyor. He started writing about life in the American colonies and the emergence of an American society.
In 1779, during the American Revolution, St. John tried to leave the country to return to France because of the faltering health of his father. Accompanied by his son, he crossed British-American lines to enter British-occupied New York City, where he was imprisoned as an American spy for three months without a hearing. Eventually, he was able to sail for Britain, and was shipwrecked off the coast of Ireland. From Britain, he sailed to France, where he was briefly reunited with his father. After spending some time recuperating at the family estate, he visited Paris and the salon of Sophie d'Houdetot.
Author
In 1782, in London, he published a volume of narrative essays entitled the Letters from an American Farmer. The book quickly became the first literary success by an American author in Europe and turned Crèvecœur into a celebrated figure. He was the first writer to describe to Europeans – employing many American English terms – the life on the American frontier and to explore the concept of the American Dream, portraying American society as characterized by the principles of equal opportunity and self-determination. His work provided useful information and understanding of the "New World" that helped to create an American identity in the minds of Europeans by describing an entire country rather than another regional colony. The writing celebrated American ingenuity and the uncomplicated lifestyle. It described the acceptance of religious diversity in a society being created from a variety of ethnic and cultural backgrounds. His application of the Latin maxim "Ubi panis ibi patria" (Where there is bread, there is my country) to early American settlers also shows an interesting insight. He once praised the middle colonies for "fair cities, substantial villages, extensive fields...decent houses, good roads, orchards, meadows, and bridges, where an hundred years ago all was wild, woody, and uncultivated."
The original edition, published near the end of the American Revolutionary War, was rather selective in the letters that were included, omitting ones that were negative or critical. Norman A. Plotkin argues "it was intended to serve the English Whig cause by fostering an atmosphere conducive to reconciliation." The book excluded all but one of the letters written after the beginning of the war and also earlier ones that were more critical. Crèvecœur himself sympathized with the Whig cause. His wife's family remained loyal to the Crown and later fled to Nova Scotia. With regard to French politics, Crèvecœur was a liberal, a follower of the philosophes, and dedicated his book to Abbé Raynal, who he said "viewed these provinces of North America in their true light, as the asylum of freedom; as the cradle of future nations, and the refuge of distressed Europeans." Plotkin notes that "extremists in the American colonies who violated this principle, incurred Crèvecœur's harshest criticism, although the severest of these criticisms were considered unsuitable for publication at the time."
In 1883 his great grandson, Robert de Crèvecoeur, published a biography for which he used previously unpublished letters and manuscripts passed down by the family. Although it received little notice in France, its existence came to the attention of W. P. Trent of Columbia University, who in 1904 published a reprint of Letters of an American Farmer. In 1916, Crèvecœur's first American biographer, Julia Post Mitchell, who had access to all the manuscripts, was able to make a more balanced assessment, writing that Crèvecoeur addressed "problems in political economy which European governments were trying in vain to solve." He was "...illustrating his theories from American conditions," and was not just "...a garruluous apologist of American life." The additional manuscripts were published in 1925.
Diplomat
The success of his book in France had led to his being taken up by an influential circle, and he was appointed the French consul for New York, including the areas of New Jersey and Connecticut. Crèvecœur returned to New York City as the newly appointed French consul in November 1783. Anxious to be reunited with his family, he learned that his farm had been destroyed in an Indian raid, his wife was dead, and his two younger children missing. He stayed in the house of his friend William Seton, who, as the last royal public notary for the city and province of New York, had helped to secure his release in 1780 from the British prison in the city. Principal of the import-export mercantile firm the William Seton Company, Seton helped Crevecoeur locate his children, who were safe and living with a family in Boston. The following spring, he was able to reunite with his children. For most of the 1780s, Crèvecœur lived in New York City.
St. Peter's, New York
At that time, New York City was the national capital and most of the resident Catholics were connected to the diplomatic corps. Initially they met for services at the home of the Spanish consul. Their numbers increased with seafaring people, merchants, emigrants from the Spanish West Indies, and a few Acadians. They then rented space at Vauxhall Gardens, a garden and entertainment venue located along the North River on Greenwich Street between Warren and Chambers Streets. In 1785 Portuguese consul Jose Roiz Silva, Spanish consul Tomas Stoughton and others sought to rent the vacant Exchange building and deemed Crevecoeur the best one to make the approach.
Although Crevecoeur was relatively indifferent to religion, he was sympathetic to the idea of liberty of conscience, and a friend of Lafayette. When the proposal was rejected, Crevecoeur was insulted and became very active in working for the establishment of the first Catholic church in the city. He later served as president of the first Board of Trustees of St. Peter's Church on Barclay Street.
Later life
In 1784, he published a two-volume version of his Letters from an American Farmer, enlarged and completely rewritten in French. A three-volume version followed in 1787. Both his English and his French books were translated into several other European languages and widely disseminated throughout Europe. For many years, Crèvecœur was identified by European readers with his fictional narrator, James, the 'American farmer', and held in high esteem by readers and fellow-writers across Europe.
By the time he published another three-volume work in 1801, entitled Voyage dans la Haute-Pensylvanie et dans l'état de New-York, however, his fame had faded and the damages of the French Revolution and its aftermath had made people less interested in the United States. His book was ignored. An abbreviated German translation appeared the following year. An English translation was not published until 1964. Much of de Crevecoeur's best work has been published posthumously, most recently as More Letters from the American Farmer: An edition of the Essays in English Left Unpublished by Crèvecœur, edited by Dennis D. Moore (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1995).
Particularly concerned about the condition of slaves, he joined the Société des Amis des Noirs (Society of the Friends of the Blacks), founded in Paris.
Crèvecœur was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1789.
In 1789, during a stay in France, he was trapped by the political upheaval that was quickly turning into the French Revolution. At risk as an aristocrat, he went into hiding, while secretly trying to gain passage to the United States. The necessary papers were finally delivered to him by the new American ambassador to France, James Monroe. At the end of his life Crèvecœur returned to France and settled permanently on land he inherited from his father. On November 12, 1813, he died in Sarcelles, Val d'Oise, France.
The town of St. Johnsbury, Vermont, is named after him, as suggested by Ethan Allen.
Primary works
Letters from an American Farmer: Describing Certain Provincial Situations, Manners, and Customs, Not Generally Known; and Conveying Some Idea of the Late and Present Interior Circumstances of the British Colonies of North America, 1782.
Letters From an American, written to A.W.S. Ecuyer since the year 1770 up 'til 1781.
Memoire sur le Commerce Entre la France et les États-Unis D'Amerique, 1784 (manuscript rests in the U.S. Embassy, Paris)
Sketches of the Eighteenth Century America: More "Letters From an American Farmer, 1923."
Eighteenth-century travels in Pennsylvania & New York, 1801.
Outline of Letters From an American Farmer
Letter I: Introduction – This letter introduces the persona of James, an American Farmer, and his epistolary dialogue with a minister.
Letter II: This letter describes the creatures, plants, and activities on and around the farm owned by James. Its main focus is on the "bees, wasps, hornets, and birds" (Patterson) and illustrates the abundance of life and the dependence on good soil in the American land.
Letter III: "What is an American?" This letter describes what he saw as an idealistic society, very unlike Europe. Immigrants of all religions, from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds, were considered equal "citizens." Egalitarianism and free-will supported by laws and government, he claimed, were the primary factors:
Letters IV–VIII: These letters illustrates in detail the utopian (Patterson) society that the European Americans have created and also the land which they inhabit. It also describes the conditions in which they live and the customs of whaling villages of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard.
Letter IX: This letter gives an account of Charleston, South Carolina. The letter then quickly moves to the notion of slavery in the South. It argues about the destruction that revolves around the slave-master relationships and makes an appeal to the North, in particular, that slavery is a truly evil practice in the midst of the new nation of America.
Letter X: This letter talks extensively about a wide variety of snakes and even speaks to the American Indians practices of eating them. It also mentions their habits and stories that have been told in America, warning people about certain ones. At the end of this letter, it speaks about the hummingbirds found around James' land and their habits and varieties as well.
Letter XI: This letter is supposedly narrated by a Russian, but is almost indistinguishable from James himself. It describes a visit to the famous Pennsylvanian botanist, Mr. John Bertram. The narrator tells of the new methods of fertilizing and irrigation that Bertram has invented and used on his own plants.
Letter XII: "Distresses of a Frontier Man" – This letter describes the Revolutionary War from the narrator's perspective and the stress of being caught between forces beyond his own control. This particular letter is the only one written that has any traces of anti-British ideas and opinions. The letter also includes James' view of the American Indians around him and his plan to run away with his family and live among them until the fighting ceased.
References
Guy Wilson Allen and Roger Asselineau, An American Farmer: The Life of St. John de Crevecoeur, New York: Viking Penguin, 1987
Selected criticism
Gay W. Allen, An American Farmer, New York: Penguin Books, 1987
David Eisermann: Crèvecoeur oder Die Erfindung Amerikas, Rheinbach-Merzbach: CMZ-Verlag, 1985
Thomas Hallock, From the Fallen Tree: Frontier Narratives, Environmental Politics, and the Roots of a National Pastoral, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003
Daniel Patterson, ed. Early American Writers: A Biographical Encyclopedia, Westport: Greenwood Press, 2008. "J. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur." Thomas Patchell. 96–104.
Norman A. Plotkin, "Saint-John de Crevecoeur Rediscovered: Critic or Paneygyrist?", French Historical Studies, vol. 3, no. 3 (Spring 1964), pp. 390–404. .
Paul P. Reuben. "Chapter 2: Early American Literature: 1700–1800 – St. Jean De Crevecoeur", PAL: Perspectives in American Literature – A Research and Reference Guide https://web.archive.org/web/20091012031553/http://www.csustan.edu/english/reuben/pal/chap2/creve.html)
Alan Taylor, "The American Beginning: The Dark Side of Letters from an American Farmer," New Republic July 18, 2013
Primary sources
de Crevecoeur, J. Hector St. John. Letters From an American Farmer and Other Essays edited by Dennis D. Moore (Harvard University Press; 2012) 372 pages; combines an edition of the famous 1782 work with his other writings
External links
Letters from an American Farmer, American Studies, University of Virginia.
Saint John de Crèvecoeur : sa vie et ses ouvrages (1735–1813), 1883 biography (in French) by his great grandson Robert de Crèvecœur
J. Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur Papers. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
1735 births
1813 deaths
18th-century French writers
19th-century French writers
Agricultural writers
American writers in French
French essayists
French expatriates in Canada
French expatriates in the United States
French male essayists
People from Caen
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Lachmann
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Karl Lachmann
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Karl Konrad Friedrich Wilhelm Lachmann (; 4 March 1793 – 13 March 1851) was a German philologist and critic. He is particularly noted for his foundational contributions to the field of textual criticism.
Biography
Lachmann was born in Brunswick, in present-day Lower Saxony. He studied at Leipzig and Göttingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies. In Göttingen, he founded a critical and philological society in 1811, in conjunction with Dissen, Schulze, and Bunsen. In 1815, he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer chasseur and accompanied his detachment to Paris, but did not see active service. In 1816, he became an assistant master in the Friedrichswerder gymnasium at Berlin, and a Privatdozent at the university. The same summer he became one of the principal masters in the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of Königsberg, where he assisted his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl Köpke, with his edition of Rudolf von Ems' Barlaam und Josaphat (1818), and also assisted his friend in a contemplated edition of the works of Walther von der Vogelweide.
In January 1818, he became professor extraordinarius of classical philology in the University of Königsberg, and at the same time began to lecture on Old German grammar and the Middle High German poets. He devoted himself during the following seven years to an extraordinarily detailed study of those subjects, and in 1824, obtained a leave of absence in order to search the libraries of middle and south Germany for further materials.
In 1825, Lachmann was nominated extraordinary professor of classical and German philology at the Humboldt University, Berlin (ordinary professor 1827); in 1830, he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences. He died in Berlin.
Importance in scholarship
Lachmann is a figure of considerable importance in the history of German philology.
Early in his career, Lachmann translated the first volume of P.E. Müller's Sagabibliothek des skandinavischen Altertums (1816). In his "Habilitationsschrift" über die ursprungliche Gestalt des Gedichts von der Nibelungen Noth (1816), and in his review of Hagen's Nibelungen and Benecke's Bonerius, contributed in 1817 to the Jenaische Literaturzeitung, he had already laid down the rules of textual criticism and elucidated the phonetic and metrical principles of Middle High German in a manner which marked a distinct advance in that branch of investigation.
The rigidly scientific character of his method becomes increasingly apparent in the Auswahl aus den hochdeutschen Dichtern des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts (1820); in the edition of Hartmann's Iwein (1827); in those of Walther von der Vogelweide (1827) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (1833); in the papers "Über das Hildebrandslied," "Über althochdeutsche Betonung und Verskunst," "Über den Eingang des Parzivals," and "Über drei Bruchstücke niederrheinischer Gedichte" published in the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy; and in Der Nibelunge Not und die Klage (1826), which was followed by a critical commentary in 1836.
Lachmann's Betrachtungen über Homer's Iliad, first published in the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841, in which he sought to show that the Iliad consists of eighteen independent "layers" variously enlarged and interpolated, had considerable influence on 19th century Homeric scholarship, although his views are no longer accepted.
His smaller edition of the New Testament appeared in 1831, the 3rd edition in 1846, and the larger second edition, in two volumes, between 1842 and 1850. The plan of Lachmann's edition, which he explained in Theologische Studien und Kritiken (1830), is a modification of the unaccomplished project of Richard Bentley (formulated in 1720) to establish a more reliable critical Greek edition of the New Testament than the Textus Receptus. Lachmann was the first major editor to break from the Textus Receptus, seeking to restore the most ancient reading current in manuscripts of the Alexandrian text-type, using the agreement of the Western authorities (Old Latin and Greek Western Uncials) as the main proof of antiquity of a reading where the oldest Alexandrian authorities differ.
Lachmann's edition of Lucretius (1850), which was the principal occupation of his life from 1845, is perhaps his greatest achievement of scholarship. He demonstrated how the three main manuscripts all derived from one archetype, containing 302 pages of 26 lines to a page. Further, he was able to show that this archetype was a copy of a manuscript written in a minuscule hand, which was in turn a copy of a manuscript of the 4th or 5th centuries written in rustic capitals. To say his recreation of the text was 'accepted' is an understatement; HAJ Munro characterized this accomplishment as "a work which will be a landmark for scholars as long as the Latin language continues to be studied." Lachmann also edited Propertius (1816); Catullus (1829); Tibullus (1829); Genesius (1834); Terentianus Maurus (1836); Babrius (1845); Avianus (1845); Gaius (1841–1842); the Agrimensores Romani (1848–1852); and Lucilius (edited after his death by Vahlen, 1876). He also translated Shakespeare's sonnets (1820) and Macbeth (1829).
See also
Lachmann's law
Notes
References
1793 births
1851 deaths
German philologists
German classical scholars
Writers from Braunschweig
People from the Duchy of Brunswick
Leipzig University alumni
University of Göttingen alumni
University of Königsberg faculty
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Textual scholarship
|
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] |
209336
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20coats%20of%20arms
|
List of coats of arms
|
Coats of arms are commonly possessed by nations, regions, cities, royal and noble personages, and sometimes by other entities.
Entities
Corporate
United Kingdom
Coat of arms of the BBC
City of London Livery Companies
Coat of arms of the Drapers Company, the Worshipful Company of Drapers
Education
Canada
Coat of arms of McGill University
Coat of arms of the University of Toronto
Governmental
Emblem of Afghanistan
Coat of arms of Albania
Coat of arms of Algeria
Coat of arms of Andorra
Coat of arms of Angola
Coat of arms of Argentina
Coat of arms of Armenia
Coat of arms of Aruba
Coat of arms of Australia
Coat of arms of Australian Capital Territory
Coat of arms of the Northern Territory
Coat of arms of Queensland
Coat of arms of South Australia
Coat of arms of Victoria
Coat of arms of Western Australia
Coat of arms of New South Wales
Coat of arms of Sydney
Coat of arms of Tasmania
Coat of arms of Austria
Coat of arms of the Bahamas
Emblem of Bahrain
Coat of arms of Bangladesh
Coat of arms of Barbados
National emblem of Belarus
Coat of arms of Belgium
Coat of arms of Belize
Coat of arms of Dewsbury
Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Coat of arms of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Coat of arms of Republika Srpska
Coat of arms of Sarajevo
Coat of arms of Brazil
Emblem of Brunei
Coat of arms of Bulgaria
Coat of arms of Sofia
Coat of arms of Canada
Coat of arms of Alberta
Coat of arms of Calgary
Coat of arms of Edmonton
Coat of arms of British Columbia
Coat of arms of Abbotsford
Coat of arms of Burnaby
Coat of arms of Coquitlam
Coat of arms of New Westminster
Coat of arms of Port Coquitlam
Coat of arms of Port Moody
Coat of arms of Vancouver
Coat of arms of Victoria
Coat of arms of Manitoba
Coat of arms of Winnipeg
Coat of arms of New Brunswick
Coat of arms of Newfoundland and Labrador
Coat of arms of St. John's
Coat of arms of Nova Scotia
Coat of arms of the Halifax Regional Municipality
Coat of arms of Ontario
Coat of arms of Barrie
Coat of arms of Ottawa
Coat of arms of Peterborough
Coat of arms of St. Thomas
Coat of arms of St. Catharines
Coat of arms of Toronto
Coat of arms of Windsor
Coat of arms of Prince Edward Island
Coat of arms of Charlottetown
Coat of arms of Quebec
Coat of arms of Montreal
Coat of arms of Quebec City
Coat of arms of Saskatchewan
Coat of arms of Regina
Coat of arms of the Northwest Territories
Coat of arms of Yellowknife
Coat of arms of Nunavut
Coat of arms of Yukon
Coat of arms of Whitehorse
Coat of arms of Chile
Emblem of the Republic of China
National Emblem of the People's Republic of China
Emblem of Hong Kong
Emblem of Macau
Coat of arms of Colombia
Coat of arms of Croatia
Coat of arms of Cuba
Seal of Havana
Coat of arms of Cyprus
Coat of arms of the Czech Republic
Coat of arms of Denmark
Coat of arms of the Faroe Islands
Coat of arms of Greenland
Coat of arms of Dominica
Coat of arms of the Dominican Republic
Coat of arms of Egypt
Coat of arms of Eritrea
Coat of arms of Estonia
Emblem of Ethiopia
Coat of arms of Fiji
Coat of arms of Finland
Coat of arms of Åland
Coat of arms of France
Coat of arms of French Polynesia
Coat of arms of Mayotte
Emblem of New Caledonia
Coat of arms of Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Coat of arms of Wallis and Futuna
Coat of arms of Paris
Coat of arms of Georgia
Coat of arms of Germany
Coat of arms of Baden-Württemberg
Coat of arms of Bavaria
Coat of arms of Munich
Coat of arms of Brandenburg
Coat of arms of Berlin
Coat of arms of Bremen
Coat of arms of Hamburg
Coat of arms of Hesse
Coat of arms of Lower Saxony
Coat of arms of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Coat of arms of North Rhine-Westphalia
Coat of arms of Rhineland-Palatinate
List of coats of arms of the districts in Rhineland-Palatinate
Coat of arms of Saarland
Coat of arms of Saxony
Coat of arms of Dresden
Coat of arms of Saxony-Anhalt
Coat of arms of Schleswig-Holstein
Coat of arms of Thuringia
Coat of arms of Ghana
Coat of arms of Greece
Emblem of Greek Macedonia
Coat of arms of Grenada
Coat of arms of Haiti
Coat of arms of Hungary
Coat of arms of Iceland
Coat of arms of India
Coat of arms of the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai
Sikkim
Coat of arms of Indonesia
Emblem of Iran
Coat of arms of Iraq
Coat of arms of Ireland
Coat of arms of Israel
Emblem of Jerusalem
Coat of arms of Italy
Coat of arms of Ivory Coast
Coat of arms of Jamaica
Imperial Seal of Japan
Coat of arms of Jordan
Coat of arms of Kazakhstan
Coat of arms of Kenya
Emblem of Kuwait
Coat of arms of Latvia
Coat of arms of Liberia
Coat of arms of Libya
Coat of arms of Liechtenstein
Coat of arms of Lithuania
Coat of arms of Luxembourg
Coat of arms of Madagascar
Coat of arms of Malaysia
Coat of arms of Mali
Coat of arms of Malta
Coat of arms of Mauritius
Coat of arms of Mexico
Seal of Guadalajara
Coat of arms of Moldova
Coat of arms of Monaco
Coat of arms of Montenegro
Coat of arms of Morocco
Coat of arms of Namibia
Coat of arms of the Netherlands
Coat of arms of Amsterdam
Coat of arms of the Netherlands Antilles
Coat of arms of New Zealand
Coat of arms of Niue
Coat of arms of the Cook Islands
Coat of arms of Nigeria
Coat of arms of North Macedonia
Coat of arms of Norway
List of coats of arms of Norway
National emblem of Oman
Coat of arms of Pakistan
Coat of arms of Palestine
Coat of arms of Peru
Coat of arms of the Philippines
Seal of Bangsamoro
Coat of arms of Poland
Coat of arms of Kraków
Coat of arms of Warsaw
Coat of arms of Wrocław
Coat of arms of Portugal
Coat of arms of Lisbon
Coat of arms of Madeira
Coat of arms of the Azores
Emblem of Qatar
Coat of arms of Romania
Coat of arms of Bucharest
Coat of arms of Russia
Coat of arms of Adygea
Altai (image only)
Coat of arms of Bashkortostan
Emblem of Buryatia
Chechnya (image only)
Coat of arms of Crimea
Chuvashia (image only)
Coat of arms of Dagestan
Coat of arms of Ingushetia
Kabardino-Balkaria (image only)
Coat of arms of Kalmykia
Karachay-Cherkessia (image only)
Coat of arms of the Republic of Karelia
Khakassia (image only)
Coat of arms of the Komi Republic
Mari El (image only)
Mordovia (image only)
Coat of arms of North Ossetia-Alania
Sakha (image only)
Coat of arms of Tatarstan
Coat of arms of Tuva
Coat of arms of Udmurtia
Coat of arms of Moscow
Coat of arms of Samoa
Coat of arms of San Marino
Coat of arms of Saudi Arabia
Coat of arms of Serbia
Coat of arms of Vojvodina
Coat of arms of Belgrade
Coat of arms of Novi Sad
Coat of arms of Prijepolje
Coat of arms of Singapore
Coat of arms of Slovakia
Coat of arms of Slovenia
Coat of arms of South Africa
Coat of arms of South Africa (1910–2000)
Coat of arms of South Korea
Coat of arms of South Sudan
Coat of arms of Spain
Emblem of Andalusia
Coat of arms of Aragon
Coat of arms of Asturias
Coat of arms of the Balearic Islands
Coat of arms of Basque Country
Coat of arms of the Canary Islands
Coat of arms of Cantabria
Coat of arms of Castile-La Mancha
Coat of arms of Toledo
Coat of arms of Castile-León
Coat of arms of Catalonia
Coat of arms of Barcelona
Coat of arms of Ceuta
Coat of arms of Extremadura
Coat of arms of Galicia
Coat of arms of the Community of Madrid
Coat of arms of Madrid (city)
Coat of arms of Melilla
Coat of arms of the Region of Murcia
Coat of arms of Navarre
Coat of arms of La Rioja
Coat of arms of the Valencian Community
Coat of arms of the Crown of Aragon (historical)
Coat of arms of the Kingdom, Crown and Historical Region of Castile (historical)
Coat of arms of the Kingdom and Historical Region of León (historical)
Coat of arms of Sri Lanka
Coat of arms of Sweden
Coat of arms of Switzerland
Coat of arms of Syria
Coat of arms of Tanzania
Emblem of Thailand
Coat of arms of Tonga
Coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago
Coat of arms of Tunisia
Unofficial emblem of Turkey
Coat of arms of Uganda
Coat of arms of Ukraine
Coat of arms of United Arab Emirates
Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom (distinct variant used in Scotland; see also royal coat of arms of Scotland)
Royal arms of England
List of arms of the county councils of England
Coat of arms of London County Council
Coat of arms of the Isle of Wight
Coat of arms of Greater Manchester
Coat of arms of West Yorkshire
London
Coat of arms of the City of London
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Barnet
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Bexley
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Brent
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Bromley
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Camden
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Croydon
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Ealing
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Enfield
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Hackney
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Haringey
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Harrow
Coat of arms of the London Borough of Hillingdon
Coat of arms of the Royal Borough of Greenwich
Coats of arms of metropolitan district councils of England
Coat of arms of Bradford
Coat of arms of Calderdale
Coat of arms of Kirklees
Coat of arms of Leeds
Coat of arms of Sunderland
Coat of arms of Wakefield
Coat of arms of Wigan
Symbols of Manchester
Coats of arms of non-metropolitan district councils
Coat of arms of Barrow-in-Furness
Coat of arms of Colchester
Coat of arms of Oxford
Coats of arms of unitary authority councils of England
Coat of arms of the Isle of Wight
Coat of arms of Poole
Coat of arms of York
Coat of arms of Birmingham
Coat of arms of Liverpool
Royal arms of Scotland
Coat of arms of Northern Ireland
Royal Badge of Wales
Coat of arms of Newport
Overseas Territories
Coat of arms of Anguilla
Coat of arms of Bermuda
Coat of arms of the British Antarctic Territory
Coat of arms of the British Indian Ocean Territory
Coat of arms of the British Virgin Islands
Coat of arms of the Cayman Islands
Coat of arms of the Falkland Islands
Coat of arms of Gibraltar
Coat of arms of Montserrat
Coat of arms of the Pitcairn Islands
Coat of arms of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Coat of arms of Ascension Island
Coat of arms of Saint Helena
Coat of arms of Tristan da Cunha
Coat of arms of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Crown Dependencies
Coat of arms of Guernsey
Alderney (image only)
Sark (image only)
Herm (image only)
Coat of arms of Jersey
Coat of arms of the Isle of Man
United States - The obverse of the Great Seal of the United States contains the coat of arms of the United States.
Seal of Alabama
Coat of arms of Alabama
Seal of Alaska
Seal of Arizona
Seal of Arkansas
Seal of California
Seal of City of Los Angeles
Seal of Colorado
Seal of Connecticut
Coat of arms of Connecticut
Seal of Delaware
Seal of Florida
Seal of Georgia
Seal of Hawaii
Seal of Idaho
Seal of Illinois
Chicago (image only)
Seal of Indiana
Seal of Iowa
Seal of Kansas
Seal of Kentucky
Seal of Louisiana
Seal of Maine
Seal of Maryland
Seal of Massachusetts
Seal of Michigan
Seal of Minnesota
Seal of Mississippi
Coat of arms of Mississippi
Seal of Missouri
Seal of Montana
Seal of Nebraska
Seal of Nevada
Seal of New Hampshire
Seal of New Jersey
Seal of New Mexico
Seal of New York
Coat of arms of New York
Seal of New York City
Seal of North Carolina
Seal of North Dakota
Coat of arms of North Dakota
Seal of Ohio
Seal of Oklahoma
Seal of Oregon
Seal of Pennsylvania
Coat of arms of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia (image only)
Seal of Rhode Island
Seal of South Carolina
Seal of South Dakota
Seal of Tennessee
Seal of Texas
Seal of Utah
Seal of Vermont
Coat of arms of Vermont
Seal of Virginia
Seal of Washington
Seal of West Virginia
Seal of Wisconsin
Seal of Wyoming
Seal of the District of Columbia
Seal of American Samoa
Seal of Guam
Seal of Northern Mariana Islands
Seal of Puerto Rico
Seal of the United States Virgin Islands
Coat of arms of the Holy See (Vatican City)
Coat of arms of Venezuela
Armorial of Venezuela
Emblem of Vietnam
Emblem of Yemen
Coat of arms of Zimbabwe
Former states
Coat of arms of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
Coats of arms of the Yugoslav Socialist Republics
Coat of arms of the Soviet Union
Coats of arms of the Soviet Republics
Former dependencies
Coat of arms of British Hong Kong
Coat of arms of Portuguese Macau
Positions
Denmark
Coat of arms of the Queen
Coat of arms of the Crown Prince
Coat of arms of Prince Joachim
Coat of arms of the Crown Princess
Coat of arms of Princess Marie
Luxembourg
Coat of arms of the Grand Duke
Coat of arms of the Hereditary Grand Duke
The Netherlands
Coat of arms of the Queen
Coat of arms of the Princess of Orange
Coat of arms of Princesses Alexia and Ariane
Coat of arms of Princess Beatrix
Coat of arms of Prince Constantijn
Coat of arms of Princesses Irene, Margriet and Christina
Coat of arms of Princes Maurits, Bernhard, Pieter-Christiaan and Floris
Norway
Coat of arms of the King
Coat of arms of the Crown Prince
Spain
Coat of arms of the King
Coat of arms of the Princess of Asturias
Coat of arms of King Juan Carlos
The Commonwealth
Coat of arms of the Duke of Edinburgh
Coat of arms of the Prince of Wales
Coat of arms of the Duchess of Cornwall
Coat of arms of the Princess Royal
Coat of arms of the Duke of York
Coat of arms of the Earl of Wessex
Coat of arms of the Countess of Wessex
Coat of arms of the Duke of Cambridge
Coat of arms of Prince Harry
Coat of arms of Princess Beatrice of York
Coat of arms of Princess Eugenie of York
Coat of arms of the Duke of Gloucester
Coat of arms of the Duchess of Gloucester
Coat of arms of the Duke of Kent
Coat of arms of the Duchess of Kent
Coat of arms of Prince Michael of Kent
Coat of arms of the Princess Michael of Kent
Coat of arms of Princess Alexandra
United States
Seal of the President of the United States
Seal of the Vice President of the United States
Presidents and vice presidents of the United States (personal):
List of personal coats of arms of presidents of the United States
List of personal coats of arms of vice presidents of the United States
Vatican City
Coat of arms of Francis
Former Papal Coats of Arms
Family
Carpenter
Daniel Perrin
De la Cerda
Mariñelarena
See also
List of oldest heraldry
National emblems
References
Coats of arms
|
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209337
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Heinrich%20von%20der%20Hagen
|
Friedrich Heinrich von der Hagen
|
Friedrich Heinrich von der Hagen (19 February 1780 – 11 June 1856) was a German philologist, chiefly distinguished for his researches in Old German literature.
He was born at Angermünde-Schmiedeberg in the Uckermark region of the Margraviate of Brandenburg. After studying law at the University of Halle, he obtained a legal appointment in the state service at Berlin, but in 1806 resigned in order to devote himself exclusively to letters. In 1810 he was appointed professor extraordinarius of German literature at the University of Berlin. In the following year he was transferred in a similar capacity to the University of Breslau, and in 1821 returned to Berlin as professor ordinarius. Although von der Hagen's critical work is now entirely out of date, he is credited with awakening an interest in old German poetry.
Principal publications:
the Nibelungenlied, of which he issued four editions, the first in 1810 and the last in 1842
the Minnesinger (Leipzig, 1838–1856, 4 vols. in 5 parts)
Lieder der altern Edda (Berlin, 1812)
Gottfried von Strassburg (Berlin, 1823)
a collection of Old German tales under the title Gesammtabenteuer (Stuttgart, 1850, 3 vol.)
Das Heldenbuch (Leipzig, 1855).
Die Thidrekssaga.
Hundert Deutsche Erzählungen (includes Der Busant, 1850; republished 1961)
He also published Über die ältesten Darstellungen der Faustsage (Berlin, 1844); and from 1835 he edited Das neue Jahrbuch der Berlinischen Gesellschaft der deutsche Sprache und Altertumskunde. His correspondence with Christian Gottlob Heyne and Georg Friedrich Benecke was published by K. Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1893).
References
1780 births
1856 deaths
People from Angermünde
German untitled nobility
German philologists
People from the Margraviate of Brandenburg
University of Halle alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
University of Breslau faculty
German male writers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catopsbaatar
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Catopsbaatar
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Catopsbaatar is a genus of multituberculate, an extinct order of rodent-like mammals. It lived in what is now Mongolia during the late Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous epoch, about 72 million years ago. The first fossils were collected in the early 1970s, and the animal was named as a new species of the genus Djadochtatherium in 1974, D. catopsaloides. The specific name refers to the animal's similarity to the genus Catopsalis. The species was moved to the genus Catopsalis in 1979, and received its own genus (Catopsbaatar, Greek and Mongolian for 'visible hero') in 1994. Five skulls, one molar, and one skeleton with a skull are known; the last is the genus' most complete specimen. Catopsbaatar was a member of the family Djadochtatheriidae.
The skull of Catopsbaatar was up to long and, as in other multituberculates, proportionally large. The external appearance of these animals' heads may have been similar to those of rodents. The skull was heavy-set and wide, with the zygomatic arches strongly expanded to the sides. The eye sockets were smaller and placed further back than in its relatives, and the snout was more elongated. Catopsbaatar had semicircular ridges on the side of the skull, to which the jaw muscles were attached. The mandible was strong and very elongated. It had very robust incisors, and cheek teeth with multiple cusps (for which multituberculates are named). The pelvic bones differed from those of other multituberculates in that they were not fused to each other. Catopsbaatar had spurs on its ankles, like those of the male platypus and echidna, without evidence of a venom canal (present in the former).
The spurs of Catopsbaatar and other Mesozoic mammals may have been used for protection against theropod dinosaurs and other predators. Multituberculates are thought to have given live birth, and the fact that they had hair indicates they were homeothermic ("warmblooded"). Multituberculates would have been omnivorous; Catopsbaatar had powerful jaw muscles, and its incisors were well adapted for gnawing hard seeds, using a backwards chewing stroke. Multituberculates are thought to have had a sprawling posture, and Catopsbaatar may have been able to jump. Catopsbaatar is known from the Barun Goyot Formation, which is thought to be about 72 million years old.
Taxonomy
In 1970 and 1971, the Polish-Mongolian Palaeontological Expeditions collected mammalian fossils from the Barun Goyot Formation at the Red Beds of Hermiin Tsav (also spelled "Khermeen Tsav") area in Mongolia's Gobi Desert. About 100 specimens, recovered from four localities, are housed at the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw. Two-thirds of the collected specimens were multituberculates: an extinct order of mammals with rodent-like dentition, named for the numerous cusps (or tubercles) on their molars. In 1974, Polish palaeontologist Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska named a new species of the Mongolian multituberculate genus Djadochtatherium as D. catopsaloides, with specimen ZPAL MgM−I/78 from the Polish collection as the holotype. The specific name refers to the animal's similarity to the North American species Catopsalis joyneri, which Kielan-Jaworowska thought was a possible descendant. The specimen, collected at the Hermiin Tsav I locality, is an almost-complete skull of a juvenile with portions of the cranium damaged. Kielan-Jaworowska also assigned other specimens to the species: a damaged skull missing lower jaws (ZPAL MgM−I/79, an adult), a skull with partial lower jaws (ZPAL MgM−I/80), and a molar with a fragment of jaw (ZPAL MgM−I/159 from Khulsan, the only specimen not from the Hermiin Tsav I and II localities).
Kielan-Jaworowska and American palaeontologist Robert E. Sloan considered the genus Djadochtatherium a junior synonym of Catopsalis, and created the new combination C. catopsaloides in 1979. American palaeontologists Nancy B. Simmons and Miao Desui conducted a 1986 cladistic analysis which indicated that Catopsalis was a paraphyletic taxon (an unnatural grouping of species), and C. catopsaloides required its own generic name. Kielan-Jaworowska followed Simmons and Miao's suggestion, moving C. catopsaloides to its own monotypic genus in 1994, Catopsbaatar. The word catops is derived from the Greek katoptos ("visible" or "evident"); baatar is Mongolian for "hero", and the name refers to Catopsbaatars similarity to the genus Catopsalis (as is the case for the specific name). The name Catopsalis itself consists of the Greek words for "visible" and "cutting shears" (psalis). The word baatar is used as a suffix in the names of many multituberculate genera, and alludes to the Mongolian capital Ulaanbaatar, which itself means "red hero".
Later in 1994, Kielan-Jaworowska and the Russian palaeontologist Petr P. Gambaryan mentioned caudal (tail) vertebrae which may have belonged to Catopsbaatar; this attribution is uncertain, since they may instead belong to the related Tombaatar (named in 1997). A fourth skull (PIN 4537/4, a juvenile), discovered during the 1975 Soviet−Mongolian Expedition, was mentioned by Gambaryan and Kielan-Jaworowska in 1995. Canadian palaeontologist Phillip J. Currie found a new Catopsbaatar specimen during the 1999 Dinosaurs of the Gobi expedition, organised by the American Nomadic Expeditions Company. Housed at the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in Ulaanbaatar as PM120/107, this most completely preserved known specimen consists of the complete skull (which may be slightly flattened) and partial skeleton of an adult individual. The specimen has rather complete fore- and hind limbs, which were unknown for the genus until then and which are generally rarely preserved in multituberculates. Its pelvic ilia were stolen and destroyed by a schoolboy on tour at the Natural History Museum of Oslo, where it was being prepared in 2000. The specimen was reported in 2002 by Kielan-Jaworowska, Norwegian palaeontologist Jørn Hurum, Currie and Mongolian palaeontologist Rinchen Barsbold, who also mentioned another skull (PIN 4537/5, a juvenile) found during the 1975 expedition. Catopsalis joyneri, the basis of the name C. catopsaloides, was moved to the new genus Valenopsalis in 2015.
Evolution
Catopsbaatar belonged to the order Multituberculata, a group within Allotheria (an infraclass of mammals outside Theria, the group that contains modern placentals and marsupials). Multituberculates are characterised by having premolars and molars with multiple low cusps, arranged in longitudinal rows. Multituberculates are the best-known group of mammals from the Mesozoic Era, when the dinosaurs dominated; although the earliest multituberculate remains are from the Jurassic Period, the group is known as recently as the Eocene Epoch (thereby surviving the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event). The group may have become extinct due to competition with eutherian mammals, such as rodents. Multituberculates were mainly known from teeth and jaws until the 1920s, when more complete specimens were discovered—first in Asia, and then elsewhere. Postcranial bones (the rest of the skeleton, other than the skull) remain rare.
Kielan-Jaworowska originally classified Catopsbaatar as a member of the multituberculate family Taeniolabididae in 1974. In 1994, she suggested that Djadochtatherium was close to Catopsbaatar ancestry. She and Hurum named a new family of multituberculates, Djadochtatheriidae (which they placed in the new suborder Djadochtatheria), in 1997. The family included the genera Djadochtatherium, Catopsbaatar, Kryptobaatar, and Tombaatar, all from the Gobi Desert. The family differs from other multituberculates (and other mammals) in that the front margins of its snout were confluent with the zygomatic arches (cheekbones), giving the snout a trapezoid shape when seen from above. In general, other mammals have snouts where the side margins are curved inward in front of the zygomatic arches. Kielan-Jaworowska and Hurum revised the higher ranks within Multituberculata in 2001, replacing the suborder Djadochtatheria with the superfamily Djadochtatherioidea (placed in the suborder Cimolodonta).
The following cladogram shows the placement of Catopsbaatar among other multituberculates according to Kielan-Jaworowska and Hurum, 1997:
Description
Skull
The most complete adult Catopsbaatar skull (specimen PM 120/107) is long and wide, with a lower jaw. By comparison, the skull of the juvenile holotype (ZPAL MgM−I/78) is about long and wide, with a lower jaw. The largest adult skull (ZPAL MgM−I/79) is long but, since it is incomplete, its other measurements are unknown. Catopsbaatar was larger than its relatives, Kryptobaatar and Djadochtatherium. Multituberculates had relatively large skulls and short necks; their skulls were proportionally longer and wider than those of similarly sized rodents and marsupials. The external appearance of their heads may have been similar to those of rodents.
The skull of Catopsbaatar was heavy-set, with a wide margin across the front. It was shorter along the midline than at the sides, because the nuchal crest at the back of the head curved inwards at the middle, creating an indention at the hind margin of the skull when viewed from above. The zygomatic arches were strongly expanded to the sides, with the skull width (across the arches) about 85 percent of the skull length. The front of the orbits (eye sockets) were further back than in other djadochtatheriids, resulting in a more elongated snout (65 percent of the skull length) and small orbits. The premaxilla (front bone of the upper jaw) extended less than two-thirds of the length of the snout in front of the eyes, shorter than that of Kryptobaatar. The premaxilla consisted of parts of the face and the palate; djadochtatheriids had a premaxillary ridge on the boundary between the two (visible when viewing the skull from below). The palatal part of the premaxilla was concave, with many randomly arranged nutrient foramina (openings). The nasal bone—which formed the upper part of the snout—was relatively wide (becoming wider towards the back), and its front was covered with irregularly spaced vascular foramina. The suture between the nasal and frontal bones was less pointed forwards in the middle than were those of Catopsbaatar'''s relatives.
The maxilla (the main part of the upper jaw) was extensive, and formed most of the side of the snout. It contained all the upper teeth, except the incisors. The infraorbital foramina (openings at the lower front of the maxilla) were slit-like in some specimens and rounded in others, and varied in number from one to three. One of the most characteristic features of the face of Catopsbaatar was the very large anterior zygomatic ridge on the sides of the upper jaw (a site for jaw-muscle attachment). It was much higher than in other djadochtatheriids except for Djadochtatherium, from which it differed in that the ridge was semicircular rather than roughly trapezoidal (other genera have elliptical ridges). The front margin of the anterior zygomatic ridge was thickened, which produced a bulge on the side margin of the snout when viewed from the side and above. The lower part of the suture between the maxilla and the squamosal bone extended along the hind border of the anterior zygomatic ridge. The palatal processes of the maxilla formed most of the palate. The major palatine foramina had shallow grooves extending forward. The postpalatine torus (a bony protrusion on the palate) of Catopsbaatar was less prominent than was that of Tombaatar. The frontal bone was large, and formed most of the cranial roof. The suture between the frontal and parietal bones formed a U-shaped part in the middle which pointed backwards—similar to the condition in Kryptobaatar but less deep, with smaller U-shaped structures at the sides. This differed from Djadochtatherium, which had a narrower V-shaped suture between the frontal and parietal bones.
The intermediate zygomatic ridge on the squamosal bone (also for jaw-muscle attachment) was much smaller and lower than the anterior zygomatic ridge in front of it. Catopsbaatar differed from other djadochtatheriids in that the intermediate ridge contacted the anterior ridge with its front edge. The posterior zygomatic ridge at the lower back of the squamosal bone was the weakest of the three ridges, and only marked by a depression. The postorbital processes behind the orbit on the parietal bone were very long, and the parietal ridges extended from the hind margin of the postorbital processes towards each other (but without reaching). The nuchal crest was very prominent, and extended to the sides to form "wings". The occipital plate was almost vertical and slightly concave, and was obscured by the nuchal crest when the skull was viewed from above. Though incompletely preserved, it is assumed that the occipital plate sloped back and upwards from the occipital condyles (as in some relatives). The orbito-temporal vascular system inside the skull of Catopsbaatar did not differ much from those of related genera.Catopsbaatar mandible was robust and very elongated. The diastema (gap between the front and cheek teeth) was concave, and extended for 20 percent of the dentary bone (the main bone of the lower jaw). Seen from above, the diastema formed a wide shelf that sloped downwards on the inner side of the jaw. The small mental foramen was close to the upper middle margin of the diastema. The coronoid process of the mandible appears to have been relatively longer and narrower than in other djadochtatherioideans. It was separated from the alveolar process (where the teeth are contained) by a wide groove. The mandibular condyle (which articulated with the skull) was slightly above the level of the molars. The front part of the masseretic crest was very prominent, forming a bulge known as a masseretic protuberance. The robustness of this crest and the presence of the protuberance varies among related genera. The masseteric fovea (pit) in front of the masseteric fossa was probably more distinct than in other djadochtatherioids. Each half of the mandibular symphysis (where the two halves of the mandible connect) was shaped like an upside-down teardrop. The pterygoid fossa on the inner side of the mandible was very large, and occupied most of the hind part of the dentary. The lower part of this fossa had a boundary, known as the pterygoideus shelf.
Dentition
The dental formula (the number of teeth of each type in the tooth row of a mammal) of Catopsbaatar was (two incisors, no canines, three premolars and two molars in half of the upper tooth row, and one incisor, no canines, two premolars and two molars in half of the lower). By comparison, the dental formula of humans is . Each tooth in a mammal is designated with a letter and number by position (I for incisor, C for canine, P for premolar, M for molar); the letters are capitalised for the teeth of the upper jaw, but not for those in the lower jaw. The cusp formula shows the arrangement and number of cusps in consecutive rows of a tooth, from the outer to the inner side; each row is separated by a colon.
Being a cimolodont, Catopsbaatar did not have I1 incisors. The I2 upper-front incisors of Catopsbaatar were very robust and had a sharply limited band of enamel. The two incisors converged slightly towards the middle, touching each other. The smaller I3 incisor behind was cone-shaped. The alveolus (tooth socket) of Catopsbaatars I3 incisor was formed by the premaxilla, rather than the premaxilla and maxilla (unlike in Tombaatar). The front upper premolars P1 and P3 were only present in juveniles (deciduous), disappearing (with their alveoli) in older individuals. P1 appears to have had two cusps, was single-rooted, and had a cone-like, blunt crown. P3 was single-rooted and smaller than P1. The cusp formula of the P4 premolar was 5−4:1, the central cusp being the largest. The P4 of Catopsbaatar was almost trapezoidal in shape (unlike in Djadochtatherium and Kryptobaatar, where it is crescent-shaped), smaller, and lacking ridges. Catopsbaatar also differed by having only three upper premolars, lacking the P2 (a feature shared with Tombaatar). Other mammals usually evolve the loss of teeth at the beginning or end of a tooth row, not in the middle (as in multituberculates). The cusp formula of the M1 molar was 5−6:5−6:4, with the inner ridge extending about 75 percent of the tooth's length. The cusps of M1 were sharp and unworn in juveniles, but worn and concave in older animals. The cusp formula of the M2 molar was 2:2−3:2−3.Catopsbaatar had a single lower pair of incisors, characteristic of multituberculates, which was very strong and compressed sideways. It had a sharply limited band of enamel, and grew continually. The p3 premolar was very small, and adhered entirely to the lower diastema under the larger p4. The blade-like p4 was roughly trapezoidal in side view, and had three cusps along the horizontal upper margin and one cusp on the outer back side. The p4 did not have the ridges on the outer and inner side, as are present in other multituberculates. The m1 molar was almost symmetrical, and its cusp formula was 4:4, the size of the cusps decreasing towards the back. The m2 had a cusp formula of 2−3:2, most specimens being 2:2. The cusps on the inner side were wider than those on the outer side, the inner row of cusps was shorter than the outer one, and the hind margin of the tooth was arranged obliquely.
Postcranial skeleton
The only Catopsbaatar specimen which preserves the postcranial skeleton is PM120/107, which is fragmentary. It includes elements that are unknown, or incompletely preserved, in other multituberculates. One lumbar vertebra (the fifth or sixth, from between the rib cage and the pelvis) had a spinous process which was stout in side view and long when seen from above. The clavicle was slightly less curved than that of Kryptobaatar (resembling a bent rod which widened at each end), and measured about . The upper part of the scapulocoracoid was relatively wide in side view, and the lower part was very narrow. It was probably about long when complete. The preserved part of the humerus (upper arm bone) was about long. Its shaft was triangular in cross-section, relatively narrow when seen from above, and most of its width was occupied by the intertubercular groove. This groove was delimited on the side by the crest of the greater tubercle, whose middle part formed the deltopectoral crest. The ulnar condyle, where the ulna of the lower arm articulated with the humerus, was more prominent than the radial condyle (where the radius articulated), oval, and delimited from the radial condyle by a groove. The radius was about long, with a prominent head. Its shaft was smooth, compressed from top to bottom, and oval in cross-section. The ulna was compressed sideways, flatter than the radius, and about long as preserved.
The contact from the ischium to the ilium and pubis of the pelvis was not fused, and the front end of the ischium formed a rugose suture. The pubis was roughly triangular, with a rough suture for the ilium above and a deep groove for the ischium at the lower front. Specimen PM120/107's pelvic bones differed from those of other multituberculates in not being fused together. The presence of sutures in the pelvis of PM120/107 indicates that it was a juvenile, although the skull appears adult; the meaning of this discrepancy is unknown. The femur (thigh bone) was proportionally similar to that of Eucosmodon and Nemegtbaatar—smaller than the former, but larger than the latter. The femur was stout relative to its length, and it may have been about long. The tibia of the lower leg was about long. Seen from behind the upper side, the tibia had a deep excavation (cavity) which may be characteristic of multituberculates.
Unlike most other multituberculates and other mammals, the calcaneus bone at the back of the foot had a short tuber calcanei (like some tree kangaroos), with an expanded, anvil-shaped proximal process strongly bent downwards and to the side. Catopsbaatar had an os calcaris bone on the inner side of its ankle, a feature also seen in modern male monotremes (the platypus and the echidna) and other Mesozoic mammals. The os calcaris bone was plate-like and rectangular in outline; as in monotremes, it supported the cornu calcaris in forming a spur on the outer side of the tarsus (cluster of foot bones). Unlike with other Mesozoic mammals, these two elements were not fused together in multituberculates. The cornu calcaris was triangular, with a concavity in the middle, and was long. The spur was flattened, and was thicker at its conjunction with the os calcaris (where they connected via several ridges). As the spur of PM120/107 may have been moved from its original position, it is unknown whether it faced inwards (like in the platypus). Unlike in the platypus, there was no impression of a canal for venom. The cornu calcaris of Catopsbaatar was ossified (turned into bone) and would have been covered in keratin (the horny covering seen in nails and hoofs). The cornu calcaris of the platypus consists only of keratin, and is hollow.
Palaeobiology
Hurum, Zhe-Xi Luo, and Kielan-Jaworowska suggested in 2006 that the spurs on the ankles of Mesozoic mammals (such as Catopsbaatar) were homologous with those of monotremes, and were a basal (or "primitive") feature lost by later therian mammals. The male platypus uses the spur to deliver venom from a gland, but it is unknown if the extinct groups were venomous as well. Mesozoic mammals were mostly small (with exceptions such as the fox-sized Repenomamus) and, although they were too small to be prey for large theropod dinosaurs, smaller theropods, large lizards, crocodiles, and birds could have fed on them. For example, mammal jaws have been found in the abdomen of a specimen of the small theropod Sinosauropteryx; the jaws belonged to Zhangheotherium, which also had spurs, and the multituberculate Sinobaatar. Since dinosaurs dominated Earth during the Mesozoic, this period has been called the "dark ages" of mammalian history. The spur, which would have been more effective if venomous, was probably used as a defensive weapon by small, early mammals. It could also have been used during intraspecific competition or predation.
The pelvic bones of Catopsbaatar specimen PM120/107 may not have been fused because fusion occurred late in development, because it was a sexually dimorphic feature occurring only in males (unfused pelvic bones might have enabled expansion of the birth canal in females), or pelvic fusion may be a taxonomic difference between Catopsbaatar and other multituberculates. Unlike with other mammals, the pelvis of multituberculates was very narrow; in other genera where the pelvis is known, each half of the pubis and ischium were fused together, forming a keel. The length and rigidity of the keel indicate that the pelvis could not have spread during birth. Because there would be little space for the passage of an egg (egg-laying monotremes have wide ischial arches), Kielan-Jaworowska suggested in 1979 that multituberculates were viviparous (gave live birth) and that the newborns were extremely small—similar to those of marsupials.
Hair, structurally similar to that of modern mammals and associated with bones of the Mongolian multituberculate Lambdopsalis, has been identified in coprolites (fossilised feces) of carnivorous mammals from the Palaeocene Epoch. This indicates that multituberculates had hair for insulation, similar to modern mammals (and possibly fossil mammals), a feature probably related to homeothermy (warm-bloodedness).
Feeding and diet
Although multituberculates were thought to have been carnivores or herbivores, since American palaeontologist William A. Clemens and Kielan-Jaworowska suggested modern rat kangaroos as analogues for the group in 1979 they have been considered omnivores (feeding on both plants and animals). Uniquely among mammals, multituberculates employed a backward chewing stroke which resulted in the masticatory muscles—the muscles which move the mandible—being inserted more to the front than in other groups (including rodents). Gambaryan and Kielan-Jaworowska reconstructed the masticatory musculature of various multituberculates in 1995, and found that Catopsbaatar and its relatives had very powerful masticatory musculature, due to their high zygomatic arches and large anterior and intermediate zygomatic ridges and coronoid processes. Their powerful incisors, with limited bands of enamel, would have been well adapted to gnawing and to cutting hard seeds (similar to rodents). Since it was larger than some other multituberculates, Catopsbaatar would have to open its mouth only 25 degrees to crush hard seeds in diameter; a 40-degree gape would have caused dislocation. After the incisors cut, the premolars and molars would begin to grind with a "power stroke".
According to Gambaryan and Kielan-Jaworowska, the adaptation for crushing hard seeds sometimes—as in Catopsbaatar—opposed the benefit of a low condylar process (which discourages mandibular dislocation). The anterior and intermediate zygomatic ridges of the skull were the origin of the superficial masseter muscle, which facilitates chewing. The separation of the origin of this muscle into two parts and the rounded muscle scars left by them are unique among mammals to multituberculates. The masticatory muscles of multituberculates independently evolved features shared with rodents and small herbivorous marsupials. As with rodents, multituberculates may have been capable of bilateral mastication—where both rows of teeth in the mandible perform the same function simultaneously—and unilateral mastication (where the rows on one side are used).
Posture and locomotion
The limb posture of multituberculates has been debated. According to some researchers, they employed a parasagittal stance with the erect limbs under the body; others consider a sprawling stance more likely. Kielan-Jaworowska and Hurum supported the latter theory in 2006 based on the presence of hind-leg spurs, a feature they considered present only in sprawling mammals. They pointed out that all early mammals preserved in lacustrine (lake) deposits were compressed from top to bottom, suggesting a sprawling stance, whereas later mammals were preserved on their flanks. Earlier arguments for a sprawling stance include deep pelvises and features of the legs. They also suggested that the feet of multituberculates would have been plantigrade (the sole touching the ground) at rest, but digitigrade (the sole not touching the ground) when jumping and running quickly; they dismissed the idea that the forelimbs of multituberculates and other early mammals were more parasagittal than their hindlimbs. Kielan-Jaworowska and Hurum depicted Catopsbaatar with plantigrade, sprawling legs, with mobile spurs which pointed inward when preparing for attack.
In 2008, Kielan-Jaworowska and Hurum suggested that the long spinous process on a Catopsbaatar vertebra and the long transverse processes in Nemegtbaatar may indicate that some multituberculates were saltatorial (had the ability to jump). Catopsbaatar probably had strong muscles attaching to the tuber calcanei, which further supports the jumping hypothesis. Although it has been suggested that multituberculates were arboreal (lived in trees), most Asian taxa were probably terrestrial; some others were fossorial, digging and living underground.
Palaeoenvironment
All specimens of Catopsbaatar are known from the Barun Goyot Formation of the Gobi Desert, which probably dates to the late Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous epoch (about 72 million years ago). The specimens were discovered in the Red Beds of Hermiin Tsav area except for one molar from Khulsan. When Catopsbaatar was discovered, the Red Beds of Hermiin Tsav area was thought to be a distinct formation coeval (of the same geological age) with the Barun Goyot Formation, as they contain many of the same animals, but is now thought to correspond to different levels of the Barun Goyot and Nemegt formations. The rock facies of the Red Beds of Hermiin Tsav area consist of orange-coloured, thick-bedded sandstone, with a thin interbedding of light-coloured silt stones and claystones. The rock facies of the Barun Goyot Formation are considered to be the result of an arid or semi-arid environment, with aeolian (deposited by wind) beds. Other known mammals from the Red Beds of Hermiin Tsav include the multituberculates Nemegtbaatar, Chulsanbaatar and Nessovbaatar, and the therians Deltatheridium, Asioryctes, and Barunlestes. Dinosaurs include Ajancingenia, Velociraptor, Saichania, Platyceratops, Gobiceratops, and some indeterminate theropods. Reptiles include the turtle Mongolemys, the lizards Gobinatus, Tchingisaurus, Prodenteia, Gladidenagama and Phrynosomimus, and an indeterminate crocodile. The frog Gobiates and an indeterminate alexornithiform bird are also known. Ostracods include Limnocythere, Cypridea, and Eucypris''.
References
External links
Cimolodonts
Cretaceous mammals of Asia
Fossils of Mongolia
Fossil taxa described in 1974
Taxa named by Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska
Prehistoric mammal genera
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20Frederick%2C%20Duke%20of%20York%20and%20Albany
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Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany
|
Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany (Frederick Augustus; 16 August 1763 – 5 January 1827) was the second son of George III, King of the United Kingdom and Hanover, and his consort Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. A soldier by profession, from 1764 to 1803 he was Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück in the Holy Roman Empire. From the death of his father in 1820 until his own death in 1827 he was the heir presumptive to his elder brother, George IV, in both the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Kingdom of Hanover.
Frederick was thrust into the British Army at a very early age and was appointed to high command at the age of thirty, when he was given command of a notoriously ineffectual campaign during the War of the First Coalition, a continental war following the French Revolution. Later, as Commander-in-Chief during the Napoleonic Wars, he oversaw the reorganisation of the British Army, establishing vital structural, administrative and recruiting reforms for which he is credited with having done "more for the army than any one man has done for it in the whole of its history."
Early life
Prince Frederick Augustus, or the Duke of York as he became in later life, belonged to the House of Hanover. He was born on 16 August 1763, at St. James's Palace, London. His father was the reigning British monarch, King George III. His mother was Queen Charlotte (née Princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz). He was christened on 14 September 1763 at St James's, by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Secker—his godparents were his great-uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (for whom the Earl Gower, Lord Chamberlain, stood proxy), his uncle the Duke of York (for whom the Earl of Huntingdon, Groom of the Stool, stood proxy) and his great-aunt the Princess Amelia.
On 27 February 1764, when Prince Frederick was six months old, he became Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück upon the death of Clemens August of Bavaria. The Peace of Westphalia stipulated that the city of Osnabrück would alternate between Catholic and Protestant rulers, with the Protestant bishops to be elected from the cadets of the House of Brunswick-Lüneburg. The bishopric of Osnabrück came with a substantial income, which he retained until the city was incorporated into Hanover in 1803 during the German mediatisation. He was invested as Knight of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath on 30 December 1767 and as a Knight of the Order of the Garter on 19 June 1771.
Military career
George III decided that his second son would pursue an army career and had him gazetted colonel on 4 November 1780. From 1781 to 1787, Prince Frederick lived in Hanover, where he studied (along with his younger brothers, Prince Edward, Prince Ernest, Prince Augustus and Prince Adolphus) at the University of Göttingen. He was appointed colonel of the 2nd Horse Grenadier Guards (now 2nd Life Guards) on 26 March 1782 before being promoted to major-general on 20 November 1782. Promoted to lieutenant general on 27 October 1784, he was appointed colonel of the Coldstream Guards on 28 October 1784.
He was created Duke of York and Albany and Earl of Ulster on 27 November 1784 and became a member of the Privy Council. On his return to Great Britain, the Duke took his seat in the House of Lords, where, on 15 December 1788 during the Regency crisis, he opposed William Pitt's Regency Bill in a speech which was supposed to have been influenced by the Prince of Wales. On 26 May 1789 he took part in a duel with Colonel Charles Lennox, who had insulted him; Lennox missed, and Prince Frederick refused to return fire.
Flanders
On 12 April 1793 Frederick was promoted to full general. That year, he was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of Coburg's army destined for the invasion of France. Frederick and his command fought in the Flanders campaign under extremely trying conditions. He won several notable engagements, such as the Siege of Valenciennes in July 1793, but was defeated at the Battle of Hondschoote in September 1793. In the 1794 campaign he gained a notable success at the Battle of Beaumont in April and another at the Battle of Willems in May but was defeated at the Battle of Tourcoing later that month. The British army was evacuated through Bremen in April 1795.
Commander-in-Chief
After his return to Britain, his father George III promoted him to the rank of field marshal on 18 February 1795. On 3 April 1795, George appointed him effective Commander-in-Chief in succession to Lord Amherst although the title was not confirmed until three years later. He was also colonel of the 60th Regiment of Foot from 19 August 1797.
On appointment as Commander-in-Chief he immediately declared, reflecting on the Flanders Campaign of 1793–94, "that no officer should ever be subject to the same disadvantages under which he had laboured".
His second field command was with the army sent for the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland in August 1799. On 7 September 1799, he was given the honorary title of Captain-General. Sir Ralph Abercromby and Admiral Sir Charles Mitchell, in charge of the vanguard, had succeeded in capturing some Dutch warships in Den Helder. However, following the Duke's arrival with the main body of the army, a number of disasters befell the allied forces, including shortage of supplies. On 17 October 1799, the Duke signed the Convention of Alkmaar, by which the allied expedition withdrew after giving up its prisoners. 1799 also saw Fort Frederick in South Africa named after him.
Frederick's military setbacks of 1799 were inevitable given his lack of moral seniority as a field commander, the poor state of the British army at the time, and conflicting military objectives of the protagonists. After this ineffectual campaign, Frederick was mocked, perhaps unfairly, in the rhyme "The Grand Old Duke of York":
Frederick's experience in the Dutch campaign made a strong impression on him. That campaign, and the Flanders campaign, had demonstrated the numerous weaknesses of the British army after years of neglect. Frederick as Commander-in-Chief of the British army carried through a massive programme of reform.
He was the person most responsible for the reforms that created the force which served in the Peninsular War. He was also in charge of the preparations against Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom in 1803. In the opinion of Sir John Fortescue, Frederick did "more for the army than any one man has done for it in the whole of its history".
In 1801 Frederick actively supported the foundation of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, which promoted the professional, merit-based training of future commissioned officers.
On 14 September 1805 he was given the honorary title of Warden of Windsor Forest.
Frederick resigned as Commander-in-Chief on 25 March 1809, as the result of a scandal caused by the activities of his latest mistress, Mary Anne Clarke. Clarke was accused of illicitly selling army commissions under Frederick's aegis. A select committee of the House of Commons enquired into the matter. Parliament eventually acquitted Frederick of receiving bribes by 278 votes to 196. He nevertheless resigned because of the high tally against him. Two years later, it was revealed that Clarke had received payment for furniture from Frederick's disgraced chief accuser, Gwyllym Wardle, and the Prince Regent reappointed the exonerated Frederick as Commander-in-Chief on 29 May 1811. The Duke's relationship with Mary Anne Clarke is used by Mary Anne's descendant, Daphne du Maurier, in her historical novel Mary Anne.
Frederick maintained a country residence at Oatlands near Weybridge, Surrey but he was seldom there, preferring to immerse himself in his administrative work at Horse Guards (the British army's headquarters) and, after hours, in London's high life, with its gaming tables: Frederick was perpetually in debt because of his excessive gambling on cards and racehorses. Following the unexpected death of his niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, in 1817, Frederick became second in line to the throne, with a serious chance of inheriting it. In 1820, he became heir presumptive with the death of his father, George III.
Death
Frederick died of dropsy and apparent cardiovascular disease at the home of the Duke of Rutland on Arlington Street, London, in 1827. After lying in state at the Chapel Royal in London, Frederick's remains were interred in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, following his funeral there. Held at night, the chapel was so cold during the funeral that the Foreign Secretary, George Canning, contracted rheumatic fever, becoming so ill that he thought he might not recover; Canning died on 8 August the same year.
Family
Frederick married his cousin Princess Frederica Charlotte of Prussia, the daughter of King Frederick William II of Prussia and Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Lüneburg, at Charlottenburg, Berlin, on 29 September 1791 and again on 23 November 1791 at Buckingham Palace. The marriage was not a happy one and the couple soon separated. Frederica retired to Oatlands, where she lived until her death in 1820.
Titles, styles, honours, and arms
Titles and styles
16 August 1763 – 27 November 1784: His Royal Highness The Prince Frederick
27 November 1784 – 5 January 1827: His Royal Highness The Duke of York and Albany
His full style, recited at his funeral, was "Most High, Most Mighty, and Illustrious Prince, Frederick Duke of York and of Albany, Earl of Ulster, Knight of the Most Noble Order of the Garter, First and Principal Knight Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Military Order of the Bath, Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Hanoverian Guelphic Order".
Honours
His honours were as follows:
KG: Royal Knight of the Order of the Garter, 19 June 1771
GCB: Knight Grand Cross (military) of the Order of the Bath, 2 January 1815
GCH: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order, 12 August 1815
Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle of Prussia, 11 April 1814
Knight of the Order of the St-Esprit of France, 21 April 1814
Knight of the Order of St. Andrew of Russia, 9 June 1814
Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky of Russia, 9 June 1814
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III of Spain, 21 August 1814
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Maria Theresa of Austria, 1814
Legacy
Fredericton, the capital of the Canadian province of New Brunswick, was named after Prince Frederick. The city was originally named "Frederick's Town".
Also in Canada, Duke of York Bay was named in his honour, since it was discovered on his birthday, 16 August.
In Western Australia, York County and the towns of York and Albany were named after Prince Frederick. Albany was originally named "Frederick Town".
The towering Duke of York Column on Waterloo Place, just off The Mall, London was completed in 1834 as a memorial to Prince Frederick.
The 72nd Regiment of Foot was given the title Duke of Albany's Own Highlanders in 1823 and, in 1881, became 1st Battalion Seaforth Highlanders (Ross-shire Buffs, The Duke of Albany's).
The first British fortification in southern Africa, Fort Frederick, Port Elizabeth, a city in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa, was built in 1799 to prevent French assistance for rebellious Boers in the short-lived republic of Graaff-Reinet.
Ancestors
See also
Beer money – a notable military allowance of the time
List of famous duels
References and notes
Sources
Further reading
Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, Prince
Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, Prince
Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, Prince
Lutheran Prince-Bishops of Osnabrück
Heirs to the British throne
House of Hanover
Dukes of York and Albany
Peers of Great Britain created by George III
British military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars
British field marshals
Earls of Ulster
Peers of Ireland created by George III
Great Masters of the Order of the Bath
Knights of the Garter
Grand Crosses of the Military Order of Maria Theresa
People from Westminster
English duellists
1763 births
1827 deaths
British Life Guards officers
Grenadier Guards officers
Owners of Epsom Derby winners
Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
Deaths from edema
Sons of British monarchs
Children of George III of the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther%20von%20der%20Vogelweide
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Walther von der Vogelweide
|
Walther von der Vogelweide (c. 1170c. 1230) was a Minnesänger who composed and performed love-songs and political songs ("Sprüche") in Middle High German. Walther has been described as the greatest German lyrical poet before Goethe; his hundred or so love-songs are widely regarded as the pinnacle of Minnesang, the medieval German love lyric, and his innovations breathed new life into the tradition of courtly love. He was also the first political poet to write in German, with a considerable body of encomium, satire, invective, and moralising.
Little is known about Walther's life. He was a travelling singer who performed for patrons at various princely courts in the states of the Holy Roman Empire. He is particularly associated with the Babenberg court in Vienna. Later in life he was given a small fief by the future Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick II.
His work was widely celebrated in his time and in succeeding generations—for the Meistersingers he was a songwriter to emulate—and this is reflected in the exceptional preservation of his work in 32 manuscripts from all parts of the High German area. The largest single collection is found in the Codex Manesse, which includes around 90% of his known songs. However, most Minnesang manuscripts preserve only the texts, and only a handful of Walther's melodies survive.
Notable songs include the love-song "Under der linden", the contemplative "Elegy", and the religious Palästinalied, for which the melody has survived.
Life history
For all his fame, Walther's name is not found in contemporary records, with the exception of a solitary mention in the travelling accounts of Bishop Wolfger of Erla of the Passau diocese: "Walthero cantori de Vogelweide pro pellicio v solidos longos" ("To Walther the singer of the Vogelweide five shillings for a fur coat.") The main sources of information about him are his own poems and occasional references by contemporary Minnesingers. He was a knight, but probably not a wealthy or landed one. His surname, von der Vogelweide, suggests that he had no grant of land, since die Vogelweide ("the bird-pasture") seems to refer to a general geographic feature, not a specific place. He probably was knighted for military bravery and was a retainer in a wealthy, noble household before beginning his travels.
Birthplace
Walther's birthplace remains unknown, and given the lack of documentary evidence, it will probably never be known exactly. There is little chance of deriving it from his name; in his day there were many so-called "Vogelweiden" in the vicinity of castles and towns, where hawks were caught for hawking or songbirds for people's homes. For this reason, it must be assumed that the singer did not obtain his name primarily for superregional communication, because it could not be used for an unambiguous assignment. Other persons of the high nobility and poets who traveled with their masters used the unambiguous name of their ownership or their place of origin; therefore, the name was meaningful only in the near vicinity, where only one Vogelweide existed or it was understood as a metaphoric surname of the singer. Pen-names were usual for poets of the 12th and 13th century, whereas Minnesingers in principle were known by their noble family name which was used to sign documents.
In 1974, Helmut Hörner identified a farmhouse mentioned in 1556 as "Vogelweidhof" in the urbarium of the domain Rappottenstein. At this time it belonged to the Amt Traunstein, now within the municipality Schönbach in the Lower Austrian Waldviertel. Its existence had already been mentioned without comment in 1911 by Alois Plesser, who also did not know its precise location. Hörner proved that the still-existing farmhouse Weid is indeed the mentioned Vogelweidhof and collected arguments for Walther being born in the Waldviertel ("Forest Quarter"). He published this in his 1974 book 800 Jahre Traunstein (800 years Traunstein), pointing out that Walther says "Ze ôsterriche lernt ich singen unde sagen" ("In Austria [at this time only Lower Austria and Vienna], I learned to sing and to speak"). A tradition says that Walther, one of the ten Old Masters, was a Landherr (land owner) from Bohemia, which does not contradict his possible origin in the Waldviertel, because in mediaeval times the Waldviertel was from time to time denoted as versus Boemiam. Powerful support for this theory was given in 1977 and 1981 by Bernd Thum (University Karlsruhe, Germany), which makes an origin in the Waldviertel very plausible. Thum began with an analysis of the content of Walther's work, especially of his crusade appeal, also known as "old age elegy", and concluded that Walther's birthplace was far away from all travelling routes of this time and within a region where land was still cleared. This is because the singer pours out his sorrows "Bereitet ist daz velt, verhouwen ist der walt" and suggests he no longer knows his people and land, applicable to the Waldviertel.
Additionally in 1987, Walter Klomfar and the librarian Charlotte Ziegler came to the conclusion that Walther might have been born in the Waldviertel. The starting point for their study is also the above-mentioned words of Walther. These were placed into doubt by research, but strictly speaking do not mention his birthplace. Klomfar points to a historical map which was drawn by monks of the Zwettl monastery in the 17th century, on the occasion of a legal dispute. This map shows a village Walthers and a field marked "Vogelwaidt" (near Allentsteig) and a related house belonging to the village. The village became deserted, but a well marked on the map could be excavated and reconstructed to prove the accuracy of the map. Klomfar was also able to partly reconstruct land ownership in this region and prove the existence of the (not rare) Christian name Walther.
Contrary to this theory, Franz Pfeiffer assumed that the singer was born in the Wipptal in South Tyrol, where, not far from the small town of Sterzing on the Eisack, a wood—called the Vorder- and Hintervogelweide—exists. This would, however, contradict the fact that Walther was not able to visit his homeland for many decades. At this time Tyrol was the home of several well-known Minnesingers. The court of Vienna, under Duke Frederick I of the house of Babenberg, had become a centre of poetry and art.
Reinmar the Old
Here it was that the young poet learned his craft under the renowned master Reinmar the Old, whose death he afterwards lamented in two of his most beautiful lyrics; and in the open-handed duke, he found his first patron. This happy period of his life, during which he produced the most charming and spontaneous of his love-lyrics, came to an end with the death of Duke Frederick in 1198. Henceforward Walther was a wanderer from court to court, singing for his lodging and his bread, and ever hoping that some patron would arise to save him from this "juggler's life" (gougel-fuore) and the shame of ever playing the guest. He had few if any possessions and depended on others for his food and lodging. His criticism of men and manners was scathing; and even when this did not touch his princely patrons, their underlings often took measures to rid themselves of so uncomfortable a censor.
Politics
Thus he was forced to leave the court of the generous duke Bernhard of Carinthia (1202–1256); after an experience of the tumultuous household of the landgrave of Thuringia, he warns those who have weak ears to give it a wide berth. After three years spent at the court of Dietrich I of Meissen (reigned 1195–1221), he complains that he had received for his services neither money nor praise.
Generosity could be mentioned by Walther von der Vogelweide. He received a diamond from the high noble Diether III von Katzenelnbogen around 1214:
Ich bin dem Bogenaere (Katzenelnbogener) holt – gar ane gabe und ane solt: – … Den diemant den edelen stein – gap mir der schoensten ritter ein
Walther was, in fact, a man of strong views; and it is this which gives him his main significance in history, as compared to his place in literature. From the moment when the death of the emperor Henry VI (1197) opened the fateful struggle between empire and papacy, Walther threw himself ardently into the fray on the side of German independence and unity. Although his religious poems sufficiently prove the sincerity of his Catholicism, he remained to the end of his days opposed to the extreme claims of the popes, whom he attacks with a bitterness which can be justified only by the strength of his patriotic feelings. His political poems begin with an appeal to Germany, written in 1198 at Vienna, against the disruptive ambitions of the princes: "Crown Philip with the Kaiser's crown And bid them vex thy peace no more."
He was present in 1198 at Philip's coronation at Mainz, and supported him till his victory was assured. After Philip's murder in 1208, he "said and sang" in support of Otto of Brunswick against the papal candidate Frederick of Hohenstaufen; and only when Otto's usefulness to Germany had been shattered by the Battle of Bouvines (1214) did he turn to the rising star of Frederick, now the sole representative of German majesty against pope and princes.
From the new emperor, Walther's genius and zeal for the empire finally received recognition: a small fief in Franconia was bestowed upon him, which—though he complained that its value was little—gave him the home and the fixed position he had so long desired. That Frederick gave him a further sign of favour by making him the tutor of his son Henry (VII), King of the Romans, is more than doubtful. The fact, in itself highly improbable, rests upon the evidence of only a single poem, the meaning of which can also be interpreted otherwise. Walther's restless spirit did not suffer him to remain long on his new property.
Later years
In 1217 he was once more at Vienna, and again in 1219 after the return of Duke Leopold VI from the crusade. About 1224 he seems to have settled on his fief near Würzburg. He was active in urging the German princes to take part in the crusade of 1228, and may have accompanied the crusading army at least as far as his native Tirol. In a poem he pictures in words the changes that had taken place in the scenes of his childhood, changes which made his life there seem to have been only a dream. He died about 1230, and was buried at Würzburg, after leaving instructions — according to the story — that the birds were to be fed at his tomb daily. His original gravestone with its Latin inscription has disappeared; but in 1843 a new monument was erected over the spot, called the Lusamgärtchen ("Little Lusam Garden"), today sheltered by the two major churches of the city.
The Manuscripts
Walther's work is exceptionally well preserved compared to that of his contemporaries, with over 30 complete manuscripts and fragments containing widely varying numbers of strophes under his name. The most extensive collections of his songs are in four of the main Minnesang manuscripts:
MS A (the Kleine Heidelberger Liederhandschrift) has 151 strophes under Walther's name, along with others almost certainly written by Walther but included in the works of other Minnesänger (Hartmann von Aue, Liutold von Seven, Niune, Reinmar von Hagenau and Ulrich von Singenberg).
MS B (the Weingarten Manuscript) has 112 strophes under Walther's name.
MS C (the Große Heidelberger Liederhandschrift, the Manesse Codex) has by far the largest collection, with 440 strophes and the Leich, and additional strophes by Walther under the names of other poets (Hartmann von Aue, Heinrich von Morungen, Reinmar von Hagenau, Rudolf von Neuenburg, Rudolf von Rotenburg, Rubin and Walther von Mezze).
MS E (the Würzburg Manuscript) has 212 strophes under Walther's name and some wrongly ascribed to Reinmar.
Manuscripts B and C have miniatures showing Walther in the pose described in the Reichston (L 8,4 C 2), "Ich saz ûf einem steine" ("I sat upon a stone").
In addition to these, there are many manuscripts with smaller amounts of material, sometimes as little as a single strophe. In the surviving complete manuscripts, there are often missing pages in the sections devoted to Walther, which indicates lost material, as well blank space left by the scribes to make allowance for later additions.
With the exception of MS M (the Carmina Burana), which may even have been compiled in Walther's lifetime, all the sources date from at least two generations after his death, and most are from the 14th or 15th centuries.
Melodies
As with most Minnesänger of his era, few of Walther's melodies have survived. Certain or potential melodies to Walther's songs come from three sources: those documented in the 14th-century Münster Fragment (MS Z) under Walther's name, melodies of the Meistersinger attributed to Walther, and, more speculatively, French and Provençal melodies of the trouvères and troubadours which fit Walther's songs and might therefore be the source of contrafactures. The latter are the only potential melodies to Walther's love songs, the remainder being for religious and political songs.
Melodies from the Münster Fragment
The complete melody of the Palästinalied, "Nû alrêst lebe ich mir werde" (L14, 38; C 7)
Partial melodies for
The Second Philipps-Ton, "Philippe, künec hėre" (L16,36; C 8)
The König-Friedrichs-Ton, "Vil wol gelopter got, wie selten ich dich prîse" (L26,3; C 11)
There are further melodies in two early manuscripts, M (the Carmina Burana) and N (Kremsmünster Stiftsbibliothek, Codex 127) but they are recorded in staffless neumes and cannot be reliably interpreted.
Melodies ascribed to Walther in Meistersang manuscripts
The Meistersingers' Hof- oder Wendelweise is Walther's Wiener Hofton, "Waz wunders in der werlde vert!" (L20,16; C 10)
The Meistersingers' Feiner Ton is Walther's Ottenton, "Herre bâbest, ich mac wol genesen" (L11,6; C 4)
The ascription of other melodies to Walther in the Meistersang manuscripts (the Goldene Weise, the Kreuzton, and the Langer Ton) is regarded as erroneous.
Possible contrafactures
The following songs by Walther share a strophic form with a French or Provençal song, and Walther's texts may therefore have been written for the Romance melodies, though there can be no certainty of the contrafacture:
"Uns hât der winter geschadet über al" (L39,1;C 15): "Quant voi les prés fuourir et blanchoir" by Moniot de Paris
"Under der linden" (L39,11;C 16): the anonymous "En mai au douz tens novels"
"Muget ir schouwen waz dem meien" (L51,13; C 28): "Quant je voi l'erbe menue" by Gautier d'Espinal
"Diu welt was gelf, rôt unde blâ" (L75,25; C 52): "Amours et bone volonté" by Gautier d'Espinal
"Frô Welt, ir sult dem wirte sagen" (L100,24; C 70) "Onques mais nus hons de chanta" by Blondel de Nesle
"Wol mich der stunde, daz ich sie erkande" (L110,33; C 78): "Qan vei la flor" by Bernart de Ventadorn.
Lost manuscripts with melodies
There is evidence that the surviving volume of the Jenaer Liederhandschrift was originally accompanied by another with melodies for Walther's Leich and some Sprüche. Further manuscript fragments containing melodies in the possession of Bernhard Joseph Docen (hence the "Docen fragments") were inspected by von der Hagen early in the 19th century, but are now lost.
Assessment
A contemporary assessment of Walther's songs comes from Gottfried von Strassburg, who, unlike modern commentators, was able to evaluate Walther's achievements as composer and performer, and who, writing in the first decade of the 13th century, proposed him as the "leader" of the Minnesänger after the death of Reinmar.
Grove Music Online evaluates Walther's work as follows:
He is regarded as one of the most outstanding and innovative authors of his generation... His poetic oeuvre is the most varied of his time,... and his poetry treats a number of subjects, adopting frequently contradictory positions. In his work he freed Minnesang from the traditional patterns of motifs and restricting social function and transformed it into genuinely experienced and yet universally valid love-poetry.
Will Hasty's evaluation of the love songs is that:
Walther's main contribution to the German love lyric was to increase the range of roles that could be adopted by the singer and his beloved, and to lend the depiction of the experience of love new immediacy and vibrancy.
Of the political works, Hasty concludes that:
In Walther's political and didactic poetry we again observe a consummately versatile poetic voice, one which finds new ways to give artistic expression to experience despite the constraints of the taste of audiences and patrons and by the authority of literary conventions.
Reception
Walther is one of the traditional competitors in the tale of the song contest at the Wartburg. He appears in medieval accounts and continues to be mentioned in more modern versions of the story such as that in Richard Wagner's Tannhäuser. He is also named by Walther von Stolzing, the hero of Wagner's Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, as his poetic model.
Walter is mentioned in Samuel Beckett's short story "The Calmative": "Seeing a stone seat by the kerb I sat down and crossed my legs, like Walther."
In 1975, the German poet Peter Rühmkorf published Walther von der Vogelweide, Klopstock und ich, in which he provided modernised and colloquial verse translations of 34 songs by Walther, accompanied by commentary.
Historical fiction with Walther in a major role includes Eberhard Hilscher's 1976 work Der Morgenstern, oder die vier Verwandlungen eines Mannes genannt Walther von der Vogelweide ("The Morning-Star, or the Four Metamorphoses of a man called Walther von der Vogelweide"), and two novels about Frederick II, Waltraud Lewin's Federico (1984) and Horst Stern's Mann aus Apulien (1986).
In 2013, the Galleria Lia Rumma in Naples exhibited a series of works by Anselm Kiefer (two large paintings and a group of books) relating to "Under der linden" under the title "Walther von der Vogelweide für Lia".
Commemoration
In 1889, a statue of Walther was unveiled in a square in Bolzano (see above), which was subsequently renamed the Walther von der Vogelweide-Platz. Under fascist rule, the statue was moved to a less prominent site, but it was restored to its original location in 1981.
There are two statues of Walther in fountains in Würzburg, one near the Würzburg Residence and another in the Walther-Schule. There are also statues in: Weißensee (Thuringia); Sankt Veit an der Glan and Innsbruck in Austria; and Duchcov in the Czech Republic.
Apart from his grave in Würzburg, there are also memorials in: the Knüll-Storkenberg nature reserve, Halle (Westfalia); Herlheim (Franconia); the Walhalla memorial near Regensburg; Lajen, South Tyrol, Zwettl, Gmunden and the ruined Mödling Castle, all in Austria.
There are schools named after him in Bozen, Aschbach-Markt and Würzburg.
Editions
There have been more scholarly editions of Walther's works than of any other medieval German poet's, a reflection of both his importance to literary history and the complex manuscript tradition. The following highly selective list includes only the seminal 19th Century edition of Lachmann and the most important recent editions. A history of the main editions will be found in the introduction to the Lachmann/Cormeau/Bein edition.
The first scholarly edition and continually revised since 1827. However, the revised editions edited by Carl von Kraus between 1936 and 1959 are now considered out of keeping with modern editorial principles. The most recent update, now the standard edition of Walther's works, is:
Includes all Walther's songs known at the time.
In addition, there are many published selections from Walther's works.
Lachmann numbers
Consistent reference to Walther's songs is made by means of "Lachmann numbers", which are formed of an "L" (for "Lachmann") followed by the page and line number in Lachmann's edition of 1827. Thus "Under der linden", which starts on line 11 on page 39 of that edition (shown in the page image, right) is referred to as L39,11, and the second line of the first strophe is L39,12, etc.
All serious editions and translations of Walther's songs either give the Lachmann numbers alongside the text or provide a concordance of Lachmann numbers for the poems in the edition or translation.
See also
Albrecht von Johansdorf
Individual songs:
Ir sult sprechen willekomen
Palästinalied
Under der linden
Notes
References
PDF
Further reading
Translations
Modern German
Verse translation.
The 1894 edition
The 1906 edition, lacking the commentary.
Translation only, but with Lachmann numbers.
Includes many of Walther's songs.
Schweikle's two-volume edition, listed above, includes parallel translation.
English
Translation only.
Parallel text; contains only the political songs.
External links
Bibliography
Free University of Berlin:
Manuscripts
Handschriftencensus: Walther von der Vogelweide
Kleine Heidelberger Liederhandschrift (A): Description — Digital facsimile (University Library, Heidelberg)
Weingarten Manuscript (B): Description — Digital facsimile (Württembergische Landesbibliothek, Stuttgart)
Große Heidelberger Liederhandschrift (Manesse Codex)] (C): Description — Digital facsimile (University Library, Heidelberg)
Würzburg Manuscript] (E): Description — Digital facsimile (University Library, Munich)
Carmina Burana MS (M): Description — Digital facsimile (University Library, Munich)
Kremsmünster, Stiftsbibl., Cod. 127 (N): Description
Münster Fragment (Z): Description — Digital facsimile (University Library, Jena)
Birthplace
Walther and the Waldviertel
The Songs
Texts
Bibliotheca Augustana
puella bella seven songs (within a study on female beauty in Minnesang)
Song texts at the University of Vienna eLib:
Der Azeton
Der Bognerton
Der Erste Phillipston
Der Kaiser Friedrichs und Engelbertston
Der Keiser als Spileman
Der Koenig Friedrichston
Der Koenig Heinrichston
Der Leich
Der Leopoldston
Der Meisnerton
Der Ottenton
Der Reichston um 1200
Der Unmutston
Der Wiener Hofton
Der Zweite Phillipston
Ich sach mit mînen ougen
Ich saz ûf einem Steine
Ir sult sprechen willekomen
Fruehe Lieder bis 1198
Lieder bis 1203
Lieder bis 1205
Lieder bis 1220
Lieder der neuen Minne
Maedchenlieder
Spaete Lieder
Poemhunter English verse translations of 16 songs
Graeme Dunphy: English verse translations of two songs
My Poetic Side: English verse translations of four songs
Music
Discogs: Walther Von Der Vogelweide Discography
The Salzburger Ensemble für Alte Musik:
"Under der linden"
Palästinalied
1170s births
1230 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
Year of death uncertain
Austrian knights
Austrian male writers
12th-century German composers
13th-century German composers
12th-century German poets
13th-century German poets
12th-century Roman Catholics
13th-century Roman Catholics
German Roman Catholics
Minnesingers
Middle High German literature
German male poets
13th-century Austrian poets
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte%20of%20Mecklenburg-Strelitz
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Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
|
Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (Sophia Charlotte; 19 May 1744 – 17 November 1818) was Queen of Great Britain and Ireland as the wife of King George III from their marriage on 8 September 1761 until the union of the two kingdoms on 1 January 1801, after which she was Queen of the United Kingdom until her death in 1818. As George's wife, she was also Electress of Hanover until becoming Queen of Hanover on 12 October 1814, when the electorate became a kingdom.
Charlotte was born into the royal family of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, a duchy in northern Germany. In 1760 the young and unmarried George III inherited the British throne. As Charlotte was a minor German princess with no interest in politics, George considered her a suitable consort, and they married in 1761. The marriage lasted 57 years and produced 15 children, 13 of whom survived to adulthood. They included two future British monarchs, George IV and William IV; as well as Charlotte, Princess Royal, who became Queen of Württemberg; Prince Edward, the father of Queen Victoria; Prince Adolphus, grandfather of the British queen consort Mary of Teck; and Prince Ernest Augustus, who became King of Hanover.
Charlotte was a patron of the arts and an amateur botanist who helped expand Kew Gardens. She introduced the Christmas tree to Britain, after decorating one for a Christmas party for children from Windsor in 1800. She was distressed by her husband's bouts of physical and mental illness, which became permanent in later life. She maintained a close relationship with Queen Marie Antoinette of France, and the French Revolution likely enhanced the emotional strain felt by Charlotte. Her eldest son, George, was appointed as Prince Regent in 1811 due to the increasing severity of the King's illness. Charlotte died in November 1818 with her son George at her side. Charlotte's husband, who was likely unaware of her death, died a little over a year later.
Early life
Sophia Charlotte was born on 19 May 1744. She was the youngest daughter of Duke Charles Louis Frederick of Mecklenburg, Prince of Mirow (1708–1752) and of his wife Princess Elisabeth Albertine of Saxe-Hildburghausen (1713–1761). Mecklenburg-Strelitz was a small north-German duchy in the Holy Roman Empire.
The children of Duke Charles were all born at the Unteres Schloss (Lower Castle) in Mirow. According to diplomatic reports at the time of her engagement to George III in 1761, Charlotte had received "a very mediocre education". Her upbringing was similar to that of a daughter of an English country gentleman. She received some rudimentary instruction in botany, natural history and language from tutors, but her education focused on household management and on religion, the latter taught by a priest. Only after her brother Adolphus Frederick succeeded to the ducal throne in 1752 did she gain any experience of princely duties and of court life.
Marriage
When King George III succeeded to the throne of Great Britain upon the death of his grandfather, George II, he was 22 years old and unmarried. His mother and advisors were eager to have him settled in marriage. The 17-year-old Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz appealed to him as a prospective consort partly because she had been brought up in an insignificant north German duchy, and therefore would probably have had no experience or interest in power politics or party intrigues. That proved to be the case; to make sure, he instructed her shortly after their wedding "not to meddle", a precept she was glad to follow.
The King announced to his Council in July 1761, according to the usual form, his intention to wed the Princess, after which a party of escorts, led by the Earl Harcourt, departed for Germany to conduct Princess Charlotte to England. They reached Strelitz on 14 August 1761, and were received the next day by the reigning duke, Princess Charlotte's brother, at which time the marriage contract was signed by him on the one hand and Earl Harcourt on the other. Three days of public celebrations followed, and on 17 August 1761, the Princess set out for Britain, accompanied by her brother, Duke Adolphus Frederick, and by the British escort party. On 22 August, they reached Cuxhaven, where a small fleet awaited to convey them to England. The voyage was extremely difficult; the party encountered three storms at sea, and landed at Harwich only on 7 September. They set out at once for London, spent that night in Witham, at the residence of Lord Abercorn, and arrived at 3:30 pm the next day at St. James's Palace in London. They were received by the King and his family at the garden gate, which marked the first meeting of the bride and groom.
At 9:00 pm that same evening (8 September 1761), within six hours of her arrival, Charlotte was united in marriage with King George III. The ceremony was performed at the Chapel Royal, St. James's Palace, by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Secker. Only the royal family, the party who had travelled from Germany, and a handful of guests were present.
Queenship
Upon her wedding day, Charlotte spoke no English. However, she quickly learned English, albeit speaking with a strong German accent. One observer commented, "She is timid at first but talks a lot, when she is among people she knows."
Less than a year after the marriage, on 12 August 1762, the Queen gave birth to her first child, George, Prince of Wales. In the course of their marriage, the couple became the parents of 15 children, all but two of whom (Octavius and Alfred) survived into adulthood.
St James's Palace functioned as the official residence of the royal couple, but the king had recently purchased a nearby property, Buckingham House, located at the western end of St James's Park. More private and compact, the new property stood amid rolling parkland not far from St James's Palace. Around 1762 the King and Queen moved to this residence, which was originally intended as a private retreat. The Queen came to favour this residence, spending so much of her time there that it came to be known as The Queen's House. Indeed, in 1775, an Act of Parliament settled the property on Queen Charlotte in exchange for her rights to Somerset House.
Most of her 15 children were born in Buckingham House, although St James's Palace remained the official and ceremonial royal residence.
During her first years in Great Britain, Charlotte's strained relationship with her mother-in-law, Princess Augusta, caused her difficulty in adapting to the life of the British court. The princess dowager interfered with Charlotte's efforts to establish social contacts by insisting on rigid court etiquette. Furthermore, Augusta appointed many of Charlotte's staff, among whom several were expected to report to Augusta about Charlotte's behaviour. Charlotte turned to her German companions for friends, notably her close confidante Juliane von Schwellenberg.
The King enjoyed country pursuits and riding and preferred to keep his family's residence as much as possible in the then rural towns of Kew and Richmond. He favoured an informal and relaxed domestic life, to the dismay of some courtiers more accustomed to displays of grandeur and strict protocol. Lady Mary Coke was indignant on hearing in July 1769 that the King, the Queen, her visiting brother Prince Ernest and Lady Effingham had gone for a walk through Richmond town by themselves without any servants. "I am not satisfied in my mind about the propriety of a Queen walking in town unattended."
From 1778 the Royal family spent much of their time at a newly constructed residence, the Queen's Lodge at Windsor, opposite Windsor Castle, in Windsor Great Park, where the King enjoyed hunting deer. The Queen was responsible for the interior decoration of their new residence, described by friend of the Royal Family and diarist Mary Delany: "The entrance into the first room was dazzling, all furnished with beautiful Indian paper, chairs covered with different embroideries of the liveliest colours, glasses, tables, sconces, in the best taste, the whole calculated to give the greatest cheerfulness to the place."
Queen Charlotte endeared herself to her ladies and to her children's attendants by treating them with friendly warmth, reflected in this note she wrote to her daughters' assistant governess:
My dear Miss Hamilton, What can I have to say? Not much indeed! But to wish you a good morning, in the pretty blue and white room where I had the pleasure to sit and read with you The Hermit, a poem which is such a favourite with me that I have read it twice this summer. Oh! What a blessing to keep good company! Very likely I should not have been acquainted with either poet or poem was it not for you
Charlotte did have some influence on political affairs through the King. Her influence was discreet and indirect, as demonstrated in the correspondence with her brother Charles. She used her closeness with George III to keep herself informed and to make recommendations for offices. Apparently her recommendations were not direct, as she on one occasion, in 1779, asked her brother Charles to burn her letter, because the King suspected that a person she had recently recommended for a post was the client of a woman who sold offices. Charlotte particularly interested herself in German issues. She took an interest in the War of the Bavarian Succession (1778–1779), and it is possible that it was due to her efforts that the King supported British intervention in the continuing conflict between Joseph II and Charles Theodore of Bavaria in 1785.
Husband's first period of illness
When the King had his first, temporary, bout of mental illness in 1765, her mother-in-law and Lord Bute kept Charlotte unaware of the situation. The Regency Bill of 1765 stated that if the King should become permanently unable to rule, Charlotte was to become Regent. Her mother-in-law and Lord Bute had unsuccessfully opposed this arrangement, but as the King's illness of 1765 was temporary, Charlotte was aware neither of it, nor of the Regency Bill.
The King's bout of physical and mental illness in 1788 distressed and terrified the Queen. The writer Fanny Burney, at that time one of the Queen's attendants, overheard her moaning to herself with "desponding sound": "What will become of me? What will become of me?" When the King collapsed one night, she refused to be left alone with him and successfully insisted that she be given her own bedroom. When the doctor, Warren, was called, she was not informed and was not given the opportunity to speak with him. When told by the Prince of Wales that the King was to be removed to Kew, but that she should move to Queen's House or to Windsor, she successfully insisted that she accompany her spouse to Kew. However, she and her daughters were taken to Kew separately from the King and lived secluded from him during his illness. They regularly visited him, but the visits tended to be uncomfortable, as he had a tendency to embrace them and refuse to let them go.
During the 1788 illness of the King, a conflict arose between the Queen and the Prince of Wales, who were both suspected of desiring to assume the Regency should the illness of the King become permanent, resulting in him being declared unfit to rule. The Queen suspected the Prince of Wales of a plan to have the King declared insane with the assistance of Doctor Warren, and to take over the Regency. The followers of the Prince of Wales, notably Sir Gilbert Ellis, in turn suspected the Queen of a plan to have the King declared sane with the assistance of Doctor Willis and Prime Minister Pitt, so that he could have her appointed Regent should he fall ill again, and then have him declared insane again and assume the Regency. According to Doctor Warren, Doctor Willis had pressed him to declare the King sane on the orders of the Queen.
In the Regency Bill of 1789, the Prince of Wales was declared Regent should the King become permanently insane, but it also placed the King himself, his court and minor children under the guardianship of the Queen. The Queen used this Bill when she refused the Prince of Wales permission to see the King alone, even well after he had been declared sane again in the spring of 1789. The conflict around the regency led to serious discord between the Prince of Wales and his mother. In an argument he accused her of having sided with his enemies, while she called him the enemy of the King. Their conflict became public when she refused to invite him to the concert held in celebration of the recovery of the King, which created a scandal. Queen Charlotte and the Prince of Wales finally reconciled, on her initiative, in March 1791.
As the King gradually became permanently insane, the Queen's personality altered: she developed a terrible temper, sank into depression, and no longer enjoyed appearing in public, not even at the musical concerts she had so loved; and her relationships with her adult children became strained. From 1792 she found some relief from her worry about her husband by planning the gardens and decoration of a new residence for herself, Frogmore House, in Windsor Home Park.
From 1804 onward, when the King displayed declining mental health, Queen Charlotte slept in a separate bedroom, had her meals separate from him, and avoided seeing him alone.
Interests and patronage
King George III and Queen Charlotte were music connoisseurs with German tastes, who gave special honour to German artists and composers. They were passionate admirers of the music of George Frideric Handel.
In April 1764, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, then aged eight, arrived in Britain with his family as part of their grand tour of Europe and remained until July 1765. The Mozarts were summoned to court on 19 May and played before a limited circle from six to ten o'clock. Johann Christian Bach, eleventh son of the great Johann Sebastian Bach, was then music-master to the Queen. He put difficult works of Handel, J. S. Bach, and Carl Friedrich Abel before the boy: he played them all at sight, to the amazement of those present. Afterwards, the young Mozart accompanied the Queen in an aria which she sang, and played a solo work on the flute. On 29 October, the Mozarts were in London again, and were invited to court to celebrate the fourth anniversary of the King's accession. As a memento of the royal favour, Leopold Mozart published six sonatas composed by Wolfgang, known as Mozart's Opus 3, that were dedicated to the Queen on 18 January 1765, a dedication she rewarded with a present of 50 guineas.
Queen Charlotte was an amateur botanist who took a great interest in Kew Gardens. In an age of discovery, when such travellers and explorers as Captain James Cook and Sir Joseph Banks were constantly bringing home new species and varieties of plants, she ensured that the collections were greatly enriched and expanded. Her interest in botany led to the South African flower, the Bird of Paradise, being named Strelitzia reginae in her honour.
Queen Charlotte has also been credited with introducing the Christmas tree to Britain and its colonies. Initially, Charlotte decorated a single yew branch, a common Christmas tradition in her native Mecklenburg-Strelitz, to celebrate Christmas with members of the royal family and the royal household. She decorated the branch with the assistance of her ladies-in-waiting and then had the court gather to sing carols and distribute gifts. In December 1800, Queen Charlotte set up the first known English Christmas tree at Queen's Lodge, Windsor. That year, she held a large Christmas party for the children of all the families in Windsor and placed a whole tree in the drawing-room, decorated with tinsel, glass, baubles and fruits. John Watkins, who attended the Christmas party, described the tree in a biography on the queen stating, "from the branches of which hung bunches of sweetmeats, almonds and raisins in papers, fruits and toys, most tastefully arranged; the whole illuminated by small wax candles. After the company had walked round and admired the tree, each child obtained a portion of the sweets it bore, together with a toy, and then all returned home quite delighted." The practice of decorating a tree became popular among the British nobility and gentry, and later spread to the colonies.
Among the royal couple's favoured craftsmen and artists were the cabinetmaker William Vile, silversmith Thomas Heming, the landscape designer Capability Brown, and the German painter Johann Zoffany, who frequently painted the king and queen and their children in charmingly informal scenes, such as a portrait of Queen Charlotte and her children as she sat at her dressing table. In 1788 the royal couple visited the Worcester Porcelain Factory (founded in 1751, and later to be known as Royal Worcester), where Queen Charlotte ordered a porcelain service that was later renamed "Royal Lily" in her honour. Another well-known porcelain service designed and named in her honour was the "Queen Charlotte" pattern.
The queen founded orphanages and, in 1809, became the patron (providing new funding) of the General Lying-in Hospital, a hospital for expectant mothers. It was subsequently renamed as the Queen's Hospital, and is today the Queen Charlotte's and Chelsea Hospital. The education of women was of great importance to her, and she ensured that her daughters were better educated than was usual for young women of the day; however, she also insisted that her daughters live restricted lives close to their mother, and she refused to allow them to marry until they were well-advanced in years. As a result, none of her daughters had surviving legitimate issue (one, Princess Charlotte, had a stillborn daughter during her marriage; another, Princess Sophia, may have had an illegitimate son).
Up until 1788, portraits of Charlotte often depict her in maternal poses with her children, and she looks young and contented; however, in that year her husband fell seriously ill and became temporarily insane. It is now thought that the King was suffering from porphyria, but at the time the cause of the King's illness was unknown. Sir Thomas Lawrence's portrait of her at this time marks a transition point, after which she looks much older in her portraits; the Assistant Keeper of Charlotte's Wardrobe, Mrs. Papendiek, wrote that the Queen was "much changed, her hair quite grey".
Relations with Marie Antoinette
The French Revolution of 1789 probably added to the strain that Charlotte felt. Queen Charlotte and Queen Marie Antoinette of France had maintained a close relationship. Charlotte was 11 years older than Marie Antoinette, yet they shared many interests, such as their love of music and the arts, in which they both enthusiastically took an interest. Never meeting face to face, they confined their friendship to pen and paper. Marie Antoinette confided in Charlotte upon the outbreak of the French Revolution. Charlotte had organized apartments to be prepared and ready for the refugee royal family of France to occupy.
She was greatly distraught when she heard the news that the King and Queen of France had been executed.
During the Regency
After the onset of his permanent madness in 1811, George III was placed under the guardianship of his wife in accordance with the Regency Bill of 1789.
She could not bring herself to visit him very often, due to his erratic behaviour and occasional violent reactions. It is believed she did not visit him again after June 1812. However, Charlotte remained supportive of her spouse as his illness, now believed to be porphyria, worsened in old age. While her son, the Prince Regent, wielded the royal power, she was her spouse's legal guardian from 1811 until her death in 1818. Due to the extent of the King's illness he was incapable of knowing or understanding that she had died.
During the Regency of her son, Queen Charlotte continued to fill her role as first lady in royal representation because of the estrangement of the Prince Regent and his spouse. As such, she functioned as the hostess by the side of her son at official receptions, such as the festivities given in London to celebrate the defeat of Emperor Napoleon in 1814. She also supervised the upbringing of Princess Charlotte of Wales.
During her last years, she was met with a growing lack of popularity and sometimes subjected to demonstrations. After having attended a reception in London on 29 April 1817, she was jeered by a crowd. She told the crowd that it was upsetting to be treated like that after such long service.
Death
The Queen died in the presence of her eldest son, the Prince Regent, who was holding her hand as she sat in an armchair at the family's country retreat, Dutch House in Surrey (now known as Kew Palace). She was buried at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. Her husband died just over a year later. She is the longest-serving female consort and second-longest-serving consort in British history (after Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh), having served as such from her marriage (on 8 September 1761) to her death (17 November 1818), a total of 57 years and 70 days.
On the day before her death, the Queen dictated her will to her husband's secretary, Sir Herbert Taylor, appointing him and Lord Arden as her executors; at her death, her personal estate was valued at less than £140,000 (equivalent to £ in ), with her jewels accounting for the greater portion of her assets. In her will, proven at Doctor's Commons on 8 January 1819, the Queen bequeathed her husband the jewels she had received from him, unless he remained in his state of insanity, in which case the jewels were to become an heirloom of the House of Hanover. Other jewels, including some gifted to the Queen by the Nawab of Arcot, were to be evenly distributed among her surviving daughters. The furnishings and fixtures at the royal residence at Frogmore, along with "live and dead stock...on the estates", were bequeathed to her daughter Augusta Sophia along with the Frogmore property, unless its maintenance would prove too expensive for her daughter, in which case it was to revert to the Crown. Her youngest daughter Sophia inherited the Royal Lodge. Certain personal assets that the Queen had brought from Mecklenburg-Strelitz were to revert to the senior branch of that dynasty, while the remainder of her assets, including her books, linen, art objects and china, were to be evenly divided among her surviving daughters.
At the Queen's death, her eldest son, the Prince Regent, claimed Charlotte's jewels, and on his death they were in turn claimed by his heir, William IV. On William's death, Charlotte's bequest then sparked a protracted dispute between her granddaughter Queen Victoria, who claimed the jewels as the property of the British Crown, and Charlotte's now eldest-surviving son Ernest, who claimed the jewels by right of being the most senior male member of the House of Hanover. The dispute would not be resolved in Ernest's lifetime. Eventually in 1858, over twenty years after the death of William IV and nearly forty years after Charlotte's death, the matter was decided in favour of Ernest's son George, upon which Victoria had the jewels given into the custody of the Hanoverian ambassador.
The rest of Charlotte's property was sold at auction from May to August 1819. Her clothes, furniture, and even her snuff were sold by Christie's. It is highly unlikely that her husband ever knew of her death. He died blind, deaf, lame and insane 14 months later.
Legacy
Places named after her include the Queen Charlotte Islands (now known as Haida Gwaii) in British Columbia, Canada, and Queen Charlotte City on Haida Gwaii; Queen Charlotte Sound (not far from the Haida Gwaii Islands); Queen Charlotte Channel (near Vancouver, Canada); Queen Charlotte Bay in West Falkland; Queen Charlotte Sound, South Island, New Zealand; several fortifications, including Fort Charlotte, Saint Vincent; Charlottesville, Virginia; Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island; Charlotte, North Carolina; Mecklenburg County, North Carolina; Mecklenburg County, Virginia; Charlotte County, Virginia, Charlotte County, Florida, Port Charlotte, Florida, Charlotte Harbor, Florida, and Charlotte, Vermont. The proposed North American colonies of Vandalia and Charlotina were also named for her. Queen Street, or Lebuh Queen as it is known in Malay, is a major street in Penang, Malaysia named after her. In Tonga, the royal family adopted the name Sālote (Tongan version of Charlotte) in her honour, and notable individuals included Sālote Lupepauʻu and Sālote Tupou III.
Her provision of funding to the General Lying-in Hospital in London prevented its closure; today it is named Queen Charlotte's and Chelsea Hospital, and is an acknowledged centre of excellence amongst maternity hospitals. A large copy of the Allan Ramsay portrait of Queen Charlotte hangs in the main lobby of the hospital. The Queen Charlotte's Ball, an annual debutante ball that originally funded the hospital, is named after her.
Statues of Queen Charlotte stand on Queen Square in Bloomsbury, London, and at both Charlotte Douglas International Airport and the International Trade Center in Charlotte, North Carolina.
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, was chartered in 1766 as Queen's College, in reference to Queen Charlotte. It was renamed in 1825 in honour of Henry Rutgers, a Revolutionary War officer and college benefactor. Its oldest extant building, Old Queen's (built 1809–1823), and the city block that forms the historic core of the university, Queen's Campus, retain their original names.
Queen Charlotte was played by Helen Mirren in the 1994 film The Madness of King George, and by Golda Rosheuvel in the 2020 Netflix original series Bridgerton.
Strelitzia, a genus of flowering plants native to South Africa that has become ubiquitous in warm-weather regions worldwide, is named for Charlotte's native Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
Titles, styles and arms
Titles and styles
19 May 1744 – 8 September 1761: Her Serene Highness Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg
8 September 1761 – 17 November 1818: Her Majesty The Queen
Arms
The Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom are impaled with her father's arms as a Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The arms were: Quarterly of six, 1st, Or, a buffalo's head cabossed Sable, armed and ringed Argent, crowned and langued Gules (Mecklenburg); 2nd, Azure, a griffin segreant Or (Rostock); 3rd, Per fess, in chief Azure, a griffin segreant Or, and in the base Vert, a bordure Argent (Principality of Schwerin); 4th, Gules, a cross patée Argent crowned Or (Ratzeburg); 5th, Gules, a dexter arm Argent issuant from clouds in sinister flank and holding a finger ring Or (County of Schwerin); 6th, Or, a buffalo's head Sable, armed Argent, crowned and langued Gules (Wenden); Overall an inescutcheon, per fess Gules and Or (Stargard).
The Queen's arms changed twice to mirror the changes in her husband's arms, once in 1801 and then again in 1816. A funerary hatchment displaying the Queen's full coat of arms, painted in 1818, is on display at Kew Palace.
Issue
Ancestry
In modern times there has arisen a popular debate that Queen Charlotte may have secretly been of significant black or Sub-Saharan ancestry. This claim first originated from the Jamaican-American writer J. A. Rogers's 1940 book Sex and Race: Volume I, in which he concluded that she must have had a "Negro strain" based on his observations of her "broad nostrils and heavy lips", as depicted in the 1761 portrait by Allan Ramsay, and a quote by Horace Walpole describing her "nostrils spreading too wide; mouth has the same fault". This gave rise to subsequent claims that the queen was "mixed-race", "biracial", or "black".
Later proponents of the theory pointed out that Baron Stockmar once described Queen Charlotte as having had a "mullato face" when she was a baby, although he had never met her until 2 years before her death.
In 1999, the PBS writer Mario de Valdes y Cocom popularized and expanded upon previous claims in a website developed for PBS Frontline, which has since been cited as the main source by a number of articles on the topic. Valdes described Charlotte's 1761 Allan Ramsay portrait as having an "unmistakable African appearance" and "negroid physiogomy" that he believed was the result of African ancestry. Valdes further claimed that Charlotte had inherited this from one of her distant ancestors, Madragana (c. 1230–?), a mistress of King Afonso III of Portugal (c. 1210–1279). This conclusion is based on several 15th and 18th century sources that describe Madragana as either Moorish or Mozarab, which Valdez interprets to mean she was black. Valdez even went as far as to describe the Sousa family from which Charlotte inherited this ancestral line as a "black branch of the Portuguese Royal House", although provided no evidence to substantiate this much broader assertion.
Although popular in the public sphere, the theory is largely denounced by most scholars. It's been pointed out that Queen Charlotte was never referred to as black during her lifetime; that her portraiture was not overly atypical for her time; and that any genetic contribution from an ancestor 15 generations removed would be so diluted as to be functionally negligible. Charlotte's ancestor in question, Madragana, was most likely Mozarab and not Moorish, and even if Madragana was Moorish this did not necessarily or even likely mean she was black, as during the 15th century the term was not used to describe race but religious affiliation.
In 2017, following the announcement of the engagement of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle, a number of news articles were published promoting the theory. David Buck, a Buckingham Palace spokesperson, was quoted by the Boston Globe as saying: "This has been rumoured for years and years. It is a matter of history, and frankly, we've got far more important things to talk about."
Notes
References
Sources and further reading
Barr, Michael C. and Wilkens, Edward (1973). . Retrieved 5 September 2013.
External links
Queen Charlotte, 1744–1818: A Bilingual Exhibit (c1994)
"The Blurred Racial Lines of Famous Families – Queen Charlotte" at the PBS site
"King George III: Mad or Misunderstood?" BBC
Stuart Jeffries, "Was this Britain's first black queen?" The Guardian (12 March 2009)
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1744 births
1818 deaths
British royal consorts
Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
Duchesses of Bremen and Verden
Duchesses of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
Duchesses of Saxe-Lauenburg
Electresses of Hanover
George III of the United Kingdom
Hanoverian royal consorts
House of Hanover
House of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
People from Mecklenburg-Strelitz
People from Mirow
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Anne%20Clarke
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Mary Anne Clarke
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Mary Anne Clarke (born Mary Anne Thompson; 3 April 1776 – 21 June 1852) was the mistress of Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Their relationship began in 1803, while he was Commander-in-Chief of the army. Later in 1809, she wrote her memoirs which were published. She was the subject of a portrait by Adam Buck, and a caricature by Isaac Cruikshank; ten days after the latter's publication, the Duke resigned from his post as Commander of the British Army. In 1811, she commissioned Irish sculptor Lawrence Gahagan to sculpt a marble bust of her; this is now housed in the National Portrait Gallery, London.
Through her daughter who married Louis-Mathurin Busson du Maurier, Clarke was an ancestress of author Daphne du Maurier, who wrote the novel Mary Anne about her life.
Life as a courtesan
Mary Anne Thompson was born on 3 April 1776 in London, the daughter of a humble tradesman. Attractive and intelligent, she was married before the age of 18, to a man named Clarke, who worked as a stonemason. However, shortly after the marriage, her husband went bankrupt, and Mary Anne Clarke left him because of this. By 1803 Clarke had been established long enough in the world of courtesans to receive the attention of Frederick, Duke of York, then the Commander in Chief of the army.
Taking her as his mistress, he set her up in a fashionable residence. However, he failed to supply the funds necessary to support their lavish lifestyle. In 1809, a national scandal arose when Clarke testified before the House of Commons that she had sold army commissions with the Duke of York's knowledge.
The scandal was the subject of much humour and mockery, especially by caricaturists such as Isaac Cruikshank who created multiple graphics making fun of the scandal. Cruikshank combined mockery of the scandal while also satirizing Napoleon, portraying him and his generals reading four of his caricatures of the Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany and Mary.
Frederick was forced to resign from his position, though he was later reinstated.
After the Duke of York resigned his post as Commander in Chief of the Army, and before he was later reinstated, he cut all ties to Clarke, paying her a considerable sum to prevent her from publishing letters he had written to her during their relationship. When the scandal forced Clarke to leave London, she took a tenancy of Loughton Lodge, Loughton, Essex. This house still exists, and a blue plaque to Mary Anne Clarke was unveiled on it in April 2009. There are in fact two blue plaques, one on the front, and a duplicate on the back elevation.
Clarke was prosecuted for libel in 1813 and imprisoned for nine months. On her release from prison, she went to live in France. She died in Boulogne-sur-Mer on 21 June 1852.
Legacy and writings
Her daughter, Ellen, born of her marriage to Clarke, married Louis-Mathurin Busson du Maurier and was the mother of the caricaturist George du Maurier (1834–96) and the great-grandmother of the novelist Daphne du Maurier (1907–1989), who wrote a book about her, Mary Anne.
Writings by Mary Anne Clarke include the following:
The Authentic and Impartial Life of Mrs. Mary Anne Clarke, Including Numerous Royal and Other Original Letters, and Anecdotes of Distinguished Persons, Which Have Escaped Suppression, with a Compendious View of the Whole Proceedings, Illustrative of the Late Important Investigation of the Conduct of His Royal Highness the Duke of York, &C. &C. and a Curious Poem. London: T. Kelly, 1809.
The Rival Princes; Or, A Faithful Narrative of Facts, Relating to Mrs. M.A. Clarke's Political Acquaintance with Colonel Wardle, Major Dodd, &C. &C. &C., Who Were Concerned in the Charges against the Duke of York; Together with a Variety of Authentic and Important Letters, and Curious and Interesting Anecdotes of Several Persons of Political Notoriety. London: Printed for the author, and published by C. Chapple, 1810.
She co-authored with Elizabeth Taylor:
Authentic Memoirs of Mrs. Clarke. London: T. Tegg, 1809.
With Gwyllym Lloyd Wardle, Francis Wright, and Daniel Wright:
Wardle Versus Clarke, &c.: The Trial of F. Wright, D. Wright, and Mary Ann Clarke for a Conspiracy against G. L. Wardle Before Lord Ellenborough in the Court of King's Bench, Westminster on December the 11th, 1809. London: J. Day, 1809.
Notes
References
Clarke, Mary Anne. The Century Cyclopedia of Names: A Pronouncing and Etymological Dictionary of Names in Geography, Biography, Mythology, History, Ethnology, Art, Archæology, Fiction, Etc. New York: Century Co, 1904.
Parry, His Honour Judge Edward Abbott, Vagabond's All (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1926), p. 22-42, "Chapter II: Mary Anne Clarke, The Courtesan."
External links
For Mary Anne Clarke's works
:fr:Mary Anne Clarke
Mistresses of British royalty
Mary Anne
1776 births
1852 deaths
People from Loughton
Women of the Regency era
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209361
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20James%20Infirmary%20Blues
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St. James Infirmary Blues
|
"St. James Infirmary Blues" is an American blues song of uncertain origin. Louis Armstrong made the song famous in his 1928 recording on which Don Redman was credited as composer; later releases gave the name Joe Primrose, a pseudonym of Irving Mills. The melody is 8 bars long, unlike songs in the classic blues genre, where there are 12 bars. It is in a minor key, and has a time signature, but has also been played in .
Authorship and history
"St. James Infirmary Blues", sometimes known as "Gambler's Blues", is often regarded as an American folk song of anonymous origin. Moore and Baxter published a version of "Gambler's Blues" in 1925. In 1927, Carl Sandburg published a book called The American Songbag which contained lyrics for two versions of a song called "Those Gambler's Blues". However, the song "St. James Infirmary Blues" is sometimes credited to the songwriter Joe Primrose (a pseudonym for Irving Mills), who held copyrights for several versions of the song, registering the first in 1929. He claimed the rights to this specific title and won a case in the U.S. Supreme Court on this basis, the defendants having failed to produce the documentary evidence required by the court that the song had been known by that name for some years.
"St. James Infirmary Blues" is sometimes said to be based on an eighteenth-century traditional folk song called "The Unfortunate Rake" (also known as "The Unfortunate Lad" or "The Young Man Cut Down in His Prime") about a soldier who uses his money on prostitutes and then dies of venereal disease. But the familiar recorded versions (such as Armstrong's) bear little relation to the older traditional song. The earliest known form of this song was called "The Buck's Elegy" and is set in Covent Garden, London.
According to Robert W. Harwood, A. L. Lloyd was the first person to connect "St. James Infirmary" with "The Unfortunate Lad/Rake". Harwood refers to a five-page article by Lloyd in the January 1947 issue of the English music magazine Keynote. In 1956, Lloyd published a revised version of this article in Sing magazine. In both articles Lloyd refers to an English broadside song entitled "The Unfortunate Lad", commenting that the song is sometimes known as "The Unfortunate Rake". No date or source for the latter title is given. The opening line of this version of the song refers to the "lock hospital", not to an institution named St James. The term "lock hospital" was the name of an institution in Southwark, London, where lepers were isolated and treated. The lock in Southwark was used for those suffering from venereal diseases. The longer term came into use as a generic term for a hospital treating venereal diseases. Its first recorded use is 1770.
Lloyd claims that a song collected by Cecil Sharp in the Appalachians in 1918 which contains the words "St James Hospital" is the parent song and that it looks like an elder relative of "The Dying Cowboy". The opening of that song, as quoted by Lloyd, is:
As I went down by St James Hospital one morning,
So early one morning, it was early one day,
I found my son, my own son,
Wrapped up in white linen, as cold as the clay.
He also claims that this Appalachian version derives in turn from the version published by Such in London in the 1850s which refers to a lock hospital. The opening verse of this song, entitled "The Unfortunate Lad", is:
As I was walking down by the Lock Hospital,
As I was walking one morning of late,
Who did I spy but my own dear comrade,
Wrapp'd up in flannel, so hard was his fate.
Lloyd's articles comment on the jazz hit "St. James Infirmary Blues". The first article asserts that "the song is, or was before it became corrupted, a narrative ballad. Such ballads are rare in Negro song...So doubts are raised about whether 'St. James Infirmary' began life as a Negro song." The second article includes the following comment on the song: "Most versions of 'Infirmary' include a number of stanzas from other songs, grafted on to the main stem – a confusion especially common with songs current among Negroes. The curious switchover from the actual death of the girl to the hypothetical death of the gambler creates some ambiguity too." Lloyd points out that in some early variants of "The Unfortunate Rake" the sex of the victim of venereal disease was female. "We realise that the confusion in the 'Infirmary', where the dead person is a woman but the funeral is ordered for a man, is surely due to the fact that the original ballad was commonly recorded in a form in which the sexes were reversed, so singers were often in two minds whether they were singing of a rakish man or a bad girl."
Lloyd's second article is cited as a reference by Kenneth Goldstein in his liner notes for a 1960 Folkways LP called The Unfortunate Rake. These liner notes are often used as a source for the history of "St. James Infirmary Blues". One example is an article by Rob Walker. The liner notes raise the question of whether St. James' Hospital was a real place and, if so, where it was. Goldstein claimed in the notes that "St. James" refers to London's St. James Hospital, a religious foundation for the treatment of leprosy. His references list an article by Kenneth Lodewick. That article states, giving no reference or source for the idea, that the phrase "St. James Hospital" refers to a hospital of that name in London. There is some difficulty in this because the hospital in question closed in 1532 when Henry VIII acquired the land to build St James's Palace.
Another possibility suggested by Higginbotham on the basis of his claim that the song "St. James Infirmary" dates at least from the early nineteenth century, is the Infirmary section of the St James Workhouse which the St. James Parish opened in 1725 on Poland Street, Piccadilly, and which continued well into the nineteenth century. This St. James Infirmary was contemporaneous with the estimated advent of the song "The Unfortunate Lad", but it is not the London Lock Hospital. Another difficulty is that, out of the early versions of the song mentioned in the references given by Goldstein, only the one collected by Cecil Sharp in the Appalachians in 1918, and one found in Canada in the 1920s, make use of the phrase "St. James".
The liner notes link the Rake to an early fragment called "My Jewel, My Joy", stating that it was heard in Dublin. The same statement appears in the Lodewick article referenced in those notes The notes given in the source cited for this fragment, a collection of songs collected by William Forde and published by P. W. Joyce, state that the song was heard in Cork, not Dublin.
The version of the "Unfortunate Rake" on the LP of that name is sung by Lloyd, of whom it has been said that he "sometimes modified lyrics or melodies to make the songs more palatable for contemporary listeners", and its first verse is as follows:
As I was a-walking down by St. James Hospital,
I was a-walking down by there one day.
What should I spy but one of my comrades
All wrapped up in a flannel though warm was the day.
The liner notes state that Lloyd is singing a nineteenth century broadside version, but do not specify which. The Lloyd article cited in the references given in the liner notes, refers to a version published by Such and to no other version. The title and words sung by Lloyd are not those of the Such broadside which has no reference to St. James and is not called "The Unfortunate Rake". Lloyd recorded a slightly different version in 1966, this time calling the song "St James Hospital". In 1967, his book Folk Song in England was published. This includes some comment on the song, claims without any supporting references or information that a Czech version pre-dates the British ones, repeats the confusion between Dublin and Cork as the place where the "My Jewel My Joy" fragment had been heard, and includes an unattributed quotation of two verses that differ from the versions sung by Lloyd.
Variations typically feature a narrator telling the story of a young man "cut down in his prime" (occasionally, a young woman "cut down in her prime") as a result of morally questionable behaviour. For example, when the song moved to America, gambling and alcohol became common causes of the youth's death.
There are numerous versions of the song throughout the English-speaking world. For example, it evolved into other American standards such as "The Streets of Laredo".
The song, "Dyin' Crapshooter's Blues", has sometimes been described as a descendant of "The Unfortunate Rake", and thus related to "St. James Infirmary Blues". This song was issued as a record four times in 1927, and attributed to pianist, arranger, and band-leader Porter Grainger. Blind Willie McTell recorded a version of the former for John Lomax in 1940 and claimed to have begun writing the song around 1929.
Gottlieb considered whether there were Jewish American influences through the use of the Ukrainian Dorian mode, but only found hints of this in a version published by Siegmeister and Downes. He also suggests that there may have been Jewish influences on the rendition by Cab Calloway. A melody very similar to the Armstrong version can be found in an instrumental composition entitled "Charleston Cabin", which was recorded by Whitey Kaufman's Original Pennsylvania Serenaders in 1924 (three years before the earliest recording of "Gambler's Blues").
As with many folk songs, there is much variation in the lyric from one version to another. These are the first two stanzas as sung by Louis Armstrong on a 1928 Odeon Records release:
I went down to St. James Infirmary,
Saw my baby there,
Stretched out on a long white table,
So cold, so sweet, so fair.
Let her go, let her go, God bless her,
Wherever she may be,
She can look this wide world over,
But she'll never find a sweet man like me.
Some of the versions, such as the one published as "Gambler's Blues" and attributed to Carl Moore and Phil Baxter, frame the story with an initial stanza or stanzas in which a separate narrator goes down to a saloon known as "Joe's barroom" and encounters a customer who then relates the incident about the woman in the infirmary. Later verses commonly include the speaker's request to be buried according to certain instructions, which vary according to the version. Armstrong's version includes the following as its third stanza:
When I die, want you to dress me, straight-lace shoes,
Box-back coat and a Stetson hat.
Put a twenty-dollar gold piece on my watch chain,
So the boys'll know that I died standin' pat.
Other versions
The song was first recorded (as "Gambler's Blues") in 1927 by Fess Williams and his Royal Flush Orchestra with credits given to Moore and Baxter. This version mentions an infirmary but not by name. The song was popular during the jazz era, and by 1930 at least eighteen different versions had been released. The Duke Ellington Orchestra recorded the song using pseudonyms such as "The Ten Black Berries", "The Harlem Hot Chocolates", and "The Jungle Band", while Cab Calloway performed a version in the 1933 Betty Boop animated film Snow White, providing vocals and dance moves for Koko the clown.
Country music singer and yodeller Jimmie Rodgers recorded a version in 1930 (as "Those Gambler's Blues"). In 1932 Rodgers recorded "Gambling Bar Room Blues", co-written with Shelly Lee Alley, which featured new lyrics but followed a similar melody to "St. James Infirmary Blues", with similar themes of alcohol abuse, violence and despair. Cajun string band the Dixie Ramblers recorded "Barroom Blues" in 1935, with lyrics largely matching Rodgers' "Those Gambler's Blues".
In 1961, Bobby "Blue" Bland released a version of "Saint James Infirmary" on the flip side of his No. 2 R&B hit "Don't Cry No More" and included it in his album Two Steps from the Blues. In 1967, the French-American singer Joe Dassin recorded the song. In 1968, Don Partridge released a version on his self-named album, as did Eric Burdon and the Animals on their album Every One of Us. Dock Boggs recorded a version of the song entitled "Old Joe's Barroom" (1965).
The song was often performed by cabaret surrealists The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo in Southern California; the band's vocalist and songwriter, Danny Elfman, often cited Cab Calloway as his inspiration in his youth. The White Stripes covered the song on their self-titled debut album, and Jack White says he and fellow band member, Meg White, were introduced to the song from a Betty Boop cartoon. In 1981, Bob Dylan adapted the song when he wrote and recorded "Blind Willie McTell". The song was written for his 1983 release, Infidels, but was not released until The Bootleg Series, Vol. 1-3: Rare and Unreleased, 1961-1991 (Columbia, 1991).
In 2012, Trombone Shorty and Booker T. Jones performed an instrumental version as the opening number of the "Red, White, and Blues" concert at the White House.
The Hokum Boys - Gambler's Blues (1929)
Josh White (1944)
Turk Murphy (1951)
Snooks Eaglin – New Orleans Street Singer (Folkways, 1959)
Dave Van Ronk - "Gambler's Blues", on Dave Van Ronk Sings Ballads, Blues, and a Spiritual (1959)
Lou Rawls – Black and Blue (1963)
The Standells – Try It (1967)
Colette Magny - "St. James Infirmary Blues" (1964)
Joe Dassin – St. James Infirmary Blues (1967)
Joe Cocker – Joe Cocker (1972)
Geordie - "Goin' Down", on Don't Be Fooled by the Name (1974)
Lily Tomlin - Saturday Night Live (1975)
Canadian Brass – Basin Street (1984)
Doc Watson and Richard Watson – Third Generation Blues (1999)
Toshiyuki Honda – Metropolis original motion picture soundtrack (2001)
Isobel Campbell and Mark Lanegan (2005)
The Devil Makes Three – A Little Bit Faster and a Little Bit Worse (under the title St James) (2006)
Johnny Duncan - Johnny Duncan's Tennessee Song Bag (1958)
Arlo Guthrie with the University of Kentucky Symphony Orchestra – In Times Like These (2007)
Rising Appalachia – The Sails of Self (2010)
Hugh Laurie – Let Them Talk (2011)
Rickie Lee Jones – The Devil You Know (2012)
Dalice Marie – Twenty Eight (2016)
Yo-Yo Ma's Silkroad Ensemble with Rhiannon Giddens – Sing Me Home (2016)
Jon Batiste – Hollywood Africans (2018)
Liquor Beats Winter - Lost In The Sauce (2018)
Jerry Reed - Jerry Reed Explores Country Guitar (1969)
See also
List of pre-1920 jazz standards
Notes
References
External links
Historical investigation by Rob Walker
"St. James Infirmary Blues" recordings collection
"St. James Infirmary (1928)" at jazzstandards.com
Betty Boop cartoon includes a performance by Cab Calloway
"The magical mystery tour" by Sarah Vowell at Salon. 6 October 1999.
Metropolis performance by Toshiyuki Honda
"Cab Calloway — St James Infirmary Blues" tweeted by Armie Hammer on Twitter, September 5, 2019.
Blog devoted to "St. James Infirmary Blues" by Robert W. Harwood
American folk songs
Jazz standards of obscure origin
Year of song unknown
Bobby Bland songs
Cab Calloway songs
Harry Connick Jr. songs
Joe Cocker songs
Louis Armstrong songs
Songs with lyrics by Irving Mills
|
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] |
209366
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadeagle
|
Spreadeagle
|
Spreadeagle, spread eagle, or spread-eagle may refer to:
Spread Eagle (album), a Peter Pan Speedrock album
Spread Eagle (band), an American hard rock band
Spread eagle (figure skating)
Spreadeagle (heraldry), a figure derived from a heraldic depiction of an eagle
Spread Eagle (horse), an 18th-century Thoroughbred racehorse
Spreadeagle (position), a position with limbs spread well apart
Spread Eagle (steamboat), a steamboat that operated on the Missouri River in the 19th century
Spread Eagle, Camden, London, England
Spread Eagle, Wisconsin, U.S.
Spread Eagle, Wandsworth, a pub in London
Blood eagle or spread-eagle, an alleged Viking method of execution
Spread Eagle, a community in Newfoundland and Labrador
A split in candlepin bowling
See also
Spread-eagleism, the 19th century precursor to the term "Jingoism"
The Spread of the Eagle, a 1963 BBC television series
|
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209368
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz%20Pfeiffer
|
Franz Pfeiffer
|
Franz Pfeiffer (February 27, 1815 – May 29, 1868), was a Swiss literary scholar who worked in Germany and Austria.
Biography
He was born in Solothurn as a Bürger (citizen) of Bettlach. After studying at the University of Munich he went to Stuttgart, where in 1846 he became librarian to the royal library. In 1856 Pfeiffer founded Germania, a quarterly periodical devoted to German antiquarian research. In 1857, having established himself as one of the foremost authorities on German medieval literature and philology, he was appointed professor of these subjects at the University of Vienna, and in 1860 was made a member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
In his later years he traveled regularly to Überlingen am Bodensee to take the waters at the city's spa. He died in Vienna.
Works
Pfeiffer's most significant work is arguably the second volume of his Die deutschen Mystiker (German Mysticism). In this volume Pfeiffer collected the surviving German texts of the 14th Century mystic Meister Eckhart, who was at that time largely forgotten. This publication of the German Eckhartian corpus led to the modern revival of interest in Eckhart. Though there was subsequent dispute as to how many of the texts in Pfeiffer's edition are genuinely by Eckhart, his edition remains a classic reference, though it has been superseded by the critical edition begun in 1936 under the aegis of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and only now nearing completion. The early translators of Eckhart into English, Evans and Blakney, depended largely on Pfeiffer for their source material.
His own work:
Zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte
Freie Forschung: kleine Schriften zur Geschichte der deutschen Litteratur und Sprache (1867)
Über Wesen und Bildung der hofischen Sprache in mittelhochdeutscher Zeit
Der Dichter des Nibelungenliedes (1862)
Forschung und Kritik auf dem Gebiete des deutschen Altertums
Altdeutsches Übungsbuch.
He edited:
Barlaam und Josaphat, Rudolf von Ems (1843)
Der Edelstein, Ulrich Boner (1844)
Die deutschen Mystiker des 14. Jahrhunderts (1845-1857)
Nikolaus von Jeroschin, Deutsche Ordenschronik (“Chronicle of the Teutonic Knights,” 1854)
Buch der Natur of Konrad von Megenberg, a 14th-century writer (1861)
Die Predigten des Berthold von Regensburg, vol. 1 and vol. 2 (1862, 1880)
Poems of Walther von der Vogelweide (1864; 6th ed., 1880) This work was his contribution to a series he founded called Deutsche Klassiker des Mittelalters (“German classics of the Middle Ages”).
References
This work in turn cites:
Biographical sketch by Karl Bartsch in Franz Pfeiffer, ed., Uhlands Briefwechsel mit Freiherrn von Lassberg (1870)
1815 births
1868 deaths
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
University of Vienna faculty
German librarians
Austrian non-fiction writers
German non-fiction writers
Swiss non-fiction writers
Swiss male writers
Swiss emigrants to Austria
German male non-fiction writers
People from Solothurn
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolingbroke%2C%20Lincolnshire
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Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire
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Bolingbroke, now called Old Bolingbroke, is a village and civil parish in the East Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. Its present boundaries were formed by the amalgamation of the Parishes of Bolingbroke and Hareby in 1739. The population at the 2011 census was 325.
Bolingbroke is west of Spilsby. The village of New Bolingbroke is to the south-west. The Prime Meridian passes through the parish to the west of Old Bolingbroke.
History
Bolingbroke appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as "Bolingborc", one of 38 places associated with Stori of Bolingbroke at the time of the Norman conquest. This suggests an Anglo-Saxon etymological origin, possibly "Bolingburh" or similar (burh of Bolla's people).
William de Roumare, Earl of Lincoln (born circa 1096), may have built Bolingbroke Castle in the 12th century as a motte and bailey castle with wet ditch, to replace an earlier earthwork defence structure which overlooked the village on Dewy Hill. In the early 13th century, a new castle was constructed at the present site by Ranulph de Blondeville, 4th Earl of Chester following his return in 1220 from the 5th Crusade. Later John of Gaunt, the son of Edward III, acquired the castle through his wife, Blanche of Lancaster. In 1367 it was the birthplace of John's son, Henry, known as Henry Bolingbroke, who became King Henry IV of England. The parish church of Old Bolingbroke was rebuilt by Alice de Lacy and John of Gaunt. It was significantly damaged during the siege of the castle in 1643 during the Civil War when the Royalists used the castle to garrison troops prior to the Battle of Winceby (11 October 1643). Only the South Aisle of the 14th century Church remains. A new North Aisle was added during significant renovations by John Fowler in 1889. The last remaining castle structure fell down in 1815. The site became a grassy hillock, which archeologists excavated in the 1970s.
Geography
The village sits in a broad valley of the Lincolnshire Wolds, between two streams, that rise in the surrounding hills. These eventually become what is known to the south as Hagnaby Beck. The village is at about 25m above sea level.
To the North West the land rises to the 105m on , where the parish boundary falls at the highest point in the parish, if not quite the summit of the hill. To the north-east the road called Spilsby Hill climbs to a separate high point at . Between these two the narrow Sow Dale leads down to the village, where stands. Sow Dale is the largest of the narrow valleys that cut through the Spilsby Sandstone ridge that forms the high plateau above the village. The traditional grazed landscape is now represented by two nature reserves only. Only the Lower one is in the parish, the upper one is adjacent to the boundary.
Another hill to the south east more high ground forms and where the parish boundary is drawn. So there is another small dale leading down into the village from the east. To the southwest another hill known as Kirkby Hill is topped with a that sits just within the parish boundary.
The high portions of the parish are composed of the Spilsby Sandstone, which overlays here the deeper Kimmeridge and Ampthill mudstones. Eroded by the streams in the Dales, the Sandstones are removed, exposing in part the mudstone layer, although in general these are covered in the village and the river valley to the south-west by the Quaternary post-glacial sands and gravels of the Bain Valley formation.
The parish boundary is complex, but can be summarised as surrounding the village, which is broadly central, and enclosing the rising ground in all directions. It generally does not include the plateau above the village. No major roads cross the parish, but the village is joined by minor roads to many surrounding settlements. The Prime (Greenwich) Meridian runs through the Parish just west of the village. There are, and were, no railway connections, the nearest stations being historically Spilsby, and now Thorpe Culvert.
Community
Events at the castle site are overseen by Heritage Lincolnshire, and locally by the Friends of Bolingbroke Castle, who also arrange other local charitable functions.
The Parish Council own and maintain the King George V Playing Field and Ramsden Village Hall, the latter named for John and Eleanor Ramsden who bequeathed the land used for both to the village in 1937.
The mobile library visits for an hour a month.
The ecclesiastical parish of Old Bolingbroke is part of the Spilsby, Marden Hill, Stickney and Partney Group Parishes of the Deanery of Bolingbroke. The parish church is dedicated to Saint Peter and Saint Paul. There is a second church in the parish in Hareby, also named Saint Peter and Saint Paul.
The village's Methodist Chapel in Chapel Lane was built in 1845. It is part of the Mid Lincolnshire Circuit. The congregation became an eco-congregation in 2007.
References
Further reading
External links
Civil parishes in Lincolnshire
Villages in Lincolnshire
East Lindsey District
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Song%20Contest%201998
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Eurovision Song Contest 1998
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The Eurovision Song Contest 1998 was the 43rd edition of the Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Birmingham, United Kingdom, following the country's victory at the with the song "Love Shine A Light" by Katrina and the Waves.
It was a record eighth time that the United Kingdom had hosted the contest - a record that remains to date. The previous hosting record was seven, set by Ireland the previous year. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), the contest was held at the National Indoor Arena on Saturday 9 May 1998. The contest was presented by the BBC's Eurovision commentator Terry Wogan and Swedish-born presenter and model Ulrika Jonsson.
Twenty-five countries participated in the contest, equalling the record of the 1993, 1994 and 1997 editions. made their debut this year, even though they had submitted an entry in the non-televised 1996 pre-qualifying round, which failed to qualify into the televised final of that contest. , , and returned to the contest after . Despite having also taken part in the non-televised 1996 pre-qualifying round, in which they failed to qualify, and returned officially after their last participations in and respectively. , , , , and were relegated, while decided not to participate. Italy would not return to the contest until 2011.
The winner was Israel with the song "Diva", performed by Dana International, written by Yoav Ginai, and composed by Tzvika Pick. The United Kingdom, Malta, the Netherlands and Croatia rounded out the top five. Malta achieved their best placing in the contest thus far. It was also a record fifteenth time that the United Kingdom had finished in second place. Incidentally, it was the third year in a row that the entry of the host country had finished in second place, following Norway in 1996 and Ireland in 1997.
After the broadcast it was announced that there had been a mistake during the voting sequence; the votes from the Spanish televote were wrongly tallied. The mistake was corrected after the contest and so Germany was placed 7th over Norway. Israel and Norway both received 2 points less than originally and Croatia, Malta, Portugal, United Kingdom, Netherlands, Belgium, Estonia and Turkey all received one point less than indicated during the broadcast. Originally Estonia, Cyprus and Portugal tied for 11th place with 37 points but because Portugal and Estonia received one point less than indicated during the broadcast, Cyprus was placed 11th over Estonia and Portugal, now sharing 12th place.
Location
The United Kingdom, along with their national broadcaster the BBC, hosted the contest at the National Indoor Arena in the city of Birmingham having beaten venues in Belfast, London, Manchester, Cardiff and Glasgow to stage the event. It was the first time since that the Eurovision Song Contest was staged in the United Kingdom, and the last to date. This was a record-breaking eighth time that the United Kingdom staged the contest, having done so for the , , , , , , and contests. The announcement of the host city and venue took place on 8 August 1997.
Venue
The National Indoor Arena had been used for several major events in the past, including counting no less than eight constituencies in the hall for the 1992 general election. The week after the Eurovision Song Contest, the city was to host the 24th G8 summit, with Wogan vacating his hotel room to make way for Bill Clinton. Opened in October 1991, the arena was best known in the UK for hosting the 1990s British television series Gladiators, also presented by Jonsson, on ITV.
While the capacity of the National Indoor Arena was up to 12,700 seats, the BBC decided to occupy only half of the venue, which could accommodate some 4,000 spectators, a figure that would be systematically surpassed in subsequent years. The main stage had as its most outstanding element a structure in the shape of a whale tail. A large green room was built behind the stage where contestants watched the voting. It resembled a nightclub, with a bar area and 40 large television screens. Both areas were designed by Andrew Howe-Davies.
Format
The running order draw for the contest took place at the host venue in Birmingham on 13 November 1997, drawn by Wogan and the 1997 winner, Katrina Leskanich. Presented by local radio DJ Malcolm Boyden, it was broadcast live on BBC Radio West Midlands. Following a format change in 1997 where acts were allowed to use purely backing tracks without instruments on the stage, no less than eight countries either partially or wholly used backing tracks: , , , , , and purely used backing tracks, whilst decided to partially use the orchestra in the rehearsal week.
This was the first year in which televoting was used en masse: viewers were given five minutes after the end of the songs to vote for the song they wanted to win, with Terry Wogan remarking that "you'll have nobody to blame but yourself": ironically, dissatisfaction with the televote-only format led to Wogan leaving the role of commentator after . Ironically, the contest was held in an English speaking country for the last time the contest was run without the free language rule, so only the UK, Malta, and Ireland performed in English.
Terry Wogan was the third person in the contest's history to combine the roles of presenter and commentator, after the hosting duo of Denise Fabre and Léon Zitrone in . When not on stage, he was backstage in his private booth providing the necessary TV commentary to BBC viewers.
For the first time in the history of the contest, a watermark showing which country was performing appeared on-screen during the performances. This innovation is still in place today.
Postcards
The postcards continued with the opening theme of "Birmingham Old and New", looking at a traditional object and then its contemporary. Popular Britpop songs and also some pieces of classical music were used as background music. Finally, the flag of the country about to perform was formed, and then faded into either the conductor bowing or the beginning of the performance of the country about to perform. The various themes, and the musical accompaniment, were as following, listed in appearance order:
Football; "Sight for Sore Eyes" (M People)
Beaches; "Alright" (Supergrass)
Aircraft; "Ordinary World" (Duran Duran)
Leisure; The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra (performed by the Birmingham Symphony Orchestra)
Loch Ness; "Enchanted Highland" (APM Celtic Players)
Jewellery; "Ain't Talkin' 'bout Dub" (Apollo 440)
Glasgow, Scotland; "Slight Return" (The Bluetones)
Art; "Common People" (Pulp)
Ironworks; "Always on My Mind" (Pet Shop Boys)
Fashion; "Mulder and Scully" (Catatonia)
Wales; "A Design for Life" (Manic Street Preachers)
Pubs; "Ocean Drive" (Lighthouse Family)
London, England; "Bitter Sweet Symphony" (The Verve)
Education; "Beautiful Ones" (Suede)
Sailing; "Sailing" (Rod Stewart)
Cars; "Hush" (Kula Shaker)
Food; "Born Slippy" (Underworld)
Broadcasting; "Polo Mint City" (Texas)
Retail; "Don't Marry Her" (The Beautiful South)
Theatres; "She's a Star" (James)
Films; "The Chad Who Loved Me" (Mansun)
Medieval; "Hail to the King" (performed by the Kneller Hall State Trumpeters)
Belfast, Northern Ireland; "Bright Side of the Road" (Van Morrison)
National landmarks; Symphony No. 5, III: Romanza (Ralph Vaughan Williams)
Weather; "Sugar Coated Iceberg" (The Lightning Seeds)
Opening and interval acts
Birmingham, Old and New
The opening of the contest began with a video entitled Birmingham, Old and New. Views of the past and present of the host city were juxtaposed to give a glimpse of its history. The camera footage ended with a shot of the arena from the approaching canal boat. The orchestra appeared on screen, as well as the trumpets of the Life Guards that sounded the beginning of the transmission. A short video summarising the first competition organised by the BBC in 1960 in London was shown. There appeared Katie Boyle (the only person to have presented the contest four times) who was in the audience along with the winner of the previous year, the vocalist of the group Katrina and the Waves, Katrina Leskanich.
Jupiter, The Bringer of Joviality
The intermission performance was entitled Jupiter, The Bringer of Joviality (a movement from orchestral suite The Planets composed by Gustav Holst in 1914) described as a "great coming-together, a magnificent...muesli" by host and commentator Wogan. It was a medley sung and danced, highlighting the multiculturalism of the United Kingdom and included bagpipes, a male voice choir, a soprano singer, a violinist, and some dancing tribal warriors. Pieces inspired by English, Scottish, Welsh, Irish, Indian and Zulu cultures were played. Over 200 people were involved in the interval act, which included Clan Sutherland, flutist Andy Findon, an excerpt of Patti Boulaye's Sun Dance (which would later open as a West End musical), harpist Carys Hughes, bhangra dancers Nachda Sansaar, Canoldir Male Voice Choir, Grimethorpe Colliery Band, trumpeters of the Band of the Blues and Royals, Vanessa-Mae, Lesley Garrett and the BBC Concert Orchestra conducted by Martin Koch.
Trophy
24-year-old Anongkarat Unyawong, a Thai student at the Birmingham School of Jewellery, won a competition to design a trophy for the songwriter(s) of the winning song. In addition, the winning performers each received a unique glass bowl (bearing the acronym of the Eurovision Song Contest) designed in the Midlands by Susan Nickson.
Participating countries
, participating as the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, took part for the first time, after their entry did not make it past the internal selection by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU). , , and all participated after their break from the previous year's contest; , , , and could not participate because of their low average scores from the past five years. could have returned in 1997, but opted not to due to Holocaust Remembrance Day, meaning they returned for the first time in three years. The Italian broadcaster, RAI, decided not to enter in the contest, a move that would see Italy absent from the contest for 13 years before their return in .
and Italy did not broadcast the event. In 1998 the Russian broadcaster ORT prepared to run internal preselections, but soon organisers realised that because of low average results in previous years Russia would not qualify to compete in 1998 (though there were rumours that Channel One had planned to name Tatyana Ovsienko as their representative, performing "Solntse moyo"). Because Russia did not participate, Channel One decided not to broadcast the 1998 contest, thus Russia was unable to participate in 1999. According to other sources Channel One had expected Channel Russia to broadcast the contest. (This is in spite of Romania being able to return in 1998 despite not broadcasting the 1997 final, and Lithuania being able to return in 1999 despite also not showing the 1998 final live). In Lithuania, the contest was broadcast with commentary six days later.
Qualification
In addition to the host country, the United Kingdom, the 18 countries with the highest average scores between 1993 and 1997 were allowed to take part in the 1998 contest alongside new and returning countries which had not participated in the 1997 contest.
Table key
Automatic qualifier
Qualifier
Replacement qualifier
Withdrew
Conductors
Most performances had a musical director who conducted the orchestra. Germany and Slovenia presented their songs without orchestral accompaniment, but nevertheless introduced a conductor before their songsGermany's Stefan Raab had never intended to conduct, but still wanted to take his bow as the song's composer; Slovenia's Mojmir Sepe was due to conduct for Slovenia, but conflicts between the pianist and the songwriter led to the use of a backing track that he merely cued in. France initially did not plan to perform with the orchestra, but wound up incorporating the string section for the live performance, although musical director Martin Koch did not take the customary conductor's bow.
N/A
Martin Koch
Alberto Estébanez
N/A
Vladimír Valovič
N/A
Stefan Raab
N/A
Miklós Malek
Mojmir Sepe
Noel Kelehan
Mike Sergeant
James McMillan
Costas Cacogiannis
Dick Bakker
Anders Berglund
N/A
Olli Ahvenlahti
Geir Langslet
Heiki Vahar
Ümit Eroğlu
Aleksandar Džambazov
Returning artists
Danijela returned for after last taking part in as part of the group Magazin. Egon Egemann, who was the violinist for Gunvor this year, represented at the . José Cid returned for as part of Alma Lusa after representing the country in ; and Paul Harrington, who was a backing singer for Dawn Martin, returned for after having won the with Charlie McGettigan.
Bold indicates a previous winner.
Results
The following tables reflect the officially verified results confirmed after the transmission of the live contest. During the voting sequence seen in the broadcast, the Spanish votes were incorrectly announced, as Germany was excluded from the Spanish announcement. Israel and Norway lost two marks and Belgium, Portugal, Malta, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Estonia, Croatia and Turkey all lost one mark each once Germany had been awarded twelve points.
Scoreboard
Each country had a televote except Turkey, Romania and Hungary, where the top ten most voted for songs were awarded the 12, 10, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 points, with a back-up jury in case of mistakes. A jury was used if there were exceptional reasons not to use a televote.
12 points
Below is a summary of all 12 points in the final:
Spokespersons
The spokespersons announced the score from their respective country's televote (or, in some cases, national jury) in running order.
Marie Myriam
Belén Fernández de Henestrosa
Regula Elsener
Jan Chojnacki
Yigal Ravid
Nena
Stephanie Spiteri
Eileen Dunne
Lúcia Moniz
Ken Bruce
Marina Maleni
Conny Vandenbos (Dutch representative in )
Björn Hedman
Marie-Hélène Vanderborght
Marjo Wilska
Ragnhild Sælthun Fjørtoft
Urve Tiidus
Osman Erkan
Evgenija Teodosievska
Broadcasts
Most countries sent commentators to Birmingham or commented from their own country, in order to add insight to the participants and, if necessary, the provision of voting information. The show was transmitted to 33 European countries, , Canada and South Korea.
Incidents
Miscalculated result
Spain originally gave its 12 points to Israel and 10 to Norway. After the broadcast it was announced that the Spanish broadcaster wrongly tallied the votes and Germany should have got the top mark – 12 points – instead of receiving zero points, as in the broadcast. The mistake was corrected after the contest and so Germany was placed 7th over Norway. Israel and Norway both received 2 points less than originally and Croatia, Malta, Portugal, United Kingdom, Netherlands, Belgium, Estonia and Turkey all received one point less than indicated during the broadcast. Originally Estonia, Cyprus and Portugal tied for 11th place with 37 points but because Portugal and Estonia received one point less than indicated during the broadcast, Cyprus was placed 11th over Estonia and Portugal.
Nul points
For the second year in a row, at least one country went home empty-handed; 's Gunvor Guggisberg with her composition "Lass Ihn" failed to score a single point.
Guildo Horn
Other notable participants were 's Guildo Horn, whose shocking comedic act culminated in his climbing the scaffolding on the side of the stage. Controversially chosen to represent Germany, he was criticised for his lack of seriousness by the German press. However, after winning by 60% of the vote, the German people were firmly on Horn's side. "Guildo-Fever" spread throughout Germany during the weeks leading up to the contest, with Horn becoming front-page material in Germany. He was also noticed in countries around Europe, and the early criticism that had existed in Germany arose in those countries. Even though his 7th place was disappointing, to some Germans it was a revival for the contest in Germany, and was the beginning of four consecutive top-ten finishes.
Greece
After the first rehearsals, the Greek composer, Yiannis Valvis, was unhappy with the way that the director, Geoff Posner, intended to film his song, specifically a series of six heavily-emphasised chords accompanied by six dance moves which Valvis felt the director was not placing enough emphasis upon. After a meeting where Valvis attempted to ask for the Greeks to have full control over their performance and this request was rejected, Valvis launched a formal protest at the Greek press conference. After making no progress, Valvis protested more actively at the dress rehearsal, standing on the stage during the Greek song, claiming that he was supposed to be playing bass but had not been given an instrument.
This proved to be the final straw for the EBU, the BBC, and ERT: Valvis was refused entry to the arena on the date of the contest. In response, ERT threatened to withdraw from the competition, which would promote France to second in the running order and reduce the number of entrants to twenty-four. However, minutes later, they reversed their decision. earned only 12 points in the end, all of which came from , ranking Greece 20th by the end of the broadcast, their worst result until that point. Watching from a hotel room, Valvis accused the BBC of favouritism, as "Diva" had similar chords and moves, which had been given emphasis by the BBC.
Israel and Dana International
Orthodox Jews were unhappy with the fact that Dana International, the first singer at the contest ever to have undergone gender reassignment surgery in 1993, was representing Israel, due to religious bigotry.
Turkey timing issues
After the first rehearsal, the Turkish conductor was found to be playing the tempo too slowly, and so the Turkish song exceeded three minutes, with the first rehearsal performance being three seconds too long. The next rehearsal performance was, alarmingly, even slower, with the Turkish conductor claiming to a camera that due to a series of "hemi-demi-semi-dim-dams" it was impossible for him to play the song quicker. The third performance came in at 3:07, leading to speculation that Turkey would be disqualified from the contest. The conductor then said that a metronome would be useless due to a number of tempo changes in the song. The final performance on the night was timed at 2:59, which was enough to keep Turkey in the competition.
Ulrika Jonsson ageism row
In a BBC interview, future Eurovision entrant Nicki French said that one of her most memorable Eurovision moments was Jonsson's infamous faux pas during the voting. On hearing that the Dutch lady announcing the Netherlands' votes had previously been a contestant in Eurovision, Jonsson replied, "A long time ago, was it?" which was followed by much laughter from the audience. In fact Conny van den Bos who sang for the Netherlands in 1965 said that she had gone to the contest many years ago; unfortunately for both van den Bos and Jonsson, this wasn't heard above the noise of the audience. What was heard, however, was Jonsson's seemingly insulting comment.
Other awards
Barbara Dex Award
The Barbara Dex Award is a humorous fan award given to the worst dressed artist each year. Named after Belgium's representative who came last in the 1993 contest, wearing her self-designed dress, the award was handed for the second year by the fansite House of Eurovision and until the 2016 contest, when the Belgian Eurovision fansite songfestival.be took the reins. Guildo Horn of Germany won the award.
Notes and references
Footnotes
References
External links
1998
Music festivals in the United Kingdom
1998 in music
1998 in British music
1998 in England
1998 in Israel
1990s in Birmingham, West Midlands
May 1998 events in the United Kingdom
Festivals in Birmingham, West Midlands
Events in Birmingham, West Midlands
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209374
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Casimir%20Dessaulles
|
Georges-Casimir Dessaulles
|
Georges-Casimir Dessaulles (September 29, 1827 – April 19, 1930), was a Canadian businessman, statesman and senator. Dessaulles was one of the oldest serving politicians ever, only surpassed by Giovanni Battista Borea d'Olmo. Appointed to the Senate of Canada representing the Province of Quebec in 1907 at age 80, Dessaulles served for 23 years before dying at age 102.
Dessaulles was born in Saint-Hyacinthe, Lower Canada in 1827, the son of Jean Dessaulles and a nephew of Louis-Joseph Papineau. Dessaulles attended college at Georgetown University where he was a member of the Philodemic Society, graduating in 1848. Before becoming senator, Dessaulles was president of the Bank of Saint-Hyacinthe, and mayor of Saint-Hyacinthe. He also represented Saint-Hyacinthe in the Legislative Assembly of Quebec from 1897 to 1900. He was a last-minute candidate for the provincial seat, having been nominated after the death of the previous candidate, his son-in-law Maurice St-Jacques.
In 1857, he had married Émilie-Emma, the daughter of judge Dominique Mondelet; in 1869, he married Louise-Frances Leman after the death of his first wife. His 100th birthday was marked as a historic moment in the senate, because Dessaulles had become only the second sitting senator to reach the age of 100 (the other being David Wark). At his death in 1930, Dessaulles was the oldest sitting politician in the world. To date, no one has beaten this record.
Dessaulles is also renowned for only having spoken twice while serving as a Senator. Once to deny that his appointment was part of a corrupt bargain, and a second time to thank his fellow senators for his portrait, on his 100th birthday.
His daughter Henriette Dessaulles became a noted writer and journalist.
References
Centenarian Senator
Time magazine death notices
1827 births
1930 deaths
Businesspeople from Quebec
Men centenarians
Canadian centenarians
Canadian senators from Quebec
Liberal Party of Canada senators
Mayors of places in Quebec
Quebec Liberal Party MNAs
People from Saint-Hyacinthe
Philodemic Society members
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurovision%20Song%20Contest%201997
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Eurovision Song Contest 1997
|
The Eurovision Song Contest 1997 was the 42nd edition of the Eurovision Song Contest. It took place in Dublin, Ireland, following the country's victory at the with the song "The Voice" by Eimear Quinn. It was the fourth time in five years that Ireland had hosted the contest and a record sixth time that it was staged in Dublin. Organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and host broadcaster Raidió Teilifís Éireann (RTÉ), the contest was yet again held at the Point Theatre (the venue for the and ), Saturday 3 May 1997. The contest was presented by Irish actress Carrie Crowley and Boyzone front-singer Ronan Keating who also sang in the interval act with Boyzone.
Twenty-five countries participated in the contest, equalling the record of the 1993 and 1994 editions. returned after their three-year absence. , , , and , returned after their last participation in 1995, despite all of them taking part in the non-televised 1996 pre-qualifying round in which they failed to qualify and therefore were absent. , , and were relegated due to having the lowest average scores over the previous four editions.
The winner was the United Kingdom with the song "Love Shine a Light", performed by Katrina and the Waves and written by band member Kimberley Rew. Ireland, Turkey, Italy and Cyprus rounded out the top five. Turkey's third place finish was their best result in the contest at this point, finishing in the top five for the very first time.
Location
Having to host so many contests (sometimes in succession) put great financial pressure on host broadcaster RTÉ. There were early rumours stating that the Irish broadcaster was to team up with the BBC in Northern Ireland (BBC had previously offered to do this for the 1995 contest), however RTÉ eventually decided to host the event alone.
Ireland hosted the contest for the fourth time in five years after winning the contest in Oslo. Dublin was again chosen to be the host city, making it the sixth time that the Eurovision Song Contest was staged in the Irish capital. The venue for the contest was the Point Theatre located on the North Wall Quay of the River Liffey, amongst the Dublin Docklands. The theatre previously hosted the and contests. The Point Theatre remains the only venue to have hosted the contest three times.
Format
After the controversy over the 1996 pre-qualifying round, the European Broadcasting Union introduced a new system for 1997: countries with the lowest average scores over the previous four years would be excluded from the 1997 contest, and those with the lowest averages over the previous five years would be excluded from future contests (save that every country so excluded for one year would automatically be allowed to participate the following year), with so many countries being omitted as would reduce the number of participants each year to 25. The running order was determined by a draw on 28 November 1996.
Israel declined to participate, as the contest was held on its Holocaust Remembrance Day, granting a reprieve to Bosnia and Herzegovina, which would otherwise have been excluded owing to its low point average over the previous four years. RTÉ once again produced a highly spectacular show, with a stage that had a smaller performance space for the artists than in previous years. This was the third Eurovision set to be designed by Paula Farrell, who had previously been involved with the 1988 and 1994 contests.
There was a wide array of different styles this year. Denmark brought a rap song, Croatia came with their version of the Spice Girls and Sweden brought a mid-1980s style boy band. The music was in general more modern than before, and for the first time in six years, an up-tempo song won (the last time this happened was in Rome 1991, with Carola's song, Fångad av en stormvind).
This year, televoting was tested in five countries: Austria, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. The results of the televoting countries were, in some cases, different from those that used a jury. Iceland received 16 of its 18 points from these five countries.
Also, for the first time in Eurovision history, there was a country where not one, but two spokespeople gave votesFrance. Television reporter Frédéric Ferrer and Eurovision winner Marie Myriam each took turns at giving results from that country. Long-time Irish conductor Noel Kelehan was not the host conductor this year due to illness, the duty being fulfilled by Frank McNamara.
Winners
Katrina and the Waves, (with lead vocalist Katrina Leskanich) representing the United Kingdom, were the winners of the contest with the song "Love Shine a Light", written by that band's lead guitarist Kimberley Rew, and Marc Roberts from Ireland came second with "Mysterious Woman". Despite being the runner-up, it remarkably received only one 12-point score, which came from the United Kingdom. The UK spokesman Colin Berry remarked: "You're going to like this one: Ireland, twelve points!" causing Terry Wogan to reply: "Well, tit for tat!" The winning song scored an unprecedented 227 points; it received points from all participating countries, including five sets of 10 points and a record-breaking ten sets of the maximum 12 points.
"Love Shine a Light" is regarded as one of the most successful Eurovision winners, and was the closing song in the medleys that opened the 50th anniversary show Congratulations in Copenhagen in 2005, and the ESC 2006 semi-final in Athens. With this victory, the United Kingdom has five Eurovision wins and it is to date the country's last win in the contest. After the 2020 contest was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the European Broadcasting Union aired a replacement show titled Eurovision: Europe Shine a Light, part of which featured the 41 scheduled acts performing "Love Shine a Light", alongside footage of European landmarks being lit up in tribute to the contest.
Postcard greetings
Some of the postcards were preceded by greetings from past Eurovision stars. These stars were (in order of appearance):
Céline Dion
Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus
Johnny Logan
Bobbysocks!
Eimear Quinn
Cliff Richard
Linda Martin, Niamh Kavanagh, Paul Harrington and Charlie McGettigan
Cheryl Baker and Mike Nolan
Julio Iglesias
Sandra Kim
Secret Garden
Postcard themes and places
Arthouse Multimedia Centre
Music
Literature
Kilkenny
Limerick–Killaloe Canal
Armagh Observatory
Irish Museum of Modern Art
Animals
Guinness and Jameson
Calligraphy
West Region
Trinity College
Waterford Castle
Sport
Street theatre
Derry
Horses
Saint Patrick's Day
Trains
Limerick
Cafés
Prehistoric Ireland
Telecommunications
Irish Sea
Fashion
Participating countries
Qualification
The audio-only qualification round used in had been poorly received among the competing countries, and so a new relegation system was introduced by the EBU for the 1997 contest. 25 participation places were on offer, to be filled by the host country Ireland and the 24 countries which had received the highest average total of points received over the past four contests (1993 to 1996). , , , , and , as the countries with the lowest average scores, were therefore excluded from participating in 1997; however, following 's withdrawal due to the date of the final clashing with its Holocaust Remembrance Day, Bosnia and Herzegovina was subsequently reinstated to fill the final place.
Key:
Automatic qualifier
Qualifier
Replacement qualifier
Withdrew
Conductors
Most performances had a conductor who directed the orchestra; four countries used a backing track instead of the orchestra. This was also the first year where full playback was allowed in the contest.
Stavros Lantsias
Levent Çoker
Geir Langslet
N/A
N/A
Mojmir Sepe
Pietro Damiani
Dick Bakker
Lucio Fabbri
Toni Xuclà
N/A
Krzesimir Dębski
Tarmo Leinatamm
Sinan Alimanović
Curt-Eric Holmquist
Anacreon Papageorgiou
Ray Agius
Rutger Gunnarsson
Régis Dupré
N/A
Don Airey
Szymon Kuran
Returning artists
Results
Scoreboard
Each country had a jury that awarded 12, 10, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 points for their top ten songs, or a televote, where the top ten most voted for songs were awarded the 12, 10, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 points. Iceland got most of its 18 points from the 5 countries that used televoting. Ireland was ostensibly the best scoring country across the televoting countries, except they were able to score points from all 5 televoting countries. The United Kingdom was only eligible to receive points from 4 of them, since they couldn't vote for themselves. In fact, the UK received 12 points from all the other televoting countries except Germany, from whom they received 10 points: in other words, the UK earned 46 of 48 (95.83%) possible televote points that year; Ireland earned 47 of 60 (78.33%) possible televote points—including their only 12 from the UK.
During the voting the United Kingdom received at least five points from every voting country, bar Malta who only gave the United Kingdom one point.
12 points
Below is a summary of all 12-point in the final:
Spokespersons
The spokespersons announced the score from their respective country's national jury (or, in some cases, televote) in running order.
Marios Skordis
Ömer Önder
Ragnhild Sælthun Fjørtoft
Eileen Dunne
Corry Brokken
Belén Fernández de Henestrosa
Christina Mänz
Jan Chojnacki
Helene Tedre
Segmedina Srna
Cristina Rocha
Gösta Hanson
Niki Venega
Anna Bonanno
Arina Sharapova
and Marie Myriam
Colin Berry
Svanhildur Konráðsdóttir
Broadcasts
Most countries sent commentators to Dublin or commented from their own country, in order to add insight to the participants and, if necessary, the provision of voting information.
Other awards
Barbara Dex Award
For the first time, the Barbara Dex Award was organised as a humorous fan award given to the worst dressed artist each year. Named after Belgium's representative who came last in the 1993 contest, wearing her self-designed dress, the award was presented by the fansite House of Eurovision until the 2016 contest, when the Belgian Eurovision fansite songfestival.be took the reins. Debbie Scerri of Malta is the inaugural winner of the award.
Notes
References
External links
1997
Music festivals in Ireland
1997 in Ireland
1997 in music
1997 in Irish music
1997 in Irish television
1990s in Dublin (city)
May 1997 events in Europe
Events in Dublin (city)
|
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209376
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moriz%20Haupt
|
Moriz Haupt
|
Moriz or Moritz Haupt (27 July 1808 – 5 February 1874), was a German philologist.
Biography
He was born at Zittau, Lusatia, Saxony. His early education was mainly conducted by his father, Ernst Friedrich Haupt, burgomaster of Zittau, a man of learning who took pleasure in translating German hymns or Goethe's poems into Latin, and whose memoranda were employed by Gustav Freytag in his Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit. From the Zittau gymnasium, where he spent the five years 1821–1826, Haupt moved to the University of Leipzig intending to study theology; but his own inclinations and the influence of Professor Gottfried Hermann soon turned him in the direction of classical philology.
On the close of his university course (1830) he returned to his father's house, and the next seven years were devoted to study, not only of Greek, Latin and German, but of Old French, Provençal and Bohemian. His friendship with Karl Lachmann, formed at Berlin, had great effect on his intellectual development. In September 1837 he qualified at Leipzig as Privatdozent, and his first lectures, dealing with such diverse subjects as Catullus and the Nibelungenlied, indicated the two main strands of his interest. A new chair of German language and literature was founded for his benefit, and he became professor extraordinarius (1841) and then professor ordinarius (1843). In 1842 he married Louise Hermann, the daughter of his master and colleague.
Having taken part in 1849 with Otto Jahn and Theodor Mommsen in a political agitation for the maintenance of the imperial constitution, Haupt was deprived of his professorship by a decree of April 22, 1851. Two years later, however, he was called to succeed Lachmann at the University of Berlin and at the same time the Berlin Academy, which had made him a corresponding member in 1841, elected him an ordinary member. In 1861 he became perpetual secretary of the Academy. For 21 years, he was prominent among the scholars of the Prussian capital, making his presence felt, not only by the prestige of his erudition and the clearness of his intellect, but by the tirelessness of his energy and the ardent fearlessness of his temperament. His service to both classical and German philology was rendered chiefly as an editor of texts. He died of heart disease in Berlin.
Work
Latin classics
Haupt's critical work is distinguished by a combination of the most painstaking investigation with bold conjecture; his oft-cited dictum that "If the sense requires it, I am prepared to write Constantinopolitanus where the MSS have the monosyllabic interjection o" well expresses this boldness. While in his lectures and speeches he was frequently carried away by the excitement of the moment, and made sharp and questionable attacks on his opponents, in his writings he exhibits great self-control. The results of many of his researches are lost, because he would not publish what fell short of his own high ideal of excellence. To the progress of classical scholarship he contributed by Quaestiones Catullianae (1837), and editions of Ovid's Halieutica and the Cynegetica of Grattius and Nemesianus (1838), of Catullus, Tibullus and Propertius (3rd ccl., 1868), of Horace (3rd ed, 1871) and of Virgil (2nd ccl., 1873).
German philology
As early as 1836, with Hoffmann von Fallersleben, he started the Altdeutsche Blätter, which in 1841 gave place to the Zeitschrift für deutsches Alterthum, of which he continued editor till his death. Hartmann von Aue's Erec (1839) and his Lieder und Büchlein and Der arme Heinrich (1842), Rudolf von Ems's Guter Gerhard (1840) and Konrad von Würzburg's Engelhard (1844) are the principal German works which he edited.
Other inclinations
To form a collection of the French songs of the 16th century was one of his favourite schemes, but a little volume published after his death, Französische Volkslieder (1877), is the only monument of his labours in that direction.
Three volumes of his Opuscula were published at Leipzig (1875–1877).
Notes
References
External links
1808 births
1874 deaths
People from Zittau
German philologists
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Leipzig University faculty
Leipzig University alumni
People of the Revolutions of 1848
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
|
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209381
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto%20Jahn
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Otto Jahn
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Otto Jahn (; 16 June 1813, in Kiel – 9 September 1869, in Göttingen), was a German archaeologist, philologist, and writer on art and music.
Biography
After the completion of his university studies at Christian-Albrechts-Universität in Kiel, the University of Leipzig and Humboldt University, Berlin, he traveled for three years in France and Italy. In Rome, he was greatly influenced by the work of August Emil Braun (1809-1856). In 1839 he became privatdozent at Kiel, and in 1842 professor-extraordinary of archaeology and philology at the University of Greifswald (ordinary professor 1845).
In 1847 he accepted the chair of archaeology at Leipzig, however, he along with Theodor Mommsen (1817-1903) and Moritz Haupt (1808-1874) were dismissed from the university in 1851 for having taken part in the political movements of 1848-1849. In 1855 he was appointed professor of the science of antiquity, and director of the academic art museum at Bonn. While here, he turned down an offer as successor to Eduard Gerhard (1795-1867) at Berlin.
His biography of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart appeared in 1856, the centenary of Mozart's birth. From 1852 Jahn collected as many Mozart manuscripts and letters as he could and copied many others. On learning of the Mozart catalogue being written by Köchel he turned this material over to him. Jahn's work is admired for its scholarly approach (at the time, novel in Mozart biography); and in versions revised by Hermann Abert and Cliff Eisen, continues in use today.
Among Jahn's notable students was the classical archaeologist and philologist Hugo Blümner.
List of most important works
Archaeological:
Palamedes (1836)
Telephos und Troilos (1841)
Die Gemälde des Polygnot (1841)
Pentheus und die Mänaden (1841)
Paris und Oinone (1844)
Die hellenische Kunst (1846)
Peitho, die Göttin der Überredung (1847)
Über einige Darstellungen des Paris-Urteils (1849)
Die Ficoronische Cista (1852)
Pausaniae descriptio arcis Athenarum (3rd ed., 1901)
Darstellungen griechischer Dichter auf Vasenbildern (1861)
Philological:
Critical editions of Juvenal, Persius and Sulpicia (3rd ed. by F. Bücheler, 1893)
Censorinus (1845)
Florus (1852)
Cicero's Brutus (4th ed., 1877) and Orator (3rd ed., 1869)
the Periochae of Livy (1853)
the Psyche et Cupido of Apuleius (3rd ed., 1884; 5th ed., 1905)
Longinus (1867; edited. by J. Vahlen, 1905)
Biographical and aesthetic:
Ueber Mendelssohn's Paulus (1842)
Biographie Mozarts. The 11th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica called this "a work of extraordinary labour, and of great importance for the history of music" (3rd ed. by Hermann Deiters, 1889-1891; Eng. trans. by P. D. Townsend, 1891)
Ludwig Uhland (1863)
Gesammelte Aufsätze über Musik (1866)
Biographische Aufsätze (1866).
His Griechische Bilderchroniken was published after his death, by his nephew Adolf Michaelis, who has written an exhaustive biography in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie:
Notes
References
External links
1813 births
1869 deaths
Writers from Kiel
People from the Duchy of Holstein
People of the Revolutions of 1848
German philologists
Archaeologists from Schleswig-Holstein
German classical scholars
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
University of Greifswald faculty
University of Kiel alumni
University of Kiel faculty
Leipzig University alumni
Mozart scholars
Beethoven scholars
German biographers
Male biographers
Bach musicians
19th-century composers
19th-century German musicians
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edith%20Sitwell
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Edith Sitwell
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Dame Edith Louisa Sitwell (7 September 1887 – 9 December 1964) was a British poet and critic and the eldest of the three literary Sitwells. She reacted badly to her eccentric, unloving parents and lived much of her life with her governess. She never married but became passionately attached to Russian painter Pavel Tchelitchew, and her home was always open to London's poetic circle, to whom she was generous and helpful.
Sitwell published poetry continuously from 1913, some of it abstract and set to music. With her dramatic style and exotic costumes, she was sometimes labelled a poseur, but her work was praised for its solid technique and painstaking craftsmanship. She was a recipient of the Benson Medal of the Royal Society of Literature.
Early life
Edith Louisa Sitwell was born in Scarborough, North Riding of Yorkshire, the oldest child and only daughter of Sir George Sitwell, 4th Baronet, of Renishaw Hall; he was an expert on genealogy and landscaping. Her mother was Lady Ida Emily Augusta (née Denison), a daughter of William Denison, 1st Earl of Londesborough and a granddaughter of Henry Somerset, 7th Duke of Beaufort through whom she was descended from the Plantagenets in the female line.
Sitwell had two younger brothers, Osbert (1892–1969) and Sacheverell (1897–1988), both distinguished authors, well-known literary figures in their own right, and long-term collaborators. She described her childhood as "extremely unhappy" and said her mother had "terrible rages" while she rarely saw her father. Her relationship with her parents was stormy at best, not least because her father made her undertake a "cure" for her supposed spinal deformation, involving locking her into an iron frame. She wrote in her autobiography that her parents had always been strangers to her.
Adult life
In 1914, 26-year-old Sitwell moved to a small, shabby flat in Pembridge Mansions, Bayswater, which she shared with Helen Rootham (1875–1938), her governess since 1903.
Sitwell never married, but seems to have fallen in love with a number of unavailable men over the course of her life. Around 1914, she developed a passion for the Chilean artist and boxer Álvaro de Guevara, whom her biographer Richard Greene describes as 'thuggish.' Violent, unstable and addicted to opium, Guevara eventually became involved with the poet and socialite Nancy Cunard, whom Sitwell subsequently 'never lost an opportunity to speak ill of.'
After meeting the poet Siegfried Sassoon in 1918, the two became close friends. Sassoon, who was homosexual, cared deeply for Sitwell, but Greene asserts that she fell in love with him, becoming jealous of his lover Stephen Tennant in the late 1920s. Sassoon and Sitwell were often seen out in each other's company, leading Sassoon's friend and mentor, the critic Edmund Gosse, to suggest that they marry. According to Sassoon's biographer, Max Egremont, Sassoon quickly replied, "I don't think poets should marry one another." Throughout the 1920s and 30s, Sitwell relied on Sassoon for criticism of her work, both privately and publicly. In 1922 he wrote a glowing review of Façade in the Daily Herald entitled 'Too Fantastic for Fat-Heads,' in which he compared Sitwell to the artist Aubrey Beardsley and declared, 'Aubrey Beardsley has triumphed over all the fat-heads of his day. Miss Sitwell will do the same.' Writing to him in 1933, Sitwell told him, 'you are the only person who has ever done anything at all for my poetry.'
In 1927, Sitwell fell in love with the gay Russian painter Pavel Tchelitchew. They developed a close friendship, with Sitwell regularly helping him financially and publicising his work. However, she was often hurt by his unpredictable temper and seeming lack of appreciation for her efforts on his behalf, and Greene suggests that Tchelitchew "toyed with her expectations" of romance when he wanted something from her, growing more distant again when he got what he wanted. Nevertheless, the relationship lasted until his death 30 years later. In 1928, Helen Rootham had surgery for cancer; she eventually became an invalid. In 1932, Rootham and Sitwell moved to Paris where they lived with Rootham's younger sister, Evelyn Wiel.
In 1930, Sitwell published a study of the poet Alexander Pope, in which she argued for Pope's greatness and identified him as a precursor of Romanticism. George Orwell, reviewing the book in the New Adelphi, noted Sitwell's fixation on the "texture" of Pope's work, which he argued distracted her from his sometimes hackneyed sentiments, but praised "her warm-hearted defence of the poet against all his detractors."
Sitwell's mother died in 1937. Sitwell did not attend the funeral because of her displeasure with her parents during her childhood. Helen Rootham died of spinal cancer in 1938. During the Second World War, Sitwell returned from France and retired to Renishaw with her brother Osbert and his lover, David Horner. She wrote under the light of oil lamps as the house had no electricity. She knitted clothes for their friends who served in the army. One of the beneficiaries was Alec Guinness, who received a pair of seaboot stockings.
The poems she wrote during the war brought her back before the public. They include Street Songs (1942), The Song of the Cold (1945), and The Shadow of Cain (1947), all of which were much praised. "Still Falls the Rain" about the London Blitz, remains perhaps her best-known poem; it was set to music by Benjamin Britten as Canticle III: Still Falls the Rain. Her poem The Bee-Keeper was set to music by Priaulx Rainier, as The Bee Oracles (1970), a setting for tenor, flute, oboe, violin, cello, and harpsichord. It was premiered by Peter Pears in 1970. Poems from The Canticle of the Rose were set by composer Joseph Phibbs in a song-cycle for high soprano with string quartet premiered in 2005.
In 1943, her father died in Switzerland, his wealth depleted. In 1948, a reunion with Tchelitchew, whom she had not seen since before the war, went badly. In 1948 Sitwell toured the United States with her brothers, reciting her poetry and, notoriously, giving a reading of Lady Macbeth's sleepwalking scene. Her poetry recitals always were occasions; she made recordings of her poems, including two recordings of Façade, the first with Constant Lambert as co-narrator, and the second with Peter Pears.
Tchelitchew died in July 1957. Her brother Osbert died in 1969, of Parkinson's disease, diagnosed in 1950. Sitwell became a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in 1954. In August 1955, she converted to Roman Catholicism and asked author Evelyn Waugh to serve as her godfather.
Sitwell wrote two books about Queen Elizabeth I of England: Fanfare for Elizabeth (1946) and The Queens and the Hive (1962). She always claimed that she wrote prose simply for money and both these books were extremely successful, as were her English Eccentrics (1933) and (1936).
Sitwell was the subject of This Is Your Life in November 1962 when she was surprised by Eamonn Andrews on the stage of the BBC Television Theatre in London.
Sitwell lived from 1961 until her death in a flat in Hampstead in London, which is now marked with an English Heritage blue plaque.
Last years and death
About 1957 Sitwell began using a wheelchair, after battling with Marfan syndrome throughout her life. Her last poetry reading was in 1962. In the following year she was awarded the title of Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature (the first woman to be so honoured). She died at St Thomas' Hospital, Lambeth, London, on 9 December 1964 at the age of 77. She is buried in the churchyard of the parish church of Saints Mary and Peter in Weedon Lois, Northamptonshire.
Sitwell's papers are held at the Harry Ransom Center at The University of Texas at Austin.
Poetry
Sitwell published her first poem The Drowned Suns in the Daily Mirror in 1913 and between 1916 and 1921 she edited Wheels, an annual poetic anthology compiled with her brothers—a literary collaboration generally called "the Sitwells".
In 1929 she published Gold Coast Customs, a poem about the artificiality of human behaviour and the barbarism that lies beneath the surface. The poem was written in the rhythms of the tom-tom and of jazz, and shows considerable technical skill. Her early work reflects the strong influence of the French symbolists.
She became a proponent and supporter of innovative trends in English poetry and opposed what she considered the conventionality of many contemporary backward-looking poets. Her flat became a meeting place for young writers whom she wished to befriend and help: these later included Dylan Thomas and Denton Welch. She also helped to publish the poetry of Wilfred Owen after his death. Her only novel, I Live Under a Black Sun, based on the life of Jonathan Swift, was published in 1937.
Publicity and controversy
Sitwell had angular features resembling Queen Elizabeth I and she stood six feet tall. She often dressed in an unusual manner with gowns of brocade or velvet, with gold turbans and many rings; her jewellery is now in the jewellery galleries of the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. Her unusual appearance provoked critics almost as much as her verse, and she was the subject of virulent personal attacks from Geoffrey Grigson, F. R. Leavis, and others. She gave as good as she got, describing Leavis as "a tiresome, whining, pettyfogging little pipsqueak".
Sitwell treated her enemies with scorn. Noël Coward wrote a skit on her and her two brothers as "the Swiss Family Whittlebot" for his 1923 revue London Calling!, and although she wrote accepting an apology from him in 1926, she refused to speak to him until they were reconciled after her 70th birthday party at London's Royal Festival Hall. Sitwell participated in the UGH.... correspondence featured in the Times Literary Supplement in 1963, an ongoing debate on the value of the work of William S. Burroughs and the nature of literary criticism, initiated by critic John Willard. Sitwell stated that she was delighted by Willard's wholly negative review of Burroughs' work, despite claiming not to know who Burroughs was. In the same letter, she described Lady Chatterley's Lover as an "insignificant, dirty little book", and rounded out her letter with the statement that she preferred Chanel Number 5 to having her nose "nailed to other people's lavatories".
Sitwell explored the distinction between poetry and music in Façade (1922), a series of abstract poems set to music by William Walton. Façade was performed behind a curtain with a hole in the mouth of a face painted by John Piper; the words were recited through the hole with the aid of a megaphone. The public received the first performance with bemusement. Critic Julian Symons attacked Sitwell in The London Magazine of November 1964, accusing her of "wearing other people's bleeding hearts on her own safe sleeve."
Publications
Poetry collections
Sitwell's poetry collections are:
Mother and Other Poems (1915)
Clowns' Houses (1918)
The Wooden Pegasus (1920)
Façade (1922)
Bucolic Comedies (1923)
The Sleeping Beauty (1924)
Troy Park (1925)
Rustic Elegies (1927)
Gold Coast Customs (1929)
Collected Poems (1930)
Five Variations on a Theme (1933)
Poems Old & New (London: Faber & Faber, 1940)
Street Songs (1942)
Green Song and Other Poems (1944)
The Song of the Cold (1945)
The Shadow of Cain (1947)
The Canticle of the Rose: Selected Poems 1920–1947 (1949)
Façade, and Other Poems 1920–1935 (1950)
Gardeners and Astronomers: New Poems (1953)
Collected Poems (1954)
The Outcasts (1962)
Other books
Alexander Pope (1930)
Bath (1932), a profile of the city under Beau Nash
The English Eccentrics (1933)
Aspects of Modern Poetry (1934)
Victoria of England (1936)
I Live Under a Black Sun (1937)
English Women (1942)
A Poet's Notebook (1943)
Fanfare for Elizabeth (1946), a biography of Elizabeth I
The Queens and the Hive (1962), a biography of Elizabeth I
Taken Care Of (1965), autobiography
References
Further reading
R. Greene, Edith Sitwell: Avant-Garde Poet, English Genius (2011)
R. Greene (ed.), Selected Letters of Edith Sitwell (1997)
S. Bradford [et al.], The Sitwells and the Arts of the 1920s and 1930s [exhibition catalogue, National Portrait Gallery, London] (1994)
Geoffrey Elborn, 'Edith Sitwell, A Life' (1981)
Victoria Glendinning, Edith Sitwell, A Unicorn Among Lions (1981)
John Malcolm Brinnin, 'The Sitwells in Situ', in Sextet: T. S. Eliot, Truman Capote and Others (1981)
John Pearson, Facades, Edith, Osbert and Sacheverell Sitwell (1978)
R. Fifoot, A Bibliography of Edith, Osbert and Sacheverell Sitwell (1971)
James D. Brophy, Edith Sitwell: The Symbolist Order (1968)
J. Lehmann, A Nest of Tigers, Edith, Osbert and Sacheverell Sitwell in their Times (1968)
E. Salter, The Last Years of a Rebel, A Memoir of Edith Sitwell (1967)
Desmond Seward, Renishaw Hall: The Story of the Sitwells (2015)
E. Sitwell, Taken Care Of (1965)
O. Sitwell, Laughter in the Next Room (1949)
O. Sitwell, Great Morning (1948)
O. Sitwell, Left Hand Right Hand (1945)
External links
Dame Edith Sitwell papers are held at the Clara Thomas Archives and Special Collections, York University Libraries, Toronto, Ontario
Dame Edith Sitwell Collection at the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center
Edith Sitwell Collection at John J. Burns Library, Boston College
Brief biography at CatholicAuthors
Sitwell at the Lied and Art Songs Text Page
Letters sent to Walter Greenwood held at the University of Salford
Wheels: An Anthology of Verse (1916–1921), edited by Sitwell, at The Modernist Journals Project
BBC Face to Face interview with Dame Edith Sitwell and John Freeman, 6 May 1959
Finding aid to Sitwell family letters and manuscripts at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
Poetry Archive page on Sitwell
Electronic editions
1887 births
1964 deaths
20th-century English women writers
20th-century English poets
Burials in Northamptonshire
Converts to Roman Catholicism
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Daughters of baronets
Deaths by intracerebral hemorrhage
English Roman Catholics
English women poets
English Catholic poets
People from Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Roman Catholic writers
Edith
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209393
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Wilhelm%20Eduard%20Gerhard
|
Friedrich Wilhelm Eduard Gerhard
|
Friedrich Wilhelm Eduard Gerhard (29 November 1795 – 12 May 1867) was a German archaeologist. He was co-founder and secretary of the first international archaeological society.
Biography
Gerhard was born at Posen, and was educated at Breslau and Berlin. The reputation he acquired by his Lectiones Apollonianae (1816) led soon afterwards to his being appointed professor at the gymnasium of Posen. On resigning that office in 1819, on account of weakness of the eyes, he went in 1822 to Rome, where he remained for fifteen years.
Gerhard was one of the principal originators of the Instituto di corrispondenza archeologica, founded at Rome in 1829, with the support of the Prussian crown prince, Frederick William. Co-founders included Theodor Panofka, Otto Magnus von Stackelberg and August Kestner. This model of international cooperation and systematic scientific publication was influenced by the example of Alexander von Humboldt, and later became the present-day German Archaeological Institute. Gerhard served as secretary to the new Institute during his stay in Rome.
Returning to Germany in 1837 he was appointed archaeologist at the Royal Museum of Berlin, and was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society that same year. In 1844 he was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences, and a professor in Berlin University.
He died at Berlin.
Evaluation
The New International Encyclopædia of 1905 gives the following evaluation of his work:
Gerhard's great service to archæological study was in the publication of important groups of monuments, and in promoting an orderly classification. Such a worker was much needed at this time, when the excavations at Vulci and elsewhere in Etruria increased so suddenly the mass of early vases and other small objects. For artistic beauty and style Gerhard had little perception; his interest was largely antiquarian, and it is characteristic of him that he was attracted by the Etruscan art, generally of little interest to the artist.
Publications
Gerhard contributed to Platner et al.'s Beschreibung der Stadt Rom (Description of the city of Rome; Vol. I, 1829). Besides a large number of archaeological papers in periodicals, in the Annali of the Institute of Rome, and in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy, and several illustrated catalogues of Greek, Roman and other antiquities in the Berlin, Naples and Vatican Museums, Gerhard was the author of the following works:
Rapporto intorno i vasi Volcenti (1831)
Antike Bildwerke (Stuttgart, 1827–1844)
Auserlesene griechische Vasenbilder (1839—1858)
Griechische und etruskische Trinkschalen (1843)
Etruskische und campanische Vasenbilder (1843)
Etruskische Spiegel (4 vols., 1843–68; 5th vol. by Klugmann et al., 1897)
Apulische Vasen (1846)
Trinkschalen und Gefässe (1850)
Hyperboreisch-römische Studien (vol. i., 1833; vol. ii., 1852)
Prodromus mythologische Kunsterklärung (Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1828)
Griechische Mythologie (1854-1855)
Gesammelte akademische Abhandlungen und kleine Schriften, published posthumously (2 vols., Berlin, 1867)
Notes
References
On website Archaeolog - all things archaeological (password required) at Stanford University, accessed June 26, 2006.
This work in turn cites:
Jahn, Eduard Gerhard, ein Lebensabriss (Berlin 1868)
Sandys, A History of Classical Scholarship (Vol. III, Cambridge 1908)
''Portions of this article have been translated from German Wikipedia
Lettre à M. le professeur Edouard Gerhard sur quelques miroirs étrusques. Par Jean de Witte. Extrait des Nouvelles Annales. Institut d'archéologie. Paris 1838.
Attribution
1795 births
1867 deaths
19th-century German people
19th-century archaeologists
German archaeologists
People of the Antikensammlung Berlin
Directors of museums in Germany
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
University of Breslau alumni
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
People from the Grand Duchy of Posen
People from Poznań
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott%20Turow
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Scott Turow
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Scott Frederick Turow (born April 12, 1949) is an American author and lawyer. Turow has written 11 fiction and three nonfiction books, which have been translated into more than 40 languages and sold more than 30 million copies. Films have been based on several of his books.
Life and career
Turow was born in Chicago, to a family of Russian Jewish descent. He attended New Trier High School and graduated from Amherst College in 1970, as a brother of the Alpha Delta Phi Literary Society. He received an Edith Mirrielees Fellowship to Stanford University’s Creative Writing Center, which he attended from 1970 to 1972.
Turow later became a Jones Lecturer at Stanford, serving until 1975, when he entered Harvard Law School. In 1977, Turow wrote One L, a book about his first year at law school. After earning his Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree cum laude in 1978, Turow became an Assistant U.S. Attorney in Chicago, serving in that position until 1986. There, he prosecuted several high-profile corruption cases, including the tax fraud case of state Attorney General, William Scott. Turow was also lead counsel in Operation Greylord, the federal prosecution of judicial corruption cases in Illinois.
After leaving the U.S. Attorney's Office, Turow became a novelist and wrote the legal thrillers Presumed Innocent (1987), The Burden of Proof (1990), Pleading Guilty (1993), and Personal Injuries, which Time magazine named as the Best Fiction Novel of 1999. All four books became bestsellers, and Turow won multiple literary awards, most notably the Silver Dagger Award of the British Crime Writers' Association.
In 1990, Turow was featured on the June 11 cover of Time, which described him as "Bard of the Litigious Age". In 1995, Canadian author Derek Lundy published a biography of Turow, entitled Scott Turow: Meeting the Enemy (ECW Press, 1995). In the 1990s, a British publisher bracketed Turow’s work with that of Margaret Atwood and John Irving, republished in the series Bloomsbury Modern Library.
Turow was elected the President of the Authors Guild in 2010, which he was previously President of from 1997 to 1998. As the President of the Authors Guild, he has been criticized for his copyright maximalist and anti-ebook stance. Turow has often responded that he is not against E-books, however, and he has shared that, in fact, he does the majority of his own reading electronically. According to Turow, he is interested in protecting writing as a livelihood.
From 1997 to 1998, Turow was a member of the U.S. Senate Nominations Commission for the Northern District of Illinois, which recommends federal judicial appointments. In 2011, Turow met with Harvard Law School professor, Lawrence Lessig, to discuss political reform, including a possible Second Constitutional Convention of the United States. According to one source, Turow saw risks with having such a convention, but he believed that it may be the "only alternative,” given his stance that campaign money can undermine the one man, one vote principle of democracy.
Turow is a partner of the international law firm Dentons having been a partner of one of its constituents, the Chicago law firm of Sonnenschein Nath & Rosenthal. Much of Turow’s caseload work is pro bono, including a 1995 case, in which he won the release of Alejandro Hernandez, a man that spent 11 years on death row for a murder he did not commit. He was also appointed to the commission considering the reform of the Illinois death penalty by former Governor George Ryan. Additionally, Turow was the first Chair of the Illinois Executive Ethics Commission, and he served as one of the 14 members on the Commission, which was appointed in March of 2000, by Illinois Governor George Ryan to consider reform of the capital punishment system. Turow also served as a member of the Illinois State Police Merit Board 2000–2002.
Bibliography
Kindle County
Presumed Innocent, 1987 (Film)
The Burden of Proof, 1990 (Film)
Pleading Guilty, 1993
The Laws of Our Fathers, 1996
Personal Injuries, 1999
Reversible Errors, 2002 (Film)
Limitations, 2006
Innocent, 2010 (TV program on TNT)
Identical, 2013
The Last Trial, 2020
Other novels
Ordinary Heroes, 2005
Testimony, 2017
As editor
Guilty As Charged, 1996 (as editor)
The Best American Mystery Stories, 2006 (as editor)
Non-fiction
One L, 1977
Ultimate Punishment: A Lawyer's Reflections on Dealing with the Death Penalty, 2003
Hard Listening, co-authored in July 2013, an interactive ebook about his participation in a writer/musician band, the Rock Bottom Remainders. Published by Coliloquy, LLC.
Reception
His non-fiction work Ultimate Punishment also received the Robert F. Kennedy Center for Justice and Human Rights 2003 Book award given annually to a novelist who "most faithfully and forcefully reflects Robert Kennedy's purposes – his concern for the poor and the powerless, his struggle for honest and even-handed justice, his conviction that a decent society must assure all young people a fair chance, and his faith that a free democracy can act to remedy disparities of power and opportunity."
Films
Presumed Innocent, 1990
The Burden of Proof, 1992
Reversible Errors, 2004
Innocent, 2011
Awards
Scott Turow was inducted as a Laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln (the State’s highest honor) by the Governor of Illinois in 2000 in the area of Communications.
See also
List of bestselling novels in the United States
Second Constitution of the United States
References
External links
Official website
A reading from The Laws of Our Fathers by Scott Turow
Interview on Ordinary Heroes at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library
1949 births
Living people
Amherst College alumni
Stanford University alumni
Stanford University faculty
Harvard Law School alumni
New Trier High School alumni
American thriller writers
Rock Bottom Remainders members
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Writers from Chicago
Illinois lawyers
American male novelists
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
Novelists from Illinois
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209398
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodri%20Morgan
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Rhodri Morgan
|
Hywel Rhodri Morgan (29 September 1939 – 17 May 2017) was a Welsh Labour politician who was the First Minister of Wales and the Leader of Welsh Labour from 2000 to 2009. He was also the Assembly Member for Cardiff West from 1999 to 2011 and the Member of Parliament for Cardiff West from 1987 to 2001. He was, , the longest-serving First Minister of Wales. He was Chancellor of Swansea University from 2011 to 2017.
Early life and education
Born in Cardiff, Hywel Rhodri Morgan was the son of Professor T. J. Morgan and the brother of historian Prys Morgan. His second cousin is Professor Garel Rhys.
Morgan was educated at Whitchurch Grammar School (which merged with Whitchurch County Secondary School to become the comprehensive Whitchurch High School in 1968) in Whitchurch, Cardiff; St John's College, Oxford, graduating with a degree in PPE in 1961; and Harvard University, where he gained an MA in Government in 1963.
Career
Early career
Before entering politics, Morgan worked as a research officer in local and central government from 1965 to 1971, an economic adviser to the Department of Trade and Industry from 1972 to 1974 and an Industrial Development Officer for South Glamorgan County Council from 1974 to 1980. He then served as Head of the European Community's office in Wales from 1980 to 1987. He was also a tutor for the Workers' Educational Association between 1963 and 1965.
Westminster
Morgan was elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for Cardiff West in 1987. From 1988 to 1994, he was a Shadow Environment Spokesman. He was also Chairman of the House of Commons Select Committee on Public Administration (1997–1999), and Opposition Front Bench Spokesman on Energy (1988–92) and Welsh Affairs (1992–1997). He stepped down from the House of Commons at the 2001 General Election.
National Assembly for Wales
First Assembly (1999)
A committed supporter of Welsh devolution, Morgan contested the position of Labour's nominee for the (then titled) First Secretary for Wales. He lost to the then Secretary of State for Wales, Ron Davies. Davies was then forced to resign his position after an alleged sex scandal, whereupon Morgan again ran for the post. His opponent, Alun Michael, the new Secretary of State for Wales, was seen as a reluctant participant despite also having a long-standing commitment to Welsh devolution, and was widely regarded as being the choice of the UK leadership of the Labour Party.
Michael was duly elected to the leadership but resigned a little more than a year later, amid threats of an imminent no-confidence vote and alleged plotting against him by members of not only his own party, but also Assembly groups and Cabinet members. Morgan, who had served as Minister for Economic Development under Michael, became Labour's new nominee for First Secretary, and was elected in February 2000, later becoming First Minister on 16 October 2000 when the position was retitled. He was also appointed to the Privy Council in July 2000.
Morgan stepped down from the House of Commons at the 2001 General Election.
Morgan's leadership was characterised by a willingness to distance himself from a number of aspects of UK Labour Party policy, particularly in relation to plans to introduce choice and competition into public services, which he has argued do not fit Welsh attitudes and values, and would not work effectively in a smaller and more rural country. In a speech given in Swansea to the National Centre for Public Policy in November 2002, Morgan stated his opposition to foundation hospitals (a UK Labour proposal), and referred to the "Clear Red Water" separating policies in Wales and in Westminster.
Second Assembly (2003)
On 1 May 2003, Labour under Morgan's leadership was re-elected in the Assembly elections. Morgan managed to win enough seats to form a Labour-only administration (the election was held under proportional representation, and Labour won 30 of the 60 seats in the Assembly and the overall majority was achieved when Dafydd Elis-Thomas AM was elected Presiding Officer of the Assembly) and named his cabinet on 9 May. In that election, Labour easily took back all of the former strongholds they lost to Plaid Cymru at the height of Alun Michael's unpopularity in 1999.
In his second term, Morgan's administration continued its theme of "Welsh solutions for Welsh problems", a marked contrast to the Blairite public service reform agenda. Instead of competition, Welsh Labour emphasised the need for collaboration between public service providers.
Third Assembly (2007)
Labour was the biggest party with 26 out of the 60 seats, five short of an overall majority. After one month of minority government, Morgan signed a coalition agreement (One Wales) with Ieuan Wyn Jones, leader of Plaid Cymru, on 27 June 2007. Morgan became the first modern political leader of Wales to lead an Assembly with powers to pass primary legislation (subject to consent from Westminster).
Retirement
In July 2005, Morgan announced his intention to lead the Welsh Labour party into the 2007 general election, but retire as leader and First Minister sometime in 2009, when he would be 70. On his 70th birthday (29 September) he set the exact date as immediately following the Assembly's budget session on 8 December 2009. Counsel General Carwyn Jones, Health Minister Edwina Hart and Merthyr Tydfil and Rhymney AM Huw Lewis entered a leadership contest to elect a new Labour leader in Wales. On 1 December 2009 the winner was declared as Carwyn Jones, who assumed office as First Minister on 10 December 2009. Morgan remained a backbench AM until April 2011, when the third Assembly was dissolved prior to the general election on 5 May 2011.
Personal life
In 1967, he married Julie Morgan (née Edwards), who was later the Labour MP for Cardiff North between 1997 and 2010. The couple lived in Michaelston-le-Pit (a village situated outside their constituencies), and were patrons of the British Humanist Association. They had a son and two daughters.
In July 2007, Morgan was admitted to hospital where he underwent heart surgery. Even though he left hospital within the week, doctors said he would not be fully recovered for a few weeks.
Death
Morgan collapsed on the evening of 17 May 2017 while cycling on Road, Wenvoe, near his home. Police and paramedics were called to the scene and he was pronounced dead. He was 77.
Morgan's family held a humanist funeral for him, in line with his humanist beliefs, at the Welsh Assembly on 31 May, which was open on a first-come first-served basis to the public, as well as broadcast on screens outside the Senedd and online. The funeral was televised and billed as a major national event. The ceremony was led by Morgan's friend and former Welsh Labour colleague Lorraine Barrett. A private service of committal was held at Thornhill Crematorium's Wenallt Chapel in Cardiff the next day.
Honorary degrees
Morgan was awarded several honorary degrees for his service to the United Kingdom, including the following.
He was also appointed Chancellor of Swansea University in 2011, a post he held until his death. He had close links with the university as both his parents had graduated from it in the 1920s and his father and brother also taught there.
References
External links
1939 births
2017 deaths
Alumni of St John's College, Oxford
British humanists
Cool Cymru
Cycling road incident deaths
Fellows of St John's College, Oxford
First Ministers of Wales
Harvard University alumni
Leaders of political parties in Wales
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Cardiff constituencies
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Members of the Welsh Assembly Government
People associated with Swansea University
People educated at Whitchurch Grammar School, Cardiff
Politicians from Cardiff
Transport and General Workers' Union-sponsored MPs
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
Wales AMs 1999–2003
Wales AMs 2003–2007
Wales AMs 2007–2011
Welsh humanists
Welsh Labour members of the Senedd
Welsh Labour Party MPs
Welsh socialists
Welsh-speaking politicians
|
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209404
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Get%20Up%20Kids
|
The Get Up Kids
|
The Get Up Kids are an American rock band from Kansas City, Missouri. Formed in 1995, the band was a major player in the mid-1990s Midwest emo scene, otherwise known as the "second wave" of emo music. As they gained prominence, they began touring with bands such as Green Day and Weezer before becoming headliners themselves, eventually embarking on international tours of Japan and Europe. They founded Heroes & Villains Records, an imprint of the successful indie rock label Vagrant Records. While the imprint was started to release albums by The Get Up Kids, it served as a launching pad for several side-projects such as The New Amsterdams and Reggie and the Full Effect.
Their second album Something to Write Home About remains their most widely acclaimed album, and is considered to be one of the quintessential albums of the second-wave emo movement. Like many early emo bands, The Get Up Kids sought to dissociate themselves from the term "emo." The band departed heavily from their established style with the release of their 2002 album On a Wire, which saw the band take on a much more layered, alternative rock sound. Years later, guitarist Jim Suptic even apologized for having the influence they did on many of the modern third-wave emo bands, commenting that "[t]he punk scene we came out of and the punk scene now are completely different. It's like glam rock now ... If this is the world we helped create, then I apologize."
Due to internal conflicts, the band broke up in 2005. Three years later, the band reunited to support the tenth anniversary re-release of Something to Write Home About, and soon afterward entered the studio to write new material. In early 2010, the band released Simple Science, their first release in six years, followed in 2011 by the full-length There Are Rules.
History
Early years (1995–1997)
While in high school, Ryan Pope, Rob Pope, and Jim Suptic formed a short-lived band called Kingpin. Matt Pryor had been writing songs since he was a teenager, and was playing in a band called Secret Decoder Ring. Following the demise of the two bands in 1995, The Get Up Kids were formed. The band originally planned on calling themselves "The Suburban Get Up Kids", until reasoning that there were fewer band names beginning with the letter 'G' than there are with the letter 'S', and that therefore they were more likely to be noticed in a record store if their name began with a 'G'. The band was formed on October 14, 1995, on Suptic's 18th birthday.
At the time the lineup consisted of Pryor on guitar and lead vocals, Suptic on guitar, Rob Pope on bass, and Thomas Becker on drums. However, Becker soon left for college in California, and was replaced by Nathan Shay, who was attending school with Suptic at the Kansas City Art Institute. In 1995, Pryor, Suptic, and friend Kevin Zelko saved money to self-release "Shorty/The Breathing Method", their first 7-inch. However, due to an unwillingness to tour, Shay was replaced by Rob's younger brother Ryan in April 1996. The band became increasingly popular in the burgeoning underground Midwestern music scene, forming strong relationships with bands such as Rocket Fuel Is The Key, Coalesce and Braid. After the "Shorty" 7-inch, the band released "A Newfound Interest in Massachusetts" on Contrast Records. Encouraged by interest stirred by the band's first 7-inch, they recorded their first EP, Woodson. Two songs of which were released by Contrast Records as a 7-inch titled "A Newfound Interest in Massachusetts" or more commonly known as "The Loveteller 7", with Doghouse Records releasing a CD-EP version which included the songs from both Woodson and A Newfound Interest in Massachusetts as well as the two song Woodson 7". After Woodson, Doghouse approached the band with a two-album contract, offering them $4,000 to record their first full-length album.
Four Minute Mile (1997–1998)
After signing to Doghouse, the band drove to Chicago to record their debut full-length album with producer Bob Weston of Shellac. The album was recorded in only two days, with the band leaving on Friday after Ryan Pope got out of school and finishing in the early hours of Sunday morning. Two months after recording the album, the band embarked on their first national tour with Braid and Ethel Meserve with the first date of the tour taking place the day after Ryan's high school graduation.
It was on that tour that the band met James Dewees, the new drummer for Coalesce while the bands were playing together in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. After the show, the members of the two bands became close friends, eventually leading them to record a split 7-inch produced by Ed Rose entitled "The Get Up Kids / Coalesce". For the split, each band covered one of the other's songs in their own style. Coalesce did a post-hardcore cover of "Second Place", and The Get Up Kids recorded a power-pop rendition of "Harvest of Maturity".
A few months later, the band released their debut full-length record Four Minute Mile, bringing a great deal of attention from critics, fans and labels alike. The band was invited to join Braid on their 1998 tour of Europe and the band rapidly created an overseas fanbase.
While the band was receiving rapidly increasing national and international attention, they became unhappy with Doghouse Records' ability to keep up with the increasing popularity of the band. The Get Up Kids' announcement to leave Doghouse Records brought interest from prominent record labels including Sub Pop, Geffen and Mojo Records. The band made a decision to sign to Mojo, but before the contracts were signed, they began to have second thoughts. The main issue was over the label's insistence on owning merchandising rights, a large source of the band's income. Moreover, the band was insulted the label requested they re-record "Don't Hate Me" from Four Minute Mile for their next record, feeling that the label believed it was "the best that [they could] write". Before the deal with Mojo was official, the band met Rich Egan, founder of Los Angeles-based Vagrant Records. He convinced the band to sign to Vagrant instead, offering them $50,000 to record a second album, as well as their own imprint, Heroes & Villains Records.
Something to Write Home About (1999–2001)
In 1998, James Dewees recorded his first solo album under the pseudonym Reggie and the Full Effect. While Dewees wrote the songs himself, he asked Matt Pryor and Rob Pope to help record some of the instrumentals. The resulting album, Greatest Hits 1984-1987 leaned heavily on the use of synthesizer keyboards for its sound. Their work together on the Reggie and the Full Effect album led Pryor to invite Dewees to collaborate with The Get Up Kids on Red Letter Day, a five-track EP produced by Ed Rose to fulfill their two-record deal with Doghouse. The cleaner, more focused sound of the EP provided the chance to experiment with the inclusion of keyboards and acts as a sonic bridge between the raw sound of Four Minute Mile and the more dynamic, produced style of their next studio album.
After the release of Red Letter Day, Dewees became a full-time member as the band began recording their second studio album in Los Angeles in June 1999 with producer Alex Brahl. Before the album went into production, Vagrant Records co-owner John Cohen borrowed money from his parents, who had mortgaged their house in order to fund the production of the album. On September 21, 1999, the band released Something to Write Home About on Vagrant Records. The album's lyrics reflected the record label strife the band had experienced and their distance between friends and family back home after their move to Los Angeles. Something to Write Home About has been singled out as the band's only 'true' emo album, as the album's aesthetic fit more into the contemporary definition of the genre. Furthermore, the album single-handedly turned the struggling Vagrant label into one of the top indie labels in the country, selling over 140,000 copies after its release. Not only did the album make The Get Up Kids the poster children for emo, but it also launched the genre into a public consciousness broader than the scattered local scenes that had previously embraced it. The album gave Vagrant Records the financial backing to grow and sign a string of other bands. At the same time, the addition of keyboards alienated some fans who thought it moved the band away from the contemporary punk scene's DIY ethic.
The Get Up Kids toured relentlessly for almost three years in promotion of the record. As well as touring Europe, Japan, and Australia, they shared bills with acts such as Green Day, The Anniversary, Hot Rod Circuit, Jebediah, Weezer and Ozma. Their 2000 tour with The Anniversary and Koufax was sponsored by Napster. Their fanbase kept expanding through word of mouth. Venues booked months in advance could no longer hold the demand by the time the band arrived in town and fans were forced to stand outside to see them perform. To capitalize on anticipation for the band's next album, Vagrant Records released a rarities compilation Eudora in 2001. Eudora consisted of alternate takes, covers, and B-sides since the band's formation. Likewise, Doghouse released a re-mastered edition of Four Minute Mile and a compilation entitled The EPs: Woodson and Red Letter Day, combining the two Doghouse-owned EPs on one compact disc.
On a Wire (2002–2003)
After three years of touring for Something to Write Home About, the band was beginning to feel burned-out, and wished to depart from the upbeat power-pop sound with which they had become associated.
They also began to broaden their musical horizons, taking much greater influence from classic rock artists like Led Zeppelin. "Our musical tastes were expanding, and our songwriting reflected that. We were discovering older bands that were new to us," said Pryor in 2021. According to Rob Pope, "It was a weird time. We were a bunch of 19, 20, 21 year-old kids...It was this weird formative era where we were challenged by a totally different thing than Thurston Moore and Ian Mackeye. "We were all going through our, like bullshit Beatles phase, and unfortunately we were doing that in public."
Speaking to the change in the band's dynamic and artistry around this time, Pryor believes "[Rob & Ryan Pope's] musicianship and the way [they] were, like, locking together took a much more mature jump from Something to Write Home About to On a Wire, Jim was starting to become more of a lead guitar player, we were thinking about it more. We were conceptualizing it more." The band spent a great deal more time than in the past demoing songs, eventually sending them to their manager Rich Egan, who was skeptical of the new sound. He told them "You guys can make an art record if you want to, but I'm just saying, this is a drastic turn from your previous material."
The band decided to look for a new producer to work with on their third album, wanting to make a more cohesive, "produced" record than their previous material. They put together a list of producers, including Stephen Street & John Leckie. The band formally approached Nigel Godrich and Gil Norton with offers, although both declined. They approached Jerry Finn, citing his work on the Superdrag album Head Trip in Every Key. Finally, the band settled on Scott Litt, best known for his work with R.E.M., The Replacements and Nirvana. "I remember we were like, 'we want to make the biggest record ever," recalls Rob Pope. "We had it in our heads at that point that we wanted to be on the radio. Scott Litt had a pretty good success rate with that."
Litt came to Lawrence, Kansas to do extensive pre-production on the record, before going to Bridgeport, Connecticut in early February for the recording sessions at Litt's suggestion. The album was recorded at Tarquin Studios, with studio owner and later Grammy Award-winning producer Peter Katis engineering. The band lived in the studio for the duration of the record, recording for four weeks. "It was freezing cold, and I don't think I left a one-block radius very often. It was kind of depressing," said Pope. Pryor had to leave after recording for the birth of his daughter, while Rob & Ryan Pope stayed behind to mix the album with Litt and Katis. The process became increasingly contentious, with Litt clashing with the band members. "There were some very questionable decisions in the mixing process. Engineering and tracking with Scott was hard for us, and then mixing with him was like, 'that's the reverb choice you're making on this snare? Which decade are we in?'"
The band's third studio album, On a Wire was released on May 14, 2002, debuting a more measured, alternative style. Just as Something to Write Home About alienated some fans with its more produced sound, On a Wire was criticized by fans who were disappointed with the album's softer musical direction. Specifically, the reviewer for Alternative Press wrote "Unfortunately, the visceral energy of their early days is lost in their newfound maturity."
While many fans were upset with this sudden change of direction, the album was generally well received by mainstream publications. Entertainment Weekly was highly positive, writing that "This is the group at their best." In his review of the album, Rolling Stone writer Barry Walters wrote "On a Wire quivers with the anxieties that must have arisen as the Get Up Kids left behind what originally made them. Straining vocals, racing tempos and walls of distortion give way to softer singing, spacious guitars and prominent keyboards . . . The Get Up Kids dig deeper into themselves. What they find is often subtle, less visceral but far more tender."
The poor public reception of the album had a larger impact on the band's popularity as a whole. The band embarked on a tour to promote the album in the late spring soon after the album was released, only to find that they had far less support from both their fans and their record label. Using the financial and critical success of Something to Write Home About, Vagrant signed several other headlining emo bands such as Alkaline Trio, Dashboard Confessional, and Saves the Day. The Get Up Kids were no longer the label's top priority, and certainly not after the lukewarm reception of On a Wire. In an interview with Alternative Press, lead singer Matt Pryor considered the dramatic change in style on On a Wire seriously dented the momentum the band had built up since Something to Write Home About, allowing later bands such as Dashboard Confessional to take much of the fan base that The Get Up Kids had previously earned. In an interview, Pryor confessed that he did not think that "anyone, including Vagrant, gave that record a chance". Even though they had avoided the term since its inception, it was at this point the band actively began trying to shed the term "emo", a word that had defined them for years but had come to be associated with more pop-oriented acts. Pryor commented on the album, saying "We really didn't give two shits if anyone liked the record or not, we were really confident that we were going to kill this 'emo' stigma that we had and take the people with open minds with us and leave everyone else in the dust."
In 2021, speaking on their stubbornness, Pryor admitted "I think if anyone told us we were making a bad decision, we would have fired them."
Guilt Show (2003–2004)
In 2003 the band began recording their fourth studio album. The album would be the first recorded in Black Lodge Studios in Eudora, Kansas, a studio renovated and owned by the Pope brothers and producer Ed Rose. The writing process for the album was different from their past efforts, as most of the songs were written by only three of the band members. In the early stages of writing, Jim Suptic was on his honeymoon. James Dewees was involved in a difficult divorce, and much of his creative efforts inspired by those events went into the fourth Reggie and the Full Effect album Songs Not to Get Married To. While this led to a less collaborative effort than in the past, it gave the Pope brothers a more substantial role in writing than ever before. In an interview with Alternative Press, Pryor confirmed the song "Never Be Alone" was written by Rob Pope about his 2003 divorce from The Anniversary keyboardist Adrianne Verhoeven.
This fractured approach to the writing process began to strain relationships in the band, at one point leading Suptic to consider quitting the band. Pryor drew lyrical inspiration from the lives of friends and people he knew, extracting stories of abuse, betrayal and guilt. The album's lyrics also delve into incidents of adultery ("Wouldn't Believe It", "How Long Is Too Long") and the album's first single "The One You Want" is said to be about a woman who Pryor says "Sucks the soul out of people".
In March 2004, the band released their fourth studio album Guilt Show, produced by Ed Rose. Sonically, the album combined the more measured, sophisticated sound of On a Wire with the frenetic style of their earlier work. Guilt Show, which was titled after a misreading of a flier saying "Quilt show", was very well received both critically and commercially. The more pop-driven tone of the album reunited the band with many fans who were disenchanted after On a Wire, while also staying close enough to the evolution of the last album to interest newer fans and critics. However, their return was overshadowed by the booming popularity of other contemporary emo bands such as Dashboard Confessional, who invited the band to open for them on the 2004 Honda Civic Tour.
Breakup and solo activity (2004–2008)
Over the course of the tour with Dashboard Confessional, relationships between the band members continued to decline. The band's live shows had deteriorated, and Rob and Suptic had both threatened to quit multiple times. Matt Pryor's wife had recently given birth to their first child, and being away from his family had made him irritable and standoffish. After the Honda Civic tour ended, the band embarked on their world tour, including stops throughout Europe, Japan and Australia. However, their live performance hit an all-time low, with Pryor at times refusing to even sing large portions of songs.
At one tour date in England, the tensions came to a head when Ryan Pope confronted Pryor over his recent despondence, leading to a band meeting where Pryor confessed his desire to reduce his commitment to the rest of the group. After some discussion, the band agreed that their hearts were no longer in it and at the end of the tour they would quietly end the band. Once the tour ended, the band went on an unofficial hiatus, not playing as a group until the next January, when they played a show at the Granada Theater in Lawrence, Kansas to celebrate the band's tenth anniversary. The show was recorded and released the following May as the band's first live album, Live! @ The Granada Theater.
On Tuesday, March 8, 2005, The Get Up Kids announced that after ten years, they were disbanding. They embarked on a national farewell tour, ending the band after a sold-out show on July 2, 2005, in their hometown of Kansas City, Missouri at the Uptown Theater.
After the band's split, the Pope brothers took over management of Black Lodge Studios, the recording studio that the band formed with the recording of Guilt Show, alongside longtime producing partner Ed Rose. The brothers joined Koufax for a short stint, before splitting for different projects. Rob was a founding member of Lawrence, Kansas group White Whale, releasing the 2006 album WWI to moderate acclaim before becoming a full-time member of Spoon, while Ryan became the drummer for the Lawrence-based experimental rock band The Roman Numerals.
Matt Pryor continued as part of The New Amsterdams, an acoustic alt-country group he had formed in 2000, expanding its sound and solidifying its previously revolving-door lineup. In 2007 he formed The Terrible Twos, a children's band that has released two albums on Vagrant Records. Regarding the decision to make a children's album directly after the split, Pryor said "I wanted to do it anyway because I have kids and I want to write songs for them, but nobody is going to be like 'this isn't as good as the old stuff.' It's immune to punk criticism." In July 2008, he refocused his efforts on a solo career with the release of Confidence Man, an alt-country release similar in sound to The New Amsterdams. After his second album, May Day, Pryor announced that he would be formally disbanding The New Amsterdams in favor of his solo career, concluding the band's tenure with the release of Outroduction, a B-sides recording.
Jim Suptic went on to form Blackpool Lights with former members of Butterglory and The Creature Comforts. The band released their debut album This Town's Disaster in 2006, consisted largely of songs Suptic wrote for The Get Up Kids but never recorded. The album was released on Curb Appeal Records, an independent label Suptic founded with former Get Up Kids collaborator and local musician Alex Brahl. The label released albums by Smoking Popes and The New Amsterdams, but dissolved sometime in 2008. The exact reasons why were never revealed, but Suptic said only that it "blew up in [his] face." After the closure of the label, Suptic began working at Home Depot to support his family.
After the breakup of The Get Up Kids, James Dewees toured with New Found Glory as their touring keyboardist, having been featured on their 2003 album Catalyst. While he was touring, his ongoing struggles with alcohol and drug abuse worsened. After moving to New York City, he began to attend rehab, a process which would inspire the fifth Reggie and the Full Effect album, Last Stop: Crappy Town. After another brief tour opening for Hellogoodbye in 2006, he joined My Chemical Romance as their full-time touring keyboardist and later becoming a full time member.
Reunion and new music (2008–present)
In late August and September 2008, while Dewees was touring with Reggie and the Full Effect, he began making hints that The Get Up Kids would be reuniting to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the band's second album Something to Write Home About. The reunion was finally confirmed by a post on the official music blog of The Kansas City Star, confirming rumors that the band would be playing a surprise reunion show at The Record Bar in Kansas City on November 16, 2008. According to the article, the band had made the decision over the summer and had Dewees intentionally leak the information to gauge fan interest.
The reunion show was officially announced on Friday, November 14, along with the official confirmation of the album re-release and a 2009 national tour. The tenth anniversary edition of the album includes a code to download bonus demo tracks from the original recording of Something To Write Home About from the Vagrant Records website, and a DVD containing a band retrospective and other content, including archive footage, and their live performance from March 13, 2009, at Liberty Hall in Lawrence. The show took place Sunday, November 16, 2008, at the record bar in Kansas City. The band played their album Something To Write Home About from beginning to end, as well as a six-song encore.
In the summer of 2009, they returned to Black Lodge studios to record their first new material in five years, recording twelve tracks intended to be released as three EPs over the course of a year. The band's reunion tour took place in Europe, followed by the US between mid-August and early October. On April 13, 2010, the band released the first EP Simple Science on Flyover Records. Despite their reformation, obligations to other projects limited the amount of time the band could spend together. On their 2010 tour, fun. bassist Nate Harold filled in for Rob Pope, who was already committed to touring with Spoon. In 2011 while James Dewees was on a world tour with My Chemical Romance, New Amsterdams regular Dustin Kinsey filled in on keyboards.
After the release of Simple Science, the band decided to combine the remaining tracks—along with three more newly recorded songs—into a new full-length album, There Are Rules. They also confirmed that the album would not be released on Vagrant Records, who had released their previous three albums, but on their own Quality Hill Records. The album was produced by Ed Rose and mixed by Bob Weston, who produced the band's debut album. There Are Rules was released on January 25, 2011, and was supported by a co-headlining tour with Saves The Day.
In 2017, the band went on tour in Latin America for the first time and played six concerts in Mexico, Chile, Argentina and Brazil.
On March 29, 2018, Polyvinyl Records and Big Scary Monsters announced on their Instagram account that they had signed the band and that new music will be coming soon. The band released a thirteen-minute, four song EP entitled Kicker on June 8, 2018. This was followed by Problems on May 10, 2019, the group's first album in eight years. A review of Problems published by Exclaim! said "It sounds just as great as some of their older albums, reminding us why this band are still one of the greatest emo/alternative acts to come out of the '90s."
The Get Up Kids played Slam Dunk Festival in the UK on May 25–26, 2019.
On September 7, 2019, The Get Up Kids posted on their Instagram page that "James Dewees is no longer a member of The Get Up Kids."
Influence
The Get Up Kids have had a lasting impact on the music scene, having been cited as inspirations to several prominent bands and artists. Blink-182 bassist and singer Mark Hoppus is a vocal fan, having proposed to his wife to The Get Up Kids song "I'll Catch You." They were also a major influence on the rest of the band, even at their peak popularity around the release of Take Off Your Pants and Jacket. The members of Fall Out Boy cite The Get Up Kids' influence, particularly their album Four Minute Mile. In a 2005 interview with Alternative Press, Fall Out Boy bassist Pete Wentz stated that the band had a huge influence on him and the other members of Fall Out Boy. "There should be a How To Be a Pop-Punk Kid starter kit with bands like Get Up Kids, so kids would know whose shoulders bands like us are standing on. Fall Out Boy would not be a band if it were not for The Get Up Kids."
New Jersey based act Midtown has stated in interviews that they were heavily influenced by The Get Up Kids, among other groups. The Early November band members were all fans of, and influenced by, The Get Up Kids. The Early November song "Baby Blue" includes the line "I don't want you to love me anymore", a direct reference to the Get Up Kids song "No Love" both lyrically and melodically. The band Hellogoodbye have been vocal fans of the band and while on tour with Reggie and the Full Effect in 2007, two years after the breakup of The Get Up Kids, Hellogoodbye invited James Dewees and Matt Pryor onstage with them, and proceeded to back them in a cover of The Get Up Kids' song "Action & Action". The Canadian post-hardcore band Silverstein has cited the Get Up Kids as a major influence, and covered their song Coming Clean for a split 7" with August Burns Red in 2013. Claudio Sanchez of Coheed and Cambria cited Something to Write Home About as one of the albums that the band listened to and during the recording of their breakout album In Keeping Secrets of Silent Earth: 3.
Despite their lasting influence on modern music, the band has attempted to disassociate themselves with many of the bands they inspired. Following the band's reformation, guitarist Jim Suptic undertook an interview with website Drowned in Sound, in which he said, "The punk scene we came out of and the punk scene now are completely different. It's like glam rock now. We played the Bamboozle fests this year and we felt really out of place... If this is the world we helped create, then I apologise." He went on to say they were grateful for the acknowledgements they have received, though explaining "the problem is most of [the bands they inspired] aren't very good."
Band members
Current members
Matt Pryor – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1995–2005; 2008–present)
Jim Suptic – lead guitar, backing vocals (1995–2005; 2008–present)
Rob Pope – bass, backing vocals (1995–2005; 2008–present)
Ryan Pope – drums, percussion (1996–2005; 2008–present)
Current touring members
Dustin Kinsey – keyboards (2011, 2019–present)
Former members
Thomas Becker – drums, percussion (1995)
Nathan Shay – drums, percussion (1996)
James Dewees – keyboards, backing vocals (1999–2005; 2008–2019)
Former touring members
Nate Harold – bass (2010)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albumsFour Minute Mile (1997)Something to Write Home About (1999)On a Wire (2002)Guilt Show (2004)There Are Rules (2011)Problems'' (2019)
References
External links
Alternative rock groups from Missouri
American emo musical groups
American pop punk groups
Indie rock musical groups from Missouri
Hassle Records artists
Musical groups disestablished in 2005
Musical groups established in 1995
Musical groups from Kansas City, Missouri
Musical groups reestablished in 2008
Polyvinyl Record Co. artists
Vagrant Records artists
Doghouse Records artists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind%20Melon
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Blind Melon
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Blind Melon is an American rock band formed in 1990 in Los Angeles, California, by five musicians: three from Mississippi, one from Pennsylvania and one from Indiana. The band currently consists of guitarists Rogers Stevens and Christopher Thorn, drummer Glen Graham, vocalist Travis Warren and bassist Nathan Towne. They are best known for their 1993 hit "No Rain", and enjoyed critical and commercial success in the early 1990s with their neo-psychedelic take on alternative rock.
Blind Melon released two albums on Capitol Records – Blind Melon (1992) and Soup (1995) – before their original lead vocalist Shannon Hoon died of a drug overdose on the band's tour bus in New Orleans on October 21, 1995. After four years of unsuccessfully searching for a replacement for Hoon, Blind Melon officially dissolved in 1999. The remaining members reformed the band in 2006 with Warren and recorded one album with him, For My Friends (2008). Shortly after its release, Warren left Blind Melon but rejoined in 2010, when the band returned to performing occasional gigs. Blind Melon is currently working on their fourth studio album. Blind Melon has been nominated for four Grammy Awards.
History
Formation, debut and success (1990–1993)
Blind Melon formed in Los Angeles in March 1990 after West Point, Mississippi, transplants Rogers Stevens and Brad Smith, a guitarist and bassist respectively, met vocalist Shannon Hoon, a native of Lafayette, Indiana. Guitarist Christopher Thorn, originally from Pennsylvania, was added shortly thereafter; the four eventually convinced drummer Glen Graham to relocate from Mississippi to complete the group after failing to find a drummer in Los Angeles. Their moniker derived from a nickname Smith had observed among Mississippi hippies, a name with precedent in the 1920s blues artist Blind Lemon Jefferson and the Cheech & Chong character Blind Melon Chitlin'.
The band debuted with a four-song demo, The Goodfoot Workshop, in 1991. Capitol Records A&R executive Tim Devine signed Blind Melon later that year and oversaw sessions with famed producer David Briggs for an unreleased EP to be titled The Sippin' Time Sessions. The recordings were abandoned due to the band's dissatisfaction with the production quality, which they felt resulted in "slick and doctored" results. Hoon's friendship and association with Guns N' Roses frontman Axl Rose accrued additional industry attention for the group, as he provided backing vocals on several Guns N' Roses tracks on 1991's Use Your Illusion I and II albums, including the single "Don't Cry". Blind Melon embarked upon a tour supporting Soundgarden late that year.
At drummer Glen Graham’s suggestion, the band relocated to Durham, North Carolina, while beginning work on what would become their self-titled debut album with producer Rick Parashar, known for producing Pearl Jam's Ten. Sessions were held in London Bridge Studio in Seattle, Washington, and the album was recorded mostly live with minimal overdubs. The record was released in September 1992, and initially sold poorly behind its lead singles, "Tones of Home" and "No Rain", until the latter became an MTV staple the following July. Promoted by a successful music video featuring Heather DeLoach playing the "Bee Girl", "No Rain" helped the band achieve international recognition. The album eventually attained quadruple-platinum status, debuting in the Billboard top 40 on October 9, 1993, and peaking at No. 11 on the Hot 100.
Soup and Hoon's death (1993–1995)
The group toured extensively in support of their debut, performing dates in Europe and Mexico and supporting such acts as Neil Young and Lenny Kravitz late in 1993. Their activity the following year included a performance at Woodstock '94 in August and a supporting slot on the Rolling Stones' Voodoo Lounge Tour thereafter. Amidst rising success, the band began to experience personal and legal problems related to drug and alcohol abuse, leading to multiple stints in drug rehabilitation for Hoon.
In 1994, the members relocated to New Orleans, Louisiana, to begin work on their second album, Soup, with producer Andy Wallace. The album was released in 1995, and predominantly featured shorter songs with a less conventional alternative rock approach, including New Orleans-style jazz and a hodgepodge of instrumentation throughout, such as horn sections and mandolin/banjo tracks. The lyrics to "St. Andrew's Fall" referenced a suicide jump, "Skinned" spoke about the life of a serial killer, and "New Life" addressed the forthcoming birth of Hoon's child. "Mouthful of Cavities" featured backing vocals from Jena Kraus, who subsequently recorded a solo record with Thorn and Smith. Despite the debut of the lead single, "Galaxie", at number 25 on the Billboard charts, Soup ultimately failed to meet sales expectations.
Later that year, Blind Melon contributed a version of the song "Out on the Tiles" to the Encomium tribute album to Led Zeppelin, and cover of the Schoolhouse Rock! song "Three Is a Magic Number" to the Schoolhouse Rock! Rocks compilation. Their version of "Three Is a Magic Number", although never a charting single, became a fan favorite and featured in the films Never Been Kissed, Slackers, and You, Me and Dupree. All Music Guide reviewer Theresa E. LaVeck has praised the tune's "'70s feel-good vibe" and "rolling jam-band rhythms".
Against the advice of Hoon's drug counselor, Blind Melon went on tour in support of Soup. The band initially employed a counselor to assist Hoon's rehabilitation, but this attendant was soon dismissed. After several weeks on the road, Hoon was found dead on the band's tour bus of a heart attack caused by a cocaine overdose, on October 21, 1995, in downtown New Orleans.
Aftermath and breakup (1995–1999)
The surviving members opted to continue their collaboration and recruit a new vocalist, although it would ultimately take them over a decade to do so. In 1996, they issued Nico, an album of outtakes and demos named for Hoon's daughter, who was only 13 weeks old when her father died. Nico contained unreleased songs from the Soup recording sessions, as well as several songs recorded with only partial instrumentation. The closing track, "Letters from a Porcupine", was recorded as a telephone message left by Hoon on Thorn's answering machine. The album also included covers of Steppenwolf and John Lennon songs. Its profits went to a program that helps musicians with drug and alcohol addiction.
Discussing his loss with The Guardian, Gia DeSantis, former KROQ DJ, producer and host at KDOC and head of video promotion at Capitol Records who worked with the band, said "Shannon had a magnetism. You couldn't take your eyes off him. They knew to bring in a new singer to sing his lyrics would not have had the same magnetism." She also mentions that "the band knew its chapter was closed following Hoon's death because he had become the public face of their music through their videos, particularly the one for No Rain" a video that made VH1's list of Top 100 Music Videos of All Time.
During this period, the relationships between the band members disintegrated as they attempted to recruit a new front man. After failing to find a replacement for Hoon, Blind Melon officially dissolved their partnership on March 4, 1999, and the various members went on to other projects, including Thorn and Smith's activity in Unified Theory, a group they had founded the previous year.
Inactivity (1999–2006)
In 2002, Capitol Records released a Classic Masters CD showcasing twelve Blind Melon songs. Thanks to stronger-than-expected sales, the band released The Best of Blind Melon in 2005, a CD–DVD package that features Blind Melon performing live from a September 1995 concert in Chicago. On December 15, 2006, a tribute album to Blind Melon was released by Yakmusic in New Zealand featuring bands from all over the world. In April 2006, Capitol Records released the Live at the Palace CD.
Reunion and For My Friends (2006–2008)
Blind Melon announced their reformation on September 15, 2006, which included the addition of new lead singer Travis Warren (formerly of Rain Fur Rent). Three new Blind Melon songs – "Make a Difference", "For My Friends" and "Harmful Belly" – followed on November 9. On October 7, 2007, they performed their first live concert in twelve years in Providence, Rhode Island.
"Wishing Well", the first single from the group's upcoming third studio album, was released on March 4, 2008, to coincide with a U.S. tour. The album, For My Friends, was released on April 22, 2008, on Adrenaline Records. On September 17, 2008, the biography A Devil on One Shoulder and an Angel on the Other: The Story of Shannon Hoon and Blind Melon by Greg Prato was published. European tour dates followed thereafter.
On November 6, 2008, the band announced the departure of Warren, despite having unfulfilled concert dates. Initially, the band intended to honor their remaining dates, and announced Chris Shinn of Unified Theory as lead vocalist for the remainder of their tour. However, this was later retracted, and the tour cancelled. Warren ultimately returned to perform a previously scheduled gig with Blind Melon on December 31, 2008, in Dearborn, Michigan, which was announced as his final show.
Hiatus (2009–2010)
Capitol Records released the four-track EP "Deep Cuts" in April 2009 as a digital download. The members remained active with other projects: Smith and Thorn played with Codename Mike, while Smith also toured with Revis as a guest member and Thorn played briefly with Awolnation. Graham formed the band Jakeleg with his long-time friend Joe Tullos.
Second reformation and new album (2010–present)
On November 2, 2010, Blind Melon announced its reformation and Warren's return. Their first performance came November 27, when they played a free concert at the base of Aspen Mountain in Aspen, Colorado. They continued sporadic performances over the coming months, opening for Candlebox at The Hard Rock Hotel in Albuquerque, New Mexico, on February 4, 2011, and headlining Rest Fest at Crumland Farms, Frederick, Maryland, on September 5.
In 2012 they toured South America, with dates in Chile and Argentina, and Western Europe thereafter. On the status of the group, Graham stated late that year that "Blind Melon is still a functioning entity; Travis Warren is our current vocalist as he has been since 2007; however, we are only doing the occasional one-off and currently have no plans to record full length CDs."
To cap 2015, the band played back-to-back shows on New Year's Eve and New Year's Day at Lafayette Theater in Lafayette, Indiana, with Shannon Hoon's mother present. Nico Blue, Hoon's daughter, took the stage to sing the song "Change."
By 2018, Blind Melon had spent the last couple years working on new material for the follow-up to For My Friends. In a July 2018 interview on Consequence of Sound's "Kyle Meredith With ..." podcast, guitarist Christopher Thorn stated, "I've been mixing the new single or the new song, I could say ... the new song for the next Blind Melon record. We've been writing a bunch, and we have a song and a video done, so we just mixed the new song last night actually." Thorn also revealed that the band had been tracking some eight songs for the album since last December at his studio in Silver Lake, but added that there was no date set for release.
A documentary about Hoon titled All I Can Say (composed mostly of footage he shot on a handheld camera from 1990 to 1995) premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 26, 2019, and was released on June 26, 2020 on online streaming platforms. Also, it was released on DVD and Blu-ray on November 24, 2020.
In September 2019, Blind Melon released their first song in 11 years "Way Down And Far Below". Thorn stated that the band was expected to release their fourth full-length studio album in 2020; however, in an interview with Guitar World in February 2021, when asked about the state of the fourth studio album, Stevens said ““We’re going to release singles every couple of months, and then when there are 10-12 of them, we’re going to press vinyl and sell it to whoever wants it," while when Thorn was asked if the plan was to release the album by year's end, he replied, "We’ve got to get a record out this year. For sure.”
On November 1, 2021, author Greg Prato issued a follow-up book to A Devil on One Shoulder and an Angel on the Other, simply titled Shannon, and featured all-new interviews with either people who knew Shannon or were admirers of his music (plus a "roundtable discussion" with Stevens and Thorn).
Band members
Current members
Travis Warren – lead vocals, acoustic guitar (2006–2008, 2010–present)
Rogers Stevens – lead guitar (1990–1999, 2006–present)
Christopher Thorn – rhythm guitar (1990–1999, 2006–present)
Glen Graham – drums (1990–1999, 2006–present)
Nathan Towne – bass, backing vocals (2015–present)
Former members
Shannon Hoon – lead vocals, acoustic guitar, percussion (1990–1995; his death)
Brad Smith – bass, backing vocals (1990–1999, 2006–2015)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Blind Melon (1992)
Soup (1995)
Nico (1996)
For My Friends (2008)
See also
List of alternative music artists
List of deaths from drug overdose and intoxication
References
Bibliography
Prato, Greg (2008). A Devil on One Shoulder and an Angel on the Other: The Story of Shannon Hoon and Blind Melon. Createspace. .
Weitz, Brad (2012). From Your Friends - Art, Photos and Stories Inspired by Blind Melon. Lulu.
Weitz, Brad/Mester, Csaba (2012). Sweet Meloncholy. Take On 1 or 2 / Garage Art. .
External links
Blind Melon Official Website
Blind Melon Tones of Home
Blind Melon Blind Melon Forum
Blind Melon website run by Capitol Records
BeeMelon.com fan site
1990 establishments in California
1999 disestablishments in California
2006 establishments in California
Alternative rock groups from California
American blues rock musical groups
Capitol Records artists
EMI Records artists
Folk rock groups from California
Musical groups disestablished in 1999
Musical groups established in 1990
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Musical groups reestablished in 2006
Musical quintets
Neo-psychedelia groups
Psychedelic rock music groups from California
|
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209411
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embezzlement
|
Embezzlement
|
Embezzlement is the act of withholding assets for the purpose of conversion of such assets, by one or more persons to whom the assets were entrusted, either to be held or to be used for specific purposes. Embezzlement is a type of financial fraud. For example, a lawyer might embezzle funds from the trust accounts of their clients; a financial advisor might embezzle the funds of investors; and a husband or a wife might embezzle funds from a bank account jointly held with the spouse.
The term "embezzlement" is often used in informal speech to mean theft of money, usually from an organization or company such as an employer.
Embezzlement is usually a premeditated crime, performed methodically, with precautions that conceal the criminal conversion of the property, which occurs without the knowledge or consent of the affected person. Often it involves the trusted individual embezzling only a small proportion of the total of the funds or resources they receive or control, in an attempt to minimize the risk of the detection of the misallocation of the funds or resources. When successful, embezzlement may continue for many years without detection.
Versus larceny
Embezzlement is not always a form of theft or an act of stealing, since those definitions specifically deal with taking something that does not belong to the perpetrators. Instead, embezzlement is, more generically, an act of deceitfully secreting assets by one or more persons that have been entrusted with such assets. The persons entrusted with such assets may or may not have an ownership stake in such assets.
Embezzlement differs from larceny in three ways. First, in embezzlement, an actual conversion must occur; second, the original taking must not be trespassory, and third, in penalties. To say that the taking was not trespassory is to say that the persons performing the embezzlement had the right to possess, use or access the assets in question, and that such persons subsequently secreted and converted the assets for an unintended or unsanctioned use. Conversion requires that the secretion interfere with the property, rather than just relocate it. As in larceny, the measure is not the gain to the embezzler, but the loss to the asset stakeholders. An example of conversion is when a person logs checks in a check register or transaction log as being used for one specific purpose and then explicitly uses the funds from the checking account for another and completely different purpose.
When embezzlement occurs as a form of theft, distinguishing between embezzlement and larceny can be tricky. Making the distinction is particularly difficult when dealing with misappropriations of property by employees. To prove embezzlement, the state must show that the employee had possession of the goods "by virtue of his or her employment"; that is, that the employee had formally delegated authority to exercise substantial control over the goods. Typically, in determining whether the employee had sufficient control the courts will look at factors such as the job title, job description and the particular operational practices of the firm or organization. For example, the manager of a shoe department at a department store would likely have sufficient control over the store's inventory (as head of the shoe department) of shoes; that if they converted the goods to their own use they would be guilty of embezzlement. On the other hand, if the same employee were to steal cosmetics from the cosmetics department of the store, the crime would not be embezzlement but larceny. For a case that exemplifies the difficulty of distinguishing larceny and embezzlement see State v. Weaver, 359 N.C. 246; 607 S.E.2d 599 (2005).
North Carolina appellate courts have compounded this confusion by misinterpreting a statute based on an act passed by parliament in 1528. The North Carolina courts interpreted this statute as creating an offence called "larceny by employee"; an offence that was separate and distinct from common law larceny. However, as Perkins notes, the purpose of the statute was not to create a new offence but was merely to confirm that the acts described in the statute met the elements of common law larceny.
The statute served the purpose of the then North Carolina colony as an indentured servant and slave-based political economy. It ensured that an indentured servant (or anyone bound to service of labour to a master, e.g., a slave), would owe to their master their labour; and, if they left their indentured service or bound labour unlawfully, the labour they produced, either for themselves (i.e., self-employed), or for anyone else, would be the converted goods that they unlawfully took, from the rightful owner, their master.
Crucially (and this can be seen as the purpose of the statute), any subsequent employer of such an indentured servant or slave, who was in fact bound to service of labour to a pre-existing master, would be chargeable with misprision of a felony (if it was proved they knew that the employee was still indentured to a master, or owned as a slave); and chargeable as an accessory after the fact, in the felony, with the servant or slave; in helping them, by employing them, in unlawfully taking that which was lawfully bound (through the master–servant relationship) in exclusive right, to the master of the indentured servant or slave.
Methods
Embezzlement sometimes involves falsification of records in order to conceal the activity. Embezzlers commonly secrete relatively small amounts repeatedly, in a systematic or methodical manner, over a long period of time, although some embezzlers secrete one large sum at once. Some very successful embezzlement schemes have continued for many years before being detected due to the skill of the embezzler in concealing the nature of the transactions or their skill in gaining the trust and confidence of investors or clients, who are then reluctant to "test" the embezzler's trustworthiness by forcing a withdrawal of funds.
Embezzling should not be confused with skimming, which is under-reporting income and pocketing the difference. For example, in 2005, several managers of the service provider Aramark were found to be under-reporting profits from a string of vending machine locations in the eastern United States. While the amount stolen from each machine was relatively small, the total amount taken from many machines over a length of time was very large. A smart technique employed by many small-time embezzlers can be covered by falsifying the records. (Example, by removing a small amount of money and falsifying the record the register would be technically correct, while the manager would remove the profit and leave the float in, this method would effectively make the register short for the next user and throw the blame onto them)
Another method is to create a false vendor account and supply false bills to the company being embezzled so that the checks that are cut appear completely legitimate. Yet another method is to create phantom employees, who are then paid with payroll checks.
The latter two methods should be uncovered by routine audits, but often are not if the audit is not sufficiently in-depth, because the paperwork appears to be in order. A publicly traded company must change auditors and audit companies every five years. The first method is easier to detect if all transactions are by cheque or other instrument, but if many transactions are in cash, it is much more difficult to identify. Employers have developed a number of strategies to deal with this problem. In fact, cash registers were invented just for this reason.
Some of the most complex (and potentially most lucrative) forms of embezzlement involve Ponzi-like financial schemes where high returns to early investors are paid out of funds received from later investors duped into believing they are themselves receiving entry into a high-return investment scheme. The Madoff investment scandal is an example of this kind of high-level embezzlement scheme, where it is alleged that $65 billion was siphoned off from gullible investors and financial institutions.
Prevention
Internal controls such as separation of duties are common defences against embezzlement. For example, at a movie theatre (cinema), the task of accepting money and admitting customers into the theatre is typically broken up into two jobs. One employee sells the ticket, and another employee takes the ticket and lets the customer into the theatre. Because a ticket cannot be printed without entering the sale into the computer (or, in earlier times, without using up a serial-numbered printed ticket), and the customer cannot enter the theatre without a ticket, both of these employees would have to collude in order for embezzlement to go undetected. This significantly reduces the chance of theft, because of the added difficulty in arranging such a conspiracy and the likely need to split the proceeds between the two employees, which reduces the payoff for each.
Another obvious method to deter embezzlement is to regularly and unexpectedly move funds from one advisor or entrusted person to another when the funds are supposed to be available for withdrawal or use, to ensure that the full amount of the funds is available and no fraction of the savings has been embezzled by the person to whom the funds or savings have been entrusted.
Worldwide
In 2020, 37% of employee fraud happened because of a lack of internal controls or lack of independent checks and audits, 18% by overriding internal controls, 18% from lack of management review, 10% from a poor tone set by top managers, and 17% from other causes.
England and Wales
Offences of embezzlement were formerly created by sections 18 and 19 of the Larceny Act 1916.
The former offences of embezzlement are replaced by the new offence of theft, contrary to section 1 of the Theft Act 1968.
United States
In the United States, embezzlement is a statutory offence that, depending on the circumstances, may be a crime under state law, federal law, or both, with the definition of the crime of embezzlement varying according to the statutes of the jurisdiction in which charges are filed. Typical elements of the crime of embezzlement are the fraudulent conversion of the property of another person by the person who has lawful possession of the property.
In 2005-2009 the United States had 18,000 to 22,000 arrests for embezzlement per year, and 13,500 arrests in 2019. A 2009 journal article reported estimates that three quarters of medical professionals would suffer from embezzlement at least once in their career.
In 2018 the average embezzlement stole $360,000. The estimated losses in 2005-2009 (including the many with no arrest) were $400 billion per year. In 2018 companies brought charges in 45% of cases.
85% of incidents involved an embezzler who was a manager or higher. The average incident involved three embezzlers, and 79% of incidents involved more than one embezzler. 70% of cases went undetected for over a year, and 31% lasted over three years. The average embezzler had worked at the company for eight years. 39% of financial professionals who experienced embezzlements had experienced a prior incident of it. After the embezzlement, only 26% of companies added security and audit requirements, 27% increased spending on audits, and 29% reviewed their anti-fraud controls frequently. However 97% of companies which had experienced embezzlement were "confident
the anti-fraud controls in place... would prevent future embezzlement."
See also
2011 Iranian embezzlement scandal
Allen Stanford
Avo Viiol
Bank Secrecy Act
Charles Ponzi
Commonwealth v. O'Malley
Confiscation
Corruption charges against Suharto
Currency transaction report
Customer Identification Program
Defalcation
FBI
Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network
Fractional reserve banking
Gold laundering
Graft (politics)
Harriette Walters
Hawala
Michael H. O'Keefe
Money trail
Mukhtar Ablyazov
Office of Foreign Assets Control
Offshore banking
Organized crime
Penny stock scam
Politically exposed person
Round-tripping (finance)
Scott W. Rothstein
Shell (corporation)
Sponsorship scandal
Terrorist financing
The Route of the K-Money
Tom Petters
Toni Musulin
USA PATRIOT Act
White-collar crime
World Bank residual model
References
Commercial crimes
Crimes
Fraud
Property crimes
Theft
|
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] |
209415
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle%20Encyclop%C3%A6dia
|
Oracle Encyclopædia
|
The Oracle Encyclopædia is a five-volume general encyclopedia. It was published in 1895 in London by George Newnes Ltd and edited by R. W. Egerton Eastwick.
References
Reference works in the public domain
English-language encyclopedias
British encyclopedias
1895 non-fiction books
19th-century encyclopedias
George Newnes Ltd books
|
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] |
209416
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Folds
|
Ben Folds
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Benjamin Scott Folds (born September 12, 1966) is an American singer-songwriter, musician, composer and record producer. Folds was the frontman and pianist of the alternative rock band Ben Folds Five from 1993 to 2000, and again in the early 2010s during their reunion. He has recorded a number of solo albums and performed live as a solo artist. He has also collaborated with musicians such as William Shatner, Regina Spektor, "Weird Al" Yankovic, and yMusic, and undertaken experimental songwriting projects with authors such as Nick Hornby and Neil Gaiman. He has frequently performed arrangements of his music with uncommon instrumentation, including symphony orchestras and a cappella groups. In addition to contributing music to the soundtracks of the animated films Hoodwinked!, and Over the Hedge, Folds has produced several albums, including Amanda Palmer's first solo album.
Folds was a judge on the NBC a cappella singing contest The Sing-Off from 2009 to 2013. Since May 2017, he has been serving as the first artistic advisor to the National Symphony Orchestra at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C. In July 2019, Folds published his first book, a memoir, titled A Dream About Lightning Bugs: A Life of Music and Cheap Lessons.
Early life and career
Folds was born in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. He became interested in piano at age nine. His father, a carpenter, brought one home through a barter trade with a customer who was unable to pay. During this time, Folds listened to songs by Elton John and Billy Joel on AM radio, and learned them by ear. During his years at Richard J. Reynolds High School in Winston-Salem, Folds played in several bands as the pianist, bassist, or drummer.
Folds attended the University of Miami's Frost School of Music on a full percussion scholarship, but dropped out after having failed 'the jury' and losing his scholarship. He devoted a lot of time to working on piano technique. "I spent maybe six months just running scales with a metronome like a freak," Folds said. "I suppose that did something."
After leaving Miami, he returned to North Carolina and enrolled at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro for the fall semester of 1985. It was while studying at UNCG that he met his 'accidental mentor', Robert Darnell. Folds would acknowledge the impact of Darnell on his appreciation of music in his 2019 memoir A Dream About Lightning Bugs.
In the late 1980s, Folds (as a bassist) formed the band Majosha with longtime friends Evan Olson and Millard Powers. The group released several locally produced records. They played their first gig at Duke University's Battle of the Bands in 1988, and won. They played at bars and fraternity parties, and self-produced an EP called Party Night: Five Songs About Jesus (1988), which they sold locally. The EP has four songs, none of which are about Jesus. They recorded Shut Up and Listen to Majosha in 1989. It contains, among other tracks, the four songs from Party Night (remixed and/or re-recorded) and "Emaline" and "Video", which Folds would later record with Ben Folds Five. The song "Get That Bug" from Party Night was released as a dance mix in Japan.
After Majosha broke up, Folds played drums in a band called Pots and Pans with Evan Olson on bass and Britt "Snuzz" Uzzell on guitar and vocals, but the newly formed band lasted only about a month. Olson and Uzzell formed Bus Stop with Folds' brother, Chuck Folds, on bass, and Eddie Walker on drums.
Folds eventually got a music publishing deal with Nashville music executive Scott Siman who saw Folds open for musician Marc Silvey, as well as playing bass for Silvey's band Mass Confusion, and moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue it in 1990. He played drums for a short stint in Power Bill, headed by Jody Spence, Millard Powers, and Will Owsley. Power Bill was later renamed The Semantics. Folds did not take a creative role in the band. He attracted interest from major labels. He ended up playing drums there as a session musician.
In Nashville, I was running eight miles a day, hanging out with my friends, walking around eating chocolate-chip cookies and playing a lot of drums, which I enjoyed. Life was easy. I was never frustrated—even though I wasn't fulfilling my contract obligations. If you are failing in Nashville, at least your standard of living is nice. Nashville is a nice way to fail.
Folds moved to Montclair, New Jersey, and began to act in theater troupes in New York City. He enjoyed it in 1993 to the point where he did not want to keep pursuing a musical career. He also played weekly gigs at Sin-é, famous for being the café which had helped start Jeff Buckley's career.
Soon after, Folds moved back to North Carolina. The trio of Folds, bassist Robert Sledge, and drummer Darren Jessee formed Ben Folds Five in 1994 in Chapel Hill. As Folds put it, "Jeff Buckley was being signed at that time by Columbia and I was talking to Steve, his A&R guy, and somehow we knew the same people or something."
Career
Ben Folds Five (1995–2000)
In 1995, Ben Folds Five released their self-titled debut album. The debut was followed by Whatever and Ever Amen in 1997, and the odds-and-ends compilation Naked Baby Photos was released in early 1998. Whatever and Ever Amen included many singles such as "Song for the Dumped", "Battle of Who Could Care Less", and the band's most successful song, "Brick". In 1999, the band released what was to be their final album for over a decade, The Unauthorized Biography of Reinhold Messner, which included the hit "Army".
Folds has described Ben Folds Five as "punk rock for sissies", and his lyrics often contain nuances of melancholy, self-conflict, and humorous sarcasm, often punctuated by profanity.
They gained a strong following in the United Kingdom and Australia early in their career. Like many other 'alternative' American acts, this was largely due to consistent support from national broadcasters in those countries, the BBC in Britain and the ABC's Triple J youth radio network in Australia (and ABC-TV's music video show Rage). The group's first chart breakthrough came in the UK, when "Underground" made the lower reaches of the Top 40, peaking at no. 37. Britain was the band's strongest territory in terms of chart success, with five singles making the national Top 40 there—"Underground", "Battle of Who Could Care Less", "Kate", "Brick" and "Army"—although none managed to crack the UK Top 20. In Australia, "Underground" likewise broke the band locally and while it did not make the ARIA chart, it came in at no. 3 on the 1996 Triple J Hottest 100 poll (broadcast on January 26, 1997). The 1998 single "Brick" became the group's only major chart placing in Australia, reaching no. 13; it also came in at no. 53 in the ARIA Australian Top 100 for that year and earned a Gold Record award while its parent album Whatever and Ever Amen peaked at no. 9 and charted for 32 weeks. Following their tour in support for The Unauthorized Biography of Reinhold Messner, the band decided to amicably break up, with each of the band members pursuing different projects.
Rockin' the Suburbs to Supersunnyspeedgraphic (2001–2007)
Folds' first solo album after the breakup of the band was Rockin' the Suburbs in 2001, released on the same day as the September 11 attacks. He played nearly all the instruments, most notably guitar which was an instrument seldom used during the Ben Folds Five days. The Luckiest was written for the Amy Heckerling movie Loser, but the scene it was meant for was deleted. Millard Powers, Britt "Snuzz" Uzzell, and Jim Bogios joined him on the promotional tour of the album. "Weird Al" Yankovic directed and appeared in Folds' video for the album's namesake song, "Rockin' the Suburbs". Folds' friend and fellow musician John McCrea, lead singer of the band Cake, contributed vocals to "Fred Jones, Part 2".
A year later, Folds released Ben Folds Live, a collection of live solo recordings. In late 2003, two solo EPs, Speed Graphic and Sunny 16, were released. The last EP, Super D, was released in mid-2004.
Songs for Silverman was released in the United States on April 26, 2005. The album returned to the trio format, featuring Jared Reynolds on bass and Lindsay Jamieson on drums. This album includes the track "Late", a tribute to the late singer-songwriter Elliott Smith, and also features backup vocals from "Weird Al" Yankovic on "Time". Folds had played piano for Yankovic's song "Why Does This Always Happen to Me?" on his Poodle Hat album.
On October 24, 2006, Folds released Supersunnyspeedgraphic, the LP, a compilation of songs that were originally released on the EPs Sunny 16, Speed Graphic, and Super D. He announced on his MySpace blog that he planned to work on his next studio album in October 2006, although recording did not actually start until 2007. On that same day, Folds became the first person to webcast a live-by-request concert over MySpace. The concert was complete with pranks staged ahead of time by Folds, including a drunk man falling over the balcony during "Jesusland" and a "suicide attempt" by Folds at the end. The concert is also notable for featuring a "guitorchestra", a group of acoustic guitarists from Nashville who accompanied Folds on some songs, as well as an impromptu ringtone orchestra made up of audience members playing their cellphone's ringtones in unison. A DVD of the performance, "Live at MySpace", was released on February 20, 2007.
Way to Normal to Ben Folds Five reunion (2008–2013)
During a concert at the National in Richmond, Virginia on April 11, 2008, Folds announced that he had completed his newest album, and played four tracks from it. He played the first track, "Hiroshima", at the show. He also debuted new music at an impromptu gig at the Exit/In on December 19, 2007 and at the Ann Arbor Folk Festival on January 25, 2008. Other new songs include "Errant Dog", "Effington", "Bitch Went Nuts", "Free Coffee", and "Kylie From Connecticut". Folds played The 6th Annual Langerado on March 8, 2008 and was a part of the lineup for the 2008 Bonnaroo Music and Arts Festival.
On July 16, 2008, an anonymous user posted what they claimed was a "leak" of Folds' latest album on a fan site (eventually called Way to Normal (Fake)). The file contained nine tracks along with a PDF of supposed cover art, and was a mix of what appeared to be legitimate songs from Way to Normal, pastiches of dry humor and melodramatic pop interwoven with bright, energetic melodies. Folds explained on Triple J radio a few weeks later that in one overnight session in Dublin he and the band had recorded 'fake' versions of songs from the new album. His sources had then leaked them to the public as a light-hearted joke on his fans.
Ben Folds Five reunited to perform its first concert appearance in nearly 10 years on September 18, 2008 at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill's Memorial Hall. The one-off gig was part of MySpace's "Front to Back" series, in which artists played an entire album live. The band played The Unauthorized Biography of Reinhold Messner. All proceeds from ticket sales benefited the charity Operation Smile, of which Folds' uncle, Jim Folds, is on the board of directors for the North Carolina Chapter.
Way to Normal was released on September 30, 2008, in the United States and on September 29, 2008, in the United Kingdom. It became Folds' highest-charting album ever in the US, debuting at no. 11 on the Billboard 200. Fan reception of the album was rather mixed, with several citing the heavy use of dynamic compression as a major downfall of the album. Folds responded, releasing a more "traditional" mix of the album entitled Stems and Seeds, featuring various bonus tracks such as the entire "leaked" album and providing stems that allowed fans to create remixes.
On April 28, 2009, Folds released Ben Folds Presents: University A Cappella!, an album consisting of college student's a cappella arrangements of his music performed by some of the country's best college a cappella groups.
In March 2010, a video Folds created titled "Ode To Merton" went viral on YouTube. In the video, Folds improvises several songs about people that he sees on the social networking site Chatroulette, in the style of "Merton", a YouTube creator who many initially thought was Folds himself.
Folds' final solo album before his reunion with Ben Folds Five, a collaboration with English author Nick Hornby, was entitled Lonely Avenue and was released on September 28, 2010. Announced shortly before the release of Way to Normal, he idea of the collaboration came out of the "fake" leak of the album released in July 2008. "(We will) write and record it in about three days, just like we did in Dublin with the fake record," Folds said. As schedules began to misalign, the plans for the album began to change and take on the form of a more major release. On June 14, 2010, Folds released the official album art via his Twitter account. "From Above", the first single from the album, premiered on Richard Kingsmill's new music show 2010 on Triple J in Australia on July 18, 2010. "From Above" features Australian singer Kate Miller Heidke on backing vocals. Folds also recorded a video song with Nick Hornby and Pomplamoose. As well, English YouTuber Charlie McDonnell was commissioned to create the music video for Folds' song "Saskia Hamilton", which was uploaded on October 1, 2010.
The band reunited once again in 2011 with a subsequent release of the album The Sound of the Life of the Mind, leading to a tour of their new work throughout 2012 and 2013.
Work with chamber pop to present (2014–present)
In March 2014, Folds premiered a commissioned piano concerto he composed with the Nashville Symphony Orchestra. This was followed up in 2015 with So There, an album by Folds and the yMusic Ensemble, released on September 11, 2015. The album includes eight chamber pop songs and the piano concerto performed with the Nashville Symphony.
In September 2018, Ben Folds released the song "Mister Peepers" as a single commissioned by The Washington Post. The song depicts former Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein's conflict with Republicans during the Russia investigation, with the name coming from President Trump's nickname for Rosenstein.
In June 2020, Ben Folds released the song "2020", describing the difficulty of living during the COVID-19 pandemic.
In 2021, Folds was reported to be appearing on the podcast Storybound.
Other work in music
Work for other musicians
In addition to collaborations on Folds' own music, he often works with other musicians on their projects. In 1997, Ben Folds recorded an unreleased studio album titled Forever Valentine with Whiskeytown.
"Weird Al" Yankovic's parodied Ben Folds' style in the song "Why Does This Always Happen to Me?" on his 2003 album Poodle Hat. According to music critic Nathan Rabin, the song "amplifies the noxious self-absorption of the American character to hilarious extremes" by describing a narrator who, upon hearing about a number of horrible tragedies, only complains about the (minor) inconveniences that affect him. Folds himself plays piano on the track. Yankovic later told The A.V. Club: "Ben and I are old friends at this point, and of course I sought his keyboard work for that song. So he came in and knocked it out."
In 2004, Folds acted as producer, arranger, musician, and backup vocalist to William Shatner's album, Has Been. Shatner was also involved in Folds' Fear of Pop project, contributing vocals to a number of songs on the album, most notably the song "In Love".
In August 2008, Folds played piano for friend and Japanese singer-songwriter Angela Aki's song "Black Glasses" on her album Answer.
Folds produced Amanda Palmer of The Dresden Dolls' first solo album, Who Killed Amanda Palmer, which was released September 16, 2008. He also performs on the album.
Soundtracks
Ben Folds has often contributed both original and previously recorded songs to movies and television shows. The soundtrack for the 2005 animated film Hoodwinked! featured "Red is Blue", performed by Folds. In May 2006, Folds contributed three original songs to the soundtrack of Over the Hedge, titled "Heist", "Family of Me", and "Still". Included with them was a cover of the Clash song "Lost in the Supermarket" and a recording of "Rockin' the Suburbs" featuring new lyrics written to complement the plot of the film.
Folds' song "Rockin' the Suburbs" was featured on the soundtrack for ABC's sitcom Surviving Suburbia, which aired in August 2009. Folds also wrote the soundtrack for the Netflix original film Handsome, released in May 2017.
Tours
After Ben Folds Five split, Folds' first tour with a full band was to support the album Rockin' the Suburbs. He was accompanied by Britt "Snüzz" Uzzell on guitar and electronic keyboard, Millard Powers on bass and keys, and Jim Bogios on drums. Powers and Bogios later went on to join Counting Crows.
On a tour of Australia, Folds joined with solo artists Ben Kweller and Ben Lee to travel the country as The Bens, at the suggestion of a fan on Kweller's official website. The trio also went on to record a four-track EP together.
In the summer of 2004, Folds co-headlined an American tour with fellow singer-songwriters Rufus Wainwright and Guster. Folds again performed with Wainwright and Lee in the summer of 2005 as part of the "Odd Men Out" tour. In addition, Folds has performed with many other notable musical names, including Weezer and Tori Amos. After seeing the Fray perform with Weezer, Folds asked the band to join him for twelve performances in 2005.
Folds also performed with the West Australian Symphony Orchestra (WASO) in March 2005, the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra (BSO) in November 2005, the Sydney Symphony at the Sydney Opera House, Adelaide Symphony Orchestra, Western Australian Symphony Orchestra, Melbourne Symphony Orchestra, and the Queensland Orchestra during an Australian tour in 2006. Folds performed with the North Carolina Symphony in March 2010, and the Utah Symphony Orchestra in July 2010. A DVD of Folds playing with the West Australian Symphony Orchestra was released in December 2005.
On May 9, 2007, Folds performed with the Boston Pops Orchestra. The orchestra's performance was marred when a fight broke out between two audience members in the balcony, though Folds had not yet taken the stage.
After his MySpace performance on October 24, 2006, Folds's tour performances began to feature a synthesizer, which he uses in many of the songs when played live. The synthesizer is a red Nord Lead II synthesizer. During his concerts, Folds frequently performs two of his concert traditions: palm-smashing the keys and throwing his stool at the piano.
In March 2007, Folds went on a headlining tour, which opened on March 24 at Assumption College in Worcester, Massachusetts. In the summer of 2007, he performed as the primary opener for John Mayer during his Continuum 38-day summer tour. During this tour, Mayer sometimes joined Folds on the song "Narcolepsy", playing synth. At various concerts throughout the tour, parents of young children going to see Mayer would file complaints about Folds' lyrics. Folds responded by posting on his website, "We have kids too, but we don't take them out to rock shows that last until 11 pm."
On March 29, 2008, Folds played the Cage Center Arena at Berry College in Mount Berry, Georgia. During contract negotiations, he was asked by the administration to not play one of his songs due to its explicit lyrics. Folds refused, citing artistic freedom.
On May 9, 2008, Folds played his first completely solo show in years at Western Connecticut State University due to the fact that his bassist Jared Reynolds was with his wife who had just given birth to their first son.
Folds made a brief solo tour of Australia during August 2009; at one of his sold out Sydney Opera House concerts he was joined onstage for several songs by Aimee Mann, who was also touring Australia at the time. At the Palais theatre in Melbourne Missy Higgins joined him for "You Don't Know Me", a single from Way to Normal that Folds originally sang with Regina Spektor.
In 2010, Folds went on a brief tour of North America called "Ben Folds and a Piano" where he played solo other than with Zach Williams or Kate Miller-Heidke and her husband Keir Nuttall as supporting musicians. A small number of copies that were pre-ordered also included signed manuscripts by Folds and Hornby.
In April 2011, Folds collaborated with Amanda Palmer, Neil Gaiman, and Damian Kulash as 8in8 to write, record, and produce eight songs in eight hours which were then available online within 24 hours, as well as being performed once on its world tour, as part of the ReThink Music conference.
Folds reunited with Ben Folds Five to play the Mountain Jam Music Festival on June 2, 2012. This was the first time the band had performed live together since 2008.
Ben Folds performed at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C. for the 2012 Presidential Scholar in the Arts ceremony with several of YoungArts best alumni.
As part of their 2013 "Last Summer on Earth" Tour, Ben Folds Five joined the Barenaked Ladies along with Guster for 30 dates across North America, beginning June 17 at the Verizon Theatre in Dallas, Texas and ending at the 2013 Celebrate Brooklyn festival.
From November 22 to 24, 2013, Folds took part in Performing Arts' American Voices festival hosted by Renée Fleming at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C., which featured American jazz, country, Broadway, gospel, popular and classical music. With Sara Bareilles, he conducted a pop/rock master class for aspiring singers. During the concert series he premiered his new song "I'm Not the Man" with the National Symphony Orchestra and sang "Not the Same" with Bareilles.
On January 20, 2014, Folds performed at the El Rey Theatre, Los Angeles, in support of the David Lynch Foundation's celebration of Ringo Starr's "lifetime of peace and love".
From July 2017 to early 2018, Ben Folds went on a tour titled "The Paper Airplane Tour", in which audience members were encouraged to throw paper airplanes with song requests onto the stage halfway through the concert. Folds would then randomly select from these requests from his extensive catalog and perform them solo.
Other ventures
Folds is an avid photographer and cites it as more than just his hobby. His work was featured by National Geographic during the 2010 Tennessee floods.
Folds made a brief guest appearance on a 1996 Space Ghost Coast to Coast episode, Surprise, on Cartoon Network. This marks one of Ben's first non-musical TV appearances.
In 2001, Folds was an inaugural member of the Independent Music Awards' judging panel to support independent artists.
Starting in December 2009, Folds was featured as a judge on NBC's a cappella competition The Sing-Off alongside Nicole Scherzinger and Shawn Stockman. In the season 1 finale, Folds showcased his talents and played the piano background on "Why Can't We Be Friends?" sung by the two finalist groups, the Beelzebubs from Tufts University near Boston and Nota, from San Juan, Puerto Rico. He again returned for the show's second season in December 2010, the third season in September 2011 alongside Stockman and Sara Bareilles and a fourth season with Stockman and Jewel in December 2013. The show featured several performances of songs from Ben's first solo album.
Folds has made several appearances, often as a fictionalized version of himself, in both TV and movies. He made a cameo appearance in the 2013 film We're the Millers playing himself as a piano teacher, although the scene did not make the theatrical cut. In January 2014, Folds had a brief appearance in the TV show Community, in episode "Basic Intergluteal Numismatics" (S5E03) as "Professor Bublitz", a botany teacher who secretly grows marijuana in his office, as well as contributing the song that closes out the episode, "Ass Crack Bandit". Folds appeared as himself, albeit an exaggerated version, in seasons 3, 4 and 5 of the FXX comedy You're The Worst.
Since May 2017 he has been serving as the first artistic advisor to the National Symphony Orchestra at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C.
In June 2019, Folds launched a podcast titled ArtsVote 2020 with Ben Folds with the stated goal of getting every candidate in the 2020 United States presidential election to have "a one-on-one, 30-minute conversation with Ben Folds about their personal background in the arts and arts education, their observations and previous policy efforts to transform through the arts the communities and states that they represent, and their vision for advancing support for the arts and the charitable sector in the future."
In July 2019, Folds published his first book, a memoir, titled A Dream About Lightning Bugs: A Life of Music and Cheap Lessons. This was followed up in April 2021 when Folds launched a podcast titled Lightning Bugs. In the podcast, Folds discusses creativity with guests from a variety of backgrounds and fields and writes a song with them at the end of every episode. Guests have included frequent collaborators William Shatner and Nick Hornby, as well as other guests such as Mo Willems, Bob Saget, and Jon Batiste.
Personal life
Folds' personal life has inspired several of his songs; the hit single "Brick", co-written with Darren Jessee, was based on the experience of Folds' girlfriend having an abortion while they were in high school. Folds initially refused to discuss the story behind "Brick", thinking it was too serious for a pop song, but he eventually confirmed the inspiration for the song during a show on his Ben Folds Live tour. His telling of the story is included on the "Brick" track on the album.
Folds leased RCA Studio A in Nashville, Tennessee beginning in 2002 and was pivotal to the preservation of the historic building during its developer controversy in 2014. His efforts, along with others, led to the creation of the Music Industry Coalition.
Folds supports the Port Adelaide Power in the Australian Football League.
Folds supported Bernie Sanders for president in the 2016 presidential election.
As of 2016, he lived in Santa Monica, California. He also owned a residence in Hudson, New York from 2016, until it was sold in December 2020. As of March 2020, Folds is temporarily residing in Australia, where he was touring when travel restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic prevented him from traveling home.
Marriages and children
Folds has been married five times and divorced four times. He met his first wife, Anna Goodman, in first grade at Moore Elementary School, Winston-Salem and was married to her from 1987 to 1992. She co-wrote several Ben Folds Five songs, including "Alice Childress", "The Last Polka", "Smoke", "Kate", and "Lullabye". Folds has since described Goodman as his "oldest friend" and the person who originally inspired him to play music.
Folds was then briefly married to Kate Rosen in 1996.
Folds met Frally Hynes, an Australian, in January 1998 and they were married in May 1999 in Adelaide, South Australia, making their home there and later releasing a song about the city titled "Adelaide". Two months after their wedding, Frally gave birth to twins, Louis Francis (July 22, 1999) and Gracie Scott (July 23, 1999), the former inspiring his song "Still Fighting It" and the latter inspiring his song "Gracie". Hynes also sang lead on "Root to This" on Fear of Pop's 1998 album Volume 1. Folds and Hynes were divorced in 2006.
Folds married Fleur Stanbrook on November 17, 2007, at The Venetian in Las Vegas. They were based in Nashville. Folds and Stanbrook ended their marriage sometime in 2011. In 2012, Folds stated that "As much as I love the idea of being married, it's not for me."
Folds married Emma Sandall, a former Royal Ballet dancer, sometime before July 2020. They have been together since at least 2016.
Awards and recognition
Folds received a 2002 Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) Gold Record award for Ben Folds Five's Whatever and Ever Amen (1998).
He was inducted into the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame in 2011.
October 29, 2015, Folds was initiated as an honorary brother of the men's music fraternity Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia at the University of Miami.
On August 21, 2018, Folds received a star on the Music City Walk of Fame in Nashville, Tennessee.
Discography
Rockin' the Suburbs (2001)
Songs for Silverman (2005)
Way to Normal (2008)
See also
Who Killed Amanda Palmer (Amanda Palmer)
The Sing-Off
Once Upon Another Time (Sara Bareilles)
References
External links
1966 births
20th-century American pianists
20th-century American singers
21st-century American pianists
21st-century American singers
American expatriates in Australia
American lyricists
American male pop singers
American male singer-songwriters
American multi-instrumentalists
American pop pianists
American rock pianists
American male pianists
American pop rock singers
American rock songwriters
Ben Folds Five members
Keytarists
Living people
Melodica players
Musicians from Winston-Salem, North Carolina
Singer-songwriters from North Carolina
University of Miami Frost School of Music alumni
The Bens members
8in8 members
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] |
209420
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wasp%20%28CV-7%29
|
USS Wasp (CV-7)
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USS Wasp (CV-7) was a United States Navy aircraft carrier commissioned in 1940 and lost in action in 1942. She was the eighth ship named , and the sole ship of a class built to use up the remaining tonnage allowed to the U.S. for aircraft carriers under the treaties of the time. As a reduced-size version of the hull, Wasp was more vulnerable than other United States aircraft carriers available at the opening of hostilities. Wasp was initially employed in the Atlantic campaign, where Axis naval forces were perceived as less capable of inflicting decisive damage. After supporting the occupation of Iceland in 1941, Wasp joined the British Home Fleet in April 1942 and twice ferried British fighter aircraft to Malta.
Wasp was then transferred to the Pacific in June 1942 to replace losses at the battles of Coral Sea and Midway. After supporting the invasion of Guadalcanal, Wasp was hit by three torpedoes from Japanese submarine on 15 September 1942. The resulting damage set off several explosions, destroyed her water-mains and knocked out the ship's power. As a result, her damage-control teams were unable to contain the ensuing fires that blazed out of control. She was abandoned and scuttled by torpedoes fired from later that evening. Her wreck was found in early 2019.
Design
Wasp was a product of the Washington Naval Treaty. After the construction of the carriers and , the U.S. was still permitted to build a carrier.
The Navy sought to squeeze a large air group onto a ship with nearly 25% less displacement than the Yorktown-class. To save weight and space, Wasp was constructed with low-power propulsion machinery (compare Wasps machinery with Yorktowns , the 's , and the 's ).
Additionally, Wasp was launched with almost no armor, modest speed, and more significantly, no protection from torpedoes. Absence of side protection of the boilers and internal aviation fuel stores "doomed her to a blazing demise". These were inherent design flaws that were recognized when constructed, but could not be remedied within the allowed tonnage. These flaws, combined with a relative lack of damage control experience in the early days of the war, proved fatal.
Wasp was the first carrier fitted with a deck-edge elevator for aircraft. The elevator consisted of a platform for the front wheels of the plane and an outrigger for the tail wheel. The two arms on the sides moved the platform in a half-circle up and down between the flight deck and the hangar deck.
Construction and commissioning
Her keel was laid down on 1 April 1936 at the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts; launched on 4 April 1939, sponsored by Carolyn Edison (wife of Assistant Secretary of the Navy Charles Edison), and commissioned on 25 April 1940 at the Army Quartermaster Base, South Boston, Massachusetts, with Captain John W. Reeves, Jr. in command.
Service history
1940
Wasp remained at Boston through May, fitting out, before she got underway on 5 June 1940 for calibration tests on her radio direction finder gear. After further fitting out while anchored in Boston harbor, the new aircraft carrier steamed independently to Hampton Roads, Virginia, anchoring there on 24 June. Four days later, she sailed for the Caribbean in company with the destroyer .
En route, she conducted the first of many carrier qualification tests. Among the earliest of the qualifiers was Lieutenant, junior grade David McCampbell, who later became the Navy's top-scoring "ace" in World War II. Wasp arrived at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in time to "dress ship" in honor of Independence Day.
A fatal incident marred the carrier's shakedown. On 9 July, one of her Vought SB2U-2 Vindicator dive bombers crashed from the ship. Wasp bent on flank speed to close, as did the plane-guarding destroyer Morris. The latter's boats recovered items from the plane's baggage compartment, but the plane itself had gone down with its crew of two.
Wasp departed Guantánamo Bay on 11 July and returned to Hampton Roads four days later. There, she embarked planes from the 1st Marine Air Group and took them to sea for qualification trials. Operating off the southern drill grounds, the ship and her planes honed their skills for a week before the Marines and their planes were disembarked at Norfolk, and the carrier moved north to Boston for postshakedown repairs.
While at Boston, she fired a 21-gun salute and rendered honors to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, whose yacht, , stopped briefly at the Boston Navy Yard on 10 August.
Wasp departed the Army Quartermaster Base on 21 August to conduct steering drills and full-power trials. Late the following morning, she got underway for Norfolk, Virginia. For the next few days, while destroyer operated as plane guard, Wasp launched and recovered her aircraft: fighters from Fighter Squadron 7 (VF-7), and scout bombers from Scouting Squadron 72 (VS-72). The carrier put into the Norfolk Navy Yard on 28 August for repair work on her turbines – alterations which kept the ship in dockyard hands into the following month. Drydocked from 12 to 18 September, Wasp ran her final sea trials in Hampton Roads on 26 September 1940.
Now ready to join the fleet and assigned to Carrier Division 3, Patrol Force, Wasp shifted to Naval Operating Base, Norfolk (NOB Norfolk) from the Norfolk Navy Yard on 11 October. There, she loaded 24 Curtiss P-40 fighters from the Army Air Corps' 8th Pursuit Group and nine North American O-47A reconnaissance aircraft from the 2d Observation Squadron, as well as her own spares and utility unit Grumman J2F Duck flying boats on the 12th. Proceeding to sea for maneuvering room, Wasp flew off the Army planes in a test designed to compare the take-off runs of standard Navy and Army aircraft. That experiment, the first time that Army planes had flown from a Navy carrier, foreshadowed the use of the ship in the ferry role that she performed so well in World War II.
Wasp then proceeded on toward Cuba in company with the destroyers and . Over the ensuing four days, the carrier's planes flew routine training flights, including dive-bombing and machine-gun practices. Upon arrival at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, Wasps saluting batteries barked out a 13-gun salute to Rear Admiral Hayne Ellis, Commander, Atlantic Squadron, embarked in battleship on 19 October.
For the remainder of October and into November, Wasp trained in the Guantánamo Bay area. Her planes flew carrier qualification and refresher training flights, while her gunners sharpened up their skills in short-range battle practices at targets towed by the new fleet tug .
Her work in the Caribbean finished, Wasp sailed for Norfolk and arrived shortly after noon on 26 November. She remained at the Norfolk Navy Yard through Christmas of 1940. Then, after first conducting degaussing experiments with the survey ship , she steamed independently to Cuba.
1941
Arriving at Guantánamo Bay on 27 January 1941, Wasp conducted a regular routine of flight operations into February. With destroyer as her plane guard, Wasp operated out of Guantanamo and Culebra, conducting her maneuvers with an impressive array of warships—battleship Texas, carrier , heavy cruisers , , and a host of destroyers. Wasp ran gunnery drills and exercises, as well as routine flight training evolutions into March. Underway for Hampton Roads on 4 March, the aircraft carrier conducted a night battle practice into the early morning hours of the 5th.
During the passage to Norfolk, heavy weather sprang up on the evening of 7 March. Wasp was steaming at standard speed, . Off Cape Hatteras, a lookout spotted a red flare at 22:45, then a second set of flares at 22:59. At 23:29, with the aid of her searchlights, Wasp located the stranger in trouble. She was the lumber schooner George E. Klinck, bound from Jacksonville, Florida, to Southwest Harbor, Maine.
The sea, in the meantime, worsened from a state 5 to a state 7. Wasp lay to, maneuvering alongside at 00:07 on 8 March. At that time, four men from the schooner clambered up a swaying Jacob's ladder buffeted by gusts of wind. Then, despite the raging tempest, Wasp lowered a boat, at 00:16, and brought the remaining four men aboard from the foundering schooner.
Later that day, Wasp disembarked her rescued mariners and immediately went into drydock at the Norfolk Navy Yard. The ship received vital repairs to her turbines. Portholes on the third deck were welded over to provide better watertight integrity, and steel splinter shielding around her and batteries was added. Wasp was one of 14 ships to receive the early RCA CXAM-1 radar. After those repairs and alterations were finished, Wasp got underway for the Virgin Islands on 22 March, arriving at St. Thomas three days later. She soon shifted to Guantánamo Bay and loaded maritime supplies for transportation to Norfolk.
Returning to Norfolk on 30 March, Wasp conducted routine flight operations out of Hampton Roads over the ensuing days, into April. In company with , the carrier conducted an abortive search for a downed patrol plane in her vicinity on 8 April. For the remainder of the month, Wasp operated off the United states East Coast between Newport, Rhode Island, and Norfolk, conducting extensive flight and patrol operations with her embarked air group. She shifted to Bermuda in mid-May, anchoring at Grassy Bay, Bermuda on the 12th. Eight days later, the ship got underway in company with the heavy cruiser and the destroyers and for exercises at sea before returning to Grassy Bay on 3 June. Wasp sailed for Norfolk three days later with the destroyer as her anti-submarine screen.
After a brief stay in the Tidewater area, Wasp headed back toward Bermuda on 20 June. Wasp and her escorts patrolled the stretch of the Atlantic between Bermuda and Hampton Roads until 5 July, as the Atlantic Fleet's neutrality patrol zones were extended eastward. Reaching Grassy Bay on that day, she remained in port a week before returning to Norfolk, sailing on 12 July in company with heavy cruiser Tuscaloosa and destroyers , , and .
Occupation of Iceland
Following her return to Norfolk on 13 July 1941, Wasp and her embarked air group conducted refresher training off the Virginia Capes. Meanwhile, the situation in the Atlantic had taken on a new complexion, with American participation in the Battle of the Atlantic only a matter of time, when the United States took another step toward involvement on the side of the British. To protect American security and to free British forces needed elsewhere, the United States made plans to occupy Iceland. Wasp played an important role in the move.
Late on the afternoon of 23 July, while the carrier lay alongside Pier 7, NOB Norfolk, 32 Army Air Forces (AAF) pilots reported on board "for temporary duty". At 06:30 the following day, Wasps crew watched an interesting cargo come on board, hoisted on deck by the ship's cranes: 30 P-40Cs and three PT-17 trainers from the AAF 33rd Pursuit Squadron, 8th Air Group, Air Force Combat Command, home-based at Mitchel Field, New York. Three days later, four newspaper correspondents – including the noted journalist Fletcher Pratt — came on board.
The carrier had drawn the assignment of ferrying those vital army planes to Iceland because of a lack of British aircraft to cover the American landings. The American P-40s would provide the defensive fighter cover necessary to watch over the initial American occupying forces. Wasp slipped out to sea on 28 July, with the destroyers and Walke as plane guards. The heavy cruiser later joined the formation at sea.
Within a few days, Wasps group joined the larger Task Force 16—consisting of the battleship , the heavy cruisers Quincy and Wichita, five destroyers, the auxiliary , the attack transport , the stores ship , and the amphibious cargo ship . Those ships, too, were bound for Iceland with the first occupation troops embarked. On the morning of 6 August, Wasp, Vincennes, Walke, and O'Brien parted company from Task Force 16 (TF 16). Soon thereafter, the carrier turned into the wind and commenced launching the planes from the 33rd Pursuit Squadron. As the P-40s and the trio of trainers droned on to Iceland, Wasp headed home for Norfolk, her three escorts in company. After another week at sea, the group arrived back at Norfolk on 14 August.
Neutrality patrols
Wasp put to sea again on 22 August for carrier qualifications and refresher landings off the Virginia capes. Two days later, Rear Admiral H. Kent Hewitt, Commander Cruisers, Atlantic Fleet, shifted his flag from the light cruiser to Wasp while the ships lay anchored in Hampton Roads. Underway on the 25th, in company with Savannah and the destroyers and Kearny, the aircraft carrier conducted flight operations over the ensuing days. Scuttlebutt on board the carrier had her steaming out in search of the German heavy cruiser , which was reportedly roaming the western Atlantic in search of prey. Suspicions were confirmed for many on the 30th when the British battleship was sighted some away, on the same course as the Americans.
In any event, if they had been in search of a German raider, they did not make contact with her. Wasp and her escorts anchored in the Gulf of Paria, Trinidad, on 2 September, where Admiral Hewitt shifted his flag back to Savannah. The carrier remained in port until 6 September, when she again put to sea on patrol "to enforce the neutrality of the United States in the Atlantic".
While at sea, the ship received the news of a German U-boat unsuccessfully attempting to attack the destroyer . The U.S. had been getting more and more involved in the war; American warships were now convoying British merchantmen halfway across the Atlantic to the "mid-ocean meeting point" (MOMP).
Wasps crew looked forward to returning to Bermuda on 18 September, but the new situation in the Atlantic meant a change in plans. Shifted to the colder climes of Newfoundland, the carrier arrived at Placentia Bay on 22 September and fueled from the oiler the following day. The respite in port was a brief one, however, as the ship got underway again, late on 23 September for Iceland. In company with Wichita, four destroyers, and the repair ship , Wasp arrived at Hvalfjörður, Iceland, on 28 September. Two days earlier, Admiral Harold R. Stark, the Chief of Naval Operations had ordered American warships to do their utmost to destroy whatever German or Italian warships they found.
With the accelerated activity entailed in the US Navy's conducting convoy escort missions, Wasp put to sea on 6 October in company with Vincennes and four destroyers. Those ships patrolled the foggy, cold North Atlantic until returning to Little Placentia Bay, Newfoundland on 11 October, anchoring during a fierce gale that lashed the bay with high winds and stinging spray. On 17 October, Wasp set out for Norfolk, patrolling en route, and arrived at her destination on 20 October. The carrier soon sailed for Bermuda and conducted qualifications and refresher training flights en route. Anchoring in Grassy Bay on 1 November, Wasp operated on patrols out of Bermuda for the remainder of the month.
October had seen the incidents involving American and German warships multiplying on the high seas. Kearny was torpedoed on 17 October, Salinas on 28 October, and in the most tragic incident that autumn, was torpedoed and sunk with heavy loss of life on 30 October. Meanwhile, in the Pacific, tension between the U.S. and Japan increased almost with each passing day.
Wasp slipped out to sea from Grassy Bay on 3 December and rendezvoused with . While the destroyer operated as plane guard, Wasps air group flew day and night refresher training missions. In addition, the two ships conducted gunnery drills before returning to Grassy Bay two days later, where she lay at anchor on 7 December 1941 during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
World War II
Atlantic Fleet
Naval authorities felt considerable anxiety that French warships in the Caribbean and West Indies were prepared to make a breakout and attempt to get back to France. Accordingly, Wasp, the light cruiser , and the destroyers and Wilson, departed Grassy Bay and headed for Martinique. Faulty intelligence gave American authorities in Washington the impression that the Vichy French armed merchant cruiser Barfleur had gotten underway for sea. The French were accordingly warned that the auxiliary cruiser would be sunk or captured unless she returned to port and resumed her internment. As it turned out, Barfleur had not departed after all, but had remained in harbor. The tense situation at Martinique eventually dissipated, and the crisis abated.
With tensions in the West Indies lessened considerably, Wasp departed Grassy Bay and headed for Hampton Roads three days before Christmas, in company with , and escorted by the destroyers and Sterett. Two days later, the carrier moored at the Norfolk Navy Yard to commence an overhaul that would last into 1942.
After departing Norfolk on 14 January 1942, Wasp headed north and touched at NS Argentia, Newfoundland, and Casco Bay, Maine. On 16 March, as part of Task Group 22.6 (TG 22.6), she headed back toward Norfolk. During the morning watch the next day, visibility lessened considerably; and, at 06:50, Wasps bow plunged into Stacks starboard side, punching a hole and completely flooding the destroyer's number one fireroom. Stack was detached and proceeded to the Philadelphia Navy Yard, where her damage was repaired.
Meanwhile, Wasp made port at Norfolk on the 21st without further incident. Shifting back to Casco Bay three days later, she sailed for the British Isles on 26 March 1942 with Task Force 39 under the command of Rear Admiral John W. Wilcox, Jr., aboard the battleship . That force was to reinforce the Home Fleet of the Royal Navy. While en route, Rear Admiral Wilcox was swept overboard from the battleship on the morning of 27 March 1942 and drowned. Although hampered by poor visibility conditions, four SB2U Vindicators from Wasp planes took part in the search, and one of them crashed while attempting to land aboard Wasp, killing its two-man crew. Wilcox's body was spotted an hour after he went overboard, face down in the raging seas, but it was not recovered due to the weather and the heavy seas.
Rear Admiral Robert C. Giffen, who flew his flag in the heavy cruiser , assumed command of TF 39. The American ships were met by a force based around the light cruiser on 3 April. Those ships escorted them to Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands. While there, a Gloster Gladiator flown by Captain Henry Fancourt of the Royal Navy made the first landing of the war by a British plane on an American aircraft carrier when it landed on Wasp.
While the majority of TF 39 joined the British Home Fleet – being renumbered to TF 99 in the process – to cover convoys routed to North Russia, Wasp departed Scapa Flow on 9 April, bound for the Clyde estuary and Greenock, Scotland. On the following day, the carrier sailed up the Clyde River, past the John Brown Clydebank shipbuilding facilities. There, shipyard workers paused long enough from their labors to accord Wasp a tumultuous reception as she passed. Wasps impending mission was an important one – one upon which the fate of the island bastion of Malta hung. That key isle was then being pounded daily by German and Italian planes. The British, faced with the loss of air superiority over the island, requested the use of a carrier to transport planes that could wrest air superiority from the Axis aircraft. Wasp drew ferry duty once again to participate in Operation Calendar, one of many Malta Convoys.
Malta Convoys
Having landed her torpedo bombers and dive bombers at Hatston in Orkney, Wasp loaded 47 Supermarine Spitfire Mk. V fighters of No. 603 Squadron RAF at Glasgow on 13 April, then departed on the 14th, this was the start of "Operation Calendar". Her screen consisted of Force "W" of the Home Fleet – a group that included the battlecruiser and the anti-aircraft cruisers and . and also served in Wasps screen.
Wasp and her consorts passed through the Straits of Gibraltar under cover of the pre-dawn darkness on 19 April, avoiding the possibility of being discovered by Spanish or Axis agents. At 04:00 on 20 April, Wasp spotted 11 Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters on her deck and quickly launched them to form a combat air patrol (CAP) over Force "W". Meanwhile, the Spitfires were warming up their engines in the hangar deck spaces below. With the Wildcats patrolling overhead, the Spitfires were brought up singly on the after elevator, spotted for launch, and then given the go-ahead to take off. One by one, they roared down the deck and over the forward rounddown, until each Spitfire was aloft and winging toward Malta.
When the launch was complete, Wasp retired toward Gibraltar, having safely delivered her charges. However, those Spitfires, which flew in to augment the dwindling numbers of Gladiator and Hurricane fighters, were tracked by efficient Axis intelligence and their arrival pinpointed. Most of the Spitfires were destroyed by heavy German air raids which caught many planes on the ground.
As a result, it looked as if the acute situation required a second ferry run to Malta. Accordingly, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, fearing that Malta would be "pounded to bits", asked President Roosevelt to allow Wasp to have "another good sting." Roosevelt responded in the affirmative. Wasp loaded another contingent of Spitfire Vs at King George V Dock Glasgow and sailed for the Mediterranean on 3 May. Again, Wasp proceeded unmolested. This time, the British carrier accompanied Wasp, and she, too, carried a contingent of Spitfires bound for Malta. The Spitfires for Eagle had been loaded at Greenock, James Watt Dock, from lighters. This was the start of Operation Bowery.
The two Allied carriers reached their launching points early on Saturday, 9 May, with Wasp steaming in column ahead of at a distance of . At 06:30, Wasp commenced launching planes – 11 Wildcats of VF-71 to serve as CAP over the task force. First, Eagle flew off her 17 Spitfires in two waves; then Wasp flew off 47 more. The first Spitfire took off at 06:43, piloted by Sergeant-Pilot Herrington, but lost power soon after takeoff and plunged into the sea, with loss of pilot and aircraft. The other planes flew off safely and formed up to fly to Malta. An auxiliary fuel tank on another aircraft failed to draw; without the additional fuel the pilot could not make Malta, and his only alternatives were to land on board Waspwith no tailhookor to ditch and take his chances in the water.
Pilot Officer Jerrold Alpine Smith chose to attempt a landing. Wasp, increasing to full speed, recovered the plane at 07:43. The Spitfire came to a stop just from the forward edge of the flight deck, making what one Wasp sailor observed to be a "one wire" landing. With her vital errand completed, Wasp set sail for the British Isles while a German radio station broadcast the startling news that the American carrier had been sunk; on 11 May, Prime Minister Churchill sent a message to Wasp: "Many thanks to you all for the timely help. Who said a wasp couldn't sting twice?"
Pacific Fleet
Early in May 1942, almost simultaneously with Wasps second Malta run—Operation Bowery—the Battle of the Coral Sea had been fought, then the Battle of Midway a month later. These battles reduced the U.S. to three carriers in the Pacific, and it became imperative to transfer Wasp.
Wasp was hurried back to the U.S. for alterations and repairs at the Norfolk Navy Yard. During the carrier's stay in the Tidewater region, Captain Reeves – who had been promoted to flag rank – was relieved by Captain Forrest P. Sherman on 31 May. Departing Norfolk on 6 June, Wasp sailed with TF 37 which was built around the carrier and the battleship and escorted by , and six destroyers. The group transited the Panama Canal on 10 June, at which time Wasp and her consorts became TF 18, the carrier flying the two-star flag of Rear Admiral Leigh Noyes.
Arriving at San Diego on 19 June, Wasp embarked the remainder of her complement of aircraft, Grumman TBF-1 Avengers and Douglas SBD-3 Dauntlesses, the latter replacing the old Vindicators. On 1 July, she sailed for the Tonga Islands as part of the convoy for the five transports carrying the 2nd Marine Regiment.
Meanwhile, preparations to invade the Solomon Islands were proceeding to disrupt the Japanese offensive to establish a defensive perimeter around the edge of their "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere".
On 4 July, while Wasp was en route to the South Pacific, the Japanese landed on Guadalcanal. Allied planners realized Japanese operation of land-based aircraft from that key island would imperil Allied control of the New Hebrides and New Caledonia area. Plans were made to evict the Japanese before their Guadalcanal airfield became operational. Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley – with experience as Special Naval Observer in London – was detailed to take command of the operation; and he established his headquarters at Auckland, New Zealand. Since the Japanese had a foothold on Guadalcanal, time was of the essence; preparations for an allied invasion proceeded with secrecy and speed.
Wasp – together with the carriers and – was assigned to the Support Force under Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher. Under the tactical command of Rear Admiral Noyes, embarked on Wasp, the carriers were to provide air support for the invasion and initiation of the Guadalcanal campaign.
Guadalcanal Campaign
Wasp and her airmen practiced day and night operations to hone their skills until Captain Sherman was confident that his airmen could perform their mission. "D-day" had originally been set for 1 August, but the late arrival of some of the transports carrying Marines pushed the date to 7 August.
En route, Wasps engines became a problem, with a 14 July message from CTF 18 to CINCPAC reporting that she had suffered a casualty to her starboard high-pressure turbine that even at lowest speeds was making a loud scraping noise, limiting speed to only under her port engine thus making air operations entirely dependent on favorable wind. The ship's company was undertaking repairs, including lifting the turbine casing. Repairs to the rotor itself were proposed at "BLEACHER" (Tongatapu, Tonga Islands), where the destroyer tender was stationed, with four days estimated for the work there. Wasp arrived 18 July for those repairs and on 21 July (21 0802 July) CTF 18 reported Wasp had successfully completed a trial making turns for twenty-seven knots with pre-casualty twenty-five knot operations possible with reduced reliability. Replacement blades were available at Pearl Harbor, and replacement of all three rows of blading was recommended after the ongoing operations were completed.
Wasp, screened by the heavy cruiser and , and four destroyers, steamed westward toward Guadalcanal on the evening of 6 August until midnight. Then, she changed course to the eastward to reach her launch position from Tulagi one hour before dawn. Wasps first combat air patrol fighter took off at 05:57.
The early flights of Wildcats and Dauntlesses were assigned specific targets: Tulagi, Gavutu, Tanambogo, Halavo, Port Purvis on Florida Island, Haleta, Bungana, and the radio station dubbed "Asses' Ears".
The Wildcats, led by Lieutenant Shands and his wingman Ensign S. W. Forrer, patrolled the north coast toward Gavatu. The other two headed for the seaplane facilities at Tanambogo. The Grummans, arriving simultaneously at daybreak, surprised the Japanese and strafed patrol planes and fighter-seaplanes in the area. Fifteen Kawanishi H8K "Emily" flying boats and seven Nakajima A6M2-N "Rufe" floatplane fighters were destroyed by Shands' fighters during low-level strafing passes. Shands was credited with four "Rufes" and one "Emily", while his wingman, Forrer, was credited with three "Rufes" and an "Emily" and would later be awarded the Navy Cross for his efforts. Lieutenant Wright and Ensign Kenton were credited with three patrol planes apiece and a motorboat tending the "Emilys"; Ensigns Reeves and Conklin were each credited with two and shared a fifth patrol plane between them. The strafing Wildcats also destroyed an aviation fuel truck and a truck loaded with spare parts.
Post-attack assessment estimated that the antiaircraft and shore battery sites pinpointed by intelligence had been destroyed by the Dauntless dive bombers in their first attack. None of Wasps planes was shot down, but Ensign Reeves landed his Wildcat aboard Enterprise after running low on fuel.
At 07:04, Wasp launched 12 Avengers loaded with bombs for use against land targets, and led by Lieutenant H. A. Romberg. The Avengers silenced resistance by bombing Japanese troop concentrations east of the knob of land known as Hill 281, in the Makambo-Sasapi sector, and the prison on Tulagi Island.
Some 10,000 men had been put ashore during the first day's operations against Guadalcanal, and met only slight resistance. On Tulagi, however, the Japanese resisted stoutly, retaining about of the island by nightfall. Wasp, Saratoga, and Enterprise – with their screens – retired to the southward at nightfall.
Wasp fighters led by Lieutenant C. S. Moffett maintained a continuous CAP over the transport area until noon on 8 August. Meanwhile, a scouting flight of 12 Dauntlesses led by Lieutenant Commander E. M. Snowden searched a sector to a radius of from their carrier, extending it to include all of the Santa Isabel Island and the New Georgia groups.
The Dauntless pilots made no contact with the Japanese during their two hours in the air, but at 08:15, Snowden sighted a "Rufe" some from Rekata Bay and shot the plane down with fixed machine guns.
Meanwhile, a large group of Japanese planes approached from Bougainville to attack the transports off Lunga Point. Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner ordered all transports to get underway and to assume cruising disposition. Eldridge was leading a formation of Dauntlesses from VS-71 against Mbangi Island, off Tulagi. His rear seat gunner, Aviation Chief Radioman L. A. Powers, assumed the formation of Japanese planes were friendly until six Zeroes bounced the first section with 12 unsuccessful firing passes.
Meanwhile, the leader of the last section of VS-71 – Lieutenant, junior grade Robert L. Howard – unsuccessfully attacked twin-engined Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" medium bombers heading for the American transports, and was engaged by four Zeroes escorting the bombers. Howard shot down one Zero with his fixed guns while his rear gunner, Seaman 2nd Class Lawrence P. Lupo, discouraged Japanese fighters attacking from astern.
Wasps casualties for the entire action on 7 and 8 August were:
One fighter pilot, Ens. Thaddeus J. Capowski, missing in action when he was separated from the formation. His parents (Mr and Mrs Walter Capowski of Yonkers NY) were notified of TJC's MIA status in early September 1942; shortly thereafter TJC was found safe and alive.
One scout bomber shot down; pilot Lieut. Dudley H. Adams wounded by explosive bullets and recovered by ; Radioman-gunner Harry E. Elliott, ARM3c, missing, reported to have been killed before the crash.
One fighter landed in the water due to propeller trouble; pilot recovered.
One fighter crashed on deck; pilot injured; plane jettisoned overboard.
One fighter crashed into barrier first day; repaired and flown second day.
Total plane losses for Wasp were 3 Wildcat fighters and 1 Dauntless scout bomber. Against these, her planes destroyed 15 enemy flying boats, 8 floatplane fighters, and 1 Zero.
At 18:07 on 8 August, Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher recommended to Ghormley, at Nouméa, that the air support force be withdrawn. Fletcher, concerned by the large numbers of Japanese planes that had attacked on 8 August, reported that he had only 78 fighters left (he had started with 99) and that fuel for the carriers was running low. Ghormley approved the recommendation, and Wasp joined Enterprise and Saratoga in retiring from Guadalcanal. By midnight, the landing had attained the immediate objectives. Japanese resistance – except for a few snipers – on Gavutu and Tanombogo had been overcome. Early on 9 August, a Japanese surface force engaged an American one in the Battle of Savo Island and retired with minimal damage after sinking four Allied heavy cruisers off Savo Island, including two that had served with Wasp in the Atlantic: Vincennes and Quincy.
After the initial day's action in the Solomons campaign, the carrier spent the next month engaged in patrol and covering operations for convoys and resupply units headed for Guadalcanal. The Japanese began transporting reinforcements to contest the Allied forces.
Wasp was ordered south by Vice Admiral Fletcher to refuel and did not participate in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 24 August. After fueling on 24 August Wasp hurried to the battle zone. Her total aircraft group was 26 Grumman F4F Wildcats, 25 Douglas SBD Dauntlesses, and 11 Grumman TBF Avengers. (One SBD Dauntless was earlier lost on 24 August by ditching in the sea because of engine trouble). On the morning of 25 August, Wasp launched a search mission. The Douglas SBD Dauntless of pilot Lieut. Chester V. Zalewski shot down two of Aichi E13A1 "Jake" floatplanes from (Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō's flagship). But the SBD Dauntlesses sighted no ships. The Japanese fleet had withdrawn out of range. At 13:26 on 25 August, Wasp launched a search/attack mission of 24 SBD Dauntlesses and 10 TBF Avengers against the convoy of Rear Admiral Raizo Tanaka that seemed to be still within range. Although the SBD Dauntlesses shot down a flying boat, they could not find the enemy ships anymore.
During the battle on 24 August Enterprise was damaged and had to return to port for repairs. Saratoga was torpedoed a week later and departed the South Pacific war zone for repairs as well. That left only two carriers in the southwest Pacific, Wasp, and , which had been in commission for only a year.
Loss
On Tuesday, 15 September 1942, Wasp and Hornet, together with North Carolina and 10 other warships, were escorting the transports carrying the 7th Marine Regiment to Guadalcanal as reinforcements. Wasp was operating some southeast of San Cristobal Island. Her aircraft were being refueled and rearmed for antisubmarine patrol missions and Wasp had been at general quarters from an hour before sunrise until the time when the morning search returned to the ship at 10:00. Thereafter, the ship was in condition 2, with the air department at flight quarters. The only contact with the Japanese that day had been a Japanese four-engined flying boat that was downed by one of Wasp'''s F4F Wildcats at 12:15.
About 14:20, the carrier turned into the wind to launch eight F4F Wildcats and eighteen SBD Dauntlesses and to recover eight F4F Wildcats and three SBD Dauntlesses that had been airborne since before noon. Lt. (jg) Roland H. Kenton, USNR, flying a F4F-3 Wildcat of VF-71 was the last aircraft off the deck of Wasp. The ship rapidly completed the recovery of the 11 aircraft before turning to starboard, heeling slightly as she did so. At 14:44 a lookout reported "three torpedoes ... three points forward of the starboard beam".
A spread of six Type 95 torpedoes was fired at Wasp at about 14:44 from the tubes of the B1 Type submarine . Wasp put over her rudder hard to starboard to avoid the salvo, but it was too late. Three torpedoes struck in quick succession about 14:45; one actually breached, left the water, and struck the ship slightly above the waterline. All hit in the vicinity of the ship's gasoline tanks and magazines. Two of the spread of torpedoes passed ahead of Wasp and were observed passing astern of before was hit by one at 14:51 while maneuvering to avoid the other (structural damage from this torpedo hit would eventually lead to O'Brien's sinking a month later). The sixth torpedo passed either astern or under Wasp, narrowly missed in Wasps screen about 14:48, was seen by in North Carolinas screen about 14:50, and struck North Carolina about 14:52.
There was a rapid succession of explosions in the forward part of the ship. Aircraft on the flight and hangar decks were thrown about and dropped on the deck with such force that landing gears snapped. Aircraft suspended in the hangar overhead fell and landed upon those on the hangar deck; fires broke out in the hangar and below decks. Soon, the heat of the intense gasoline fires detonated the ready ammunition at the forward anti-aircraft guns on the starboard side, and fragments showered the forward part of the ship. The number two mount was blown overboard.
Water mains in the forward part of the ship had been rendered inoperable meaning no water was available to fight the fire forward, and the fires continued to set off ammunition, bombs, and gasoline. As the ship listed 10–15° to starboard, oil and gasoline, released from the tanks by the torpedo hit, caught fire on the water.
Captain Sherman slowed to , ordering the rudder put to port to try to get the wind on the starboard bow; he then went astern with right rudder until the wind was on the starboard quarter, in an attempt to keep the fire forward. At that point, flames made the central station unusable, and communication circuits went dead. Soon, a serious gasoline fire broke out in the forward portion of the hangar; within 24 minutes of the initial attack, there were three additional major gasoline vapor explosions. Ten minutes later Sherman decided to abandon ship as the firefighting was ineffectual. Survivors would have to disembark quickly to minimize loss of life.
After consulting with Rear Admiral Leigh Noyes, Captain Sherman ordered "abandon ship" at 15:20. All badly injured men were lowered into rafts or rubber boats. Many unwounded men had to abandon ship from aft because the forward fires were burning with such intensity. The departure, as Sherman observed it, looked "orderly", and there was no panic. The only delays occurred when many men showed reluctance to leave until all the wounded had been taken off. The abandonment took nearly 40 minutes, and at 16:00 Sherman abandoned the ship once he was satisfied that no survivors were left on board.
Although the submarine hazard caused the accompanying destroyers to lie well clear or to shift position, they carried out rescue operations until , Lansdowne, Helena, and had 1,946 men embarked. The fires on Wasp, drifting, traveled aft and there were four violent explosions at nightfall. Lansdowne was ordered to torpedo the carrier and stand by until she was sunk. Lansdownes Mark 15 torpedoes had the same unrecognized flaws reported for the Mark 14 torpedo. The first two torpedoes were fired perfectly, but did not explode, leaving Lansdowne with only three more. The magnetic influence exploders on these were disabled and the depth set at . All three detonated, but Wasp remained afloat for some time, sinking at 21:00. 193 men had died and 366 were wounded during the attack. All but one of her 26 airborne aircraft made a safe trip to carrier Hornet nearby before Wasp sank, but 45 aircraft went down with the ship.
Another Japanese submarine, , duly observed and reported the sinking of Wasp, as other US destroyers kept I-19 busy avoiding 80 depth charges. I-19 escaped safely.
Wreck located
On 14 January 2019, Wasps wreck was located by the research vessel Petrel. The carrier sits upright in of water, though parts of the hull appear to have split.
Awards
See also
- named for Commander John Shea, died during sinking of Wasp''
References
Bibliography
External links
Navy photographs of Wasp (CV-7)
General Plan for the U.S.S. Wasp (CV-7), hosted by the Historical Naval Ships Association (HNSA) Digital Collections
Combat History of the Supermarine Spitfire – The Defence of Malta (1942)
Oral history interview with Rudolph Cusson, a Petty Officer on the Wasp when it was torpedoed from the Veterans History Project at Central Connecticut State University
Action report U.S.S. WASP (CV7) Loss in Action
USS WASP (CV-7) Detailed history on YouTube
Aircraft carriers of the United States Navy
Ships built in Quincy, Massachusetts
1939 ships
World War II aircraft carriers of the United States
Ships sunk by Japanese submarines
World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
Maritime incidents in September 1942
Shipwreck discoveries by Paul Allen
2019 archaeological discoveries
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209424
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newly%20industrialized%20country
|
Newly industrialized country
|
The category of newly industrialized country (NIC), newly industrialized economy (NIE) or middle income country is a socioeconomic classification applied to several countries around the world by political scientists and economists. They represent a subset of developing countries whose economic growth is much higher than other developing countries; and where the social consequences of industrialization, such as urbanization, are reorganizing society.
Definition
NICs are countries whose economies have not yet reached a developed country's status but have, in a macroeconomic sense, outpaced their developing counterparts. Such countries are still considered developing nations and only differ from other developing nations in the rate at which an NIC's growth is much higher over a shorter allotted time period compared to other developing nations. Another characterization of NICs is that of countries undergoing rapid economic growth (usually export-oriented). Incipient or ongoing industrialization is an important indicator of an NIC.
Characteristics of newly industrialized countries
Newly industrialized countries can bring about an increase of stabilization in a country's social and economic status, allowing the people living in these nations to begin to experience better living conditions and better lifestyles. Another characteristic that appears in newly industrialized countries is the further development in government structures, such as democracy, the rule of law, and less corruption. Other such examples of a better lifestyle people living in such countries can experience are better transportation, electricity, and better access to water, compared to other developing countries and low infant mortality rate.
Historical context
The term came into use around 1970, when the Four Asian Tigers of Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong and South Korea rose to become globally competitive in science, technological innovation and economic prosperity as well as NICs in the 1970s and 1980s, with exceptionally fast industrial growth since the 1960s; all four countries having since graduated into high-tech industrialized developed countries with wealthy high-income economies. There is a clear distinction between these countries and the countries now considered NICs. In particular, the combination of an open political process, high GNI per capita, and a thriving, export-oriented economic policy has shown that these East Asian economic tiger countries have roughly come to a match with developed countries as those of Western Europe as well Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and the United States.
All four countries are classified as high-income economies by the World Bank and developed countries by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). All of the Four Asian Tigers, like Western European countries, have a Human Development Index considered "very high" by the United Nations.
Current
The table below presents the list of countries consistently considered NICs by different authors and experts. Turkey and South Africa are classified as developed countries by the CIA. Turkey was a founding member of the OECD in 1961 and Mexico joined in 1994. The G8+5 group is composed of the original G8 members in addition to China, India, Mexico, South Africa and Brazil.
Note: Green-colored cells indicate highest value or best performance in index, while yellow-colored cells indicate the opposite.
For China and India, the immense population of these two countries (each with over 1.3 billion people as of May 2021) means that per capita income will remain low even if either economy surpasses that of the United States in overall GDP. When GDP per capita is calculated according to purchasing power parity (PPP), this takes into account the lower costs of living in each newly industrialized country. GDP per capita typically is an indicator for living standards in a given country as well.
Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa meet annually with the G8 countries to discuss financial topics and climate change, due to their economic importance in today's global market and environmental impact, in a group known as G8+5.
Other
Authors set lists of countries accordingly to different methods of economic analysis. Sometimes a work ascribes NIC status to a country that other authors don't consider a NIC. This is the case of countries such as Argentina, Egypt, Sri Lanka and Russia.
Criticism
NICs usually benefit from comparatively low wage costs, which translates into lower input prices for suppliers. As a result, it is often easier for producers in NICs to outperform and outproduce factories in developed countries, where the cost of living is higher, and trade unions and other organizations have more political sway. This comparative advantage is often criticized by advocates of the fair trade movement.
Problems
While South Africa is considered wealthy on a wealth-per-capita basis, economic inequality is persistent and extreme poverty remains high in the region.
Mexico's economic growth is hampered in some areas by an ongoing drug war.
Other NICs face common problems such as widespread corruption and political instability, as well as other circumstances that cause them to face the middle income trap.
See also
Emerging market
Flying geese paradigm
Global North and Global South
Industrialisation
Mechanization
Mass production
Science in newly industrialized countries
Second World
Groupings
BRIC / MINT / Next Eleven
BRICS
CIVETS
Emerging and growth-leading economies
G8+5
G20
G20 developing nations
VISTA
References
Economic country classifications
Industrialisation
International development
Economic development
Industrial history
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least%20developed%20countries
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Least developed countries
|
The least developed countries (LDCs) are a list of developing countries that, according to the United Nations, exhibit the lowest indicators of socioeconomic development, with the lowest Human Development Index ratings of all countries in the world. The concept of LDCs originated in the late 1960s and the first group of LDCs was listed by the UN in its resolution 2768 (XXVI) of 18 November 1971.
A country is classified among the Least Developed Countries if it meets three criteria:
Poverty – adjustable criterion based on Gross national income (GNI) per capita averaged over three years. a country must have GNI per capita less than US$1,025 to be included on the list, and over $1,230 to graduate from it.
Human resource weakness (based on indicators of nutrition, health, education and adult literacy).
Economic vulnerability (based on instability of agricultural production, instability of exports of goods and services, economic importance of non-traditional activities, merchandise export concentration, handicap of economic smallness, and the percentage of population displaced by natural disasters).
As of December 2020, 46 countries are classified as LDC, while six have been upgraded between 1994 and 2020. The World Trade Organization (WTO) recognizes the UN list and says that "Measures taken in the framework of the WTO can help LDCs increase their exports to other WTO members and attract investment. In many developing countries, pro-market reforms have encouraged faster growth, diversification of exports, and more effective participation in the multilateral trading system."
Overview
LDC criteria are reviewed every three years by the Committee for Development Policy (CDP) of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). Countries may be removed from the LDC classification when indicators exceed these criteria in two consecutive triennial reviews. The United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States (UN-OHRLLS) coordinates UN support and provides advocacy services for Least Developed Countries. The classification () applies to 46 countries.
At the UN's fourth conference on LDCs, which was held in May 2011, delegates endorsed a goal targeting the promotion of at least half the current LDC countries within the next ten years. As of 2018, 10 or more countries were expected to be upgraded by 2024, with Bangladesh and Djibouti already satisfying all criteria in 2018.
There is one country which presently meets the criteria and two countries which previously met the criteria for LDC status, but declined to be included in the index, questioning the validity or accuracy of the CDP's data: Ghana (no longer meets criteria as of 1994), Papua New Guinea (no longer meets criteria as of 2009), and Zimbabwe.
Usage and abbreviations
Least developed countries can be distinguished from developing countries, "less developed countries", "lesser developed countries", or other terms for countries in the so-called Third World. Although many contemporary scholars argue that "Third World" is outdated, irrelevant or inaccurate, others may use the term "Fourth World" in reference to least developed countries (although Fourth World is also used to refer to stateless ethnic groups). The term "less economically developed country" (LEDC) is also used today.
However, in order to avoid confusion between "least developed country" and or LEDC "less economically developed country" (which may both be abbreviated as LDC), and to avoid confusion with landlocked developing country (which can be abbreviated as LLDC), "developing country" is generally used in preference to "less-developed country".
During a United Nations review in 2018, the UN defined LDCs as countries meeting three criteria, one of which was a three-year average estimate of gross national income (GNI) per capita of less than US$1,025. Countries with populations over 75 million are excluded.
Declassification
The three criteria (human assets, economic vulnerability and gross national income per capita) are assessed by the Committee for Development Policy every three years. Countries must meet two of the three criteria at two consecutive triennial reviews to be considered for graduation. The Committee for Development Policy sends its recommendations for endorsement to the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
Since the LDC category was initiated, six countries have graduated to developing country status. The first country to graduate from LDC status was Botswana in 1994. The second country was Cape Verde in 2007. Maldives graduated to developing country status on 1 January 2011, Samoa graduated in 2014, Equatorial Guinea in 2017, and Vanuatu in December 2020. Bhutan will graduate in 2023, and São Tomé and Príncipe and Solomon Islands will leave the category in 2024. Nepal was selected to be graduated to developing countries on 2018. However, the authorities of Nepal requested to postpone it till 2021. Angola was expected to graduate in 2021, but the preparatory period was extended by three years because of the economic difficulties of the country and its dependence on commodities. Bangladesh met the criteria for the first time in 2018 and again in 2021 for the second time. The country is scheduled to officially graduate from LDC status in November 2026, two years after it was supposed to, because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Laos and Nepal will also graduate in November 2026.
UN conferences
There have been four United Nations conferences on LDCs, held every ten years. The first two were in Paris, in 1981 and 1991; the third was in Brussels in 2001.
The Fourth UN Conference on Least Developed Countries (LDC-IV) was held in Istanbul, Turkey, 9–13 May 2011. It was attended by Ban Ki-Moon, the head of the UN, and close to 50 prime ministers and heads of state. The conference endorsed the goal of raising half the existing Least developed countries out of the LDC category by 2022. As with the Seoul Development Consensus drawn up in 2010, there was a strong emphasis on boosting productive capability and physical infrastructure, with several NGOs not pleased with the emphasis placed on the private sector.
Trade
Issues surrounding global trade regulations and LDCs have gained a lot of media and policy attention thanks to the recently collapsed Doha Round of World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations being termed a development round. During the WTO's Hong Kong Ministerial, it was agreed that LDCs could see 100 percent duty-free, quota-free access to U.S. markets if the round were completed. But analysis of the deal by NGOs found that the text of the proposed LDC deal had substantial loopholes that might make the offer less than the full 100 percent access, and could even erase some current duty-free access of LDCs to rich country markets. Dissatisfaction with these loopholes led some economists to call for a reworking of the Hong Kong deal.
Dr. Chiedu Osakwe, as of 2001 the Director, Technical Cooperation Division at the Secretariat of the WTO, and adviser to the Director-General on developing country matters, was appointed as the WTO Special Coordinator for the Least Developed Countries beginning in 1999. He worked closely with the five other agencies that together with the WTO constitute the Integrated Framework of action for the Least Developed Countries. They addressed issues of market access, special and differential treatment provisions for developing countries, participation of developing countries in the multilateral trading system, and development questions, especially the interests of developing countries in competition policy. At the 28th G8 summit in Kananaskis, Alberta, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien proposed and carried the Market Access Initiative, so that the then 48 LDCs could profit from "trade-not-aid". Additionally, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 14 advocates for an effective special and differential treatment of LDCs as integral parts of WTO fisheries subsidies negotiation.
List
The list of "least developed countries" according to the United Nations with some that are categorised into the landlocked developing countries and the Small Island Developing States:
There are 33 countries that are classified as least developed countries in Africa, nine in Asia, three in Oceania, and one in the Americas,
Africa
Americas
Asia
Oceania
Delisted
Sikkim (became a state within the Republic of India in 1975)
(graduated from LDC status in December 1994)
(graduated in December 2007)
(graduated in January 2011)
(graduated in January 2014)
(graduated in June 2017)
(graduated in December 2020)
See also
, an alliance of organizations
(MDC), opposite of LDCs
(Section I, paragraph 9)
Notes
Further reading
United Nations, "Least Developed Countries"
World Trade Organisation, "WTO Launches Trade Initiative for Least Developed Countries", FOCUS newsletter, WTO, Geneva, Switzerland, November 1997 issue 24.
External links
Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, United Nations
United Nations List of LDCs
Criteria for Identification of LDCs
Fourth UN Conference on the LDCs
UNCTAD Least Developed Countries Report 2012
"Why and how LDCs can receive more FDI to meet their development goals", Ken Davies, Columbia FDI Perspectives No. 40, June 20, 2011.
"Being least developed", T.K. Jarayaman, Fiji Times, 3 February 2009
UN LDC-IV Civil Society Forum
Economic country classifications
Debt
International development
United Nations coalitions and unofficial groups
Measurements and definitions of poverty
Economic development
|
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] |
209431
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC
|
NGC
|
NGC commonly refers to:
New General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars, a catalogue of deep sky objects in astronomy
NGC may also refer to:
Companies
NGC Corporation, name of US electric company Dynegy, Inc. from 1995 to 1998
National Gas Company of Trinidad and Tobago, state-owned natural gas company in Trinidad and Tobago
National Grid plc, a former name of National Grid Electricity Transmission plc, the operator of the British electricity transmission system
Northrop Grumman Corporation, aerospace and defense conglomerate formed from the merger of Northrop Corporation and Grumman Corporation in 1994
Numismatic Guaranty Corporation, coin certification company in the United States
Other uses
National Gallery of Canada, art gallery founded in 1880 in Ottawa, Canada
National Geographic Channel, documentary television channel established in the United States in 2001
Native Girls Code, US non-profit organisation that teaches computer programming and indigenous knowledge to Native American girls
Nevada Gaming Commission, regulator of gaming in the U.S. state of Nevada
New Graduate College, graduate college at Princeton University
Nintendo GameCube, sixth-generation video game console first marketed by Nintendo in 2001
NGC Magazine, Nintendo enthusiast magazine in the United Kingdom; formerly called N64 Magazine
North German Confederation, German federal state that succeeded the German Confederation in 1867
Pearland NGC
Carmiooro NGC, professional cycling team first registered in 2008
National Glass Centre, glass-making workshop in North East England, since converted into a visitor attraction at the University of Sunderland
NVIDIA GPU Cloud (NGC)
National Green Corps, is a major initiative of MOEFCC for creating environmental awareness launched in 2001-02 which aims at building cadres of young children working towards environmental conservation and sustainable development.
Next Generation Core of 5G technology
|
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209433
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Atkins%20%28physician%29
|
Robert Atkins (physician)
|
Robert Coleman Atkins (October 17, 1930 April 17, 2003) was an American physician and cardiologist, best known for the Atkins Diet, which requires close control of carbohydrate consumption and emphasizes protein and fat as the primary sources of dietary calories in addition to a controlled number of carbohydrates from vegetables.
The commercial success of Atkins' diet plan led Time to name the doctor a person of the year in 2002. The Atkins diet has been described as "one of the most popular fad diets in the United States".
Early life and education
Atkins was born in 1930 in Columbus, Ohio, the son of Eugene and Norma (Tuckerman) Atkins. His family was Jewish. At the age of 12, his family moved to Dayton, Ohio, where his father owned several restaurants. As a young teen, Atkins held various jobs, including a position selling shoes at the age of 14 and a later gig on a local radio show. He attended Fairview High School in Dayton and, in 1947, finished second among 8,500 seniors on a statewide general scholarship test. Upon graduating from the University of Michigan in 1951, Atkins had thoughts of becoming a comedian and spent the summer as a waiter and entertainer at various resorts in the Adirondacks.
He eventually decided to pursue medicine, however, and received a medical degree from Cornell University Medical College in 1955. Atkins completed an internship at Strong Hospital in Rochester, New York, and finished his residency in cardiology and internal medicine at hospitals affiliated with Columbia University.
Career
Atkins specialized in cardiology and complementary medicine, and went on to open a private practice on the Upper East Side of New York City in 1959. His medical practice did not go well at first, and he began to put on weight and became depressed. After doing some research, he decided to pursue a low-carbohydrate approach published by Alfred W. Pennington, based on research Pennington did during World War II at DuPont. He began applying this approach in his practice, and began writing books about low-carb diets that became known as the Atkins diet, publishing his first book in 1972 and a few years later opening a complementary medicine center. He married his wife, Veronica, when he was 56.
In 2002, Atkins went into cardiac arrest, leading many of his critics to point to this episode as proof of the inherent dangers in the consumption of high levels of saturated fat associated with the Atkins diet. In numerous interviews, however, Atkins stated that his cardiac arrest was not the result of poor diet, but was rather caused by a chronic infection.
Death
On April 8, 2003, Atkins fell and hit his head on an icy New York sidewalk. He was admitted to Weill Cornell Medical Center, where he underwent surgery to remove a blood clot from his brain, but fell into a coma. He died on April 17, at age 72.
A report from the New York medical examiner's office leaked a year after his death said that Atkins had a history of heart attack, congestive heart failure and hypertension, and that at the time of his death he weighed . According to Stuart Trager, chairman of the Atkins Physicians Council (a group of physicians who work as consultants to the Atkins organization), this report contained incomplete medical records and that Atkins did not have a history of heart attack; instead, according to Trager, Atkins had cardiomyopathy, a heart muscle disease that was probably caused by a virus, not his diet. His widow refused to allow an autopsy.
Diet
The Atkins Diet is a low-carbohydrate diet promoted by Atkins.
His success inspired others to generate low-carb diets, and many companies released low-carb diets and low-carb foods. After his death, the popularity of Atkins' diet waned, with the other low-carb diets eroding its market share and questions being raised about its safety. In 2005, Atkins Nutritionals filed for bankruptcy. It was subsequently purchased by North Castle Partners in 2007 and switched its emphasis to low-carb snacks. In 2010, the company was acquired by Roark Capital Group.
Books
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' Diet Revolution Bantam, 1972
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' Diet Cookbook Bantam, 1974
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' SuperEnergy Diet Bantam, 1978
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' SuperEnergy Diet Cookbook Signet, 1978
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' Nutrition Breakthrough Bantam, 1981
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' Health Revolution Houghton Mifflin, 1988
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' New Diet Revolution M. Evans and Company, 1992
Atkins, Robert C, Gare, Fran Dr. Atkins' New Diet Cookbook M. Evans and Company, 1994 | Vermilion, 2003.
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' New Carbohydrate Gram Counter. New York: M. Evans and Company, 1996.
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' Quick & Easy New Diet Cookbook Simon and Schuster, 1997
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' Vita-Nutrient Solution: Nature's Answers to Drugs Simon and Schuster, 1997
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' Age-Defying Diet St. Martin's Press, 2001, 2002
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' New Diet Revolution M. Evans and Company, 2002
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' New Diet Revolution New York: Avon Books, 2002. . | Vermilion, 2003.
Atkins, Robert C. Atkins for Life: The Next Level New York: St. Martin's Press, 2003.
Atkins, Robert C. Dr. Atkins' Diet Planner M. Evans and Company, 2003 | Vermilion, 2003.
Atkins, Robert C. The Essential Atkins for Life Kit: The Next Level Pan Macmillan, 2003.
References
Further reading
Larry King interview
BBC Obituary: Dr Robert Atkins April 17, 2003
Snopes on Doctor Atkins' death
1930 births
2003 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American physicians
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American physicians
Accidental deaths from falls
Accidental deaths in New York (state)
American cardiologists
American health and wellness writers
American male non-fiction writers
American nutritionists
Columbia University staff
Low-carbohydrate diet advocates
Pseudoscientific diet advocates
University of Michigan alumni
Weill Cornell Medical College alumni
Writers from Columbus, Ohio
Writers from Dayton, Ohio
Writers from Manhattan
|
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209435
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry%20Ahern
|
Jerry Ahern
|
Jerome Morrell Ahern (June 23, 1946 – July 24, 2012) was an American writer of science fiction and action novels, non-fiction books, and articles for various firearms publications. He was considered an expert on firearms and related accessories, produced his own line of holsters, and served as president of a firearms company.
Biography
Jerry Ahern was the son of John and Arline Ahern. He was born and raised in Chicago and attended Lindblom High School. He served in the ROTC.
In 1969, he married Sharon and they had two children, Samantha and Jason. Ahern wrote his first novel in 1980 and his first non-fiction book in 1996, and continued his writing career until his death. In addition to writing novels and non-fiction, Ahern was a contributor to various firearms publications such as Gun Digest, Guns Magazine, Dillon Precision's The Blue Press, Michael Bane's Down Range TV, among others. Ahern was considered an expert on firearm-related subjects and worked as an editorial consultant. Ahern and his wife also founded and ran a handgun holster company, Ahern Enterprises. From 2004 to 2007 Ahern was president of Detonics, a manufacturer of custom 1911-style pistols. Ahern died of cancer in Jefferson, Georgia.
Jerry Ahern is best known for his post apocalyptic survivalist series The Survivalist. The books in this series are heavy with descriptions of the weapons the protagonists use to survive and prosecute a seemingly never-ending war amongst the remnants of the superpowers from pre-apocalypse times. The series centers around the attempts of Dr. John Thomas Rourke, an ex-CIA agent, to preserve his family.
Most of the Ahern novels were written as a series, with multiple books containing the same characters. The underlying themes are survival, integrity, and perseverance. Ahern's four non-fiction books follow this theme and focus on self-defense and survival. His final published novel, with a semi-autobiographical character, was about a novelist and his family being transported through time to the 19th century. It was titled Written in Time. It was co-authored with his wife, Sharon Ahern.
Ahern, in collaboration with his wife Sharon, wrote more than 80 books prior to his death. Most of the books were published under his name but several series used the pseudonyms Axel Kilgore, Red Mitchell, and Nick Carter. Following Ahern's death, Sharon Ahern continues the various series, writing in conjunction with long-time family friend and writer Bob Anderson.
Bibliography
The Survivalist
Total War (1981)
The Nightmare Begins (1981)
The Quest (1981)
The Doomsayer (1981)
The Web (1983)
The Savage Horde (1983)
The Prophet (1984)
The End Is Coming (1984)
Earth Fire (1984)
The Awakening (1984)
The Reprisal (1985)
The Rebellion (1985)
Pursuit (1986)
The Terror (1986)
Overlord (1987)
The Arsenal (1987)
The Ordeal (1988)
The Struggle (1989)
Final Rain (1989)
Firestorm (1989)
To End All War (1990)
Brutal Conquest (1991)
Call To Battle (1992)
Blood Assassins (1992)
War Mountain (1993)
Countdown (1993)
Death Watch (1993)
Mid-Wake (1988)
The Legend (1990)
Takers
The Takers (1984) (with Sharon Ahern)
River of Gold (1985)
Summon the Demon (2001) (with Sharon Ahern)
Defender
The Battle Begins (1988)
The Killing Wedge (1988)
Out of Control (1988)
Decision Time (1988)
Entrapment (1989)
Escape (1989)
Vengeance (1989)
Justice Denied (1989)
Deathgrip (1989)
The Good Fight (1990)
The Challenge (1990)
No Survivors (1990)
Surgical Strike
Surgical Strike (1988)
Assault on the Empress (1988)
Infiltrator (1990)
Other Novels
The Confederate (1983)
The Freeman (1986) (with Sharon Ahern)
Miamigrad (1987) (with Sharon Ahern)
Yakusa Tattoo (1988) (with Sharon Ahern)
Brandywine (1989)
WerewolveSS (1990) (with Sharon Ahern)
The Kamikaze Legacy (1990) (with Sharon Ahern)
The Golden Shield of the IBF (1999) (with Sharon Ahern)
The Illegal Man (2003) (with Sharon Ahern)
Written in Time (2010) (with Sharon Ahern)
Track
The Ninety-Nine (1984)
Atrocity (1984)
The Hard Way (1984)
Armageddon Conspiracy (1984)
Origin of a Vendetta (1985)
Certain Blood (1985)
Master of D.E.A.T.H. (1985)
Revenge of the Master (1985)
The D.E.A.T.H. Hunters (1985)
Cocaine Run (1985)
as Axel Kilgore
Fourth Reich Death Squad (1980)
The Killer Genesis (1980)
The Slaughter Run (1980)
Canadian Killing Ground (1981)
Slave of the Warmonger (1981)
The Opium Hunter (1981)
Vengeance Army (1981)
Assassin's Express (1982)
Bush Warfare (1982)
Death Lust! (1982)
Headshot! (1982)
The Terror Contract (1982)
China Bloodhunt (1983)
Naked Blade, Naked Gun (1983)
The Afghanistan Penetration (1983)
The Siberian Alternative (1983)
Buckingham Blowout (1984)
Eye for Eye (1984)
Non fiction
CCW: Carrying Concealed Weapons: How to Carry Concealed Weapons and Know When Others Are (1996)
Survive!: The Disaster, Crisis and Emergency Handbook (2010)
Short stories
Roll Call (1993) (with Sharon Ahern) - published in the Anthology Confederacy of the Dead
...For I Have Sinned (1995) (with Samantha Ahern and Sharon Ahern) - published in the Anthology More Phobias
See also
William W. Johnstone
James Wesley Rawles
Survivalism
Retreat (survivalism)
Detonics
Footnotes
External links
1946 births
2012 deaths
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
Survivalists
People associated with firearms
American columnists
American male short story writers
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American short story writers
People from Jefferson, Georgia
21st-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers
|
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209437
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upplands%20V%C3%A4sby%20Municipality
|
Upplands Väsby Municipality
|
Upplands Väsby Municipality (Upplands Väsby kommun) is a municipality in Stockholm County in east central Sweden, with a population of 38,963 (2010). Its seat is located in the town of Upplands Väsby.
The municipality was created in connection with the municipal reform of 1952, when the rural municipalities Ed, Fresta and Hammarby were amalgamated. It got its name from a settlement which had evolved around the railway station.
The name Väsby can be attested (as Vesby) from the 13th century. The prefix "Upplands" came to be used by the post station in 1919 as a means of separating it from other Väsbys in the country. The municipality was then named "Upplands-Väsby" for a time, but the dash was removed on 19 September 2002.
Geography
Upplands Väsby is located in between Stockholm and Arlanda Airport, and the East Coast Line railroad goes through the municipality. There are local train services to Arlanda Airport, Uppsala, Stockholm Central Station and Älvsjö (Stockholm commuter rail).
The land is covered with good soil, forests, and moraine. The western part border to a creek of the lake Mälaren (not visible on the map), which also marks the border to the municipality Upplands-Bro. There are also other water areas, such as streams and small lakes, in the municipality. One of them is the small river Väsbyån, flowing through Väsby, in which the uncommon fish asp swims.
History
Located in the province of Uppland the municipality holds remains from the Stone Age. Runestones and axes from the Bronze Age have also been found. The number of rune inscriptions in the municipality amounts to 76.
When Väsby Centrum, a shopping centre that currently houses some 60 stores, was built in Väsby in 1972 the population grew markedly. The mall is currently undergoing a large increase; 20 new stores will have opened by spring 2007, bringing the mall's total up to 80 stores.
Demography
Population development
Residents with a foreign background
On the 31st of December 2017 the number of people with a foreign background (persons born outside of Sweden or with two parents born outside of Sweden) was 17 533, or 39.31% of the population (44 605 on the 31st of December 2017). On the 31st of December 2002 the number of residents with a foreign background was (per the same definition) 10 132, or 27.06% of the population (37 444 on the 31st of December 2002). On 31 December 2017 there were 44 605 residents in Upplands Väsby, of which 13 009 people (29.16%) were born in a country other than Sweden. Divided by country in the table below - the Nordic countries as well as the 12 most common countries of birth outside of Sweden for Swedish residents have been included, with other countries of birth bundled together by continent by Statistics Sweden.
References
External links
Upplands Väsby Municipality - Official site
Väsby Centrum (in Swedish)
Municipalities of Stockholm County
Metropolitan Stockholm
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209438
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20behind%20the%20throne
|
Power behind the throne
|
The phrase "power behind the throne" refers to a person or group that informally exercises the real power of a high-ranking office, such as a head of state. In politics, it most commonly refers to a relative, aide, or nominal subordinate of a political leader (often called a "figurehead") who serves as de facto leader, setting policy through possessing great influence and/or skillful manipulation.
The original concept of a power behind the throne was a Medieval-era figure of speech referring to the fact that the monarch's policies could be set by a counsellor not seated in the throne but standing behind it—perhaps whispering in the monarch's ear—out of common sight. In recent times, family members and official or unofficial advisers might take on a similar role. Sometimes it is difficult to assess whether such an accusation is true or a conspiracy theory.
Historical examples
Historical examples of a "power behind the throne" include:
Europe
the Mayor of the Palace under the Merovingian kings in Francia (among the earliest examples of such powerful advisors);
Chancellor of Germany and Minister President of Prussia Otto von Bismarck, with German Emperor and King of Prussia William I as a de facto figurehead;
Cardinal Richelieu, the power behind the throne of King Louis XIII of France
East Asia
Nogai Khan, Mamai and Edigu in the Golden Horde;
Fujiwara Clan of Heian Period Japan
Shogun of Feudal Japan. Additionally during the Kamakura Period, the Shogun was effectively a figurehead as well, with real power in hands of the Hōjō clan.
The Genrō had this role in Meiji period of Japan.
Another modern example was Deng Xiaoping in China, who was recognized as China's paramount leader without holding the position of either General Secretary, head of state or head of government.
Southeast Asia
Another example is the rule of Pol Pot in Democratic Kampuchea from 1975–79, who led the Khmer Rouge to victory following a devastating civil war.
King Norodom Sihanouk served as figurehead until his withdrawal in 1976. He returned to reign over Cambodia in 1993, but without executive power.
South Asia
In India, an example was Chanakya, the teacher and advisor of Chandragupta Maurya.
In the Kingdom of Nepal, from 1846 to 1951, the Rana dynasty reduced the Kings to the status of figurehead, with the post of Prime Minister being transmitted hereditarily
North America
In the United States, Edith Wilson—second wife and First Lady of President Woodrow Wilson—took over many of the routine duties and details of the government after her husband was incapacitated by a stroke.
The Roman Empire - Earlier examples include the magistri militum of the later decades of the Western Roman Empire. Examples of such are
Stilicho the general of Emperor Honorius,
Aetius, the power behind the throne of Honorius' nephew Valentinian III,
Ricimer the puppet master of Emperors Avitus, Majorian, Libius Severus, Procopius Anthemius, and Olybrius,
and then finally Flavius Orestes, the father of the usurper emperor Romulus Augustulus, and the Germanic chieftain Odoacer, who were the masters in the West during the reigns of Emperor Julius Nepos and then Orestes' son, the aforementioned Romulus. Odoacer then deposed the figurehead Roman ruler, captured and executed Orestes, and established his own Italian kingdom as the Dux Italiae, only to be overthrown by the Ostrogothic chieftain Theodoric on the behest of the Eastern Emperor Zeno.
Latin America
an example was Joseph-Marie Córdoba Montoya during the Presidency of Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1988–1994). Córdoba Montoya, a French naturalized Mexican, was the Head of the Office of the Presidency, and was considered the second-most powerful man in Mexico at the time.
Another example in Latin America is the one of the former general Manuel Noriega, who was the military leader and the de facto chief of state of Panama from 1983 to 1989.
Diego Portales of Chile, who had significant influence in the political life of his country in early 1830s, reflected in the constitution of 1833;
The Middle East
the Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia, Muhammad bin Salman, who effectively rules the country for his -year old father King Salman.
the Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi, Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan to the Emir of Abu Dhabi and President of the UAE Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, who in 2014 suffered a stroke, is often considered the de facto President of the UAE
In Qatar, Hamad bin Jassim bin Jaber Al Thani was often called the power behind the throne of Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani.
Related terms
A related term is éminence grise (French: "gray eminence"), a powerful advisor or decision-maker who operates secretly or otherwise unofficially. This phrase originally referred to Cardinal de Richelieu's right-hand man, François Leclerc du Tremblay (also known as the Père Joseph), a Capuchin friar who wore grey robes. Because the Cardinal de Richelieu, the power behind the throne of King Louis XIII of France, as a Catholic cardinal was styled Son Eminence ("His Eminence"), his alter ego Père Joseph was called l'éminence grise (which is also the English title of his biography by Aldous Huxley). Martin Bormann was referred to as the Brown Eminence, brown referring to the brown uniform of the Nazi Party.
The modern usage of the term Proconsul, as analogy for a person from a foreign power manipulating another country's internal affairs, is also referred as the power behind the throne.
See also
Brain trust
Cabal
Cloistered rule
Éminence grise
Figurehead
Ginger group
Kingmaker
Kitchen Cabinet
Shadow government (conspiracy)
Deep State
References
Deep politics
English phrases
Oligarchy
Control (social and political)
Government institutions
Ethically disputed political practices
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseids
|
Perseids
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The Perseids are a prolific meteor shower associated with the comet Swift–Tuttle. The meteors are called the Perseids because the point from which they appear to hail (called the radiant) lies in the constellation Perseus.
Etymology
The name is derived from the word Perseidai (), the sons of Perseus in Greek mythology.
Characteristics
The stream of debris is called the Perseid cloud and stretches along the orbit of the comet Swift–Tuttle. The cloud consists of particles ejected by the comet as it travels on its 133-year orbit. Most of the particles have been part of the cloud for around a thousand years. However, there is also a relatively young filament of dust in the stream that was pulled off the comet in 1865, which can give an early mini-peak the day before the maximum shower. The dimensions of the cloud in the vicinity of the Earth are estimated to be approximately 0.1 astronomical units (AU) across and 0.8 AU along the Earth's orbit, spread out by annual interactions with the Earth's gravity.
The shower is visible from mid-July each year, with the peak in activity between 9 and 14 August, depending on the particular location of the stream. During the peak, the rate of meteors reaches 60 or more per hour. They can be seen all across the sky; however, because of the shower's radiant in the constellation of Perseus, the Perseids are primarily visible in the Northern Hemisphere. As with many meteor showers the visible rate is greatest in the pre-dawn hours, since more meteoroids are scooped up by the side of the Earth moving forward into the stream, corresponding to local times between midnight and noon, as can be seen in the accompanying diagram. While many meteors arrive between dawn and noon, they are usually not visible due to daylight. Some can also be seen before midnight, often grazing the Earth's atmosphere to produce long bright trails and sometimes fireballs. Most Perseids burn up in the atmosphere while at heights above .
Peak times
Historical observations and associations
Some Catholics refer to the Perseids as the "tears of Saint Lawrence", suspended in the sky but returning to Earth once a year on August 10, the canonical date of that saint's martyrdom in 258 AD.
The saint is said to have been burned alive on a gridiron, and this tradition is almost certainly the origin of the Mediterranean folk legend that the shooting stars are the sparks of that fire and that during the night of August 9–10 its cooled embers appear in the ground under plants, and which are known as the "coal of Saint Lawrence".
The transition in favor of the Catholic saint and his feast day on August 10 and away from pagan gods and their festivals, known as Christianization, was facilitated by the phonetic assonance of the Latin name Laurentius with Larentia.
In 1836 Adolphe Quetelet wrote, "J'ai cru remarquer aussi une fréquence plus grande de ces météores au mois d'août (du 8 au 15)." - "I think I noticed also a greater frequency of these meteors in the month of August (from 8 to 15 )." After studying historical records, he predicted a peak on 10 August. He then wrote to other astronomers who confirmed this prediction on the night of 10 August, 1837. Quetelet missed the shower due to bad weather.
In 1866, after the perihelion passage of Swift-Tuttle in 1862, the Italian astronomer Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli discovered the link between meteor showers and comets. The finding is contained in an exchange of letters with Angelo Secchi.
In popular culture
In his 1972 song "Rocky Mountain High", American singer-songwriter John Denver refers to his experience watching the Perseid meteor shower during a family camping trip in the mountains near Aspen, Colorado, with the chorus lyric, "I've seen it raining fire in the sky."
In his 2006 novel Against the Day, American novelist Thomas Pynchon refers to the Perseid meteor showers being watched by three characters west of the Dolores Valley after playing a game of tarot.
In the popular Japanese band Sandaime J Soul Brothers's 2013 song "R.Y.U.S.E.I" (Meteor), they describe the Perseid meteor as falling like an evening rain shower – its shooting stars like raindrops pulling their tails behind them.
In the 2014 song “RPG,” by Japanese band Sekai no Owari, the narrator mentions watching the Perseid meteor shower on the night something “precious to them fell apart.”
The 2014 pop song "Meteorites" by Canadian musician LIGHTS uses Perseids as a metaphor for escaping financial hardship.
In the popular TV Series Curious George, season 7 episode 1b, George and his friends Allie and Bill hunt for the Perseids, which they believe are creatures that look like purses. At the end of the episode, Allie's grandfather Mr. Renkins says that the Perseids is a meteor shower happening in early August.
Also referenced, in Netflix Original series Puffin Rock.
See also
Leonids, associated with the comet Tempel–Tuttle
Asteroid impact prediction
Earth-grazing fireball
List of asteroid close approaches to Earth
Meteoroid
References
Books
Littman, Mark, The Heavens on Fire - The Great Leonid Meteor Storms, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0521624053. Chapter 6, "The discovery of the August meteors", pp83-100
External links
Where to see the Perseids and public stargazing events in the UK (Go Stargazing)
Worldwide viewing times for the 2016 Perseids meteor shower
All you need to know about the Perseid meteor shower (Paul Sutherland)
How to photograph the Perseid meteor shower (Skymania)
Perseid Observing Conditions (The International Project for Radio Meteor Observation)
2014 Perseids Radio results (RMOB)
Perseid Visibility Map (2014 NASA Meteoroid Environment Office)
2009 Perseid Meteor Fireball
NASA website on the Perseid shower of 2009
Sky & Telescope Magazine – Perseids at Their Prime
2012 Image of Perseids emanating from the radiant
What are the perseids?
July events
August events
Meteor showers
Perseus (constellation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseus%20%28constellation%29
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Perseus (constellation)
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Perseus is a constellation in the northern sky, being named after the Greek mythological hero Perseus. It is one of the 48 ancient constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and among the 88 modern constellations defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). It is located near several other constellations named after ancient Greek legends surrounding Perseus, including Andromeda to the west and Cassiopeia to the north. Perseus is also bordered by Aries and Taurus to the south, Auriga to the east, Camelopardalis to the north, and Triangulum to the west. Some star atlases during the early 19th century also depicted Perseus holding the disembodied head of Medusa, whose asterism was named together as Perseus et Caput Medusae; however, this never came into popular usage.
The galactic plane of the Milky Way passes through Perseus, whose brightest star is the yellow-white supergiant Alpha Persei (also called Mirfak), which shines at magnitude 1.79. It and many of the surrounding stars are members of an open cluster known as the Alpha Persei Cluster. The best-known star, however, is Algol (Beta Persei), linked with ominous legends because of its variability, which is noticeable to the naked eye. Rather than being an intrinsically variable star, it is an eclipsing binary. Other notable star systems in Perseus include X Persei, a binary system containing a neutron star, and GK Persei, a nova that peaked at magnitude 0.2 in 1901. The Double Cluster, comprising two open clusters quite near each other in the sky, was known to the ancient Chinese. The constellation gives its name to the Perseus cluster (Abell 426), a massive galaxy cluster located 250 million light-years from Earth. It hosts the radiant of the annual Perseids meteor shower—one of the most prominent meteor showers in the sky.
History and mythology
In Greek mythology, Perseus was the son of Danaë, who was sent by King Polydectes to bring the head of Medusa the Gorgon—whose visage caused all who gazed upon her to turn to stone. Perseus slew Medusa in her sleep, and Pegasus and Chrysaor appeared from her body. Perseus continued to the realm of Cepheus whose daughter Andromeda was to be sacrificed to Cetus the sea monster.
Perseus rescued Andromeda from the monster by killing it with his sword. He turned Polydectes and his followers to stone with Medusa's head and appointed Dictys the fisherman king. Perseus and Andromeda married and had six children. In the sky, Perseus lies near the constellations Andromeda, Cepheus, Cassiopeia (Andromeda's mother), Cetus, and Pegasus.
In Neo-Assyrian Babylonia (911–605 BC), the constellation of Perseus was known as the Old Man constellation (SU.GI), then associated with East in the MUL.APIN, an astronomical text from the 7th century.
In non-Western astronomy
Four Chinese constellations are contained in the area of the sky identified with Perseus in the West. Tiānchuán (天船), the Celestial Boat, was the third paranatellon (A star or constellation which rises at the same time as another star or object) of the third house of the White Tiger of the West, representing the boats that Chinese people were reminded to build in case of a catastrophic flood season. Incorporating stars from the northern part of the constellation, it contained Mu, Delta, Psi, Alpha, Gamma and Eta Persei. Jīshuǐ (積水), the Swollen Waters, was the fourth paranatellon of the aforementioned house, representing the potential of unusually high floods during the end of August and beginning of September at the beginning of the flood season. Lambda and possibly Mu Persei lay within it. Dàlíng (大陵), the Great Trench, was the fifth paranatellon of that house, representing the trenches where criminals executed en masse in August were interred. It was formed by Kappa, Omega, Rho, 24, 17 and 15 Persei. The pile of corpses prior to their interment was represented by Jīshī (積屍, Pi Persei), the sixth paranatellon of the house. The Double Cluster, h and Chi Persei, had special significance in Chinese astronomy.
In Polynesia, Perseus was not commonly recognized as a separate constellation; the only people that named it were those of the Society Islands, who called it Faa-iti, meaning "Little Valley". Algol may have been named Matohi by the Māori people, but the evidence for this identification is disputed. Matohi ("Split") occasionally came into conflict with Tangaroa-whakapau over which of them should appear in the sky, the outcome affecting the tides. It matches the Maori description of a blue-white star near Aldebaran but does not disappear as the myth would indicate.
Characteristics
Perseus is bordered by Aries and Taurus to the south, Auriga to the east, Camelopardalis and Cassiopeia to the north, and Andromeda and Triangulum to the west. Covering 615 square degrees, it ranks twenty-fourth of the 88 constellations in size. It appears prominently in the northern sky during the Northern Hemisphere's spring. Its main asterism consists of 19 stars. The constellation's boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a 26-sided polygon. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between and . The International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted the three-letter abbreviation "Per" for the constellation in 1922.
Features
Stars
Algol (from the Arabic رأس الغول Ra's al-Ghul, which means The Demon's Head), also known by its Bayer designation Beta Persei, is the best-known star in Perseus. Representing the head of the Gorgon Medusa in Greek mythology, it was called Horus in Egyptian mythology and Rosh ha Satan ("Satan's Head") in Hebrew. Located 92.8 light-years from Earth, it varies in apparent magnitude from a minimum of 3.5 to a maximum of 2.3 over a period of 2.867 days.
The star system is the prototype of a group of eclipsing binary stars named Algol variables, though it has a third member to make up what is actually a triple star system. The brightest component is a blue-white main-sequence star of spectral type B8V, which is 3.5 times as massive and 180 times as luminous as the Sun. The secondary component is an orange subgiant star of type K0IV that has begun cooling and expanding to 3.5 times the radius of the Sun, and has 4.5 times the luminosity and 80% of its mass. These two are separated by only 0.05 astronomical units (AU)—five percent of the distance between the Earth and Sun; the main dip in brightness arises when the larger fainter companion passes in front of the hotter brighter primary. The tertiary component is a main sequence star of type A7, which is located on average 2.69 AU from the other two stars. AG Persei is another Algol variable in Perseus, whose primary component is a B-type main sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 6.69. Phi Persei is a double star, although the two components do not eclipse each other. The primary star is a Be star of spectral type B0.5, possibly a giant star, and the secondary companion is likely a stellar remnant. The secondary has a similar spectral type to O-type subdwarfs.
With the historical name Mirfak (Arabic for elbow) or Algenib, Alpha Persei is the brightest star of this constellation with an apparent magnitude of 1.79. A supergiant of spectral type F5Ib located around 590 light-years away from Earth, Mirfak has 5,000 times the luminosity and 42 times the diameter of our Sun. It is the brightest member of the Alpha Persei Cluster (also known as Melotte 20 and Collinder 39), which is an open cluster containing many luminous stars. Neighboring bright stars that are members include the Be stars Delta (magnitude 3.0), Psi (4.3), and 48 Persei (4.0); the Beta Cephei variable Epsilon Persei (2.9); and the stars 29 (5.2), 30 (5.5), 31 (5.0), and 34 Persei (4.7). Of magnitude 4.05, nearby Iota Persei has been considered a member of the group, but is actually located a mere 34 light-years distant. This star is very similar to our Sun, shining with 2.2 times its luminosity. It is a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G0V. Extensive searches have failed to find evidence of it having a planetary system.
Zeta Persei is the third-brightest star in the constellation at magnitude 2.86. Around 750 light-years from Earth, it is a blue-white supergiant 26–27 times the radius of the Sun and 47,000 times its luminosity. It is the brightest star (as seen from Earth) of a moving group of bright blue-white giant and supergiant stars, the Perseus OB2 Association or Zeta Persei Association. Zeta is a triple star system, with a companion blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B8 and apparent magnitude 9.16 around 3,900 AU distant from the primary, and a white main sequence star of magnitude 9.90 and spectral type A2, some 50,000 AU away, that may or may not be gravitationally bound to the other two. X Persei is a double system in this association; one component is a hot, bright star and the other is a neutron star. With an apparent magnitude of 6.72, it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye even in perfectly dark conditions. The system is an X-ray source and the primary star appears to be undergoing substantial mass loss. Once thought to be a member of the Perseus OB2 Association, Omicron Persei (Atik) is a multiple star system with a combined visual magnitude of 3.85. It is composed of two blue-white stars—a giant of spectral class B1.5 and main sequence star of B3—which orbit each other every 4.5 days and are distorted into ovoids due to their small separation. The system has a third star about which little is known. At an estimated distance of 1,475 light-years from Earth, the system is now thought to lie too far from the center of the Zeta Persei group to belong to it.
GRO J0422+32 (V518 Persei) is another X-ray binary in Perseus. One component is a red dwarf star of spectral type M4.5V, which orbits a mysterious dense and heavy object—possibly a black hole—every 5.1 hours. The system is an X-ray nova, meaning that it experiences periodic outbursts in the X-ray band of the electromagnetic spectrum. If the system does indeed contain a black hole, it would be the smallest one ever recorded. Further analysis in 2012 calculated a mass of 2.1 solar masses, which raises questions as to what the object actually is as it appears to be too small to be a black hole.
GK Persei, also known as Nova Persei 1901, is a bright nova that appeared halfway between Algol and Delta Persei. Discovered on 21 February 1901 by Scottish amateur astronomer Thomas David Anderson, it peaked at magnitude 0.2—almost as bright as Capella and Vega. It faded to magnitude 13 around 30 years after its peak brightness. Xi Persei, traditionally known as Menkhib, a blue giant of spectral type O7III, is one of the hottest bright stars in the sky, with a surface temperature of 37,500 K. It is one of the more massive stars, being between 26 and 32 solar masses, and is 330,000 times as luminous as our Sun.
Named Gorgonea Tertia, Rho Persei varies in brightness like Algol, but is a pulsating rather than eclipsing star. At an advanced stage of stellar evolution, it is a red giant that has expanded for the second time to have a radius around 150 times that of our Sun. Its helium has been fused into heavier elements and its core is composed of carbon and oxygen. It is a semiregular variable star of the Mu Cephei type, whose apparent magnitude varies between 3.3 and 4.0 with periods of 50, 120 and 250 days. The Double Cluster contains three even larger stars, each over 700 solar radii: S, RS, and SU Persei are all semiregular pulsating M-type supergiants. The stars are not visible to the naked eye; SU Persei, the brightest of the three, has an apparent magnitude of 7.9 and thus is visible through binoculars. AX Persei is another binary star, the primary component is a red giant in an advanced phase of stellar evolution, which is transferring material onto an accretion disc around a smaller star. The star system is one of the few eclipsing symbiotic binaries, but is unusual because the secondary star is not a white dwarf, but an A-type star. DY Persei is a variable star that is the prototype of DY Persei variables, which are carbon-rich R Coronae Borealis variables that exhibit the variability of asymptotic giant branch stars. DY Persei itself is a carbon star that is too dim to see through binoculars, with an apparent magnitude of 10.6.
Seven stars in Perseus have been found to have planetary systems. V718 Persei is a star in the young open cluster IC 348 that appears to be periodically eclipsed by a giant planet every 4.7 years. This has been inferred to be an object with a maximum mass of 6 times that of Jupiter and an orbital radius of 3.3 AU.
Deep-sky objects
The galactic plane of the Milky Way passes through Perseus, but is much less obvious than elsewhere in the sky as it is mostly obscured by molecular clouds. The Perseus Arm is a spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy and stretches across the sky from the constellation Cassiopeia through Perseus and Auriga to Gemini and Monoceros. This segment is towards the rim of the galaxy.
Within the Perseus Arm lie two open clusters (NGC 869 and NGC 884) known as the Double Cluster. Sometimes known as h and Chi (χ) Persei, respectively, they are easily visible through binoculars and small telescopes. Both lie more than 7,000 light-years from Earth and are several hundred light-years apart. Both clusters are of approximately magnitude 4 and 0.5 degrees in diameter. The two are Trumpler class I 3 r clusters, though NGC 869 is a Shapley class f and NGC 884 is a Shapley class e cluster. These classifications indicate that they are both quite rich (dense); NGC 869 is the richer of the pair. The clusters are both distinct from the surrounding star field and are clearly concentrated at their centers. The constituent stars, numbering over 100 in each cluster, range widely in brightness.
M34 is an open cluster that appears at magnitude 5.5, and is approximately 1,500 light-years from Earth. It contains about 100 stars scattered over a field of view larger than that of the full moon. M34 can be resolved with good eyesight but is best viewed using a telescope at low magnifications. IC 348 is a somewhat young open cluster that is still contained within the nebula from which its stars formed. It is located about 1,027 light-years from Earth, is about 2 million years old, and contains many stars with circumstellar disks. Many brown dwarfs have been discovered in this cluster due to its age; since brown dwarfs cool as they age, it is easier to find them in younger clusters.
There are many nebulae in Perseus. M76 is a planetary nebula, also called the Little Dumbbell Nebula. It appears two arc-minutes by one arc-minute across and has an apparent brightness of magnitude 10.1. NGC 1499, also known as the California Nebula, is an emission nebula that was discovered in 1884–85 by American astronomer Edward E. Barnard. It is very difficult to observe visually because its low surface brightness makes it appear dimmer than most other emission nebulae. NGC 1333 is a reflection nebula and a star-forming region. Perseus also contains a giant molecular cloud, called the Perseus molecular cloud; it belongs to the Orion Spur and is known for its low rate of star formation compared to similar clouds.
Perseus contains some notable galaxies. NGC 1023 is a barred spiral galaxy of magnitude 10.35, around from Earth. It is the principal member of the NGC 1023 group of galaxies and is possibly interacting with another galaxy. NGC 1260 is either a lenticular or tightly wound spiral galaxy about from Earth. It was the host galaxy of the supernova SN 2006gy, one of the brightest ever recorded. It is a member of the Perseus Cluster (Abell 426), a massive galaxy cluster located from Earth. With a redshift of 0.0179, Abell 426 is the closest major cluster to the Earth. NGC 1275, a component of the cluster, is a Seyfert galaxy containing an active nucleus that produces jets of material, surrounding the galaxy with massive bubbles. These bubbles create sound waves that travel through the Perseus Cluster, sounding a B flat 57 octaves below middle C. This galaxy is a cD galaxy that has undergone many galactic mergers throughout its existence, as evidenced by the "high velocity system"—the remnants of a smaller galaxy—surrounding it. Its active nucleus is a strong source of radio waves. 3C 31 is an active galaxy and radio source in Perseus 237 million light-years from Earth (redshift 0.0173). Its jets, caused by the supermassive black hole at its center, extend several million light-years in opposing directions, making them some of the largest objects in the universe.
Meteor showers
The Perseids are a prominent annual meteor shower that appear to radiate from Perseus from mid-July, peaking in activity between 9 and 14 August each year. Associated with Comet Swift–Tuttle, they have been observed for about 2,000 years. The September Epsilon Perseids, discovered in 2012, are a meteor shower with an unknown parent body in the Oort cloud.
See also
Perseus (Chinese astronomy)
References
Cited texts
External links
The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Perseus
The clickable Perseus
Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Perseus)
Constellations
Northern constellations
Constellations listed by Ptolemy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil%20society
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Civil society
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Civil society can be understood as the "third sector" of society, distinct from government and business, and including the family and the private sphere. By other authors, civil society is used in the sense of
1) the aggregate of non-governmental organizations and institutions that manifest interests and will of citizens or
2) individuals and organizations in a society which are independent of the government.
Sometimes the term civil society is used in the more general sense of "the elements such as freedom of speech, an independent judiciary, etc, that make up a democratic society" (Collins English Dictionary). Especially in the discussions among thinkers of Eastern and Central Europe, civil society is seen also as a normative concept of civic values.
Etymology
The term civil society goes back to Aristotle's phrase koinōnía politikḗ (κοινωνία πολιτική), occurring in his Politics, where it refers to a ‘political community’, commensurate with the Greek city-state (polis) characterized by a shared set of norms and ethos, in which free citizens on an equal footing lived under the rule of law. The telos or end of civil society, thus defined, was eudaimonia (τὸ εὖ ζῆν tò eu zēn) (often translated as human flourishing or common well-being), in as man was defined as a ‘political (social) animal’ (ζῷον πολιτικόν zōon politikón). The concept was used by Roman writers, such as Cicero, where it referred to the ancient notion of a republic (res publica). It re-entered into Western political discourse following one of the late medieval translations of Aristotle's Politics into Latin by Leonardo Bruni who as a first translated koinōnía politikḗ into societas civilis. With the rise of a distinction between monarchical autonomy and public law, the term then gained currency to denote the corporate estates (Ständestaat) of a feudal elite of land-holders as opposed to the powers exercised by the prince. It had a long history in state theory, and was revived with particular force in recent times, in Eastern Europe, where dissidents such as Václav Havel as late as in the 1990s employed it to denote the sphere of civic associations threatened by the intrusive holistic state-dominated regimes of Communist Eastern Europe. The first post-modern usage of civil society as denoting political opposition stems from writings of Aleksander Smolar in 1978–79. However, the term was not in use by Solidarity labor union in 1980–1981.
Democracy
The literature on relations between civil society and democratic political society have their roots in classical liberal writings of G.W.F. Hegel from whom they were adapted by Alexis de Tocqueville, Karl Marx, and Ferdinand Tönnies. They were developed in significant ways by 20th century researchers Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, who identified the role of political culture in a democratic order as vital.
They argued that the political element of political organizations facilitates better awareness and a more informed citizenry, who make better voting choices, participate in politics, and hold government more accountable as a result. The statutes of these political organizations have been considered micro-constitutions because they accustom participants to the formalities of democratic decision making.
More recently, Robert D. Putnam has argued that even non-political organizations in civil society are vital for democracy. This is because they build social capital, trust and shared values, which are transferred into the political sphere and help to hold society together, facilitating an understanding of the interconnectedness of society and interests within it.
Others, however, have questioned the link between civil society and robust democracy. Some have noted that the civil society actors have now obtained a remarkable amount of political power without anyone directly electing or appointing them. It has been argued that civil society aided the Nazi Party in coming to power in 1930s Germany. It has also been argued that civil society is biased towards the global north. Partha Chatterjee has argued that, in most of the world, "civil society is demographically limited." Finally, other scholars have argued that, since the concept of civil society is closely related to democracy and representation, it should in turn be linked with ideas of nationality and nationalism.
Constitutional economics
Constitutional economics is a field of economics and constitutionalism which describes and analyzes the specific interrelationships between constitutional issues and functioning of the economy including budget process. The term "constitutional economics" was used by American economist James M. Buchanan as a name for a new budget planning and the latter's transparency to the civil society, are of the primary guiding importance to the implementation of the rule of law. Also, the availability of an effective court system, to be used by the civil society in situations of unfair government spending and executive impoundment of any previously authorized appropriations, becomes a key element for the success of any influential civil society.
Global
Critics and activists currently often apply the term civil society to the domain of social life which needs to be protected against globalization, and to the sources of resistance thereto, because it is seen as acting beyond boundaries and across different territories. However, as civil society can, under many definitions, include and be funded and directed by those businesses and institutions (especially donors linked to European and Northern states) who support globalization, this is a contested use. Rapid development of civil society on the global scale after the fall of the communist system was a part of neo-liberal strategies linked to the Washington Consensus. Some studies have also been published, which deal with unresolved issues regarding the use of the term in connection with the impact and conceptual power of the international aid system (see for example Tvedt 1998).
On the other hand, others see globalization as a social phenomenon expanding the sphere of classical liberal values, which inevitably led to a larger role for civil society at the expense of politically derived state institutions.
The integrated Civil Society Organizations (iCSO) System, developed by the Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA), facilitates interactions between civil society organizations and DESA.
Civil societies also have become involved in the environmental policy making process. These groups impact environmental policies by setting an agenda on fixing the harm done to the environment. They also get the public informed about environmental issues, which increases the public demand for environmental change.
History
From a historical perspective, the actual meaning of the concept of civil society has changed twice from its original, classical form. The first change occurred after the French Revolution, the second during the fall of communism in Europe.
Western antiquity
The concept of civil society in its pre-modern classical republican understanding is usually connected to the early-modern thought of Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century. However, it has much older history in the realm of political thought. Generally, civil society has been referred to as a political association governing social conflict through the imposition of rules that restrain citizens from harming one another. In the classical period, the concept was used as a synonym for the good society, and seen as indistinguishable from the state. For instance, Socrates taught that conflicts within society should be resolved through public argument using ‘dialectic’, a form of rational dialogue to uncover truth. According to Socrates, public argument through ‘dialectic’ was imperative to ensure ‘civility’ in the polis and ‘good life’ of the people. For Plato, the ideal state was a just society in which people dedicate themselves to the common good, practice civic virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation and justice, and perform the occupational role to which they were best suited. It was the duty of the ‘philosopher king’ to look after people in civility. Aristotle thought the polis was an ‘association of associations’ that enables citizens to share in the virtuous task of ruling and being ruled. His koinonia politike as political community.
The concept of societas civilis is Roman and was introduced by Cicero. The political discourse in the classical period, places importance on the idea of a ‘good society’ in ensuring peace and order among the people. The philosophers in the classical period did not make any distinction between the state and society. Rather they held that the state represented the civil form of society and ‘civility’ represented the requirement of good citizenship. Moreover, they held that human beings are inherently rational so that they can collectively shape the nature of the society they belong to. In addition, human beings have the capacity to voluntarily gather for the common cause and maintain peace in society. By holding this view, we can say that classical political thinkers endorsed the genesis of civil society in its original sense.
The Middle Ages saw major changes in the topics discussed by political philosophers. Due to the unique political arrangements of feudalism, the concept of classical civil society practically disappeared from mainstream discussion. Instead conversation was dominated by problems of just war, a preoccupation that would last until the end of Renaissance.
Early modern history
The Thirty Years' War and the subsequent Treaty of Westphalia heralded the birth of the sovereign states system. The Treaty endorsed states as territorially-based political units having sovereignty. As a result, the monarchs were able to exert domestic control by circumventing the feudal lords by raising their own armed troops. Henceforth, monarchs could form national armies and deploy a professional bureaucracy and fiscal departments, which enabled them to maintain direct control and authority over their subjects. In order to meet administrative expenditures, monarchs exerted greater control over the economy. This gave birth to absolutism. Until the mid-eighteenth century, absolutism was the hallmark of Europe.
The absolutist concept of the state was disputed in the Enlightenment period. As a natural consequence of Renaissance, Humanism, and the scientific revolution, the Enlightenment thinkers raised fundamental questions such as "What legitimacy does heredity confer?", "Why are governments instituted?", "Why do some human beings have more basic rights than others?", and so on. These questions led them to make certain assumptions about the nature of the human mind, the sources of political and moral authority, the reasons behind absolutism, and how to move beyond absolutism. The Enlightenment thinkers believed in the power of the human mind to reason. They opposed the alliance between the state and the Church as the enemy of human progress and well-being because the coercive apparatus of the state curbed individual liberty and the Church legitimated monarchs by positing the theory of divine origin. Therefore, both were deemed to be against the will of the people.
Strongly influenced by the atrocities of Thirty Years' War, the political philosophers of the time held that social relations should be ordered in a different way from natural law conditions. Some of their attempts led to the emergence of social contract theory that contested social relations existing in accordance with human nature. They held that human nature can be understood by analyzing objective realities and natural law conditions. Thus they endorsed that the nature of human beings should be encompassed by the contours of state and established positive laws. Thomas Hobbes underlined the need of a powerful state to maintain civility in society. For Hobbes, human beings are motivated by self-interests (Graham 1997:23). Moreover, these self-interests are often contradictory in nature. Therefore, in state of nature, there was a condition of a war of all against all. In such a situation, life was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short" (Ibid: 25). Upon realizing the danger of anarchy, human beings became aware of the need of a mechanism to protect them. As far as Hobbes was concerned, rationality and self-interests persuaded human beings to combine in agreement, to surrender sovereignty to a common power (Kaviraj 2001:289). Hobbes called this common power, state, Leviathan.
John Locke had a similar concept to Hobbes about the political condition in England. It was the period of the Glorious Revolution, marked by the struggle between the divine right of the Crown and the political rights of Parliament. This influenced Locke to forge a social contract theory of a limited state and a powerful society. In Locke's view, human beings led also an unpeaceful life in the state of nature. However, it could be maintained at the sub-optimal level in the absence of a sufficient system (Brown 2001:73). From that major concern, people gathered together to sign a contract and constituted a common public authority. Nevertheless, Locke held that the consolidation of political power can be turned into autocracy, if it is not brought under reliable restrictions (Kaviraj 2001:291). Therefore, Locke set forth two treaties on government with reciprocal obligations. In the first treaty, people submit themselves to the common public authority. This authority has the power to enact and maintain laws. The second treaty contains the limitations of authority, i. e., the state has no power to threaten the basic rights of human beings. As far as Locke was concerned, the basic rights of human beings are the preservation of life, liberty and property. Moreover, he held that the state must operate within the bounds of civil and natural laws.
Both Hobbes and Locke had set forth a system, in which peaceful coexistence among human beings could be ensured through social pacts or contracts. They considered civil society as a community that maintained civil life, the realm where civic virtues and rights were derived from natural laws. However, they did not hold that civil society was a separate realm from the state. Rather, they underlined the co-existence of the state and civil society. The systematic approaches of Hobbes and Locke (in their analysis of social relations) were largely influenced by the experiences in their period. Their attempts to explain human nature, natural laws, the social contract and the formation of government had challenged the divine right theory. In contrast to divine right, Hobbes and Locke claimed that humans can design their political order. This idea had a great impact on the thinkers in the Enlightenment period.
The Enlightenment thinkers argued that human beings are rational and can shape their destiny. Hence, no need of an absolute authority to control them. Both Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a critic of civil society, and Immanuel Kant argued that people are peace lovers and that wars are the creation of absolute regimes (Burchill 2001:33). As far as Kant was concerned, this system was effective to guard against the domination of a single interest and check the tyranny of the majority (Alagappa 2004:30).
Modern history
G. W. F. Hegel completely changed the meaning of civil society, giving rise to a modern liberal understanding of it as a form of non-political society as opposed to institutions of modern nation state. While in classical republicanism civil society where synonymous with political society, Hegel distinguished political state and civil society, what was followed by Tocqueville's distinction between civil and political societies and associations, repeated by Marx and Tönnies.
Unlike his predecessors, Hegel considered civil society () as a separate realm, a "system of needs", that is the, "[stage of] difference which intervenes between the family and the state." Civil society is the realm of economic relationships as it exists in the modern industrial capitalist society, for it had emerged at the particular period of capitalism and served its interests: individual rights and private property. Hence, he used the German term "bürgerliche Gesellschaft" to denote civil society as "civilian society" – a sphere regulated by the civil code. This new way of thinking about civil society was followed by Alexis de Tocqueville and Karl Marx as well. For Hegel, civil society manifested contradictory forces. Being the realm of capitalist interests, there is a possibility of conflicts and inequalities within it (ex: mental and physical aptitude, talents and financial circumstances). He argued that these inequalities influence the choices that members are able to make in relation to the type of work they will do. The diverse positions in Civil Society fall into three estates: the substantial estate (agriculture), the formal estate (trade and industry), and the universal estate (civil society). A man is able to choose his estate, though his choice is limited by the aforementioned inequalities. However, Hegel argues that these inequalities enable all estates in Civil Society to be filled, which leads to a more efficient system on the whole.
Karl Marx followed the Hegelian way of using the concept of civil society. For Marx, the emergence of the modern state created a realm of civil society that reduced society to private interests competing against each other. Political society was autonomised into the state, which was in turn ruled by the bourgeois class (consider also that suffrage only belonged, then, to propertied men). Marx, in his early writings, anticipated the abolition of the separation between state and civil society, and looked forward to the reunification of private and public/political realms (Colletti, 1975). Hence, Marx rejected the positive role of state put forth by Hegel. Marx argued that the state cannot be a neutral problem solver. Rather, he depicted the state as the defender of the interests of the bourgeoisie. He considered the state to be the executive arm of the bourgeoisie, which would wither away once the working class took democratic control of society.
The above view about civil society was criticised by Antonio Gramsci (Edwards 2004:10). Departing somewhat from Marx, Gramsci did not consider civil society as a realm of private and alienated relationships. Rather, Gramsci viewed civil society as the vehicle for bourgeois hegemony, when it just represents a particular class. He underlined the crucial role of civil society as the contributor of the cultural and ideological capital required for the survival of the hegemony of capitalism. Rather than posing it as a problem, as in earlier Marxist conceptions, Gramsci viewed civil society as the site for problem-solving. Misunderstanding Gramsci, the New Left assigned civil society a key role in defending people against the state and the market and in asserting the democratic will to influence the state. At the same time, neo-liberal thinkers consider civil society as a site for struggle to subvert Communist and authoritarian regimes. Thus, the term civil society occupies an important place in the political discourses of the New Left and neo-liberals.
Post-modern history
It is commonly believed that the post-modern way of understanding civil society was first developed by political opposition in the former Soviet bloc East European countries in the 1980s. However, research shows that communist propaganda had the most important influence on the development and popularization of the idea instead, in an effort to legitimize neoliberal transformation in 1989. According to theory of restructurization of welfare systems, a new way of using the concept of civil society became a neoliberal ideology legitimizing development of the third sector as a substitute for the welfare state. The recent development of the third sector is a result of this welfare systems restructuring, rather than of democratization.
From that time stems a political practice of using the idea of civil society instead of political society. Henceforth, postmodern usage of the idea of civil society became divided into two main ones: as political society and as the third sector – apart from plethora of definitions. The Washington Consensus of the 1990s, which involved conditioned loans by the World Bank and IMF to debt-laden developing states, also created pressures for states in poorer countries to shrink. This in turn led to practical changes for civil society that went on to influence the theoretical debate. Initially the new conditionality led to an even greater emphasis on "civil society" as a panacea, replacing the state's service provision and social care, Hulme and Edwards suggested that it was now seen as "the magic bullet."
By the end of the 1990s civil society was seen less as a panacea amid the growth of the anti-globalization movement and the transition of many countries to democracy; instead, civil society was increasingly called on to justify its legitimacy and democratic credentials. This led to the creation by the UN of a high level panel on civil society. However, in the 1990s with the emergence of the nongovernmental organizations and the new social movements (NSMs) on a global scale, civil society as a third sector became treated as a key terrain of strategic action to construct ‘an alternative social and world order.’ Post-modern civil society theory has now largely returned to a more neutral stance, but with marked differences between the study of the phenomena in richer societies and writing on civil society in developing states.
Link to the public sphere
Jürgen Habermas said that the public sphere encourages rational will-formation; it is a sphere of rational and democratic social interaction. Habermas analyzes civil society as a sphere of "commodity exchange and social labor" and public sphere as a part of political realm. Habermas argues that even though society was representative of capitalist society, there are some institutions that were part of political society. Transformations in economy brought transformations to the public sphere. Though these transformations happen, a civil society develops into political society when it emerges as non-economic and has a populous aspect, and when the state is not represented by just one political party. There needs to be a locus of authority, and this is where society can begin to challenge authority. Jillian Schwedler points out that civil society emerges with the resurrection of the public sphere when individuals and groups begin to challenge boundaries of permissible behaviour – for example, by speaking out against the regime or demanding a government response to social needs – civil society begins to take shape.
Institutions
Civil society organizations, also known as civic organizations, include among others:
academia
activist groups
charities
clubs (sports, social, etc.)
community foundations
community organizations
consumer organizations
cooperatives
foundations
non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
non-profit organizations (NPOs)
private voluntary organizations (PVOs)
professional associations
religious organizations
social enterprises
social movement organizations
support groups
trade unions
voluntary associations
See also
Portal:Politics
activism
anarchism
associationalism
civic engagement
civics
civic space
civic virtue
civil affairs
civil inattention
civil liberties
civil religion
civil and political rights
communitarianism
communism
constitutional economics
coordination good
cultural hegemony
democracy
Foucault–Habermas debate
global civics
global governance
human rights
judiciary
liberal nationalism
mass society
non-state actor
open society
political science
public interest litigation
rule of law
Rule According to Higher Law
social capital
social economy
social entrepreneurship
social innovation
sociology
socialism
power
voluntary sector
Yearbook of International Organizations
Civil-society scholars
Jeffrey C. Alexander
Helmut Anheier
Andrew Arato
Phillip Blond
Benjamin Barber
Daniel Bell
Robert N. Bellah
Walden Bello
Jean L. Cohen
Michael Edwards
Jean Bethke Elshtain
Amitai Etzioni
Francis Fukuyama
Ernest Gellner
Susan George
Jürgen Habermas
Peter Dobkin Hall
Mary Kaldor
Barry Dean Karl
John Keane
David Korten
John W. Meyer
Frank Moulaert
Michael Oakeshott
Michael O'Neill
Elinor Ostrom
Robert D. Putnam
Michael Sandel
Charles Taylor
Lori Wallach
Khurram Zaki
References
Citations
Sources
Alagappa, Muthiah. Civil Society and Political Change in Asia. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004.
Colletti, Lucio. ‘Introduction’, in Karl Marx, Early Writings, Pelican, 1975, pp. 7–56. .
Edwards, Michael. Civil Society. Cambridge, England: Polity Press, 2004. .
Draper, Hal. Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution (Volume 1: State and Bureaucracy, Volume 2: The Politics of Social Classes). New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977 & 1986.
Ehrenberg, John. Civil Society: The Critical History of an Idea. New York: New York University Press, 1999.
Ginsborg, Paul. Italy and Its Discontents: Family, Civil Society, State (2003)
Gosewinkel, Dieter: Civil Society, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 24 August 2011.
Hemmati, Minu. Dodds, Felix. Enayati, Jasmin. and McHarry,Jan downloadable copy of Multistakeholder Processes for Governance and Sustainability:Beyond Deadlock and Conflict
O'Connell, Brian. Civil Society: The Underpinnings of American Democracy. Medford, Mass:Tufts University Press, 1999. .
Perlas, Nicolas. Shaping Globalization – Civil Society, Cultural Power and Threefolding. .
Pollock, Graham. "Civil Society Theory and Euro-Nationalism," Studies In Social & Political Thought , Issue 4, March 2001, pp. 31–56. online
Soper, Steven C. Building a Civil Society: Associations, Public Life, and the Origins of Modern Italy (2013)
Tvedt, Terje. Angels of Mercy or Development Diplomats. NGOs & Foreign Aid. Oxford: James Currey, 1998.
Whaites, Alan, Let's get civil society straight: NGOs and Political Theory, Development in Practice, 1996,
Whaites, Alan, NGOs, Civil Society and the State: Avoiding theoretical extremes in real world issues,' Development in Practice 1998
Zaleski, Pawel Stefan, Tocqueville on Civilian Society: A Romantic Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality, Archiv für Begriffsgeschichte Bd. 50/2008
Helmut K. Anheier, Stefan Toepler, International Encyclopedia of Civil Society, Springer-Verlag New York Inc., New York 2010,
External links
LSE Centre for Civil Society
UN and Civil Society
UNEP Global Civil Society Forum.
Global Environment Facility Civil Society Network
EU relations with Civil Society
UK DFID relations with Civil Society
Civicus – Worldwide Alliance for Citizen Participation
Global civil society (PCDF).
One World Trust Database of Civil Society Self-regulatory Initiatives
Wiser.org – World Index for Social and Environmental Responsibility – formerly www.civilsociety.org.
Stakeholder Forum for a Sustainable Future engagement in UN stakeholder relations
International Society for Third-Sector Research
Requier-Desjardins Mélanie & Bied-Charreton Marc, 2007. Science and Civil Society in the fight against desertification. Les dossiers thématiques du CSFD. Issue 6. 40 pp.
100 years of trends in international civil society by the Union of International Associations
Interface journal special issue on civil society and social movements
Community building
Social economy
Democracy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perseus
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Perseus
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In Greek mythology, Perseus (; ) is the legendary founder of Mycenae and of the Perseid dynasty. He was, alongside Cadmus and Bellerophon, the greatest Greek hero and slayer of monsters before the days of Heracles. He beheaded the Gorgon Medusa for Polydectes and saved Andromeda from the sea monster Cetus. He was the son of Zeus and the mortal Danaë, as well as the half-brother and great-grandfather of Heracles (as they were both sired by Zeus).
Etymology
Because of the obscurity of the name "Perseus" and the legendary character of its bearer, most etymologists presume that it might be pre-Greek; however, the name of Perseus's native city was Greek and so were the names of his wife and relatives. There is some idea that it descended into Greek from the Proto-Indo-European language. In that regard Robert Graves has proposed the only Greek derivation available. Perseus might be from the Greek verb πέρθειν (pérthein, "to waste, ravage, sack, destroy") some form of which appears in Homeric epithets. According to Carl Darling Buck (Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin), the –eus suffix is typically used to form an agent noun, in this case from the aorist stem, pers-. Pers-eus therefore is a "sacker of cities", that is, a soldier by occupation, a fitting name for the first Mycenaean warrior.
The further origin of perth- is more obscure. J. B. Hofmann lists the possible root as *bher-, from which Latin ferio, "strike". This corresponds to Julius Pokorny’s *bher-(3), "scrape, cut." Ordinarily *bh- descends to Greek as ph-. This difficulty can be overcome by presuming a dissimilation from the –th– in pérthein, which the Greeks would have preferred from a putative *phérthein. Graves carries the meaning still further, to the perse- in Persephone, goddess of death. John Chadwick in the second edition of Documents in Mycenaean Greek speculates about the Mycenaean goddess pe-re-*82, attested on the PY Tn 316 tablet (Linear B: ) and tentatively reconstructed as *Preswa.
A Greek folk etymology connected "Perseus" to the name of the Persian people, whom they called the Pérsai (from Old Persian Pārsa "Persia, a Persian"). The native name of this people, however, has always had an -a- in Persian. Herodotus recounts this story, devising a foreign son, Perses, from whom the Persians took the name. Apparently also the Persians knew the story, as Xerxes tried to use it to bribe the Argives during his invasion of Greece, but ultimately failed to do so.
Mythology
Origin at Argos
Perseus was the son of Zeus and Danaë, the daughter of Acrisius, King of Argos. Disappointed by his lack of luck in having a son, Acrisius consulted the oracle at Delphi, who warned him that he would one day be killed by his daughter's son. In order to keep Danaë childless, Acrisius imprisoned her in a bronze chamber, open to the sky, in the courtyard of his palace: This mytheme is also connected to Ares, Oenopion, Eurystheus, and others. Zeus came to her in the form of a shower of gold, and fathered her son Perseus. Soon after, their child was born; Perseus—"Perseus Eurymedon, for his mother gave him this name as well".
Fearful for his future, but unwilling to provoke the wrath of the gods by killing the offspring of Zeus and his daughter, Acrisius cast the two into the sea in a wooden chest. Danaë's fearful prayer, made while afloat in the darkness, has been expressed by the poet Simonides of Ceos. Mother and child washed ashore on the island of Seriphos, where they were taken in by the fisherman Dictys ("fishing net"), who raised the boy to manhood. The brother of Dictys was Polydectes ("he who receives/welcomes many"), the king of the island.
Overcoming the Gorgon
When Perseus was grown, Polydectes came to fall in love with the beautiful Danaë. Perseus believed Polydectes was less than honourable, and protected his mother from him; then Polydectes plotted to send Perseus away in disgrace. He held a large banquet where each guest was expected to bring a gift. Polydectes requested that the guests bring horses, under the pretense that he was collecting contributions for the hand of Hippodamia, daughter of Oinomaos. Perseus had no horse to give, so he asked Polydectes to name the gift; he would not refuse it. Polydectes held Perseus to his rash promise and demanded the head of the only mortal Gorgon, Medusa, whose gaze turned people to stone.
Athena instructed Perseus to find the Hesperides, who were entrusted with weapons needed to defeat the Gorgon. Following Athena's guidance, Perseus sought the Greae, sisters of the Gorgons, to demand the whereabouts of the Hesperides, the nymphs tending Hera's orchard. The Graeae were three perpetually old women, who shared a single eye. As the women passed the eye from one to another, Perseus snatched it from them, holding it for ransom in return for the location of the nymphs. When the sisters led him to the Hesperides, he returned what he had taken.
From the Hesperides he received a knapsack (kibisis) to safely contain Medusa's head. Zeus gave him an adamantine sword (a Harpe) and Hades's helm of darkness to hide. Hermes lent Perseus winged sandals to fly, and Athena gave him a polished shield. Perseus then proceeded to the Gorgons' cave.
In the cave he came upon the sleeping Medusa. By viewing Medusa's reflection in his polished shield, he safely approached and cut off her head. From her neck sprang Pegasus ("he who sprang") and Chrysaor ("sword of gold"), the result of Poseidon and Medusa's mating. The other two Gorgons pursued Perseus, but, wearing his helm of darkness, he escaped. From here he proceeded to visit King Atlas who had refused him hospitality; in revenge Perseus turned him to stone (by showing Atlas the severed head).
Marriage to Andromeda
On the way back to Seriphos, Perseus stopped in the kingdom of Aethiopia. This mythical Ethiopia was ruled by King Cepheus and Queen Cassiopeia. Cassiopeia, having boasted that her daughter Andromeda was equal in beauty to the Nereids, drew the vengeance of Poseidon, who sent an inundation on the land and a sea serpent, Cetus, which destroyed man and beast. The oracle of Ammon announced that no relief would be found until the king exposed his daughter Andromeda to the monster, and so she was fastened naked to a rock on the shore. Perseus slew the monster and, setting her free, claimed her in marriage.
Perseus married Andromeda in spite of Phineus, to whom she had before been promised. At the wedding a quarrel took place between the rivals, and Phineus was turned to stone by the sight of Medusa's head that Perseus had kept. Andromeda ("queen of men") followed her husband to Tiryns in Argos, and became the ancestress of the family of the Perseidae who ruled at Tiryns through her son with Perseus, Perses. After her death she was placed by Athena among the constellations in the northern sky, near Perseus and Cassiopeia. Sophocles and Euripides (and in more modern times Pierre Corneille) made the episode of Perseus and Andromeda the subject of tragedies, and its incidents were represented in many ancient works of art.
As Perseus was flying in his return above the sands of Libya, according to Apollonius of Rhodes, the falling drops of Medusa's blood created a race of toxic serpents, one of whom was to kill the Argonaut Mopsus. On returning to Seriphos and discovering that his mother had to take refuge from the violent advances of Polydectes, Perseus killed him with Medusa's head, and made his brother Dictys, consort of Danaë, king.
Oracle fulfilled
Perseus then returned his magical loans and gave Medusa's head as a votive gift to Athena, who set it on Zeus' shield (which she carried), as the Gorgoneion (see also: Aegis). The fulfillment of the oracle was told several ways, each incorporating the mythic theme of exile. In Pausanias he did not return to Argos, but went instead to Larissa, where athletic games were being held. He had just invented the quoit and was making a public display of them when Acrisius, who happened to be visiting, stepped into the trajectory of the quoit and was killed: thus the oracle was fulfilled. This is an unusual variant on the story of such a prophecy, as Acrisius' actions did not, in this variant, cause his death.
In the Bibliotheca, the inevitable occurred by another route: Perseus did return to Argos, but when Acrisius learned of his grandson's approach, mindful of the oracle he went into voluntary exile in Pelasgiotis (Thessaly). There Teutamides, king of Larissa, was holding funeral games for his father. Competing in the discus throw, Perseus' throw veered—and struck Acrisius, killing him instantly. In a third tradition, Acrisius had been driven into exile by his brother Proetus. Perseus turned the brother into stone with the Gorgon's head and restored Acrisius to the throne. Then, accused by Acrisius of lying about having slain Medusa, Perseus proves himself by showing Acrisius the Gorgon's head, thus fulfilling the prophecy.
Having killed Acrisius, Perseus, who was next in line for the throne, gave the kingdom to Megapenthes ("great mourning"), son of Proetus, and took over Megapenthes' kingdom of Tiryns. The story is related in Pausanias, who gives as motivation for the swap that Perseus was ashamed to have become king of Argos by inflicting death. In any case, early Greek literature reiterates that manslaughter, even involuntary, requires the exile of the slaughterer, expiation and ritual purification. The exchange might well have proved a creative solution to a difficult problem.
King of Mycenae
The two main sources regarding the legendary life of Perseus—for the Greeks considered him an authentic historical figure—are Pausanias and the Bibliotheca. Pausanias asserts that the Greeks believed Perseus founded Mycenae. He mentions the shrine to Perseus that stood on the left-hand side of the road from Mycenae to Argos, and also a sacred fountain at Mycenae called Persea. Located outside the walls, this was perhaps the spring that filled the citadel's underground cistern. He states also that Atreus stored his treasures in an underground chamber there, which is why Heinrich Schliemann named the largest tholos tomb the Treasury of Atreus.
Apart from these more historical references, the only accounts of him are from folk-etymology: Perseus dropped his cap or found a mushroom (both named myces) at Mycenae, or perhaps the place was named after the lady Mycene, daughter of Inachus, mentioned in a now-fragmentary poem, the Megalai Ehoiai. For whatever reasons, perhaps as outposts, Perseus fortified Mycenae according to Apollodorus along with Midea, an action that implies that they both previously existed. It is unlikely, however, that Apollodorus knew who walled in Mycenae; he was only conjecturing. Perseus took up official residence in Mycenae with Andromeda where he had a long, successful reign as king.
Suda
According to the Suda, Perseus, after he married Andromeda, founded a city and called it Amandra (Ἄμανδραν). In the city there was a stele depicting the Gorgon. The city later changed the name to Ikonion because it had the depiction (ἀπεικόνισμα) of the Gorgon. Then he fought the Isaurians and the Cilicians and founded the city of Tarsus because an oracle told him to found a city in the place where after the victory, the flat (ταρσός) of his foot will touch the earth while he is dismounting from his horse. Then he conquered the Medes and changed the name of the country to Persia. At Persia, he taught the magi about the Gorgon and, when a fireball fell from the sky, he took the fire and gave it to the people to guard and revere it.
Later, during a war he tried to use again Medusa's head but because he was old and could not see well, the head didn't work. Because he thought that it was useless, he turned it toward himself and he died. Later his son Merros (Μέρρος) burned the head.
Descendants
Perseus and Andromeda had seven sons: Perses, Alcaeus, Heleus, Mestor, Sthenelus, Electryon, and Cynurus, and two daughters, Gorgophone and Autochthe. Perses was left in Aethiopia and was believed to have been an ancestor of the Persians. The other descendants ruled Mycenae from Electryon to Eurystheus, after whom Atreus got the kingdom. However, the Perseids included the great hero, Heracles, stepson of Amphitryon, son of Alcaeus. The Heraclides, or descendants of Heracles, successfully contested the rule of the Atreids.
A statement by the Athenian orator, Isocrates helps to date Perseus approximately. He said that Heracles was four generations later than Perseus, which corresponds to the legendary succession: Perseus, Electryon, Alcmena, and Heracles, who was a contemporary of Eurystheus. Atreus was one generation later, a total of five generations.
On Pegasus
The replacement of Bellerophon as the tamer and rider of Pegasus by the more familiar culture hero Perseus was not simply an error of painters and poets of the Renaissance. The transition was a development of Classical times which became the standard image during the Middle Ages and has been adopted by the European poets of the Renaissance and later: Giovanni Boccaccio's Genealogia deorum gentilium libri (10.27) identifies Pegasus as the steed of Perseus, and Pierre Corneille places Perseus upon Pegasus in Andromède. Various modern representations of Pegasus depict the winged horse with Perseus, including the fantasy film Clash of the Titans and its 2010 remake.
Argive genealogy in Greek mythology
See also
Lugh
Lully
Ibert (1921)
Chimera
Ethiopia (Greek mythology)
Notes
References
Bibliography
Apollodorus, The Library with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica translated by Robert Cooper Seaton (1853-1915), R. C. Loeb Classical Library Volume 001. London, William Heinemann Ltd, 1912. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica. George W. Mooney. London. Longmans, Green. 1912. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Herodotus, The Histories with an English translation by A.D. Godley. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. . Online version at the Topos Text Project. Greek text available at Perseus Digital Library.
Hesiod, Theogony from The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA.,Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website.
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses translated by Brookes More (1859-1942). Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Ovidius Naso, Metamorphoses. Hugo Magnus. Gotha (Germany). Friedr. Andr. Perthes. 1892. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Suida, Suda Encyclopedia translated by Ross Scaife, David Whitehead, William Hutton, Catharine Roth, Jennifer Benedict, Gregory Hays, Malcolm Heath Sean M. Redmond, Nicholas Fincher, Patrick Rourke, Elizabeth Vandiver, Raphael Finkel, Frederick Williams, Carl Widstrand, Robert Dyer, Joseph L. Rife, Oliver Phillips and many others. Online version at the Topos Text Project.
Greek mythological heroes
Mythological swordfighters
Kings of Mycenae
Abantiades (mythology)
Perseid dynasty
Kings of Argos
Kings in Greek mythology
Children of Zeus
Demigods in classical mythology
Characters in Greek mythology
Deeds of Athena
Pegasus
Mythology of Argolis
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209452
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Firmware
|
Open Firmware
|
Open Firmware is a standard defining the interfaces of a computer firmware system, formerly endorsed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). It originated at Sun Microsystems, where it was known as OpenBoot, and has been used by vendors including Sun, Apple, IBM and ARM. Open Firmware allows the system to load platform-independent drivers directly from a PCI device, improving compatibility.
Open Firmware may be accessed through its command line interface, which uses the Forth programming language.
Open Firmware is described by IEEE standard IEEE 1275-1994, which was not reaffirmed by the Open Firmware Working Group (OFWG) since 1998 and has therefore been officially withdrawn by IEEE.
Several commercial implementations of Open Firmware have been released to the Open Source community in 2006, including Sun OpenBoot, Firmworks OpenFirmware and Codegen SmartFirmware. The source code is available from the OpenBIOS project. Sun's implementation is available under a BSD license.
Features
Open Firmware defines a standard way to describe the hardware configuration of a system, called the device tree. This helps the operating system to better understand the configuration of the host computer, relying less on user configuration and hardware polling. For example, Open Firmware is essential for reliably identifying slave I2C devices like temperature sensors for hardware monitoring, whereas the alternative solution of performing a blind probe of the I2C bus, as has to be done by software like lm_sensors on generic hardware, is known to result in serious hardware issues under certain circumstances.
Open Firmware Forth Code may be compiled into FCode, a bytecode which is independent of instruction set architecture. A PCI card may include a program, compiled to FCode, which runs on any Open Firmware system. In this way, it can provide boot-time diagnostics, configuration code, and device drivers. FCode is also very compact, so that a disk driver may require only one or two kilobytes. Therefore, many of the same I/O cards can be used on Sun systems and Macintoshes that used Open Firmware. FCode implements ANS Forth and a subset of the Open Firmware library.
Being based upon an interactive programming language, Open Firmware can be used to efficiently test and bring up new hardware. It allows drivers to be written and tested interactively. Operational video and mouse drivers are the only prerequisite for a graphical interface suitable for end-user diagnostics. Apple shipped such a diagnostic "operating system" in many Power Macintoshes. Sun also shipped an FCode-based diagnostic tool suite called OpenBoot Diagnostics (OBDiag) used by customer service support and hardware manufacturing teams
Access
On Sun SPARC systems, the Open Firmware interface is displayed on the console terminal before the bootstrapping of the system software. If a keyboard is connected, the main video display will be used as the console terminal and Open Firmware can be re-entered at any time by pressing () on the keyboard. If no keyboard is connected, then the first serial line on the system is usually used as the console and Open Firmware is re-entered by sending a "Break" on the serial line. While the system software is running, various Open Firmware settings can be read or written using the eeprom command.
On a PowerPC-based Macintosh, the Open Firmware interface can be accessed by pressing the keys at startup ( if using standard PC USB keyboard). Intel-based Macintoshes do not use Open Firmware; they use Extensible Firmware Interface. Also, early versions (before the PowerBook 3400) connect Open Firmware's input and output to the Modem port by default. This functionality is generally only used by developers or troubleshooting I.T. personnel; for common users, the Mac OS X operating system provides a high level graphical user interface to change commonly used Open Firmware settings. For instance, it is possible to specify the boot disk or partition without directly using the Open Firmware interface, but with some limitations (e.g. it is not possible to select boot from USB mass-storage devices, but Open Firmware allows iMac to boot using boot ud:,\\:tbxi command). Other Open Firmware settings can be changed using the nvram command while the system software is running.
On Pegasos, the interface is accessed by pressing at startup.
On IBM Power Systems, Open Firmware ("ok" prompt) can be accessed through the SMS Boot Menu. SMS Boot Menu can be accessed by pressing or during the boot sequence, after hardware checking, and just before the OS boot.
On the OLPC XO-1 laptop, Open Firmware access requires a developer key, that can be obtained after registration with OLPC. After installing the key, upon each power-on, the boot countdown can be interrupted with (the upper left key) to get to the Forth prompt.
See also
BIOS
Libreboot
Coreboot
Das U-Boot
Input/output base address
OpenBIOS
Power-on self-test
UEFI
References
External links
OPEN FIRMWARE HOME PAGE (via Internet Archive)
Sun's SPARC OBP documentation
The last IEEE 1275 text
Firmworks OpenFirmware source code
Codegen SmartFirmware source code
Boot Process on IBM POWER (via Internet Archive)
OFW FAQ on OLPC Wiki
Aurora SPARC Linux OBP reference guide (via Internet Archive)
Quick Reference
TinyBoot aka Tiny Open Firmware: an embeddable OpenFirmware-like system for small CPUs (via Internet Archive)
Firmware
Sun Microsystems software
IEEE standards
Macintosh firmware
BIOS
Open-source hardware
MacOS
Forth programming language family
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thylakoid
|
Thylakoid
|
Thylakoids are membrane-bound compartments inside chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. They are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. Thylakoids consist of a thylakoid membrane surrounding a thylakoid lumen. Chloroplast thylakoids frequently form stacks of disks referred to as grana (singular: granum). Grana are connected by intergranal/stromal thylakoids, which join granum stacks together as a single functional compartment.
In thylakoid membranes, chlorophyll pigments are found in packets called quantasomes. Each quantasome contains 230 to 250 chlorophyll molecules.
Etymology
The word Thylakoid comes from the Greek word thylakos meaning "sac" or "pouch". Thus, thylakoid means "sac-like" or "pouch-like".
Structure
Thylakoids are membrane-bound structures embedded in the chloroplast stroma. A stack of thylakoids is called a granum and resembles a stack of coins.
Membrane
The thylakoid membrane is the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis with the photosynthetic pigments embedded directly in the membrane. It is an alternating pattern of dark and light bands measuring each 1 nanometre. The thylakoid lipid bilayer shares characteristic features with prokaryotic membranes and the inner chloroplast membrane. For example, acidic lipids can be found in thylakoid membranes, cyanobacteria and other photosynthetic bacteria and are involved in the functional integrity of the photosystems. The thylakoid membranes of higher plants are composed primarily of phospholipids and galactolipids that are asymmetrically arranged along and across the membranes. Thylakoid membranes are richer in galactolipids rather than phospholipids; also they predominantly consist of hexagonal phase II forming monogalacotosyl diglyceride lipid. Despite this unique composition, plant thylakoid membranes have been shown to assume largely lipid-bilayer dynamic organization. Lipids forming the thylakoid membranes, richest in high-fluidity linolenic acid are synthesized in a complex pathway involving exchange of lipid precursors between the endoplasmic reticulum and inner membrane of the plastid envelope and transported from the inner membrane to the thylakoids via vesicles.
Lumen
The thylakoid lumen is a continuous aqueous phase enclosed by the thylakoid membrane. It plays an important role for photophosphorylation during photosynthesis. During the light-dependent reaction, protons are pumped across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen making it acidic down to pH 4.
Granum and stroma lamellae
In higher plants thylakoids are organized into a granum-stroma membrane assembly. A granum (plural grana) is a stack of thylakoid discs. Chloroplasts can have from 10 to 100 grana. Grana are connected by stroma thylakoids, also called intergranal thylakoids or lamellae. Grana thylakoids and stroma thylakoids can be distinguished by their different protein composition. Grana contribute to chloroplasts' large surface area to volume ratio. A recent electron tomography study of the thylakoid membranes has shown that the stroma lamellae are organized in wide sheets perpendicular to the grana stack axis and form multiple right-handed helical surfaces at the granal interface. Left-handed helical surfaces consolidate between the right-handed helices and sheets. This complex network of alternating helical membrane surfaces of different radii and pitch was shown to minimize the surface and bending energies of the membranes. This new model, the most extensive one generated to date, revealed that features from two, seemingly contradictory, older models coexist in the structure. Notably, similar arrangements of helical elements of alternating handedness, often referred to as “parking garage” structures, were proposed to be present in the endoplasmic reticulum and in ultradense nuclear matter. This structural organization may constitute a fundamental geometry for connecting between densely packed layers or sheets.
Formation
Chloroplasts develop from proplastids when seedlings emerge from the ground. Thylakoid formation requires light. In the plant embryo and in the absence of light, proplastids develop into etioplasts that contain semicrystalline membrane structures called prolamellar bodies. When exposed to light, these prolamellar bodies develop into thylakoids. This does not happen in seedlings grown in the dark, which undergo etiolation. An underexposure to light can cause the thylakoids to fail. This causes the chloroplasts to fail resulting to the death of the plant.
Thylakoid formation requires the action of vesicle-inducing protein in plastids 1 (VIPP1). Plants cannot survive without this protein, and reduced VIPP1 levels lead to slower growth and paler plants with reduced ability to photosynthesize. VIPP1 appears to be required for basic thylakoid membrane formation, but not for the assembly of protein complexes of the thylakoid membrane. It is conserved in all organisms containing thylakoids, including cyanobacteria, green algae, such as Chlamydomonas, and higher plants, such as Arabidopsis thaliana.
Isolation and fractionation
Thylakoids can be purified from plant cells using a combination of differential and gradient centrifugation. Disruption of isolated thylakoids, for example by mechanical shearing, releases the lumenal fraction. Peripheral and integral membrane fractions can be extracted from the remaining membrane fraction. Treatment with sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) detaches peripheral membrane proteins, whereas treatment with detergents and organic solvents solubilizes integral membrane proteins.
Proteins
Thylakoids contain many integral and peripheral membrane proteins, as well as lumenal proteins. Recent proteomics studies of thylakoid fractions have provided further details on the protein composition of the thylakoids. These data have been summarized in several plastid protein databases that are available online.
According to these studies, the thylakoid proteome consists of at least 335 different proteins. Out of these, 89 are in the lumen, 116 are integral membrane proteins, 62 are peripheral proteins on the stroma side, and 68 peripheral proteins on the lumenal side. Additional low-abundance lumenal proteins can be predicted through computational methods. Of the thylakoid proteins with known functions, 42% are involved in photosynthesis. The next largest functional groups include proteins involved in protein targeting, processing and folding with 11%, oxidative stress response (9%) and translation (8%).
Integral membrane proteins
Thylakoid membranes contain integral membrane proteins which play an important role in light-harvesting and the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. There are four major protein complexes in the thylakoid membrane:
Photosystems I and II
Cytochrome b6f complex
ATP synthase
Photosystem II is located mostly in the grana thylakoids, whereas photosystem I and ATP synthase are mostly located in the stroma thylakoids and the outer layers of grana. The cytochrome b6f complex is distributed evenly throughout thylakoid membranes. Due to the separate location of the two photosystems in the thylakoid membrane system, mobile electron carriers are required to shuttle electrons between them. These carriers are plastoquinone and plastocyanin. Plastoquinone shuttles electrons from photosystem II to the cytochrome b6f complex, whereas plastocyanin carries electrons from the cytochrome b6f complex to photosystem I.
Together, these proteins make use of light energy to drive electron transport chains that generate a chemiosmotic potential across the thylakoid membrane and NADPH, a product of the terminal redox reaction. The ATP synthase uses the chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation.
Photosystems
These photosystems are light-driven redox centers, each consisting of an antenna complex that uses chlorophylls and accessory photosynthetic pigments such as carotenoids and phycobiliproteins to harvest light at a variety of wavelengths. Each antenna complex has between 250 and 400 pigment molecules and the energy they absorb is shuttled by resonance energy transfer to a specialized chlorophyll a at the reaction center of each photosystem. When either of the two chlorophyll a molecules at the reaction center absorb energy, an electron is excited and transferred to an electron-acceptor molecule. Photosystem I contains a pair of chlorophyll a molecules, designated P700, at its reaction center that maximally absorbs 700 nm light. Photosystem II contains P680 chlorophyll that absorbs 680 nm light best (note that these wavelengths correspond to deep red – see the visible spectrum). The P is short for pigment and the number is the specific absorption peak in nanometers for the chlorophyll molecules in each reaction center. This is the green pigment present in plants that is not visible from unaided eyes.
Cytochrome b6f complex
The cytochrome b6f complex is part of the thylakoid electron transport chain and couples electron transfer to the pumping of protons into the thylakoid lumen. Energetically, it is situated between the two photosystems and transfers electrons from photosystem II-plastoquinone to plastocyanin-photosystem I.
ATP synthase
The thylakoid ATP synthase is a CF1FO-ATP synthase similar to the mitochondrial ATPase. It is integrated into the thylakoid membrane with the CF1-part sticking into the stroma. Thus, ATP synthesis occurs on the stromal side of the thylakoids where the ATP is needed for the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.
Lumen proteins
The electron transport protein plastocyanin is present in the lumen and shuttles electrons from the cytochrome b6f protein complex to photosystem I. While plastoquinones are lipid-soluble and therefore move within the thylakoid membrane, plastocyanin moves through the thylakoid lumen.
The lumen of the thylakoids is also the site of water oxidation by the oxygen evolving complex associated with the lumenal side of photosystem II.
Lumenal proteins can be predicted computationally based on their targeting signals. In Arabidopsis, out of the predicted lumenal proteins possessing the Tat signal, the largest groups with known functions are 19% involved in protein processing (proteolysis and folding), 18% in photosynthesis, 11% in metabolism, and 7% redox carriers and defense.
Protein expression
Chloroplasts have their own genome, which encodes a number of thylakoid proteins. However, during the course of plastid evolution from their cyanobacterial endosymbiotic ancestors, extensive gene transfer from the chloroplast genome to the cell nucleus took place. This results in the four major thylakoid protein complexes being encoded in part by the chloroplast genome and in part by the nuclear genome. Plants have developed several mechanisms to co-regulate the expression of the different subunits encoded in the two different organelles to assure the proper stoichiometry and assembly of these protein complexes. For example, transcription of nuclear genes encoding parts of the photosynthetic apparatus is regulated by light. Biogenesis, stability and turnover of thylakoid protein complexes are regulated by phosphorylation via redox-sensitive kinases in the thylakoid membranes. The translation rate of chloroplast-encoded proteins is controlled by the presence or absence of assembly partners (control by epistasy of synthesis). This mechanism involves negative feedback through binding of excess protein to the 5' untranslated region of the chloroplast mRNA. Chloroplasts also need to balance the ratios of photosystem I and II for the electron transfer chain. The redox state of the electron carrier plastoquinone in the thylakoid membrane directly affects the transcription of chloroplast genes encoding proteins of the reaction centers of the photosystems, thus counteracting imbalances in the electron transfer chain.
Protein targeting to the thylakoids
Thylakoid proteins are targeted to their destination via signal peptides and prokaryotic-type secretory pathways inside the chloroplast. Most thylakoid proteins encoded by a plant's nuclear genome need two targeting signals for proper localization: An N-terminal chloroplast targeting peptide (shown in yellow in the figure), followed by a thylakoid targeting peptide (shown in blue). Proteins are imported through the translocon of the outer and inner membrane (Toc and Tic) complexes. After entering the chloroplast, the first targeting peptide is cleaved off by a protease processing imported proteins. This unmasks the second targeting signal and the protein is exported from the stroma into the thylakoid in a second targeting step. This second step requires the action of protein translocation components of the thylakoids and is energy-dependent. Proteins are inserted into the membrane via the SRP-dependent pathway (1), the Tat-dependent pathway (2), or spontaneously via their transmembrane domains (not shown in the figure). Lumenal proteins are exported across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen by either the Tat-dependent pathway (2) or the Sec-dependent pathway (3) and released by cleavage from the thylakoid targeting signal. The different pathways utilize different signals and energy sources. The Sec (secretory) pathway requires ATP as an energy source and consists of SecA, which binds to the imported protein and a Sec membrane complex to shuttle the protein across. Proteins with a twin arginine motif in their thylakoid signal peptide are shuttled through the Tat (twin arginine translocation) pathway, which requires a membrane-bound Tat complex and the pH gradient as an energy source. Some other proteins are inserted into the membrane via the SRP (signal recognition particle) pathway. The chloroplast SRP can interact with its target proteins either post-translationally or co-translationally, thus transporting imported proteins as well as those that are translated inside the chloroplast. The SRP pathway requires GTP and the pH gradient as energy sources. Some transmembrane proteins may also spontaneously insert into the membrane from the stromal side without energy requirement.
Function
The thylakoids are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. These include light-driven water oxidation and oxygen evolution, the pumping of protons across the thylakoid membranes coupled with the electron transport chain of the photosystems and cytochrome complex, and ATP synthesis by the ATP synthase utilizing the generated proton gradient.
Water photolysis
The first step in photosynthesis is the light-driven reduction (splitting) of water to provide the electrons for the photosynthetic electron transport chains as well as protons for the establishment of a proton gradient. The water-splitting reaction occurs on the lumenal side of the thylakoid membrane and is driven by the light energy captured by the photosystems. This oxidation of water conveniently produces the waste product O2 that is vital for cellular respiration. The molecular oxygen formed by the reaction is released into the atmosphere.
Electron transport chains
Two different variations of electron transport are used during photosynthesis:
Noncyclic electron transport or Non-cyclic photophosphorylation produces NADPH + H+ and ATP.
Cyclic electron transport or Cyclic photophosphorylation produces only ATP.
The noncyclic variety involves the participation of both photosystems, while the cyclic electron flow is dependent on only photosystem I.
Photosystem I uses light energy to reduce NADP+ to NADPH + H+, and is active in both noncyclic and cyclic electron transport. In cyclic mode, the energized electron is passed down a chain that ultimately returns it (in its base state) to the chlorophyll that energized it.
Photosystem II uses light energy to oxidize water molecules, producing electrons (e−), protons (H+), and molecular oxygen (O2), and is only active in noncyclic transport. Electrons in this system are not conserved, but are rather continually entering from oxidized 2H2O (O2 + 4 H+ + 4 e−) and exiting with NADP+ when it is finally reduced to NADPH.
Chemiosmosis
A major function of the thylakoid membrane and its integral photosystems is the establishment of chemiosmotic potential. The carriers in the electron transport chain use some of the electron's energy to actively transport protons from the stroma to the lumen. During photosynthesis, the lumen becomes acidic, as low as pH 4, compared to pH 8 in the stroma. This represents a 10,000 fold concentration gradient for protons across the thylakoid membrane.
Source of proton gradient
The protons in the lumen come from three primary sources.
Photolysis by photosystem II oxidises water to oxygen, protons and electrons in the lumen.
The transfer of electrons from photosystem II to plastoquinone during non-cyclic electron transport consumes two protons from the stroma. These are released in the lumen when the reduced plastoquinol is oxidized by the cytochrome b6f protein complex on the lumen side of the thylakoid membrane. From the plastoquinone pool, electrons pass through the cytochrome b6f complex. This integral membrane assembly resembles cytochrome bc1.
The reduction of plastoquinone by ferredoxin during cyclic electron transport also transfers two protons from the stroma to the lumen.
The proton gradient is also caused by the consumption of protons in the stroma to make NADPH from NADP+ at the NADP reductase.
ATP generation
The molecular mechanism of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) generation in chloroplasts is similar to that in mitochondria and takes the required energy from the proton motive force (PMF). However, chloroplasts rely more on the chemical potential of the PMF to generate the potential energy required for ATP synthesis. The PMF is the sum of a proton chemical potential (given by the proton concentration gradient) and a transmembrane electrical potential (given by charge separation across the membrane). Compared to the inner membranes of mitochondria, which have a significantly higher membrane potential due to charge separation, thylakoid membranes lack a charge gradient. To compensate for this, the 10,000 fold proton concentration gradient across the thylakoid membrane is much higher compared to a 10 fold gradient across the inner membrane of mitochondria. The resulting chemiosmotic potential between the lumen and stroma is high enough to drive ATP synthesis using the ATP synthase. As the protons travel back down the gradient through channels in ATP synthase, ADP + Pi are combined into ATP. In this manner, the light-dependent reactions are coupled to the synthesis of ATP via the proton gradient.
Thylakoid membranes in cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic prokaryotes with highly differentiated membrane systems. Cyanobacteria have an internal system of thylakoid membranes where the fully functional electron transfer chains of photosynthesis and respiration reside. The presence of different membrane systems lends these cells a unique complexity among bacteria. Cyanobacteria must be able to reorganize the membranes, synthesize new membrane lipids, and properly target proteins to the correct membrane system. The outer membrane, plasma membrane, and thylakoid membranes each have specialized roles in the cyanobacterial cell. Understanding the organization, functionality, protein composition, and dynamics of the membrane systems remains a great challenge in cyanobacterial cell biology.
In contrast to the thylakoid network of higher plants, which is differentiated into grana and stroma lamellae, the thylakoids in cyanobacteria are organized into multiple concentric shells that split and fuse to parallel layers forming a highly connected network. This results in a continuous network that encloses a single lumen (as in higher‐plant chloroplasts) and allows water‐soluble and lipid‐soluble molecules to diffuse through the entire membrane network. Moreover, perforations are often observed within the parallel thylakoid sheets. These gaps in the membrane allow for the traffic of particles of different sizes throughout the cell, including ribosomes, glycogen granules, and lipid bodies. The relatively large distance between the thylakoids provides space for the external light-harvesting antennae, the phycobilisomes. This macrostructure, as in the case of higher plants, shows some flexibility during changes in the physicochemical environment.
See also
Arthur Meyer (botanist)
André Jagendorf
Chemiosmosis
Electrochemical gradient
Endosymbiosis
Oxygen evolution
Photosynthesis
References
Textbook sources
Membrane biology
Organelles
Photosynthesis
Plant anatomy
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209456
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honington%2C%20Suffolk
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Honington, Suffolk
|
Honington is a village and civil parish in the West Suffolk district of Suffolk in eastern England, near to the border with Norfolk. It lies on the River Black Bourn, about 8 miles (13 km) from Bury St Edmunds and 6 miles (10 km) from Thetford, Norfolk. Much of the farmland belongs to the estate of the Duke of Grafton. The village is known for its RAF station, RAF Honington. It is also near two joint RAF/USAF airfields: RAF Lakenheath and RAF Mildenhall. Honington was the birthplace of the poet Robert Bloomfield.
Position
Honington is bordered to the north-east by Sapiston, to the north-west by Fakenham Magna, to the north by Euston, to the east by Bardwell, to the south-west by Troston, and to the south by Ixworth Thorpe.
History
The existence of the village is recorded in the Domesday Book. Before the dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII in the late 1530s, the land in the village was held by the abbot of the great monastery at Bury St Edmunds.
The local lords of the manor were the dukes of Grafton in neighbouring Euston. The first Duke of Grafton, previously Earl of Euston, was Henry Fitzroy, the natural son of King Charles II by Countess of Castlemain. The third Duke of Grafton was briefly prime minister. The current Duke of Grafton is the 12th.
The village's past residents include the pastoral poet Robert Bloomfield, born in Honington in 1766. His first and best known poem is "The Farmers Boy". A biography of Bloomfield co-written by William Wickett, the headmaster of the village school at the time, was published in 1969. Bloomfield is buried at Shefford in Bedfordshire, where he spent the latter part of his life.
RAF Honington opened on 3 May 1937, as one of six operational airfields within No 3 Group Bomber Command. "From Barren Rocks to Living Stones" records that Honington was able to play a part in accommodating British evacuees from the terrorism in Aden in 1967. This was a major British operation at the time. In 1994 flying operations stopped and the Honington Air Traffic Control Zone ceased to exist in preparation for Honington becoming the depot of the RAF Regiment. The station now sees only very occasional air traffic. On one occasion in recent years the runway and ground facilities were borrowed by the USAF for a short period while work was carried out on the runway at the nearby RAF Lakenheath.
Amenities
The parishes of Sapiston and Honington were combined in 1972. Although the Grade I listed St Andrew's Church, Sapiston, has been declared redundant, occasional services are still held there. All Saints' Church at Honington is one of eleven congregations in the Ixworth Deanery of the Diocese of St Edmundsbury and Ipswich that make up the Blackbourne Team. The church itself is a Grade I listed building. A Church of England primary school founded in the 19th century operates in the village.
Honington has a public house, the Fox Inn.
Dad's Army
This rural part of Suffolk proved to be an ideal location for the 1970s British TV show Dad's Army. In common with much of the surrounding area, Sapiston and Honington were used for part of the series, in particular the episode "Things That Go Bump in the Night". The outside of the village school appeared as the church hall used for the Home Guard drill hall in a number of episodes.
The TV director, producer and writer David Croft, co-writer of Dad's Army, 'Allo 'Allo!, Are You Being Served?, Hi-de-Hi!, etc., lived at Honington Hall until his death at his Portuguese holiday home on 27 September 2011.
References
External links
Pages including Honington from:
Kelly's Directory of Suffolk, 1912
"The Farmers Boy"
Villages in Suffolk
Dad's Army
Civil parishes in Suffolk
Borough of St Edmundsbury
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative%20splicing
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Alternative splicing
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Alternative splicing, or alternative RNA splicing, or differential splicing, is an alternative splicing process during gene expression that allows a single gene to code for multiple proteins. In this process, particular exons of a gene may be included within or excluded from the final, processed messenger RNA (mRNA) produced from that gene. This means the exons are joined in different combinations, leading to different (alternative) mRNA strands. Consequently, the proteins translated from alternatively spliced mRNAs will contain differences in their amino acid sequence and, often, in their biological functions (see Figure). Notably, alternative splicing allows the human genome to direct the synthesis of many more proteins than would be expected from its 20,000 protein-coding genes.
Alternative splicing occurs as a normal phenomenon in eukaryotes, where it greatly increases the biodiversity of proteins that can be encoded by the genome; in humans, ~95% of multi-exonic genes are alternatively spliced. There are numerous modes of alternative splicing observed, of which the most common is exon skipping. In this mode, a particular exon may be included in mRNAs under some conditions or in particular tissues, and omitted from the mRNA in others.
The production of alternatively spliced mRNAs is regulated by a system of trans-acting proteins that bind to cis-acting sites on the primary transcript itself. Such proteins include splicing activators that promote the usage of a particular splice site, and splicing repressors that reduce the usage of a particular site. Mechanisms of alternative splicing are highly variable, and new examples are constantly being found, particularly through the use of high-throughput techniques. Researchers hope to fully elucidate the regulatory systems involved in splicing, so that alternative splicing products from a given gene under particular conditions ("splicing variants") could be predicted by a "splicing code".
Abnormal variations in splicing are also implicated in disease; a large proportion of human genetic disorders result from splicing variants. Abnormal splicing variants are also thought to contribute to the development of cancer, and splicing factor genes are frequently mutated in different types of cancer.
Discovery
Alternative splicing was first observed in 1977. The Adenovirus produces five primary transcripts early in its infectious cycle, prior to viral DNA replication, and an additional one later, after DNA replication begins. The early primary transcripts continue to be produced after DNA replication begins. The additional primary transcript produced late in infection is large and comes from 5/6 of the 32kb adenovirus genome. This is much larger than any of the individual adenovirus mRNAs present in infected cells. Researchers found that the primary RNA transcript produced by adenovirus type 2 in the late phase was spliced in many different ways, resulting in mRNAs encoding different viral proteins. In addition, the primary transcript contained multiple polyadenylation sites, giving different 3’ ends for the processed mRNAs.
In 1981, the first example of alternative splicing in a transcript from a normal, endogenous gene was characterized. The gene encoding the thyroid hormone calcitonin was found to be alternatively spliced in mammalian cells. The primary transcript from this gene contains 6 exons; the calcitonin mRNA contains exons 1–4, and terminates after a polyadenylation site in exon 4. Another mRNA is produced from this pre-mRNA by skipping exon 4, and includes exons 1–3, 5, and 6. It encodes a protein known as CGRP (calcitonin gene related peptide). Examples of alternative splicing in immunoglobin gene transcripts in mammals were also observed in the early 1980s.
Since then, alternative splicing has been found to be ubiquitous in eukaryotes. The "record-holder" for alternative splicing is a D. melanogaster gene called Dscam, which could potentially have 38,016 splice variants.
In 2021, it was discovered that the genome of adenovirus type 2, the adenovirus in which alternative splicing was first identified, was able to produce a much greater variety of mRNA than previously thought. By using next generation sequencing technology, researchers were able to update the human adenovirus type 2 transcriptome, and present a mind-boggling 904 unique mRNA, produced by the virus through a complex pattern of alternative splicing.
Modes
Five basic modes of alternative splicing are generally recognized.
Exon skipping or cassette exon: in this case, an exon may be spliced out of the primary transcript or retained. This is the most common mode in mammalian pre-mRNAs.
Mutually exclusive exons: One of two exons is retained in mRNAs after splicing, but not both.
Alternative donor site: An alternative 5' splice junction (donor site) is used, changing the 3' boundary of the upstream exon.
Alternative acceptor site: An alternative 3' splice junction (acceptor site) is used, changing the 5' boundary of the downstream exon.
Intron retention: A sequence may be spliced out as an intron or simply retained. This is distinguished from exon skipping because the retained sequence is not flanked by introns. If the retained intron is in the coding region, the intron must encode amino acids in frame with the neighboring exons, or a stop codon or a shift in the reading frame will cause the protein to be non-functional. This is the rarest mode in mammals but the most common in plants.
In addition to these primary modes of alternative splicing, there are two other main mechanisms by which different mRNAs may be generated from the same gene; multiple promoters and multiple polyadenylation sites. Use of multiple promoters is properly described as a transcriptional regulation mechanism rather than alternative splicing; by starting transcription at different points, transcripts with different 5'-most exons can be generated. At the other end, multiple polyadenylation sites provide different 3' end points for the transcript. Both of these mechanisms are found in combination with alternative splicing and provide additional variety in mRNAs derived from a gene.
These modes describe basic splicing mechanisms, but may be inadequate to describe complex splicing events. For instance, the figure to the right shows 3 spliceforms from the mouse hyaluronidase 3 gene. Comparing the exonic structure shown in the first line (green) with the one in the second line (yellow) shows intron retention, whereas the comparison between the second and the third spliceform (yellow vs. blue) exhibits exon skipping. A model nomenclature to uniquely designate all possible splicing patterns has recently been proposed.
Mechanisms
General splicing mechanism
When the pre-mRNA has been transcribed from the DNA, it includes several introns and exons. (In nematodes, the mean is 4–5 exons and introns; in the fruit fly Drosophila there can be more than 100 introns and exons in one transcribed pre-mRNA.) The exons to be retained in the mRNA are determined during the splicing process. The regulation and selection of splice sites are done by trans-acting splicing activator and splicing repressor proteins as well as cis-acting elements within the pre-mRNA itself such as exonic splicing enhancers and exonic splicing silencers.
The typical eukaryotic nuclear intron has consensus sequences defining important regions. Each intron has the sequence GU at its 5' end. Near the 3' end there is a branch site. The nucleotide at the branchpoint is always an A; the consensus around this sequence varies somewhat. In humans the branch site consensus sequence is yUnAy. The branch site is followed by a series of pyrimidines – the polypyrimidine tract – then by AG at the 3' end.
Splicing of mRNA is performed by an RNA and protein complex known as the spliceosome, containing snRNPs designated U1, U2, U4, U5, and U6 (U3 is not involved in mRNA splicing). U1 binds to the 5' GU and U2, with the assistance of the U2AF protein factors, binds to the branchpoint A within the branch site. The complex at this stage is known as the spliceosome A complex. Formation of the A complex is usually the key step in determining the ends of the intron to be spliced out, and defining the ends of the exon to be retained. (The U nomenclature derives from their high uridine content).
The U4,U5,U6 complex binds, and U6 replaces the U1 position. U1 and U4 leave. The remaining complex then performs two transesterification reactions. In the first transesterification, 5' end of the intron is cleaved from the upstream exon and joined to the branch site A by a 2',5'-phosphodiester linkage. In the second transesterification, the 3' end of the intron is cleaved from the downstream exon, and the two exons are joined by a phosphodiester bond. The intron is then released in lariat form and degraded.
Regulatory elements and proteins
Splicing is regulated by trans-acting proteins (repressors and activators) and corresponding cis-acting regulatory sites (silencers and enhancers) on the pre-mRNA. However, as part of the complexity of alternative splicing, it is noted that the effects of a splicing factor are frequently position-dependent. That is, a splicing factor that serves as a splicing activator when bound to an intronic enhancer element may serve as a repressor when bound to its splicing element in the context of an exon, and vice versa. The secondary structure of the pre-mRNA transcript also plays a role in regulating splicing, such as by bringing together splicing elements or by masking a sequence that would otherwise serve as a binding element for a splicing factor. Together, these elements form a "splicing code" that governs how splicing will occur under different cellular conditions.
There are two major types of cis-acting RNA sequence elements present in pre-mRNAs and they have corresponding trans-acting RNA-binding proteins. Splicing silencers are sites to which splicing repressor proteins bind, reducing the probability that a nearby site will be used as a splice junction. These can be located in the intron itself (intronic splicing silencers, ISS) or in a neighboring exon (exonic splicing silencers, ESS). They vary in sequence, as well as in the types of proteins that bind to them. The majority of splicing repressors are heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNPs) such as hnRNPA1 and polypyrimidine tract binding protein (PTB). Splicing enhancers are sites to which splicing activator proteins bind, increasing the probability that a nearby site will be used as a splice junction. These also may occur in the intron (intronic splicing enhancers, ISE) or exon (exonic splicing enhancers, ESE). Most of the activator proteins that bind to ISEs and ESEs are members of the SR protein family. Such proteins contain RNA recognition motifs and arginine and serine-rich (RS) domains.
In general, the determinants of splicing work in an inter-dependent manner that depends on context, so that the rules governing how splicing is regulated from a splicing code. The presence of a particular cis-acting RNA sequence element may increase the probability that a nearby site will be spliced in some cases, but decrease the probability in other cases, depending on context. The context within which regulatory elements act includes cis-acting context that is established by the presence of other RNA sequence features, and trans-acting context that is established by cellular conditions. For example, some cis-acting RNA sequence elements influence splicing only if multiple elements are present in the same region so as to establish context. As another example, a cis-acting element can have opposite effects on splicing, depending on which proteins are expressed in the cell (e.g., neuronal versus non-neuronal PTB). The adaptive significance of splicing silencers and enhancers is attested by studies showing that there is strong selection in human genes against mutations that produce new silencers or disrupt existing enhancers.
DNA methylation and alternative splicing in social insects
CpG DNA methylation has showed a role to regulate the alternative splicing in social insects. In honey bees (Apis mellifera), CpG DNA methylation seems to regulate the exon skipping based on the first few genomic studies after honey bee genome was available. CpG DNA methylation regulated alternative splicing more extensively, not only affect exon skipping, but also intron retention, and other splicing events.
Examples
Exon skipping: Drosophila dsx
Pre-mRNAs from the D. melanogaster gene dsx contain 6 exons. In males, exons 1,2,3,5,and 6 are joined to form the mRNA, which encodes a transcriptional regulatory protein required for male development. In females, exons 1,2,3, and 4 are joined, and a polyadenylation signal in exon 4 causes cleavage of the mRNA at that point. The resulting mRNA is a transcriptional regulatory protein required for female development.
This is an example of exon skipping. The intron upstream from exon 4 has a polypyrimidine tract that doesn't match the consensus sequence well, so that U2AF proteins bind poorly to it without assistance from splicing activators. This 3' splice acceptor site is therefore not used in males. Females, however, produce the splicing activator Transformer (Tra) (see below). The SR protein Tra2 is produced in both sexes and binds to an ESE in exon 4; if Tra is present, it binds to Tra2 and, along with another SR protein, forms a complex that assists U2AF proteins in binding to the weak polypyrimidine tract. U2 is recruited to the associated branchpoint, and this leads to inclusion of exon 4 in the mRNA.
Alternative acceptor sites: Drosophila
Pre-mRNAs of the Transformer (Tra) gene of Drosophila melanogaster undergo alternative splicing via the alternative acceptor site mode. The gene Tra encodes a protein that is expressed only in females. The primary transcript of this gene contains an intron with two possible acceptor sites. In males, the upstream acceptor site is used. This causes a longer version of exon 2 to be included in the processed transcript, including an early stop codon. The resulting mRNA encodes a truncated protein product that is inactive. Females produce the master sex determination protein Sex lethal (Sxl). The Sxl protein is a splicing repressor that binds to an ISS in the RNA of the Tra transcript near the upstream acceptor site, preventing U2AF protein from binding to the polypyrimidine tract. This prevents the use of this junction, shifting the spliceosome binding to the downstream acceptor site. Splicing at this point bypasses the stop codon, which is excised as part of the intron. The resulting mRNA encodes an active Tra protein, which itself is a regulator of alternative splicing of other sex-related genes (see dsx above).
Exon definition: Fas receptor
Multiple isoforms of the Fas receptor protein are produced by alternative splicing. Two normally occurring isoforms in humans are produced by an exon-skipping mechanism. An mRNA including exon 6 encodes the membrane-bound form of the Fas receptor, which promotes apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Increased expression of Fas receptor in skin cells chronically exposed to the sun, and absence of expression in skin cancer cells, suggests that this mechanism may be important in elimination of pre-cancerous cells in humans. If exon 6 is skipped, the resulting mRNA encodes a soluble Fas protein that does not promote apoptosis. The inclusion or skipping of the exon depends on two antagonistic proteins, TIA-1 and polypyrimidine tract-binding protein (PTB).
The 5' donor site in the intron downstream from exon 6 in the pre-mRNA has a weak agreement with the consensus sequence, and is not bound usually by the U1 snRNP. If U1 does not bind, the exon is skipped (see "a" in accompanying figure).
Binding of TIA-1 protein to an intronic splicing enhancer site stabilizes binding of the U1 snRNP. The resulting 5' donor site complex assists in binding of the splicing factor U2AF to the 3' splice site upstream of the exon, through a mechanism that is not yet known (see b).
Exon 6 contains a pyrimidine-rich exonic splicing silencer, ure6, where PTB can bind. If PTB binds, it inhibits the effect of the 5' donor complex on the binding of U2AF to the acceptor site, resulting in exon skipping (see c).
This mechanism is an example of exon definition in splicing. A spliceosome assembles on an intron, and the snRNP subunits fold the RNA so that the 5' and 3' ends of the intron are joined. However, recently studied examples such as this one show that there are also interactions between the ends of the exon. In this particular case, these exon definition interactions are necessary to allow the binding of core splicing factors prior to assembly of the spliceosomes on the two flanking introns.
Repressor-activator competition: HIV-1 tat exon 2
HIV, the retrovirus that causes AIDS in humans, produces a single primary RNA transcript, which is alternatively spliced in multiple ways to produce over 40 different mRNAs. Equilibrium among differentially spliced transcripts provides multiple mRNAs encoding different products that are required for viral multiplication. One of the differentially spliced transcripts contains the tat gene, in which exon 2 is a cassette exon that may be skipped or included. The inclusion of tat exon 2 in the RNA is regulated by competition between the splicing repressor hnRNP A1 and the SR protein SC35. Within exon 2 an exonic splicing silencer sequence (ESS) and an exonic splicing enhancer sequence (ESE) overlap. If A1 repressor protein binds to the ESS, it initiates cooperative binding of multiple A1 molecules, extending into the 5’ donor site upstream of exon 2 and preventing the binding of the core splicing factor U2AF35 to the polypyrimidine tract. If SC35 binds to the ESE, it prevents A1 binding and maintains the 5’ donor site in an accessible state for assembly of the spliceosome. Competition between the activator and repressor ensures that both mRNA types (with and without exon 2) are produced.
Adaptive significance
Alternative splicing is one of several exceptions to the original idea that one DNA sequence codes for one polypeptide (the One gene-one enzyme hypothesis). It might be more correct now to say "One gene – many polypeptides". External information is needed in order to decide which polypeptide is produced, given a DNA sequence and pre-mRNA. Since the methods of regulation are inherited, this provides novel ways for mutations to affect gene expression.
It has been proposed that for eukaryotes alternative splicing was a very important step towards higher efficiency, because information can be stored much more economically. Several proteins can be encoded by a single gene, rather than requiring a separate gene for each, and thus allowing a more varied proteome from a genome of limited size. It also provides evolutionary flexibility. A single point mutation may cause a given exon to be occasionally excluded or included from a transcript during splicing, allowing production of a new protein isoform without loss of the original protein. Studies have identified intrinsically disordered regions (see Intrinsically unstructured proteins) as enriched in the non-constitutive exons suggesting that protein isoforms may display functional diversity due to the alteration of functional modules within these regions. Such functional diversity achieved by isoforms is reflected by their expression patterns and can be predicted by machine learning approaches. Comparative studies indicate that alternative splicing preceded multicellularity in evolution, and suggest that this mechanism might have been co-opted to assist in the development of multicellular organisms.
Research based on the Human Genome Project and other genome sequencing has shown that humans have only about 30% more genes than the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans, and only about twice as many as the fly Drosophila melanogaster. This finding led to speculation that the perceived greater complexity of humans, or vertebrates generally, might be due to higher rates of alternative splicing in humans than are found in invertebrates.
However, a study on samples of 100,000 ESTs each from human, mouse, rat, cow, fly (D. melanogaster), worm (C. elegans), and the plant Arabidopsis thaliana found no large differences in frequency of alternatively spliced genes among humans and any of the other animals tested. Another study, however, proposed that these results were an artifact of the different numbers of ESTs available for the various organisms. When they compared alternative splicing frequencies in random subsets of genes from each organism, the authors concluded that vertebrates do have higher rates of alternative splicing than invertebrates.
Disease
Changes in the RNA processing machinery may lead to mis-splicing of multiple transcripts, while single-nucleotide alterations in splice sites or cis-acting splicing regulatory sites may lead to differences in splicing of a single gene, and thus in the mRNA produced from a mutant gene's transcripts. A study in 2005 involving probabilistic analyses indicated that greater than 60% of human disease-causing mutations affect splicing rather than directly affecting coding sequences. A more recent study indicates that one-third of all hereditary diseases are likely to have a splicing component. Regardless of exact percentage, a number of splicing-related diseases do exist. As described below, a prominent example of splicing-related diseases is cancer.
Abnormally spliced mRNAs are also found in a high proportion of cancerous cells. Combined RNA-Seq and proteomics analyses have revealed striking differential expression
of splice isoforms of key proteins in important cancer pathways. It is not always clear whether such aberrant patterns of splicing contribute to the cancerous growth, or are merely consequence of cellular abnormalities associated with cancer. For certain types of cancer, like in colorectal and prostate, the number of splicing errors per cancer has been shown to vary greatly between individual cancers, a phenomenon referred to as transcriptome instability. Transcriptome instability has further been shown to correlate grealty with reduced expression level of splicing factor genes. Mutation of DNMT3A has been demonstrated to contribute to hematologic malignancies, and that DNMT3A-mutated cell lines exhibit transcriptome instability as compared to their isogenic wildtype counterparts.
In fact, there is actually a reduction of alternative splicing in cancerous cells compared to normal ones, and the types of splicing differ; for instance, cancerous cells show higher levels of intron retention than normal cells, but lower levels of exon skipping. Some of the differences in splicing in cancerous cells may be due to the high frequency of somatic mutations in splicing factor genes, and some may result from changes in phosphorylation of trans-acting splicing factors. Others may be produced by changes in the relative amounts of splicing factors produced; for instance, breast cancer cells have been shown to have increased levels of the splicing factor SF2/ASF. One study found that a relatively small percentage (383 out of over 26000) of alternative splicing variants were significantly higher in frequency in tumor cells than normal cells, suggesting that there is a limited set of genes which, when mis-spliced, contribute to tumor development. It is believed however that the deleterious effects of mis-spliced transcripts are usually safeguarded and eliminated by a cellular posttranscriptional quality control mechanism termed Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay [NMD].
One example of a specific splicing variant associated with cancers is in one of the human DNMT genes. Three DNMT genes encode enzymes that add methyl groups to DNA, a modification that often has regulatory effects. Several abnormally spliced DNMT3B mRNAs are found in tumors and cancer cell lines. In two separate studies, expression of two of these abnormally spliced mRNAs in mammalian cells caused changes in the DNA methylation patterns in those cells. Cells with one of the abnormal mRNAs also grew twice as fast as control cells, indicating a direct contribution to tumor development by this product.
Another example is the Ron (MST1R) proto-oncogene. An important property of cancerous cells is their ability to move and invade normal tissue. Production of an abnormally spliced transcript of Ron has been found to be associated with increased levels of the SF2/ASF in breast cancer cells. The abnormal isoform of the Ron protein encoded by this mRNA leads to cell motility.
Overexpression of a truncated splice variant of the FOSB gene – ΔFosB – in a specific population of neurons in the nucleus accumbens has been identified as the causal mechanism involved in the induction and maintenance of an addiction to drugs and natural rewards.
Recent provocative studies point to a key function of chromatin structure and histone modifications in alternative splicing regulation. These insights suggest that epigenetic regulation determines not only what parts of the genome are expressed but also how they are spliced.
Genome-wide analysis
Genome-wide analysis of alternative splicing is a challenging task. Typically, alternatively spliced transcripts have been found by comparing EST sequences, but this requires sequencing of very large numbers of ESTs. Most EST libraries come from a very limited number of tissues, so tissue-specific splice variants are likely to be missed in any case. High-throughput approaches to investigate splicing have, however, been developed, such as: DNA microarray-based analyses, RNA-binding assays, and deep sequencing. These methods can be used to screen for polymorphisms or mutations in or around splicing elements that affect protein binding. When combined with splicing assays, including in vivo reporter gene assays, the functional effects of polymorphisms or mutations on the splicing of pre-mRNA transcripts can then be analyzed.
In microarray analysis, arrays of DNA fragments representing individual exons (e.g. Affymetrix exon microarray) or exon/exon boundaries (e.g. arrays from ExonHit or Jivan) have been used. The array is then probed with labeled cDNA from tissues of interest. The probe cDNAs bind to DNA from the exons that are included in mRNAs in their tissue of origin, or to DNA from the boundary where two exons have been joined. This can reveal the presence of particular alternatively spliced mRNAs.
CLIP (Cross-linking and immunoprecipitation) uses UV radiation to link proteins to RNA molecules in a tissue during splicing. A trans-acting splicing regulatory protein of interest is then precipitated using specific antibodies. When the RNA attached to that protein is isolated and cloned, it reveals the target sequences for that protein. Another method for identifying RNA-binding proteins and mapping their binding to pre-mRNA transcripts is "Microarray Evaluation of Genomic Aptamers by shift (MEGAshift)".net This method involves an adaptation of the "Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment (SELEX)" method together with a microarray-based readout. Use of the MEGAshift method has provided insights into the regulation of alternative splicing by allowing for the identification of sequences in pre-mRNA transcripts surrounding alternatively spliced exons that mediate binding to different splicing factors, such as ASF/SF2 and PTB. This approach has also been used to aid in determining the relationship between RNA secondary structure and the binding of splicing factors.
Deep sequencing technologies have been used to conduct genome-wide analyses of mRNAs – unprocessed and processed – thus providing insights into alternative splicing. For example, results from use of deep sequencing indicate that, in humans, an estimated 95% of transcripts from multiexon genes undergo alternative splicing, with a number of pre-mRNA transcripts spliced in a tissue-specific manner. Functional genomics and computational approaches based on multiple instance learning have also been developed to integrate RNA-seq data to predict functions for alternatively spliced isoforms. Deep sequencing has also aided in the in vivo detection of the transient lariats that are released during splicing, the determination of branch site sequences, and the large-scale mapping of branchpoints in human pre-mRNA transcripts.
Use of reporter assays makes it possible to find the splicing proteins involved in a specific alternative splicing event by constructing reporter genes that will express one of two different fluorescent proteins depending on the splicing reaction that occurs. This method has been used to isolate mutants affecting splicing and thus to identify novel splicing regulatory proteins inactivated in those mutants.
Databases
There is a collection of alternative splicing databases. These databases are useful for finding genes having pre-mRNAs undergoing alternative splicing and alternative splicing events or to study the functional impact of alternative splicing.
See also
AspicDB database
Exitron
Intronerator
Polyadenylation § Alternative polyadenylation
ProSAS database
SpliceInfo database
Trans-splicing
References
External links
A General Definition and Nomenclature for Alternative Splicing Events at SciVee
AStalavista (Alternative Splicing landscape visualization tool), a method for the computationally exhaustive classification of Alternative Splicing Structures
IsoPred: computationally predicted isoform functions
Stamms-lab.net: Research Group dealing with alternative Splicing issues and mis-splicing in human diseases
Alternative Splicing of ion channels in the brain, connected to mental and neurological diseases
BIPASS: Web Services in Alternative Splicing
Gene expression
Spliceosome
RNA splicing
fr:Épissage#Épissage alternatif
it:Splicing#Splicing alternativo
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] |
209460
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su%20Buqing
|
Su Buqing
|
Su Buqing, also spelled Su Buchin (; September 23, 1902 – March 17, 2003), was a Chinese mathematician, educator and poet. He was the founder of differential geometry in China, and served as president of Fudan University and honorary chairman of the Chinese Mathematical Society.
Biography
Su was born in Pingyang County, Zhejiang Province in 1902, with ancestry from Quanzhou. After attending Zhejiang Wenzhou High School, he graduated from Tohoku Imperial University in Japan in 1927 and received his Ph.D. from the university in 1931.
After returning to China, he first served as a professor and dean at Zhejiang University (he established the Chen-Su School with Chen Jiangong), and later as professor and president of Fudan University. He was honorary chairman of the Chinese Mathematical Society and elected to Academia Sinica and the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1948 and 1955 respectively. Su Buqing and Hua Luogeng were the most influential figures in mathematical society of modern China.
Praised commonly in mathematical field as the "first geometer in the orient", Su was engaged in research, teaching and education in differential geometry and computational geometry. In his early years, he made excellent contributions to affine differential geometry and projective differential geometry. He obtained extraordinary achievements in general space differential geometry, conjugating net theory in higher-dimensional space and computer aided geometry design.
Asteroid 297161 Subuchin, discovered by astronomers of the PMO NEO Survey Program in 2008, was named in his memory. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 8 November 2019 ().
References
1902 births
2003 deaths
20th-century Chinese mathematicians
Chinese centenarians
Educators from Wenzhou
Mathematicians from Zhejiang
Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
Members of Academia Sinica
Men centenarians
National Taiwan University faculty
People's Republic of China politicians from Zhejiang
Politicians from Wenzhou
Presidents of Fudan University
Scientists from Wenzhou
Tohoku University alumni
Zhejiang University faculty
Vice Chairpersons of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
|
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] |
209461
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saving%20Grace
|
Saving Grace
|
Saving Grace may refer to:
Grace (Christianity), a concept in Christian soteriology
Saving Grace (TV series), a 2007 television series starring Holly Hunter
"Saving Grace" (short story), a 1990 short story by Orson Scott Card
Film
Saving Grace (1986 film), a film based on a novel by Celia Gittelson
Saving Grace (1998 film), a New Zealand film based on a play by Duncan Sarkies
Saving Grace (2000 film), a British film
Saving Grace (2008 film), a film based on a Connie Stevens screenplay
Music
Saving Grace (band), a metal / hardcore band from New Zealand
Saving Grace, Robert Plant's band, formed in 2019.
Saving Grace, former name of Canadian country music duo now known as One More Girl
"Saving Grace" (song), a 2006 single by Tom Petty
"Saving Grace", a song by Bob Dylan from Saved (1980)
"Saving Grace", a song by Everlast
"Saving Grace", a song by Christian female group Point of Grace
"Saving Grace", a song by The Cranberries from Bury the Hatchet (1999)
"Saving Grace", a song by The Pretenders from the album Loose Screw (2002)
"Saving Grace", a song by The Maine from the album Black & White
|
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209463
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norton%2C%20Suffolk
|
Norton, Suffolk
|
Norton is a village and civil parish in the Mid Suffolk district of the English county of Suffolk. The name Norton means northern town or farm. Located close to the A14, its nearest railway station is at Elmswell, just over away. The closest towns are Stowmarket away and Bury St Edmunds, around away.
History
The village once formed part of Blackbourn Hundred, which appears in the Domesday Book. Its agricultural past is reflected in the number of listed buildings in the village today that are former barns, stables and cartlodges. An 1870s gazetteer of Britain describes the parish as comprising 2,449 acres and having a population of 948. It also mentions it as a meet for the Suffolk fox hounds.
The village today
Today the village has a population of around 800. Community facilities include a Greene King pub called "The Norton Dog" and a village shop located in the Total service station on Woolpit Road. A mobile Post Office is located next to the village hall every weekday afternoon.
Norton has a pre-school next to the village hall and a Church of England voluntary primary school, with children generally moving on to middle school in the nearby communities of Ixworth and Beyton. Secondary education is provided at Thurston Community College.
The community is served by three churches, with a Baptist church and Salvation Army citadel on Woolpit Road. The Medieval Church of St Andrew at Norton, located some way from the centre of the village, contains a collection of eight 14th century misericords and is believed to stand on the site of a Saxon church.
Norton is served with a bus service to Bury St Edmunds and Stowmarket which operates on a daily basis.
References
External links
Norton village website
Description and images of St Andrew at Norton at Suffolk Churches
Villages in Suffolk
Mid Suffolk District
Civil parishes in Suffolk
|
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] |
209465
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UI
|
UI
|
UI, Ui, or ui may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Ui (band), an American post-rock band
Ui Miyazaki (born 1981), Japanese voice actor
Arturo Ui, a fictional character from The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui by Bertolt Brecht
Businesses and organizations
Universities
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria, Africa
University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland
University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, US
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, US
University of Iloilo, Iloilo City, Philippines
University of Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia
University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, US
Universities Ireland
University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
Other businesses and organizations
The United Illuminating Company, a regional electric distribution company in the northeastern US
Eurocypria Airlines (IATA airline designator UI)
Unix International, an open-standard association
Science, technology, and mathematics
Computing
Unit interval (data transmission), also pulse time or signal duration time
User interface, between human and machine
Other uses in science, technology, and mathematics
International unit, typically used for medication dose
Unit injector for diesel engines
Urinary incontinence
Other uses
Ui (digraph), used in some writing systems
UI, unauthorised information; see Glossary of contract bridge terms#unauth
Unemployment insurance
United Ireland, a proposed state
Universitas Indonesia railway station, a commuter rail station in Indonesia located in University of Indonesia
See also
U1 (disambiguation)
μi, The initial magnetic permeability of a material
|
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] |
209469
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ananas
|
Ananas
|
Ananas is a plant genus in the family Bromeliaceae. It is native to South America. The genus contains Ananas comosus, the pineapple.
Species
The genus Ananas includes only two species:
Gallery
References
External link
Bromeliaceae genera
Pineapples
Taxa named by Philip Miller
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMurdo%20Station
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McMurdo Station
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McMurdo Station is a United States Antarctic research station on the south tip of Ross Island, which is in the New Zealand–claimed Ross Dependency on the shore of McMurdo Sound in Antarctica. It is operated by the United States through the United States Antarctic Program, a branch of the National Science Foundation. The station is the largest community in Antarctica, capable of supporting up to 1,258 residents, and serves as one of three year-round United States Antarctic science facilities. All personnel and cargo going to or coming from Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station first pass through McMurdo. By road, McMurdo is 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from New Zealand's smaller Scott Base.
History
The station takes its name from its geographic location on McMurdo Sound, named after Lieutenant Archibald McMurdo of . Under the command of British explorer James Clark Ross, the Terror first charted the area in 1841. The British explorer Robert Falcon Scott established a base camp close to this spot in 1902 and built a cabin there that was named Discovery Hut. It still stands as a historic monument near the water's edge on Hut Point at McMurdo Station. The volcanic rock of the site is the southernmost bare ground accessible by ship in the world. The United States officially opened its first station at McMurdo on February 16, 1956 as part of Operation Deep Freeze. The base, built by the U.S. Navy Seabees, was initially designated Naval Air Facility McMurdo. On November 28, 1957, Admiral George J. Dufek visited McMurdo with a U.S. congressional delegation for a change-of-command ceremony.
McMurdo Station was the center of United States logistical operations during the International Geophysical Year, an international scientific effort that lasted from July 1, 1957, to December 31, 1958. After the IGY, it became the center for US scientific as well as logistical activities in Antarctica. The Antarctic Treaty, subsequently signed by over forty-five governments, regulates intergovernmental relations with respect to Antarctica and governs the conduct of daily life at McMurdo for United States Antarctic Program (USAP) participants. The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), opened for signature on December 1, 1959, and officially entered into force on June 23, 1961.
The first scientific diving protocols were established before 1960 and the first diving operations were documented in November 1961.
Nuclear power (1962–1972)
On March 3, 1962, the U.S. Navy activated the PM-3A nuclear power plant at the station. The unit was prefabricated in modules to facilitate transport and assembly. Engineers designed the components to weigh no more than each and to measure no more than by by . A single core no larger than an oil drum served as the heart of the nuclear reactor. These size and weight restrictions aimed to allow delivery of the reactor in an LC-130 Hercules aircraft. However, the components were actually delivered by ship. The reactor generated 1.8 MW of electrical power and reportedly replaced the need for of oil daily. Engineers applied the reactor's power, for instance, in producing steam for the salt-water distillation plant. As a result of continuing safety issues (hairline cracks in the reactor and water leaks), the U.S. Army Nuclear Power Program decommissioned the plant in 1972. Conventional diesel generators replaced the nuclear power station, with a number of diesel generators in a central powerhouse providing electric power. A conventionally fueled water-desalination plant provided fresh water.
Contemporary functions
, McMurdo Station was Antarctica's largest community and a functional, modern-day science station, including a harbor, three airfields (two seasonal), a heliport and more than 100 buildings, including the Albert P. Crary Science and Engineering Center. The station is also home to the continent's two ATMs, both provided by Wells Fargo Bank. The work done at McMurdo Station primarily focuses on science, but most of the residents (approximately 1,000 in the summer and around 250 in the winter) are not scientists, but station personnel who provide support for operations, logistics, information technology, construction, and maintenance.
Scientists and other personnel at McMurdo are participants in the USAP, which co-ordinates research and operational support in the region. Werner Herzog's 2007 documentary Encounters at the End of the World reports on the life and culture of McMurdo Station from the point-of-view of residents. Anthony Powell's 2013 documentary Antarctica: A Year on Ice provides time-lapse photography of Antarctica intertwined with personal accounts from residents of McMurdo Station and of the adjacent Scott Base over the course of a year.
An annual sealift by cargo ships as part of Operation Deep Freeze delivers 8 million U.S. gallons (6.6 million imperial gallons/42 million liters) of fuel and 11 million pounds (5 million kg) of supplies and equipment for McMurdo residents. The ships, operated by the U.S. Military Sealift Command, are crewed by civilian mariners. Cargo may range from mail, construction materials, trucks, tractors, dry and frozen food, to scientific instruments. U.S. Coast Guard icebreakers break a ship channel through ice-clogged McMurdo Sound in order for supply ships to reach Winter Quarters Bay at McMurdo. Additional supplies and personnel are flown in to nearby Williams Field from Christchurch in New Zealand.
Between 1962 and 1963, 28 Arcas sounding rockets were launched from McMurdo Station.
McMurdo Station stands about two miles (3 km) from Scott Base, the New Zealand science station, and all of Ross Island lies within a sector claimed by New Zealand. Criticism has been leveled at the base regarding its construction projects, particularly the McMurdo-(Amundsen-Scott) South Pole highway.
McMurdo Station has attempted to improve environmental management and waste removal in order to adhere to the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, signed on October 4, 1991, which entered into force on January 14, 1998. This agreement prevents development and provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas. It prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific. A new waste-treatment facility was built at McMurdo in 2003. Three Enercon E-33 (330 kW each) wind turbines were deployed in 2009 to power McMurdo and New Zealand's Scott Base, reducing diesel consumption by 11% or 463,000 litres per year. McMurdo Station (nicknamed "Mac-Town" by its residents) continues to operate as the hub for American activities on the Antarctic continent.
McMurdo Station briefly gained global notice when an anti-war protest took place on February 15, 2003. During the rally, about 50 scientists and station personnel gathered to protest the coming invasion of Iraq by the United States. McMurdo Station was the only Antarctic location to hold such a rally.
Scientific diving operations continue with 10,859 dives having been conducted under the ice from 1989 to 2006. A hyperbaric chamber is available for support of polar diving operations.
Climate
With all months having an average temperature below freezing, McMurdo features a polar ice cap climate (Köppen EF). However, in the warmest months (December and January) the monthly average high temperature may occasionally rise above freezing. The place is protected from cold waves from the interior of Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains, so temperatures below −40° are rare, compared to more exposed places like Neumayer Station, which usually gets those temperatures a few times every year, often as early as May, and sometimes even as early as April, and very rarely above 0 °C. The highest temperature ever recorded at McMurdo was 10.8 °C on December 21, 1987. There is enough snow melt in summer that a limited amount of vegetation can grow, specifically a few species of moss and lichen.
Communications
For a time, McMurdo had Antarctica's only television station, AFAN-TV, running vintage programs provided by the military. The station's equipment was susceptible to "electronic burping" from the diesel generators that provide electricity in the outpost. The station was profiled in a 1974 article in TV Guide magazine. Now, McMurdo receives three channels of the US Military's American Forces Network, the Australia Network, and New Zealand news broadcasts. Television broadcasts are received by satellite at Black Island, and transmitted by digital microwave to McMurdo. Also, for a time McMurdo also played host to one of the only two shortwave broadcast stations in Antarctica. The station—AFAN McMurdo—transmitted with a power of 1 kilowatt on the shortwave frequency of 6,012 kHz and became a target for shortwave radio listening hobbyists around the world because of its rarity. The station continued broadcasting on shortwave into the 1980s when it dropped shortwave while continuing FM transmission.
McMurdo Station receives both Internet and voice communications by satellite communications via the Optus D1 satellite and relayed to Sydney, Australia. A satellite dish at Black Island provides 20 Mbit/s Internet connectivity and voice communications. Voice communications are tied into the United States Antarctic Program headquarters in Centennial, Colorado, providing inbound and outbound calls to McMurdo from the US. Voice communications within station are conducted via VHF radio.
Transportation
Surface
McMurdo has the world's most southerly harbor. A multitude of on- and off-road vehicles transport people and cargo around the station area, including Ivan the Terra Bus (a pun on Ivan the Terrible). There is a road from McMurdo to the New Zealand Scott Base and South Pole, the South Pole Traverse.
Air
McMurdo is serviced seasonally by three airports:
Phoenix Airfield (ICAO: NZFX), a compacted snow runway which replaced Pegasus Field (ICAO: NZPG) in 2017
Sea Ice Runway (ICAO: NZIR), an annual runway constructed on the sea ice nearest McMurdo Station
Williams Field (ICAO: NZWD), a permanent snow runway
Historic sites
The Richard E. Byrd Historic Monument was erected at McMurdo in 1965. It comprises a bronze bust on black marble, square, on a wooden platform, bearing inscriptions describing the polar exploration achievements of Richard E. Byrd. It has been designated a Historic Site or Monument (HSM 54), following a proposal by the United States to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.
The bronze Nuclear Power Plant Plaque is about in size, and is secured to a large vertical rock halfway up the west side of Observation Hill, at the former site of the PM-3A nuclear power reactor at McMurdo Station. The inscription details the achievements of Antarctica's first nuclear power plant. It has been designated a Historic Site or Monument (HSM 85), following a proposal by the United States to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.
Points of interest
Facilities at the station include:
Albert P. Crary Science and Engineering Center (CSEC)
Chapel of the Snows Interdenominational Chapel
Observation Hill
Discovery Hut, built during Scott's 1901–1903 expedition
Williams Field airport
Memorial plaque to three airmen killed in 1946 while surveying the territory
Ross Island Disc Golf Course
See also
Air New Zealand Flight 901
Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station
ANDRILL
List of Antarctic field camps
The Antarctic Sun
Byrd Station
Castle Rock
Chapel of the Snows
Crime in Antarctica
Ellsworth Station
Erebus crystal
First women to fly to Antarctica
Hallett Station
List of Antarctic expeditions
Little America V
Marble Point
McMurdo Sound
Mount Erebus
Palmer Station
Plateau Station
List of Antarctic research stations
Ross Ice Shelf
Scott Base
Siple Station
Williams Field
Notes
References
Clarke, Peter: On the Ice. Rand McNally & Company, 1966
"Facts About the United States Antarctic Research Program". Division of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation; July 1982.
United States Antarctic Research Program Calendar 1983
External links
National Science Foundation page about McMurdo Station
Usap McMurdo Station webcam
High resolution GigaPan picture of McMurdo station
PM-3a Nuclear Reactor at McMurdo station
1956 establishments in Antarctica
Buildings and structures in Antarctica
Defunct nuclear reactors
Historic Sites and Monuments of Antarctica
Outposts of the Ross Dependency
Ports and harbours of the Ross Dependency
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209473
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20P.%20Crary%20Science%20and%20Engineering%20Center
|
Albert P. Crary Science and Engineering Center
|
The Albert P. Crary Science and Engineering Center (CSEC), located at McMurdo Station, was dedicated in November 1991 by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The laboratory is named in honor of geophysicist and glaciologist Albert P. Crary. There are five pods making for 4,320 square meters of working area that includes a two-story core, a biology pod, earth sciences and atmospheric sciences pods, and an aquarium. CSEC was built to replace older, outdated science buildings that were built as early as 1959.
Facilities
The second floor of CSEC has a computer room, a library, and classrooms.
References
External links
Crary Lab Floor Plans
Educational institutions established in 1991
McMurdo Station
1991 establishments in Antarctica
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comayagua
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Comayagua
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Comayagua () is a city, municipality and old capital of Honduras, located northwest of Tegucigalpa on the highway to San Pedro Sula and above sea level.
The accelerated growth experienced by the city of Comayagua led the municipal authorities to structure a territorial reorganization plan. Between the years of 1945 -1975 the population of the city quadrupled due to the high rate of population growth achieved at that time (4.8%) and to migratory movements in the interior of the country. In 2020 the estimated population of the city was 111,700. It is the capital of the Comayagua department of Honduras and it is noted for its wealth of Spanish Colonial architecture. The cathedral, at the central square, has the oldest clock in the Americas.
Etymology
Comayagua is known today as "La Antañona" by Hondurans. They call it that because in addition to being one of the oldest cities in Honduras, it still maintains a large part of its buildings with architectural value from the colonial era. Its historic center "is the most restored and preserved nationwide."
The complementary names "Valladolid" or "Country of the Higueras" were those that the Spaniards gave it, but it kept the original name of the place, which is purely indigenous. Some differ in its etymology, but most agree that it is composed of «koma» (which in Lenca dialect means Huge amount of land) and «Jawa», (that means water) its true meaning being «abundant land of water».
History
Pre-Columbian era
During the Pre-Columbian era the valley in which the city is located was populated by Lenca people, a Mesomaerican native culture that still prevails in Honduras. Archaeological remains such as Yarumela show that these natives have populated the valley since approximately 1,000 B.C.
The flat topography and subtropical climate helped these natives to prosper and built its own societies and towns, most of its economic activities were the control of trade routes that connected the Caribbean sea to the Pacific Ocean. During the colonization of the American continent the Spaniard conquistadors founded a rich valley with different Lencan towns, most of them well organized with a high social stratification. these natives were the ones that gave a well-done resistance during the conquest of Honduras.
Foundation
Comayagua was founded in 1537 by the Spaniard Captain Alonso de Cáceres in compliance with instructions "to find an apparent situation to form a city in the middle of the two oceans" by order of the advance Francisco de Montejo, first governor of Hibueras (modern day Honduras) as it was first known to Honduras. The city was originally called "Santa María de la Concepción de Comayagua."
On 20 November 1542, King Phlip II of Spain ordered that the Real Audiencia de los Confines reside in Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala, but the Council of the Indies ordered on 13 September 1543 to install its headquarters in the town of the Concepción de Comayagua. In the same provision it is given the name of "Villa de la Nueva Valladolid de Comayagua" in honor of Valladolid of Spain, where at the time of signing the founding letter of the hearing, the Court resided.
Finally, the assignment as the seat of the audience was not effective and it was transferred to the town of Gracias Lempira, on 16 May 1544. On 20 December 1557, King Philip II granted it the title of city, during At that time, the city already had a Mercedarian convent founded by Fray Jerónimo Clemente in 1553 and a stone church built in 1551 at a cost of 15,000 gold pesos. In 1558 the first capitulars were elected. In 1561, the episcopal chair that resided in Trujillo was transferred to it, due to its more favorable conditions, its location in the center of the country and its proximity to the gold and silver mining regions. In 1585 the first cathedral was built; and the one that now exists (Immaculate Conception) began in 1634, and was completed in 1715.
Spanish colonial period
Comayagua remained the capital of Honduras throughout all the colonial period. By the time the Spanish authorities gifted the city with different architectural works, such as churches, colleges, convents, houses, and Fountains. Comayagua's system of cisterns and fountains dates from colonial times making it the first city in Honduras with a system of aqueducts. However Tegucigalpa began to dispute that position in the mid-17th century, as it developed as a mining center. In recognition of its growing importance it received the title of town in 1768.
However, the development of Tegucigalpa was ignored when in 1788: "Comayagua became an Intendancy and politically absorbed Tegucigalpa which became a sub-delegation" ... "Even so, the appointment was made from Comayagua, which caused a revolt in Tegucigalpa, fueling the existing rivalry between the two most important cities of the Province.
Some resentful Tegucigalpans a few years later, complained that these decisions had resulted in the economic decline of the area, "claiming that the new mayors were not interested in the development of mining and that they established a local tax on agricultural products such as indigo, sugar, and cattle, which only benefited Comayagua. As a result of the complaints presented by the residents of Tegucigalpa and on the recommendation of José Cecilio del Valle, advisor to the president of the Guatemalan hearing, the Mayor's Office was re-created in 1812. The establishment of the intendancy in Comayagua not only delayed the growth of Tegucigalpa, but could not contain the continued decline of Comayagua. It became from the capital of the province, to a sleepy town that, by the early nineteenth century, had only a few Spaniards, near 30 European families, all reduced to living off charity. Furthermore, the city had earned a reputation for being unhealthy because of its economic decline.
"The reason given for the decline of the city was the decline in agriculture and commerce, which was often attributed to the laziness of the natives. In 1802 the two parishes of the city had a combined population of 5,369." For all these reasons it was proposed that the capital be moved to Tegucigalpa. Despite these proposals, the capital remained in Comayagua throughout the colonial period.
Independence
During the period close to independence, there were several pro-independence movements throughout Central America. In Honduras these movements took place in Tegucigalpa. Names like Miguel Bustamante, Matías Zuniga, Simón Gutiérrez, Pablo Borjas, Andrés Lozano, Diego Vijil, Dionisio de Herrera, and Francisco Morazán etc. appear on the list of people related to the pro-independence movement. "Those patriots Tegucigalpenses were considered by the Comayagua authority as conspirators," trying to "promote from Tegucigalpa the ideas contrary to the colonial regime."
The Comayagua authorities wanted to quell the pro-independence revolts, but the colonial regime had already died. On September 21, 1821, Central America proclaimed its independence from Spain. Comayagua received the documents in the early hours of the morning of September 28 and the government with the members of the council learned of the decision, accepting independence.
On November 28, 1821, a note from General Agustín de Iturbide reached Guatemala suggesting that Central America, and the Viceroyalty of Mexico, form a great empire under the Plan of Iguala and the Treaties of Córdoba. The issue of annexation to Mexico caused divisions within each of the provinces since some cities were in favor of it and others against it.
In Honduras, Comayagua - through its governor José Tinoco de Contreras - spoke out in favor of annexation; but Tegucigalpa, the second largest city in the province, opposed the idea of it. In the end, Iturbide's annexationist proposal triumphed and on August 22, 1822, Central America joined Mexico. Agustín de Iturbide's annexation to the Mexican Empire did not last long, because it abdicated on March 19, 1823, and on July 1 of that same year, Central America proclaimed its definitive independence. Comayagua and Honduras became part of the United Provinces of Central America.
Burning of the city
After Honduras became part of the United Provinces of Central America, Comayagua continued to be its capital. In 1824, Honduras elected Don Dionisio de Herrera as its first Head of State. Soon the reaction arose against him, led by the Vicar, Canon José Nicolás Irías Midence, with the support of the President of the Republic, General Manuel José Arce, who, having already entered the path of arbitrariness, he saw Herrera as a serious obstacle to the development of his plans.
"Irías, promoted anarchy as much as he could and finally caused the invasion of Honduras. President Arce, under the pretext of guarding the cigars belonging to the Federation, stored in the Villa de Santa Rosa, sent his federal forces under the command of Colonel Justo Milla, with the purpose of overthrowing Dionisio de Herrera. Without further ado, Milla's troops reached Comayagua and laid siege to it. This happened on April 4, 1827. Comayagua was burned and looted to a large extent, and although the forces with which it was defending were inferior in number to those of the invader, they would have triumphed if their Commander, Colonel Antonio Fernández, a Spaniard, had not betrayed Mr. Herrera, putting him in prison and understanding with Colonel Milla, with whom he settled a capitulation on May 9, by virtue of which he delivered the square and the person of the Chief.
"Mr. Herrera was taken to Guatemala, where he should have been submitted to the Assembly to declare whether or not his conduct gave rise to the formation of a cause. But since he was not accused of arbitrariness, and President Arce, in making war on him I did not have my sights other than to separate him from the Government of Honduras to organize it according to his interests, which he had already achieved, the President of the Republic did not worry about that, and kept the prisoner in his own house. Justo Milla temporarily took command of the province of Honduras; because on November 11, 1827, it was defeated by the forces of General Francisco Morazán in the battle of La Trinidad. Later, Morazán marched to Comayagua where he took command of the state of Honduras from the hands of Miguel Eusebio Bustamante. In June 1828, Morazán handed over command to Diego Vigil.
Transfer of the capital
«That rivalry between the radical Comayagua and the liberal Tegucigalpa became more and more accentuated every day and was notorious at the time of independence and in the consolidation of the State from 1825, when the first Constitution was issued. The ideas of alternating the capital on an annual basis began then as a political approach that arose in the Cedros mineral, an intention that only remained in that. »15
In June 1849, while Dr. Juan Lindo of the Constituent Assembly chaired by Don Felipe Jáuregui was president of Honduras, he issued a decree transferring the capital to Tegucigalpa, but it was not executed due to legal inconsistencies and Comayagua continued to be the seat of state powers.
Through the eighteenth century, Tegucigalpa was taking advantage of Comayagua; Several buildings of important institutions were erected there such as "the Literary Academy, the genesis of the current National Autonomous University of Honduras." 15 Finally, on 30 October 1880, President Marco Aurelio Soto made the "decision to transfer the capital of Honduras from Comayagua to Tegucigalpa Dr. Marco Aurelio Soto Martínez, for economic or social reasons, picked up luggage and moved to his hometown thus ending that antagonism "between the two cities.
After the transfer of the capital to Tegucigalpa, the population, commerce, and importance of Comayagua was notably reduced. At the beginning of the 19th century, its narrow and irregular streets were poorly paved. Also, public buildings were in poor condition. However, this city continued to be the seat of the diocese of Honduras.
Places of note
Right in front of the plaza is located City Hall, which has been reconstructed a couple of times. The building is of neoclassic style and was built during the 19th century. The Cathedral de la inmaculada concepcion of Comayagua was built during the colonial era in Honduras. It was inaugurated on 8 December 1711. In the cathedral there is also the oldest clock in America, built by the Arabs during their occupation in Spain around the year 1100. It was moved in the colonial period as a gift from King Carlos III. Another attraction is the Plaza de San Francisco, which has a park, the colonial church and is located a few meters from the main square, this church possesses the Antonina Bell, is the oldest bell in America, being cast in Alcalá de Henares, Spain in 1460. The houses of the city still preserve their original Spanish colonial architecture from the 18th century, many of them have been turned into museums. The most important examples are the museum of colonial religious art, the archeological museum that contains relics of the Lenca people of the pre-Hispanic era, and the republican museum. Another square in the old town is the Plaza de la Merced, it is known for having a monument known as the obelisk and in front of it is the Iglesia de la Merced. Which was the first cathedral of the city before the current one was completed in 1711.
Another attraction is the Caxa real, a colonial house that was built between 1739 and 1741 and developed by the Spanish architect Bartolomé de Maradiaga as a center where the tributes for the Spanish crown were stored, within it Gold, silver and plaster extracted from the mines of Honduras were processed, to later be shipped to Europe. On the ground floor of the building, introduce some elements that were not in common use in Central American architecture; It makes a very good difference between the purely official area, the Courtroom, the Accounting Office, the Treasury, the Azogues room, the piece of fifth silver; This sector was entered through a large hall called by the men on horseback and which were on the street that the Chiquito River rises to the Plaza Mayor. In 1774, an earthquake that caused serious damage to the structure, however, was repaired within a few months, although the house was weaker. In 1809 another earthquake damaged the building.
It was rebuilt in 2013 and is currently an events center that has hosted important international political figures, such as Queen Leticia of Spain, and the former President of Mexico Enrique Peña Nieto on his visit to Honduras. The Plaza de San Francisco is another place of note, located a few meters from the cathedral and has one of the oldest churches in Honduras built in the mid-16th century by Bishop Fray Alonso de la Cerda and it was the second church built in Comayagua, being the second oldest in the city. The church has five bells, one of which, all imported from Spain.
Patrimony
Comayagua has a huge architectural, cultural, and Artistic patrimony, some of their buildings date from me the mid 16th century, some of these are one of the oldest ones of Central America. In culture, the city are ones of the few palaces of Honduras that still practices Spanish traditions as the same way as they were introduced.
Architectural
La Merced church (1550)
San Francisco church (1560)
San Sebastián church (1580)
La Caridad church (16th century)
Comayagua archeological museum (House built in the late 16th century)
Immaculate conception cathedral (1634)
Religious art museum/San Agustín college (1678)
Paseo la Alameda (Old criollo houses convertend intro restaurants)
Cabañas house museum (18th century house)
Santos Guardiola house museum (18th century House)
Caxa Real (1739)
Cádiz constitution monument (1812)
Government Palace (1880)
Cultural
Semana santa (holy week) is a famous Roman Catholic holiday celebrated in Comaygua, its still practiced as the same like the Spanish way that was introduced in the 16th century. Every holly week people make the famous "alfombras de aserrín" or colored carpets made of wood dust that represents a part of the life of Jesus of Nazareth and representations of other biblical characters like the Virgin Mary and the Holy spirit. Also many catholic saints are represented in the carpets like Saint Jude the Apostle. These traditions had their roots in southern Spain and were mostly practiced in Guatemala and Hondurans during the colony. The Honduran Semana santa have been compared to the one celebrated in Andalusia Spain in cities like Seville due to its incredible similarity to the old Spanish catholic tradition taught to the indigenous people.
Other famous traditions of Comayagua are the mixes of indigenous and Spanish elements, like el baile de los diablitos (littles devils dance), were dancers wore colorful clothes and masks that represent something like an animal, a person, or a mythological creatures. These tradition has its roots in the 17th century, when indigenous people mixed its religious rituals with the catholic ones.
Arts
Comaygua has pieces of arts that dates from different eras, like the pre-Columbian Lencan art in the pottery exposed in the Archeological museum as the pieces of art from the Viceroyalty of New Spain, some of them even dates from the late 16th century. The altarpiece of the Catedral of immaculate conception was made in Jaén Spain in the 17th century, its considered one of the most beautiful baroque pieces in Honduras, same as the altarpieces and paintings of the many other churches of the city. Most pieces of art are now preserved in museums of the city like the ones exposed in the Museum of religious art. Other arts are the expositions of national painters in the archeological museum were shows the art works of different Hondurans from the entire country.
Soto Cano Air Base
Soto Cano Air Base (formerly Palmerola Air Base) is a Honduran military installation located less than from Comayagua. The and airbase is home of the Honduran Air Force Academy. United States maintains Joint Task Force Bravo on Soto Cano Air Base with approximately 550 US military personnel and more than 650 US and Honduran civilians. The airport is also open to civilians as Comayagua International Airport.
Sport
Comayagua is headquarters of Club Hispano, of the Honduran National Soccer League. The club obtained its first promotion to the National League in 2004–05. Nevertheless, after only their first season in the soccer league; they were relegated to second division once again. For this reason, the board of directors, bought the first division franchise from Club Municipal-Valencia of Choluteca. The Club plays its home games at the municipal stadium 'Carlos Miranda' which currently holds about 10,000 spectators.
Comayagua was host to the first International Fellowship of Christian Athletes Motocross camp in September 2012. Sixty men and women participated in the camp which was instructed by professional riders from the United States, Jimmy Povolny, Shawn Clark and Ryan Meyung among others. The camp was followed by a race sponsored by Colmotos Enduro and was in memory of Dylan First, a US rider who lost his life on the track the previous year. This is now an annual event in Comayagua with instructors from the US and leaders from Honduras.
See also
Comayagua prison fire
History of Honduras
References
1537 establishments in North America
1537 establishments in the Spanish Empire
Audencia of Guatemala
Colonial Guatemala
Former national capitals
Municipalities of the Comayagua Department
Populated places established in 1537
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209480
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20P.%20Crary
|
Albert P. Crary
|
Albert Paddock Crary (July 25, 1911 – October 29, 1987), was a pioneer polar geophysicist and glaciologist. He was the first person to have set foot on both the North and South Poles, having made it to the North Pole on May 3, 1952 (with Joseph O. Fletcher and William P. Benedict) and then to the South Pole on February 12, 1961, as the leader of a team of eight. The South Pole expedition set out from McMurdo Station on December 10, 1960, using three Snowcats with trailers. Crary was the seventh expedition leader to arrive at the South Pole by surface transportation (the six others before him were—in sequence—Amundsen, Scott, Hillary, Fuchs, a Russian expedition in 1959/60 from Vostok base, and Antero Havola). He was widely admired for his intellect, wit, skills and as a great administrator for polar research expeditions.
Biography
Crary was born in 1911 into a farming family in northern New York State. He was the second oldest in a family of 7 children. He was a physics major and geology student at St. Lawrence University in Canton, New York. He graduated in 1931 Phi Beta Kappa from St. Lawrence University and then enrolled at Lehigh University to obtain a master's degree in physics. After spending years completing and facilitating research at both poles, Crary eventually settled in Bethesda, Maryland, with his wife and son.
His awards included the Cullum Geographical Medal (1959), the Patron's Gold Medal (1963), and the Vega Medal (1972).
He died on October 29, 1987, at the George Washington University Hospital in Washington, D.C.
Legacy
In 1991, the National Science Foundation (NSF), which manages the U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP), honoured his memory by dedicating a state-of-the-art laboratory complex in his name, the Albert P. Crary Science and Engineering Center (CSEC) located in McMurdo Station. He was also honored by having the Crary Mountains (76 degrees 48' S, 117 degrees 40' W) and the Crary Ice Rise in Antarctica named for him as well.
Contributions
Dr. Crary contributed in a variety of important ways to his field including:
Chief Scientist for Arctic T3, Fletcher's Ice Island, 1952–1955
Established the United States Geological Headquarters for the International Geophysical Year, 1955
Deputy Leader of United States science during the International Geophysical Year, 1957
Leader of the U.S. seismic traverse of Ross Ice Shelf, 1957–58
Leader, geophysical traverse W from Little America V, up Skelton Glacier to the Victoria Land plateau and W along the 78 parallel to c. 13130E, 1958–59
Leader, geophysical traverse from McMurdo Station via Skelton Glacier to the South Pole, 1960–61
Chief Scientist, United States Antarctic Research Program, 1960–1968
Deputy then Director, Division of Environmental Sciences, National Science Foundation, 1969–1978
Member of ACAN, 1961-76 (Chairman, 1974–76)
He worked with many notable scientists and famous institutions:
Dr. Maurice Ewing of Columbia University and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Assisted Dr. James Peoples at MOGUL (Project Mogul) as the Field Operations Director using meteorological balloons to experiment with different types of equipment to collect and transmit sound waves in the upper atmosphere (Roswell incident- see )
See also
List of polar explorers
External links
Crary's trip to the South Pole with an image and a map.
Picture of Crary when he was Deputy Chief Scientist of the NAS's US-IGY Antarctic program, shown reading a seismograph record.
References
1911 births
1987 deaths
Lehigh University alumni
Recipients of the Cullum Geographical Medal
American geophysicists
American glaciologists
St. Lawrence University alumni
Scientists from New York (state)
North Pole
South Pole
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao%20art
|
Lao art
|
Lao art involves the myriad of forms creative, cultural expression originating from Laos. This includes both ancient artefacts and recent productions. Laotian Art often features themes of religiosity (Buddhism) and includes such material forms as textiles, wood-carving and basket-weaving. Lao art is well known for its wealth of ornamentation
Ceramics
Lao ceramics were first uncovered in 1970 at a construction site at kilometer 3, Thadeua Road in the Vientiane area, Mekong Valley, Laos. Construction was halted only temporarily, and the kiln was hastily and unprofessionally excavated over a one-month period. At least four more kilns have been identified since then, and surface evidence and topography indicate at least one hundred more in the Ban Tao Hai Village of the Jar Kilns vicinity Archaeologists have labeled the area Sisattanak Kiln Site
Further research
The work was carried out by a team of Laotian archaeologists and Australian archaeologists.
A large number of ceramics (sherds, debris, and intact pieces) have been found there, some decorative objects, and molded pipes.
The scientific tests done at the geographical location of the oven outside the first compound of Vientiane suggest that this site would date from the fifteenth century.
The uncovered objects were grouped into four kinds: raw sandstone, glazed sandstone (bowls, dishes, jars, oil lamps, vases, weights for fishing net, chess pieces), molded pipes, and Qcendi pottery (utensils, stoves, and cooking pots).
Sisattanak's pottery remains what archaeologists consider to be "simple", utilitarian, showing a lack of creativity on the part of the potters which would be the result of weak influences, or external competition.
Source: Don Hein: Mike Barbetti and Thongsa Sayavongkhamdy. An Excavation at the Sisattanak Kiln Site By: François Lagirarde
Textiles
The production of woven and embroidered textiles is the most prolific of all traditional crafts in Laos. Almost all regions of the country are suitable for the farming of cotton and mulberry trees, which are often planted on cooperative land with a view to providing raw materials for the wider community. Textiles are made of perishable materials and only survive the millennia when preserved under exceptional circumstances. Archaeological finds point to a high level of skill and sophistication at an astoundingly early date. The first prestigious garments were probably the skins of dangerous animals worn by daring hunters. In tropical regions, the alternative to leather was the inner bark of certain trees, which was beaten until it became soft. Succeeding generations developed more flexible fibres, with the invention of spinning which was used in different parts of the world to make yarn from wool, linen, cotton, or silk. Colour is very essential to textiles. In Laos, many villages, however, produce organic dyes from plants, roots, insect, resin, and soil. Raw dye materials are crushed or sliced and then boiled to extract the colour. The sediment is removed and the remaining liquid is suitable as a dye. Dyes are absorbed into the very fibres of textiles, ensuring a much longer lifetime than paints. Of the exceptional wealth of ornamentation, four groups of motifs have been distinguished:
Mythical Animals under the Water: Naga, a serpent; Louang, a serpent with legs and feet like a dragon; Eua, a serpent with no crest; Nark, a crested serpent.
Mythical Animals on Earth: Crab; Khon Khob, the frogman; Khon Thani, the gibbon person; Siho, the lion-elephant; Mom, the magical horse; Hong, the magical swan; Houng, the mythical eagle; Hadsadiling, the bird-elephant.
Plant Designs: tree, flower, vine, seed, fruit, leaf, and geometrical shapes like zigzag line, diamond, hook, and/or star.
Religious Motifs: Buddha head, Stupa, a temple shaped like a pyramid, and/or ancestors riding on mythological animals.
Source: Siho and Naga - Lao Textiles Reflecting a People's Tradition and Change By: Edeltraud Tagwerker
Buddhist sculpture
Lao artisans have, throughout the past, used a variety of media in their sculptural creations. Of the metals, bronze is probably the most common, but gold and silver images also exist. Typically, the precious metals are used only for smaller objects, but some large images have been cast in gold, most notably the Phra Say of the sixteenth century, which the Siamese carried home as booty in the late eighteenth century. It is in enshrined at Wat Po Chai in Nongkhai, Thailand, just across the Mekong River from Vientiane. The Phra Say's two companion images, the Phra Seum and Phra Souk, are also in Thailand. One is in Bangkok and the other is in Lopburi. Perhaps the most famous sculpture in Laos, the Phra Bang, is also cast in gold, but the craftsmanship is held to be of Sinhalese, rather than Lao, origin. Tradition maintains that relics of the Buddha are contained in the image.
References
External links
Laos Cultural Profile (Ministry of Information and Culture/Visiting Arts)
Laotian art
Art by country
|
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209489
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao%20ceramics
|
Lao ceramics
|
Lao ceramics refers to ceramic art and pottery designed or produced as a form of Lao art. The tradition of Lao ceramics dates back to the third millennium BCE. Pottery and ceramics were an essential part of the trade between Laos and its neighbours.
History
Ceramics were first uncovered in 1970 at a construction site at kilometer 3, Thadeua Road in the Vientiane area of the Mekong Valley. Construction was halted only temporarily, and the kiln was hastily and unprofessionally excavated over a one-month period. At least four more kilns have been identified since then, and surface evidence and topography indicate at least one hundred more in the Ban Tao Hai (Village of the Jar Kilns) vicinity. Archaeologists have labeled the area Sisattanak Kiln Site.
According to Honda and Shimozu (The Beauty of Fired Clay: Ceramics from Burma, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand, 1997), the Lao kilns are similar to the Siamese types found at Suphanburi and Si Satchanalai. But Hein, Barbetti and Sayavongkhamdy (An Excavation at the Sisattanak Kiln Site, Vientiane, Lao P.D.R., 1989, 1992) say that the Lao kilns, which are of a cross-draft clay-slab type, differ substantially not only from the Siamese types but all other types in Southeast Asia.
Because only one kiln, VS8, has been excavated, almost no questions regarding Lao ceramic tradition have been answered. The VS8 kiln though showed no evidence of brick construction. It had square chimney foundations, a narrow firebox, and was built partly above ground.
The Sisattanak Kiln Site lies just outside Vientiane's first city walls, which are dated to the 15th century. Radiocarbon dating of the kiln gives a 15th-17th century timeframe, with an earlier period of that range most likely. This is supported by the evidence of surface finds, which suggest that area kilns at higher elevations show a greater ratio of glazed to unglazed wares. The theory is that the kilns were moved up over time and that more glazed wares were fired over time. This is supported by the ceramics uncovered at VS8, a lower-elevation site, which were all of a utilitarian and domestic nature. They included pipes, domestic wares and architectural fittings.
The VS8 excavation uncovered both unglazed and glazed wares. Most of the glazed wares were pipes; 1,500 pipe fragments and complete pieces were collected. Their quality indicates a well-developed tradition, and their motifs suggest the possibility that they were export wares.
From the examples collected to date, it can be said that Lao ceramics used one kind of clay, with 5% quartz added as a temper. Both the clay and the quartz were finely crushed. The glazed wares were a light, translucent green (like celadon) or various shades of brown. There have also been shards showing an olive-colored glaze, not unlike the type found in Thailand.
Many of the glazed wares have ribbed or fluted exteriors, similar to that of the silver bowls ubiquitous in Laos, both the regular silver bowls ("oh tum") and the silver stem bowls ("khan"). Glazed ceramic stem bowls have been collected as surface finds at the Sisattanak Kiln Site. Decorations to glazed wares show a great measure of restraint, with simple incisions, stamps and fluting. Unglazed wares are similarly austere. They are generally not decorated with incisions or stamps, which are common in other Southeast Asian wares.
The VS8 excavation in 1989 added to an ever-increasing body of evidence that Lao ceramic tradition is significant. Future excavations are expected to prove that Lao ceramic production was comparable to that of other countries in the region.
See also
Burmese ceramics
Khmer ceramics
Thai ceramics
Vietnamese ceramics
External links
Laos Cultural Profile (Ministry of Information and Culture/Visiting Arts)
Pottery by country
Ceramics
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster%20film
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Disaster film
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A disaster film or disaster movie is a film genre that has an impending or ongoing disaster as its subject and primary plot device. Such disasters may include natural disasters, accidents, military/terrorist attacks or global catastrophes such as a pandemic. A subgenre of action films, these films usually feature some degree of build-up, the disaster itself, and sometimes the aftermath, usually from the point of view of specific individual characters or their families or portraying the survival tactics of different people.
These films often feature large casts of actors and multiple plot lines, focusing on the characters' attempts to avert, escape or cope with the disaster and its aftermath. The genre came to particular prominence during the 1970s with the release of high-profile films such as Airport (1970), followed in quick succession by The Poseidon Adventure (1972), Earthquake (1974) and The Towering Inferno (1974).
The casts were generally made up of familiar character actors. Once the disaster begins in the film, the characters are usually confronted with human weaknesses, often falling in love and almost always finding a villain to blame. The films usually feature a persevering hero or heroine (Charlton Heston, Steve McQueen, etc.) called upon to lead the struggle against the threat. In many cases, the "evil" or "selfish" individuals are the first to succumb to the conflagration. The genre experienced a renewal in the 1990s boosted by computer-generated imagery (CGI) and large studio budgets which allowed for greater spectacle, culminating in the cinematic phenomenon that was James Cameron's Titanic in 1997.
Origins
Disaster themes are almost as old as the film medium itself. One of the earliest was Fire! (1901) made by James Williamson of England. The silent film portrayed a burning house and the firemen who arrive to quench the flames and rescue the inhabitants. Origins of the genre can also be found in In Nacht und Eis (1912), about the sinking of the Titanic; Atlantis (1913), also about the Titanic; Noah's Ark (1928), the Biblical story from Genesis about the great flood; Deluge (1933), about tidal waves devastating New York City; King Kong (1933), with a gigantic gorilla rampaging through New York City; and The Last Days of Pompeii (1935), dealing with the Mount Vesuvius volcanic eruption in 79 AD.
John Ford's The Hurricane (1937) concluded with the striking sequence of a tropical cyclone ripping through a fictional South Pacific island. The drama San Francisco (1936) depicted the historic 1906 San Francisco earthquake, while In Old Chicago (1937) recreated The Great Chicago Fire which burned through the city in 1871. Carol Reed's 1939 film, The Stars Look Down, examines a catastrophe at a coal mine in North-East England.
Inspired by the end of World War II and the beginning of the Atomic Age, science fiction films of the 1950s, including When Worlds Collide (1951), The War of the Worlds (1953) and Godzilla, King of the Monsters! (1956), routinely used world disasters as plot elements. This trend would continue with The Deadly Mantis (1957), The Day the Earth Caught Fire (1961) and Crack in the World (1965). Volcanic disasters would also feature in films such as The Devil at 4 O'Clock (1961) starring Spencer Tracy and Frank Sinatra, and the 1969 epic Krakatoa, East of Java starring Maximilian Schell.
As in the silent film era, the sinking of the Titanic would continue to be a popular disaster with filmmakers and audiences alike. Werner Klingler and Herbert Selpin released the epic film Titanic in 1943. The film was soon banned in Germany and its director, Selpin, was allegedly executed. The film was a staple for all Titanic films, and scenes became stock footage for the British version. Clifton Webb and Barbara Stanwyck starred in the 1953 20th Century Fox production Titanic, followed by the highly regarded British film A Night to Remember in 1958. The British action-adventure film The Last Voyage (1960), while not about the Titanic disaster but a predecessor to The Poseidon Adventure, starred Robert Stack as a man desperately attempting to save his wife (Dorothy Malone) and child trapped in a sinking ocean liner. The film, concluding with the dramatic sinking of the ship, was nominated for an Oscar for Best Visual Effects.
Additional precursors to the popular disaster films of the 1970s include The High and the Mighty (1954), starring John Wayne and Robert Stack as pilots of a crippled airplane attempting to cross the ocean; Zero Hour! (1957), written by Arthur Hailey (who also penned the 1968 novel Airport) about an airplane crew that succumbs to food poisoning; Jet Storm and Jet Over the Atlantic, two 1959 films both featuring attempts to blow up an airplane in mid-flight; The Crowded Sky (1960) which depicts a mid-air collision; and The Doomsday Flight (1966), written by Rod Serling and starring Edmond O'Brien as a disgruntled aerospace engineer who plants a barometric pressure bomb on an airliner built by his former employer set to explode when the airliner descends for landing.
1970s peak
The golden age of the disaster film began in 1970 with the release of Airport. A huge financial success earning more than $100 million ($590 million in 2017-adjusted dollars), at the box office, the film was directed by George Seaton and starred Burt Lancaster, Dean Martin, George Kennedy, Jacqueline Bisset and Helen Hayes. While not exclusively focused on a disaster, in this case, an airplane crippled by the explosion of a bomb, the film established the blueprint of multiple plotlines acted out by an all-star cast. Airport was nominated for 10 Academy Awards including Best Picture, winning Best Supporting Actress for Hayes.
With the 1972 release of The Poseidon Adventure, another huge financial success notching an impressive $84 million in US/Canada gross rental theatrical rentals ($490 Million in 2017-adjusted dollars), the disaster film officially became a movie-going craze. Directed by Ronald Neame and starring Gene Hackman, Ernest Borgnine, Shelley Winters and Red Buttons, the film detailed survivors' attempts at escaping a sinking ocean liner overturned by a giant wave triggered by an earthquake. The Poseidon Adventure was nominated for eight Academy Awards, including Best Supporting Actress for Shelley Winters and winning for Original Song and receiving a Special Achievement Award for visual effects.
The trend reached its zenith in 1974 with the release of The Towering Inferno, Earthquake and Airport 1975 (the first Airport sequel). The competing films enjoyed staggering success at the box office, with The Towering Inferno earning $116 million - 548 million in 2017 adjusted dollars, Earthquake $79 million - 376 million in 2017 adjusted dollars, and Airport 1975 $47 million - 235 million in 2017 adjusted dollars - in theatrical rentals.
Arguably the greatest of the 1970s disaster films, The Towering Inferno was a joint venture of 20th Century Fox and Warner Bros. and was produced by Irwin Allen (eventually known as "The Master of Disaster", as he had previously helmed The Poseidon Adventure and later produced The Swarm, Beyond the Poseidon Adventure and When Time Ran Out...). Directed by John Guillermin and starring Paul Newman, Steve McQueen, William Holden and Faye Dunaway, the film depicts a huge fire engulfing the tallest building in the world and firefighters' attempts at rescuing occupants trapped on the top floor. The film was nominated for eight Academy Awards including Best Picture, winning for Best Cinematography, Best Film Editing and Best Original Song.
Earthquake was also honored with four Academy Award nominations for its impressive special effects of a massive earthquake leveling the city of Los Angeles, winning for Best Sound and receiving a Special Achievement Award for visual effects. The film was directed by Mark Robson and starred Charlton Heston, Ava Gardner, Geneviève Bujold, George Kennedy and Lorne Greene. It was noted as the first film to utilize Sensurround, where massive sub-woofer speakers were installed in theaters to recreate the vibrating sensation of an earthquake. Several made-for-TV movies also capitalized on the craze including Heatwave! (1974), The Day the Earth Moved (1974), Hurricane (1974), Flood! (1976) and Fire! (1977).
The trend continued on a larger scale with The Hindenburg (1975) starring George C. Scott; The Cassandra Crossing (1976) starring Burt Lancaster; Two-Minute Warning (1976) starring Charlton Heston; Black Sunday (1977) starring Robert Shaw; Rollercoaster in Sensurround (1977) starring George Segal; Damnation Alley (1977) starring Jan-Michael Vincent; Avalanche (1978) starring Rock Hudson; Gray Lady Down (1978) also starring Charlton Heston; Hurricane (a 1979 remake of John Ford's 1937 film) starring Jason Robards; and City on Fire (1979) starring Barry Newman.
Skyjacked (1972) was a lesser entry into the disaster film canon, following on the heels of Airport, though preceding its sequel Airport 1975. The Airport series would continue with Airport '77 (1977) and The Concorde ... Airport '79 (1979), with George Kennedy portraying the character Joe Patroni in each sequel. The Poseidon Adventure was followed by the sequel Beyond the Poseidon Adventure (1979).
The genre began to burn out by the late-1970s when the big-budget films The Swarm (1978), Meteor (1979), Hurricane (1979), The Concorde ... Airport '79 (1979), Beyond the Poseidon Adventure (1979) and When Time Ran Out... (1980) performed poorly at the box office signaling declining interest in the disaster film product.
Although The Big Bus (1976), an earlier disaster film spoof, had failed to be a hit, the end of the trend was marked by the 1980 comedy Airplane! which fondly spoofed the clichés of the genre to surprising box office success, producing a sequel of its own, Airplane II: The Sequel, in 1982.
1990s revival
The resurgence of big budget productions of the genre aided by advancements in CGI technology during the 1990s include such films as Twister, Independence Day, Daylight, Dante's Peak, Volcano, Hard Rain, Deep Impact, and Armageddon. In 1997, James Cameron produced, wrote and directed a version of the epic story, Titanic. The film combined romance with intricate special effects and was a massive success, becoming the highest-grossing film of all time (which it remained for twelve years) with over $2.1 billion worldwide, and winning 11 Academy Awards including Best Picture and Best Director.
See also
List of disaster films
Doomsday film
References
Further reading
External links
Disaster Movie Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)
Disaster Films
Novelguide.com: Film Fads And Fashions
Film genres
Thriller genres
Thrillers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20P%C3%A8ne%20du%20Bois
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William Pène du Bois
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William Sherman Pène du Bois (May 9, 1916 – February 5, 1993) was an American writer and illustrator of books for young readers. He is best known for The Twenty-One Balloons, published in April 1947 by Viking Press, for which he won the 1948 Newbery Medal. He was twice a runner-up for the Caldecott Medal for illustrating books written by others, and the two Caldecott Honor picture books, which he also wrote.
From 1953 to 1960, Pène du Bois was art editor of The Paris Review, working alongside founder and editor George Plimpton.
Early life
William Pène du Bois was born in Nutley, New Jersey in May 1916. His mother was Florence Sherman Pène du Bois who worked as a children's fashion designer until "Billy" was about seven years old. His father Guy Pène du Bois was a noted art critic and a painter known for landscapes and portraits. His older sister Yvonne (born 1913, later Yvonne Pène du Bois McKenney) would become a painter and their cousin Raoul Pene Du Bois would become a noted costume and scenic designer. Their Du Bois ancestors had moved from France to New Orleans in 1738.
When William was eight the family moved to France, where he was educated at the Lycée Hoche in Versailles and the Lycée de Nice in Nice. They returned to Nutley when he was 14. After high school he was accepted by the Carnegie Technical School of Architecture, and offered a scholarship, but he sold a book that he had written and illustrated to pass the time during a vacation and pursued the creation of books rather than college. Thomas Nelson & Sons accepted Elisabeth, the Cow Ghost in 1935, when he was nineteen, and published it in 1936.
Writing career
By the time he entered the army in March 1941 at age 24, he had written and illustrated five more books. He spent his years in the army (1941–1945) with an artillery unit stationed in Bermuda. He worked as a correspondent for Yank magazine. He also edited the camp newspaper and illustrated strategic maps.
In addition to writing and illustrating his own books, Pène du Bois illustrated books written by Jules Verne, Isaac Bashevis Singer, Rumer Godden, Claire Huchet Bishop and John Steinbeck, as well as magazine articles and advertisements.
In 1960 he developed an interest in vintage cars, going to great pains and expense to refurbish a 1931 Brewster Croydon Coupe Rolls-Royce P11.
He was one of the founding editors of The Paris Review along with Thomas Guinzburg, Harold L. Humes, Peter Matthiessen, George Plimpton, and John P. C. Train, and designed the publication's logo. He illustrated The Rabbit's Umbrella by George Plimpton, published in 1955.
The highlight of his career was winning the Newbery Medal in 1948 for The Twenty-One Balloons. As an illustrator he was a runner-up for the companion Caldecott Medal in 1952 for Bear Party and in 1957 for Lion.
Some of his books including Bear Party and Lion are children's picture books with a minimum of text. The Twenty-One Balloons, however – and others including The Three Policemen, The Great Geppy, Squirrel Hotel, Peter Graves and The Giant – appeal to all ages. These books exhibit whimsical ingenuity in story and illustrations. Though not usually so classified, these books seem to qualify as science fiction. Their interest lies more in their imaginative elaboration of ideas than in their characters. Some of his fictional ideas are fantastic but many are plausible, and some such as the Balloon Merry-Go-Round in The Twenty-one Balloons may be feasible. Many show the influence of Jules Verne.
Many of his papers are in the collection of the New York Public Library, Humanities and Social Sciences Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division.
Personal life
Pène du Bois married Jane Michele Bouche of Manhattan, daughter of artist Louis Bouche, in 1943. They later divorced and in 1955 he married theatrical costume designer Willa Kim.
Children's book illustrator Margot Tomes was a cousin, as was theatrical costume and set designer Raoul Pene Du Bois.
He died on February 5, 1993, in Nice, France, from a stroke.
Books
As writer
Elisabeth, the Cow Ghost (Thomas Nelson, 1936)
Giant Otto & Otto at Sea (1936) – a giant dog named Otto (akin to Clifford the Big Red Dog) goes on a voyage
The 3 Policemen, or, Young Bottsford of Farbe Island (1938) – the ingenuity of ten-year-old Bottsford enables the three clownish policemen of an isolated idyllic isle to catch thieves who have been stealing the islanders' fish and fishing nets
The Great Geppy (1940) – his fifth book published, featured on one page of a Life magazine story about his family
A striped horse (NOT a zebra) is hired to solve a robbery at a circus. To investigate the crime, Geppy poses as a variety of circus entertainers, including a freak, a tightrope walker, and a lion tamer. In the end he discovers that there has not been any theft; rather, the culprit has been breaking into the company safe to contribute money to the financially struggling circus. For his success, Geppy is honored as a hero and is even appointed the circus's newest star: he gives an extraordinary performance when shot from a cannon.
The Flying Locomotive (1941)
The Twenty-One Balloons (1947)
A schoolteacher who decides to spend a year in a balloon but, because of an accident, crashes on Krakatoa. It turns out that the island is populated by twenty families who share the wealth of a secret diamond mine. They have used their wealth to build elaborate houses which also serve as restaurants. They have a calendar with a 20-day month. On A day, everyone eats in Mr. and Mrs. A's American restaurant; on B day, in Mrs. and Mrs. B's British chop house; on C day, in Mr. and Mrs. C's Chinese restaurant; on D day, in Mr. and Mrs. D's Dutch restaurant, and so forth. When Krakatoa explodes, the families and the protagonist escape on a flying platform lofted by twenty balloons.
Peter Graves: An Extraordinary Adventure (1950)
A well-meaning but mischievous boy who encounters a gentlemanly and not-very-mad scientist named Houghton Furlong. Furlong is the inventor of an antigravity material named Furloy, and a Furloy-based invention called "the ball that bounces higher than the height from which you drop it." In an unfortunate accident with the latter invention, Peter destroys Houghton's house. Little of value is left in the wreckage except six balls of Furloy, each about the size of a golf ball, with an antigravity pull of 25 pounds-force (110 newtons) each. Peter commits himself to spending the summer with Houghton in an attempt to earn the $45,000 necessary to rebuild his house. The implied puzzle is: how can Peter and Houghton make use of the six Furloy balls to earn $45,000?
Bear Party (1951)
Squirrel Hotel (1952) – a bittersweet story about a man who builds an elaborate hotel for squirrels
With illustrations of the dollhouse-like structure full of squirrels sniffing, playing, sliding down spiral slides, and generating electricity for the lighting by running around a squirrel cage. The man disappears and the narrator tries to find him by tracing his purchases (48 miniature four-poster beds; 1 gross flashlight bulbs; 2 electric motors, Meccano; 6 American flags; etc.).
The Giant (1954)
An eight-year-old boy is seven stories tall because he has "a perfect digestive system": if the boy eats one pound of food, he gains one pound of body mass. Illustrations show the various arrangements made by family and friends to take care of him. He is sweet and well-mannered, but great effort is taken to conceal him because of the fear and hostility giants arouse. The narrator befriends him and comes up with a plan to introduce him to the public in such a way that they will accept him, so he will not need to spend his life in concealment.
Lion (1956)
An angel tries to design the animal known to us as a lion. This angel is new to the skill of designing animals, and his first few attempts are reviewed by his fellow artists as lacking for one reason or another. The angel perseveres and eventually Lion is perfected. It is a story about art, artists, creativity, and finding one's place in the world – for both the angel (amidst his fellow angels) and the lion.
Castles and Dragons (1958)
Otto in Texas (1959) – Otto the giant dog visits Texas, where he discovers a dinosaur skeleton and a tunnel used by oil rustlers
Otto In Africa (1961) – further adventures of Otto the giant dog
The Three Little Pigs (1962) – the familiar story is told in verse
The Alligator Case (1965)
Lazy Tommy Pumpkinhead (1966)
A boy lives in an electric house that automatically tips him out of bed into the bath, dresses him and feeds him breakfast every morning without requiring him to move a muscle. After each morning routine he yawningly climbs up a staircase that takes him until bedtime to reach the top of, at which point he tiredly goes to bed and sleeps until next morning's automatic wakeup. However, a power failure incapacitates the entire house and causes Tommy to sleep for seven days. When the power resumes, his bed tips him into seven-day-cold water. Shivering and struggling to get out of the tub, he lands upside-down in his clothes, is showered with a seven-day backup of breakfast food, and ends up sitting in a big mess on the floor. This serves as a moral to children not to be lazy, but to arise promptly every morning, take their own bath, and dress and feed themselves.
The Horse in the Camel Suit (1967)
The town policeman, in a huff, locks up a show troupe and a young detective contrives to set them free without hurting the policeman's feelings. He discovers, however, that they actually are criminals, and he must get them behind bars again.
Pretty Pretty Peggy Moffitt (1968) – a vanity obsessed girl who loves looking at herself suffers many accidents
Porko von Popbutton (1969) – on gluttony, in a series on the seven deadly sins
A 274-pound thirteen-year-old boy whose sole passion is food is miserable when sent to boarding school until he accidentally gets on the hockey team. Also published under the title of "Beat the Queen" in Sports Illustrated of December 23, 1968.
Otto And The Magic Potatoes (1970) – further adventures of Otto the giant dog
Call Me Bandicoot (1970) – a fast-talking young man entertains passengers on the Staten Island Ferry in exchange for food and money; serialized in Children's Digest
Bear Circus (1971)
Mother Goose for Christmas (Viking, 1973), picture book
The Forbidden Forest (1978) – Lady Adelaide, a boxing kangaroo, helps to defeat the German army, thus becoming a heroine of the Great War
Gentleman Bear (1985) – a London gentleman and his inseparable companion of over seventy years, his teddy bear
As illustrator only
The Mousewife, written by Rumer Godden (Viking Press, 1951)
Twenty and Ten, by Claire Huchet Bishop as told by Janet Joly (Viking, 1952), – also published by Scholastic as The Secret Cave,
The Great Dog Robbery, written by Dodie Smith, published serially in Woman's Day, June-September 1956.
Castles and Dragons: Read-to-yourself fairy tales for boys and girls, compiled by the Child Study Association of America (Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1958), 292 pp.,
A Certain Small Shepherd, Rebecca Caudill (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965)
The Magic Finger, Roald Dahl (Allen & Unwin; Harper & Row, 1966) – later editions illustrated by Pat Mariott, Tony Ross, and Quentin Blake
William's Doll, Charlotte Zolotow (Harper & Row, 1972)
My Grandson Lev, Charlotte Zolotow (Harper & Row, 1974)
Bear in Mind: A book of bear poems, selected by Bobbye S. Goldstein (Viking Kestrel, 1989), picture book,
Harriet, by Charles McKinley, Jr. (Viking Press, 1946)
Notes
References
External links
William Pène du Bois papers, 1940s-1970s, held by the Manuscripts and Archives Division, New York Public Library
1916 births
1993 deaths
20th-century American novelists
American children's writers
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
Newbery Medal winners
Novelists from New Jersey
People from Nutley, New Jersey
American expatriates in France
American children's book illustrators
The Paris Review
American male short story writers
Artists from New Jersey
20th-century American short story writers
20th-century American male writers
|
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209502
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knettishall%20Heath
|
Knettishall Heath
|
Knettishall Heath is a 91.7 hectare biological Site of Special Scientific Interest west of Knettishall in Suffolk. A larger area of 176 hectares is the Knettishall Heath Nature Reserve, which is managed by the Suffolk Wildlife Trust.
Despite its name, Knettishall Heath is in fact a diverse mosaic of habitats with woodland and riverside meadows, as well as large areas of heath.
Ecology
The site is heath and grassland, mainly on acidic soils, with areas of secondary woodland and wet hollows. There are heathland plants such as sheep's sorrel, tormentil, harebell, ling and heath bedstraw, while wet areas have fen vegetation including water mint and yellow iris.
Rare species
Of the more than 12,500 species living in the Brecks, 30% are nationally rare. The heath is home to the rare grey carpet moth which is only found in Breckland, and the lunar yellow underwing moth. Seven bat species are found at Knettishall, including the nationally scarce barbastelle bat.
Exmoor ponies
In 2013, a five-year funded project to restore lowland heath at the nature reserve began. As part of this project, 19 wild Exmoor ponies have roamed and grazed the land, helping other species to thrive. The 'Vision for the Future' project was funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund and WREN - a not-for-profit organisation that offers grants for heritage and biodiversity schemes.
The shrinkage of heathland has been caused partially by a decline in rabbits grazing; rabbit populations have been decimated by myxomatosis and more recently rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD). The addition of ponies grazing the heathland looks to reverse this shrinkage.
Archaeology
An 18th century rabbit warren and a Bronze Age burial mound at Hut Hill are evidence of thousands of years of human occupation in the area.
At the western end of the heath, ‘patterned ground’ shows evidence of the last ice age. Repeated freezing and thawing of ground created a unique mix of the sandy soil and the underlying chalk. Unusual vegetation stripes reflect the two soil types, and the different plants that grow in each.
Footpaths
It is the site where four long-distance footpaths meet: Angles Way, Icknield Way, Iceni Way and Peddars Way (part of the Norfolk Coast Path, a National Trail). The Icknield Way joins with the Peddars Way at the end of its journey from Ivinghoe Beacon in Buckinghamshire. The Icknield Way trail, a multi-user route for walkers, horse riders and off-road cyclists also joins with the Peddars Way riders route.
The Hereward Way ends nearby in East Harling, and it linked to Knettishall Heath by path.
Access
There are several access points to the heathland, most found off the road between Knettishall and Rushford villages. The main car park for the area can be found on an unnamed road (informally known as Heath Road) off Spalding's Chair Hill.
The A1066 passes within a mile or two of the heathland, where it runs from Thetford to Garboldisham.
Gallery
References
Suffolk Wildlife Trust
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Suffolk
|
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209503
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database%20engine
|
Database engine
|
A database engine (or storage engine) is the underlying software component that a database management system (DBMS) uses to create, read, update and delete (CRUD) data from a database. Most database management systems include their own application programming interface (API) that allows the user to interact with their underlying engine without going through the user interface of the DBMS.
The term "database engine" is frequently used interchangeably with "database server" or "database management system". A "database instance" refers to the processes and memory structures of the running database engine.
Storage engines
Many of the modern DBMS support multiple storage engines within the same database. For example, MySQL supports InnoDB as well as MyISAM.
Some storage engines are transactional.
Additional engine types include:
Embedded database engines
In-memory database engines
Design considerations
Information in a database is stored as bits laid out as data structures in storage that can be efficiently read from and written to given the properties of hardware. Typically the storage itself is designed to meet requirements of various areas that extensively utilize storage, including databases. A DBMS in operation always simultaneously utilizes several storage types (e.g., memory, and external storage), with respective layout methods.
In principle the database storage can be viewed as a linear address space, where every bit of data has its unique address in this address space. In practice, only a very small percentage of addresses are kept as initial reference points (which also requires storage); most data is accessed by indirection using displacement calculations (distance in bits from the reference points) and data structures which define access paths (using pointers) to all needed data in an effective manner, optimized for the needed data access operations.
Database storage hierarchy
A database, while in operation, resides simultaneously in several types of storage, forming a storage hierarchy. By the nature of contemporary computers most of the database part inside a computer that hosts the DBMS resides (partially replicated) in volatile storage. Data (pieces of the database) that are being processed/manipulated reside inside a processor, possibly in processor's caches. These data are being read from/written to memory, typically through a computer bus (so far typically volatile storage components). Computer memory is communicating data (transferred to/from) external storage, typically through standard storage interfaces or networks (e.g., fibre channel, iSCSI). A storage array, a common external storage unit, typically has storage hierarchy of its own, from a fast cache, typically consisting of (volatile and fast) DRAM, which is connected (again via standard interfaces) to drives, possibly with different speeds, like flash drives and magnetic disk drives (non-volatile). The drives may be connected to magnetic tapes, on which typically the least active parts of a large database may reside, or database backup generations.
Typically a correlation exists currently between storage speed and price, while the faster storage is typically volatile.
Data structures
A data structure is an abstract construct that embeds data in a well defined manner. An efficient data structure allows manipulation of the data in efficient ways. The data manipulation may include data insertion, deletion, updating and retrieval in various modes. A certain data structure type may be very effective in certain operations, and very ineffective in others. A data structure type is selected upon DBMS development to best meet the operations needed for the types of data it contains. Type of data structure selected for a certain task typically also takes into consideration the type of storage it resides in (e.g., speed of access, minimal size of storage chunk accessed, etc.). In some DBMSs database administrators have the flexibility to select among options of data structures to contain user data for performance reasons. Sometimes the data structures have selectable parameters to tune the database performance.
Databases may store data in many data structure types. Common examples are the following:
ordered/unordered flat files
hash tables
B+ trees
ISAM
heaps
Data orientation and clustering
In contrast to conventional row-orientation, relational databases can also be column-oriented or correlational in the way they store data in any particular structure.
In general, substantial performance improvement is gained if different types of database objects that are usually utilized together are laid in storage in proximity, being "clustered". This usually allows to retrieve needed related objects from storage in minimum number of input operations (each sometimes substantially time-consuming). Even for in-memory databases clustering provides performance advantage due to common utilization of large caches for input-output operations in memory, with similar resulting behavior.
For example, it may be beneficial to cluster a record of an "item" in stock with all its respective "order" records. The decision of whether to cluster certain objects or not depends on the objects' utilization statistics, object sizes, caches sizes, storage types, etc.
Database indexing
Indexing is a technique some storage engines use for improving database performance. The many types of indexes share the common property that they reduce the need to examine every entry when running a query. In large databases, this can reduce query time/cost by orders of magnitude. The simplest form of index is a sorted list of values that can be searched using a binary search with an adjacent reference to the location of the entry, analogous to the index in the back of a book. The same data can have multiple indexes (an employee database could be indexed by last name and hire date).
Indexes affect performance, but not results. Database designers can add or remove indexes without changing application logic, reducing maintenance costs as the database grows and database usage evolves. Indexes can speed up data access, but they consume space in the database, and must be updated each time the data is altered. Indexes therefore can speed data access but slow data maintenance. These two properties determine whether a given index is worth the cost.
References
External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20100330045149/http://dev.mysql.com/tech-resources/articles/storage-engine/part_3.html
MySQL Administrator's Bible Chapter 11 "Storage Engines"
Data management
Database management systems
|
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209505
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sourigna%20Vongsa
|
Sourigna Vongsa
|
Souligna Vongsa (ສຸຣິຍະວົງສາທັມມິກຣາດ ) was the king of Lan Xang whose reign is considered the golden age of Laos. He ascended to the throne in 1637.
King of Lan Xang
In 1637, Sourigna Vongsa ascended the throne after the nobles elected him over his two older brothers. King Sourigna Vongsa reigned for 57 years during which Laos experienced "The Golden Age" with regard to territory, prestige and power.
He assured stability by immediately banishing any possible rivals, sending one of his brothers to Vietnam and the other one into a solitary priesthood, and sending his cousins west, towards Siam. He was a strict and austere monarch, and ran the country according to firm laws. He was greatly respected as a ruler, and within five years of his ascension, his reputation reached the Dutch representatives of the Dutch East India Company who were in Phnom Penh. The Jesuit Giovanni Maria Leria arrived in Vientiane at the same time as the Dutch merchants 1641 and received the first European envoys into Laos.
Much of what we know about seventeenth-century Laos comes from the descriptions of these visitors. Despite the disruptions that spanned the period from Setthathirath's death to Sourigna Vongsa's ascension, Lan Xang, as Laos was called, apparently recovered very quickly. Both Van Wuystoff, the Dutchman, and Leria, who spent six years in Laos, were impressed with the nation's prosperity. Van Wuystoff noted the great number of monasteries and the monks, "more numerous than the soldiers of the King of Prussia." John Philip de Marini, who recorded and published Leria's visit, noted that monks went from Siam to Laos "as to University." The support of a large idle population, the monkhood, which harmed Laos' national economic development, nevertheless impressed both visitors. The first chapter of Marini's account is subtitled, The Greatness, Riches and Power of Laos. Both described the free market and flourishing trade, which supplied Europe with gum benzoin, lac, musk ("the first musk that has appeared in Europe from this part of the world." - de Marini) and other products. The palace of the king, de Marini would describe,
"the structure and symmetry of which are remarkable can be seen from afar. It is truly vast and is so extensive that one would take it for a city... The King's quarters... have a very beautiful and magnificent façade... embellished inside and out with splendid bas relief gilded so finely that they appear to be covered with gold laminations.... I would have to fill an entire book... to describe all the other parts of the palace in detail, their richness, their apartments, their gardens...."
The king claimed to recognize no other as his equal, though he concluded friendly treaties with neighboring countries. With King Narai of Ayutthaya, he built the Phra That Si Song Rak (Stupa of the Affectionate Two) at Dan Sai (now in Loei province of Thailand) to commemorate their friendship and set the boundary of their kingdoms.
In contrast to his friend Narai, however, who received ambassadors with great pomp, wore splendid and elaborate vestments and enjoyed the use of the finest foreign luxuries—velvets and rich Persian carpets, Sourigna Vongsa wore no crowns, and preferred sitting on reed mats. Though the mats of Lan Xang, were evidently more beautiful than they are today; de Marini writes of them, for example, that "the weaving is so delicate and the ornamentation with patterns and various leaf-works so well done that, in my opinion, there is nothing more beautiful and more pleasing to the eye;" it is apparent from the accounts of the foreign visitors that the great king lived a far from decadent life. Rather, they noted that he distributed his wealth in the service of religion.
In the golden age of Lan Xang, wealth was primarily spent on religion, rather than on equipping the army with European weapons. It was one of the crucial reasons why the kingdom declined following his rule.
Death
In 1695, Sourigna died and was heirless. He had 2 sons, the eldest one having been executed for adultery and the other son having fled to Ayutthaya with his mother, step-mother and 600 followers in February 1686, after his father ordered their execution because he was found to be co-habiting with his half-sister with their full knowledge. This was a chaotic time in Laotian history wherein the empire completely collapsed with the kingdom splitting into 3 new kingdoms: Vientiane, Luang Phrabang and Kingdom of Champasak.
Family
Father: Tone Kham
Mother: name unknown
Consorts and their respective issue:
name unknown
Prince Indra Brahma (Enta-Prohm), Chao Raja Yudha (Ratsavuth) - (b.1642) father of Kings of Luang Phrabang Kingkitsarath (r.1707-1713) and Intha Son (r.1737 1738)
Princess Sumangala Kumari - mother of Kings Sai Ong Hue of Lan Xang and Nokasad of Champasak
Princess Kinichandra (Kène Chan) - (m.1652) - daughter of Princess Kham San of Xieng Xouang
a daughter of King Lê Thần Tông of Annam
name unknown
Princess Suman... Kumari - (d.1696) she married (~1694) the King of Lan Xang Tian Thala (r.1694 or 1695)
A son, who fled to Ayutthaya with his mother, step-mother and 600 followers in February 1686 after his father ordered their execution because he was found to be co-habiting with his half-sister.
References
17th-century births
History of Laos
Laotian royalty
1694 deaths
17th-century Laotian people
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209506
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao%20Buddhist%20sculpture
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Lao Buddhist sculpture
|
Lao Buddhist sculptures were created by the Lao people of Southeast Asia. They are typically made of bronze, although gold and silver images can also be found. The Vat Manorom is believed to be the oldest colossal Lao Buddhist sculpture. Today, the sculpture gardens of Luang Pu Bunleua Sulilat provide a modern twist to the ancient tradition.
Media for the sculptures
Lao artisans have, throughout the past, used a variety of media in their sculptural creations. Of the metals, bronze is probably the most common, but gold and silver images also exist. Typically, the precious metals are used only for smaller objects, but some large images have been cast in gold, most notably the Phra Sai of the sixteenth century, which the Siamese carried home as loot in the late eighteenth century. It is enshrined at Wat Po Chai in Nongkhai, Thailand, just across the Mekong River from Vientiane. The Phra Sai's two companion images, the Phra Serm and Phra Souk, are also in Thailand. One is in Bangkok and the other is in Lopburi. Perhaps the most famous sculpture in Laos, the Phra Bang, is also cast in gold, but the craftsmanship is held to be of Sinhalese, rather than Lao, origin. Tradition maintains that relics of the Buddha are contained in the image.
Bronze is an alloy of copper, containing about two percent tin. Other materials are often added, however, and the balance of ingredients determines the characteristics of the bronze. In Laos, like Cambodia and Thailand, the bronze, which is called samrit, includes precious metals, and often has a relatively high percentage of tin, which gives the newly-cast images a lustrous dark gray color. Other images, such as the Buddha of Vat Chantabouri in Vientiane, have a higher copper and, probably, gold content that give them a muted gold color.
Notable sculptures
A number of colossal images in bronze exist. Most notable of these are the Phra Ong Teu (16th century) of Vientiane, the Phra Ong Teu of Sam Neua, the image at Vat Chantabouri (16th century) in Vientiane and the image at Vat Manorom (14th century) in Luang Phrabang, which seems to be the oldest of the colossal sculptures. The Manorom Buddha, of which only the head and torso remain, shows that colossal bronzes were cast in parts and assembled in place.
Brick-and-mortar also seems to be a favorite medium for colossal images. Perhaps the most famous of these is the image of Phya Vat (16th century) in Vientiane, though apparently an unfortunate renovation completely altered the appearance of the sculpture, and it no longer resembles a Lao Buddha.
Wood is popular for small, votive Buddhist images that are often left in caves. Wood is also very common for large, life-size standing images of the Buddha.
The most famous two sculptures carved in semi-precious stone are the Phra Keo (The Emerald Buddha) and the Phra Phuttha Butsavarat. The Phra Keo, which is probably of Xieng Sen (Chiang Saen) origin, is carved from a solid block of jade. It rested in Vientiane for two hundred years before the Siamese carried it away as booty in the late eighteenth century. It now serves as the palladium of the Kingdom of Thailand, and resides at the Grand Palace in Bangkok. The Phra Phuttha Butsavarat was also taken to Bangkok, today it resides at the Amphorn Sathan Residential Hall. Before the Siamese seized it in the early nineteenth century, this crystal image was the palladium of the Lao kingdom of Champassack.
Many mostly wooden Lao Buddhist sculptures have been assembled inside the Pak Ou caves.
Modern developments
The religious art tradition of the region has received an original contemporary twist in the monumental fantastic sculpture gardens of Luang Pu Bunleua Sulilat: Buddha Park near Vientiane, and Sala Keoku near Nong Khai, Thailand.
See also
Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand
Korean Buddhist sculpture
Thai Buddhist sculpture
Leela Attitude
Māravijaya Attitude
Meditation Attitude
Naga Prok Attitude
References
Thao Boun Souk: L’Image du Buddha dans L’Art Lao; Vientiane, 1971
Madeleine Giteau: Art et archéologie du Laos; Picard, 2001;
Betty Gosling: Old Luang Prabang; Oxford University Press, 1996
Somkiart Lopetcharat: Lao Buddha - The Image and Its History; Art Media Resources Ltd, 2001;
Henri Marchal: L’Art decoratif au Laos; Arts Asiatiques Vol. 10, No. 2, 1964
Henri Parmentier: L'art du Laos; édition révisée par Madeleine Giteau; Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient, 1988;
External links
Laos Cultural Profile (Ministry of Information and Culture/Visiting Arts)
Sculpture
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209518
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapper%27s%20Delight
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Rapper's Delight
|
"Rapper's Delight" is a 1979 hip hop track by the Sugarhill Gang and produced by Sylvia Robinson. Although it was shortly preceded by Fatback Band's "King Tim III (Personality Jock)", "Rapper's Delight" is credited for introducing hip hop music to a wide audience, reaching the top 40 in the United States, as well as the top three in the United Kingdom and number-one in Canada. It was a prototype for various types of rap music. The track interpolates Chic's "Good Times", resulting in Chic's Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards suing Sugar Hill Records for copyright infringement; a settlement was reached that gave the two songwriting credits. The track was recorded in a single take. There are five mixes of the song.
"Rapper's Delight" is number 251 on the Rolling Stone magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and number 2 on VH1's 100 Greatest Hip-Hop Songs. It is also included on NPR's list of the 100 most important American musical works of the 20th century. It was preserved in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress in 2011 for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
In 2014, the record was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.
Background
In late 1978, Debbie Harry suggested that Chic's Nile Rodgers join her and Chris Stein at a hip hop event, which at the time was a communal space taken over by teenagers with boombox stereos playing various pieces of music that performers would break dance to. Rodgers experienced this event the first time himself at a high school in the Bronx. On September 20 and 21, 1979, Blondie and Chic were playing concerts with The Clash in New York at The Palladium. When Chic started playing "Good Times", rapper Fab Five Freddy and the members of the Sugarhill Gang ("Big Bank Hank" Jackson, "Wonder Mike" Wright, and "Master Gee" O'Brien), jumped up on stage and started freestyling with the band. A few weeks later, Rodgers was on the dance floor of New York club Leviticus and heard the DJ play a song which opened with Bernard Edwards's bass line from Chic's "Good Times". Rodgers approached the DJ who said he was playing a record he had just bought that day in Harlem. The song turned out to be an early version of "Rapper's Delight", which also included a scratched version of the song's string section. Rodgers and Edwards immediately threatened legal action over copyright, which resulted in a settlement and their being credited as co-writers. Rodgers admitted that he was originally upset with the song, but later declared it to be "one of his favorite songs of all time" and his favorite of all the tracks that sampled (or in this instance interpolated) Chic. He also stated: "As innovative and important as 'Good Times' was, 'Rapper's Delight' was just as much, if not more so."
A substantial portion of the early stanzas of the song's lyrics was borrowed by Jackson from Grandmaster Caz (Curtis Fisher) who had loaned his 'book' to him—these include a namecheck for "Casanova Fly", which was Caz's full stage name. According to Wonder Mike, he had heard the phrase "hip-hop" from a cousin, leading to the opening line of "Hip-hop, hippie to the hippie, to the hip-hip-hop and you don't stop", whilst he described "To the bang-bang boogie, say up jump the boogie to the rhythm of the boogie, the beat" as "basically a spoken drum roll. I liked the percussive sound of the letter B". The line "Now what you hear is not a test, I'm rappin' to the beat", was inspired by the introduction to The Outer Limits ("There is nothing wrong with your television set. Do not attempt to adjust the picture").
Before the "Good Times" background starts, the intro to the recording is an interpolation of "Here Comes That Sound Again" by British studio group Love De-Luxe, a disco hit in 1979.
According to Oliver Wang, author of the 2003 Classic Material: The Hip-Hop Album Guide, recording artist ("Pillow Talk") and studio owner Sylvia Robinson had trouble finding anyone willing to record a rap song. Most of the rappers who performed in clubs did not want to record, as many practitioners believed the style was for live performances only. It is said that Robinson's son heard Big Bank Hank in a pizza place. According to Master Gee, Hank auditioned for Robinson in front of the pizza parlor where he worked, whilst Gee himself auditioned in Robinson's car. A live band was used to record most of the backing track, including members of the group "Positive Force": Albert Pittman, Bernard Roland, Moncy Smith, and Bryan Horton.
Chip Shearin claimed during a 2010 interview that he was the bass player on the track. At the age of 17, he had visited a friend in New Jersey. The friend knew Robinson, who needed some musicians for various recordings, including "Rapper's Delight". Shearin's job on the song was to play the bass for 15 minutes straight, with no mistakes. He was paid $70 but later went on to perform with Sugarhill Gang in concert. Shearin described the session this way:
The drummer and I were sweating bullets because that's a long time. And this was in the days before samplers and drum machines, when real humans had to play things. ... Sylvia said, 'I've got these kids who are going to talk real fast over it; that's the best way I can describe it.'
Wang said:
There's this idea that hip-hop has to have street credibility, yet the first big hip-hop song was an inauthentic fabrication. It's not like the guys involved were the 'real' hip-hop icons of the era, like Grandmaster Flash or Lovebug Starski. So it's a pretty impressive fabrication, lightning in a bottle.
Personnel
Michael "Wonder Mike" Wright – vocals
Henry "Big Bank Hank" Jackson – vocals
Guy "Master Gee" O'Brien – vocals
Bernard Roland or Chip Shearin – electric bass
Albert Pittman or Brian Morgan – electric guitar
Moncy Smith – piano
Bryan Horton – drums
Sylvia Robinson – additional vocals, vibraphone, and production
Billy Jones – engineer
Phil Austin – mastering, original US vinyl release
Music videos
The Sugar Hill Gang appeared on the syndicated Soap Factory Disco Show in late 1979, and their performance later became the song's official music video. The group's performance on the Palisades Park-based program demonstrates the significant overlap between early hip hop and disco of the late 1970s.
Alternate music videos exist as well. One appears to have been recorded by Dutch broadcasting company AVRO at a hotel pool in early 1980.
History
"Rapper's Delight" peaked at number 36 in January 1980 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart, number 4 on the U.S. Hot Soul Singles chart in December 1979, number 1 on the Canadian Singles Chart in January 1980, number 1 on the Dutch Top 40, and number 3 on the UK Singles Chart. In 1980, the song was the anchor of the group's first album The Sugarhill Gang.
It was the first Top 40 song to be available only as a 12-inch extended version in the U.S. Early pressings (very few) were released with a red label, with black print, on Sugar Hill Records, along with a 7" 45rpm single (which is very rare). Later pressings had the more common blue label, in orange colored "roulette style" sleeves, fashioned after the label for Roulette Records; Roulette's Morris Levy had invested in Sugar Hill. Even later pressings were issued in the more common blue sleeves with the Sugarhill Records logo. In Europe, however, it was released on the classic 7-inch single format on French pop label Vogue, with a shorter version of the song. It was this 7" single that reached number one in the Dutch chart. The song ranked number 251 on Rolling Stone magazine's 2004 list of "500 Greatest Songs of All Time".
A British version of the song, with rewritten lyrics, was recorded for the song's 25th anniversary in 2004 by an ensemble of performers including Rodney P, Chester P, Kano, Simone, Yungun, Sway, J2K, Swiss, Baby Blue, Skibadee, Luke Skys, and MC D.
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications and sales
See also
List of 1970s one-hit wonders in the United States
References
External links
Official Music Video
Silver jubilee for first rap hit — BBC article about the single on its 25th anniversary
The Story of Rapper's Delight by Nile Rodgers
The 100 most important American musical works of the 20th century - NPR
Songs about hip hop
1979 debut singles
American disco songs
Funk-rap songs
The Sugarhill Gang songs
Songs written by Bernard Edwards
Songs written by Nile Rodgers
Songs written by Sylvia Robinson
United States National Recording Registry recordings
1979 songs
Sugar Hill Records (Hip-Hop label) singles
LGBT-related songs
Sampling controversies
|
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209519
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandoneon
|
Bandoneon
|
The bandoneon (or bandonion, ) is a type of concertina particularly popular in Argentina and Uruguay. It is a typical instrument in most tango ensembles. As with other members of the concertina family, the bandoneon is held between the hands, and by pulling and pushing actions force air through bellows and then routing air through particular reeds as by pressing the instrument's buttons. Bandoneons have a different sound from accordions, because bandoneons do not usually have the register switches that are common on accordions. Nevertheless, the tone of the bandoneon can be changed a great deal using varied bellows pressure and overblowing, thus creating potential for expressive playing and diverse timbres.
History
The Bandonion, so named by the German instrument dealer Heinrich Band (1821–1860), was originally intended as an instrument for religious and popular music of the day, in contrast to its predecessor, German concertina (), which had predominantly been used in folk music. Around 1870, German and Italian emigrants and sailors brought the instrument to Argentina, where it was adopted into the nascent genre of tango music, a descendant of the earlier milonga.
By 1910 bandoneons were being produced in Germany expressly for the Argentine and Uruguayan markets, with 25,000 shipping to Argentina in 1930 alone. However, declining popularity and the disruption of German manufacturing in World War II led to an end of bandoneon mass-production.
Original instruments can be seen in a number of German museums, such as the Preuss family's Bandoneon Museum in Lichtenberg and the Steinhart family's collection in Kirchzarten, Freiburg.
Historically, bandoneons were produced primarily in Germany and never in Argentina itself, despite their popularity in that country. As a result, by the 2000s vintage bandoneons had become rare and expensive (costing around $4,000), limiting the opportunities for prospective bandeonists. In 2014, the National University of Lanús announced its plan to develop an affordable Argentine-made bandoneon, which it hoped to market for one-third to one-half of the cost of vintage instruments.
Technique
As with other members of the concertina family, the bandoneon is held between the hands, and pulling and pushing actions force air through bellows and then through particular reeds as selected by pressing the instrument's buttons. As with other concertinas, the button action is parallel to the motion of the bellows, and not perpendicular to it as with an accordion.
Unlike what happens with a piano accordion, but in similar fashion to a melodeon or Anglo concertina, a given bandoneon button produces different notes on the push and the pull (bisonoric). This means that each keyboard actually has two layouts: one for opening notes, and one for closing notes. Since the right and left hand layouts are also different, a musician must learn four different keyboard layouts to play the instrument.
These keyboard layouts are not structured to make it easy to play scale passages of single notes: they were originally laid out to facilitate playing chords, for supporting singers of religious music in small churches with no organ or harmonium, or for clergy requiring a portable instrument (missionaries, traveling evangelists, army and navy chaplains, and so forth).
Unisonoric
While the standard bandoneon is bisonoric (different note on push and pull), some bandoneon variants are monosonoric, or unisonoric (same note on push and pull). These include the Ernst Kusserow and Charles Peguri systems, both introduced around 1925.
Players
The Argentinian bandleader, composer, arranger, and tango performer Aníbal Troilo was a leading 20th-century proponent of the bandoneon. The bandoneon player and composer Ástor Piazzolla played and arranged in Troilo's orquesta from 1939 to 1944. Piazzolla's "Fugata" from 1969 showcases the instrument, which plays the initial fugue subject on the 1st statement, then moves on to the outright tango after the introduction. With his solos and accompaniment on the bandoneon, Piazzolla combined a musical composition much derived from classical music (which he had studied intensively in his formative years) with traditional instrumental tango, to form nuevo tango, his new interpretation of the genre.
List of manufacturers
A list of some current bandoneon manufacturers:
Asociación Argentina de Luthiers
Baldoni Accordions (USA)
Bandoneón AZ - Ángel y Gabriel Zullo (Argentina)
Bandoneones A. A. Alfred Arnold (Germany)
Bandoneones F. F. - Juan Pablo Fredes (Gambier, La Plata, Argentina)
Bandoneones Baltazar Estol (Argentina)
Bandoneones Toscano (Mendoza, Argentina), Vicente Toscano, fabricante y restaurador de bandoneones.
Bandonion & Concertinafabrik Klingenthal (Germany)
Mario Bianco (Uruguay)
Castagnari (Italy)
Danielson Industria de Acordeões e Bandoneões (Brazil)
D. & J. Trupin SARL (France)
Enrique Fasuolo (Argentina)
Oscar Fisher (Argentina)
Giustozzi (Italy)
Handzuginstrumente Carlsfeld (Eibenstock, Germany)
Klaus Gutjahr (Germany)
Harry Geuns Bandoneons (Belgium)
Uwe Hartenhauer (Klingenthal, Germany)
Ricardo Matteo (Uruguay)
Museo Luis Alfredo Mariani (La Reja, Moreno, Argentina)
Pigini Fratelli & C. snc (Italy)
Premier Bandoneonbau Peter Spende (Germany)
Stagi Accordions & Bandoneons (Italy)
Tangobrujo Venta & Restauraciones - Daniel Barrientos (Argentina)
Victoria Accordions Company (Italy)
Prominent players
Vicente Greco (1888-1924)
Augusto Berto (1889-1953)
Eduardo Arolas (1892-1924)
Anselmo Aieta (1896-1964)
Osvaldo Fresedo (1897-1984)
Pedro Maffia (1899–1967)
Pedro Laurenz (1902–1972)
Ricardo Malerba (1905-1974)
Miguel Caló (1907-1972)
Aníbal Troilo (1914–1975)
Hector Varela (1914-1987)
Juan Cambareri (1916-1992)
Domingo Federico (1916-2000)
Alberto Caracciolo (1918-1994)
Enrique Alessio (1918-2000)
Astor Piazzolla (1921–1992)
Leopoldo Federico (1927-2014)
Rubén Juárez (1947-2010)
Claudio Constantini
Héctor del Curto
Per Arne Glorvigen
Gianni Iorio
Ryōta Komatsu
Rodolfo Mederos
Gabriel Merlino
Juan José Mosalini
Dino Saluzzi
Construction
Exterior:
A look inside a bandoneon:
References
External links
Proyecto Bandomecum Bandoneon's Portal Page
Christian's Bandoneon Page
Argentine musical instruments
Concertina
German inventions
Tango
|
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] |
209520
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knack
|
Knack
|
Knack or The Knack may refer to:
Music and entertainment
The Knack, an American pop-rock band famous for their hit "My Sharona"
The Knack (1960s US band), an American garage rock band active in the 1960s
The Knack (UK band), a British freakbeat and psychedelic rock band
"The Knack" (Dilbert episode), an episode of the TV series Dilbert
The Knack ...and How to Get It, a 1965 British film
Knack Productions, a Japanese animation studio that created the series The Adventures of the Little Prince and others
Games
Knack (card game), Swedish gambling card game
Knack (video game), a launch title developed by SCE Japan Studio for the Sony PlayStation 4
Other
Knäck, Swedish Christmas Butterscotch
Knack (magazine), a Belgian news magazine
See also
4312 Knacke, a main-belt asteroid
Knäcke or crispbread
Knacker, a person in the trade of rendering animals, and slang derived from the term
Knacker (band), a Canadian indie rock band
Knick Knack (disambiguation)
Knick (disambiguation)
NAC (disambiguation)
Nach (disambiguation)
Nack (disambiguation)
Nak (disambiguation)
Nakh (disambiguation)
Naq (disambiguation)
|
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209521
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20N.%20Heiskell
|
John N. Heiskell
|
John Netherland Heiskell (November 2, 1872 – December 28, 1972) was a prominent American newspaper editor who served briefly in the United States Senate after being appointed to fill a vacancy. He was the editor of the Arkansas Gazette from 1902 until his death, and served in the United States Senate from Arkansas briefly in 1913. As the result of his long life, Heiskell attained several Senate longevity records, and was the second U.S. Senator to reach the age of 100.
Early life
Heiskell was born in Rogersville, Tennessee on November 2, 1872, the son of Carrick White Heiskell and Eliza (Netherland) Heiskell. He was educated at public and private schools in the Knoxville area, and graduated from the University of Tennessee in 1893.
Start of career
Heiskell's family had been involved in newspaper publishing and editing for several generations, and Heiskell also pursued a career in journalism. He worked as a reporter for newspapers in Knoxville and Memphis, and reported for the Associated Press in Chicago and Louisville. In 1902, the Heiskell family bought a controlling interest in the Arkansas Gazette, and Heiskell became the editor, with his brother Fred taking the position of managing editor.
The Gazette became known for issues-oriented reporting, and Heiskell used it as a platform to advocate for civic and charitable causes. In 1907, he published several editorials calling for construction of a public library in Little Rock. His advocacy was successful, and when the library opened, Heiskell received its first library card and an appointment to the board of directors, on which he served until his death. Heiskell's activism also included service on the state Civil Service Commission and Planning Board and the Pulaski County Planning Board.
Under the leadership of the Heiskell brothers, their newspaper's circulation nearly doubled in four years. As part of their issues-oriented approach, they remained neutral in Democratic primary contests (then tantamount to election in most of the South) and supported Democratic candidates against Republicans in general elections. An exception was Heiskell's long-term editorial page feud with Governor Jeff Davis, in which Heskiell criticized Davis' record in office, and Davis accused Heskiell of operating a newspaper financed by and beholden to outsiders.
United States Senator
On January 3, 1913, Jeff Davis, who had been elected to the U.S. Senate in 1907, died in office. On January 6, Governor George Washington Donaghey appointed Heiskell to temporarily fill the vacancy until the Arkansas General Assembly could meet to choose a successor. On January 29, the Assembly chose William Marmaduke Kavanaugh to complete Davis' term, which was scheduled to end on March 3. The legislature also chose Governor Joseph Taylor Robinson for the full six year Senate term that began on March 4, 1913.
As a result of this political maneuvering, Heiskell served as a Senator for 23 days, which remains the shortest period of service ever in the U.S. Senate.
Later career
Heiskell continued to serve as editor of the Gazette, and produced editorials on a wide variety of issues. He advocated for city planning and for the commission form of municipal government. He opposed the Little Rock School Board’s decision to drop German language classes during World War I, and opposed anti-Semitism, though he favored limits on immigration so that recent arrivals could be more easily assimilated. His was also a supporter of Prohibition and women's suffrage, while continuing to advocate for traditional cultural morality. On the issue of race relations, Heskiell's editorials supported segregation with the argument that "separate but equal" was legal and would cause the least conflict. Despite this paternalistic attitude, Heskiell was also an opponent of lynching and called for a grand jury investigation into the Little Rock mob violence that led to John Carter's lynching in 1927.
As an avid student of Arkansas history and collector mementos and ephemera, Heskiell created an archive and library which was stored at the Gazette offices, and the Gazette was believed to be the country's only newspaper that employed a full-time staff historian. In 1947, Heskiell selected Harry S. Ashmore to succeed him as executive editor, though Heskiell continued as editor and maintained an active interest in the Gazette's management. When the 1957 desegregation of Little Rock’s Central High School became a contentious issue, Heiskell supported Ashmore's advocacy for obedience to the federal courts. Ashmore's editorials and the Gazette's news coverage of the events surrounding the school's desegregation resulted in the award of two Pulitzer Prizes.
Death and burial
He died in Little Rock on December 28, 1972. He was buried at Mount Holly Cemetery in Little Rock.
Legacy
In 1958, Heiskell received the Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award and the honorary degree of LL.D. degree from Colby College. In addition, he received honorary degrees from Syracuse University, Columbia University, and the University of Missouri. In addition, he received the John Peter Zenger Award and an honorary degree from the University of Arizona.
Despite his short time in the Senate, Heiskell's long life made him the oldest living former Senator from 1966 until his death, and he was the last Senator to have served in the 1910s.
Family
On June 28, 1910, Heiskell married Wilhelmina Mann, the daughter of George R. Mann, a nationally prominent architect. Their children included Elizabeth (1912-1974), Louise (1921-1990), John Jr. (b. 1914), and Carrick (1917-1943). Elizabeth Keiskell was the wife of screenwriter Whitfield Cook. Louise was the wife of Hugh B. Patterson, the longtime business manager of the Arkansas Gazette. John Jr. died reaching adulthood. Carrick died in an airplane crash while serving in World War II.
Heiskell was a grandson of two prominent Tennessee politicians, John Netherland and Frederick Heiskell.
References
External links
1872 births
1972 deaths
Politicians from Little Rock, Arkansas
People from Rogersville, Tennessee
Editors of Arkansas newspapers
Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award recipients
United States senators from Arkansas
American newspaper publishers (people)
American male journalists
American centenarians
Democratic Party United States senators
Arkansas Democrats
Men centenarians
|
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209522
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Edison
|
Charles Edison
|
Charles Edison (August 3, 1890 – July 31, 1969) was an American politician, businessman, inventor and animal behaviorist. He was the Assistant and then United States Secretary of the Navy, and served as the 42nd governor of New Jersey. Commonly known as "Lord Edison", he was a son of Thomas Edison and Mina Miller Edison.
Early life
Charles Edison was born on August 3, 1890, at Glenmont, the Edison family home in West Orange, New Jersey. He was Thomas Edison's fifth child and second from his marriage to Mina Miller. He graduated from the Hotchkiss School in 1909.
In 1915–1916, he operated the 100-seat "Little Thimble Theater" with Guido Bruno. The theater staged the works of George Bernard Shaw and August Strindberg, and Charles contributed verse to Brunos Weekly under the pseudonym Tom Sleeper. Late in 1915, he brought his players to Ellis Island to perform for Chief Clerk Augustus Sherman and more than four hundred detained immigrants.
These avant-garde activities came to a halt when his father put him to work. For a number of years, Charles Edison ran Edison Records. Charles became president of his father's company Thomas A. Edison, Inc. in 1927, and ran it until it was sold in 1957, when it merged with the McGraw Electric Company to form the McGraw-Edison Electric Company. Edison was board chairman of the merged company until he retired in 1961.
Department of the U.S. Navy (1937–40)
On January 18, 1937, President Roosevelt appointed Charles Edison as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, then as Secretary on January 2, 1940, Claude A. Swanson having died several months previously. Edison himself only kept the job until June 24, resigning to run for Governor of New Jersey. During his time in the Navy department, he advocated construction of the large s, and that one of them be built at the Philadelphia Navy Yard, which secured votes for Roosevelt in Pennsylvania and New Jersey in the 1940 presidential election; in return, Roosevelt had BB-62 named the .
Governor of New Jersey (1941–44)
In 1940, he won election as Governor of New Jersey, running in reaction to the political machine run by Frank Hague, but broke with family tradition by declaring himself a Democrat. As governor, he proposed updating the New Jersey State Constitution. Although it failed in a referendum and nothing was changed during his tenure, state legislators did reform the constitution later.
Later political life
Between 1951 and 1969, he lived in the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, where he struck up a friendship with Herbert Hoover, who also lived there. In 1962, Edison was one of the founders of the Conservative Party of New York State.
In 1967, Edison hosted a meeting at the Waldorf-Astoria in New York that led to the founding of the Charles Edison Youth Fund, later the Charles Edison Memorial Youth Fund. Attending the meeting were Rep. Walter Judd (R-MN), author William F. Buckley, organizer David R. Jones, and Edison's political advisor Marvin Liebman. The name of the organization was changed in 1985 to The Fund for American Studies, in keeping with Edison's request to drop his name after 20 years of use.
Personal life
Edison married Carolyn Hawkins on March 27, 1918. They had no children.
In 1924, Edison joined the New Jersey Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. He was assigned national member number 39,292 and state society number 2,894.
In 1948, he established a charitable foundation, originally called "The Brook Foundation", now the Charles Edison Fund.
Death
Charles Edison died on July 31, 1969, in New York City, three days shy of his 79th birthday. He is buried in Rosedale Cemetery in Orange, New Jersey.
See also
List of governors of New Jersey
References
Further reading
Richard J. Connors, State Constitutional Convention Studies, #4: The Process of Constitutional Revision in New Jersey: 1940–1947. (New York: National Municipal League, 1970).
External links
New Jersey Governor Charles Edison, National Governors Association
Charles Edison Fund: Includes a picture of Charles Edison
The Pragmatic Populism of a Non-Partisan Politician: An Analysis of the Political Philosophy of Charles Edison
Fund for American Studies – History
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1890 births
1969 deaths
Governors of New Jersey
United States Secretaries of the Navy
People of United Empire Loyalist descent
People from West Orange, New Jersey
Hotchkiss School alumni
New York (state) Democrats
Conservative Party of New York State politicians
Charles
Franklin D. Roosevelt administration cabinet members
20th-century American politicians
American Presbyterians
New Jersey Democrats
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
Burials at Rosedale Cemetery (Orange, New Jersey)
United States Assistant Secretaries of the Navy
American political party founders
|
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] |
209523
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkey%20River%20Town
|
Monkey River Town
|
Monkey River Town (or Monkey River) is a village in the north of the Toledo District of Belize. It is on the Caribbean Sea on the southern shore of the mouth of Belize's Monkey River. In 2011 the estimated population was 200 people.
The village is one of the last purely Creole settlements in Belize, and many traditional practises are still carried out, such as cooking over the "fyah haat" (fire hearth). A road was built in the late 80's from the Southern Highway through orange groves and jungle to the village car park, and links the village to the outside world, although much travel is still by sea. The main occupations are fishing and ecotourism. There are two small hotels and a nearby fishing resort which can be reached by a five-minute sea trip. Guides can be easily found at Monkey River village to take visitors up the river to see the howler monkeys and other wildlife in Belize.
History
The village was incorporated as a town in 1891 at which time it had a population of some 2500 people, mostly engaged in the lumber and banana industry. With the decline of these industries and a blight of banana trees in this area, in the second half of the 20th century, the population declined, and in 1981 was legally reclassified as a village again, although retaining the historic name of "Town".
On October 9, 2001, Hurricane Iris made landfall at Monkey River Town as a 145 mph Category Four storm. The storm demolished most of the homes in the village, and destroyed the banana crop. The area's formerly large population of black howler monkeys was similarly greatly reduced, but has come back strongly and several troupes are to be seen along the river, a popular eco tourist attraction. Researchers from the University of Calgary led by Dr. Mary Pavelka study the monkey population year round.
Erosion of the southern foreshore (the intertidal zone), where the village is located, has been an important issue over recent years; this has been halted by a recent government project which installed a botan sea defence (a seawall). Further work will be carried out as finances permit. The northern foreshore is relatively unaffected.
References
Belizean Creole people
Populated places in Toledo District
Toledo East
Populated places established in 1891
1891 establishments in the British Empire
|
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209526
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Knack
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The Knack
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The Knack was an American rock band based in Los Angeles that rose to fame with its first single, "My Sharona", an international number-one hit in 1979.
History
Founding (1977–1978)
Singer Doug Fieger was a native of Oak Park, Michigan, a northern suburb of Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in the 9 Mile/Greenfield area. The brother of attorney Geoffrey Fieger (later known for representing Jack Kevorkian in a series of assisted suicide cases) Fieger had previously played in an eclectic rock band called Sky as well as the Sunset Bombers. Although Sky had received a modest amount of acclaim, including being produced by Rolling Stones producer Jimmy Miller, the band broke up without having any chart success. As a result, Fieger made the decision to move to Los Angeles and start another band.
Shortly after arriving in L.A., Fieger met Berton Averre (lead guitar, backing vocals and keyboards), and the two started a songwriting partnership. Fieger had also known Bruce Gary (drums) for years before forming the Knack in 1978 with Prescott Niles (bass). Niles was the last to join, a week before the band's first show in June 1978. In the meantime, Fieger had been doubling on bass on a series of demos that the group had shopped to several record labels, all of which were rejected. Some of these songs later made up the band's debut album Get the Knack, and included "Good Girls Don't".
Get the Knack
Within months of their live debut, popular club gigs on the Sunset Strip, as well as guest jams with musicians such as Bruce Springsteen, Tom Petty and Ray Manzarek, led to the band being the subject of a record label bidding war. The band was pursued by ten record labels, but decided on Capitol Records; at the time, the Knack was given the largest signing sum in the label's history. A&R executives Bruce Garfield and Bruce Ravid are credited with signing the band.
The band's debut album, Get the Knack, was one of the year's best-selling albums, holding the number one spot on Billboard magazine's album chart for five consecutive weeks and selling two million copies in the United States. The lead single, "My Sharona", was a No. 1 hit in the US, and became the number-one song of 1979. Follow-up single "Good Girls Don't" peaked at No. 11 in the US, and reached No. 1 in Canada.
However, the band's rise to the top of the charts also precipitated a backlash. Capitol's packaging of Get the Knack included a perceived cover likeness to Meet the Beatles! with the record's center label being the same design and style as the Beatles' early 1960s LPs. Coupled with the band's "retro" 1960s look and pop/rock sound, the company's stylings led detractors to accuse them of being Beatles rip-offs, which the band and their record company denied. Fieger acknowledged the band's likeness to the Beatles, claiming that it was their intention to present the Knack as a replica of the British Invasion. He went on to mention how fans of the Knack had not been able to experience the times of the 1960s, and that it was wrong to deny them the privilege of experiencing something similar. Critics fought back, claiming the band was imposing inadequate memories of the 1960s on those who didn't know better. Soon, as Get the Knack became more popular, the band was met with hostility from other artists who felt the intense marketing of the band was invalidating their own efforts of invoking the 1960 sound. This perception, and the perception that the object of some of the Knack's songs were teenaged girls (subsequently acknowledged when the band were years older), quickly led to a "Knuke the Knack" campaign led by San Francisco artist Hugh Brown.
The follow-up albums (1980–1981)
The Knack quickly recorded a follow-up album ...But the Little Girls Understand, which was released in early 1980. Though the album went gold in the US and Japan, and platinum in Canada, it didn't meet with the same level of commercial success as their debut. Fieger claimed in later interviews that all of the tracks for Get the Knack and ...But the Little Girls Understand were written before the first LP was recorded and were intended to be put out as a double album. Additionally, the lead single "Baby Talks Dirty" only briefly made the US Top 40, stalling at No. 38 (but reaching No. 13 in Canada); follow-up single "Can't Put a Price on Love" missed the top 40 altogether, peaking at No. 62.
After nearly a year of touring in the US, Canada, Europe, New Zealand, Australia, and Japan, starting in April 1980 the band took a year off because of exhaustion and "internal dissent". They reconvened in the summer of 1981 to record their third album, Round Trip. However, the record (released in October 1981) was a commercial disappointment, only reaching No. 93 on the Billboard chart, selling 150,000 copies. As well, the lead single "Pay the Devil (Ooo, Baby, Ooo)" peaked at No. 67 on the Billboard Hot 100. The group made several concert appearances during 1981 to promote Round Trip. Keyboardist Phil Jost was brought into the lineup at this time to enable the band to duplicate the more heavily layered sound of their new release.
With the Knack experiencing rapidly diminishing chart success, and mounting critical backlash against them Fieger left amidst internal squabbles on December 31, 1981, just months after the release of Round Trip. By mid-1982, the Knack had split up while Fieger formed a new band, "Doug Fieger's Taking Chances".
Return of the Knack and final album (1986–2010)
The Knack reunited in November 1986, to play a benefit for Michele Myers, who had been the first person to book the band for a show in 1978. They continued to play club gigs for the next several years. In July 1989, Billy Ward replaced Bruce Gary as the band's drummer (after a brief interim by Pat Torpey of Mr. Big). In 1990, the Knack signed with Charisma Records and recorded the album Serious Fun which was released in February 1991. Lead single "Rocket O' Love" was a top 10 hit on US AOR stations (and a top 30 hit in Canada). To promote the song, they released a music video loaded with visual innuendo thematic to the song. Charisma collapsed after the death of the label's founder, Tony Stratton-Smith, and the group broke up again in 1992.
In 1994, with Ward back on drums, the band reunited to make some concert appearances to capitalize on the new popularity of "My Sharona" after its appearance in the movie Reality Bites. During that time, they appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and performed "My Sharona" for the first time ever on network television.
In 1996, all four original band members, including Bruce Gary, reunited in the studio one last time to record a track for a multi-artist compilation album, saluting the British band Badfinger (where the band covered Badfinger's hit "No Matter What").
The Knack continued as a touring and recording act through the late 1990s and into the 2000s. Duane Leinan joined The Knack in the studio and on the road, playing bass guitar from 2008 to 2010. Terry Bozzio replaced Ward as drummer for 1998's Zoom, and David Henderson (as "Holmes Jones") took over on drums for 2001's Normal as the Next Guy and Live at the Rock N Roll Funhouse albums. Pat Torpey then returned to take over for Henderson and played with the group until Fieger's death in 2010.
In 2005, the Knack made an appearance on the TV program Hit Me, Baby, One More Time, performing "My Sharona" and Jet's "Are You Gonna Be My Girl".
In 2006, Doug Fieger and Berton Averre filed a lawsuit against the hip hop music group Run–D.M.C. for copyright infringement. The lawsuit alleges that the defining guitar riff from "My Sharona" was used without permission in the Run-D.M.C. track "It's Tricky" from their 1986 album Raising Hell.
In 2006, during a performance in Las Vegas, Fieger became disoriented, developing a dull headache, and grasping for the words to the songs that he had written and performed for years. Diagnosed with two brain tumors, Fieger underwent surgery and radiosurgery and returned to performing. However, he still continued to battle brain and lung cancer until his death on February 14, 2010, in Woodland Hills, California, at the age of 57, effectively bringing the band to an end.
Outside the Knack
In the interim between the Knack's break-up and 1986 reunion, Doug Fieger worked as a guest vocalist on a few tracks by Was (Not Was). (Fieger had grown up with band member Don Was; Was later produced the Knack's album Serious Fun.) Fieger also recorded a solo album in 2000, and appeared as a solo artist in the Countdown Spectacular 2 concert series in Australia between late-August and early-September 2007. He sang the Knack favorite "My Sharona" only. Averre, Niles and Gary briefly continued with former Roadmaster vocalist Stephen 'Mac' McNally as "The Game" after the Knack's initial break up. In 1985, Averre, Niles and Gary formed The Front with actor Steven Bauer as lead vocalist.
Bruce Gary became a producer (archive recordings of Jimi Hendrix and new recordings of The Ventures) and a sideman performing live and on studio sessions with a wide range of artists. Gary died from lymphoma on August 22, 2006 at the age of 55.
Discography
Studio albums
Live albums
1979: The Knack Live at Carnegie Hall (Laserdisc)
2001: Live from the Rock n Roll Funhouse (CD, DVD)
2007: World Cafe Live: The Knack in Concert (DVD)
2012: Havin' a Rave-Up! Live in Los Angeles, 1978 (CD)
Compilation albums
1992: Retrospective
1995: My Sharona
1998: Proof: The Very Best of the Knack
1999: The Best of the Knack: Ten Best Series
Documentary DVD
2004: Getting the Knack
Singles
References
External links
The Knack official website
American power pop groups
American new wave musical groups
Rock music groups from California
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Musical groups established in 1978
Musical groups disestablished in 1982
Musical groups reestablished in 1986
Musical groups disestablished in 2010
Jewish musical groups
|
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209532
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QED%20manifesto
|
QED manifesto
|
The QED manifesto was a proposal for a computer-based database of all mathematical knowledge, strictly formalized and with all proofs having been checked automatically. (Q.E.D. means in Latin, meaning "which was to be demonstrated.")
Overview
The idea for the project arose in 1993, mainly under the impetus of Robert Boyer. The goals of the project, tentatively named QED project or project QED, were outlined in the QED manifesto, a document first published in 1994, with input from several researchers. Explicit authorship was deliberately avoided. A dedicated mailing list was created, and two scientific conferences on QED took place, the first one in 1994 at Argonne National Laboratories and the second in 1995 in Warsaw organized by the Mizar group.
The project seems to have dissolved by 1996, never having produced more than discussions and plans. In a 2007 paper, Freek Wiedijk identifies two reasons for the failure of the project. In order of importance:
Very few people are working on formalization of mathematics. There is no compelling application for fully mechanized mathematics.
Formalized mathematics does not yet resemble real, traditional mathematics. This is partly due to the complexity of mathematical notation, and partly to the limitations of existing theorem provers and proof assistants; the paper finds that the major contenders, Mizar, HOL, and Coq, have serious shortcomings in their abilities to express mathematics.
Nonetheless, QED-style projects are regularly proposed, and the Mizar library has successfully formalized a large portion of undergraduate mathematics. it is the largest such library. Another such project is the Metamath proof database.
In 2014 the Twenty years of the QED Manifesto workshop was organized as part of the Vienna Summer of Logic.
See also
Formalism (mathematics)
Mathematical knowledge management
POPLmark, a more modest project in programming language theory
References
Further reading
H. Barendregt & F. Wiedijk, The Challenge of Computer Mathematics, Transactions A of the Royal Society 363 no. 1835, 2351–2375, 2005
(open access issue)
Richard A. De Millo, Richard J. Lipton, Alan J. Perlis, Social processes and proofs of theorems and programs, Communications of the ACM, Volume 22, Issue 5 (May 1979), Pages: 271 - 280
John Harrison, Formalized Mathematics, Technical Report 36, Turku Centre for Computer Science (TUCS)
External links
Freek Wiedijk, Formalizing 100 Theorems A page keeping track of the progress in the formalization of 100 common theorems.
Freek Wiedijk, The Seventeen Provers of the World, a proof of the irrationality of the square root of two in seventeen different proof assistants.
Formalized Mathematics a journal in which Mizar proofs are presented.
The Archive of Formal Proofs a similar (refereed) repository of proofs in Isabelle/HOL.
A repository of proofs in Coq.
UniMath "Coq library aims to formalize a substantial body of mathematics using the univalent point of view"
Educational projects
Formal methods
Mathematics literature
Proof assistants
|
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] |
209537
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DBase
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DBase
|
dBase (also stylized dBASE) was one of the first database management systems for microcomputers and the most successful in its day. The dBase system includes the core database engine, a query system, a forms engine, and a programming language that ties all of these components together. dBase's underlying file format, the file, is widely used in applications needing a simple format to store structured data.
Originally released as Vulcan for PTDOS in 1978, the CP/M port caught the attention of Ashton-Tate in 1980. They licensed it and re-released it as dBASE II, and later ported to Apple II and IBM PC computers running DOS. On the PC platform, in particular, dBase became one of the best-selling software titles for a number of years. A major upgrade was released as dBase III, and ported to a wider variety of platforms, adding UNIX, and VMS. By the mid-1980s, Ashton-Tate was one of the "big three" software publishers in the early business software market, the others being Lotus Development and WordPerfect.
Starting in the mid-1980s, several companies produced their own variations on the dBase product and especially the dBase programming language. These included FoxBASE+ (later renamed FoxPro), Clipper, and other so-called xBase products. Many of these were technically stronger than dBase, but could not push it aside in the market. This changed with the poor reception of dBase IV, whose design and stability were so lacking that many users switched to other products. At the same time, database products increasingly used the IBM-invented SQL (Structured Query Language). Another factor was user adoption of Microsoft Windows on desktop computers. The shift toward SQL and Windows put pressure on the makers of xBase products to invest in major redesign to provide new capabilities.
In the early 1990s, xBase products constituted the leading database platform for implementing business applications. The size and impact of the xBase market did not go unnoticed, and within one year, the three top xBase firms were acquired by larger software companies:
Borland purchased Ashton-Tate
Microsoft bought Fox Software
Computer Associates acquired Nantucket
By the opening decade of the 21st century, most of the original xBase products had faded from prominence and many disappeared entirely. Products known as dBase still exist, owned by dBase LLC.
History
Origins
In the late 1960s, Fred Thompson at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) was using a Tymshare product named RETRIEVE to manage a database of electronic calculators, which were at that time very expensive products. In 1971, Thompson collaborated with Jack Hatfield, a programmer at JPL, to write an enhanced version of RETRIEVE which became the JPLDIS project. JPLDIS was written in FORTRAN on the UNIVAC 1108 mainframe, and was presented publicly in 1973. When Hatfield left JPL in 1974, Jeb Long took over his role.
While working at JPL as a contractor, C. Wayne Ratliff entered the office football pool. He had no interest in the game as such, but felt he could win the pool by processing the post-game statistics found in newspapers. In order to do this, he turned his attention to a database system and, by chance, came across the documentation for JPLDIS. He used this as the basis for a port to PTDOS on his kit-built IMSAI 8080 microcomputer, and called the resulting system Vulcan (after Mr. Spock on Star Trek).
Ashton-Tate
George Tate and Hal Lashlee had built two successful start-up companies: Discount Software, which was one of the first to sell PC software programs through the mail to consumers, and Software Distributors, which was one of the first wholesale distributors of PC software in the world. They entered into an agreement with Ratliff to market Vulcan, and formed Ashton-Tate (the name Ashton chosen purely for marketing reasons) to do so. Ratliff ported Vulcan from PTDOS to CP/M. Hal Pawluk, who handled marketing for the nascent company, decided to change the name to the more business-like "dBase". Pawluk devised the use of lower case "d" and all-caps "BASE" to create a distinctive name. Pawluk suggested calling the new product version two ("II") to suggest it was less buggy than an initial release. dBase II was the result and became a standard CP/M application along with WordStar and SuperCalc.
In 1981, IBM commissioned a port of dBase for the then-in-development PC. The resultant program was one of the initial pieces of software available when the IBM PC went on sale the fall of 1981. dBase was one of a very few "professional" programs on the platform at that time, and became a huge success. The customer base included not only end-users, but an increasing number of "value added resellers", or VARs, who purchased dBase, wrote applications with it, and sold the completed systems to their customers. The May 1983 release of dBase II RunTime further entrenched dBase in the VAR market by allowing the VARs to deploy their products using the lower-cost RunTime system.
Although some critics stated that dBase was difficult to learn, its success created many opportunities for third parties. By 1984, more than 1,000 companies offered dBase-related application development, libraries of code to add functionality, applications using dBase II Runtime, consulting, training, and how-to books. A company in San Diego (today known as Advisor Media) premiered a magazine devoted to professional use of dBase, Data Based Advisor; its circulation exceeded 35,000 after eight months. All of these activities fueled the rapid rise of dBase as the leading product of its type.
dBase III
As platforms and operating systems proliferated in the early 1980s, the company found it difficult to port the assembly language-based dBase to target systems. This led to a re-write of the platform in the C programming language, using automated code conversion tools. The resulting code worked, but was essentially undocumented and inhuman in syntax, a problem that would prove to be serious in the future.
In May 1984, the rewritten dBase III was released. Although reviewers widely panned its lowered performance, the product was otherwise well reviewed. After a few rapid upgrades, the system stabilized and was once again a best-seller throughout the 1980s, and formed the famous "application trio" of PC compatibles (dBase, Lotus 123, and WordPerfect). By the fall of 1984, the company had over 500 employees and was taking in US$40 million a year in sales (equivalent to $ million in ), the vast majority from dBase products.
dBase IV
Introduced in 1988, after delays,
dBase IV had "more than 300 new or improved features". By then, FoxPro had made inroads,
and even dBase IV's support for Query by Example and SQL were not enough.
Along the way, Borland, which had bought Ashton Tate, brought out a revised dBase IV in 1992 but with a focus described as "designed for programmers" rather than "for ordinary users".
Recent version history
dBase / xBase programming language
For handling data, dBase provided detailed procedural commands and functions to
open and traverse records in data files (e.g., USE, SKIP, GO TOP, GO BOTTOM, and GO recno),
manipulate field values (REPLACE and STORE), and
manipulate text strings (e.g., STR() and SUBSTR()), numbers, and dates.
dBase is an application development language and integrated navigational database management system which Ashton-Tate labeled as "relational" but it did not meet the criteria defined by Dr. Edgar F. Codd's relational model. It used a runtime interpreter architecture, which allowed the user to execute commands by typing them in a command line "dot prompt".
Similarly, program scripts (text files with PRG extensions) ran in the interpreter (with the DO command). dBase programs were easy to write and test; a business person with no programming experience could develop applications.
Over time, Ashton-Tate's competitors introduced so-called clone products and compilers that had more robust programming features such as user-defined functions (UDFs), arrays for complex data handling. Ashton-Tate and its competitors also began to incorporate SQL, the ANSI/ISO standard language for creating, modifying, and retrieving data stored in relational database management systems.
Eventually, it became clear that the dBase world had expanded far beyond Ashton-Tate. A "third-party" community formed, consisting of Fox Software, Nantucket, Alpha Software, Data Based Advisor Magazine, SBT and other application development firms, and major developer groups. Paperback Software launched the flexible and fast VP-Info with a unique built-in compiler. The community of dBase variants sought to create a dBase language standard, supported by IEEE committee X3J19 and initiative IEEE 1192. They said "xBase" to distinguish it from the Ashton-Tate product.
Ashton-Tate saw the rise of xBase as an illegal threat to its proprietary technology. In 1988 they filed suit against Fox Software and Santa Cruz Operation (SCO) for copying dBase's "structure and sequence" in FoxBase+ (SCO marketed XENIX and UNIX versions of the Fox products). In December 1990, U.S. District judge Terry Hatter Jr. dismissed Ashton-Tate's lawsuit and invalidated Ashton-Tate's copyrights for not disclosing that dBase had been based, in part, on the public domain JPLDIS. In October 1991, while the case was still under appeal, Borland International acquired Ashton-Tate, and as one of the merger's provisions the U.S. Justice Department required Borland to end the lawsuit against Fox and allow other companies to use the dBase/xBase language without the threat of legal action.
By the end of 1992, major software companies raised the stakes by acquiring the leading xBase products. Borland acquired Ashton-Tate's dBase products (and later WordTech's xBase products), Microsoft acquired Fox Software's FoxBASE+ and FoxPro products, and Computer Associates acquired Nantucket's Clipper products. Advisor Media built on its Data Based Advisor magazine by launching FoxPro Advisor and Clipper Advisor (and other) developer magazines and journals, and live conferences for developers. However, a planned dBase Advisor Magazine was aborted due to the market failure of dBase IV.
By the year 2000, the xBase market had faded as developers shifted to new database systems and programming languages. Computer Associates (later known as CA) eventually dropped Clipper. Borland restructured and sold dBase. Of the major acquirers, Microsoft stuck with xBase the longest, evolving FoxPro into Visual FoxPro, but the product is no longer offered. In 2006 Advisor Media stopped its last-surviving xBase magazine, FoxPro Advisor. The era of xBase dominance has ended, but there are still xBase products. The dBase product line is now owned by dBase LLC which currently sells dBASE PLUS 12.3 and a DOS-based dBASE CLASSIC (dbDOS to run it on 64-bit Windows).
Some open source implementations are available, such as Harbour, xHarbour, and Clip.
In 2015, a new member of the xBase family was born: the XSharp (X#) language, maintained as an open source project with a compiler, its own IDE, and Microsoft Visual Studio integration. XSharp produces .NET assemblies and uses the familiar xBase language. The XSharp product was originally created by a group of four enthusiasts who have worked for the Vulcan.NET project in the past. The compiler is created on top of the Roslyn compiler code, the code behind the C# and VB compilers from Microsoft.
Programming examples
Today, implementations of the dBase language have expanded to include many features targeted for business applications, including object-oriented programming, manipulation of remote and distributed data via SQL, Internet functionality, and interaction with modern devices.
The following example opens an employee table ("empl"), gives every manager who supervises 1 or more employees a 10-percent raise, and then prints the names and salaries.
USE empl
REPLACE ALL salary WITH salary * 1.1 FOR supervisors > 0
LIST ALL fname, lname, salary TO PRINT
* (comment: reserved words shown in CAPITALS for illustration purposes)
Note how one does not have to keep mentioning the table name. The assumed ("current") table stays the same until told otherwise. Because of its origins as an interpreted interactive language, dBase used a variety of contextual techniques to reduce the amount of typing needed. This facilitated incremental, interactive development but also made larger-scale modular programming difficult. A tenet of modular programming is that the correct execution of a program module must not be affected by external factors such as the state of memory variables or tables being manipulated in other program modules. Because dBase was not designed with this in mind, developers had to be careful about porting (borrowing) programming code that assumed a certain context and it would make writing larger-scale modular code difficult. Work-area-specific references were still possible using the arrow notation ("B->customer") so that multiple tables could be manipulated at the same time. In addition, if the developer had the foresight to name their tables appropriately, they could clearly refer to a large number of tables open at the same time by notation such as ("employee->salary") and ("vacation->start_date"). Alternatively, the alias command could be appended to the initial opening of a table statement which made referencing a table field unambiguous and simple. For example. one can open a table and assign an alias to it in this fashion, "use EMP alias Employee", and henceforth, refer to table variables as "Employee->Name".
Another notable feature is the re-use of the same clauses for different commands. For example, the FOR clause limits the scope of a given command. (It is somewhat comparable to SQL's WHERE clause.) Different commands such as LIST, DELETE, REPLACE, BROWSE, etc. could all accept a FOR clause to limit (filter) the scope of their activity. This simplifies the learning of the language.
dBase was also one of the first business-oriented languages to implement string evaluation.
i = 2
myMacro = "i + 10"
i = &myMacro
* comment: i now has the value 12
Here the "&" tells the interpreter to evaluate the string stored in "myMacro" as if it were programming code. This is an example of a feature that made dBase programming flexible and dynamic, sometimes called "meta ability" in the profession. This could allow programming expressions to be placed inside tables, somewhat reminiscent of formulas in spreadsheet software.
However, it could also be problematic for pre-compiling and for making programming code secure from hacking. But, dBase tended to be used for custom internal applications for small and medium companies where the lack of protection against copying, as compared to compiled software, was often less of an issue.
Interactivity
In addition to the dot-prompt, dBase III, III+, and IV came packaged with an ASSIST application to manipulate data and queries, as well as an APPSGEN application which allowed the user to generate applications without resorting to code writing, like a 4GL. The dBase IV APPSGEN tool was based largely on portions of an early CP/M product named Personal Pearl.
Niches
Although the language has fallen out of favor as a primary business language, some find dBase an excellent interactive ad hoc data manipulation tool. Whereas SQL retrieves data sets from a relational database (RDBMS), with dBase one can more easily manipulate, format, analyze and perform calculations on individual records, strings, numbers, and so on in a step-by-step imperative (procedural) way instead of trying to figure out how to use SQL's declarative operations.
Its granularity of operations is generally smaller than SQL, making it easier to split querying and table processing into easy-to-understand and easy-to-test parts. For example, one could insert a BROWSE operation between the filtering and the aggregation step to study the intermediate table or view (applied filter) before the aggregation step is applied.
As an application development platform, dBase fills a gap between lower-level languages such as C, C++, and Java, and high-level proprietary 4GLs (fourth generation languages) and purely visual tools, providing relative ease-of-use for business people with less formal programming skill and high productivity for professional developers willing to trade off the low-level control.
dBase remained a popular teaching tool even after sales slowed because the text-oriented commands were easier to present in printed training material than the mouse-oriented competitors. Mouse-oriented commands were added to the product over time, but the command language remained a popular de facto standard, while mousing commands tended to be vendor-specific.
File formats
A major legacy of dBase is its file format, which has been adopted in a number of other applications. For example, the shapefile format, developed by ESRI for spatial data in its PC ArcInfo geographic information system, uses .dbf files to store feature attribute data.
Microsoft recommends saving a Microsoft Works database file in the dBase file format so that it can be read by Microsoft Excel.
A package is available for Emacs to read xbase files.
LibreOffice and OpenOffice Calc can read and write all generic dbf files.
dBase's database system was one of the first to provide a header section for describing the structure of the data in the file. This meant that the program no longer required advance knowledge of the data structure, but rather could ask the data file how it was structured. There are several variations on the .dbf file structure, and not all dBase-related products and .dbf file structures are compatible. VP-Info is unique in that it can read all variants of the dbf file structure.
A second filetype is the file format for memo fields. While character fields are limited to 254 characters each, a memo field is a 10-byte pointer into a file which can include a much larger text field. dBase was very limited in its ability to process memo fields, but some other xBase languages such as Clipper treated memo fields as strings just like character fields for all purposes except permanent storage.
dBase uses files for single indexes, and (multiple-index) files for holding between 1 and 48 indexes. Some xBase languages such as VP-Info include compatibility with files while others use different file formats such as used by Clipper and used by FoxPro or FlagShip. Later iterations of Clipper included drivers for indexes.
Reception
Jerry Pournelle in July 1980 called Vulcan "infuriatingly excellent" because the software was powerful but the documentation was poor. He praised its speed and sophisticated queries, but said that "we do a lot of pounding at the table and screaming in rage at the documentation".
References
External links
xBase (and dBase) File Format Description
1979 software
Borland software
CP/M software
Database-related software for Linux
Desktop database application development tools
DOS software
Microcomputer software
Proprietary database management systems
Assembly language software
XBase programming language family
|
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209538
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nim%20Li%20Punit
|
Nim Li Punit
|
Nim Li Punit () is a Maya Classic Period site in the Toledo District of the nation of Belize, located 40 kilometres north of the town of Punta Gorda, at 16° 19' N, 88° 47' 60W. Nim Li Punit is sometimes known as Big Hat or Top Hat; the name is Kekchi Maya for "Big Hat", referring to the large elaborate head-dress on a stela sculpture found on site depicting one of the site's ancient kings.
Nim Li Punit is a medium-sized site from the Maya Classic Period, flourishing from the 5th century AD through the 8th century AD. It consists of structures around three plazas, including several step-pyramids, the tallest being 12.2 meters high. The site has a number of carved stelae illustrating the ancient city's rulers. Several stelae are in an unfinished state, suggesting a sudden halt to work. The site is near Belize's Southern Highway and is open to visitors subject to an admission charge.
Geography and geology
Nim Li Punit is situated in the foothills of the Maya Mountains with proximity to clear mountain streams. The Maya Mountains form a nearly impenetrable backdrop forest to the north and east, while the expansive somewhat swampy coastal lowlands adjoining the Caribbean Sea lie to the east. Low-lying swampland between the Sarstoon and Temash Rivers is situated to the south. The site is within two kilometres of Belize's Southern Highway, accessed by an unpaved road. (The Southern Highway itself is paved in the vicinity of the site as well.) Area soils are relatively fertile for tropical standards, and explain the region's ability to support sizeable prehistoric settlements such as Nim Li Punit. Local sandstones are found in nearby stream and river beds, and these materials were used as the principal building stones for the site's structures and stelae. The Maya Mountains and foothills are among the oldest surface rock formations of Central America ; these Paleozoic sediments were uplifted about 200 million years ago in the late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) and Early Permian periods.
Architecture
The ancient city of Nim Li Punit was laid out in a fashion consistent with other Mayan lowland Classic Era sites, such as Lubaantun, Pusilha and Uxbenka; the latter two of these sites are deemed to have arisen earlier than the former two. Nim Li Punit is constructed in the Classic Period prototypical geometric form, using large amounts of fill material to achieve expansive level plazas and terraces; furthermore, the arrangement of the major structures emulates the view of the Mayan cosmological world, setting the earth realm at the core, manifested by a dwelling of the ruler. The sky world is exhibited characteristically in the north by shrines and burial structures. The location of the ballcourt is intermediary, illustrating the position of this activity to represent perpetual conflict between the forces of life and death. The ballcourt is so well preserved, it appears ready to host a game.
It is thought that within the Plaza of the Stela in the South Group that there is an E Group geometry that would have been used for astronomical observations. For example, several monuments present before a long terrace known as Structure One, which mark the location of solstices and equinoxes. Unlike Lubaantun, where dry-stone construction was employed, the stone structures are cemented with Mayan mortar; moreover, the elaborate notched jointing often found in Lubaantun is absent in Nim Li Punit.
Population and occupation
The peak population of Nim Li Punit is estimated to have been in the range of 5000 to 7000 people during the peak occupation Late Classic period. Early occupiers of this site probably migrated from Guatemala, similar to the history of nearby Lubaantun. The peoples of Nim Li Punit are thought to have spoken a dialect of the Cholan language, which is that spoken in the Mayan heartland. Evidence from carved stelae document the site was active in the period 721 to 790 AD, based upon actual Mayan calendar dates inscribed on at least six different stones. As at many other Mayan sites occupation of Nim Li Punit ceased rather suddenly in the 9th century AD, probably associated with areawide overpopulation exceeding the region's carrying capacity of the then prevalent milpa farming system. The Nim Li Punit population is thought to have been aligned with Mayan settlements such as Tikal in the Petén Basin region of Guatemala. The visitors' center indicates that this site had political and social connections with Copan in Honduras.
Ecology
Nim Li Punit is situated in a locale rich in forest, soil, rock and other natural resources. These assets, coupled with proximity to ample flowing mountain streams, provided the aboriginal Maya at Nim Li Punit a resource base that allowed their civilisation to thrive. While most of the surrounding broadleaf tropical rainforest is secondary growth, due to the disturbance of the Maya themselves, there is considerable biodiversity of trees, herbs, mammals, birds, reptiles and other life forms. In addition to the soils being able to support basic prehistoric staple crops of beans and corn, there are diverse herbs in the vicinity known to have been used by the "ancient ones" for medicinal purposes.
Mammals found in the area include two primates: Yucatán black howler monkey, Alouatta pigra and Central American spider monkey, Ateles geoffroya. Numerous rodents are found here including the common paca, Agouti paca. A variety of carnivores are present, such as the cougar Puma concolor and jaguar Panthera onca. Further, hosts of bats and birds frequent the present forest as they did the ancient forest.
Discovery and excavation
Nim Li Punit was discovered in 1976 with initial explorations conducted by Norman Hammond of the British Museum-Cambridge University. Hammond produced the first site map and excavated a portion of the central plaza. Barbara McLeod of the University of Texas, Austin, then produced the first detailed analyses of stelae inscriptions. Richard Levanthal in 1983 bored test pits and surveyed the site as part of an overall southern Belize Mayan mapping project. In the 1990s minor excavations were conducted by the Belize Department of Archaeology under the supervision of John Morris and Juan Luis Bonor. In 2015, tomb excavations were conducted by the Toledo Regional Interaction Project directed by Geoffrey Braswell. This excavation unearthed numerous clay pots and a large jade pendant inscribed with Mayan hieroglyphs.
See also
Lubaantun
Manche Ch'ol
Xnaheb
References
External links
Maya sites in Belize
Former populated places in Belize
1976 archaeological discoveries
Toledo District
|
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209542
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pride%27s%20Purge
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Pride's Purge
|
Pride's Purge is the name commonly given to an event that took place on 6 December 1648, when soldiers prevented members of Parliament considered hostile to the New Model Army from entering the House of Commons of England.
Despite defeat in the First English Civil War, Charles I retained significant political power. This allowed him to create an alliance with Scots Covenanters and Parliamentarian moderates to restore him to the English throne. The result was the 1648 Second English Civil War, in which he was defeated once again.
Convinced only his removal could end the conflict, senior commanders of the New Model Army took control of London on 5 December. Next day, soldiers commanded by Colonel Thomas Pride forcibly excluded from the Long Parliament those MPs viewed as their opponents, and arrested 45.
The purge cleared the way for the execution of Charles in January 1649, and establishment of the Protectorate in 1653; it is considered the only recorded military coup d'état in English history.
Background
When the First English Civil War began in 1642, the vast majority on both sides believed a 'well-ordered' monarchy was divinely mandated. They disagreed on what 'well-ordered' meant, and who held ultimate authority in clerical affairs. Royalists generally supported a Church of England governed by bishops, appointed by, and answerable to, the king; Puritans believed he was answerable to the leaders of the church, appointed by their congregations.
However, "Puritan" was a term for anyone who wanted to reform, or "purify", the Church of England, and contained many different perspectives. Presbyterians were the most prominent in the Long Parliament; in general, they wanted to convert the Church of England into a Presbyterian body, similar to the Church of Scotland. Independents opposed any state church, and although smaller in number, included Oliver Cromwell, as well as much of the New Model Army.
Having established control of Scotland in the 1639 to 1640 Bishops Wars, the Covenanters viewed the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant with Parliament as a way to preserve it, by preventing Royalist victory in England. As the war progressed, they and their English co-religionists came to see the Independents, and their political allies like the Levellers, as a greater threat to the established order than the Royalists.
In 1646, many Parliamentarians assumed military defeat would force Charles I to agree terms, but this was a fundamental misunderstanding of his character. Charles refused to agree any substantial concessions, frustrating allies and opponents alike. His negotiations with the Scots and English Presbyterians led to the 1648 Second English Civil War, which was quickly suppressed. However, it created a political grouping led by Cromwell, who believed only his removal could end the conflict, and the ability to enforce it in the New Model Army.
Despite defeat in the Second Civil War, Parliament continued negotiations with Charles, but by the beginning of November, the Army had lost patience. On 10 November, Henry Ireton presented the draft Remonstrance to the Army General Council, setting out a state without Charles, including an elective monarch. While the council was initially divided on whether to approve it, they did so on 15th when it seemed Parliament was about to restore Charles unconditionally. The Army's conviction he could not be trusted increased after intercepting messages he sent to an advisor, stating any concessions were made only to facilitate his escape.
Pride's Purge
On 1 December, Fairfax ordered Charles be taken from his Parliamentary guards on the Isle of Wight, and moved to Hurst Castle on the mainland. The next day, the New Model occupied key positions in London, to prevent interference from Presbyterian elements of the London Trained Bands; Fairfax established his headquarters in Whitehall, near the Houses of Parliament.
After an all-day meeting on 5 December, Parliament voted by 129 to 83 to continue negotiating with the king. Next morning, acting under orders from Ireton, a detachment under Colonel Thomas Pride and Sir Hardress Waller ordered the Trained Bands who normally guarded the House to withdraw. They then took up position on the stairs leading into the chamber, supported by cavalry from Nathaniel Rich's Regiment of Horse.
As the MPs arrived, Pride checked their names against a list of those considered enemies of the Army, assisted by Lord Grey of Groby, who helped identify them. The list contained names of 180 of the 470 eligible members, including all 129 who had voted to continue negotiations the day before. Some prominent opponents, such as Denzil Holles, fled the city.
A total of 140 MPs were refused entry by Pride, 45 of whom were arrested, and held in two inns in the Strand. Many later complained of rough treatment from their New Model guards, who blamed them for their arrears of pay. Most were released in late December, but former Parliamentarian generals William Waller, and Richard Browne were held for nearly three years.
This left around 156 members present in London, with another 40 or so absent elsewhere, which became known as the Rump Parliament. While assumed to be supportive of the Army, this was not necessarily the case; many were horrified by Pride's actions, and more than 80 of those who remained in London refused to attend. The vote to end negotiations with Charles was taken by only 83 MPs.
Aftermath
Between December 1648 to January 1649, Pride's regiment received nearly £8,000 in back pay, substantially more than any other unit in this period. He was later appointed to the tribunal that tried Charles for treason, and signed his death warrant; he became wealthy under the Protectorate, and died in 1659.
The Purge eliminated from Parliament those who backed a negotiated settlement with Charles, which included moderate Independents, as well as Presbyterians. However, even those who agreed he had to be removed did not necessarily support his execution; this included Fairfax, who refused to take part in his trial, and initially Cromwell, who returned to London from the siege of Pontefract Castle in early December. In return for sparing his life, he hoped Charles would order the Duke of Ormond to end negotiations with the Irish Confederacy, and prevent a new war in Ireland.
Once it became clear Charles had no intention of doing so, Cromwell became convinced he had to die, stating "we will cut off his head with the crown still on it". On 1 January 1649, the Commons passed an Ordinance to try the king for treason; when this was rejected by the House of Lords, they declared themselves the supreme power in the state, and proceeded with the trial.
The trial was backed by republicans like Edmund Ludlow, who argued Charles must die to "appease the wrath of God for the blood shed during the wars", and supported the Purge as the only way to ensure this. However, they were outnumbered by those who opposed it; only 52 of the 135 appointed judges turned up. A demand by Charles he be tried by Parliament was blocked by Ireton and Cromwell, as even the Rump Parliament was likely to vote against the death sentence.
Charles was executed on 30 January, but in a society that placed enormous emphasis on the rule of law, the circumstances of his death, and the military coup that proceeded it, tainted the subsequent Protectorate from its inception. Intended to remove the Army's opponents from Parliament, the Purge only deepened internal divisions, which continued until it was dissolved in 1653.
Notes
References
Sources
Bibliography
Pride’s Purge: Politics in the Puritan Revolution by David Underdown
English Civil War
1648 in England
Political and cultural purges
Military coups in England
Republicanism in England
17th-century coups d'état and coup attempts
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] |
209546
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalsack%20Nebula
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Coalsack Nebula
|
The Coalsack Nebula (Southern Coalsack, or simply the Coalsack) is the most prominent dark nebula in the skies, with a designation TGU H1867, first referred to in Cataloging 1850, being easily visible to the naked eye as a dark patch obscuring a brief section of Milky Way stars as they cross their southernmost region of the sky, east of Acrux (Alpha Crucis) which is the bright, southern pointer star of the southern cross. It dominates and overspills the southeast corner of what is considered the extent of the constellation Crux at a little less than twice the distance of Acrux, away from Earth.
General information
The Coalsack Nebula covers nearly 7° by 5° and overlaps somewhat with the neighbor constellations Centaurus and Musca. The first observation was reported by Vicente Yáñez Pinzón in 1499. It was named "il Canopo fosco" (the dark Canopus) by Amerigo Vespucci and was also called "Macula Magellani" (Magellan's Spot) or "Black Magellanic Cloud" in opposition to the Magellanic Clouds.
The Coalsack is omitted in most of today's standard catalogs on the Milky Way such as the New General Catalogue and its only mainstream identification number is in the somewhat specialist Caldwell catalogue, in which it is C99.
The Coalsack in Australian Aboriginal astronomy forms the head of the emu in the sky in several Aboriginal cultures. Amongst the Wardaman people, it is said to be the head and shoulders of a law-man watching the people to ensure they do not break traditional law. According to a legend reported by W. E. Harney, this being is called Utdjungon and only adherence to the tribal law by surviving tribe members could prevent him from destroying the world with a fiery star. There is also a reference by Gaiarbau (1880) regarding the coalsacks replicating bora rings on Earth. These astronomical sites allowed the spirits to continue ceremony similar to their human counterparts on Earth. As bora grounds are generally located on the compass points north–south, the southern coal sack indicates the initiation/ceremonial ring.
In Inca astronomy this nebula was called Yutu, meaning a partridge-like southern bird or Tinamou.
In fiction
The Coalsack is mentioned in the Star Trek: The Original Series episodes "The Immunity Syndrome" and "Let That Be Your Last Battlefield", as well as 2001: A Space Odyssey by Arthur C. Clarke.
In the Solar Queen series by Andre Norton, several characters swear "...by the Coalsack's Ripcord!"
The Coalsack figures prominently in the Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle's science fiction novel The Mote in God's Eye and its sequels, The Gripping Hand and Outies.
Also, Henry De Vere Stacpoole described the Coalsack in his novel The Blue Lagoon (1908), as Lestrange observes it from the deck of the Northumberland, "In the Milky Way, near the Southern Cross, occurs a terrible circular abyss, the Coal Sack. So sharply defined is it, so suggestive of a void and bottomless cavern, that the contemplation of it afflicts the imaginative mind with vertigo. To the naked eye it is as black and dismal as death, but the smallest telescope reveals it beautiful and populous with stars. Lestrange's eyes travelled from this mystery to the burning cross, and …"
The Coalsack is mentioned in the Futurama episode "Hell Is Other Robots".
In the film Night on the Galactic Railroad and the original children's story of which it is based from, the journey for the character Campanella ends with him going to the Coalsack.
In the film The Chronicles of Riddick, the character Imam convinces Riddick to help his people against the Necromongers and says, "The Coalsack planets are gone."
In Brian J. Clarke's novella The Expediter, a world of mysterious towers—and the aliens studying them—are found "behind the Coalsack".
In the game Elite Dangerous players can visit the Coalsack Nebula, designated in the game with the system prefix "MUSCA DARK REGION".
In The Star Kings by Edmond Hamilton Coalsack is the home of The League of Dark Worlds, most powerful military dictatorship in the Galaxy.
Gallery
References
External links
Starry Night Photography: Coalsack Dark Nebula
Starry Night Photography: The Emu
SIMBAD: Coalsack Nebula
Crux (constellation)
Dark nebulae
099b
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209549
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point%20of%20No%20Return%20%281993%20film%29
|
Point of No Return (1993 film)
|
Point of No Return (also known as The Assassin) is a 1993 American action film directed by John Badham and starring Bridget Fonda and Gabriel Byrne. It is a remake of Luc Besson's 1990 film La Femme Nikita.
Maggie Hayward (Bridget Fonda) is a violent and unstable drug addict found guilty of murdering a police officer, and is sentenced to death by lethal injection. Her death is faked, and a secret government agent named Bob (Gabriel Byrne) informs her that she is to become an assassin. She is given a makeover and training that transform her into a beautiful woman, and she is also trained as a killer. Her career as an assassin goes well at first. Then, after a mission goes awry, the agency sends in Victor (Harvey Keitel), a "cleaner," to kill everyone and destroy the bodies.
Plot
In Washington, D.C., Maggie Hayward (Bridget Fonda) is a drug addict found guilty of murdering a police officer during a robbery shootout, and is about to be executed by lethal injection. Her demise is faked and a spy named Bob (Gabriel Byrne) informs her that she has to work for him. Maggie, having little choice, reluctantly agrees to cooperate and begins a regimen of intensive training that includes not only martial arts and firearms training, but etiquette and computer use.
Senior Operative Amanda (Anne Bancroft) transforms her into a refined, beautiful woman. She is taken on a dinner date with Bob, who informs her about the first job: an assassination of a VIP eating at the same restaurant. Maggie kills the VIP and his bodyguard and then is pursued by a team of the VIP's bodyguards. She shoots several of the bodyguards and then escapes from the kitchen by jumping down a laundry chute. This task was her final test and she has now completed her training.
The following morning she leaves for Venice, California, where she enters into a romantic relationship with apartment house manager J.P. (Dermot Mulroney). While her first assignments, both hit jobs, are ultimately successful, Maggie quickly comes to hate her work and tries to quit her job as a professional killer. As things progress between her and J.P. and her double life threatens their relationship, she asks for help in leaving the agency. Her request is denied, but Bob agrees to get her out of the agency if she completes the next task.
The new job is to masquerade as Angela (Olivia d'Abo), the girlfriend of Fahd Bakhtiar (Richard Romanus), an Iranian trading in nuclear weapons. As she prepares for the job, J.P. continues to complain about her mysterious friends and mocks the improvised backstory that Bob had provided for himself and Maggie.
Taking out Angela proves problematic and results in the deaths of Angela's two bodyguards and the injury of Maggie's partner, Beth (Lorraine Toussaint). Director Kaufman (Miguel Ferrer) then sends in Victor, a "cleaner" (Harvey Keitel) to get rid of the bodies and salvage the mission. Unknown to Maggie, he has also been ordered to kill both agents as well because one failure results in death. After killing the wounded Beth in front of Maggie, he drives her to Fahd's home. At gunpoint, she gets Fahd to unlock his computer and reveal his secrets, but he avoids execution and she is forced to flee.
As they purportedly drive back to her residence, Maggie sees a gun in Victor's waistband and correctly suspects that he is going to kill her. This leads to a struggle and the car spins out of control. Ultimately, Victor is dragged over a ravine and killed. Maggie makes her way back to her apartment, but leaves sometime during the night. Bob subsequently learns of her disappearance from J.P. As Bob is leaving, he sees Maggie watching him through the mist. Instead of reporting her, he calls Kaufman informing him the cleaner is dead, and after some hesitation, tells him that Maggie is dead also.
Cast
Production
Gaumont, who handled the sales of distribution rights for La Femme Nikita, sold the remake rights to Warner Bros. In 1991, it was reported Luc Besson had been commissioned to write the English-language remake. Although Besson and a team of American writers completed a first draft of the script, Besson and Warner Bros. did not agree on a directing deal, stalling development until John Badham joined the project later that year. Prior to the casting of Fonda, a number of actresses who campaigned for the role including Winona Ryder, Madonna, Demi Moore, Juliette Lewis, and Robin Wright. Julia Roberts supposedly turned down two offers to star in the lead. Bridget Fonda was hesitant to accept the lead role not sold on doing a remake of such a recent film, but was eventually convinced to do the film after being convinced by John Badham and her Single White Female director Barbet Schroeder. Filming began in March 1992 in Los Angeles, New Orleans, and Washington, D.C. The movie was known under the working title La Femme Nikita during development, but was also considered for the title The Specialist before settling on Point of No Return.
Reception
The film received mixed reviews. Film critic Roger Ebert, who gave the original La Femme Nikita three and a half stars out of four, gave Return three stars, saying: "Point of No Return is actually a fairly effective and faithful adaptation and Bridget Fonda manages the wild identity swings of her role with intensity and conviction, although not the same almost poetic sadness that Anne Parillaud brought to the original movie. If I didn't feel the same degree of involvement with Point of No Return that I did with Nikita it may be because the two movies are so similar in plot, look, and feel. I had déjà vu all through the movie. There are a few changes, mostly not for the better. By making the heroine's boyfriend a photographer this time instead of a checkout clerk, the movie loses the poignancy of their relationship; Nikita liked her clerk precisely because he was completely lacking in aggression." The film holds an approval rating of 52% at Rotten Tomatoes gave, based on 25 reviews.
Box office
The film debuted at number 2 at the U.S. box office, behind Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III, with a gross of $7.2 million for the weekend from 1,545 screens. It grossed $30 million in the United States and Canada and $19.9 million internationally, for a worldwide total of $49.9 million.
Soundtrack
Maggie/Claudia has a fascination with the singer/pianist/songwriter Nina Simone. Throughout the film, various songs of Simone's are used.
"Here Comes the Sun"
"I Want a Little Sugar in My Bowl"
"Feeling Good"
"Wild Is the Wind"
"Black Is the Color (Of My True Love's Hair)"
Together with the earlier re-release of "My Baby Just Cares for Me" in 1982, the film helped bring Nina Simone back into the public limelight and made her better known with a younger audience.
The film score was composed by Hans Zimmer.
See also
List of assassinations in fiction
References
External links
1993 films
1993 action thriller films
1990s romance films
American action thriller films
American films
American remakes of French films
English-language films
French-language films
Films about assassinations
Films about capital punishment
Films directed by John Badham
Films produced by Art Linson
Films set in Los Angeles
Films set in Washington, D.C.
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films shot in New Orleans
Films shot in Washington, D.C.
Girls with guns films
American martial arts films
Warner Bros. films
Films scored by Hans Zimmer
1993 martial arts films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rump%20Parliament
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Rump Parliament
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The Rump Parliament was the English Parliament after Colonel Thomas Pride purged the Long Parliament, on 6 December 1648, of those members hostile to the Grandees' intention to try King Charles I for high treason.
"Rump" normally means the hind end or back-side of a mammal; its use meaning "remnant" was first recorded in the above context in English. Since 1649, the term "rump parliament" has been used to refer to any parliament reduced in size from its legitimate predecessor.
Treaty of Newport
In September 1648, at the end of the Second English Civil War, the Long Parliament was concerned with the increasing radicalism in the New Model Army. The Long Parliament began negotiations with King Charles I. The members wanted to restore the king to power, but wanted to limit the authority he had. Charles I conceded militia power, among other things, but he later admitted that "it was only so he could escape". In November the negotiations began to fail, and the New Model Army seized power. Charles I was then taken into the Army's custody to await trial for treason.
Pride's Purge
The New Model Army wanted to prevent Parliament from agreeing on the Treaty of Newport to reinstate King Charles I. While Presbyterian and moderate elements within Parliament were inclined to continue negotiations, the Army was impatient with Charles. Thomas Fairfax, by issuing a command to Commissary General Ireton, organized a military coup in 1648. Ireton intended to dissolve the Long Parliament but was persuaded to purge it instead. He then ordered Colonel Thomas Pride to prevent the signing of the Treaty of Newport.
Between 6 and 12 December, Pride—supported by two regiments—prevented 231 known supporters of the treaty from entering the House, imprisoning 45 for a few days. The remaining free members then became the Rump Parliament.
Execution of Charles I and abolition of the monarchy
When it became apparent to the leaders of the New Model Army that Parliament—then controlled by the Presbyterian faction—was ready to come to an agreement with the King that would restore him to the throne (though without effective power) and negate the power of the Army, they resolved to shatter the power of both King and Parliament. Pride's Purge brought Parliament to heel under the direct control of the Army; the remaining Commons (the Rump) then on 13 December 1648, broke off negotiations with the King. Two days later, the Council of Officers of the New Model Army voted that the King be moved from the Isle of Wight, where he was prisoner, to Windsor, "in order to the bringing of him speedily to justice". The King was brought from Windsor to London in the middle of December.
On 4 January 1649, the House of Commons passed an ordinance to set up a High Court of Justice, to try Charles I for high treason in the name of the people of England. The House of Lords rejected it, and as it did not receive Royal Assent, Charles asked at the start of his trial on 20 January in Westminster Hall, "I would know by what power I am called hither. I would know by what authority, I mean lawful authority", knowing that there was no legal answer under the constitutional arrangements of the time. He was convicted with fifty-nine commissioners (judges) signing the death warrant.
The execution of Charles I was stayed until 30 January, so that the House of Commons could pass an emergency act, the "Act prohibiting the proclaiming any person to be King of England or Ireland, or the Dominions thereof", that made it an offence to proclaim a new King, and to declare the representatives of the people, the House of Commons, as the source of all just power. The Commons voted to abolish the House of Lords on 6 February and to abolish the monarchy on 7 February; an act abolishing the kingship was formally passed by the Rump on 17 March, followed by an act to abolish the House of Lords on 19 March. The establishment of a Council of State was approved on 14 February, and on 19 May an Act Declaring England a Commonwealth was passed. The Treasons Act made it an offence to say that the House of Commons (without the Lords or the King) was not the supreme authority of the land.
Membership, attendance, and allegiances
Although an exact number is unknown, it is estimated that there were about 210 members of the Rump Parliament, or less than half the membership of the Long Parliament (470 members) before Pride's Purge. Though nine new members were admitted to the Rump Parliament, the vast majority were transferred from the Long Parliament.
Most of the membership continued to regard purged colleagues as members of parliament and remained hopeful that the excluded members would be readmitted. "The Rump did not think of itself as a corporate political entity distinct in membership, aims and character from the Long Parliament". There were a variety of reasons why people wanted to be a part of the Rump Parliament. Some members stayed in the Rump Parliament because they supported the revolutionary changes afoot, while others were there for financial advantage, civilian power, or to satisfy their relish for political activity.
Because of the varied energies within the Rump, the parliament divided into two categories, front benchers and back benchers, meaning respectively those who attended parliament regularly and those who did not. Only about one-third of the Rump Parliament became front benchers while the other two-thirds were back benchers. Within the active third of the rump, there were many family allegiances, local allegiances and most importantly, common interest groups. The majority of active rumpers could fit into one of the two common interest categories:
Members of Parliament who were professional lawyers and cooperated to oppose the reformation of the English legal system. Some of the best-known lawyer allies were Bulstrode Whitelocke, Sir Thomas Widdrington, Nicholas Lechmere and Lisliborne Long.
Members who were particularly concerned with commercial matters and politics in the City of London. Three remarkable pairs of allies in this category are Jon Venn and Miles Corbet, Isaac Pennington and Thomas Atkin, and Frances Allen and Richard Salwey.
Although lawyers and merchants were a minority compared to the large number of rural land lords that occupied the Rump Parliament, their interest groups' energy and cohesiveness was able to largely influence Rump politics.
Political changes
During the time of the Commonwealth of England (1649–1653), the Rump passed a number of acts in the areas of religion, law, and finance, as well as in commercial and colonial policy. Most of the members of the Rump wanted to promote "godliness", but also to restrict the more extreme puritan sects like the Quakers and the Ranters. An Adultery Act of May 1650 imposed the death penalty for incest and adultery and three months imprisonment for fornication; the Blasphemy Act of August 1650 was aimed at curbing extreme religious "enthusiasm". To stop extreme evangelicals from preaching, they formed a Committee for the Propagation of the Gospel, which issued licenses to preach. To allow Puritans freedom of worship, they repealed the Elizabethan requirement of compulsory attendance at an Anglican Church. As lawyers were overrepresented in the Rump Parliament, the Rump did not respond to the popular requests made by the Levellers to change the expensive legal system.
The Rump raised revenue through the sale of Crown lands and Church property, both of which were popular. However, revenue raised through excise levies and through an Assessment Tax on land were unpopular as they affected everyone who owned property. The proceeds from confiscated Royalist estates were a valuable source of income, but it was a double-edged sword. It ingratiated Parliament to people like John Downes who were making a fortune from the business but it did nothing to heal the wounds of the Civil War.
Three acts of the parliament in 1650 and 1651 are notable in the historical development of England's commercial and colonial programs. These include the first Commission of Trade to be established by an Act of Parliament on 1 August 1650. The instructions to the named commissioners included consideration of both domestic and foreign trade, the trading companies, manufactures, free ports, customs, excise, statistics, coinage and exchange, and fisheries, but also the plantations and the best means of promoting their welfare and rendering them useful to England. This act's statesmanlike and comprehensive instructions, along with an October act prohibiting trade with pro-royalist colonies and the first Navigation Act of October 1651, formed the first definitive expression of England's commercial policy. They represent the first attempt to establish a legitimate control of commercial and colonial affairs, and the instructions indicate the beginnings of a policy which had the prosperity and wealth of England exclusively at heart.
Oliver Cromwell
In 1653, after learning that Parliament was attempting to stay in session despite an agreement to dissolve, and having failed to come up with a working constitution, Cromwell's patience ran out. On 20 April he attended a sitting of Parliament and listened to one or two speeches. Then he stood up and harangued the members of the Rump. This speech does not survive, but has often been paraphrased, for instance in the Book of Days:
He then declared "you are no Parliament" and called in a troop of soldiers, under the command of Major-General Thomas Harrison, ordering them to clear the chamber. According to Charles Dickens in A Child's History of England and Hilaire Belloc, he then turned to the Speaker's Mace, the symbol of parliamentary power, declared it a "fool's bauble", and ordered the troops "here, carry it away". Cromwell's motives are uncertain, but may lie in his disapproval of Sir Henry Vane's scheme for a redistribution of constituencies that retained sitting members of Parliament and continued to fill vacancies with recruiter elections.
A more detailed record of the event is recounted by Thomas Salmon in his Chronological Historian (London, 1723, 106):
Salmon does not cite his own sources but the version is sufficiently detailed to suggest that he had access to descriptions of the event that were certainly current in his time, and were probably derived from eye-witness descriptions. It is therefore probably at least accurate in general tone, if not precise detail.
Within a month of the Rump's dismissal, Oliver Cromwell on the advice of Harrison and with the support of other officers in the Army, sent a request to Congregational churches in every county to nominate those they considered fit to take part in the new government.
On 4 July, a Nominated Assembly, nicknamed the "Assembly of Saints" or Barebone's Parliament (named after one of its members), took on the role of more traditional English parliaments.
End of the Rump Parliament
Richard Cromwell, the third (and eldest surviving) son of Oliver Cromwell, was appointed Lord Protector after his father's death. He called the Third Protectorate Parliament in 1659. Along with the Army, it was unable to form a stable government. After seven months, the Army removed Cromwell; on 6 May 1659, it reinstalled the Rump Parliament. The Rump Parliament issued a declaration establishing a "Commonwealth without a king, single person, or house of lords".
According to Edmond Ludlow:
On 14 May:
After a few months, divisions in the Commonwealth were settled by force of arms. On 12 October the Rump voted to declare the seven commissioners' responsibility for the Army void and appointed Charles Fleetwood commander-in-chief under the Speaker of the House. The next day on 13 October 1659 the Army in London under the command of John Lambert assisted by Charles Fleetwood excluded the Rump from Parliament by locking the doors to the Palace of Westminster and stationing armed guards outside. Lambert and Fleetwood created a 23 member Committee of Safety to govern the country in place of the Rump with General Fleetwood and Lambert directly under him, commander of the Army in England and Scotland.
Sir Arthur Haselrig appealed to other Army generals to support the Rump against Fleetwood and Lambert. Fearing anarchy because of the conflict within Parliament and the general anger at the decisions the Rump had made, General George Monck, commander-in-chief of the English army in Scotland, declared that he was ready to uphold Parliament's authority and march at the head of his army to London, holding true to a statement in his book, Observations Upon Military and Political Affairs in which he said he valued the stability of his nation and the power of Parliament over his own life.
Monck was also in a particularly powerful position because of his former relationship with and endorsement from Oliver Cromwell. Many imbued him with the power to affect who the next king would be. Lambert marched north against Monck in November 1659. Lambert's army began to melt away, and he was kept in suspense by Monck till his whole army deserted and he returned to London almost alone. On 24 December 1659, the chastened Fleetwood approached the Speaker, William Lenthal, asking him to recall the Rump. The same day Lenthal took possession of the Tower and appointed commissioners for its government. The Rump met again on 26 December 1659. Parliament declared Monck commander-in-chief in England as well as Scotland.
Monck marched into England in January 1660, as Lambert's supporters in the Army were cashiered and his authority crumbled. When Sir Thomas Fairfax emerged from retirement to declare his support for Monck, Army support for Monck became almost unanimous. Monck entered London in February 1660 and he allowed the Presbyterian members, 'secluded' in Pride's Purge of 1648, to re-enter parliament on 21 February 1660 on the condition that the restored Long Parliament would agree to dissolve themselves once general elections had been held. The Long Parliament dissolved itself on 16 March 1660, after preparing legislation for the Convention Parliament that formally invited King Charles II to be the English monarch in what has become known as the Restoration (of the House of Stuart).
See also
Regicide
List of Parliaments of England
List of MPs not excluded from the English parliament in 1648
List of Ordinances and Acts of the Parliament of England, 1642–1660
Notes
Footnotes
References
Further reading
(With a shortened version of Cromwell's speech).
(with a fuller version of Cromwell's speech)
English Civil War
17th-century English parliaments
Republicanism in England
Parliaments of Charles I of England
1648 establishments in England
Richard Cromwell
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enewetak%20Atoll
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Enewetak Atoll
|
Enewetak Atoll (; also spelled Eniwetok Atoll or sometimes Eniewetok; , , or , ; known to the Japanese as Brown Atoll or Brown Island; ) is a large coral atoll of 40 islands in the Pacific Ocean and with its 664 people (as of 2011) forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. With a land area total less than , it is no higher than and surrounds a deep central lagoon, in circumference. It is the second-westernmost atoll of the Ralik Chain and is west from Bikini Atoll.
It was held by the Japanese from 1914 until its capture by the United States in February 1944, during World War II. Nuclear testing by the US totaling the equivalent of over 30 megatons of TNT took place during the cold war; in 1977–1980, a concrete dome (the Runit Dome) was built on Runit Island to deposit radioactive soil and debris.
The Runit Dome is deteriorating and could be breached by a typhoon, though the sediments in the lagoon are even more radioactive than those which are contained.
Etymology
The U.S. government referred to the atoll as "Eniwetok" until 1974, when it changed its official spelling to "Enewetak" (along with many other Marshall Islands place names, to more properly reflect their pronunciation by the Marshall Islanders).
Geography
Enewetak Atoll formed atop a seamount. The seamount was formed in the late Cretaceous. This seamount is now about below sea level. It is made of basalt, and its depth is due to a general subsidence of the entire region and not because of erosion.
Enewetak has a mean elevation above sea level of .
History
Humans have inhabited the atoll since about 1,000 B.C.
The islands were first settled by Austronesian islanders.
The first European colonizers to Enewetak, Spanish explorer Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón, arrived on 10 October 1529. He called the island "Los Jardines" (The Gardens). In 1794, sailors aboard the British merchant sloop Walpole called the islands "Brown's Range" (thus, the Japanese name "Brown Atoll"). It was visited by about a dozen ships before the establishment of the German colony of the Marshall Islands in 1885. With the rest of the Marshalls, Enewetak was captured by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914, during World War I and mandated to the Empire of Japan by the League of Nations in 1920. The Japanese administered the island under the South Seas Mandate, but mostly left affairs in hands of traditional local leaders until the start of World War II. The atoll, together with other parts of Marshall Islands located to the west of 164°E, was placed under the governance of Pohnpei district during the Japanese administration period, and is different from the rest of the Marshall Islands.
In November 1942, the Japanese built an airfield on Engebi Island. As they used it only for refueling planes between Truk and islands to the east, no aviation personnel were stationed there and the island had only token defenses. When the Gilberts fell to the United States, the Imperial Japanese Army assigned defense of the atoll to the 1st Amphibious Brigade, formed from the 3rd Independent Garrison, which had previously been stationed in Manchukuo. The 1st Amphibious Brigade arrived on January 4, 1944. Some 2,586 of its 3,940 men were left to defend Eniwetok Atoll, supplemented by aviation personnel, civilian employees, and laborers. However, they were unable to finish the fortifications before the American attack came in February. During the ensuing Battle of Eniwetok, the Americans captured Enewetak in a five-day amphibious operation. Fighting mainly took place on Engebi Islet, site of the most important Japanese installation, although some combat occurred on the main islet of Enewetak itself and on Parry Island, where there was a Japanese seaplane base.
Following its capture, the anchorage at Enewetok became a major forward base for the U.S. Navy. The daily average of ships present during the first half of July 1944 was 488; during the second half of July, the daily average number of ships at Enewetak was 283. Seabees of the 110th Naval Construction Battalion arrived on February 21 and 27 to begin construction of Stickell Field. It had two taxiways and a 6,800 X 400 foot runway. In June 1945, the 67th CB arrived to build a 35,000 man recreation center to be turned over to CBMU 608.
In 1950, John C. Woods, who executed the Nazi war criminals convicted at the Nuremberg Trials, was accidentally electrocuted there.
After the end of World War II, Enewetak came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986. During its tenure, the United States evacuated the local residents many times, often involuntarily. The atoll was used for nuclear testing, as part of the Pacific Proving Grounds. Before testing commenced, the U.S. exhumed the bodies of United States servicemen killed in the Battle of Enewetak and returned them to the United States to be re-buried by their families. 43 nuclear tests were fired at Enewetak from 1948 to 1958.
The first hydrogen bomb test, code-named Ivy Mike, occurred in late 1952 as part of Operation Ivy; it vaporized the islet of Elugelab. This test included B-17 Flying Fortress drones to fly through the radioactive cloud to test onboard samples. B-17 mother ships controlled the drones while flying within visual distance of them. In all, 16 to 20 B-17s took part in this operation, of which half were controlling aircraft and half were drones. To examine the explosion clouds of the nuclear bombs in 1957/58, several rockets (mostly from rockoons) were launched. One USAF airman Jimmy Robinson was lost at sea during the tests. Robinson's F-84 Thunderjet crashed and sank 3.5 miles short of the island. Robinson's body was never recovered.
A radiological survey of Enewetak was conducted from 1972 to 1973. In 1977, the United States military began decontamination of Enewetak and other islands. During the three-year, US$100 million cleanup process, the military mixed more than of contaminated soil and debris from the islands with Portland cement and buried it in an atomic blast crater on the northern end of the atoll's Runit Island. The material was placed in the deep, wide crater created by the May 5, 1958, "Cactus" nuclear weapons test. A dome composed of 358 concrete panels, each thick, was constructed over the material. The final cost of the cleanup project was US$239 million. The United States government declared the southern and western islands in the atoll safe for habitation in 1980, and residents of Enewetak returned that same year. The military members who participated in that cleanup mission are suffering from many health issues, but the U.S. Government is refusing to provide health coverage.
Section 177 of the 1983 Compact of Free Association between the governments of the United States and the Marshall Islands establishes a process for Marshallese to make a claim against the United States government as a result of damage and injury caused by nuclear testing. That same year, an agreement was signed to implement Section 177, which established a US$150 million trust fund. The fund was intended to generate US$18 million a year, which would be payable to claimants on an agreed-upon schedule. If the US$18 million a year generated by the fund was not enough to cover claims, the principal of the fund could be used. A Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal was established to adjudicate claims. In 2000, the tribunal made a compensation award to the people of Enewetak consisting of US$107.8 million for environmental restoration; US$244 million in damages to cover economic losses caused by loss of access and use of the atoll; and US$34 million for hardship and suffering. In addition, as of the end of 2008, another US$96.658 million in individual damage awards were made. Only US$73.526 million of the individual claims award has been paid, however, and no new awards were made between the end of 2008 and May 2010. Due to stock market losses, payments rates that have outstripped fund income, and other issues, the fund was nearly exhausted, as of May 2010, and unable to make any additional awards or payments. A lawsuit by Marshallese arguing that "changed circumstances" made Nuclear Claims Tribunal unable to make just compensation was dismissed by the Supreme Court of the United States in April 2010.
The 2000 environmental restoration award included funds for additional cleanup of radioactivity on Enewetak. Rather than scrape the topsoil off, replace it with clean topsoil, and create another radioactive waste repository dome at some site on the atoll (a project estimated to cost US$947 million), most areas still contaminated on Enewetak were treated with potassium. Soil that could not be effectively treated for human use was removed and used as fill for a causeway connecting the two main islands of the atoll (Enewetak and Parry). The cost of the potassium decontamination project was US$103.3 million.
A report by the US Congressional Research Service projects that the majority of the atoll will be fit for human habitation by the year 2026–2027, after nuclear decay, de-contamination and environmental remediation efforts create sufficient dose reductions. However, in November 2017, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation reported that rising sea levels caused by climate change are seeping inside the dome, causing radioactive material to leak out.
Education
Marshall Islands Public School System operates Enewetak Elementary School. Marshall Islands High School on Majuro serves the community.
Eniwetok Airfield
Men from the 110th Naval Construction Battalion arrived on Eniwetok between 21 and 27 February 1944 and began clearing the island for construction of a bomber airfield. A by runway with taxiways and supporting facilities was built. The first plane landed on 11 March. By 5 April the first operational bombing mission was conducted.
The base was later named for Lieutenant John H. Stickell.
In mid-September 1944 operations at Wrigley Airfield on Engebi Island were transferred to Eniwetok.
US Navy and Marine units based at Eniwetok included:
VB-102 operating PB4Y-1s from 12–27 August 1944
VB-108 operating PB4Y-1s from 11 April-10 July 1944
VB-109 operating PB4Y-1s from 5 April-14 August 1944
VB-116 operating PB4Y-1s from 7 July-27 August 1944
VPB-121 operating PB4Y-1s from 1 March-3 July 1945
VPB-144 operating PV-2s from 27 June 1945 until September 1946
The airstrip is now abandoned and its surface partially covered by sand.
Parry Island seaplane base
The Imperial Japanese Navy had developed a seaplane base on Parry Island. Following its capture on 22 February, Seebees from the 110th Naval Construction Battalion expanded the base, building a coral-surfaced parking area and shops for minor aircraft and engine overhaul. A marine ways was installed on a Japanese pier and boat-repair shops were also erected.
US Navy and Marine units based at Parry Island included:
VP-13 operating PB2Y-3s from 26 February-22 June 1944
VP-16 operating PBM-3Ds from 7 June-1 August 1944
VP-21 operating PBM-3Ds from 19 August-17 October 1944 and from 15 July-11 September 1945
VP-23 operating PBY-5As from 20 August 1944 – 9 April 1945
VP-MS-6 operating PBM-5Es from 1 February 1948 in support of Operation Sandstone
VP-102 operating PB2Y-3s from 3 February-30 August 1944
VP-202 operating PBM-3Ds from 24 February-1 March 1944
VPB-19 operating PBM-3Ds from 2 November 1944 – 12 February 1945 and 6 March 1945-January 1946
VPB-22 operating PBM-3Ds from 10 October-30 November 1944 and from 25 June-7 August 1945
List of nuclear tests at Eniwetok
Summary
Operation Sandstone
Operation Greenhouse
Operation Ivy
Operation Castle
Operation Redwing
Operation Hardtack I
Gallery
Missile Impact Location System
From 1958 through 1960 the United States installed the Missile Impact Location System (MILS) in the Navy managed Pacific Missile Range, later the Air Force managed Western Range, to localize the splash downs of test missile nose cones. MILS was developed and installed by the same entities that had completed the first phase of the Atlantic and U.S. West Coast SOSUS systems. A MILS installation, consisting of both a target array for precision location and a broad ocean area system for good positions outside the target area, was installed at Eniwetok as part of the system supporting Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) tests. Other Pacific MILS shore terminals were at the Marine Corps Air Station Kaneohe Bay supporting Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) tests with impact areas northeast of Hawaii and the other ICBM test support systems at Midway Island and Wake Island.
In popular culture
The short story The Terminal Beach by J. G. Ballard is set on an island of Eniwetok in the aftermath of the nuclear tests.
Notes
References
External links
Marshall Islands site
Annotated bibliography for Eniwetok Atoll from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
Information on legal judgements to the people of Enewetak
Nursing a nuclear test hangover (www.watoday.com.au report on Runit Dome, August 18, 2008)
Enewetak Atoll Atomic Debris Cleanup Mission Survivors
Atolls of the Marshall Islands
Ralik Chain
American nuclear test sites
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th-century%20philosophy
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19th-century philosophy
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In the 19th century, the philosophers of the 18th-century Enlightenment began to have a dramatic effect on subsequent developments in philosophy. In particular, the works of Immanuel Kant gave rise to a new generation of German philosophers and began to see wider recognition internationally. Also, in a reaction to the Enlightenment, a movement called Romanticism began to develop towards the end of the 18th century. Key ideas that sparked changes in philosophy were the fast progress of science, including evolution, most notably postulated by Charles Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, and theories regarding what is today called emergent order, such as the free market of Adam Smith within nation states. Pressures for egalitarianism, and more rapid change culminated in a period of revolution and turbulence that would see philosophy change as well.
Brief historical outline
With the tumultuous years of 1789–1815, European culture was transformed by revolution, war and disruption. By ending many of the social and cultural props of the previous century, the stage was set for dramatic economic and political change. European philosophy reflected on, participated in, and drove, many of these changes.
Influences from the late Enlightenment
The last third of the 18th century produced a host of ideas and works which would both systematize previous philosophy, and present a deep challenge to the basis of how philosophy had been systematized. Immanuel Kant is a name that most would mention as being among the most important of influences, as is Jean-Jacques Rousseau. While both of these philosophers were products of the 18th century and its assumptions, they pressed at the boundaries. In trying to explain the nature of the state and government, Rousseau would challenge the basis of government with his declaration that "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains". Kant, while attempting to preserve axiomic skepticism, was forced to argue that we do not see true reality, nor do we speak of it. All we know of reality is appearances. Since all we can see of reality is appearances, which are subject to certain necessary and subjective forms of perceptions, Kant postulates the idea of an unknowable (while at the same time limiting our use of science and the principle of causality to the appearances). Hegel's distinction between the unknowable and the circumstantially unknown can be seen as the beginnings of Hegel's rational system of the universe.
Yet another philosopher of the late Enlightenment that was influential in the 19th century was Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827), whose formulation of nomological determinism is famous up to this day.
Philosophical schools and tendencies
This is a partial list of schools of 19th-century philosophy (also known as late modern philosophy).
German idealism
One of the first philosophers to attempt to grapple with Kant's philosophy was Johann Gottlieb Fichte, whose development of Kantian metaphysics became a source of inspiration for the Romantics. In Wissenschaftslehre, Fichte argues that the self posits itself and is a self-producing and changing process.
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, a student of Fichte, continued to develop many of the same ideas and was also assimilated by the Romantics as something of an official philosopher for their movement. But it was another of Fichte's students, and former roommate of Schelling, who would rise to become the most prominent of the post-Kantian idealists: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. His work revealed the increasing importance of historical thinking in German thought.
Arthur Schopenhauer, rejecting Hegel and also materialism, called for a return to Kantian transcendentalism, at the same time adopting atheism and determinism, amongst others. His secular thought became more popular in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, which coincided with the advents of Darwinism, positivism, Marxism and philological analysis of the Bible.
In the second half of the 19th century, an even more orthodox return to Kantian thought was espoused by a number of Neo-Kantian philosophers based in two main locations: the Marburg School and the Baden School. This trend of thought survived into the beginning of the next century, influencing 20th century philosophical movements such as Neopositivism and Phenomenology.
One of the most famous opponents of idealism in the first half of the German 19th century was Ludwig Feuerbach, who advocated materialism and atheism.
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist approach to normative ethics that holds morally right actions are those that promote the most human happiness. Jeremy Bentham, who created his version of the theory in 1829, and John Stuart Mill who made his in 1861 are considered the founders of utilitarianism, though the basic concept predates either of the two philosophers. Utilitarianism remains as one of the more appealing and compelling approaches to normative ethics.
Marxism
Developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the mid-to-late-19th Century, Marxism is a sociopolitical and economic view based on the philosophy of dialectical materialism, which opposes idealism in favour of the materialist viewpoint. Marx analysed history itself as the progression of dialectics in the form of class struggle. From this it is argued that "the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles." According to Marx, this began with the phase of primitive communism (hunter-gatherer society), after which the Neolithic Revolution gave way to slave societies, progressing into the feudal society, and then into his present era of the Industrial Revolution, after which he held that the next step was for the proletariat to overthrow the owners of industry and establish a socialist society, which would further develop into a communist society, in which class distinctions, money, and the state would have withered from existence entirely.
Marxism had a profound influence on the history of the 20th Century.
Existentialism
Existentialism as a philosophical movement is properly a 20th-century movement, but its major antecedents, Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche wrote long before the rise of existentialism. In the 1840s, academic philosophy in Europe, following Hegel, was almost completely divorced from the concerns of individual human life, in favour of pursuing abstract metaphysical systems. Kierkegaard sought to reintroduce to philosophy, in the spirit of Socrates: subjectivity, commitment, faith, and passion, all of which are a part of the human condition.
Like Kierkegaard, Nietzsche saw the moral values of 19th-century Europe disintegrating into nihilism (Kierkegaard called it the levelling process). Nietzsche attempted to undermine traditional moral values by exposing its foundations. To that end, he distinguished between master and slave moralities, and claimed that man must turn from the meekness and humility of Europe's slave-morality.
Both philosophers are precursors to existentialism, among other ideas, for their importance on the "great man" against the age. Kierkegaard wrote of 19th-century Europe, "Each age has its own characteristic depravity. Ours is perhaps not pleasure or indulgence or sensuality, but rather a dissolute pantheistic contempt for the individual man."
Positivism
Auguste Comte, the self-professed founder of modern sociology, put forward the view that the rigorous ordering of confirmable observations alone ought to constitute the realm of human knowledge. He had hoped to order the sciences in increasing degrees of complexity from mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and a new discipline called "sociology", which is the study of the "dynamics and statics of society".
Pragmatism
The American philosophers Charles Sanders Peirce and William James developed the pragmatist philosophy in the late 19th century. This school of thought holds that the value of an idea is based upon its practicability or utility rather than the extent to which it reflects reality.
British idealism
The twilight years of the 19th century in Britain saw the rise of British idealism, a revival of interest in the works of Kant and Hegel.
Transcendentalism
Transcendentalism was rooted in Immanuel Kant's transcendence and German idealism, led by Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. The main belief was in an ideal spiritual state that 'transcends' the physical and empirical and is only realized through the individual's intuition, rather than through the doctrines of established religions.
Social Darwinism
"Social Darwinism" refers to theories that apply the evolutionary concept of natural selection to human society.
See also
List of philosophers born in the nineteenth century
List of centuries in philosophy
References
Further reading
Baird, Forrest E. Philosophic Classics: 19th Century Philosophy.
Gardiner, Patrick. {ed.} 19th-century Philosophy.
Shand, John. Central Works of Philosophy. Vol. 3. The Nineteenth Century.
External links
Fichte from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Western philosophy
History of philosophy
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209574
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendleton
|
Pendleton
|
Pendleton may refer to:
Places
United Kingdom
Pendleton, Lancashire, England
Pendleton, Greater Manchester, England
United States
Pendleton, Indiana
Pendleton, Missouri
Pendleton, New York
Pendleton, Oregon
Pendleton, South Carolina
Pendleton County, Kentucky
Pendleton, Texas
Pendleton County, West Virginia
Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, Oceanside, California
Pendleton, Cincinnati, Ohio, a neighborhood
Businesses
Pendleton Whisky, a premium Canadian Whisky imported and bottled by Hood River Distillers in Hood River, Oregon
Pendleton Woolen Mills, Pendleton, Oregon, USA, best known for its Indian blankets and usually-plaid woollen shirts
Pendleton's Lithography, Boston, established by William S. Pendleton (1795–1879) and John B. Pendleton (1798–1866)
Other uses
Pendleton (name)
SS Pendleton, a tanker ship that broke in two off the coast of Chatham, Massachusetts, as depicted in The Finest Hours
Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, 1883 law of the US Congress establishing the United States Civil Service Commission
Pendleton Correctional Facility, a prison in Pendleton, Indiana
Pendleton Airport, near Ottawa, Canada
Pendleton (band), a punk band from Manchester, England
Pendleton 8, a nickname given to eight soldiers involved in the Hamdania incident
Pendleton Round-Up, a major annual rodeo incorporated in 1911
Pendelton State University, fictional university on the sitcom 3rd Rock from the Sun (note different spelling)
Pendleton University, fictional university in the 1998 slasher horror film Urban Legend
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic%20Age
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Atomic Age
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The Atomic Age, also known as the Atomic Era, is the period of history following the detonation of the first nuclear weapon, The Gadget at the Trinity test in New Mexico, on July 16, 1945, during World War II. Although nuclear chain reactions had been hypothesized in 1933 and the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction (Chicago Pile-1) had taken place in December 1942, the Trinity test and the ensuing bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki that ended World War II represented the first large-scale use of nuclear technology and ushered in profound changes in sociopolitical thinking and the course of technological development.
While atomic power was promoted for a time as the epitome of progress and modernity, entering into the nuclear power era also entailed frightful implications of nuclear warfare, the Cold War, mutual assured destruction, nuclear proliferation, the risk of nuclear disaster (potentially as extreme as anthropogenic global nuclear winter), as well as beneficial civilian applications in nuclear medicine. It is no easy matter to fully segregate peaceful uses of nuclear technology from military or terrorist uses (such as the fabrication of dirty bombs from radioactive waste), which complicated the development of a global nuclear-power export industry right from the outset.
In 1973, concerning a flourishing nuclear power industry, the United States Atomic Energy Commission predicted that, by the turn of the 21st century, one thousand reactors would be producing electricity for homes and businesses across the U.S. However, the "nuclear dream" fell far short of what was promised because nuclear technology produced a range of social problems, from the nuclear arms race to nuclear meltdowns, and the unresolved difficulties of bomb plant cleanup and civilian plant waste disposal and decommissioning. Since 1973, reactor orders declined sharply as electricity demand fell and construction costs rose. Many orders and partially completed plants were cancelled.
By the late 1970s, nuclear power had suffered a remarkable international destabilization, as it was faced with economic difficulties and widespread public opposition, coming to a head with the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, and the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, both of which adversely affected the nuclear power industry for many decades.
Early years
In 1901, Frederick Soddy and Ernest Rutherford discovered that radioactivity was part of the process by which atoms changed from one kind to another, involving the release of energy. Soddy wrote in popular magazines that radioactivity was a potentially "inexhaustible" source of energy, and offered a vision of an atomic future where it would be possible to "transform a desert continent, thaw the frozen poles, and make the whole earth one smiling Garden of Eden." The promise of an "atomic age," with nuclear energy as the global, utopian technology for the satisfaction of human needs, has been a recurring theme ever since. But "Soddy also saw that atomic energy could possibly be used to create terrible new weapons".
The concept of a nuclear chain reaction was hypothesized in 1933, shortly after Chadwick's discovery of the neutron. Only a few years later, in December 1938 nuclear fission was discovered by Otto Hahn and his assistant Fritz Strassmann. Hahn understood that a "burst" of the atomic nuclei had occurred. Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch gave a full theoretical interpretation and named the process "nuclear fission". The first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction (Chicago Pile-1, or CP-1) took place in December 1942 under the leadership of Enrico Fermi.
In 1945, the pocketbook The Atomic Age heralded the untapped atomic power in everyday objects and depicted a future where fossil fuels would go unused. One science writer, David Dietz, wrote that instead of filling the gas tank of your car two or three times a week, you will travel for a year on a pellet of atomic energy the size of a vitamin pill. Glenn T. Seaborg, who chaired the Atomic Energy Commission, wrote "there will be nuclear powered earth-to-moon shuttles, nuclear powered artificial hearts, plutonium heated swimming pools for SCUBA divers, and much more".
World War II
The phrase Atomic Age was coined by William L. Laurence, a journalist with The New York Times, who became the official journalist for the Manhattan Project which developed the first nuclear weapons. He witnessed both the Trinity test and the bombing of Nagasaki and went on to write a series of articles extolling the virtues of the new weapon. His reporting before and after the bombings helped to spur public awareness of the potential of nuclear technology and in part motivated development of the technology in the U.S. and in the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union would go on to test its first nuclear weapon in 1949.
In 1949, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission chairman, David Lilienthal stated that "atomic energy is not simply a search for new energy, but more significantly a beginning of human history in which faith in knowledge can vitalize man's whole life".
1950s
The phrase gained popularity as a feeling of nuclear optimism emerged in the 1950s in which it was believed that all power generators in the future would be atomic in nature. The atomic bomb would render all conventional explosives obsolete and nuclear power plants would do the same for power sources such as coal and oil. There was a general feeling that everything would use a nuclear power source of some sort, in a positive and productive way, from irradiating food to preserve it, to the development of nuclear medicine. There would be an age of peace and plenty in which atomic energy would "provide the power needed to desalinate water for the thirsty, irrigate the deserts for the hungry, and fuel interstellar travel deep into outer space". This use would render the Atomic Age as significant a step in technological progress as the first smelting of bronze, of iron, or the commencement of the Industrial Revolution.
This included even cars, leading Ford to display the Ford Nucleon concept car to the public in 1958. There was also the promise of golf balls which could always be found and nuclear-powered aircraft, which the U.S. federal government even spent US$1.5 billion researching. Nuclear policymaking became almost a collective technocratic fantasy, or at least was driven by fantasy:
The very idea of splitting the atom had an almost magical grip on the imaginations of inventors and policymakers. As soon as someone said—in an even mildly credible way—that these things could be done, then people quickly convinced themselves ... that they would be done.
In the US, military planners "believed that demonstrating the civilian applications of the atom would also affirm the American system of private enterprise, showcase the expertise of scientists, increase personal living standards, and defend the democratic lifestyle against communism".
Some media reports predicted that thanks to the giant nuclear power stations of the near future electricity would soon become much cheaper and that electricity meters would be removed, because power would be "too cheap to meter."
When the Shippingport reactor went online in 1957 it produced electricity at a cost roughly ten times that of coal-fired generation. Scientists at the AEC's own Brookhaven Laboratory "wrote a 1958 report describing accident scenarios in which 3,000 people would die immediately, with another 40,000 injured".
However Shippingport was an experimental reactor using highly enriched uranium (unlike most power reactors) and originally intended for a (cancelled) nuclear-powered aircraft carrier. Kenneth Nichols was a consultant for the Connecticut Yankee and Yankee Rowe nuclear power stations wrote that while considered "experimental" and not expected to be competitive with coal and oil, they "became competitive because of inflation... and the large increase in price of coal and oil." He wrote that for nuclear power stations the capital cost is the major cost factor over the life of the plant, hence "antinukes" try to increase costs and building time with changing regulations and lengthy hearings, so that "it takes almost twice as long to build a (U.S.-designed boiling-water or pressurised water) atomic power plant in the United States as in France, Japan, Taiwan or South Korea." French pressurised-water nuclear plants produce 60% of their electric power, and have proven to be much cheaper than oil or coal.
Fear of possible atomic attack from the Soviet Union caused U.S. school children to participate in "duck and cover" civil defense drills.
Atomic City
During the 1950s, Las Vegas, Nevada, earned the nickname "Atomic City" for becoming a hotspot where tourists would gather to watch above-ground nuclear weapons tests taking place at Nevada Test Site. Following the detonation of Able, one of the first atomic bombs dropped at the Nevada Test Site, the Las Vegas Chamber of Commerce began advertising the tests as an entertainment spectacle to tourists.
The detonations proved popular and casinos throughout the city capitalised on the tests by advertising hotel rooms or rooftops which offered views of the testing site or by planning "Dawn Bomb Parties" where people would come together to celebrate the detonations. Most parties started at midnight and musicians would perform at the venues until 4:00 a.m. when the party would briefly stop so guests could silently watch the detonation. Some casinos capitalised on the tests further by creating so called "atomic cocktails", a mixture of vodka, cognac, sherry and champagne.
Meanwhile, groups of tourists would drive out into the desert with family or friends to watch the detonations.
Despite the health risks associated with nuclear fallout, tourists and viewers were told to simply "shower". Later on, however, anyone who had worked at the testing site or lived in areas exposed to nuclear fallout fell ill and had higher chances of developing cancer or suffering pre-mature deaths.
1960s
By exploiting the peaceful uses of the "friendly atom" in medical applications, earth removal and, subsequently, in nuclear power plants, the nuclear industry and government sought to allay public fears about nuclear technology and promote the acceptance of nuclear weapons. At the peak of the Atomic Age, the United States government initiated Operation Plowshare, involving "peaceful nuclear explosions". The United States Atomic Energy Commission chairman announced that the Plowshares project was intended to "highlight the peaceful applications of nuclear explosive devices and thereby create a climate of world opinion that is more favorable to weapons development and tests".
Project Plowshare "was named directly from the Bible itself, specifically Micah 4:3, which states that God will beat swords into ploughshares, and spears into pruning hooks, so that no country could lift up weapons against another". Proposed uses included widening the Panama Canal, constructing a new sea-level waterway through Nicaragua nicknamed the Pan-Atomic Canal, cutting paths through mountainous areas for highways, and connecting inland river systems. Other proposals involved blasting caverns for water, natural gas, and petroleum storage. It was proposed to plant underground atomic bombs to extract shale oil in eastern Utah and western Colorado. Serious consideration was also given to using these explosives for various mining operations. One proposal suggested using nuclear blasts to connect underground aquifers in Arizona. Another plan involved surface blasting on the western slope of California's Sacramento Valley for a water transport project. However, there were many negative impacts from Project Plowshare's 27 nuclear explosions. Consequences included blighted land, relocated communities, tritium-contaminated water, radioactivity, and fallout from debris being hurled high into the atmosphere. These were ignored and downplayed until the program was terminated in 1977, due in large part to public opposition, after $770 million had been spent on the project.
In the Thunderbirds TV series, a set of vehicles was presented that were imagined to be completely nuclear, as shown in cutaways presented in their comic-books.
The term "atomic age" was initially used in a positive, futuristic sense, but by the 1960s the threats posed by nuclear weapons had begun to edge out nuclear power as the dominant motif of the atom.
1970 to 2000
French advocates of nuclear power developed an aesthetic vision of nuclear technology as art to bolster support for the technology. Leclerq compares the nuclear cooling tower to some of the grandest architectural monuments of western culture:
The age in which we live has, for the public, been marked by the nuclear engineer and the gigantic edifices he has created. For builders and visitors alike, nuclear power plants will be considered the cathedrals of the 20th century. Their syncretism mingles the conscious and the unconscious, religious fulfilment and industrial achievement, the limitations of uses of materials and boundless artistic inspiration, utopia come true and the continued search for harmony.
In 1973, the United States Atomic Energy Commission predicted that, by the turn of the 21st century, one thousand reactors would be producing electricity for homes and businesses across the USA. But after 1973, reactor orders declined sharply as electricity demand fell and construction costs rose. Many orders and partially completed plants were cancelled.
Nuclear power has proved controversial since the 1970s. Highly radioactive materials may overheat and escape from the reactor building. Nuclear waste (spent nuclear fuel) needs to be regularly removed from the reactors and disposed of safely for up to a million years, so that it does not pollute the environment. Recycling of nuclear waste has been discussed, but it creates plutonium which can be used in weapons, and in any case still leaves much unwanted waste to be stored and disposed of. Large, purpose-built facilities for long-term disposal of nuclear waste have been difficult to site, and have not yet reached fruition.
By the late 1970s, nuclear power suffered a remarkable international destabilization, as it was faced with economic difficulties and widespread public opposition, coming to a head with the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, and the Chernobyl disaster in 1986, both of which adversely affected the nuclear power industry for decades thereafter. A cover story in the February 11, 1985, issue of Forbes magazine commented on the overall management of the nuclear power program in the United States:
The failure of the U.S. nuclear power program ranks as the largest managerial disaster in business history, a disaster on a monumental scale ... only the blind, or the biased, can now think that the money has been well spent. It is a defeat for the U.S. consumer and for the competitiveness of U.S. industry, for the utilities that undertook the program and for the private enterprise system that made it possible.
So, in a period just over 30 years, the early dramatic rise of nuclear power went into equally meteoric reverse. With no other energy technology has there been a conjunction of such rapid and revolutionary international emergence, followed so quickly by equally transformative demise.
21st century
In the 21st century, the label of the "Atomic Age" connotes either a sense of nostalgia or naïveté, and is considered by many to have ended with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, though the term continues to be used by many historians to describe the era following the conclusion of the Second World War. Atomic energy and weapons continue to have a strong effect on world politics in the 21st century. The term is used by some science fiction fans to describe not only the era following the conclusion of the Second World War but also contemporary history up to the present day.
The nuclear power industry has improved the safety and performance of reactors, and has proposed new safer (but generally untested) reactor designs but there is no guarantee that the reactors will be designed, built and operated correctly. Mistakes do occur and the designers of reactors at Fukushima in Japan did not anticipate that a tsunami generated by an earthquake would disable the backup systems that were supposed to stabilize the reactor after the earthquake. According to UBS AG, the Fukushima I nuclear accidents have cast doubt on whether even an advanced economy like Japan can master nuclear safety. Catastrophic scenarios involving terrorist attacks are also conceivable. An interdisciplinary team from MIT has estimated that if nuclear power use tripled from 2005 to 2055 (2%–7%), at least four serious nuclear accidents would be expected in that period.
In September 2012, in reaction to the Fukushima disaster, Japan announced that it would completely phase out nuclear power by 2030, although the likelihood of this goal became unlikely during the subsequent Abe administration. Germany plans to completely phase out nuclear energy by 2022.
Chronology
A large anti-nuclear demonstration was held on May 6, 1979, in Washington D.C., when 125,000 people including the Governor of California, attended a march and rally against nuclear power. In New York City on September 23, 1979, almost 200,000 people attended a protest against nuclear power. Anti-nuclear power protests preceded the shutdown of the Shoreham, Yankee Rowe, Millstone I, Rancho Seco, Maine Yankee, and about a dozen other nuclear power plants.
On June 12, 1982, one million people demonstrated in New York City's Central Park against nuclear weapons and for an end to the cold war arms race. It was the largest anti-nuclear protest and the largest political demonstration in American history. International Day of Nuclear Disarmament protests were held on June 20, 1983, at 50 sites across the United States.
In 1986, hundreds of people walked from Los Angeles to Washington, D.C., in the Great Peace March for Global Nuclear Disarmament. There were many Nevada Desert Experience protests and peace camps at the Nevada Test Site during the 1980s and 1990s.
On May 1, 2005, forty thousand anti-nuclear/anti-war protesters marched past the United Nations in New York, 60 years after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This was the largest anti-nuclear rally in the U.S. for several decades.
Discovery and development
1896 – Henri Becquerel notices that uranium gives off an unknown radiation which fogs photographic film.
1898 – Marie Curie discovers thorium gives off a similar radiation. She calls it radioactivity.
1903 – Ernest Rutherford begins to speak of the possibility of atomic energy.
1905 – Albert Einstein formulates the special theory of relativity which explains the phenomenon of radioactivity as mass–energy equivalence.
1911 – Ernest Rutherford formulates a theory about the structure of the atomic nucleus based on his experiments with alpha particles.
1930 – Otto Hahn writes an article with his prophecy "The Atom – the source of power of the future?" in the newspaper Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung.
1932 – James Chadwick discovers the neutron.
1934 – Enrico Fermi begins bombarding uranium with slow neutrons; Ida Noddack predicts that uranium nuclei will break up under bombardment by fast neutrons. (Fermi does not pursue this because his theoretical mathematical predictions do not predict this result.)
17 December 1938 – Otto Hahn and his assistant Fritz Strassmann by bombarding uranium with fast neutrons discover experimentally and prove nuclear fission with radiochemical methods.
6 January 1939 – Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann publish the first paper about their discovery in the German review Die Naturwissenschaften.
10 February 1939 – Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann publish the second paper about their discovery in Die Naturwissenschaften, using for the first time the term uranium fission, and predict the liberation of additional neutrons in the fission process.
11 February 1939 – Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch publish the first theoretical interpretation of nuclear fission, a term coined by Frisch, in the British review Nature.
11 October 1939 – The Einstein–Szilárd letter, suggesting that the United States construct a nuclear weapon, is delivered to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Roosevelt signs the order to build a nuclear weapon on 6 December 1941.
26 February 1941 – Discovery of plutonium by Glenn Seaborg and Arthur Wahl.
September 1942 – General Leslie Groves takes charge of the Manhattan Project.
2 December 1942 – Under the leadership of Fermi, the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction takes place in Chicago, United States, at the Chicago Pile-1.
Nuclear arms deployment
16 July 1945 – The first nuclear weapon is detonated in a plutonium form near Socorro, New Mexico, United States in the successful Trinity test.
6 August 1945 – The second nuclear weapon is detonated and the first to be deployed in combat when the Little Boy uranium bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima.
9 August 1945 – The third nuclear weapon is detonated and the second (and last so far) to be deployed in combat, when the Fat Man plutonium bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Nagasaki.
5 September 1951 – The U.S. Air Force announces the awarding of a contract for the development of an "atomic-powered airplane".
1 November 1952 – The first hydrogen bomb, largely designed by Edward Teller, is tested at Eniwetok Atoll.
"Atoms for Peace"
8 December 1953 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in a speech before the UN General Assembly, announces the Atoms for Peace program to provide nuclear power to developing countries.
21 January 1954 – The first nuclear submarine, the , is launched into the Thames River near New London, Connecticut, United States.
27 June 1954 – The first nuclear power plant begins operation near Obninsk, USSR.
17 September 1954 – Lewis L. Strauss, chairman of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, states that nuclear energy will be "too cheap to meter".
29 September 1957 – 200+ people die as a result of the Mayak nuclear waste storage tank explosion in Chelyabinsk, Soviet Union. Two hundred and seventy thousand people were exposed to dangerous radiation levels.
1957 to 1959 – The Soviet Union and the United States both begin deployment of ICBMs.
1958 – The neutron bomb, a special type of tactical nuclear weapon developed specifically to release a relatively large portion of its energy as energetic neutron radiation, is invented by Samuel Cohen of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
1960 – Herman Kahn publishes the book On Thermonuclear War.
November 1961 – In Fortune magazine, an article by Gilbert Burck appears outlining the plans of Nelson Rockefeller, Edward Teller, Herman Kahn, and Chet Holifield for the construction of an enormous network of concrete-lined underground fallout shelters throughout the United States sufficient to shelter millions of people to serve as a refuge in case of nuclear war.
12 October 1962 to 28 October 1962 – The Cuban Missile Crisis brings Earth to the brink of nuclear war.
10 October 1963 – The Partial Test Ban Treaty goes into effect, banning above ground nuclear testing.
26 August 1966 – The first pebble bed reactor goes on line in Jülich, West Germany (some nuclear engineers think that the pebble bed reactor design can be adapted for atomic powered vehicles).
27 January 1967–The Outer Space Treaty bans the deployment of nuclear weapons in space.
1968 – Physicist Freeman J. Dyson proposes building a space ark using an Orion nuclear-pulse propulsion rocket powered by hydrogen bombs. The rocket would have a payload of 50,000 tonnes, a crew of 240, and be able to travel at 3.3% of the speed of light and would reach Alpha Centauri in 133 years. It would cost $367 billion in 1968 dollars, which is the equivalent of about $2.2 trillion in 2012 dollars.
Three Mile Island and Chernobyl
28 March 1979 – The Three Mile Island accident occurs at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, dampening enthusiasm in the United States for nuclear power, and causing a dramatic shift in the growth of nuclear power in the United States.
6 May 1979 – A large anti-nuclear demonstration was held in Washington, D.C., when 125,000 people including the Governor of California, attended a march and rally against nuclear power.
23 September 1979 – In New York City, almost 200,000 people attended a protest against nuclear power.
26 April 1986 – The Chernobyl disaster occurs at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant near Pripyat, Ukraine, USSR, reducing enthusiasm for nuclear power among many people in the world, and causing a dramatic shift in the growth of nuclear power.
Nuclear arms reduction
8 December 1987 – The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed in Washington 1987. Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev agreed after negotiations following the October 11–12, 1986 Reykjavík Summit to go farther than a nuclear freeze – they agreed to reduce nuclear arsenals. IRBMs and SRBMs were eliminated.
1990–Present – Nuclear power is the primary source of electricity in France. Throughout the 1990s and 2000s (decade), France produces over three quarters of its power from nuclear sources (78.8%), the highest percentage in the world during these 2 decades.
31 July 1991 – As the Cold War ends, the Start I treaty is signed by the United States and the Soviet Union, reducing the deployed nuclear warheads of each side to no more than 6,000 each.
1993 – The Megatons to Megawatts Program is agreed upon by Russia and the United States and begins to be implemented in 1995. When it is completed in 2013, five hundred tonnes of uranium derived from 20,000 nuclear warheads from Russia will have been converted from weapons-grade to reactor-grade uranium and used in United States nuclear plants to generate electricity. This has provided 10% of the electrical power of the U.S. (50% of its nuclear power) during the 1995–2013 period.
2006 – Patrick Moore, an early member of Greenpeace and environmentalists such as Stewart Brand suggest the deployment of more advanced nuclear power technology for electric power generation (such as pebble-bed reactors) to combat global warming.
21 November 2006 – Implementation of the ITER fusion power reactor project near Cadarache, France is begun. Construction is to be completed in 2016 with the hope that the research conducted there will allow the introduction of practical commercial fusion power plants by 2050.
2006–2009 – A number of nuclear engineers begin to suggest that, to combat global warming, it would be more efficient to build nuclear reactors that operate on the thorium cycle.
8 April 2010 – The New START treaty is signed by the United States and Russia in Prague. It mandates the eventual reduction by both sides to no more than 1,550 deployed strategic nuclear weapons each.
Fukushima
11 March 2011 – A tsunami resulting from the Tōhoku earthquake causes severe damage to the Fukushima I nuclear power plant in Japan, causing partial nuclear meltdowns in several of the reactors. Many international leaders express concerns about the accidents and some countries re-evaluate existing nuclear energy programs. On 11 April 2011 this event was rated level 7 on the International Nuclear Event Scale by the Japanese government's nuclear safety agency. Other than the Chernobyl disaster, it is the only nuclear accident to be rated at level 7, the highest level on the scale, and caused the most dramatic shift in nuclear policy to date.
Influence on popular culture
1895 – Robert Cromie published The Crack of Doom (1895), which gives a plausible description of an atomic bomb.
1914 – H. G. Wells publishes science fiction novel The World Set Free, describing how scientists discover potentially limitless energy locked inside of atoms, and describes the deployment of atomic bombs.
October 1939 – Amazing Stories published a painting of an atomic power plant by science fiction artist Howard M. Duffin on its back cover.
1940 – Robert A. Heinlein published the science fiction short story "Blowups Happen" about an accident at an atomic power plant.
1940 – Robert A. Heinlein published the short story "Solution Unsatisfactory" which posits radioactive dust as a weapon that the U.S. develops in a crash program to end World War II.
1945 – The Atomaton chapter of Sweet Adelines was formed by Edna Mae Anderson after she and her sister singers decided, "We have an atom of an idea and a ton of energy." The name also recognized the Atomic Age—just three days after Sweet Adelines was founded (July 13, 1945), the first nuclear bomb, Trinity, was detonated.
5 July 1946 – The bikini swimsuit, named after Bikini Atoll, where an atomic bomb test called Operation Crossroads had taken place a few days earlier on 1 July 1946, was introduced at a fashion show in Paris.
1946 – Virgil Jordan published Manifesto for the Atomic Age, Rutgers University Press.
1948 – Voltolino Fontani published : Manifesto of Eaismo, Società Editrice Italiana, Livorno.
1951 – Isaac Asimov's science fiction novel Foundation (consisting mostly of stories originally published between 1942 and 1944) is published. In this novel, the first novel of the Foundation series, the Foundation on Terminus, guided by Psychohistory, invents a religion called Scientism which has an atomic priesthood based on the scientific use of atomic energy to pacify, impress, and control the masses of the barbarian inhabitants of the stellar kingdoms surrounding Terminus as the Galactic Empire breaks up.
1954 – Them!, a science fiction film about humanity's battle with a nest of giant mutant ants, was one of the first of the "nuclear monster" movies.
1954 – The science fiction film Godzilla was released, about an iconic fictional monster that is a gigantic irradiated dinosaur, transformed from the fallout of an H-Bomb test.
23 January 1957 – Walt Disney Productions released the film Our Friend the Atom describing the marvelous benefits of atomic power. As well as being presented on the TV show Disneyland, this film was also shown to almost all baby boomers in their public school auditoriums or their science classes and was instrumental in creating within that generation a mostly favorable attitude toward nuclear power.
1957–The current leader of the Nizari sect of Ismaili Shia Islam, Shah Karim al-Husayni, the Aga Khan IV, acceded to the Imamship at age 20. One of the titles bestowed on him by his followers was his designation as The Imam of the Atomic Age.
1958 – The Atomium was constructed for the Brussels World's Fair.
1958 –The Peace Symbol was designed for the British nuclear disarmament movement by Gerald Holtom.
1959 – The popular film On the Beach shows the last remnants of humanity in Australia awaiting the end of the human race after a nuclear war.
1959 – The novel Alas, Babylon focuses on a community in Florida after a nuclear apocalypse.
23 September 1962 – The Jetsons animated TV series began on ABC, attempting to humorously depict life in the fully developed Atomic Age of 2062.
1964 – The film Dr. Strangelove, or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (aka Dr. Strangelove), a black comedy directed by Stanley Kubrick about an accidentally triggered nuclear war, was released.
1970 – The underground comic book Hydrogen Bomb Funnies is published.
1982 – The documentary film The Atomic Cafe, detailing society's attitudes toward the atomic bomb in the early Atomic Age, debuted to widespread acclaim.
1982 – Jonathan Schell's book Fate of the Earth, about the consequences of nuclear war, is published. The book "forces even the most reluctant person to confront the unthinkable: the destruction of humanity and possibly most life on Earth". The best-selling book instigated the nuclear freeze movement.
1983 – The cartoon book The End by cartoonist Skip Morrow, about the lighter side of nuclear apocalypse, is published.
20 November 1983 – The Day After, an American television movie was aired on the ABC Television Network, and also in the Soviet Union. The film portrays a fictional nuclear war between the United States/NATO and the Soviet Union/Warsaw Pact. After the film, a panel discussion is presented in which Carl Sagan suggested that we need to reduce the number of nuclear weapons as a matter of "planetary hygiene". This film was seen by over 100,000,000 people and was instrumental in greatly increasing public support for the nuclear freeze movement.
1985 – 1990 in the Film series Back to the Future, references to the Atomic Age and uses of Nuclear Energy are broadly explored; for example the use of Plutonium in the time machine, the concept of "Mr. Fusion" (a futuristic small scale fusion reactor for domestic use that can use garbage as fuel) and references to the common 1950s conceptions of the Atomic Age.
17 December 1989 – The animated cartoon series The Simpsons debuted on television on the Fox Network, providing a humorous look at the Atomic Age, since the main protagonist, Homer Simpson, is employed as an operator at a nuclear power plant.
Beginning in the 1990s, nostalgia stores that specialize in selling modern furniture or artifacts from the 1950s often have included the words Atomic Age as part of the name of, or advertising for the store.
1997 – The first installment of the Fallout series, a video game series set in an alternate earth post-apocalyptic world, is released by Black Isle Studios/Interplay. Both the visual style and many Inseries references deal with the atomic age optimism towards nuclear power and the stark contrast it creates to the post-apocalyptic wasteland.
1999 – Blast from the Past was released. It is a romantic comedy film about a nuclear physicist, his wife, and son that enter a well-equipped spacious fallout shelter during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. They do not emerge until 35 years later, in 1997. The film shows their reaction to contemporary society.
1999 – Larry Niven published the science fiction novel Rainbow Mars. In this novel, in the 31st century, Earth uses a dating system based on what is called the Atomic Era, in which the year one is 1945. Thus, what we call the year 3053 A.D. (the year the novel begins) is in the novel the year 1108 A.E.
Autumn 2007 – Bachelor Pad Magazine, "The New Digest of Atomic Age Culture" began publication.
23 November 2010 – Civilization V, the fifth game in a long-running popular turn-based strategy game series, was released. One of the many eras in the game is the Atomic era where players can make ICBMs, nuclear reactors and submarines and even sci-fi style giant nuclear-powered robots.
25 May 2018 - Parmaanu, an Indian movie regarding the Second Pokhran Project was released.
See also
Atomic Age (comics)
Atomic Age (design)
Eaismo
Googie architecture
Information Age
Jet Age
Machine Age
Mid-century modern
Nuclear art
Nuclear electric rocket
Nuclear power debate
Nuclear weapons in popular culture
Retrofuturism
Space Age
Space age pop
Timeline of nuclear weapons development
References
Further reading
"Presidency in the Nuclear Age", conference and forum at the JFK Library, Boston, October 12, 2009. Four panels: "The Race to Build the Bomb and the Decision to Use It", "Cuban Missile Crisis and the First Nuclear Test Ban Treaty", "The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race", and "Nuclear Weapons, Terrorism, and the Presidency".
External links
Annotated bibliography on the Nuclear Age at the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues.
Atomic Age Alliance, a volunteer group dedicated to preserving Atomic Age culture and architecture.
The Nation in the Nuclear Age, a slideshow by The Nation.
20th century
Historical eras
Nuclear history
Nuclear warfare
|
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209589
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brampton%20Arts%20Council
|
Brampton Arts Council
|
The Brampton Arts Council was a charitable, multi-arts umbrella organization dedicated to the promotion and development of the arts in the city of Brampton in Ontario, Canada. It represented numerous artists and arts groups, the Brampton Arts Council encourages and recognizes excellence in the arts across the community. To fulfill its mandate, the Brampton Arts Council carries out activities in the following categories:
education and development
networking opportunities
communications
promotion and advocacy
The BAC annually recognizes a Brampton resident for their contribution to the arts.
Arts Person of the Year
Brampton Arts Council Arts Person of the Year is a prize to honour the Brampton resident who exemplifies continued patronage to any sector of the arts: visual, dance, dramatic or musical.
Past winners
2014 - Mike Butterworth
2013 - Chuck Scott
2012 - Jade Jager Clark
2011 - David Rehner
2010 - Kelly McNeil
2009 - Glenn McFarlane
2008 - Dale O'Hara
2007 - Lynden Cowan
2006 - Maureen Adams
2005 - Alan & Sylvia Gibson
2004 - John Cutruzzola
2003 - Paulette Murphy
2002 - Marion Fralick-Bartlett
2001 - David & Catherine Harmsworth
2000 - Rhoda Begley
1999 - Conrad Mieschke
1998 - Peter Richards
1997 - Alan Heatley & John Setterfield
1996 - Jan Stapleton
1995 - Gail & Ken Watson
1994 - Andrew Dittgen
1993 - Joseph Gomes
1992 - Keith Moreau
1991 - Moira Lumley
1990 - L. Greta Capps
1989 - Jack Reid
External links
Brampton Arts Council
Culture of Brampton
|
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209596
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20MacLeod
|
Elizabeth MacLeod
|
Elizabeth MacLeod is a Canadian author. Her biographies are written for elementary students.
Bibliography
Biographies
Alexander Graham Bell: An Inventive Life, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 1999.
Review, School Library Journal, 1999
Review, Booklist, 1999
Lucy Maud Montgomery: A Writer's Life, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 2001.
The Wright Brothers: A Flying Start, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 2002.
Review, School Library Journal, 2002
Review, Booklist, 2002
Albert Einstein: A Life of Genius, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 2003.
Helen Keller: A Determined Life, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 2004.
Review, School Library Journal, 2004
Review, Booklist, 2004
Marie Curie: A Brilliant Life, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 2004.
Review, Booklist, 2004
Harry Houdini: A Magical Life, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 2005.
Other works
MacLeod, Elizabeth, and June Bradford. Bake and Make Amazing Cakes. Kids can do it. Toronto: Kids Can Press, 2001. ISBN
Review, School Library Journal, 2001.
MacLeod, Elizabeth and Frieda Wishinsky. Illustrated by Qin Leng. A History of Just About Everything: 180 Events, People and Inventions That Changed the World Toronto:Kids Can Press (2013), finalist for Norma Fleck Award
MacLeod, Elizabeth, illustrated by Sydney Smith Canada Year by Year Toronto: Kids Can Press (2016). received the Norma Fleck Award
References
Canadian biographers
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
|
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209605
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoumi%20Vongvichit
|
Phoumi Vongvichit
|
Phoumi Vongvichit (; 6 April 1909 – 7 January 1994) was a leading figure of the Pathet Lao and an elder statesman of the Lao People's Democratic Republic.
He was born April 6, 1909 in Xieng Khouang, the son of a civil servant. He was educated in the Lao capital Vientiane, after which he joined the colonial civil service. After postings in Vientiane, Luang Prabang and Xieng Khouang, he was promoted to district chief ("chao muang") and served in Xieng Khouang (1939) and Vientiane (1940 - 1945). In January 1945 he was appointed governor ("chao khoueng") of Houaphan where he remained until the Japanese surrender in August 1945. The following month, Phoumi cooperated with Free French forces when they briefly seized the town of Sam Neua, but subsequently he joined the anti-colonialist Lao Issara movement and worked closely with the Viet Minh to oppose the return of French authority in Indochina.
In 1946, after the French reasserted their authority in Laos, Phoumi made his way to northern Thailand where for the next three years he was active in the Lao Issara. At the end of 1949, having refused to accept the offer of amnesty upon dissolution of the Lao Issara government-in-exile in Thailand, Phoumi was one of the handful of Lao who joined Souphanouvong in northern Vietnam. There he attended the founding congress of the Neo Lao Issara (the Free Laos Front). Phoumi was nominated both Secretary-General of the Front, and Minister of the Interior and Deputy Prime Minister in the Pathet Lao Resistance government that the Front established in opposition to the Royal Lao government in Vientiane. The Resistance government gained no international recognition, but Phoumi nominally retained both positions until the Geneva Agreements of 1954 brought the First Indochina War to an end.
In 1954 and 1955, Phoumi led Pathet Lao delegations in negotiations with the Royal Lao government over reintegration of the provinces of Phong Saly and Houaphan. In March 1955, Phoumi was one of the founding members of the Lao People's Party and was elected to its Political Bureau (Politburo). The following January he was elected to the Central Committee of the Lao Patriotic Front (Neo Lao Hak Xat). In 1956, Phoumi continued to be involved in negotiations over integration which eventuated in the signing of a series of agreements, known as the Vientiane Agreements, the following year. These opened the way for formation of the First Coalition government in which Phoumi served as Minister of Religion and Fine Arts. (The other Pathet Lao minister was Souphanouvong at the Ministry of Economy and Plan.) From this time, Phoumi took a lively interest in the Buddhist Sangha, recognizing its potential as a propaganda organ for opposition to the Americanization of Lao society, but also as a vehicle for the propagation of Lao cultural values.
In the supplementary elections of May 1958, Phoumi was elected to the National Assembly to serve as a deputy for Luang Prabang. In the political crisis that followed the electoral success of the left, Phoumi lost his ministry. In July 1959 he was arrested along with other Pathet Lao deputies, and imprisoned without ever being brought to trial. In a famous May 1960 episode he escaped with Souphanouvong and other leading Pathet Lao prisoners and their guards, and made the long march to the Pathet Lao zone in Xieng Khouang.
After the Battle of Vientiane in December 1960 and the subsequent retreat of Neutralist forces to the Plain of Jars, Phoumi was instrumental in arranging for Pathet Lao-Neutralist collaboration. He led the Pathet Lao delegation to the Geneva Conference on the neutrality of Laos in 1962, and served as Minister of Information, Propaganda and Tourism in the Second Coalition government. In 1964, after a series of political assassinations, Phoumi left Vientiane with other Pathet Lao ministers.
By this time Laos had been dragged into the Vietnam War (Second Indochina War) between the United States and North Vietnam. For the next ten years, Phoumi alternated between living in the limestone caverns of Viengxay and leading various Pathet Lao delegations to international communist gatherings. He retained his positions in both the Politburo and the Lao Patriotic Front, and took a leading role in negotiations leading to formation of the Third Coalition government in 1974, in which he served as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs.
After formation of the Lao People's Democratic Republic in December 1975, Phoumi was named Second Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Education, Sport and Religious Affairs. In the reorganization that followed the Third Congress of the LPRP in 1982, Phoumi became a member of the Inner Cabinet with overall responsibility for education, information and culture. In 1986, when Souphanouvong was forced to step down from the Presidency for reasons of health, Phoumi was named Acting President of the LPDR and Chairman of the Lao Front for National Construction. He retired from the Acting Presidency and the Politburo at the Fifth Party Congress in March 1991.
Since 1991, he and Prince Souphanouvong, Sisomphon Lovansay is Advisors of Party's Central Committee.
Selected bibliography
Phoumi Vongvichit: Laos and the victorious struggle of the Lao people against U.S. neo-colonialism, Neo Lao Haksat Publications, 1969
References
Lao Cultural Profiles
Obituary by Martin Stuart-Fox
New York Times, January 12, 1994
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|-
1909 births
1994 deaths
Members of the 1st Central Committee of the Lao People's Party
Members of the 2nd Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 3rd Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 4th Central Committee of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 2nd Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 3rd Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Members of the 4th Politburo of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party
Lao People's Revolutionary Party politicians
Presidents of Laos
People from Xiangkhouang province
|
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] |
209616
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heather%20Christensen
|
Heather Christensen
|
Heather Christensen (born October 1, 1979) is an American glamor model, noted for her work in various Playboy publications.
She was Playboy Special Editions Model of the Year for 2001. In 2002, she posed as a mermaid in the Wet and Wild 2002 edition.
Christensen was born and raised in Cleveland, Ohio, and moved to Tampa, Florida when she was 20. She was seen by a scout from Playboy, and began to model, which "sort of interrupted" her longer term plans.
Christensen has a wide range of hobbies, including rock climbing, diving, snowboarding, hiking, and singing. She is an especially noted skateboarder, who has been skating since 1998, first with a boyfriend, then by herself. The hobby cost her a broken arm, at Skatopia in Ohio, when she fell on a metal ramp; the fracture forced her to quit her job (and her boyfriend left her). She stayed with the hobby, and later lived with professional skateboarder Anthony Furlong. Playboy airbrushed out the scars on her arm in her pictures, and asked her to skate topless for a pictorial (which she says was "... embarrassing. I was like 'this hurts really bad!'"). The hobby has been a conflict for her modeling, as she can't skate for a week before a pictorial, to avoid bruises.
Christensen continued to study while working as a model. She earned a bachelor's degree in biology, and went to veterinary school, to become a veterinarian specializing in reptiles. She says she'd like to "Live in a tropical paradise [...] traveling around the world rescuing exotic animals", and has kept turtles, snakes, lizards, and frogs at her home. Other hobbies include restoring a 1968 Ford Mustang.
References
1979 births
Living people
Female models from Ohio
American skateboarders
Female skateboarders
American sportswomen
21st-century American women
|
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] |
209625
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy
|
Deputy
|
Deputy is one empowered to act for another. Depute is the historical form of "deputy" and is still used in the Scottish legal system.
Deputy or depute may refer to:
Steward (office)
Khalifa, an Arabic title that can signify "deputy"
Deputy (legislator), a legislator in many countries and regions, including:
A member of a Chamber of Deputies, for example in Italy, Spain, Argentina, or Brazil.
A member of a National Assembly, as in Costa Rica, France, Pakistan, Poland or Quebec.
A member of the Dáil Éireann (Lower House of the parliament of the Republic of Ireland)
A member of the States of Guernsey or the States of Jersey elected by a parish or district
Deputy (Acadian), a position in 18th-century Nova Scotia, Canada
Deputy Führer, a title for the deputy head of the Nazi Party
A subordinate
Deputy premier, a subordinate of the Premier and next-in-command in the cabinet of the Soviet Union and its successor countries, including:
First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union
Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union, a subordinate of the Premier and the First Deputy Premier and third-in-command of the Soviet Government
Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
Deputy sheriff, deputized by a sheriff to perform the same duties as the sheriff
Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency
White House Deputy Chief of Staff
Deputy marriage commissioner
Deputy governor
Deputy mayor
Deputy overman (pit deputy) in a mine
Deputy Speaker, in a legislative assembly
Film, theatre and television
The Deputy, US title of The Representative, a play by Rolf Hochhuth
The Deputy (TV series), western with Henry Fonda
The Deputy (film), 2004 BBC political comedy with Jack Dee
Deputy (TV series), a police drama that premiered in 2020
Other uses
Deputy, Indiana, a small town in the United States
Deputy Dawg, a Terrytoons cartoon character
See also
People's Deputy (disambiguation)
Deputy lieutenant
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klein%E2%80%93Gordon%20equation
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Klein–Gordon equation
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The Klein–Gordon equation (Klein–Fock–Gordon equation or sometimes Klein–Gordon–Fock equation) is a relativistic wave equation, related to the Schrödinger equation. It is second-order in space and time and manifestly Lorentz-covariant. It is a quantized version of the relativistic energy–momentum relation. Its solutions include a quantum scalar or pseudoscalar field, a field whose quanta are spinless particles. Its theoretical relevance is similar to that of the Dirac equation. Electromagnetic interactions can be incorporated, forming the topic of scalar electrodynamics, but because common spinless particles like the pions are unstable and also experience the strong interaction (with unknown interaction term in the Hamiltonian,) the practical utility is limited.
The equation can be put into the form of a Schrödinger equation. In this form it is expressed as two coupled differential equations, each of first order in time. The solutions have two components, reflecting the charge degree of freedom in relativity. It admits a conserved quantity, but this is not positive definite. The wave function cannot therefore be interpreted as a probability amplitude. The conserved quantity is instead interpreted as electric charge, and the norm squared of the wave function is interpreted as a charge density. The equation describes all spinless particles with positive, negative, and zero charge.
Any solution of the free Dirac equation is, for each of its four components, a solution of the free Klein–Gordon equation. The Klein–Gordon equation does not form the basis of a consistent quantum relativistic one-particle theory. There is no known such theory for particles of any spin. For full reconciliation of quantum mechanics with special relativity, quantum field theory is needed, in which the Klein–Gordon equation reemerges as the equation obeyed by the components of all free quantum fields. In quantum field theory, the solutions of the free (noninteracting) versions of the original equations still play a role. They are needed to build the Hilbert space (Fock space) and to express quantum fields by using complete sets (spanning sets of Hilbert space) of wave functions.
Statement
The Klein-Gordon equation can be written in different ways. The equation itself usually refers to the position space form, where it can be written in terms of separated space and time components or by combining them into a four-vector . By Fourier transforming the field into momentum space, the solution is usually written in terms of a superposition of plane waves whose energy and momentum obey the energy-momentum dispersion relation from special relativity. Here, the Klein-Gordon equation is given for both of the two common metric signature conventions .
Here, is the d'Alembert operator and is the Laplace operator. The speed of light and Planck constant is often seen to clutter the equations, so they are therefore often expressed in natural units where .
Unlike the Schrödinger equation, the Klein–Gordon equation admits two values of for each : one positive and one negative. Only by separating out the positive and negative frequency parts does one obtain an equation describing a relativistic wavefunction. For the time-independent case, the Klein–Gordon equation becomes
which is formally the same as the homogeneous screened Poisson equation.
Solution for free particle
Here, the Klein-Gordon equation in natural units, , with the metric signature is solved by Fourier transformation. Inserting the Fourier transformationand using orthogonality of the complex exponentials gives the dispersion relationThis restricts the momenta to those that lie on shell, giving positive and negative energy solutionsFor a new set of constants , the solution then becomesIt is common to handle the positive and negative energy solutions by separating out the negative energies and work only with positive :In the last step, was renamed. Now we can perform the -integration, picking up the positive frequency part from the delta function only:
This is commonly taken as a general solution to the Klein-Gordon equation. Note that because the initial Fourier transformation contained Lorentz invariant quantities like only, the last expression is also a Lorentz invariant solution to the Klein-Gordon equation. If one does not require Lorentz invariance, one can absorb the -factor into the coefficients and .
History
The equation was named after the physicists Oskar Klein and Walter Gordon, who in 1926 proposed that it describes relativistic electrons. Other authors making similar claims in that same year were Vladimir Fock, Johann Kudar, Théophile de Donder and Frans-H. van den Dungen, and Louis de Broglie. Although it turned out that modeling the electron's spin required the Dirac equation, the Klein–Gordon equation correctly describes the spinless relativistic composite particles, like the pion. On 4 July 2012, European Organization for Nuclear Research CERN announced the discovery of the Higgs boson. Since the Higgs boson is a spin-zero particle, it is the first observed ostensibly elementary particle to be described by the Klein–Gordon equation. Further experimentation and analysis is required to discern whether the Higgs boson observed is that of the Standard Model or a more exotic, possibly composite, form.
The Klein–Gordon equation was first considered as a quantum wave equation by Schrödinger in his search for an equation describing de Broglie waves. The equation is found in his notebooks from late 1925, and he appears to have prepared a manuscript applying it to the hydrogen atom. Yet, because it fails to take into account the electron's spin, the equation predicts the hydrogen atom's fine structure incorrectly, including overestimating the overall magnitude of the splitting pattern by a factor of for the -th energy level. The Dirac equation relativistic spectrum is, however, easily recovered if the orbital-momentum quantum number is replaced by total angular-momentum quantum number . In January 1926, Schrödinger submitted for publication instead his equation, a non-relativistic approximation that predicts the Bohr energy levels of hydrogen without fine structure.
In 1926, soon after the Schrödinger equation was introduced, Vladimir Fock wrote an article about its generalization for the case of magnetic fields, where forces were dependent on velocity, and independently derived this equation. Both Klein and Fock used Kaluza and Klein's method. Fock also determined the gauge theory for the wave equation. The Klein–Gordon equation for a free particle has a simple plane-wave solution.
Derivation
The non-relativistic equation for the energy of a free particle is
By quantizing this, we get the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation for a free particle:
where
is the momentum operator ( being the del operator), and
is the energy operator.
The Schrödinger equation suffers from not being relativistically invariant, meaning that it is inconsistent with special relativity.
It is natural to try to use the identity from special relativity describing the energy:
Then, just inserting the quantum-mechanical operators for momentum and energy yields the equation
The square root of a differential operator can be defined with the help of Fourier transformations, but due to the asymmetry of space and time derivatives, Dirac found it impossible to include external electromagnetic fields in a relativistically invariant way. So he looked for another equation that can be modified in order to describe the action of electromagnetic forces. In addition, this equation, as it stands, is nonlocal (see also Introduction to nonlocal equations).
Klein and Gordon instead began with the square of the above identity, i.e.
which, when quantized, gives
which simplifies to
Rearranging terms yields
Since all reference to imaginary numbers has been eliminated from this equation, it can be applied to fields that are real-valued, as well as those that have complex values.
Rewriting the first two terms using the inverse of the Minkowski metric , and writing the Einstein summation convention explicitly we get
Thus the Klein–Gordon equation can be written in a covariant notation. This often means an abbreviation in the form of
where
and
This operator is called the d'Alembert operator.
Today this form is interpreted as the relativistic field equation for spin-0 particles. Furthermore, any component of any solution to the free Dirac equation (for a spin-1/2 particle) is automatically a solution to the free Klein–Gordon equation. This generalizes to particles of any spin due to the Bargmann–Wigner equations. Furthermore, in quantum field theory, every component of every quantum field must satisfy the free Klein–Gordon equation, making the equation a generic expression of quantum fields.
Klein–Gordon equation in a potential
The Klein–Gordon equation can be generalized to describe a field in some potential as
Conserved current
The conserved current associated to the U(1) symmetry of a complex field satisfying the Klein–Gordon equation reads
The form of the conserved current can be derived systematically by applying Noether's theorem to the U(1) symmetry. We will not do so here, but simply give a proof that this conserved current is correct.
Proof using algebraic manipulations from the KG equation
From the Klein–Gordon equation for a complex field of mass , written in covariant notation
and its complex conjugate
we have, multiplying by the left respectively by and (and omitting for brevity the explicit dependence),
Subtracting the former from the latter, we obtain
then we also know
from which we obtain the conservation law for the Klein–Gordon field:
Action
The Klein–Gordon equation can also be derived by a variational method, considering the action
where is the Klein–Gordon field, and is its mass. The complex conjugate of is written . If the scalar field is taken to be real-valued, then , and it is customary to introduce a factor of 1/2 for both terms.
Applying the formula for the Hilbert stress–energy tensor to the Lagrangian density (the quantity inside the integral), we can derive the stress–energy tensor of the scalar field. It is
By integration of the time–time component over all space, one may show that both the positive- and negative-frequency plane-wave solutions can be physically associated with particles with positive energy. This is not the case for the Dirac equation and its energy–momentum tensor.
Non-relativistic limit
Classical field
Taking the non-relativistic limit () of a classical Klein-Gordon field begins with the ansatz factoring the oscillatory rest mass energy term,
Defining the kinetic energy , in the non-relativistic limit , and hence
Applying this yields the non-relativistic limit of the second time derivative of ,
Substituting into the free Klein–Gordon equation, , yields
which (by dividing out the exponential and subtracting the mass term) simplifies to
This is a classical Schrödinger field.
Quantum field
The analogous limit of a quantum Klein-Gordon field is complicated by the non-commutativity of the field operator. In the limit , the creation and annihilation operators decouple and behave as independent quantum Schrödinger fields.
Electromagnetic interaction
There is a simple way to make any field interact with electromagnetism in a gauge-invariant way: replace the derivative operators with the gauge-covariant derivative operators. This is because to maintain symmetry of the physical equations for the wavefunction under a local U(1) gauge transformation , where is a locally variable phase angle, which transformation redirects the wavefunction in the complex phase space defined by , it is required that ordinary derivatives be replaced by gauge-covariant derivatives , while the gauge fields transform as . With the (−, +, +, +) metric signature, The Klein–Gordon equation therefore becomes
in natural units, where is the vector potential. While it is possible to add many higher-order terms, for example,
these terms are not renormalizable in 3 + 1 dimensions.
The field equation for a charged scalar field multiplies by , which means that the field must be complex. In order for a field to be charged, it must have two components that can rotate into each other, the real and imaginary parts.
The action for a massless charged scalar is the covariant version of the uncharged action:
Gravitational interaction
In general relativity, we include the effect of gravity by replacing partial with covariant derivatives, and the Klein–Gordon equation becomes (in the mostly pluses signature)
or equivalently,
where is the inverse of the metric tensor that is the gravitational potential field, g is the determinant of the metric tensor, is the covariant derivative, and is the Christoffel symbol that is the gravitational force field.
See also
Dirac equation
Quantum field theory
Quartic interaction
Relativistic wave equations
Rarita–Schwinger equation
Scalar field theory
Sine–Gordon equation
Remarks
Notes
References
External links
Linear Klein–Gordon Equation at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.
Nonlinear Klein–Gordon Equation at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.
Introduction to nonlocal equations.
Partial differential equations
Special relativity
Waves
Quantum field theory
Equations of physics
Mathematical physics
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209630
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20Mattson
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Margaret Mattson
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Margaret Mattson was one of two women tried in Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania for witchcraft in 1683.
Biography
Nils and Margaret Mattson arrived in New Sweden on May 22, 1654, on the ship Orn Margaret Mattson and her husband Nils Mattson lived on a farm near Ridley Creek in present-day Eddystone, Pennsylvania. Part of Eddystone township at the mouth of Ridley Creek, had been taken up by Olof Persson Stille, one of the early settlers of the Swedish colony of New Sweden who had arrived during 1641. One hundred acres of the Stille land was patented to Neals Mattson on June 13, 1670. Mattson's choice for their plantation was rich, fertile river land by the Delaware River.
Of Swedish-Finnish descent, Neals and Margaret Mattson were also likely members of the former New Sweden colony which occupied much of the lower Delaware River Valley from 1638 to 1655. Mattson was a reputed healer working from Finnish tradition. New Sweden was taken over first in 1654 by the Dutch, then in 1664 by the British. In 1683, some of her neighbors claimed that she had bewitched cattle.
Charges of practicing witchcraft were brought before the Pennsylvania Provincial Council on February 7, 1683 (under Julian calendar). This occurred one and a half years after William Penn arrived on October 27, 1682, on the vessel Welcome and landed to take seisin possession of Pennsylvania, his royal land grant colony of "Penn's Woods" named after his father by King Charles II. Pennsylvania was a common law colony and the law of England applied. The English Witchcraft Act of 1604 made conjuration, witchcraft, and dealing with evil and wicked spirits a felony offense punishable by death by hanging without benefit of clergy. Like other British colonies, Pennsylvania was subject to the James I of England 1604 statute against witchcraft; however, Mattson's and Hendrickson's is the only such trial recorded from the Pennsylvania Colony.
Accused by several neighbors, as well as her own daughter in law, Mattson's alleged crimes included making threats against neighbors, causing cows to give little milk, bewitching and killing livestock and appearing to witnesses in spectral form. On February 27, 1683, charges against Mattson and a neighbor Gertro (a.k.a. Yeshro) Jacobsson, wife of Hendrick Jacobsson, were brought by the Attorney General before a grand jury of 21 men overseen by the colony's proprietor, William Penn. The grand jury returned a true bill indictment that afternoon, and the cases proceeded to trial. A petit jury of 12 men was selected by Penn and an interpreter was appointed for the Finnish women, who did not speak English. Penn barred the use of prosecution and defense lawyers, conducted the questioning himself, and permitted the introduction of unsubstantiated hearsay. Penn himself gave the closing charge and directions to the jury, but what he told them was not transcribed. According to the minutes of the Provincial Council, dated February 27, 1683, the jury returned with a verdict of "Guilty of having the Comon Fame of a Witch, but not Guilty in manner and Forme as Shee stands Endicted."
Thus Mattson was found guilty of having the reputation of a witch, but not guilty of bewitching animals. Neither woman was convicted of witchcraft. "Hence the superstitious got enough to have their thinking affirmed. Those less superstitious, and justice minded, got what they wanted." The accused were released on their husbands posting recognizance bonds of 50 pounds and promising six months' good behavior.
A popular legend tells of William Penn dismissing the charges against Mattson by affirming her legal right to fly on a broomstick, saying "Well, I know of no law against it." The record fails to show any such commentary, but the story probably reflects popular views of Penn's socially progressive Quaker values.
References
Other sources
Jordan, John W. A History of Delaware County, Pennsylvania. (Lewis Historical Publishing Company, New York. 1914)
Benson, Adolph B. and Naboth Hedin, eds. Swedes in America, 1638–1938 (The Swedish American Tercentenary Association. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 1938)
External links
Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania
Watson's Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania
Early Witch Trial in Pennsylvania
The Fame Of A Witch
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
People from Eddystone, Pennsylvania
17th-century women
American people of Finnish descent
American people of Swedish descent
Colonial American women
People convicted of witchcraft
People of New Sweden
Cunning folk
1680s in Pennsylvania
People of colonial Pennsylvania
|
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] |
209640
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibley%E2%80%93Monroe%20checklist
|
Sibley–Monroe checklist
|
The Sibley-Monroe checklist is a list of bird species based on a study conducted by Charles Sibley and Burt Monroe. It drew on extensive DNA-DNA hybridisation studies to reassess the relationships between modern birds. It was considered a landmark in ornithology on its release. The Sibley-Monroe assignment of individual species to families, and of families to orders remains controversial. Critics maintain that while it marks a great leap forward so far as the evidence from DNA-DNA hybridisation goes, it pays insufficient attention to other forms of evidence, both molecular and on a larger scale. There is no true consensus, but the broad middle-ground position is that the Sibley-Monroe classification, overall, is "about 80% correct". Research and debate concerning bird classification continue. There are 9994 species on the checklist.
See also
Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy of birds
References
Ornithological checklists
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20of%20David
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Star of David
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The Star of David, known in Hebrew as Magen David (, "Shield of David"), is a generally-recognized symbol of Jewish identity and Judaism. Its shape is that of a hexagram, the compound of two equilateral triangles.
A derivation of the Medieval "Seal of Solomon", which was used for decorative and mystic purposes by both Muslims and Kabbalistic Jews, its adoption as a distinctive symbol for the Jewish people and religion dates back to 17th-century Prague. In the 19th century, the symbol began to be widely used among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe, ultimately coming to be used to represent Jewish religion or identity. It became representative of the Zionist movement after it was chosen as the central symbol for a flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897.
By the end of the First World War, it had become an internationally accepted symbol for the Jewish people, being used on the gravestones of fallen Jewish soldiers.
Today, the star is used as the central symbol on the national flag of the State of Israel.
From non-Jewish to Jewish usage
Unlike the menorah, the Lion of Judah, the shofar and the lulav, the hexagram was not originally a uniquely Jewish symbol. The hexagram, being an inherently simple geometric construction, has been used in various motifs throughout human history, which were not exclusively religious. It appeared as a decorative motive in both 4th-century synagogues and Christian churches in the Galilee region.
In early Medieval times, the hexagram became important in Middle Eastern art under the name of "Seal of Solomon". At around the same time, Jewish Kabbalists had adopted it for use in talismanic protective amulets (segulot). The change of name, from "Seal of Solomon" to "Shield of David" (and later "Star of David"), may have originated in either Islamic or Jewish mystical works.
Only around one millennium later, however, the star would begin to be used as a symbol to identify Jewish communities, a tradition that seems to have started in Prague before the 17th century, and from there spread to much of Eastern Europe.
In the 19th century, it came to be adopted by European Jews as a symbol to represent Jewish religion or identity in the same manner the Christian cross identified that religion's believers. The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community after it was chosen as the central symbol on a flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897, due to its usage in some Jewish communities and its lack of specifically religious connotations. It was not considered an exclusively Jewish symbol until after it began to be used on the gravestones of fallen Jewish soldiers in World War I.
History of Jewish usage
Early use as an ornament
The hexagram does appear occasionally in Jewish contexts since antiquity, apparently as a decorative motif. For example, in Israel, there is a stone bearing a hexagram from the arch of the 3rd–4th century Khirbet Shura synagogue in the Galilee. Originally, the hexagram may have been employed as an architectural ornament on synagogues, as it is, for example, on the cathedrals of Brandenburg and Stendal, and on the Marktkirche at Hanover. A hexagram in this form is found on the ancient synagogue at Capernaum.
The use of the hexagram in a Jewish context as a possibly meaningful symbol may occur as early as the 11th century, in the decoration of the carpet page of the famous Tanakh manuscript, the Leningrad Codex dated 1008. Similarly, the symbol illuminates a medieval Tanakh manuscript dated 1307 belonging to Rabbi Yosef bar Yehuda ben Marvas from Toledo, Spain.
Kabbalistic use
A hexagram has been noted on a Jewish tombstone in Taranto, Apulia in Southern Italy, which may date as early as the third century CE. The Jews of Apulia were noted for their scholarship in Kabbalah, which has been connected to the use of the Star of David.
Medieval Kabbalistic grimoires show hexagrams among the tables of segulot, but without identifying them as "Shield of David".
In the Renaissance, in the 16th-century Land of Israel, the book Ets Khayim conveys the Kabbalah of Ha-Ari (Rabbi Isaac Luria) who arranges the traditional items on the seder plate for Passover into two triangles, where they explicitly correspond to Jewish mystical concepts. The six sfirot of the masculine Zer Anpin correspond to the six items on the seder plate, while the seventh sfira being the feminine Malkhut corresponds to the plate itself.
However, these seder-plate triangles are parallel, one above the other, and do not actually form a hexagram.
According to G. S. Oegema (1996)
Isaac Luria provided the hexagram with a further mystical meaning. In his book Etz Chayim he teaches that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram: above the three sefirot "Crown", "Wisdom", and "Insight", below the other seven.
Similarly, M. Costa wrote that M. Gudemann and other researchers in the 1920s claimed that Isaac Luria was influential in turning the Star of David into a national Jewish emblem by teaching that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram. Gershom Scholem (1990) disagrees with this view, arguing that Isaac Luria talked about parallel triangles one beneath the other and not about the hexagram.
The Star of David at least since the 20th century remains associated with the number seven and thus with the Menorah, and popular accounts associate it with the six directions of space plus the center (under the influence of the description of space found in the Sefer Yetsira: Up, Down, East, West, South, North, and Center), or the Six Sefirot of the Male (Zeir Anpin) united with the Seventh Sefirot of the Female (Nukva). Some say that one triangle represents the ruling tribe of Judah and the other the former ruling tribe of Benjamin. It is also seen as a dalet and yud, the two letters assigned to Judah. There are 12 Vav, or "men," representing the 12 tribes or patriarchs of Israel.
Official usage in Central European communities
In 1354, King of Bohemia Charles IV approved for the Jews of Prague a red flag with a hexagram. In 1460, the Jews of Ofen (Buda, now part of Budapest, Hungary) received King Matthias Corvinus with a red flag on which were two Shields of David and two stars. In the first Hebrew prayer book, printed in Prague in 1512, a large hexagram appears on the cover. In the colophon is written: "Each man beneath his flag according to the house of their fathers...and he will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David." In 1592, Mordechai Maizel was allowed to affix "a flag of King David, similar to that located on the Main Synagogue" on his synagogue in Prague. Following the Battle of Prague (1648), the Jews of Prague were again granted a flag, in recognition in their contribution to the city's defense. That flag showed a yellow hexagram on a red background, with a "Swedish star" placed in the center of the hexagram.
As a symbol of Judaism and the Jewish community
The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community, and later the broader Jewish community, after it was chosen to represent the First Zionist Congress in 1897.
A year before the congress, Herzl had written in his 1896 Der Judenstaat:
We have no flag, and we need one. If we desire to lead many men, we must raise a symbol above their heads. I would suggest a white flag, with seven golden stars. The white field symbolizes our pure new life; the stars are the seven golden hours of our working-day. For we shall march into the Promised Land carrying the badge of honor.
David Wolffsohn (1856–1914), a businessman prominent in the early Zionist movement, was aware that the nascent Zionist movement had no official flag, and that the design proposed by Theodor Herzl was gaining no significant support, wrote:
At the behest of our leader Herzl, I came to Basle to make preparations for the Zionist Congress. Among many other problems that occupied me then was one that contained something of the essence of the Jewish problem. What flag would we hang in the Congress Hall? Then an idea struck me. We have a flag—and it is blue and white. The talith (prayer shawl) with which we wrap ourselves when we pray: that is our symbol. Let us take this Talith from its bag and unroll it before the eyes of Israel and the eyes of all nations. So I ordered a blue and white flag with the Shield of David painted upon it. That is how the national flag, that flew over Congress Hall, came into being.
In the early 20th century, the symbol began to be used to express Jewish affiliations in sports.
Hakoah Vienna was a Jewish sports club founded in Vienna, Austria, in 1909 whose teams competed with the Star of David on the chest of their uniforms, and won the 1925 Austrian League soccer championship. Similarly, The Philadelphia Sphas basketball team in Philadelphia (whose name was an acronym of its founding South Philadelphia Hebrew Association) wore a large Star of David on their jerseys to proudly proclaim their Jewish identity, as they competed in the first half of the 20th century.
In boxing, Benny "the Ghetto Wizard" Leonard (who said he felt as though he was fighting for all Jews) fought with a Star of David embroidered on his trunks in the 1910s.
World heavyweight boxing champion Max Baer fought with a Star of David on his trunks as well, notably, for the first time as he knocked out Nazi Germany hero Max Schmeling in 1933; Hitler never permitted Schmeling to fight a Jew again.
The Holocaust
A Star of David, often yellow, was used by the Nazis during the Holocaust to identify Jews. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, there initially were different local decrees forcing Jews to wear distinct signs (e.g. in the General Government, a white armband with a blue Star of David; in the , a yellow badge, in the form of a Star of David, on the left breast and on the back). If a Jew was found in public without the star, he could be severely punished. The requirement to wear the Star of David with the word (German for Jew) was then extended to all Jews over the age of six in the Reich and in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (by a decree issued on September 1, 1941 and signed by Reinhard Heydrich) and was gradually introduced in other Nazi-occupied areas. Others, however, wore the Star of David as a symbol of defiance against Nazi antisemitism, as in the case of United States Army private Hal Baumgarten, who wore a Star of David emblazoned on his back during the 1944 invasion of Normandy.
Contemporary use
The flag of Israel, depicting a blue Star of David on a white background, between two horizontal blue stripes was adopted on October 28, 1948, five months after the country's establishment. The origins of the flag's design date from the First Zionist Congress in 1897; the flag has subsequently been known as the "flag of Zion".
Many Modern Orthodox synagogues, and many synagogues of other Jewish movements, have the Israeli flag with the Star of David prominently displayed at the front of the synagogues near the Ark containing the Torah scrolls.
Magen David Adom (MDA) ("Red Star of David" or, translated literally, "Red Shield of David") is Israel's only official emergency medical, disaster, ambulance service.
It has been an official member of the International Committee of the Red Cross since June 2006. According to the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Magen David Adom was boycotted by the International Committee of the Red Cross, which refused to grant the organization membership because "it was [...] argued that having an emblem used by only one country was contrary to the principles of universality." Other commentators said the ICRC did not recognize the medical and humanitarian use of this Jewish symbol, a Red Shield, alongside the Christian cross and the Muslim crescent.
Use in sports
Since 1948, the Star of David has carried the dual significance of representing both the state of Israel, and Jewish identity in general. In the United States especially, it continues to be used in the latter sense by a number of athletes.
In baseball, Jewish major leaguer Gabe Kapler had a Star of David tattooed on his left calf in 2000, with the words "strong-willed" and "strong-minded", major leaguer Mike "SuperJew" Epstein drew a Star of David on his baseball glove, and major leaguer Ron Blomberg had a Star of David emblazoned in the knob of his bat which is on display at the Baseball Hall of Fame.
NBA basketball star Amar'e Stoudemire, who says he is spiritually and culturally Jewish, had a Star of David tattoo put on his left hand in 2010. NFL football defensive end Igor Olshansky has Star of David tattoos on each side of his neck, near his shoulders. Israeli golfer Laetitia Beck displays a blue-and-white magen david symbol on her golf apparel.
In boxing, Jewish light heavyweight world champion Mike "The Jewish Bomber" Rossman fought with a Star of David embroidered on his boxing trunks, and also has a blue Star of David tattoo on the outside of his right calf.
Other boxers fought with Stars of David embroidered on their trunks include world lightweight champion, world light heavyweight boxing champion Battling Levinsky, Barney Ross (world champion as a lightweight, as a junior welterweight, and as a welterweight), world flyweight boxing champion Victor "Young" Peres, world bantamweight champion Alphonse Halimi, and more recently World Boxing Association super welterweight champion Yuri Foreman, light welterweight champion Cletus Seldin, and light middleweight Boyd Melson. Welterweight Zachary "Kid Yamaka" Wohlman has a tattoo of a Star of David across his stomach, and welterweight Dmitriy Salita even boxes under the nickname "Star of David".
Maccabi clubs still use the Star of David in their emblems.
Etymology
The Jewish Encyclopedia cites a 12th-century Karaite document as the earliest Jewish literary source to mention a symbol called "Magen Dawid" (without specifying its shape).
The name 'Shield of David' was used by at least the 11th century as a title of the God of Israel, independent of the use of the symbol. The phrase occurs independently as a divine title in the Siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book, where it poetically refers to the divine protection of ancient King David and the anticipated restoration of his dynastic house, perhaps based on Psalm 18, which is attributed to David, and in which God is compared to a shield (v. 31 and v. 36). The term occurs at the end of the "Samkhaynu/Gladden us" blessing, which is recited after the reading of the Haftara portion on Saturday and holidays.
The earliest known text related to Judaism which mentions a sign called the "Shield of David" is Eshkol Ha-Kofer by the Karaite Judah Hadassi, in the mid-12th century CE:
Seven names of angels precede the mezuzah: Michael, Gabriel, etc. ...Tetragrammaton protect you! And likewise the sign, called the "Shield of David", is placed beside the name of each angel.
This book is of Karaite, and not of Rabbinic Jewish origin, and it does not describe the shape of the sign in any way.
Miscellaneous
In Unicode, the "Star of David" symbol is U+2721 (✡︎).
The world's largest Star of David ( diameter) is at Harold Holt Naval Communications Station, Exmouth, Australia at . (Google Earth view)
Some criminal gangs, including the Gangster Disciples and those affiliated with the Folk Nation, use the Star of David as their symbol. In the case of the Gangster Disciples this is a reference to the group's founder, David Barksdale, also known as "King David".
The insignia of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service has included a hexagram since the end of the 19th century.
Gallery
See also
Anahata
Chai symbol
G2 (mathematics)
Merkaba
Shatkona, an identical Hindu symbol
Kagome crest, an identical Japanese symbol
Star of Bethlehem
Star of David theorem
Star of Lakshmi
Stars of David: Prominent Jews Talk About Being Jewish, 2005 book
Unicursal hexagram
Zoigl, a make of German beer which uses ✡︎ as its symbol
Seal of Solomon
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Star of David Technology in Jewelry Today
1906 Jewish Encyclopedia on Jewish symbols
The Archetypal Mandala of India of the Star of David
The Mystical Significance of the Star of David
Magen David: From mystical talisman to Zionist symbol -Ynetnews
David
Jewish symbols
Star symbols
Heraldic charges
Objects believed to protect from evil
Amulets
Talismans
Jewish culture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20Thai%20people
|
Northern Thai people
|
The Northern Thai people or Tai Yuan (, ), self-designation khon mu(e)ang ( meaning "people of the (cultivated) land" or "people of our community") are a Tai ethnic group, native to eight provinces in Northern Thailand, principally in the area of the former kingdom of Lan Na. As a Tai group, they are closely related to Tai Lü and Tai Khün with regards to common culture, language and history as well as to Thailand's dominant Thai ethnic group (in contrast referred to as Siamese or Central Thai). There are approximately 6 million Tai Yuan. Most of them live in Northern Thailand, with a small minority 29,442 (2005 census) living across the border in Bokeo Province and Sainyabuli Province and Luang Namtha Province of Laos. Their language is called Northern Thai, Lanna or Kham Mueang.
Exonym and endonym
Central Thai may call northern Thai people and their language Thai Yuan, probably derived from Sanskrit yavana meaning "stranger". In everyday speech, "Tai" prefixed to some location is understood as meaning "Tai person" of that place. The British colonial rulers in neighbouring Burma referred to them as Siamese Shan, to distinguish them from the Shan proper, whom they called Burmese Shan.
The people of this ethnicity refer to themselves as khon muang, meaning "people of the (cultivated) land", "people of our community" or "society" (mueang is a central term in Tai languages having a broad meaning, essential to the social structure of Tai peoples). With this name, they historically identified themselves as the inhabitants of the alluvial plains, river valleys, and plateaus of their native area, where they lived in local communities called muang and cultivated rice on paddy fields. This distinguished them from the indigenous peoples of the area ("hill tribes"), like the Lua', who lived in the wooded mountains practicing slash-and-burn agriculture. Membership of the ethnicity was therefore defined by lifestyle rather than by genetics. At the same time, it was a term of dissociation from the Burmese and Siamese, who held suzerainty over the Lanna Kingdom for centuries and who were not "people of our muang".
For the same reasons, the own name of the khon muang for their language is kammuang or kham muang, in which kam means language or word; muang town, hence the meaning "town language," in contrast to those of the many hill tribe peoples in the surrounding mountainous areas.
History
Original settlement area
The presence of the Yuan in what is now northern Thailand has been documented since the 11th century. The core of their original settlement area lies in the basin of the Kok and Ing rivers in what is now Chiang Rai Province. Since the Yuan, like other Tai peoples, traditionally live from wet rice cultivation, they only settled in the river plains of northern Thailand, but not in the mountain ranges that run through it and make up three quarters of the area. They formed small-scale principalities (Mueang). The geography of the settlement area prevented the formation of larger communities.
Independent state of Lan Na
Mangrai, the ruler of Mueang Ngoenyang, united a number of these principalities after his accession to the throne around 1259 and founded the city of Chiang Rai in 1263. Around 1292 he conquered the Mon kingdom of Hariphunchai, which until that time had dominated large parts of what is now northern Thailand in political, economic and cultural terms. This laid the foundation for the new kingdom of Lan Na ("One Million Rice Fields") when its capital, Mangrai, founded Chiang Mai in 1296. The remaining Mueang, which were dependent on Lan Na, retained their own dynasties and extensive autonomy, but had to swear loyalty to the king and pay tribute (mandala model). Lan Na was ethnically very heterogeneous and the Northern Thai did not constitute the majority of the population in large parts of their domain.
However, the different cultures converged, so the originally animist and illiterate Tai Yuan adopted their religion, Theravada Buddhism, and their writing system from the Mon of Hariphunchai (the Tai Tham script is developed from the Old Mon script). As a result, a common identity among the peoples of Lan Na became increasingly common in the 14th century, and the non-Tai peoples largely assimilated to the Tai Yuan. Anyone who integrated themselves into the communities in the river valleys and plains (Mueang) was regarded as Tai, regardless of ethnic origin, hence the self-designation Khon Mueang. Only the indigenous peoples such as the Lawa, who lived outside the Mueang in the highlands of the mountains and practiced slash-and-burn agriculture, were not included. They were grouped together by the Tai as kha. Ethnicity was defined less by descent than by way of life.
The Tai Yuan had very close ties with the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang. In 1546, Setthathirath, a Lao prince, was elected king of Lan Na. By the middle of the 15th century at the latest, they had the technology to manufacture and use cannons and fireworks rockets. The expansion of the sphere of influence of Lan Na reached a climax in the second half of the 15th century under King Tilok. The sphere of interest of Lan Na clashed with that of the central Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya, which resulted in several wars over the Mueang of Sukhothai, Phitsanulok and Kamphaeng Phet, that lied between the two kingdoms.
The first decades of the 16th century are considered to be the heyday of the Lan Na literature. The classical works of this time, however, were not written in the native language of the Tai Yuan, but in the scholarly language of Pali. At the same time, however, Ayutthaya was expanding north and Siamese troops penetrated deep into the Yuan-inhabited area of Lan Na. The fighting was extremely costly, and a number of high-ranking generals and nobles of the Yuan perished. In addition to the population losses of men of armed age as a result of the war, large parts of the population also fell victim to natural disasters and epidemics around 1520. This initiated the decline of Lan Na. In 1558, Lan Na came under the rule of the Burmese Taungoo dynasty (Kingdom of Ava).
As there was often a shortage of labor in pre-modern Southeast Asia, it was customary after wars to drag parts of the population of the defeated party to the area of the victor. In the 17th century, after the subjugation of Lan Na by the Burmese, some Tai Yuan were brought to their capital Ava. There they belonged to the category of royal servants and provided lacquerware. The Burmese control over the Tai Yuan increased the differences between them and the Siamese in Ayutthaya.
Nevertheless, after the fall of Ayutthaya, the Tai Yuan nobility of Lan Na entered into an alliance with King Taksin of Thonburi (the new Siamese kingdom) and, with his support, shook off Burmese supremacy in 1774. But this was immediately replaced by that of the Siamese (from 1782 under the Chakri dynasty and with the capital of Bangkok). After conquering Chiang Saen, the last Burmese outpost in what is now Thailand, in 1804, they deported thousands of Tai Yuan resident there to their heartland, the Chao Phraya Basin of central Thailand. As a result, a significant number of Tai Yuan still live in the provinces of Ratchaburi and Saraburi, where in the Sao Hai District an enclave with a Tai Yuan majority still exists.
Incorporation into Thailand and Thaification
Until the 19th century, Lan Na retained its own structure and autonomy in internal affairs within the Siamese dominion. Its inhabitants were considered western Lao (or "black-bellied Lao", due to the tradition of male Tai Yuan to tattoo themselves above the hips), but not as Siamese. The Tai Yuan also saw themselves more as relatives of the Lao than the Siamese of the central Thai lowlands. As recently as the 1980s, the government of the Lao People's Democratic Republic referred to the Tai Yuan-inhabited provinces of northern Thailand as their "lost territories". The Siamese King Rama V (Chulalongkorn) wrote in 1883 to his high commissioner in Chiang Mai about the Tai Yuan, which he called "Lao":
After Siam had to cede what is now Laos to France in 1893, the Thai government stopped designating the Lao and Tai Yuan living in Thailand as Lao in order not to justify further expansion of the French protectorate of Laos. Lan Na lost its independence in 1899, when the administrative reform under King Rama V (Chulalongkorn) introduced the centralized thesaphiban-system. Chulalongkorn's son Rama VI (Vajiravudh), who ruled from 1905, endeavored to turn the population of his empire into a nation and Thailand into a nation state. There was less and less differentiation between Siamese, Lao or Tai Yuan, instead there was increasing talk of the Thai nation. Vajiravudh strove to unite the different tribes under one dominant culture. During the Monthon reforms of the north region at the turn of the 20th century, the region of Lanna was assigned to Monthon Phayap () from the Sanskrit word for "northwest".
This policy of Thaification was intensified after the end of the absolute monarchy in 1932 and the takeover of power by Plaek Phibunsongkhram in 1938. Phibunsongkhram decreed in 1939 that from now on the country should only be named Thailand and its inhabitants only Thai. He forbade any ethnic or regional differentiation. The Lanna script was subsequently repressed in favor of the Thai alphabet. The use of the central Thai dialect was also promoted in the north in order to displace the Lanna language. As a result, many Thais cannot distinguish between citizenship (san-chat) and ethnicity or origin (chuea-chat). The Lanna script formerly in use by northern Thai people is also called Tai Tham script. Due to the effects of Thaification in the wake of Monthon reforms, few northern Thai can read or write it, as it no longer represents accurately the orthography of the spoken form.
Contemporary history
Despite the Thaification policies, the Tai Yuan have retained their own cultural identity (even if this is now mostly referred to as Northern Thai). The Tai Yuan have their own dance tradition, and a cuisine very different from that of central Thailand. Even if almost all residents of northern Thailand understand and can speak the standard Thai language (this is still compulsory in schools), most of them still speak the Northern Thai language at home. However, since 1985 the use of the language has declined. Since then, the younger generations have used the Northern Thai language less and less, so that the language was to be expected to disappear in the medium term.
On the other hand, there has been a renaissance of Lanna culture since the mid-1990s. Especially around the 700th anniversary of Chiang Mai in 1996, a great pride in its own history and tradition could be established. At Chiang Mai University in particular, a number of scholars are dedicated to researching traditions and cultivating cultural heritage. Since then, some Northern Thai women, mainly the middle and upper classes, have been wearing the classic dresses of the north again on special occasions, made of hand-made cotton. In many public institutions and government agencies it is customary to wear clothes made of traditional textiles on Fridays. There are regular performances of Lan Na music and dance, as well as demonstrations of traditional handicrafts. As an expression of the own regional character, signs with lettering in Lanna script are again being set up in some places.
See also
Ethnolinguistics
Lan Na
Linguistic anthropology
Shan States
Sociology of language
Sibsongbanna
References
Further reading
Yuan
Yuan
|
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209650
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struthionidae
|
Struthionidae
|
Struthionidae (; ) is a family of flightless birds, containing the extant ostriches and their extinct relatives. The two extant species of ostrich are the common ostrich and Somali ostrich, both in the genus Struthio, which also contains several species known from Holocene fossils such as the Asian ostrich. The common ostrich is the more widespread of the two living species, and is the largest living bird species. Other ostriches are also among the largest bird species ever.
The first species of Struthio appear during the Miocene epoch, though various Paleocene, Eocene, and Oligocene fossils may also belong to the family. Ostriches are classified in the ratite group of birds, all extant species of which are flightless, including the kiwis, emus, and rheas. Traditionally, the order Struthioniformes contained all the ratites. However, recent genetic analysis has found that the group is not monophyletic, as it is paraphyletic with respect to the tinamous, so the ostriches are usually classified as the only members of the order, though the IUCN uses a broader classification and includes all "ratites" and tinamous in Struthioniformes.
Evolution
The earliest fossils of ostrich-like birds are Paleocene taxa from Europe. Palaeotis and Remiornis from the Middle Eocene and unspecified ratite remains are known from the Eocene and Oligocene of Europe and Africa. These may have been early relatives of the ostriches, but their status is questionable, and they may in fact represent multiple lineages of flightless paleognaths. The African Eremopezus, when not considered a basal secretarybird or shoebill, is sometimes considered an ostrich relative or an "aepyornithid-like" taxon. Apart from these enigmatic birds, the fossil record of the ostriches continues with several species of the modern genus Struthio, which are known from the Early Miocene onwards. Several of these fossil forms are ichnotaxa (that is, classified according to the organism's footprints or other trace rather than its body) and their association with those described from distinctive bones is contentious and in need of revision pending more good material.
While the relationship of the African fossil species is comparatively straightforward, many Asian species of ostriches have been described from fragmentary remains, and their interrelationships and how they relate to the African ostriches are confusing. In China, ostriches are known to have become extinct only around or even after the end of the last ice age; images of ostriches have been found there on prehistoric pottery and petroglyphs. Ostriches have co-existed with another lineage of flightless didactyl birds, the eogruids. Though Olson 1985 classified these birds as stem-ostriches, they are otherwise universally considered to be related to cranes, any similarities being the result of convergent evolution. Competition from ostriches has been suggested to have caused the extinction of the eogruids, though this has never been tested and both groups do co-exist in some sites.
As with most other ratites, ostriches are believed to have developed flightlessness in the wake of the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event of about 66 Ma. The sudden absence of non-avian dinosaurs opened ecological niche space for large herbivorous animals and limited predatory threats, prompting volant ancestral paleognaths dispersed across the southern hemisphere to convergently lose the capability for flight.
Distribution and habitat
Today ostriches are only found natively in the wild in Africa, where they occur in a range of open arid and semi-arid habitats such as savannas and the Sahel, both north and south of the equatorial forest zone. The Somali ostrich occurs in the Horn of Africa, having evolved isolated from the common ostrich by the geographic barrier of the East African Rift. In some areas, the common ostrich's Masai subspecies occurs alongside the Somali ostrich, but they are kept from interbreeding by behavioral and ecological differences. The Arabian ostriches in Asia Minor and Arabia were hunted to extinction by the middle of the 20th century, and in Israel attempts to introduce North African ostriches to fill their ecological role have failed. Escaped common ostriches in Australia have established feral populations.
Taxonomy
In 2019, the species S. pannonicus, S. dmanisensis (the giant ostrich), and S. transcaucasicus were transferred to the genus Pachystruthio.
Order Struthioniformes Latham 1790 (ostriches)
Family Struthionidae Vigors 1825
Genus ?†Remiornis Lemoine 1881
Genus ?†Eremopezus Andrews 1904
Genus †Palaeotis Lambrecht 1928 (middle Eocene)
Genus †Orientornis Wang 2008
Genus †Pachystruthio (Kretzoi 1954) (Late Pliocene Pleistocene)
Genus Struthio Linnaeus 1758 (Early Miocene – Recent)
See also
Ostrich egg
References
Extant Paleocene first appearances
Bird families
Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors
|
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