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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbican%20Estate
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Barbican Estate
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The Barbican Estate, or Barbican, is a residential complex of around 2,000 flats, maisonettes, and houses in central London, England, within the City of London. It is in an area once devastated by World War II bombings and densely populated by financial institutions, 1.4 miles (2.2km) north east of Charing Cross. Originally built as rental housing for middle and upper-middle-class professionals, it remains to this day an upmarket residential estate. It contains, or is adjacent to, the Barbican Arts Centre, the Museum of London, the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, the Barbican public library, the City of London School for Girls and a YMCA (now closed), forming the Barbican Complex.
The Barbican Complex is a prominent example of British brutalist architecture and is Grade II listed as a whole, with the exception of the former Milton Court, which once contained a fire station, medical facilities, and some flats, but was demolished to allow the construction of a new apartment tower — named The Heron — which also provides additional facilities for the Guildhall School of Music and Drama.
History
The main fort of Roman London was built between 90 and 120 AD south-east of where the Museum of London now stands at the corner of London Wall and Aldersgate Street. Around 200 AD walls were built around the city that incorporated the old fort, which became a grand entrance known as Cripplegate. The word barbican comes from the Low Latin word Barbecana which referred to a fortified outpost or gateway, such as an outer defence of a city or castle or any tower situated over a gate or bridge which was used for defence purposes. In this case there seems to have been a Roman specula or watchtower in front of the fort from numbers 33–35 onwards on the north side of the street then called Barbican (now the west end of Beech St), which was later incorporated into the fortifications north of the wall. The Normans called it the Basse-cour or Base Court, synonymous with the modern word "bailey" and still applied to the outer courtyard of Hampton Court Palace.
The Base Court continued to serve a military function during the reign of Edward I, but Edward III gave it to Robert d'Ufford, 1st Earl of Suffolk who made it his London home. By the 16th century, it had passed to Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk. Brandon married his ward Catherine Willoughby, daughter of María de Salinas who had been a confidante and lady-in-waiting of Catherine of Aragon and after his death the building was retained by the Willoughby family. The original Base Court seems to have been destroyed and the large building that replaced it was called Willoughby House, a name revived for part of the modern development.
Post-war development
During World War II, the City suffered serious damage and loss of life. The Cripplegate ward was virtually demolished and by 1951 the resident population of the City stood at 5,324 of whom 48 lived in Cripplegate. Discussions began in 1952 about the future of the site, and the decision to build new residential properties was taken by the Court of Common Council on 19 September 1957.
To accommodate the estate, of the Metropolitan line was realigned between Barbican and Moorgate stations between 1963 and 1965.
The estate was built between 1965 and 1976, on a site that had been bombed in World War II. The complex was designed by architects Chamberlin, Powell and Bon, whose first work was the ground-breaking Golden Lane Estate immediately north of the Barbican. Unlike its northern neighbour, however, the Barbican Estate was not social housing. Rather, it was designed and built for affluent City professionals and their families, with all flats let out at commercial rents by the Corporation of London. To help let out the flats, brochures were produced, advertising the Barbican Estate as containing the perfect residences for well-heeled professionals and international businesspeople. Indeed, in its early years, a substantial number of high-profile politicians, lawyers, judges, and bankers made their home here (see famous residents).
The Barbican was never 'council housing' in the conventional sense, as flats were targeted at professionals and let at 'market' rents, i.e. for similar prices to equivalent private homes in Central London. It was, however, owned and managed by the Corporation of the City of London, considered a local authority under the Housing Act 1980. This meant that Right to Buy applied to it, and, as a result, almost all flats are now privately owned, although a few continue to be let out by the City of London at market (non-subsidised) rents.
The first building on the estate, Speed House, was officially opened in 1969, though extensive industrial disputes in the 1970s led to the last building, Shakespeare Tower, only being completed in 1976. It is now home to around 4,000 people living in 2,014 flats. The flats reflect the widespread use in Britain in the 1960s and 1970s of concrete as the visible face of the building. The complex is also characteristic for its total separation of vehicles from pedestrians throughout the area. This is achieved through the use of 'highwalks'—walkways of varying width and shape, usually located 1 to 3 stories above the surrounding ground level. Most pedestrian circulation takes place on these highwalks, while roads and car parking spaces are relegated to the lower level.
The Minister for the Arts, Tessa Blackstone, announced in September 2001 that the Barbican complex was to be Grade II listed. It has been designated a site of special architectural interest for its scale, its cohesion and the ambition of the project. The complex is architecturally important as it is one of London's principal examples of concrete brutalist architecture and considered a landmark.
Various garden features punctuate the brutalist architecture, including a community-run wildlife garden.
Blocks and towers
The residential estate consists of three tower blocks, 13 terrace blocks, two mews and The Postern, Wallside and Milton Court.
The terrace blocks
These are grouped around a lake and green squares. The main buildings rise up to seven floors above a podium level, which links all the facilities in the Barbican, providing a pedestrian route above street level. Some maisonettes are built into the podium structure. There is no vehicular access within the estate, but there are some car parks at its periphery. Public car parks are located within the Barbican Centre.
The terrace blocks are named:
Andrewes House – named after Lancelot Andrewes a 16th-century English bishop and scholar
Breton House – named after Nicholas Breton, a 16th-century English poet and novelist
Bryer Court – named after W. Bryer & Sons gold refiners and assayers premises were Numbers 53 and 54 and demolished to make way for the building
Bunyan Court – named after John Bunyan, a 17th-century English writer and Baptist preacher
Defoe House – named after Daniel Defoe
Frobisher Crescent – named after Martin Frobisher, an English seaman and privateer
Gilbert House – named after Humphrey Gilbert
Ben Jonson House – named after Ben Jonson, an English playwright, poet and actor
Thomas More House – named after Thomas More
Mountjoy House – named after Christopher Mountjoy, a French wig-maker who let a room to William Shakespeare
Seddon House – named after George Seddon, an English cabinetmaker
Speed House – named after John Speed, an English cartographer and explorer
John Trundle Court – named after John Trundle
Willoughby House – named after Catherine Willoughby
Tower blocks
The estate also contains three of London's tallest residential towers, at 42 storeys and high. The top two or three floors of each block comprise three penthouse flats. The towers are (east to west):
Cromwell Tower, completed in 1973 – named after Oliver Cromwell
Shakespeare Tower, completed in 1976 – named after William Shakespeare and
, completed in 1974 – named after the Earls of Lauderdale
Once the tallest residential towers in London, they were surpassed by the Pan Peninsula development on the Isle of Dogs.
Barbican complex
The Barbican Estate also contains the Barbican Centre (an arts, drama and business venue), the Barbican public library, the City of London School for Girls, the Museum of London, and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama. A YMCA building was constructed between 1965 and 1971 to link the Barbican and Golden Lane Estate; it is also listed. In 2015–16 the YMCA building was converted by Redrow Homes into a new residential block called Blake Tower with 74 flats run as part of the Barbican Estate.
Famous residents
The Barbican has had a number of well-known residents throughout its history, especially in the years immediately after it was completed, when it was considered one of the most prestigious residential developments in London. Famous residents have included:
Conservative Cabinet Minister Norman Tebbit, who lived in a house on Wallside with his wife until the 1984 Brighton Hotel Bombing
Leader of the Labour Party John Smith, who lived in Cromwell Tower with his family until his death in 1994
Former leader of the National Union of Mineworkers, Arthur Scargill
Former Prime Minister of Pakistan Benazir Bhutto
Andrew Bruce, 11th Earl of Elgin
Writer and broadcaster Clive James, whose 1987 novel The Remake used the Barbican as a major setting
Film and theatre director Sir Peter Hall
Footballer George Best
Investment adviser, commentator and author Bob Beckman
Political adviser Beryl Goldsmith
Author, journalist, and broadcaster Brian Redhead
Senior British judge and Master of the Rolls Baron John Donaldson and his wife, the first female Lord Mayor of London Baroness Mary Donaldson
Artist Sir Michael Craig-Martin
Newspaper cartoonist Frank Dickens
Journalist and political activist S. W. Alexander
Writer and conservationist Robert Aickman lived in Willoughby House until 1977
In popular culture
The Barbican features in Michael Paraskos's novel In Search of Sixpence as the home of the lead character, Geroud, and also a bar called "The Gin Bar" loosely based on the Gin Joint bar at the Barbican Centre. and Clive James's[26] 1987 novel The Remake which used the Barbican as a major setting.
The final scene of the 1983 vampire film, The Hunger, directed by Tony Scott and starring David Bowie, Catherine Deneuve and Susan Sarandon, was filmed in the Cromwell Tower at the Barbican.
The Barbican towers can be seen in a sequence from the 1975 Disney film One of Our Dinosaurs Is Missing, an unintentional anachronism for a film set in the 1920s.
The Barbican was also used to represent the MI6 headquarters in the James Bond film Quantum of Solace.
Various shots of the Barbican towers are shown on the inner record cover of the 1979 album "Real to Real Cacophony" by the Scottish rock band Simple Minds.
The Barbican Estate is mentioned by name in the intro to English band Saint Etienne's song "Language Lab", from their 2002 Finisterre album.
The titular skyscraper in J.G. Ballard's High Rise (and subsequent film) is largely inspired by the Barbican Estate's towers.
The Barbican Estate's Lauderdale Tower is home to fictional character Alice Morgan, A psychopathic murderer, in the BBC series Luther. Morgan lives in a sparsely furnished minimalist apartment on one of the tower's upper floors.
The Barbican Estate is prominently featured in Skepta's "Shutdown" music video.
Nearby rail and Tube
Gallery
See also
Barbican Centre
Museum of London
St Giles-without-Cripplegate
Garchey
References and notes
External links
The history of the Barbican Estate
Corporation of London:Barbican Estate
Barbican Life magazine
"Secret bits of the Barbican", Londonist
Brutalist architecture in London
Grade II listed buildings in the City of London
Housing estates in London
Residential skyscrapers in London
Skyscrapers in the City of London
1960s establishments in England
Residential buildings completed in 1973
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209963
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid%20bearing
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Fluid bearing
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Fluid bearings are bearings in which the load is supported by a thin layer of rapidly moving pressurized liquid or gas between the bearing surfaces. Since there is no contact between the moving parts, there is no sliding friction, allowing fluid bearings to have lower friction, wear and vibration than many other types of bearings. Thus, it is possible for some fluid bearings to have near-zero wear if operated correctly.
They can be broadly classified into two types: fluid dynamic bearings (also known as hydrodynamic bearings) and hydrostatic bearings. Hydrostatic bearings are externally pressurized fluid bearings, where the fluid is usually oil, water or air, and is pressurized by a pump. Hydrodynamic bearings rely on the high speed of the journal (the part of the shaft resting on the fluid) to pressurize the fluid in a wedge between the faces. Fluid bearings are frequently used in high load, high speed or high precision applications where ordinary ball bearings would have short life or cause high noise and vibration. They are also used increasingly to reduce cost. For example, hard disk drive motor fluid bearings are both quieter and cheaper than the ball bearings they replace. Applications are very versatile and may even be used in complex geometries such as leadscrews.
The fluid bearing may have been invented by French civil engineer L. D. Girard, who in 1852 proposed a system of railway propulsion incorporating water-fed hydraulic bearings.
Operation
Fluid bearings are noncontact bearings that use a thin layer of rapidly moving pressurized liquid or gas fluid between the moving bearing faces, typically sealed around or under the rotating shaft. The moving parts do not come into contact, so there is no sliding friction; the load force is supported solely by the pressure of the moving fluid. There are two principal ways of getting the fluid into the bearing:
In fluid static, hydrostatic and many gas or air bearings, the fluid is pumped in through an orifice or through a porous material. Such bearings should be equipped with the shaft position control system, which adjusts the fluid pressure and consumption according to the rotation speed and shaft load.
In fluid-dynamic bearings, the bearing rotation sucks the fluid on to the inner surface of the bearing, forming a lubricating wedge under or around the shaft.
Hydrostatic bearings rely on an external pump. The power required by that pump contributes to system energy loss, just as bearing friction otherwise would. Better seals can reduce leak rates and pumping power, but may increase friction.
Hydrodynamic bearings rely on bearing motion to suck fluid into the bearing, and may have high friction and short life at speeds lower than design, or during starts and stops. An external pump or secondary bearing may be used for startup and shutdown to prevent damage to the hydrodynamic bearing. A secondary bearing may have high friction and short operating life, but good overall service life if bearing starts and stops are infrequent.
Hydrodynamic lubrication
Hydrodynamic (HD) lubrication, also known as fluid-film lubrication has essential elements:
A lubricant, which must be a viscous fluid.
Hydrodynamic flow behavior of fluid between bearing and journal.
The surfaces between which the fluid films move must be convergent.
Hydrodynamic (full film) lubrication is obtained when two mating surfaces are completely separated by a cohesive film of lubricant.
The thickness of the film thus exceeds the combined roughness of the surfaces. The coefficient of friction is lower than with boundary-layer lubrication. Hydrodynamic lubrication prevents wear in moving parts, and metal to metal contact is prevented.
Hydrodynamic lubrication requires thin, converging fluid films. These fluids can be liquid or gas, so long as they exhibit viscosity. In computer fan and spinning device, like a hard disk drive, heads are supported by hydrodynamic lubrication in which the fluid film is the atmosphere.
The scale of these films is on the order of micrometers. Their convergence creates pressures normal to the surfaces they contact, forcing them apart.
Three types of bearings include:
Self-acting: Film exists due to relative motion. e.g. spiral groove bearings.
Squeeze film: Film exists due to relative normal motion.
Externally-pressurized: Film exists due to external pressurization.
Conceptually the bearings can be thought of as two major geometric classes: bearing-journal (anti-friction), and plane-slider (friction).
The Reynolds equations can be used to derive the governing principles for the fluids. Note that when gases are used, their derivation is much more involved.
The thin films can be thought to have pressure and viscous forces acting on them. Because there is a difference in velocity there will be a difference in the surface traction vectors. Because of mass conservation we can also assume an increase in pressure, making the body forces different.
Hydrodynamic lubrication – characteristics:
Fluid film at the point of minimum thickness decreases in thickness as the load increases
Pressure within the fluid mass increases as the film thickness decreases due to load
Pressure within the fluid mass is greatest at some point approaching minimum clearance and lowest at the point of maximum clearance (due to divergence)
Viscosity increases as pressure increases (more resistance to shear)
Film thickness at the point of minimum clearance increases with the use of more viscous fluids
With same load, the pressure increases as the viscosity of fluid increases
With a given load and fluid, the thickness of the film will increase as speed is increased
Fluid friction increases as the viscosity of the lubricant becomes greater
Hydrodynamic condition – Fluid velocity:
Fluid velocity depends on velocity of the journal or rider
Increase in relative velocity tends towards a decrease in eccentricity of journal bearing centers
This is accompanied by greater minimum film thickness
Hydrodynamic condition – load:
Increase in load decreases minimum film thickness
Also increases pressure within the film mass to provide a counteracting force
Pressure acts in all directions, hence it tends to squeeze the oil out of the ends of the bearing
Increase in pressure increases fluid viscosity
Bearing characteristic number: Since viscosity, velocity, and load determine the characteristics of a hydrodynamic condition, a bearing characteristic number was developed based on the effects of these on film thickness.
Increase in velocity increases min. film thickness
Increase in viscosity increases min. film thickness
Increase in load decreases min. film thickness
Therefore,
Viscosity × velocity/unit load = a dimensionless number = C
C is known as the bearing characteristic number.
The value of C, to some extent, gives an indication of whether there will be hydrodynamic lubrication or not
Characteristics of operation
Fluid bearings can be relatively cheap compared to other bearings with a similar load rating. The bearing can be as simple as two smooth surfaces with seals to keep in the working fluid. In contrast, a conventional rolling-element bearing may require many high-precision rollers with complicated shapes. Hydrostatic and many gas bearings do have the complication and expense of external pumps.
Most fluid bearings require little or no maintenance, and have almost unlimited life. Conventional rolling-element bearings usually have shorter life and require regular maintenance. Pumped hydrostatic and aerostatic (gas) bearing designs retain low friction down to zero speed and need not suffer start/stop wear, provided the pump does not fail.
Fluid bearings generally have very low friction—far better than mechanical bearings. One source of friction in a fluid bearing is the viscosity of the fluid leading to dynamic friction that increases with speed, but static friction is typically negligible. Hydrostatic gas bearings are among the lowest friction bearings even at very high speeds. However, lower fluid viscosity also typically means fluid leaks faster from the bearing surfaces, thus requiring increased power for pumps or friction from seals.
When a roller or ball is heavily loaded, fluid bearings have clearances that change less under load (are "stiffer") than mechanical bearings. It might seem that bearing stiffness, as with maximum design load, would be a simple function of average fluid pressure and the bearing surface area. In practice, when bearing surfaces are pressed together, the fluid outflow is constricted. This significantly increases the pressure of the fluid between the bearing faces. As fluid bearing faces can be comparatively larger than rolling surfaces, even small fluid pressure differences cause large restoring forces, maintaining the gap.
However, in lightly loaded bearings, such as disk drives, the typical ball bearing stiffnesses are ~10^7 MN/m. Comparable fluid bearings have stiffness of ~10^6 MN/m. Because of this, some fluid bearings, particularly hydrostatic bearings, are deliberately designed to pre-load the bearing to increase the stiffness.
Fluid bearings often inherently add significant damping. This helps attenuate resonances at the gyroscopic frequencies of journal bearings (sometimes called conical or rocking modes).
It is very difficult to make a mechanical bearing which is atomically smooth and round; and mechanical bearings deform in high-speed operation due to centripetal force. In contrast, fluid bearings self-correct for minor imperfections and slight deformations.
Fluid bearings are typically quieter and smoother (more consistent friction) than rolling-element bearings. For example, hard disk drives manufactured with fluid bearings have noise ratings for bearings/motors on the order of 20–24 dB, which is a little more than the background noise of a quiet room. Drives based on rolling-element bearings are typically at least 4 dB noisier.
Fluid bearings can be made with a lower NRRO (non repeatable run out) than a ball or rolling element bearing. This can be critical in modern hard disk drive and ultra precision spindles.
Tilting pad bearings are used as radial bearings for supporting and locating shafts in compressors.
Disadvantages
Bearings must maintain pressure to prevent wear and hydrostatic types may be completely immobile when depressurised.
Overall power consumption is typically higher compared to ball bearings.
Power consumption and stiffness or damping greatly vary with temperature, which complicates the design and operation of a fluid bearing in wide temperature range situations.
Many types of fluid bearings can catastrophically seize under shock situations or unexpected loss of supply pressure. Ball bearings deteriorate more gradually and provide acoustic symptoms.
Like cage frequency vibration in a ball bearing, the half frequency whirl is a bearing instability that generates eccentric precession which can lead to poor performance and reduced life.
Fluid leakage; keeping fluid in the bearing can be a challenge for liquid types, vacuum recovery and filtration can be needed in some situations.
Oil fluid bearings are impractical in environments where oil leakage can be destructive or where maintenance is not economical.
Fluid bearing "pads" often have to be used in pairs or triples to avoid the bearing tilting and losing the fluid from one side.
Unlike greaseless mechanical bearings, fluid bearings cannot operate at the extremely low temperatures needed for some specialized scientific research applications.
Some fluid bearings
Ice skates form a hydrodynamic fluid bearing where the skate and ice are separated by a layer of water.
Foil bearings
Foil bearings are a type of fluid dynamic air bearing that were introduced in high speed turbine applications in the 1960s by Garrett AiResearch. They use a gas as the working fluid, usually air, and require no external pressurisation system but need careful design to prevent wear during spin-up and spin-down when the bearing makes physical contact.
Water-lubricated rubber bearings
Water-lubricated rubber bearings have long cylindrical metal shell that hosts multiple rubber staves separated by axial grooves. The usage of the bearing has three major advantages: (i) pumped water going through the bearing is conveniently used as a lubricant, which reduces pump operation cost; (ii) water flow takes away heat and fine particles through the bearing grooves; and (iii) the natural resilience of rubber gives the bearing good properties for shock and vibration absorption and wear resistance. Water lubricated rubber bearings operate under the condition of mixed-lubrication.
Air bearings
Unlike contact-roller bearings, an air bearing (or air caster) utilises a thin film of pressurized air to provide an exceedingly low friction load-bearing interface between surfaces. The two surfaces don't touch. Being non-contact, air bearings avoid the traditional bearing-related problems of friction, wear, particulates, and lubricant handling, and offer distinct advantages in precision positioning, such as lacking backlash and stiction, as well as in high-speed applications.
The fluid film of the bearing is air that flows through the bearing itself to the bearing surface. The design of the air bearing is such that, although the air constantly escapes from the bearing gap, the pressure between the faces of the bearing is enough to support the working loads. This pressure may be generated externally (aerostatic) or internally (aerodynamic).
Aerodynamic bearings can only be operated in high-speed applications, aerostatic bearings are required for load bearing at low speed. Both types require highly finished surfaces and precise manufacturing.
Examples
Air hockey is a game based on an aerostatic bearing which suspends the puck and players' paddles to provide low friction and thus sustain high puck speeds. The bearing uses a flat plane with periodic orifices which deliver air just over ambient pressure. The puck and paddles rest on air.
Michell/Kingsbury tilting-pad fluid bearings
Michell/Kingsbury fluid dynamic tilting-pad bearings were invented independently and almost simultaneously by both British-born Australian, Anthony George Maldon Michell and American tribologist Albert Kingsbury. Both designs were near-identical except for differences in the approach used for pivoting the pads. Michell mathematically derived the pressure distribution where a span-wise line pivot was placed, allowing the load to act through the point of maximum fluid pressure. The Kingsbury patent lacked this mathematical approach, and the pad's pivot point was placed in the geometric centre of the bearing. Michell's patent (in Britain and Australia) was granted in 1905, while Kingsbury's first patent attempt was 1907. Kingsbury's U.S. patent was eventually granted in 1911 after he demonstrated that he had been working on the concept for many years. As stated by Sydney Walker, a long-time employee of Michell's, the granting of Kingsbury's patent was "a blow which Michell found hard to accept".
The bearing has sectional shoes, or pads on pivots. When the bearing is in operation, the rotating part of the bearing carries fresh oil in to the pad area through viscous drag. Fluid pressure causes the pad to tilt slightly, creating a narrow constriction between the shoe and the other bearing surface. A wedge of pressurised fluid builds behind this constriction, separating the moving parts. The tilt of the pad adaptively changes with bearing load and speed. Various design details ensure continued replenishment of the oil to avoid overheating and pad damage.
Michell/Kingsbury fluid bearings are used in a wider variety of heavy-duty rotating equipment, including in hydroelectric plants to support turbines and generators weighing hundreds of tons. They are also used in very heavy machinery, such as marine propeller shafts.
It is likely the first tilting pad bearing in service was built in 1907 by George Weymoth (Pty) Ltd (under A.G.M. Michell's guidance) for a centrifugal pump at Cohuna on the Murray River, Victoria, Australia, just two years after Michell had published and patented his three-dimensional solution to Reynold's equation. By 1913, the great merits of the tilting-pad bearing had been recognised for marine applications. The first British ship to be fitted out with the bearing was the cross-channel steamboat the Paris, but many naval vessels were similarly equipped during the First World War. The practical results were spectacular – the troublesome thrust block became dramatically smaller and lighter, significantly more efficient, and remarkably free from maintenance troubles. It was estimated that the Royal Navy saved coal to a value of £500,000 in 1918 alone as a result of fitting Michell's tilting-pad bearings.
According to the ASME (see reference link), the first Michell/Kingsbury fluid bearing in the US was installed in the Holtwood Hydroelectric Power Plant (on the Susquehanna River, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, US) in 1912. The 2.25-tonne bearing supports a water turbine and electric generator with a rotating mass of about 165 tonnes and water turbine pressure adding another 40 tonnes. The bearing has been in nearly continuous service since 1912, with no parts replaced. The ASME reported it was still in service as of 2000. As of 2002, the manufacturer estimated the bearings at Holtwood should have a maintenance-free life of about 1,300 years.
Until now tilting pad bearings play an essential role for rotating equipment like expanders, pumps, gas or steam turbines or compressors. Next to the traditional babbitt bearings which were used since the early 20th century modern manufacturers like Miba use other materials for example Bronze or Copper-Chromium as well to improve the bearings' performance.
See also
Plain bearing
References
External links
ASME History Brochure about Kingsbury's Susquehanna Bearing
A 91-page 10.6MB NASA technical handbook Lubrication of Machine Elements, NASA-RP-1126 by B.J.Hamrock, 1984 here.
Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) – Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an e-book library of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering.
– A technical discussion introducing air bearings and their many applications at Specialty Components Inc.
– A video demonstration of a spherical air bearing.
Bearings (mechanical)
Lubrication
|
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209966
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Goleman
|
Daniel Goleman
|
Daniel Goleman (born March 7, 1946) is an author and science journalist. For twelve years, he wrote for The New York Times, reporting on the brain and behavioral sciences. His 1995 book Emotional Intelligence was on The New York Times Best Seller list for a year-and-a-half, a best-seller in many countries, and is in print worldwide in 40 languages. Apart from his books on emotional intelligence, Goleman has written books on topics including self-deception, creativity, transparency, meditation, social and emotional learning, ecoliteracy and the ecological crisis, and the Dalai Lama’s vision for the future.
Biography
Daniel Goleman grew up in a Jewish household in Stockton, California, the son of Fay Goleman (née Weinberg; 1910–2010), professor of sociology at the University of the Pacific, and Irving Goleman (1898–1961), humanities professor at the Stockton College (now San Joaquin Delta College). His maternal uncle was nuclear physicist Alvin M. Weinberg.
Goleman studied in India using a pre-doctoral fellowship from Harvard and a post-doctoral grant from the Social Science Research Council. While in India, he spent time with spiritual teacher Neem Karoli Baba, who was also the guru to Ram Dass, Krishna Das and Larry Brilliant. He wrote his first book based on travel in India and Sri Lanka.
Goleman then returned as a visiting lecturer to Harvard, where during the 1970s his course on the psychology of consciousness was popular. David McClelland, his mentor at Harvard, recommended him for a job at Psychology Today, from which he was recruited by The New York Times in 1984.
Goleman co-founded the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning at Yale University's Child Studies Center, which then moved to the University of Illinois at Chicago. Currently he co-directs the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations at Rutgers University. He sits on the board of the Mind & Life Institute.
Career
Goleman authored the internationally best-selling book Emotional Intelligence (1995, Bantam Books), which spent more than one-and-a-half years on The New York Times Best Seller list. In Working with Emotional Intelligence (1998, Bantam Books), Goleman developed the argument that non-cognitive skills can matter as much as IQ for workplace success, and made a similar argument for leadership effectiveness in Primal Leadership (2001, Harvard Business School Press). Goleman's most recent best-seller is Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence (Harper, 2013).
In his first book, The Varieties of Meditative Experience (1977) (republished in 1988 as The Meditative Mind), Goleman describes almost a dozen different meditation systems. He wrote that "the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in the recipe for altering consciousness of every meditation system".
Awards
Goleman has received many awards, including:
Career Achievement award for Excellence in the Media (1984) from the American Psychological Association.
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in recognition of his efforts to communicate the behavioral sciences to the public
Publishing history
Books
1977: The Varieties of the Meditative Experience, Irvington Publishers. . Republished in 1988 as The Meditative Mind: The Varieties of Meditative Experience, Tarcher/Penguin.
1985: Vital Lies, Simple Truths: The Psychology of Self-Deception, Bloomsbury Publishers.
1995: Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ, Bantam Books.
1998: Working with Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books.
2001: Primal Leadership: Unleashing the Power of Emotional Intelligence, with Richard Boyatzis and Annie McKee, Harvard Business Review Press.
2006: Social Intelligence: Beyond IQ, Beyond Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books.
2013: Focus: The Hidden Driver of Excellence, Harper Collins Publishers.
2015: A Force for Good: The Dalai Lama's Vision for Our World, Bantam Books.
2017: Altered Traits: Science Reveals How Meditation Changes Your Mind, Brain, and Body, with Richard Davidson, Avery.
2019: The Emotionally Intelligent Leader, Harvard Business Review Press.
Journal articles (selected)
See also
Emotional aperture
References
External links
American psychologists
Jewish American social scientists
Emotional intelligence academics
Amherst College alumni
Harvard University alumni
Writers from Stockton, California
Jewish American writers
Mindfulness (Buddhism)
Mindfulness (psychology)
Mindfulness movement
Students of S. N. Goenka
1946 births
Living people
21st-century American Jews
|
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209970
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1794%20in%20literature
|
1794 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1794.
Events
March 12 – The rebuilt Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, in London, designed by Henry Holland, opens to the public.
May 12 – William Godwin's novel Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams is published in London as an attack on tyrannical government, although its controversial original preface and ending are suppressed. The work also contains elements of detective fiction.
May 14 – Mary Wollstonecraft's daughter by American speculator Gilbert Imlay, Fanny, is born in Le Havre.
June – English poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey first meet, in Oxford while Coleridge is en route for a tour of Wales. They meet again in Bristol in August (where they also meet local poet Robert Lovell and his sisters-in-law, who they will marry; he also introduces them to the publisher Joseph Cottle). After Robespierre's execution in July, they collaborate on the "historic drama" The Fall of Robespierre, published in October. Southey's first published poetry appears and he also writes the radical play Wat Tyler this summer.
August – Ludwig Tieck graduates from the University of Göttingen and begins a literary career.
Autumn–December – English playwright Thomas Holcroft is indicted for treason as a member of the Society for Constitutional Information and held in Newgate Prison, London, but released without charge.
November 14 – The first recorded meeting of the Franklin Literary Society is held at Canonsburg Academy (modern-day Washington & Jefferson College) in Pennsylvania.
New books
Fiction
Xavier de Maistre – Voyage autour de ma chambre
Giorgio Ferrich – Fabulae ab Illyricis adagiis disumptae
Karl Friedrich Kahlert (under the pseudonym Lawrence Flammenberg) translated and adapted by Peter Teuthold – The Necromancer; or, The Tale of the Black Forest
William Godwin – Caleb Williams
Ann Radcliffe – The Mysteries of Udolpho
Mary Robinson – The Widow; or, A Picture of Modern Times
Susanna Rowson – Charlotte Temple (first American edition)
Thomas Spence – A Description of Spensonia
Children
Elizabeth Pinchard – The Two Cousins
Drama
Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey – The Fall of Robespierre
Hannah Cowley – The Town Before You
Richard Cumberland
The Jew
The Box-Lobby Challenge
François Juste Marie Raynouard – Caton d'Utique
Mary Robinson – Nobody: A Comedy in Two Acts
Poetry
William Blake – Songs of Experience
Isabella Kelly – Collection of Poems and Fables
Non-fiction
Edward Bancroft – Experimental Researches Concerning the Philosophy of Permanent Colours
Erasmus Darwin – Zoonomia; or the Laws of Organic Life
Elizabeth Dawbarn (anonymously) – Dialogue between Clara Neville and Louisa Mills, on Loyalty
Edward Gibbon – Memoirs of My Life and Writings
Deen Mahomed – The Travels of Dean Mahomet (first book published in English by an Indian)
Thomas James Mathias – The Pursuits of Literature
Thomas Paine – The Age of Reason
William Paley – View of the Evidences of Christianity
Uvedale Price – Essay on the Picturesque, As Compared with the Sublime and The Beautiful
Patrick Russell – Natural History of Aleppo (sometimes seen as 2nd ed. of Alexander Russell's eponymous 1756 work)
Walter Whiter – Specimen of a Commentary on
Births
January 11 – Jean Philibert Damiron, French philosopher (died 1862)
May 17 – Anna Brownell Jameson, Irish-born essayist, travel writer and editor (died 1860)
May 24 – William Whewell, English polymath (died 1866)
August 16 – Jean-Henri Merle d'Aubigné, Swiss historian of the Reformation (died 1872)
September 15 – Rosine de Chabaud-Latour, French religious thinker and translator (died 1860)
Uncertain date
Emma Roberts, English travel writer and poet (died 1840)
Deaths
January 16 – Edward Gibbon, English historian (born 1737)
March 5 – Ramón de la Cruz, Spanish dramatist (born 1731)
March 24 – Jacques Hébert, French radical journalist (guillotined, born 1757)
April 5 – Susanna Blamire, English dialect poet and songwriter (born 1747)
April 13 – Nicolas Chamfort, French wit (suicide, born 1741)
April 15 – Fabre d'Églantine, French dramatist and poet (guillotined, born 1750)
April 27 – Sir William Jones, English philologist (born 1746)
June 3 – Girolamo Tiraboschi, Italian literary critic (born 1731)
June 8 – Gottfried August Bürger, German poet (born 1747)
July 25
André Chénier, French poet (guillotined, born 1762)
Jean-Antoine Roucher, French poet (guillotined, born 1745)
August 14 – George Colman the Elder, English dramatist and essayist (born 1732)
November 16 – Rudolf Erich Raspe, German writer (born 1736)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature
|
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209971
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos%20Cruz%20%28boxer%29
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Carlos Cruz (boxer)
|
For the basketball player with a similar name, see Teófilo Cruz
Carlos Teo Rosario Cruz (November 4, 1937 – February 15, 1970) was a boxer from the Dominican Republic. Cruz was world lightweight champion from 1968 to 1969.
Amateur career
Cruz claimed he didn't put on his first pair of boxing gloves until his 20th birthday. He fought as an amateur from 1957 to 1959, posting a 14–3 record.
Personal
Cruz's father, Francisco Rosario Almonte was an army officer in the Dominican military. Cruz met his wife, Mildred Ortiz in the town of Río Piedras in Puerto Rico. They were married in 1961 when Ortiz was 24 years old. Cruz had two children.
Cruz's younger brother, Leo Cruz, went on to become a world champion.
Pro career
He started his career as a professional boxer with a loss, being defeated by decision in eight rounds by Juan José Jiménez, October 23 of 1959 in Santo Domingo. His first win came on December 3 of that year, also in Santo Domingo, with a ten-round decision win over Rafael Acevedo.
After one more win in Santo Domingo, he moved to San Juan, Puerto Rico. There, he posted a record of 7 wins and 2 losses before returning to Santo Domingo in 1962. Out of the 7 wins in Puerto Rico during that era, 5 were by knockout. In his return to Santo Domingo, he posted a decision win over Acevedo in a rematch. Towards the end of 1962, he started campaigning in the United States, particularly in New York. There, he boxed 5 times before returning to San Juan for another bout. He won 4 and drew 1 of those fights, all wins by decision.
He spent the first half of 1964 touring Australia, where he won 2 fights and lost one. He lost on points to Graham Dicker in Brisbane, stopped Guizani Rezgui in Sydney and outpointed Gilberto Biondi in Melbourne. Then he returned to Latin America, his first fight after arriving from Australia being a major step up in quality of opposition for him: In Caracas, he met fellow world champion boxer Carlos Morocho Hernández. He was knocked out in four rounds by Hernandez. On to Panama City, where he lost a ten-round decision to Julio Ruiz. He finished his year by beating Marcos Morales the best boxer of Puerto Rico in this time in Santo Domingo .
In 1965, he was undefeated. He fought in St. Croix, in Mayagüez, in Caguas and in London among other places. He won all ten of his bouts that year.
He won 8 bouts, lost 1 and drew 1 in 1966. He drew with Jaime Valladares in Quito, and lost to Frankie Narvaez in San Juan. But he also beat former world title challenger Bunny Grant. In 1967, he avenged his loss to Narvaez, and went undefeated the rest of the year, securing his position as the world's number one challenger among Lightweights.
He won three more fights to begin 1968, and then, on June 29 in Santo Domingo, he was given his first chance to challenge for a world title. He became world Lightweight champion when he defeated Carlos Ortiz by a decision in fifteen rounds.
He defended the world title with a fifteen-round decision over Mando Ramos in Los Angeles, and then, he closed the year by winning a non-title bout in Tokyo, also by decision, in ten.
There was a rematch between Cruz and Ramos, also held in Los Angeles. The second time around, Ramos became world Lightweight champion by beating Cruz with an eleventh-round knockout. Cruz went on to win his next three bouts of 1969.
On January 17 of 1970, Cruz won his last fight. He beat Benito Juarez in San Juan by a decision in ten, and then returned to Santo Domingo.
Professional boxing record
Death
On February 15, he was flying back to San Juan alongside his family for a fight against Roger Zami, when their Dominicana de Aviación DC-9 plane crashed into the waters of the Caribbean shortly after take-off, killing Cruz, his wife and two children, and the rest of the passengers, among which also were a large part of Puerto Rico's national women's volleyball team .
References
The Ring, November 1967, pages 24–25–64: CRUZ AIMS AT TITLE; ORTIZ MAY EASE WAY, by Mario Rivera Martino
External links
1937 births
1970 deaths
Dominican Republic male boxers
Lightweight boxers
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1970
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the Dominican Republic
World boxing champions
|
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209972
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1790%20in%20literature
|
1790 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1790.
Events
February – Xavier de Maistre begins writing Voyage autour de ma chambre (Voyage Around my Room, published 1794) while under arrest in Turin in the Kingdom of Sardinia, as the result of a duel.
May – Following the death of Thomas Warton, William Hayley refuses an offer to succeed him as Poet Laureate of Great Britain. Retired MP Henry James Pye is appointed in his place.
May 31 – United States President George Washington approves the Copyright Act of 1790.
June 1 – The Royal Literary Fund is founded in Britain by David Williams.
June 9 – John Barrie's Philadelphia Spelling Book Arranged Upon a Plan Entirely New becomes the first American book copyrighted.
unknown date – William Lane establishes the Minerva Press in London, specializing in Gothic fiction.
New books
Fiction
Mary Pilkington – Delia
Ann Radcliffe – A Sicilian Romance
Helen Maria Williams – Julia
Drama
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – Torquato Tasso (completed)
William Hayley – Eudora
Thomas Holcroft – The German Hotel
Edmond Malone (editor) – The Plays and Poems of William Shakespeare
Leandro Fernández de Moratín – El viejo y la niña (The Old Man and the Young Girl, published)
Mariana Starke – The Widow of Malabar
August von Kotzebue
Die Indianer in England (The Indians in England)
Menschenhass und Reue (Misanthropy and Repentance)
(as Knigge) – Doktor Bahrdt mit der eisernen Stirn (Doctor Bahrdt with the Iron Brow)
Poetry
William Blake – The Marriage of Heaven and Hell
Robert Burns – "Tam o' Shanter"
Non-fiction
Samuel Ayscough – An Index to the Remarkable Passages and Words Made Use of by Shakespeare, first Shakespeare concordance published
James Bruce – Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile
Edmund Burke – Reflections on the Revolution in France
Hannah More – An Estimate of the Religion of the Fashionable World
Jean Paul – Leben des vergnügten Schulmeisterlein Maria Wutz (Life of the Devoted School Mistress MW)
Alexander Radishchev – Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow
Louis Claude de Saint-Martin – L'Homme de désir
Mary Wollstonecraft – A Vindication of the Rights of Men
Births
January 1 – James Wills, Irish poet (died 1868)
January 10 – Anders Abraham Grafström, Swedish historian, priest and poet (died 1870)
January 29 – George Métivier, Guernsey poet writing in Guernésiais (died 1881)
March 3 – John Austin, English legal philosopher (died 1859)
March 10 – Jacques Arago, French traveller and writer (died 1855)
March 18 – Marquis de Custine, French aristocrat and travel writer (died 1857)
June 9 – Abel-François Villemain, French politician and writer (died 1870)
June 24 – Helena Ekblom, Swedish writer and preacher (died 1859)
July 8 – Fitz-Greene Halleck, American poet (died 1867)
August 8 – Ferenc Kölcsey, Hungarian poet and critic (died 1838)
October 1 – Charlotte Elizabeth Tonna, English novelist (died 1846)
October 21 – Alphonse de Lamartine, French poet (died 1869)
December 8 – Richard Carlile, English advocate of suffrage and press freedom (died 1843)
December 25 – Anna Eliza Bray, English novelist and travel writer (died 1883)
Unknown date — Mary Diana Dods (also as David Lyndsay and Walter Sholto Douglas), Scottish writer (died 1830 in literature)
Deaths
February 19 – Thomas de Mahy, marquis de Favras, man of letters (born 1744; executed)
March 20 – Thomas Richards of Coychurch, cleric and lexicographer (born c.1710)
April 3 – Ephraim Kuh, German poet, 58/9
April 29 – Charles-Nicolas Cochin, French art critic (born 1715)
May 2 – Martin Madan, English writer and cleric (born 1726)
May 6 – Jacques Antoine Hippolyte, Comte de Guibert, French military writer (born 1743)
May 21 – Thomas Warton, English poet and literary historian (born 1798)
July 7 – François Hemsterhuis, Dutch philosopher (born 1721)
July 17 – Adam Smith, Scottish philosopher and political economist (born 1723)
July 25 – William Livingston, American political writer and politician (born 1723)
probable – Marc-Antoine Eidous, French encyclopedist (born c. 1724)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1763%20in%20literature
|
1763 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1763.
Events
January – Christopher Smart's asylum confinement ends at Mr Potter's asylum in London. (He was admitted to St Luke's Hospital for Lunatics in May 1757 and may have been confined before that; he was later moved to Potter's.) While confined, Smart has written A Song to David, published this year, and Jubilate Agno, not published until 1939.
April 30 – A warrant is issued in Britain for the arrest of John Wilkes for seditious writings in The North Briton
May 16 – James Boswell is introduced to Samuel Johnson at Thomas Davies's bookshop in Covent Garden, London.
October 11 – The marriage of Henry Thrale and Hester Thrale takes place. Both later become close friends and companions of Dr Samuel Johnson.
December 6 – John Wilkes brings a court action for trespass against Robert Wood, after the Lord Chief Justice rules that parliamentary privilege protects Wilkes from arrest for libel.
unknown dates
Fedor Emin's Nepostoyannaya fortuna, the first Russian novel, is published.
The atheist English printer John Baskerville produces an edition of The Holy Bible for Cambridge University Press in his Baskerville typeface.
probable – Chinese Qing dynasty scholar Sun Zhu compiles Three Hundred Tang Poems, an anthology of poems from the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907).
New books
Prose
Frances Brooke – The History of Lady Julia Mandeville
James Grieve – English translation of Stepan Krasheninnikov's History of Kamtschatka
Susannah Minifie and Margaret Minifie – The Histories of Lady Frances S—— and Lady Caroline S——
John Langhorne – The Letters that Passed Between Theodosius and Constantia
Cao Xueqin – The Chronicles of the Stone
Drama
Isaac Bickerstaffe – Love in a Village (opera)
George Colman the Elder – The Deuce is in Him
Nicolás Fernandez de Moratín – Lucrecia
Samuel Foote
The Mayor of Garrett
The Trial of Samuel Foote, Esq. for a Libel on Peter Paragraph
Mary Latter – The Siege of Jerusalem
David Mallet – Elvira
Arthur Murphy – The Citizen
Frances Sheridan – The Discovery
Poetry
Richard Bentley the Younger – Patriotism
Charles Churchill
The Author
The Conference
An Epistle to William Hogarth
The Prophecy of Famine
Poems
John Collier – Tim Bobbin's Toy-shop
George Keate – The Alps
Robert Lloyd – The Death of Adam
James Macpherson (as Ossian) – Temora
William Mason – Elegies
James Merrick – Poems
Giuseppe Parini – Il giorno
Christopher Smart – A Song to David
Non-fiction
Almanach de Gotha (first issue)
John Ash – Grammatical Institutes
Thomas Bayes (died 1761) – An Essay towards solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances
Hugh Blair – A Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian
John Brown – A Dissertation on Poetry and Music
Philip Doddridge – A Course of Lectures on the Principal Subjects in Pneumatology, Ethics, and Divinity
Immanuel Kant – The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God
Antoine Simon Le Page Du Pratz – History of Louisiana; an English translation, in two volumes, of Histoire de la Louisiane, published in 1758
Catharine Macaulay – The History of England from the Accession of James I to that of the Brunswick Line
Mary Wortley Montagu – Letters
Robert Orme – A History of the Military Transactions of the British Nation in Indostan from the Year 1745
William Williams Pantycelyn – Atteb Philo-Evangelius i Martha Philopur (Philo-Evangelius's Reply to Martha Philopur)
Emanuel Swedenborg – Doctrine of Holy Scripture
Henry Venn – The Complete Duty of Man
Voltaire – Traité sur la tolérance
William Warburton – The Doctrine of Grace
John Wesley – A Survey of the Wisdom of God in the Creation
Births
January 15 – François-Joseph Talma, French actor (died 1826)
January 29 – Johann Gottfried Seume, German travel writer (died 1810)
March 9 – William Cobbett, English political and economic writer (died 1835)
March 16 – Mary Berry, English dramatist and correspondent (died 1852)
March 21 – Jean Paul (Johann Paul Friedrich Richter), German novelist (died 1825)
May 9 – János Batsányi, Hungarian poet and anti-Habsburg activist (died 1845)
June 15 – Kobayashi Issa, Japanese haiku poet (died 1828)
July 30 – Samuel Rogers, English poet (died 1855)
September 2 – Caroline Schelling (Caroline Michaelis), German literary critic (died 1809)
October 10 – Xavier de Maistre, French soldier and writer (died 1852)
December 6 – Mary Anne Burges, Scottish religious allegorist (died 1813)
Unknown dates
Huang Peilie, Chinese bibliophile (died 1825)
Shen Fu, Chinese chronicler (died c. 1825)
Deaths
January 11 – Caspar Abel, German poet and theologian (born 1676)
February 11 – William Shenstone, English poet (born 1714)
February 12 – Pierre de Marivaux, French novelist and dramatist (born 1688)
June 29 – Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht, Swedish poet and salonnière (born 1718)
September 26 – John Byrom, English poet (born 1692)
December 23 – Antoine François Prévost (Abbé Prévost), French author (born 1697)
Probable year of death – Cao Xueqin, Chinese novelist (born c. 1715)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature
|
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] |
209977
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts%20of%20Belize
|
Districts of Belize
|
Belize is divided into six districts.
List
See also
Constituencies of Belize
List of municipalities in Belize
List of West Indian First-level Subdivisions
ISO 3166-2:BZ
Commonwealth Local Government Forum-Americas
References
External links
Detailed Map of Belize showing Districts and their major towns.
Subdivisions of Belize
Belize, Districts
Belize 1
Districts, Belize
Belize geography-related lists
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quito
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Quito
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Quito (; ; ; formally San Francisco de Quito) is the capital of Ecuador, the closest capital city to the equator, and at an elevation of above sea level, the second-highest official capital city in the world. It is located in the Guayllabamba river basin, on the eastern slopes of Pichincha, an active stratovolcano in the Andes Mountains.
In 2008, the city was designated as the headquarters of the Union of South American Nations.
The historic center of Quito is one of the largest, least-altered, and best-preserved in the Americas. Quito and Kraków, Poland, were the first World Cultural Heritage Sites declared by UNESCO, in 1978. The central square of Quito is located about south of the equator; the city itself extends to within about of zero latitude. A monument and museum marking the general location of the equator is known locally as la mitad del mundo (the middle of the world) to avoid confusion since the word is Spanish for "equator".
History
Pre-Columbian period
The oldest traces of human presence in Quito were excavated by American archeologist Robert E. Bell in 1960, on the slopes of the Ilaló volcano, located between the eastern valleys of Los Chillos and Tumbaco. Hunter-gatherers left tools of obsidian glass, dated to 8000 BC. This archeological site, called EI Inga, was brought to Robert Bell's attention by Allen Graffham. While employed as a geologist in Ecuador, Graffham pursued his amateur interest in archeology. He made surface collections at the site during 1956. The discovery of projectile points, particularly specimens with basal fluting, stimulated his interest, and he made several visits to the site to collect surface materials. Graffham's previous interest in Paleo-Indian remains, and his experience with early human-made materials in Kansas and Nebraska in the Central Plains of the United States, led him to believe that the site was an important discovery.
The second important vestige of human settlement was found in the current neighborhood of Cotocollao (1500 BC), northwest of Quito. The prehistoric village covered over 26 hectares in an area irrigated by many creeks. Near the ancient rectangular houses, there are burials with pottery and stone offerings. The Cotocollao people extracted and exported obsidian to the coastal region.
Early colonial priests and historians wrote about the Quitu people and a Kingdom of Quito. Their accounts said that another people, known as the Cara or the Schyris, came from the coast and took over the region by AD 890. On what is sometimes called the Cara-Quitu kingdom, they ruled until the Inca took over the territory in the 15th century. Quitu descendants survived in the city even after the Spanish conquest.
But by the 20th century, some prominent historians who began more academic studies, doubted accounts of the Quitu-Cara kingdom. Little archeological evidence had been found of any monuments or artifacts from it. They began to think it was a legendary pre-Hispanic account of the highlands.
In the early 21st century, there were spectacular new finds of 20-meter deep tombs in the Florida neighborhood of Quito. Dating to AD 800 they provide evidence of the high quality of craftsmanship among the Quitu, and of the elaborate and complex character of their funerary rites. In 2010 the Museum of Florida opened to preserve some of the artifacts from the tombs and explain this complex culture.
Colonial period
Inca indigenous resistance to Spanish colonization continued during 1534. The conquistador Diego de Almagro founding Santiago de Quito (in present-day Colta, near Riobamba) on 15 August 1534, renamed as San Francisco de Quito on 28 August 1534. The city was later refounded at its present location on 6 December 1534 by 204 settlers led by Sebastián de Benalcázar, who captured leader Rumiñahui, effectively ending all organized resistance. Rumiñahui was executed on January 10, 1535.
On 28 March 1541 Quito was declared a city, and on 23 February 1556 it was given the title Muy Noble y Muy Leal Ciudad de San Francisco de Quito ("Very Noble and Loyal City of San Francisco of Quito"), marking the start of its next phase of urban development. In 1563 Quito became the seat of a Real Audiencia (administrative district) of Spain. It was classified as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1717, after which the Audiencia was part of the new Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada. Under both Viceroyalties, the district was administered from Quito, (see Real Audiencia de Quito).
The Spanish established Roman Catholicism in Quito. The first church (El Belén) was built before the city was officially founded. In January 1535 the San Francisco Convent was constructed, the first of about 20 churches and convents built during the colonial period. The Spanish converted the indigenous population to Christianity and used them as labor for construction.
In 1743, after nearly 210 years of Spanish colonization, Quito was a city of about 10,000 inhabitants. Quito briefly proclaimed its de facto independence from Spain between 1765 and 1766 during the Quito Revolt. On 10 August 1809, a movement was again started in Quito to win independence from Spain. On that date a plan for government was unveiled, which appointed Juan Pío Montúfar as president and prominent pro-independence figures in other government positions.
This initial movement was defeated on 2 August 1810, when colonial troops arrived from Lima, Peru, and killed the leaders of the uprising and about 200 other settlers. A chain of conflicts climaxed on 24 May 1822, when Antonio José de Sucre, under the command of Simón Bolívar, led troops into the Battle of Pichincha, on the slopes of the volcano. Their victory established the independence of Quito and the surrounding areas.
Republican Ecuador
In 1833 members of the Society of Free Inhabitants of Quito were assassinated by the government after they conspired against it. On 6 March 1845 the Marcist Revolution began. In 1875 the country's president, Gabriel García Moreno, was assassinated in Quito. Two years later, in 1877, Archbishop José Ignacio Checa y Barba was killed by poison while celebrating Mass in Quito.
In 1882 insurgents rose up against the regime of dictator Ignacio de Veintimilla. However, this did not end the violence that was occurring throughout the country. On 9 July 1883 the liberal commander Eloy Alfaro participated in the Battle of Guayaquil, and after further conflict he became the president of Ecuador on 4 September 1895. Upon completing his second term in 1911, he moved to Europe. He returned to Ecuador in 1912 and attempted to return to power unsuccessfully; he was arrested on 28 January 1912, and imprisoned, then lynched by a mob that stormed the prison. His body was dragged through the streets of Quito to a city park, where it was burned.
In 1932 the Four Days' War broke out. This was a civil war that followed the election of Neptalí Bonifaz and the subsequent realization that he carried a Peruvian passport. On 12 February 1949 a realistic broadcast of H. G. Wells' novel The War of the Worlds led to citywide panic, and the deaths of more than twenty people who died in fires set by mobs.
21st century
In 2011 the city's population was 2,239,191 people. Since 2002 the city has been renewing its historic center. The old airport, built on filling in a lagoon, was closed to air traffic on 19 February 2013. The area was redeveloped as the "Parque Bicentenario" (Bicentenary Park). The new Mariscal Sucre International Airport, 45 minutes from central Quito, opened to air traffic on 20 February 2013.
During 2003 and 2004, the bus lines of the Metrobus (Ecovia) were constructed, traversing the city from the north to the south. Many avenues and roads were extended and enlarged, depressed passages were constructed, and roads were restructured geometrically to increase the flow of traffic. A new subway system is under construction.
Geography
Quito is located in the northern highlands of Ecuador in the Guayllabamba river basin. The city is built on a long plateau lying on the east flanks of the Pichincha volcano. The valley of Guayllabamba River where Quito lies is flanked by volcanoes, some of them snow-capped, and visible from the city on a clear day. Quito is the closest capital city to the equator. Quito's altitude is listed at .
Nearby volcanoes
Quito's closest volcano is Pichincha, looming over the western side of the city. Quito is the only capital city that was developed so close to an active volcano. Pichincha volcano has several summits, among them Ruku Pichincha at above sea level and Guagua Pichincha at .
Pichincha is active and being monitored by volcanologists at the Geophysical institute of the national polytechnic university. The largest eruption occurred in 1660 when more than of ash covered the city. There were three minor eruptions in the 19th century. The latest eruption was recorded on October 5, 1999, when a few puffs of smoke were seen and much ash was deposited on the city.
Activity in other nearby volcanoes can also affect the city. In November 2002 the volcano Reventador erupted and showered the city in fine ash particles, to a depth of several centimeters.
The volcanoes on the Central Cordillera (Royal Cordillera), east of Quito, surrounding the Guayllabamba valley, include Cotopaxi, Sincholagua, Antisana and Cayambe. Some of the volcanoes of the Western Cordillera, to the west of the Guayllabamba valley, include Illiniza, Atacazo, and Pululahua (which is the site of the Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve).
Climate
The southern part of Quito has a subtropical highland climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb), while the northern part has a warm-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csb). Because of its altitude and location on the equator, Quito has a fairly constant cool climate. The average afternoon maximum temperature is , and the average night-time minimum temperature is . The annual average temperature is . The city has only two seasons: dry and wet. The dry season, June through September (4 months), is referred to as summer; the wet season, October through May (8 months), is referred to as winter. Annual precipitation, depending on location, is about .
Due to its altitude, Quito receives some of the greatest solar radiation in the world, sometimes reaching a UV Index of 24 by solar noon.
The fact that Quito lies almost on the equator means that high pressure systems are extremely rare. Pressure is stable, so very low pressure systems are also rare. From 1 July 2010 to 30 June 2011 the lowest pressure recorded was , and the highest was . Despite the absence of high pressure, Quito can still experience settled weather. Generally, the highest pressure is around midnight and the lowest in the mid-afternoon.
Topographical zones
Quito is divided into three areas, separated by hills:
Central: houses the colonial old city.
Southern: is mainly an industrial and working-class residential area.
Northern: is the modern Quito, with high-rise buildings, shopping centers, the financial district, and a mix of upper-class, middle-class, and working-class residential areas.
Economy
Quito is the largest city in contribution to national GDP, and the highest in per capita income. Quito has the highest level of tax collection in Ecuador, exceeding the national 57% per year 2009, currently being the most important economic region of the country, as the latest "study" conducted by the Central Bank of Ecuador.
The top major industries in Quito includes textiles, metals and agriculture, with major crops for export being coffee, sugar, cacao, rice, bananas and palm oil.
Petroecuador, the largest company in the country and one of the largest in Latin America is headquartered in Quito.
Headquarters and regional offices of many national and international financial institutions, oil corporations and international businesses are also located in Quito, making it a world class business city.
In "The World according to GaWC" global cities report, which measures a city's integration into the world city network, Quito is ranked as a Beta city: an important metropolis instrumental in linking its region or state into the world economy.
Politics
Governance
Quito is governed by a mayor and a 15-member city council. The mayor is elected to a five-year term and can be re-elected. The position also doubles as Mayor of the Metropolitan District of Quito (the canton). The current mayor is Santiago Guarderas.
Urban parishes
In Ecuador, cantons are subdivided into parishes, so called because they were originally used by the Catholic Church, but with the secularization and liberalization of the Ecuadorian state, the political parishes were spun off the ones used by the church. Parishes are called urban if they are within the boundaries of the seat (capital) of their corresponding canton, and rural if outside those boundaries. Inside Quito (the city proper), subdivision into urban parishes depends on the organizations that use these parishes (e.g., the municipality, the electoral tribunals, the postal service, the Ecuadorian statistics institute). The urban parishes of different types are not necessarily coterminous nor the same in number or name.
, the municipality of Quito divided the city into 32 urban parishes. These parishes, which are used by the municipality for administrative purposes, are also known as cabildos since 2001. Since the times of the Metropolitan District of Quito, parishes of this type are also grouped into larger divisions known as municipal zones (zonas municipales). These parishes are as follows:
Belisario Quevedo
Carcelén
Centro Histórico
Chilibulo
Chillogallo
Chimbacalle
Cochapamba
Comité del Pueblo
Concepción
Cotocollao
El Condado
El Inca
Guamaní
Iñaquito
Itchimbía
Jipijapa
Kennedy
La Argelia
La Ecuatoriana
La Ferroviaria
La Libertad
La Mena
Magdalena
Mariscal Sucre
Ponceano
Puengasí
Quitumbe
Rumipamba
San Bartolo
San Juan
Solanda
Turubamba
Ecclesiastical parishes
The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quito divides the city into 167 parishes, which are grouped into 17 zones.
Transportation
Public transportation
The MetrobusQ network, also known as "Red Integrada de Transporte Público", is the bus rapid transit system running in Quito, and it goes through the city from south to north. It's divided into three sections—the green line (the central trolleybus, known as El Trole), the red line (the north-east Ecovía), and the blue line (the north-west Corridor Central). In addition to the bus rapid transit system, there are many buses running in the city. The buses have both a name and a number, and they have a fixed route. Taxi cabs are all yellow, and they have meters that show the fare. There are nearly 8,800 registered taxicabs.
In August 2012 the Municipality of Quito government established a municipal bicycle sharing system called Bici Q.
Highway transportation
Although public transportation is the primary form of travel in the city, including fleets of taxis that continually cruise the roadways, the use of private vehicles has increased substantially during the past decade.
Because of growing road congestion in many areas, there were plans to construct a light rail system, which were conceived to replace the northern portion of the Trole. These plans have been ruled out and replaced by the construction of the first metro line (subway) in 2012. It is expected to be operational by March 2020, joining the existing public transportation network.
Roads, avenues and streets
Because Quito is about long and at its widest, most of the important avenues of the city extend from north to south. The two main motorways that go from the northern part of the city to the southern are Avenue Oriental (Corridor Periférico Oriental) on the eastern hills that border the city, and Avenue Occidental on the western side of the city on the Pichincha volcano. The street 10 de Agosto also runs north to south through most of the city, running down the middle of it. The historic center of the city is based on a grid pattern, despite the hills, with the streets Venezuela, Chile, García Moreno, and Guayaquil being the most important.
Air transportation
The Mariscal Sucre International Airport serves as the city's principal airport for passenger travel and freight. The airport is located east of the city's center in the Tababela parish. It began operations on February 20, 2013, replacing the Old Mariscal Sucre International Airport located north of the city center within city limits. The old airport was replaced due to tall buildings and nighttime fog that made landing from the south difficult. The old airport has become a metropolitan park.
Rail transportation
There is a railroad that goes through the southern part of Quito and passes through the Estación de Chimbacalle. It is managed by the Empresa de Ferrocarriles Ecuatorianos (EFE). This form of transportation is nowadays used mostly for tourism.
Subway
A metro subway system (Quito Metro) is under construction. Phase One, begun in 2013, entailed the construction of stations at La Magdalena and El Labrador. Phase Two, begun in 2016, involves 13 more stations, a depot and sub-systems. The project is expected to carry 400,000 passengers per day and to cost $1.5 billion with financing coming from the World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the Development Bank of Latin America (CAF) and is expected to be operating in June 2022.
Points of interest
Historic center
Quito has the largest, least-altered, and best-preserved historic center in the Americas. This center was, together with the historic center of Kraków, Poland, the first to be declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO on 18 September 1978. The historic center of Quito is to the south of the capital's current center, on an area of , and one of the most important historic areas in Latin America. There are about 130 monumental buildings (which host a variety of pictorial art and sculpture, mostly religiously-inspired, in a multi-faceted range of schools and styles), and 5,000 properties registered in the municipal inventory of heritage properties.
Carondelet Palace
Carondelet Palace () is the seat of the Government of the Republic of Ecuador, located in the historic center of Quito. The palace overlooks the bustling public space known as Independence Square or Plaza Grande (colonial name), together with the Archbishop's Palace, the Municipal Palace, the Hotel Plaza Grande and the Metropolitan Cathedral. During the Republican era almost all the presidents (constitutional, internees and dictators) have governed from the Carondelet Palace. The presidential residence is located on the third level of the Palace, along with administrative offices. The residence is a luxurious colonial-style apartment in which the President and his family dwell. Rafael Correa, president from 2007 to 2017, converted the presidential compound into a museum that is accessible to all who wish to visit it.
Basilica del Voto Nacional
The monumental Basilica del Voto Nacional is the most important neo-Gothic building in Ecuador, and one of the most representative of the American continent. It was once the largest in the New World.
Cathedral of Quito
The Cathedral of Quito, is one of the largest religious symbols of spiritual value for the Catholic community in the city. Construction of this church began in 1562, seventeen years after the Diocese of Quito was created in 1545. The church building was completed in 1806, during the administration of President of the Real Audiencia, Baron Héctor de Carondelet.
One of the major events that took place in this cathedral was the murder of the Bishop of Quito, José Ignacio Checa y Barba, who during the mass of Good Friday on 30 March 1877, was poisoned by strychnine dissolved in the consecrated wine. The cathedral is also the burial place of the remains of the Grand Marshal Antonio José de Sucre and also of several presidents of the Republic, as well as of bishops and priests who died in the diocese. The cathedral is on the south side of the Plaza de La Independencia.
Church of La Compañía de Jesús
Construction of The Church of La Compañía began in 1605. Building took 160 years. In 1765 the work was completed with the construction of the façade. This was done by Native Americans who carefully shaped the stones to build the façade in the ornate Baroque style, in what is one of the finest examples of this art in the Americas.
Church of San Francisco
The San Francisco is the largest of the existing architectural ensembles in the historic centers of cities in Latin America. The construction of the church began in 1550, on land adjacent to the plaza where the Native Americans engaged in the barter of products.
Church of El Sagrario
In colonial times, the Church of El Sagrario was one of the largest architectural marvels of Quito. The construction is of the Italian Renaissance style and it was built in the late 17th century. It has a screen that supports its sculptures and decorations. This structure was built by Bernardo de Legarda. Its central arch leads to a dome decorated with frescoes of biblical scenes featuring archangels. It was done by Francisco Albán. The altarpiece was gilded by Legarda. It is located on Calle García Moreno, near the cathedral.
Church of Santo Domingo
Although they arrived in Quito in 1541, the Dominicans started to build their own temple in 1580, using the plans of Francisco Becerra, and under his direction. The work was completed in the first half of the 17th century. Inside the church are valuable structures, such as the neo-Gothic main altar. This was installed in the late 19th century by Italian Dominicans. The roof of the Mudéjar style church features paintings of martyrs of the Order of Saint Dominic. The roof of the nave is supported by a pair-and-knuckle frame, decorated inside by tracery. In the museum on the north side of the lower cloister, there are wonderful pieces by great Quito sculptors such as the Saint Dominic de Guzmán by Father Carlos, the Saint John of God by Caspicara, and the Saint Thomas Aquinas by Legarda. Another Baroque masterpiece that still stands today, is the Chapel of Nuestra Señora del Rosario, a recognizable architectural icon of Quito. This chapel was built next to the church. The largest fraternity in the city of Quito was founded in this chapel.
El Panecillo
El Panecillo is a hill in the middle west of the city at an altitude of about above sea level. A monument to the Virgin Mary is located on top of El Panecillo and is visible from most of the city of Quito. In 1976, the Spanish artist Agustín de la Herrán Matorras was commissioned by the religious order of the Oblates to build a –tall aluminum monument of a madonna, which was assembled on a high pedestal on the top of Panecillo. The statue of the Virgin on the Panecillo is a replica of a sculpture made by Bernardo de Legarda in 1732. So this monument is also called Virgen de Legarda or Virgen del Panecillo.
La Mariscal
This modern area is considered to be the city's entertainment hub. It is a meeting point for both local residents and tourists. Its cosmopolitan atmosphere is expressed in a wide variety of culinary, artistic, and cultural options, and the large number of hotels, inns, travel agencies, shops, bars, and discothèques that light up when the sun sets.
Plaza Foch (La Zona)
This area is considered to be the zona rosa of the city. It hosts various night clubs and bars, and has a great night vibe, complete with street vendors selling gum, cigarettes and other small items. Plaza Foch is heavily frequented from Thursday to Saturday, and draws tourists from all over the world. For this reason, prices for liquor, beer and food are expensive compared to other places in Quito. Due to its small driveways and big sidewalks, it's mostly a pedestrian area.
Parks
Metropolitano
Parque Metropolitano Guanguiltagua is the largest urban park in South America at (as reference, New York's Central Park is ). The park is located in northern Quito, on the hill of Bellavista behind Estadio Olímpico Atahualpa. The park is suited for mountain biking, walking, and running. Most of it is eucalyptus forest with trails, but there also are numerous sculptures on display. The park has four sites that can be used for picnics or barbecues, and the eastern section has a view of Cotopaxi, Antisana, and the Guayllabamba river basin.
Bicentenario
Parque Bicentenario is the second largest urban park in Quito (surpassed only by the Parque Metropolitano), located in the site of the Old Mariscal Sucre International Airport. It was inaugurated on April 27, 2013. This park has , and it is located at , above mean sea level. The former runway has been converted into recreational space with lanes painted for bicycles and pedestrians. There are play structures and games for children. As well, there is outdoor exercise equipment for adults. The park contains a man-made pond and more than one thousand trees, many newly planted. The park also hosts cultural exhibits and outdoor concerts.
La Carolina
La Carolina is a 165.5-acre (670,000 m2) park in the center of the Quito main business area, bordered by the avenues Río Amazonas, de los Shyris, Naciones Unidas, Eloy Alfaro, and de la República. This park started from the expropriation of the farm La Carolina in 1939. The design of the park was made by the Dirección Metropolitana de Planificación Territorial (DMPT). Pope John Paul II headed a great mass in the park during his visit to Ecuador in 1985. A giant cross has been built in this place.
El Ejido
El Ejido is the fourth-largest park of Quito (after Metropolitan, Bicentenario and La Carolina), and it divides the old part of the city from the modern one. This park is known for handicrafts available for sale every Saturday and Sunday, with all pricing subject to negotiation (that is, haggling). Local painters sell copies of paintings by Oswaldo Guayasamín, Eduardo Kingman, and Gonzalo Endara Crow. Otavaleños sell traditional sweaters, ponchos, carpets, and jewelry.
Guápulo
Set on the side on a cliff with González Suárez Street, one of the most famous in Quito and to the other side the valley and further in the distance, the Amazon Jungle. Guápulo is a district of Quito, Ecuador, also called an electoral parish (parroquia electoral urbana). The parish was established as a result of the October 2004 political elections when the city was divided into 19 urban electoral parishes. Set behind Hotel Quito, the neighborhood of Guápulo runs down the winding Camino de Orellana, from González Suárez to Calle de los Conquistadores, the main road out of Quito and to the neighboring suburbs. Often considered an artsy, bohemian neighborhood of Quito, Guápulo is home to many local artists and a couple of hippy cafés/bars. Every year on September 7 the guapuleños honor their neighborhood with the Fiestas de Guápulo, a fantastic celebration complete with costumes, parade, food, drink, song, dance, and fireworks.
La Alameda
The long triangular La Alameda is located at the beginning of street Guayaquil, where the historic center begins. It has an impressive monument of Simón Bolívar at the apex. There are several other interesting monuments in this park. In the center of the park is the Quito Observatory, which was opened by President García Moreno in 1873. It is used for both meteorology and astronomy. At the north end of the park are two ornamental lakes, where rowboats can be rented.
La Floresta
One of the most iconic neighborhoods in the city, with an important cultural and gastronomic offer. The neighborhood has local and international restaurants, a cinema, small theaters, cafes, bars, museums and coworking spaces.
TeleferiQo
The Aerial tramway Station at Cruz Loma (part of the Pichincha mountain complex at about ). Since July 2005, Quito has had an aerial tramway, known as the "Telefériqo", from the city center to the hill known as Cruz Loma on the east side of the Pichincha volcano. The ride takes visitors to an elevation of about . There are also trails for hiking and areas where pictures can be taken of Quito. Because of the increased elevation and the wind on the mountain, it is considerably cooler.
Besides the aerial tramway to Cruz Loma, the Telefériqo as a whole is a visitor center that includes an amusement park (Vulqano Park), fine-dining restaurants, Go Karts, Paint Ball, shopping malls, an extensive food court, and other attractions.
Outside the city
La Mitad del Mundo (the middle of the world) is a small village administered by the prefecture of the province of Pichincha, north of Quito. It has since been determined, with the use of Global Positioning System technology, that the actual equator is some north of the monument area. Nearby is the Intiñan Solar Museum, which may be closer to the true equator. The Intiñan Solar Museum provides a demonstration which purports to show the Coriolis force causing a clockwise rotation of sink water a few meters south of the equator and a counterclockwise rotation a few meters north, but many scientific sources claim that this is implausible.
Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve, located a few miles northwest from La Mitad del Mundo, contains the Pululahua volcano, whose caldera (crater) is visible from a spot easily accessible by car. It is believed to be one of only a few in the world with human inhabitants.
Quito Zoo,
located near the rural parish of Guayllabamba, about outside Quito, has the biggest collection of native fauna in Ecuador, including several kinds of animals that are sometimes targeted in Ecuador in the illegal fur trade. The Zoo works in conservation and education in Ecuador and has successfully bred the endangered Andean condor.
Maquipucuna Reserve is located in Quito's rural parish of Nanegal. This 14,000 acre high biodiversity rainforest and cloud forest reserve protects over 1966 species of plants (10% of Ecuador's plant diversity) and close to 400 bird species. This reserve, which is surrounded by a 34,000 acre protected forest, was declared an IBA (Important Bird Area) in 2005 and is the core of the conservation corridor for the spectacled bear (Andean bear) declared in 2013. The area has an ecolodge located in the northern end of the Reserve where the spectacled bear can be sighted for about two months every year.
Some of the other nearby natural attractions are:
Maquipucuna Reserve Conservation, community projects, bird watching, spectacled bear watching
Bellavista Cloud Forest Reserve conservation and bird watching lodge
Cayambe – Coca Ecological Reserve
Papallacta & Oyacachi thermal springs
Cotopaxi National Park
Mindo Nambillo cloud forest
Illiniza volcano
Pasochoa Wildlife Refuge
Pichincha volcano with its peaks Wawa Pichincha and Ruku Pichincha
Culture
Quito is a city with a mix of modern-day and traditional culture. There is a large Catholic presence in Quito; most notably, Quito observes Holy Week with a series of ceremonies and rituals that begin on Palm Sunday. At noon on Good Friday, the March of the Penitents proceeds from the Church of San Francisco.
Education
Universities
According to the National Council for Higher Education of Ecuador (CONESUP), these are the universities founded in or around Quito before 2006:
Libraries
One of the oldest and most important library in Ecuador is the Central University Library in Quito. It was founded in 1586 and has 170,000 volumes in its possession. The Aurelio Espinoza Polit in Cotocollao, Casas de la Cultura and Catholic University are also important ones.
Museums
National Museum of Ecuador – This art museum houses five displays. Each covers a different time period, ranging from prehistory to modern Ecuador.
Museo de Arte Contemporaneas – Located north of Basilica del Voto Nacional, this museum has permanent and temporary exhibitions. The historic building used to be a military hospital and was renovated for its new purpose.
Casa del Alabado – Located just south of Plaza San Francisco, this is the Old Town's newest museum and houses a collection of pre-colonial art. The building is one of the oldest houses in the city.
Museo de la Ciudad – A museum dedicated to the history of Quito. Located just east of the Plaza de Santo Domingo, it is housed in the buildings of the former San Juan de Dios Hospital, a UNESCO Cultural World Heritage Site.
La Capilla del Hombre – A museum showcasing the work of legendary Ecuadorian Artist Oswaldo Guayasamín
Ecuador National Museum of Medicine – A museum dedicated to the history of medicine in Quito, founded by Eduardo Estrella Aguirre. Estrella was in the Archives of the Royal Botanical Gardens in Madrid, Spain in 1985 and uncovered the lost papers and paintings documenting one of the first expeditions to South America. In Madrid Spain, Estrella worked for many years and documented his observations in the archive and was able to publish the extensive work of Juan Tafalla in a book called Flora Huayaquilensis.
Museo Casa de Sucre – This museum is dedicated to life of Mariscal Antonio José de Sucre, a hero of Ecuadorian independence. The ground floor has an array of weapons and military relics, many of which belonged to Sucre himself. The second floor has been restored to what it might have looked like in Sucre's time.
Sports
Quito is home to two prominent football clubs in the country. The city's top clubs (LDU Quito, El Nacional) have won a total of 28 national championships, over half of all championships played. Deportivo Quito and Aucas were the first home teams to play in the national league. Deportivo Quito was also the first out of the three home teams to win the title. LDU Quito is the only club from the capital to have won 4 continental titles. The other club being Independiente del Valle which won the CONMEBOL Sudamericana in 2019. El Nacional is the fourth most titled team in Ecuador's history, with 13. América de Quito was one of the most titled clubs in the past but has recently played in the lower divisions.
The professional teams in the city are:
América de Quito
Aucas
Deportivo Quito
El Nacional
LDU Quito
Universidad Católica
One of the more interesting facts of Quito is that the stadiums are located over above sea level, this gives the city the special feature and a great advantage for local teams when they play against foreign teams and it is one of the reasons that has allowed Ecuador qualify for three World Cups.
Crime
The U.S. Department of State notes that petty theft is the most common crime issue facing tourists in Quito, stating in 2015: "Pickpocketing, purse snatching, robbery, bag slashing, and hotel room theft are the most common types of crimes committed against U.S. citizens."
Notable people
Poet Jorge Carrera Andrade (b. 1902, Quito – d. 1978, Quito)
Novelist Jorge Icaza (b. 1906, Quito – d. 1978, Quito)
Film Director Sebastián Cordero (b. 1972, Quito)
Painter Oswaldo Guayasamín (b. 1919, Quito – d. 1999, Baltimore U.S.)
Professional Footballer Christian Benitez (b. May 1, 1986, Quito – d. July 29, 2013, Doha, Qatar)
Catholic Saint Mariana de Jesús de Paredes (b.1618, Quito – d. 1645, Quito)
Scientist Eugenio Espejo (b. February 21, 1747 – d. December, 1795)
Chicago politician and community activist Byron Sigcho-Lopez (b. July 7, 1983)
Cellist Teodelinda Terán Hicks (1889-1959)
Revolutionary Manuela Saenz (Born: 27 Dec 1797, Quito, Died: 23 Nov 1856, Paita, Peru)
Formula 2 Driver Juan Manuel Correa (Born 9 Aug 1999, Quito)
Twin towns – sister cities
Quito is twinned with:
Bogotá, Colombia
Cádiz, Spain
Doha, Qatar
Guangzhou, China
Guarulhos, Brazil
Kraków, Poland
Lima, Peru
Louisville, United States
Madrid, Spain
Managua, Nicaragua
Medellín, Colombia
Mexico City, Mexico
La Paz, Bolivia
Taipei, Taiwan
See also
List of cities in Ecuador
Pichincha Province
Metropolitan District of Quito
Ciudad Mitad del Mundo
References
Bibliography
External links
Explore the City of Quito in the UNESCO collection on Google Arts and Culture
Capitals in South America
Populated places established in 1534
Populated places in Pichincha Province
Provincial capitals in Ecuador
Quito Canton
World Heritage Sites in Ecuador
1534 establishments in the Spanish Empire
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209985
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fideu%C3%A0
|
Fideuà
|
Fideuà (dialectal pronunciation of the Valencian word fideuada "large amount of noodles" from Hisp. Ar. fidáwš) is a seafood dish originally from the coast of Valencia that is similar to paella, and even more so to arròs a banda, but with noodles instead of rice. Its main ingredients are pasta noodles (often hollow), fish (rockfish, monkfish, cuttlefish, squid), and shellfish (Squilla mantis, shrimp, crayfish). It is seasoned mainly with lemon.
History
The invention of fideuà is attributed to a picturesque story. Gabriel Rodriguez Pastor, (Gabrielo from a kiosk in the port district of Grau in Gandía), worked as a cook on a boat and Juan Bautista Pascual (Zábalo), was the youngest man on the boat and his assistant. According to Gabriel's family, the boat captain loved rice and the rest of sailors almost never received their full portion of arròs a banda, the dish that the cook usually prepared. Trying to find a solution for the problem, the cook had the idea of using noodles instead of rice to see if the result was a little less appetizing for the captain.
The invention was liked, and fame of the dish spread to harbor restaurants such as the "Pastaora House", where they cooked the first "fideuades". The dish became distinctive and essential in the area.
Characteristics
Just like paella, it is cooked in a special wide and flat frying pan, also called paella, although there are other traditional variants made in a casserole.
The pasta is sautéed in stock, rather than boiled.
Gandia is the birthplace of fideuà, and in this city of La Safor region there is an annual competition where the best cooks try to prepare the best fideuà.
See also
List of noodle dishes
List of seafood dishes
Pancit choca
References
:es:Fideuà
Differences between Fideua and paella
Valencian cuisine
Pasta dishes
Seafood dishes
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Asia
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North Asia
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North Asia or Northern Asia, also referred to as Siberia, is the northern region of Asia, which is defined in geographical terms and is coextensive with the Asian part of Russia, and consists of three Russian regions east of the Ural Mountains: Ural, Siberia and the Russian Far East. North Asia is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to its north; by Eastern Europe to its west; by Central and East Asia to its south; and by the Pacific Ocean and North America to its east. It covers an area of , or 8.8% of Earth's total land area; and is the largest subregion of Asia by area, but is also the least populated, with a population of around 33 million, accounting for merely 0.74% of Asia's population.
Topographically, the region is dominated by the Eurasian Plate, except for its eastern part, which lies on the North American, Amurian and Okhotsk Plates. It is divided by three major plains: the West Siberian Plain, Central Siberian Plateau and Verhoyansk-Chukotka collision zone. The Uralian orogeny in the west raised Ural Mountains, the informal boundary between Asia and Europe. Tectonic and volcanic activities are frequently occurred in the eastern part of the region as part of the Ring of Fire, evidenced by the formation of island arcs such as the Kuril Islands and ultra-prominent peaks such as Klyuchevskaya Sopka, Kronotsky and Koryaksky. The central part of North Asia is a large igneous province called the Siberian Traps, formed by a massive eruption occurred 250 million years ago. The formation of the traps coincided with the Permian–Triassic extinction event.
North Asia, geographically, is a subregion of Asia; however, because it was colonised and incorporated into Russia, it is culturally and politically a part of Europe. European cultural influences, specifically Russian, are predominant in the entire region, due to it experiencing Russian emigration from Europe starting from the 18th century. Slavs and other Indo-Europeans consist of the vast majority of North Asia's population, and over 85% of the region's population is of European descent.
History
The region was first populated by hominins in the Late Pleistocene, approximately 100,000 years ago, and modern humans are confirmed to arrived in the region by 45,000 years ago with the first humans in the region having West Eurasian origins. Its Neolithic culture is characterized by characteristic stone production techniques and the presence of pottery of eastern origin. The Bronze Age began during the 3rd millennium BCE, with influences of Indo-Iranian cultures as evidenced by the Andronovo culture. During the 1st millennium BCE, polities such as the Scythians and Xiongnus emerged in the region, who often clashed with its Persian and Chinese neighbors in the south. The Göktürks dominated southern Siberia during the 1st millennium CE, while in the early 2nd millennium CE, the Mongol Empire and its successor states ruled the region. The Khanate of Sibir was one of the last independent Turkic states in North Asia before its conquest by the Tsardom of Russia in the 16th century CE. Russia would then gradually annex the region into its territory until the Convention of Peking was signed in 1860. After the October Revolution in 1917, the region was contested between the Bolsheviks and Whites until the Soviet Union asserted full control in 1923. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 left Russia as the administrator of the region.
Geography
For geographic and statistical reasons, the UN geoscheme and various other classification schemes will not subdivide countries, and thus place all of Russia in the Europe or Eastern Europe subregion.
There are no mountain chains in Northern Asia to prevent air currents from the Arctic flowing down over the plains of Siberia and Turkestan.
The plateau and plains of Northern Asia comprise the West Siberian lowlands; the Angara Shield, with the Taimyr Peninsula, the coastal lowlands (North Siberian Lowland and East Siberian Lowland), the Central Siberian Plateau, (Putorana Plateau, Lena Plateau, Anabar Plateau, Tunguska Plateau, Vilyuy Plateau and the Lena-Angara Plateau); and the Lena–Vilyuy Lowland. Western Siberia is usually regarded as the Northwest Asia, Kazakhstan also sometimes included there. But Northwest Asia sometimes refers to Caucasus or nearby provinces.
Geomorphology
The geomorphology of Northern Asia in general is imperfectly known, although the deposits and mountain ranges are well known.
To compensate for new sea floor having been created in the Siberian basin, the whole of the Asian Plate has pivoted about a point in the New Siberian Islands, causing compression in the Verkhoyansk mountains, which were formed along the eastern margin of the Angara Shield by tectonic uplift during the Mesozoic Era. There is a southern boundary to this across the northern margin of the Alpine folds of Afghanistan, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, which at the east of Brahmaputra turns to run south towards the Bay of Bengal along the line of the Naga hills and the Arakan Yoma, continues around Indonesia, and follows the edge of the continental shelf along the eastern seaboard of China. The Eurasian Plate and the North American Plate meet across the neck of Alaska, following the line of the Aleutian Trench, rather than meeting at the Bering Straits.
Northern Asia is built around the Angara Shield, which lies between the Yenisey River and the Lena River. It developed from fragments of Laurasia, whose rocks were mainly Precambrian crystalline rocks, gneisses, and schists, and Gondwana. These rocks can be found in the Angara Shield, the Inner Mongolian-Korean Shield, the Ordes Shield and the Southeast Asia Shield. The fragments have been subject to orogenesis around their margins, giving a complex of plateaux and mountain ranges. One can find outcrops of these rocks in unfolded sections of the Shields. Their presence has been confirmed below Mesozoic and later sediments.
There are three main periods of mountain building in Northern Asia, although it has occurred many times. The outer fold mountains that are on the margins of the Shields and that only affected Asia north of the line of the Himalayas, are attributed to the Caledonian and Hercynian orogenies of the late Palaeozoic Era. The Alpine orogeny caused extensive folding and faulting of Mesozoic and early Tertiary sediments from the Tethys geosyncline. The Tibetan and Mongolian plateaux, and the structural basins of Tarim, Qaidam, and Junggar, are delimited by major east–west lithospheric faults that were probably the results of stresses caused by the impact of the Indian Plate against Laurasia. Erosion of the mountains caused by this orogeny has created a large amount of sediment, which has been transported southwards to produce the alluvial plains of India, China, and Cambodia, and which has also been deposited in large amounts in the Tarim and Dzungarian basins.
Northern Asia was glaciated in the Pleistocene, but this played a less significant part in the geology of the area compared to the part that it played in North America and Europe. The Scandinavian ice sheet extended to the east of the Urals, covering the northern two thirds of the Ob Basin and extending onto the Angara Shield between the Yenisei River and the Lena River. There are legacies of mountain glaciation to be found on the east Siberian mountains, on the mountains of the Kamchatka Peninsula, on the Altai, on Tian Shan, and on other small areas of mountains, ice caps remain on the islands of Severnaya Zemlya and Novaya Zemlya, and several Central Asian mountains still have individual glaciers. North Asia itself has permafrost, ranging in depths from 30 to 600 metres and covering an area of 9.6 million km2.
Several of the mountainous regions are volcanic, with both the Koryak Mountains and the Kamchatka Peninsula having active volcanoes. The Anadyr Plateau is formed from igneous rocks. The Mongolian Plateau has an area of basaltic lavas and volcanic cones.
The Angara Shield also underlies the lowlands of the Ob River, but to the south and east in the Central Asian mountains and in the East Siberian Mountains there are folded and faulted mountains of Lower Palaeozoic rocks.
Demographics
Most estimates are that there are around 33 million Russian citizens living east of the Ural Mountains, a widely recognized but informal geographical divide between Europe and Asia. All Siberians are Russian citizens, and of these Russian citizens of Siberia, most are Slavic-origin Russians and russified Ukrainians. The Turkic peoples who are native to some parts of Siberia and native Tungusic peoples now are a minority in North Asia due to the Russification process during the last three centuries. Russian census records indicate they make up only an estimated 10% of the region's population with the Buryats numbering at 445,175, which makes them the largest ethnic minority group in Siberia. There are 443,852 Yakuts (Russian Census of 2002) living in the Russian Far East. According to the 2002 census, there are 500,000 Tatars in Siberia, but 300,000 of them are Volga Tatars who settled in Siberia during periods of colonization. Other ethnic groups that live in the region and make a significant portion are ethnic Germans numbering about 400,000.
In 1875, Chambers reported the population of Northern Asia to be 8 million. Between 1801 and 1914, an estimated 7 million settlers moved from European Russia to Siberia, 85% during the quarter-century before World War I.
Administration
See also
Arctic Region
Far North
European Russia
Asia
Geography of Asia
Northeast Asia
Russian Far East
Ural region
Siberian High, a semipermament anticyclone
References
Geography of Asia
Asia-Pacific
|
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209990
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trio%20sonata
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Trio sonata
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The trio sonata is a genre, typically consisting of several movements, with two melody instruments and continuo. Originating in the early 17th century, the trio sonata was a favorite chamber ensemble combination in the Baroque era.
Basic structure
The trio sonata typically consisted of three parts, two violins and continuo. However, the two violins could be substituted with pairs of flutes, recorders, oboes, or violin and viola da gamba. The third part, the basso continuo, has two components. First, it includes the bass line, which commonly was played by a bass viol, violone, violoncello, or bassoon. Second, it includes a harmony-producing instrument, such as a small organ, a harpsichord, or a theorbo. The (basso) continuo could be performed by two or more performers; a cellist to play the bass line and a harpsichordist or organist to focus on the harmonies. Because there normally are two people playing the continuo part, there are usually four players in all. This accounts for the title of Henry Purcell's second collection, Ten Sonatas in Four Parts (1697); his first publication Sonnata's of III Parts (1683) likewise included separate parts for cello and keyboard. From about the middle of the 17th century two distinct types of sonatas appeared: sonata da camera (chamber sonata) and sonata da chiesa (church sonata).
Composers, compositions and variant formats
The genre originated as instrumental adaptation of the three-part texture common in Italian vocal music in the late 16th century. The earliest published trio sonatas appeared in Venice (Salamone Rossi Il primo libro delle sinfonie e gagliarde, 1607) and in Milan (Giovanni Paolo Cima, Sonata a tre for violin, cornett and continuo in the collection Concerti ecclesiastici, 1610).
Arcangelo Corelli
Italian composer Arcangelo Corelli was one of most influential composers of the trio sonata. The published trio sonatas by Corelli are:
Twelve Trio-Sonatas, Op. 1 (dedicated to Queen Christina of Sweden) published in Rome in 1683
Twelve Chamber Sonatas, Op. 2 (dedicated to Cardinal Panfili), published in Rome in 1685
Twelve Trio-Sonatas, Op. 3 (dedicated to Francesco II d'Este, Duke of Modena), published in Rome in 1689
Twelve Trio-Sonatas, Op. 4 (dedicated to Cardinal Ottoboni), published in Rome in 1694.
An additional collection of Trio Sonatas, for two violins, cello, and organ, was published as "Op. post." in Amsterdam, in 1714. Corelli's trios would serve as models for other composers well into the 18th century.
Johann Sebastian Bach
German composer Johann Sebastian Bach is another notable composer of the trio sonata, but he was known for shying away from the traditional structure of the sonata. He typically played the three parts with fewer than three instruments. One part could be played by a violin and the other two parts could be played by a keyboard, or all three parts could be played on the organ.
Trio sonatas by Bach include:
Trio Sonatas for organ, BWV 525–530, combining all three parts on one instrument: typically the right hand, left hand and pedals will each take a different part thus creating the same texture as in a trio.
A further innovation by Bach was the trio sonatas involving a concertante (obbligato) right-hand harpsichord part in addition to the bass line, plus one melodic instrument, thus for two players. Examples are the Six Sonatas for Violin and Harpsichord, BWV 1014–1019, three sonatas for viola da gamba and harpsichord, BWV 1027–1029, and two sonatas for flute and harpsichord, BWV 1030 and 1032; BWV 1020, BWV 1031 and BWV 1033 are doubtful.
Trio Sonatas BWV 1036–1040: BWV 1039 is a variant version of BWV 1027. The attribution of BWV 1036-1038 to Bach is doubtful, but all are typical of baroque chamber music.
The mid-18th-century manuscript D-B Mus. ms. Bach St 345 contains a Concerto (or: Trio Sonata) in C major for violin, cello and continuo, arranged from (or: earlier version of) BWV 525/1, 1032/2 and 525/3 respectively. The 1998 edition of the Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis lists this version as BWV 525a, and considers the attribution of the arrangement to Bach doubtful. Based on the New Bach Edition, the Bach Digital website gives "BWV deest" instead of the BWV number 525a for this chamber music version.
Other composers
Tomaso Albinoni, 12 sonatas da chiesa Op. 1, twelve balletti a tre Op. 3, six sonatas da camera as part of Op. 8, six unpublished trio sonatas Op. 11, and a further six trio sonatas without opus number in a manuscript in Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, Musiksammlung.
Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach wrote at least 44 trio sonatas, including one for flute, viola, and piano, said to have been given its world premiere by the Society for Forgotten Music at the New York Public Library on 30 January 1949. His best-known work in the genre is the programmatic Trio ("Sanguineus und Melancholicus"), in C minor, composed in 1749 and published in Nuremberg in 1751, which exists in two versions: one for obbligato keyboard and violin, the other for two violins and continuo. Trio Sonatas and .
William Boyce, 12 Trio Sonatas for two violins and continuo (1747).
Dieterich Buxtehude, Op. 1, six sonatas, and Op. 2, seven sonatas, scored for violin, viola da gamba and basso continuo. These were the only works by Buxtehude that were published during his lifetime. Though real trio texture does occur from time to time, these are really sonate a due for violin and viola da gamba, with the continuo often being a simplification of the gamba part. There are however four genuine trio sonatas by Buxtehude surviving in manuscript, two for two violins, viola da gamba and continuo in C and G major (BuxWV 266 and 271), one for two violins and continuo in F major (BuxWV 270, fragmentary), and one for viola da gamba, viola, and continuo in D major (BuxWV 267).
François Couperin published a number of trio sonatas: Le Parnasse, ou L’apothéose de Corelli, grande sonade en trio, for two violins and continuo (Paris, 1724); Concert instrumental sous le titre d’Apothéose composé à la mémoire immortelle de l’incomparable Monsieur de Lully, for two violins (two flutes, or other unspecified instruments), and continuo (Paris, 1725); and the collection Les nations: sonades et suites de simphonies en trio, for two violins and continuo (Paris, 1726), consisting of La Françoise [La pucelle], L’Espagnole [La visionnaire], L’impériale, and La Piemontoise [L’astrée]. In addition, two trio sonatas have survived in manuscript: La Steinquerque and La superbe, both for two violins and continuo.
Johann Gottlieb Goldberg, a student of J. S. Bach, composed at least six trio sonatas. Four of these are for 2 violins and continuo, one of which used to be attributed to J. S. Bach, as . Two trio sonatas for flute, violin, and continuo are listed in a Breitkopf catalogue, but have gone missing.
George Frideric Handel, trio sonatas Opp. 2 and 5, all in sonata da chiesa form. The attribution to Handel of the six trios HWV 380-385 for two oboes and continuo is doubtful, and the authenticity of the three trios HWV 393-395 is uncertain.
Jacques-Martin Hotteterre, Sonates en trio pour les flûtes traversières et a bec, violon, hautbois, Op. 3 (1712).
Pietro Antonio Locatelli, six Trio Sonatas, Op. 5, for two violins or two traversos and continuo (1736).
Johann Pachelbel, Musikalische Ergötzung ("Musical Delight"), containing six suites for two violins and basso continuo, each commencing with a sonata, followed by a succession of dances. The violin parts use scordatura tuning. The sonatas are of two types. Nos. 1 and 3 are marked Allegro, and are fughettas. The remaining four are Adagio movements and are similar to French overtures, in two sections.
Henry Purcell, Sonnata's of III Parts, 1683, ten sonatas in four parts, 1697, but both sets are scored for two violins, bass viol, and organ or harpsichord. In terms of style, Purcell's trio sonatas are conservative, modeled on the older generation of Italians (Giovanni Legrenzi, Lelio Colista, and Giovanni Battista Vitali) rather than Corelli or Giovanni Battista Bassani.
Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel, over 25 extant trio sonatas, including two for solo organ. Others for continuo (sometimes indicated as harpsichord) and diverse combinations of flute(s), violin(s), oboes or unspecified instruments.
Georg Philipp Telemann, around 100 trio sonatas in TWV 42. The earliest sonatas exhibit the Corelli style most clearly, while later works anticipate the mid-century Empfindsamkeit and galant styles, or mix Italian, French, and Polish styles.
Antonio Vivaldi, 12 trio sonatas da camera Op. 1, two trio sonatas mixed with solo sonatas in Op. 5, and thirteen unpublished trios. One further trio sonata, RV 80, in G major, for two flutes and continuo, is attributed to Vivaldi but is probably spurious.
Jan Dismas Zelenka, , ZWV 181, composed around 1721–1722.
References
Sources
Further reading
Allsop, Peter. 1992. The Italian "Trio" Sonata: From Its Origins until Corelli. Oxford Monographs on Music. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press. .
Apel, Willi. 1990. Italian Violin Music of the Seventeenth Century, edited by Thomas Binkley. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. .
Defant, Christine. 1985. Kammermusik und Stylus phantasticus: Studien zu Dietrich Buxtehudes Triosonaten. Europäische Hochschulschriften / European University Studies / Études Universitaires Européennes. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. .
Dürr, Alfred (ed.). 1987. Eight Short Preludes and Fugues BWV 553–560: Formerly Ascribed to Johann Sebastian Bach. Kassel: Bärenreiter. BA 6497. ISMN 9790006480098.
Hogwood, Christopher. 1979. The Trio Sonata. BBC Music Guides. London: British Broadcasting Corporation. .
Kamien, Roger. 2008. Music an Appreciation, sixth brief edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill. (annotated instructor's edition); (student edition)
Mangsen, Sandra. 2001. "Trio Sonata". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Schenk, Erich. 2005. Die Triosonate. Das Musikwerk, eine Beispielsammlung zur Musikgeschichte, Neuausgabe 20. Laaber: Laaber Verlag. .
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20geophysicists
|
List of geophysicists
|
This is a list of geophysicists, people who made notable contributions to geophysics, whether or not geophysics was their primary field. These include historical figures who laid the foundations for the field of geophysics. More recently, some of the top awards for geophysicists are the Vetlesen Prize (intended to be the equivalent of a Nobel Prize for geology or geophysics); the William Bowie Medal (the top award of the American Geophysical Union); the Maurice Ewing Medal (the top award of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists); and the Crafoord Prize for geosciences. Some geophysicists have also won more general prizes such as the Nobel Prize and the Kyoto Prize.
A
Leason Adams (American, 1887–1969) – high pressure mineral physics
Thomas J Ahrens (American, 1936–2010) – experimental methods for modeling hypervelocity impacts and materials in the Earth's core and mantle
Hannes Alfvén (Swedish, 1908–1995) – Alfvén waves, magnetohydrodynamics of magnetosphere; Nobel Prize in Physics
Giuseppina Aliverti (Italian, 1894–1982), geophysicist remembered for developing the Aliverti-Lovera method of measuring the radioactivity of water
Keiiti Aki (Japanese-American, 1930–2005) – seismology; William Bowie Medal
Claude Allègre (French, 1937– ) Crafoord Prize
Don L. Anderson (American, 1933–2014) – seismology and Earth's interior (including the Preliminary reference Earth model); Crafoord Prize
Nigel Anstey (British, 1927– ) – exploration geophysicist ; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Tanya Atwater (American, 1942– ) – plate tectonic history of North America
B
George Edward Backus (American, 1930– ) – geophysical mathematician, development of geophysical inverse methods; contributions to dynamo theory
Milo Backus (American, 1932–2018) – exploration geophysicist; practical 3D exploration; Maurice_Ewing_Medal (SEG)
Peter Barlow (English, 1776–1862) – experimental and observational studies of terrestrial magnetism, Copley Medal
Anthony R. Barringer (Canadian/American, 1925–2009) – developed the INPUT airborne electromagnetic system for detecting ores ; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Julius Bartels (German, 1899–1964) – contributed to physics of the Sun and Moon; geomagnetism, meteorology and the physics of the ionosphere
Louis Bauer (American, 1865–1932) – mapped the Earth's magnetic field
Hugo Benioff (American, 1899–1968) – discovered link between deep earthquakes and subduction zones
Lloyd Berkner (American, 1905–1967) – studied the ionosphere
Henry Bryant Bigelow (American, 1879–1967) – awarded the William Bowie Medal
Francis Birch (American, 1903–1992) – developed theoretical and experimental models for the Earth's interior; Vetlesen Prize
Kristian Birkeland (Norwegian, 1867–1917) – first realized that energetic electrons cause the aurora; nominated 7 times for Nobel Prize
Abu Rayhan Biruni (Persian, 973–1048) – made accurate measure of circumference of Earth and other contributions to geodesy
Jacob Bjerknes (Norwegian-American, 1897–1975) – awarded the William Bowie Medal
Patrick Blackett (English, 1897–1974) – paleomagnetism, continental drift, Nobel Prize
Martin Bott (British, 1926–2018) – magnetic anomalies, gravity anomalies
Pierre Bouguer (French, 1698–1758) – geodesy; the Bouguer gravity anomaly
William Bowie (American, 1872–1940) – geodesy and isostasy
Wallace Smith Broecker (American, 1931–2019) – climate, ocean circulation; Crafoord Prize, Vetlesen Prize
Bernard Brunhes (French, 1867–1910) – paleomagnetism; discovered the first geomagnetic reversal
Walter Hermann Bucher (German-American, 1888–1965) – awarded the William Bowie Medal
Edward Bullard (British, 1907–1980) – developed theory of geodynamo, pioneered use of seismology to study the sea floor, and used seafloor bathymetry to test continental drift
Keith Edward Bullen (New Zealand-born, 1906–1976) – seismological interpretation of the deep structure of the Earth's mantle and core
Victor Robertovich Bursian (Russian, 1886–1945) – pioneer in theory of Electrical resistivity tomography
C
Henry Cavendish (British, 1731–1810) – made first estimate of the mass of the Earth
Anny Cazenave (French, 1944– ) – geodesy and satellite altimetry; awarded William Bowie Medal
Vlastislav Cervený (Czech) – exploration geophysicist; seismic ray theory; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Sydney Chapman (British, 1888–1970) – predicted magnetosphere; developed theories for effect of solar wind on geomagnetic storms and aurorae
Jule Gregory Charney (American, 1917–1981) – dynamical meteorology; awarded William Bowie Medal
Jon Claerbout (American, 1937– ) – exploration geophysics seismic data processing and imaging; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Alexis Clairaut (French, 1713–1765) – proved Clairaut's theorem and calculated the ellipticity of the Earth
William Compston (Australian, 1931– ) – developed the Sensitive High Resolution Ion Micro Probe for isotopic analyses of geological samples
Vincent Courtillot (French, 1948– ) – paleomagnetist; promoted theory that mass extinctions are caused by massive volcanic episodes
Thomas Cowling (English, 1906–1990) – solar magnetic field, dynamo theory
Allan V. Cox (American, 1926–1987) – created a timeline for geomagnetic reversals and was a pioneer in plate tectonics; Vetlesen Prize
Albert P. Crary (American, 1911–1987) – Arctic and Antarctic exploration, seismology
D
Reginald Aldworth Daly (Canadian, 1871–1957) – awarded the William Bowie Medal
George Howard Darwin (British, 1845–1912) – analyzed tides and tidal friction; first to develop mathematical theory for evolution of the Sun–Earth–Moon system
Arthur Louis Day (American, 1869–1960) – mineral physics and volcanology
Everette Lee DeGolyer (American, 1886–1956) – exploration geophysics in the petroleum industry
Robert S. Dietz (American, 1914–1995) – proposed (and named) – theory of seafloor spreading; discovered several impact craters including Sudbury Basin
Hewitt Dix (American, 1905–1987) – exploration geophysics; creator of the Dix equation for reflection velocity, recipient of the Maurice Ewing Medal
Richard Doell (American, 1923–2008) – created a timeline for geomagnetic reversals and was a pioneer in plate tectonics; Vetlesen Prize
James Dooge (Irish, 1922–2010) – hydrology
Erich von Drygalski (German, 1865–1949) – polar explorer and geophysicist
Adam Dziewonski (Polish/American, 1936–2016) – large-scale structure of Earth's interior and nature of earthquakes; Crafoord Prize
E
Carl Eckart (American, 1902–1973) – underwater acoustics; awarded William Bowie Medal
Walter M. Elsasser (American, 1904–1991) – first mathematical dynamo theory for Earth's outer core
Loránd Eötvös (Hungarian, 1848–1919) – developed a highly accurate torsion balance for gravimetry
Eratosthenes (Greek, c. 276 BC–195 BC) – measured circumference of the Earth and the tilt of its axis
Maurice Ewing (American, 1906–1974) – broad contributions to seafloor seismology; predicted and discovered the SOFAR channel
F
Gerhard Fanselau (German, 1904–1982) – geomagnetic observations
Joseph Charles Farman (British, 1930–2013) – co-discoverer of the ozone hole
Yevgeny Konstantinovich Fyodorov (Russian, 1910–1981) – pioneer in Arctic geophysical survey
Osmond Fisher (British, 1817–1914) – continental drift
John Adam Fleming (American, 1877–1956) – magnetosphere and atmospheric electricity
James David Forbes (British, 1809–1868) – built the first seismometer
Scott Forbush (American, 1904–1984) – solar-terrestrial interactions and the Forbush decrease
Efi Foufoula-Georgiou (Greek, 1957–) – wavelet analysis
Gillian Foulger (English, 1952– ) – plate theory
Robert Were Fox the Younger (British, 1789–1877) – discovered the geothermal gradient; constructed a dip circle for use at sea
Benjamin Franklin (American, 1706–1790) – established that lightning is electrical
G
Carl Friedrich Gauss (German, 1777–1855) – first mathematical representation of Earth's magnetic field; geodetic surveys
Henry Gellibrand (English, 1597–1637) – discovered that magnetic declination varies with time
James Freeman Gilbert (American, 1931–2014) – development of geophysical inverse theory; network of seismometers to study Earth's free oscillation
William Gilbert (English, 1544–1603) – early magnetic experiments; first to argue that the Earth itself is magnetic
George Graham (English 1673 – November 1751) – discovery of the diurnal variation of the Earth's magnetic field; related Aurora borealis to magnetic field variations
Cecil H. Green (British-born American, 1900–2003) – exploration geophysics geophysical entrepreneur and philanthropist; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Harsh Gupta (Indian, 1942– ) – methodology for discriminating normal earthquakes from reservoir-induced ones, study on the genesis of stable continental region earthquakes; Padma Shri, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize and Waldo E. Smith Award
Beno Gutenberg (American, 1889–1960) – probability distribution of earthquake energies and relation of energy to magnitude
H
Edmond Halley (English, 1656–1742) – first chart of Earth's magnetic field
Christopher Hansteen (Norwegian, 1784–1873) – produced the first charts of the intensity of the Earth's magnetic field
Harry Hammond Hess (American, 1906–1969) – seafloor gravity anomalies and theory of seafloor spreading
Georg Hartmann (German, 1489–1564) – kept early records of magnetic declination
Bernhard Haurwitz (American, 1905– 1986) – meteorology
Veikko Aleksanteri Heiskanen (Finnish, 1895–1971) – studies of the global geoid
Raymond Hide (British, 1929–2016)
Arthur Holmes (British, 1890–1965) – performed first uranium–lead dating
M. King Hubbert (American, 1903–1989) – correct statement of Darcy's law and mathematical demonstration that rock undergoes plastic deformation; Vetlesen Prize
Alexander von Humboldt (German, 1769–1859) – global network of geomagnetic observatories
I
Akitsune Imamura (Japanese, 1870–1948) – seismologist
Ted Irving (Canadian, 1927–2014) – early paleomagnetic evidence for continental drift
Ahmet Mete Işıkara (Turkish, 1941–2013) – earthquake scientist
J
Harold Jeffreys (British, 1891–1989) – deduced that the Earth's outer core is molten; contributed to mathematical geophysics; Vetlesen Prize
Lucy Jones (American, born 1955) – earthquake science and safety
Thomas H. Jordan (American, 1948– ) – seismic contributions to plate tectonics
James A. Jackson (English, 1954– ) – seismologist; contributed to rebuttal of the 'jelly sandwich' model of the crust
K
Hiroo Kanamori (American, 1936– ) – fundamental contributions to the physics of earthquakes; Kyoto Prize
Louise H. Kellogg (American, 1959–2019) – modeling of the Earth's mantle
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (Irish, 1824–1907) – influential estimate of the age of the Earth, ultimately proved incorrect
L
Kurt Lambeck (Dutch, 1941– ) – changed understanding of the ways post-glacial rebound affects ocean levels; awarded Wollaston Medal and Balzan Prize
Johann von Lamont (Scottish, 1805–1879) – surveys of the Earth's magnetic field
Louis J. Lanzerotti (American, 1938– ) – magnetosphere and ionosphere; awarded William Bowie Medal
Joseph Larmor (Northern Irish, 1857–1942) – proton precession, dynamo theory
Inge Lehmann (Danish, 1888–1993) – seismologist who discovered the Lehmann discontinuity and argued for a solid inner core
Xavier Le Pichon (French, 1937– ) – constructed history of plate motions
Humphrey Lloyd (Irish, 1800–1881) – observational geomagnetism
Cinna Lomnitz (Chilean–Mexican, 1925–2016) – creator of "Lomnitz Law", founder of Mexico's first seismic network and editor of Geofísica Internacional
Andrew Long (Australian, 1965– ) – developed widely used instruments for marine exploration for oil and gas; Honorary Lecturer (Pacific South) for the Society of Exploration Geophysicists
Augustus Edward Hough Love (English, 1863–1940) – developed theory of Love waves
Bruce P. Luyendyk (American, 1943– ) – marine geophysics
M
Gordon J. F. MacDonald (American, 1929–2002) – investigated rotation of the Earth and true polar wander
James B. Macelwane (American, 1883–1956) – seismologist; awarded William Bowie Medal
Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan (French, 1678 –1771) – shape of the Earth and aurora
Robert Mallet (Irish, 1810–1881) – developed controlled source seismology; coined terms seismology and epicenter
Syukuro Manabe (Japanese, 1931– ) – climate models; awarded William Bowie Medal
Pierre de Maricourt (Petrus Peregrinus) (French, fl. 1269) – first extant treatise on properties of magnets; detailed study of the compass
Edme Mariotte (French, 1620–1684) – one of the pioneers of modern hydrology; used floats to measure river flow
Drummond Matthews (British, 1931–1997) – used ocean magnetic anomalies to confirm theory of seafloor spreading
Motonori Matuyama (Japanese, 1884–1958) – first to show that a geomagnetic reversal had occurred in the past
Dan McKenzie (British, 1942– ) – mathematical framework for plate tectonics; mantle convection; sedimentary basin formation; Crafoord Prize
Harry Mayne (American, 1913–1990) – exploration geophysicist, invented CRP stacking for noise reduction; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Marcia McNutt (American, 1952– ) – elastic strength of lithosphere; identified the South Pacific superswell
Felix Andries Vening Meinesz (Dutch, 1887–1966) – developed a precise gravimeter and discovered gravity anomalies above the ocean floor
Oscar Edward Meinzer (American, 1876–1948) – groundwater hydrology; awarded William Bowie Medal
Henry William Menard (American, 1920–1986) – plate tectonics; awarded William Bowie Medal
Giuseppe Mercalli (Italian, 1850–1914) – developed Mercalli intensity scale for measuring earthquakes
John Milne (British, 1849–1913) – invented the horizontal pendulum seismograph
Andrija Mohorovičić (Croatian, 1857–1936) – identified Mohorovičić discontinuity;
W. Jason Morgan (American, 1935– ) – geodynamics, plate tectonics
Jean Morlet (French, 1931–2007) – developed the wavelet transform for exploration geophysics
Lawrence Morley (Canadian, 1920–2013)) – used ocean magnetic anomalies to confirm theory of seafloor spreading
Ahsan Mubarak (Pakistani, ?) – seismic detection of nuclear tests
Walter Munk (American, 1917–2019) – rotation of the earth; acoustic tomography of the oceans; Crafoord Prize, Vetlesen Prize, Kyoto Prize
N
Louis Néel (French, 1904–2000) – developed theory to explain the stable magnetization in volcanic rocks; Nobel Prize in physics
Marcia Neugebauer (American, 1932– ) – space physicist and president of the American Geophysical Union
Marcel Nicolet (Belgian, 1912–1996) – ionosphere; awarded William Bowie Medal
Robert Norman (English, circa 1550–1600) – re-discovery of magnetic dip
Amos_Nur (American, 1938– ) – exploration geophysics; rock physics; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
O
Abel Idowu Olayinka (Nigerian, 1958– ) – applied geophysicist
Richard Dixon Oldham (British, 1858–1936) – seismologist, first clear evidence for separate arrivals of P-waves, S-waves and surface waves on seismograms; first clear evidence for Earth's core
P
Luigi Palmieri (Italian, 1807–1896) – seismic studies of Mount Vesuvius
Eugene Parker (American, 1927– ) – solar wind and magnetospheres of the Earth and Sun; awarded Kyoto Prize, National Medal of Science, William Bowie Medal
Antares Parvulescu (American, 1923–1998), inventor of the first time-reversal experiment, and matched equivalent-space signal (MESS) processing.
Blaise Pascal (French, 1623–1662) – demonstrated that atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude
Chaim Leib Pekeris (American, 1908–1993) – mathematical methods to study free vibrations of Earth, tides, and origin of Earth's magnetic field; Vetlesen Prize
William Richard Peltier (Canadian, 1943– ) – geophysical fluid dynamics, glacial rebound, climate change, Vetlesen Prize
Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt (French, 13th century) – wrote the first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets and the earliest detailed discussion of freely pivoting compass needles
Pierre Perrault (1608–1680) – developed the concept of the hydrological cycle
Alexis Perrey (French, 1807–1882) – seismologist
Walter C. Pitman, III (American, 1931–2019) – seafloor spreading and tectonics
George W. Platzman (American, 1920–2008) – geophysical fluid dynamics, numerical weather prediction
John Henry Pratt (British, 1809–1871) – laid foundation for principle of isostasy
Frank Press (American, 1924–2020) – design of a long-period seismograph, and the first detection of the Earth's normal modes of oscillation; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Albert Thomas Price (British, 1903–1978) – geomagnetism and global electromagnetic induction
R
Harry Fielding Reid (American, 1859–1944) – elastic-rebound theory and other contributions to seismology
Roger Revelle (American, 1909–1991) – global warming and plate tectonics; awarded William Bowie Medal
Charles Francis Richter (American, 1900–1985) – creation of Richter magnitude scale
Ted Ringwood (Australian, 1930–1993) – mineral physics; awarded William Bowie Medal and Wollaston Medal
Enders Robinson (American, 1928– ) – exploration geophysicist; co-inventor of digital seismic signal processing; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Ignacio Rodriguez-Iturbe (Venezuelan, 1942– ) – global warming; awarded William Bowie Medal
Keith Runcorn (British, 1922–1995) – paleomagnetic work supporting continental drift; apparent polar wander
S
Edward Sabine (Irish, 1788–1883) – measured oblateness of the Earth; established system of magnetic observatories
Benjamin D. Santer (American, 1955– ) – climatologist
Conrad Schlumberger (French, 1878–1936) – and Marcel Schlumberger (French, 1884–1953) – invented electric well logging
Michael Schoenberg (American, 1939–2008) – contributions to seismic anisotropy
Alessandro Serpieri (Italian, 1823–1885) – seismologist
Nicholas Shackleton (British, 1937–2006) – paleoceanography, climate, Crafoord Prize, Vetlesen Prize
Irwin I. Shapiro (American, 1929– ) – awarded William Bowie Medal
Otto Schmidt (Russian, 1891–1956)
Shen Kuo (Chinese, 1031–1095) – discovered magnetic declination
Robert E. Sheriff (American, 1922 – 2014) exploration geophysics ; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
John Sherwood (British) – exploration geophysics ; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Eugene Merle Shoemaker (American, 1928–1997) – planetary science; awarded William Bowie Medal
Paul G. Silver (American, 1948–2009) – seismic anisotropy and splitting of shear waves
Fred Singer (Austrian-American, 1924–2020) – atmospheric physicist, global warming denier
Susan Solomon (American, 1956– ) – proposed chlorofluorocarbons as the cause of the Antarctic ozone hole; awarded Nobel peace prize and William Bowie Medal
David J. Stevenson (New Zealander/American, 1948– ) – theories of internal structure and evolution of planets
Balfour Stewart (Scottish, 1828–1887) – observations of solar flares and geomagnetic storms
Henry Stommel (American, 1920–1992) – ocean circulation; awarded William Bowie Medal
David Strangway (Canadian, 1934–2016) – lunar geophysics; university administration ; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Carl Størmer (Norwegian, 1874–1957) – motion of charged particles in the magnetosphere and origin of the aurora
Harald Sverdrup (Norwegian, 1888–1957) – ocean circulation; awarded William Bowie Medal
T
Albert Tarantola (Spanish, 1949 – 2009) – geophysical inverse problems; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Marie Tharp (1920–2006): American geologist and oceanographic cartographer who, in partnership with Bruce Heezen, created the first scientific map of the Atlantic Ocean floor.
Andrey Nikolayevich Tikhonov (Russian, 1906–1993) – magnetotellurics method in geophysics
Nafi Toksöz (Turkish-American, 1937– ) exploration geophysics; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Sven Treitel (American, 1929– ) – exploration geophysicist; co-inventor of digital seismic signal processing; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG)
Merle Tuve (American, 1901–1982) – used radio waves to measure the ionosphere; United States Medal for Merit
Donald L. Turcotte (American, 1932– ) – developed theory of convection in the Earth's mantle, applications of fractals and chaos to Earth processes; William Bowie Medal of the AGU
V
James Van Allen (American, 1914–2006) – Van Allen radiation belts; awarded Crafoord Prize, Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (for geophysics), National Medal of Science, William Bowie Medal
Petr Vaníček (Czech Canadian, 1935– ) – breakthroughs in theory of spectral analysis and geoid computation, awarded J. Tuzo Wilson Medal, founded Canadian Geophysical Union
T. Wayland Vaughan (American, 1870–1952) – study of corals and coral reefs, larger foraminifera, and oceanography
Fred Vine (British, 1939– ) – work on marine magnetic anomalies confirmed the theory of seafloor spreading
W
Kiyoo Wadati (Japanese, 1902–1995) – researched subduction zone earthquakes; lent name to Wadati–Benioff zone
Alfred Wegener (German, 1880–1930) – developed theory of continental drift
Frank T. M. White (Australian, 1909–1971) – mining and metallurgical engineer; mineral science educator
Emil Johann Wiechert (German, 1861–1928) – first verifiable model of layered structure of the Earth; pioneering work on propagation of seismic waves
J. Tuzo Wilson (Canadian, 1908–1993) – contributions to plate tectonics: theories of hotspots, transform faults and Wilson cycles; Vetlesen Prize; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG); President of AGU;
J. Lamar Worzel (American, 1919–2008) – contributions to underwater acoustics, underwater photography, and gravity measurements at sea
Carl Wunsch (American, 1941– ) – ocean circulation, climatology; awarded the William Bowie Medal
Z
Zhang Heng (Chinese, 78–139) – invented the first seismoscope
See also
List of geodesists
List of geologists
List of physicists
List of presidents of the American Geophysical Union
References
Geophysicists
Geophysicists
nl:Lijst van geofysici
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic%20compound
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Ionic compound
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In chemistry, an ionic compound is a chemical compound composed of ions held together by electrostatic forces termed ionic bonding. The compound is neutral overall, but consists of positively charged ions called cations and negatively charged ions called anions. These can be simple ions such as the sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl−) in sodium chloride, or polyatomic species such as the ammonium () and carbonate () ions in ammonium carbonate. Individual ions within an ionic compound usually have multiple nearest neighbours, so are not considered to be part of molecules, but instead part of a continuous three-dimensional network. Ionic compounds usually form crystalline structures when solid.
Ionic compounds containing basic ions hydroxide (OH−) or oxide (O2−) are classified as bases. Ionic compounds without these ions are also known as salts and can be formed by acid–base reactions. Ionic compounds can also be produced from their constituent ions by evaporation of their solvent, precipitation, freezing, a solid-state reaction, or the electron transfer reaction of reactive metals with reactive non-metals, such as halogen gases.
Ionic compounds typically have high melting and boiling points, and are hard and brittle. As solids they are almost always electrically insulating, but when melted or dissolved they become highly conductive, because the ions are mobilized.
History of discovery
The word ion is the Greek , ion, "going", the present participle of , ienai, "to go". This term was introduced by physicist and chemist Michael Faraday in 1834 for the then-unknown species that goes from one electrode to the other through an aqueous medium.
In 1913 the crystal structure of sodium chloride was determined by William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg. This revealed that there were six equidistant nearest-neighbours for each atom, demonstrating that the constituents were not arranged in molecules or finite aggregates, but instead as a network with long-range crystalline order. Many other inorganic compounds were also found to have similar structural features. These compounds were soon described as being constituted of ions rather than neutral atoms, but proof of this hypothesis was not found until the mid-1920s, when X-ray reflection experiments (which detect the density of electrons), were performed.
Principal contributors to the development of a theoretical treatment of ionic crystal structures were Max Born, Fritz Haber, Alfred Landé, Erwin Madelung, Paul Peter Ewald, and Kazimierz Fajans. Born predicted crystal energies based on the assumption of ionic constituents, which showed good correspondence to thermochemical measurements, further supporting the assumption.
Formation
Ionic compounds can be produced from their constituent ions by evaporation, precipitation, or freezing. Reactive metals such as the alkali metals can react directly with the highly electronegative halogen gases to form an ionic product. They can also be synthesized as the product of a high temperature reaction between solids.
If the ionic compound is soluble in a solvent, it can be obtained as a solid compound by evaporating the solvent from this electrolyte solution. As the solvent is evaporated, the ions do not go into the vapor, but stay in the remaining solution, and when they become sufficiently concentrated, nucleation occurs, and they crystallize into an ionic compound. This process occurs widely in nature and is the means of formation of the evaporite minerals. Another method of recovering the compound from solution involves saturating a solution at high temperature and then reducing the solubility by reducing the temperature until the solution is supersaturated and the solid compound nucleates.
Insoluble ionic compounds can be precipitated by mixing two solutions, one with the cation and one with the anion in it. Because all solutions are electrically neutral, the two solutions mixed must also contain counterions of the opposite charges. To ensure that these do not contaminate the precipitated ionic compound, it is important to ensure they do not also precipitate. If the two solutions have hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions as the counterions, they will react with one another in what is called an acid–base reaction or a neutralization reaction to form water. Alternately the counterions can be chosen to ensure that even when combined into a single solution they will remain soluble as spectator ions.
If the solvent is water in either the evaporation or precipitation method of formation, in many cases the ionic crystal formed also includes water of crystallization, so the product is known as a hydrate, and can have very different chemical properties.
Molten salts will solidify on cooling to below their freezing point. This is sometimes used for the solid-state synthesis of complex ionic compounds from solid reactants, which are first melted together. In other cases, the solid reactants do not need to be melted, but instead can react through a solid-state reaction route. In this method, the reactants are repeatedly finely ground into a paste and then heated to a temperature where the ions in neighboring reactants can diffuse together during the time the reactant mixture remains in the oven. Other synthetic routes use a solid precursor with the correct stoichiometric ratio of non-volatile ions, which is heated to drive off other species.
In some reactions between highly reactive metals (usually from Group 1 or Group 2) and highly electronegative halogen gases, or water, the atoms can be ionized by electron transfer, a process thermodynamically understood using the Born–Haber cycle.
Bonding
Ions in ionic compounds are primarily held together by the electrostatic forces between the charge distribution of these bodies, and in particular, the ionic bond resulting from the long-ranged Coulomb attraction between the net negative charge of the anions and net positive charge of the cations. There is also a small additional attractive force from van der Waals interactions which contributes only around 1–2% of the cohesive energy for small ions. When a pair of ions comes close enough for their outer electron shells (most simple ions have closed shells) to overlap, a short-ranged repulsive force occurs, due to the Pauli exclusion principle. The balance between these forces leads to a potential energy well with minimum energy when the nuclei are separated by a specific equilibrium distance.
If the electronic structure of the two interacting bodies is affected by the presence of one another, covalent interactions (non-ionic) also contribute to the overall energy of the compound formed. Ionic compounds are rarely purely ionic, i.e. held together only by electrostatic forces. The bonds between even the most electronegative/electropositive pairs such as those in caesium fluoride exhibit a small degree of covalency. Conversely, covalent bonds between unlike atoms often exhibit some charge separation and can be considered to have a partial ionic character. The circumstances under which a compound will have ionic or covalent character can typically be understood using Fajans' rules, which use only charges and the sizes of each ion. According to these rules, compounds with the most ionic character will have large positive ions with a low charge, bonded to a small negative ion with a high charge. More generally HSAB theory can be applied, whereby the compounds with the most ionic character are those consisting of hard acids and hard bases: small, highly charged ions with a high difference in electronegativities between the anion and cation. This difference in electronegativities means that the charge separation, and resulting dipole moment, is maintained even when the ions are in contact (the excess electrons on the anions are not transferred or polarized to neutralize the cations).
Structure
Ions typically pack into extremely regular crystalline structures, in an arrangement that minimizes the lattice energy (maximizing attractions and minimizing repulsions). The lattice energy is the summation of the interaction of all sites with all other sites. For unpolarizable spherical ions, only the charges and distances are required to determine the electrostatic interaction energy. For any particular ideal crystal structure, all distances are geometrically related to the smallest internuclear distance. So for each possible crystal structure, the total electrostatic energy can be related to the electrostatic energy of unit charges at the nearest neighboring distance by a multiplicative constant called the Madelung constant that can be efficiently computed using an Ewald sum. When a reasonable form is assumed for the additional repulsive energy, the total lattice energy can be modelled using the Born–Landé equation, the Born–Mayer equation, or in the absence of structural information, the Kapustinskii equation.
Using an even simpler approximation of the ions as impenetrable hard spheres, the arrangement of anions in these systems are often related to close-packed arrangements of spheres, with the cations occupying tetrahedral or octahedral interstices. Depending on the stoichiometry of the ionic compound, and the coordination (principally determined by the radius ratio) of cations and anions, a variety of structures are commonly observed, and theoretically rationalized by Pauling's rules.
In some cases, the anions take on a simple cubic packing and the resulting common structures observed are:
Some ionic liquids, particularly with mixtures of anions or cations, can be cooled rapidly enough that there is not enough time for crystal nucleation to occur, so an ionic glass is formed (with no long-range order).
Defects
Within an ionic crystal, there will usually be some point defects, but to maintain electroneutrality, these defects come in pairs. Frenkel defects consist of a cation vacancy paired with a cation interstitial and can be generated anywhere in the bulk of the crystal, occurring most commonly in compounds with a low coordination number and cations that are much smaller than the anions. Schottky defects consist of one vacancy of each type, and are generated at the surfaces of a crystal, occurring most commonly in compounds with a high coordination number and when the anions and cations are of similar size. If the cations have multiple possible oxidation states, then it is possible for cation vacancies to compensate for electron deficiencies on cation sites with higher oxidation numbers, resulting in a non-stoichiometric compound. Another non-stoichiometric possibility is the formation of an F-center, a free electron occupying an anion vacancy. When the compound has three or more ionic components, even more defect types are possible. All of these point defects can be generated via thermal vibrations and have an equilibrium concentration. Because they are energetically costly but entropically beneficial, they occur in greater concentration at higher temperatures. Once generated, these pairs of defects can diffuse mostly independently of one another, by hopping between lattice sites. This defect mobility is the source of most transport phenomena within an ionic crystal, including diffusion and solid state ionic conductivity. When vacancies collide with interstitials (Frenkel), they can recombine and annihilate one another. Similarly, vacancies are removed when they reach the surface of the crystal (Schottky). Defects in the crystal structure generally expand the lattice parameters, reducing the overall density of the crystal. Defects also result in ions in distinctly different local environments, which causes them to experience a different crystal-field symmetry, especially in the case of different cations exchanging lattice sites. This results in a different splitting of d-electron orbitals, so that the optical absorption (and hence colour) can change with defect concentration.
Properties
Acidity/basicity
Ionic compounds containing hydrogen ions (H+) are classified as acids, and those containing electropositive cations and basic anions ions hydroxide (OH−) or oxide (O2−) are classified as bases. Other ionic compounds are known as salts and can be formed by acid–base reactions. If the compound is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a weak base, the result is an acidic salt. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong base and a weak acid, the result is a basic salt. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a strong base, the result is a neutral salt. Weak acids reacted with weak bases can produce ionic compounds with both the conjugate base ion and conjugate acid ion, such as ammonium acetate.
Some ions are classed as amphoteric, being able to react with either an acid or a base. This is also true of some compounds with ionic character, typically oxides or hydroxides of less-electropositive metals (so the compound also has significant covalent character), such as zinc oxide, aluminium hydroxide, aluminium oxide and lead(II) oxide.
Melting and boiling points
Electrostatic forces between particles are strongest when the charges are high, and the distance between the nuclei of the ions is small. In such cases, the compounds generally have very high melting and boiling points and a low vapour pressure. Trends in melting points can be even better explained when the structure and ionic size ratio is taken into account. Above their melting point ionic solids melt and become molten salts (although some ionic compounds such as aluminium chloride and iron(III) chloride show molecule-like structures in the liquid phase). Inorganic compounds with simple ions typically have small ions, and thus have high melting points, so are solids at room temperature. Some substances with larger ions, however, have a melting point below or near room temperature (often defined as up to 100 °C), and are termed ionic liquids. Ions in ionic liquids often have uneven charge distributions, or bulky substituents like hydrocarbon chains, which also play a role in determining the strength of the interactions and propensity to melt.
Even when the local structure and bonding of an ionic solid is disrupted sufficiently to melt it, there are still strong long-range electrostatic forces of attraction holding the liquid together and preventing ions boiling to form a gas phase. This means that even room temperature ionic liquids have low vapour pressures, and require substantially higher temperatures to boil. Boiling points exhibit similar trends to melting points in terms of the size of ions and strength of other interactions. When vapourized, the ions are still not freed of one another. For example, in the vapour phase sodium chloride exists as diatomic "molecules".
Brittleness
Most ionic compounds are very brittle. Once they reach the limit of their strength, they cannot deform malleably, because the strict alignment of positive and negative ions must be maintained. Instead the material undergoes fracture via cleavage. As the temperature is elevated (usually close to the melting point) a ductile–brittle transition occurs, and plastic flow becomes possible by the motion of dislocations.
Compressibility
The compressibility of an ionic compound is strongly determined by its structure, and in particular the coordination number. For example, halides with the caesium chloride structure (coordination number 8) are less compressible than those with the sodium chloride structure (coordination number 6), and less again than those with a coordination number of 4.
Solubility
When ionic compounds dissolve, the individual ions dissociate and are solvated by the solvent and dispersed throughout the resulting solution. Because the ions are released into solution when dissolved, and can conduct charge, soluble ionic compounds are the most common class of strong electrolytes, and their solutions have a high electrical conductivity.
The solubility is highest in polar solvents (such as water) or ionic liquids, but tends to be low in nonpolar solvents (such as petrol/gasoline). This is principally because the resulting ion–dipole interactions are significantly stronger than ion-induced dipole interactions, so the heat of solution is higher. When the oppositely charged ions in the solid ionic lattice are surrounded by the opposite pole of a polar molecule, the solid ions are pulled out of the lattice and into the liquid. If the solvation energy exceeds the lattice energy, the negative net enthalpy change of solution provides a thermodynamic drive to remove ions from their positions in the crystal and dissolve in the liquid. In addition, the entropy change of solution is usually positive for most solid solutes like ionic compounds, which means that their solubility increases when the temperature increases. There are some unusual ionic compounds such as cerium(III) sulfate, where this entropy change is negative, due to extra order induced in the water upon solution, and the solubility decreases with temperature.
Electrical conductivity
Although ionic compounds contain charged atoms or clusters, these materials do not typically conduct electricity to any significant extent when the substance is solid. In order to conduct, the charged particles must be mobile rather than stationary in a crystal lattice. This is achieved to some degree at high temperatures when the defect concentration increases the ionic mobility and solid state ionic conductivity is observed. When the ionic compounds are dissolved in a liquid or are melted into a liquid, they can conduct electricity because the ions become completely mobile. This conductivity gain upon dissolving or melting is sometimes used as a defining characteristic of ionic compounds.
In some unusual ionic compounds: fast ion conductors, and ionic glasses, one or more of the ionic components has a significant mobility, allowing conductivity even while the material as a whole remains solid. This is often highly temperature dependent, and may be the result of either a phase change or a high defect concentration. These materials are used in all solid-state supercapacitors, batteries, and fuel cells, and in various kinds of chemical sensors.
Colour
The colour of an ionic compound is often different from the colour of an aqueous solution containing the constituent ions, or the hydrated form of the same compound.
The anions in compounds with bonds with the most ionic character tend to be colorless (with an absorption band in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum). In compounds with less ionic character, their color deepens through yellow, orange, red, and black (as the absorption band shifts to longer wavelengths into the visible spectrum).
The absorption band of simple cations shifts toward a shorter wavelength when they are involved in more covalent interactions. This occurs during hydration of metal ions, so colorless anhydrous ionic compounds with an anion absorbing in the infrared can become colorful in solution.
Uses
Ionic compounds have long had a wide variety of uses and applications. Many minerals are ionic. Humans have processed common salt (sodium chloride) for over 8000 years, using it first as a food seasoning and preservative, and now also in manufacturing, agriculture, water conditioning, for de-icing roads, and many other uses. Many ionic compounds are so widely used in society that they go by common names unrelated to their chemical identity. Examples of this include borax, calomel, milk of magnesia, muriatic acid, oil of vitriol, saltpeter, and slaked lime.
Soluble ionic compounds like salt can easily be dissolved to provide electrolyte solutions. This is a simple way to control the concentration and ionic strength. The concentration of solutes affects many colligative properties, including increasing the osmotic pressure, and causing freezing-point depression and boiling-point elevation. Because the solutes are charged ions they also increase the electrical conductivity of the solution. The increased ionic strength reduces the thickness of the electrical double layer around colloidal particles, and therefore the stability of emulsions and suspensions.
The chemical identity of the ions added is also important in many uses. For example, fluoride containing compounds are dissolved to supply fluoride ions for water fluoridation.
Solid ionic compounds have long been used as paint pigments, and are resistant to organic solvents, but are sensitive to acidity or basicity. Since 1801 pyrotechnicians have described and widely used metal-containing ionic compounds as sources of colour in fireworks. Under intense heat, the electrons in the metal ions or small molecules can be excited. These electrons later return to lower energy states, and release light with a colour spectrum characteristic of the species present.
In chemistry, ionic compounds are often used as precursors for high-temperature solid-state synthesis.
Many metals are geologically most abundant as ionic compounds within ores. To obtain the elemental materials, these ores are processed by smelting or electrolysis, in which redox reactions occur (often with a reducing agent such as carbon) such that the metal ions gain electrons to become neutral atoms.
Nomenclature
According to the nomenclature recommended by IUPAC, ionic compounds are named according to their composition, not their structure. In the most simple case of a binary ionic compound with no possible ambiguity about the charges and thus the stoichiometry, the common name is written using two words. The name of the cation (the unmodified element name for monatomic cations) comes first, followed by the name of the anion. For example, MgCl2 is named magnesium chloride, and Na2SO4 is named sodium sulfate (, sulfate, is an example of a polyatomic ion). To obtain the empirical formula from these names, the stoichiometry can be deduced from the charges on the ions, and the requirement of overall charge neutrality.
If there are multiple different cations and/or anions, multiplicative prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-, ...) are often required to indicate the relative compositions, and cations then anions are listed in alphabetical order. For example, KMgCl3 is named magnesium potassium trichloride to distinguish it from K2MgCl4, magnesium dipotassium tetrachloride (note that in both the empirical formula and the written name, the cations appear in alphabetical order, but the order varies between them because the symbol for potassium is K). When one of the ions already has a multiplicative prefix within its name, the alternate multiplicative prefixes (bis-, tris-, tetrakis-, ...) are used. For example, Ba(BrF4)2 is named barium bis(tetrafluoridobromate).
Compounds containing one or more elements which can exist in a variety of charge/oxidation states will have a stoichiometry that depends on which oxidation states are present, to ensure overall neutrality. This can be indicated in the name by specifying either the oxidation state of the elements present, or the charge on the ions. Because of the risk of ambiguity in allocating oxidation states, IUPAC prefers direct indication of the ionic charge numbers. These are written as an arabic integer followed by the sign (... , 2−, 1−, 1+, 2+, ...) in parentheses directly after the name of the cation (without a space separating them). For example, FeSO4 is named iron(2+) sulfate (with the 2+ charge on the Fe2+ ions balancing the 2− charge on the sulfate ion), whereas Fe2(SO4)3 is named iron(3+) sulfate (because the two iron ions in each formula unit each have a charge of 3+, to balance the 2− on each of the three sulfate ions). Stock nomenclature, still in common use, writes the oxidation number in Roman numerals (... , −II, −I, 0, I, II, ...). So the examples given above would be named iron(II) sulfate and iron(III) sulfate respectively. For simple ions the ionic charge and the oxidation number are identical, but for polyatomic ions they often differ. For example, the uranyl(2+) ion, , has uranium in an oxidation state of +6, so would be called a dioxouranium(VI) ion in Stock nomenclature. An even older naming system for metal cations, also still widely used, appended the suffixes -ous and -ic to the Latin root of the name, to give special names for the low and high oxidation states. For example, this scheme uses "ferrous" and "ferric", for iron(II) and iron(III) respectively, so the examples given above were classically named ferrous sulfate and ferric sulfate.
See also
Bonding in solids
Ioliomics
Ionic bond
Salt metathesis reaction
Notes
References
Bibliography
Chemical compounds
Ions
Chemical compounds by chemical bond
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210007
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhambane%20Province
|
Inhambane Province
|
Inhambane is a province of Mozambique located on the coast in the southern part of the country. It has an area of 68,615 km2 and a population of 1,488,676 (2017 census). The provincial capital is also called Inhambane.
The climate is tropical throughout, more humid along the coast and dryer inland. The coast has a number of mangrove swamps.
The town of Inhambane existed in the 10th century, and was the southernmost port used by Arabs for slave trading. The region was visited by Vasco da Gama in 1498, who claimed Inhambane Bay for Portugal. The Portuguese established a trading post at Inhambane in 1534.
The province is the second largest grower of cashews (after Nampula), and also produces coconut and citrus fruit (inspiring Mozambique's most famous poet Craveirinha to write of "The Tasty Tangerines of Inhambane"). The long coastline supports much fishing. The Inhambane Bay area is of some interest for tourism, with a number of beaches, and one of the last remaining populations of dugong in Mozambique.
Districts
Imhambane Province is divided into the 12 districts of:
Funhalouro District
Govuro District
Homoine District
Jangamo District
Inharrime District
Inhassoro District
Mabote District
Massinga District
Morrumbene District
Panda District
Vilanculos District
Zavala District
and the municipalities of:
Inhambane provincial capital
Maxixe largest population, and the province's economic capital
Culture
Inhambane is famous for its music, in particular the timbila (xylophone ensemble) of the Chopi ethnic group.
Geography
The province has two of the Mozambique's national parks: Zinave National Park in the northwest and Bazaruto National Park on the Bazaruto Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, in the northeast of the province, as well as the Pomene National Reserve.
Transportation
The province is served by Inhambane Airport, in Jangamo District.
See also
Music of Mozambique
Postage stamps and postal history of Inhambane
Secondary School of Doane
References
External links
Inhambane Province official site
Provinces of Mozambique
|
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210008
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao%20cuisine
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Lao cuisine
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Lao cuisine or Laotian cuisine () is the national cuisine of Laos.
The staple food of the Lao is sticky rice (, ). Laos has the highest sticky rice consumption per-capita in the world with an average of of sticky rice consumed annually per person. Sticky rice is deeply ingrained in the culture, religious tradition and national identity of Laos. It is a common belief within the Lao community that no matter where they are in the world, sticky rice will always be the glue that holds the Lao communities together, connecting them to their culture and to Laos. Affinity for sticky rice is considered the essence of what it means to be Lao. Often the Lao will refer to themselves as luk khao niaow, which can be translated as 'children or descendants of sticky rice'.
The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) has described Laos as a “collector’s paradise”. Laos has the highest degrees of biodiversity of sticky rice in the world. As of 2013, approximately 6,530 glutinous rice varieties were collected from five continents (Asia, South America, North America, Europe and Africa) where glutinous rice are grown for preservation at the International Rice Genebank (IRGC). The IRRI gathered more than 13,500 samples and 3,200 varieties of glutinous rice from Laos.
The trifecta of Laos' national cuisine are sticky rice, larb, and green papaya salad (, ). The most famous Lao dish is larb (; sometimes also spelled laab or laap), a spicy mixture of marinated meat or fish that is sometimes raw (prepared like ceviche) with a variable combination of herbs, greens, and spices.
Lao cuisine has many regional variations, corresponding in part to the fresh foods local to each region. A French legacy is still evident in the capital city, Vientiane, where baguettes are sold on the street and French restaurants are common and popular, which were first introduced when Laos was a part of French Indochina.
Origins of the Lao cuisine
The Lao originally came from a northern region that is now part of China. As they moved south they brought their traditions with them. Due to historical Lao migrations from Laos into neighboring regions, Lao cuisine has influenced the mainly Lao-populated region of Northeastern Thailand, and Lao foods were also introduced to Cambodia and Northern Thailand where the Lao have migrated.
Like most Southeast Asian nations, Laos has been heavily influenced by Indian and Chinese culture. From time immemorial, Lao people traded directly with ancient China. It was the Indianization of Laos, however, that has had the most impact. The spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam into Southeast Asia during this period took with it Indian traditions and culture to what are now Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos where it took roots and continues to flourish to this day. It is also during this time that Buddhist monks introduced traditional Indian spices, curry and coconut milk to Laos. However, unlike most of its neighbours, Lao people's affinity for glutinous or sticky rice and Lao cuisine's heavy focus on sticky rice meant that coconut milk and noodles never played a significant role in Lao cuisine. Instead, coconut milk, curry and noodles are limited to a few Laotian soups, noodle dishes and sticky rice based desserts.
With the Columbian exchange, non-native crops—such as tomato, papaya, sweetcorn, pineapple and chili peppers—were introduced to Southeast Asia probably through the various sea ports of modern-day Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam via the Philippines and Malacca. Through trades with the Portuguese and other Europeans, acceptance and cultivation of non-native crops and ingredients quickly spread throughout Southeast Asia.
By the mid-1500s, the Europeans were already exploring and trading with mainland Southeast Asia reaching as far as Vientiane and Luang Prabang, Laos. Some of the more notable Europeans who had travelled as far as Vientiane and Luang Prabang or wrote extensively about their experiences were Fernão Mendes Pinto (1542-1545), Diogo Veloso and Blas Ruiz (1596), Geebard van Wusthof (1641), Giovanni Filippo de Marini (1642-1648), Jean-Baptiste Pallegoix (1830), and Henri Mouhot (1861).
Simon de la Loubère (1642-1729) observed that the cultivation of the papaya was already widespread in Siam around the early-1700s and by the time Jean-Baptiste Pallegoix (1830) arrived as missionary to Bangkok; the papaya and chili peppers was already fully integrated in the Lao territory, dependencies and the Southeast Asian food culture as a whole.
French explorer Henri Mouhot, during his trip to Luang Prabang, noted that the Laotians absolutely adored chili peppers.
Lao and Thai cuisine
In his book, Culture and Customs of Laos, Arne Kislenko noted the following about Lao cuisine:
Any discussion about Lao cuisine cannot be limited to Laos. There are approximately six times more ethnic Lao in the Isan region of northeastern Thailand than in Laos itself, which makes it necessary to go beyond national boundaries in search of definitively Lao food. In fact, with the recent droves of migrants from Isan further south to Bangkok, the Thai capital has in many respects become the epicenter of Lao cuisine. Some estimate that more Lao are there than in any other city in the world, including Vientiane. There are also sizable expatriate communities in places like the United States and France that make for numerous culinary variations abroad.
According to the cultural anthropologist Penny Van Esterik, during the 1950s and 1960s, Lao food was little known by the central Thais and could be found only where there were gatherings of Lao or northeasterners:
In the 1950s and 1960s glutinous rice, roast chicken, laab, somtam (papaya salad), and other Lao favorites were available in Bangkok only around the boxing stadium where northeastern boxers and fans gathered to eat and drink before and after boxing matches. Lao food could also be found outside construction sites in mobile food carts providing construction workers from the northeast with their regional foods and beside gas stations serving long-distance bus drivers.
At the conclusion of the Vietnam War, between 1975 and 1995, it was estimated that approximately 200,000 Lao refugees crossed the Mekong River into Thailand. Most stayed in the refugee camps while other moved to Bangkok looking for work.
With the opening of the Mittraphap Road and the northeastern railway connecting central Thailand to her northern provinces created a gateway for one of Thailand's biggest inter-regional migrations during the economic boom of the 1980s, as demand for labour increased. It was estimated that between 1980 and 1990 about 1.1 million northeasterners moved from the northeast to central Thailand and Bangkok. This, in turn, helped popularize and create an unprecedented demand for Lao food outside of Laos and the northeast.
Van Esterik also noted that, "[i]n attempting to include northeastern food in a standardized national cuisine, middle-class Bangkok selected and modified the taste of a few dishes—grilled chicken, somtam, laab—by reducing the chili peppers and increasing the sugar, and ignored other dishes such as fermented fish and insects". According to Professor Sirijit Sunanta these dishes were then represented as Thai food when presented to the world.
Although more ethnic Lao live in Thailand than in Laos, and Lao cuisine is key to popularising Thai food abroad, the word "Lao" is hardly mentioned; perhaps due to forced Thaification (1942–present), an official attempt to promote national unity and "Thainess", in which any mention of "Lao" and other non-Thai descriptors were removed and replaced with "northeastern Thai" or "Isan".
Consequently, Thaification has led to social discrimination against northeasterners, and the word "Lao" became a derogatory term. Being "Lao" was stigmatized as being uneducated and backward, thus causing many northeasterners to be ashamed to be known as Lao. More recently, as Lao identity loses its stigma, there is now a real sense of resurgence and pride in Lao identity, particularly among the Isan youth.
In the West, even with sizable expatriate communities, Lao cuisine is still virtually unknown, even though much of what is served in Thai restaurants is likely to be Lao or Lao-owned. In fact, unbeknownst to most people, when they eat their favourite som tam, larb, and sticky rice at their favourite Thai or northeastern Thai (Isan) restaurants they are actually eating the Thai versions of traditional Lao food. This accidental reinforcement of Thaification by the expatriate Lao communities and Lao restaurateurs is well observed by Malaphone Phommasa and Celestine Detvongsa in their article, Lao American Ethnic Economy:
Unlike […] ethnic specific stores, Lao-owned restaurants are doing better in reaching out to the general public. Although there are some restaurants that advertised as singularly "Laotian", many Lao restaurants are established under the guise of Thai restaurants and Thai/Lao restaurants to entice mainstream customers. Because most Americans are unfamiliar with Laotian food, Lao entrepreneurs have aimed to acquire more business by advertising themselves as Thai restaurants: the latter have successfully achieved popularity with the mainstream population. These restaurateurs would then incorporate Lao dishes onto the menu. Although there are many similarities between Lao and northern Thai cuisine, certain foods will distinguish a true Thai restaurant from a Lao-owned restaurant would be the inclusion of "sticky rice" on the menu... One of the earliest Thai restaurants to open in North America was by Keo Sananikone, a Lao refugee and early pioneer of Thai food in the US. In 1977, Keo opened a series of Thai restaurants starting with Mekong, Keo's, and Mekong II in Hawaii, which became a hot spot for the Hollywood crowd. Keo later wrote an internationally best-selling Thai cook book called, Keo's Thai Cuisine in 1985. Keo explains the reason for opening Thai as opposed to Lao restaurants, “I felt that Laotian food would not have been successful in America at that time. Laotian food is very basic and simple, and Thai food is very exotic and colourful.”
Ingredients
Rice and noodles
Rice (; )
Glutinous rice - (; ) a type of rice grown mainly in Southeast and East Asia, which has opaque grains, very low amylose content, and is especially sticky when cooked.
Cellophane noodles - (; ) transparent noodles made from mung bean starch and water.
Khao poon - (; ) are fresh rice noodles which are made from rice which has first been fermented for three days, boiled, and then made into noodles by pressing the resulting dough through a sieve into boiling water.
Rice noodles - (; ) noodles that are made from rice. This should not be confused with Vietnamese pho. Though the word has Vietnamese origin, the dish it refers to in Laos might not be the same as Vietnamese pho.
Vegetables, herbs and spices
Asian basil - (, Isan: บัวระพา, ) eaten raw with feu.
Bamboo shoots - (, Isan: หน่อไม้, ), used in stews or boiled as a side dish.
Banana flower - (, Isan: หมากปี, ), a raw accompaniment to noodle soup or cooked in others.
Chili pepper - (; , Isan: พริก, ), seven popular types.
Climbing wattle (acacia) - (, Isan: ผักขา, ) used in soups, curries, omelettes, and stir-fries.
Coriander (cilantro) - (; , Isan: ผักซี, ), both leaves and seeds added to dips, marinades, and a wide variety of dishes.
Cucumber - (, Isan: หมากแตง, ), eaten as a garnish or as a substitute for green papaya in salad.
Galangal - (, Isan: ข่า, ), typically used in soups, mixed dishes, and marinades.
Garlic - (, Isan: กระเทียม, )
Ginger flower
Ginger root - (, Isan: ขิง, )
Kaffir lime - (; , Isan: มะกรูด maak-khii-huut), typically used in soups and stews.
Kaipen - (, Isan: ไกแผ่น, ), dried sheets of edible Mekong River algae, similar to nori.
Lao basil - (; ) Isan: แมงลัก used in soups and stews.
Lao coriander - ("Lao dill"), used in stews and eaten raw.
Lao eggplant - (, Isan: หมากเขือ; ), small and round Kermit eggplant, used in stews or eaten raw.
Lemon grass - (, Isan: หัวสิงไค;; , hua sing-khai), used in soups, stews and marinades.
Lime - (, Isan: หมากนาว, ), common ingredient to many dishes.
Mint - (; , Isan: ใบสะระแหน่, ), used in goy/laap, and eaten raw.
Midnight horror - (, Isan: หมากลิ้นไม้,; ) a bitter green, eaten raw.
Mushrooms - (, Isan: เห็ด, ), used in soups and stir-fries.
Neem (kadao) - (, Isan: ผักกะเดา, ), Azadirachta indica or neem, a bitter vegetable often eaten raw.
Papaya (green) - (, Isan: มักหุ่ง, ), shredded and used in spicy papaya salad.
Rattan shoots - typically used in stews (bitter).
Scarlet wisteria - (, Isan: ดอกแค, ) Sesbania grandiflora, blossom eaten as vegetable in soups and curries.
Sakhaan - (, Isan: สะค้าน; ) stem of Piper ribesioides, used in stews.
Shallot - (, Isan: บั่วแดง; )
Tamarind - (, Isan: หมากขาม, ), sour fruit used in soups or as a snack.
Tamarind leaf - (, Isan: ใบหมากขาม, ) used in soups.
Tomato - (, Isan: หมากเล่น, ), eaten as a garnish item or in papaya salad.
Turkey berry - (, Isan: หมากแค้ง, ), Solanum torvum, typically used in stews and curries.
Water spinach - (, Isan: ผักบุ้ง, ), Ipomoea aquatica, stir-fried, steamed, or eaten as raw vegetable accompaniment.
Wild betel leaves - (, Isan: ผักอีเลิด, ), Piper sarmentosum, a green, eaten raw.
Yanang leaf - (, Isan: ใบย่านาง, ), used as a green colouring agent and as a seasoning or thickener for soups and stews.
Yard long beans - (, Isan: หมากถั่ว, ), eaten raw, in stews, and can be made into a spicy bean salad (tam mak thoua).
Pastes and sauces
Fish sauce (nam pa) - clear fish sauce (, Isan: น้ำปลา, ), used as a general condiment.
Padaek - (, Isan: ปลาแดก, ), Lao-style fish paste.
Soy sauce
Meat
Century egg (khai niaow ma; lit. 'horse urine egg') - (; )
Pig blood curd
Pork belly "three-layer pork" - (, Isan: ซี้นหมูสามซั้น; )
Dried water buffalo skin - (; ) used in jaew bong and stews.
Fruits
Fruits in Laos may consist of watermelon, pineapple, sugar apple, (custard apple or sweetsop), longan, litchi, Asian pear, mango, rose apple (water apple), banana, jackfruit, rambutan, young coconut, orange, sweet tamarind, papaya, durian, sugarcane, pomelo, sapodilla, guava, star apple, mangosteen, melon, santol, langsat, grapes, corossolier (soursop), mak yom, and mak num nom.
Melon carving is also a popular tradition in Laos, where artists may carve beautiful flowers and other designs into fruits such as watermelon. Fruit arrangements are also common, and these are done during special occasions such as weddings and other ceremonies.
Kitchen utensils
The typical Lao stove, or brazier, is called a tao-lo and is fueled by charcoal. It is shaped like a bucket, with room for a single pot or pan to sit on top. The wok, maw khang in Lao, is used for frying and stir frying. Sticky rice is steamed inside of a bamboo basket, a huad, which sits on top of a pot, which is called the maw nung.
A large, deep mortar called a khok is used for pounding tam mak hoong and other foods. It is indispensable in the Lao kitchen.
Cooking methods
Grilling, boiling, stewing, steaming, searing and mixing (as in salads) are all traditional cooking methods. Stir-frying is now common, but considered to be a Chinese influence. Stews are often green in color, because of the large proportion of vegetables used as well as ya nang leaf. Soups/stews are categorized as follows, tom, tom jeud, kaeng, and kaeng soua.
Ping means grilled. It is a favorite cooking method. Ping gai is grilled chicken, ping sin is grilled meat, and ping pa is grilled fish. Before grilling, the meat is typically seasoned with minced garlic, minced coriander root, minced galangal, salt, soy sauce, and fish sauce, each in varying quantities, if at all, according to preference. The Lao seem to prefer a longer grilling at lower heat.
The result is grilled meat that is typically drier than what Westerners are accustomed to. The Lao probably prefer their food this way, because they wish to keep their hands dry and clean for handling sticky rice. They also typically eat the grilled food with a hot sauce (chaew) of some sort, which takes away the dryness.
Lao food differs from neighboring cuisines in multiple respects. One is that the Lao meal almost always includes a large quantity of fresh raw greens, vegetables and herbs served undressed on the side. Another is that savory dishes are never sweet. "Sweet and sour" is generally considered bizarre and foreign in Laos. Yet another is that some dishes are bitter. There is a saying in Lao cuisine, "van pen lom; khom pen ya," which can be translated as, "sweet brings you down; bitter is medicine."
A couple of the green herbs favored in Lao cuisine but generally ignored by their neighbors are mint and dill, both of paramount importance. Galangal is a cooking herb that is heavily favored in Laos, unlike in neighboring countries. It appears in probably the majority of Lao dishes, along with the conventional herbs: garlic, shallots, lemongrass, etc. Another distinctive characteristic of Lao food or more properly, Lao eating habits, is that food is frequently eaten at room temperature. This may be attributable to the fact that Lao food served with sticky rice is traditionally handled by hand.
Eating customs
The traditional manner of eating was communal, with diners sitting on a reed mat on the wooden floor around a raised platform woven out of rattan called a ka toke. Dishes are arranged on the ka toke, which is of a standard size. Where there are many diners, multiple ka tokes will be prepared. Each ka toke will have one or more baskets of sticky rice, which is shared by all the diners at the ka toke.
In recent times, eating at a ka toke is the exception rather than the rule. The custom is maintained, however, at temples, where each monk is served his meal on a ka toke. Once food is placed on the ka toke it becomes a pha kao. In modern homes, the term for preparing the table for a meal is still taeng pha kao, or prepare the phah kao.
Traditionally, spoons were used only for soups and white rice, and chopsticks (ໄມ້ທູ່,mai thu) were used only for noodles. Most food was handled by hand. The reason this custom evolved is probably due to the fact that sticky rice can only be easily handled by hand.
Lao meals typically consist of a soup dish, a grilled dish, a sauce, greens, and a stew or mixed dish (koy or laap). The greens are usually fresh raw greens, herbs and other vegetables, though depending on the dish they accompany, they could also be steamed or more typically, parboiled. Dishes are not eaten in sequence; the soup is sipped throughout the meal. Beverages, including water, are not typically a part of the meal. When guests are present, the meal is always a feast, with food made in quantities sufficient for twice the number of diners. For a host, not having enough food for guests would be humiliating.
The custom is to close the rice basket, when one is finished eating.
Dishes
Dips
Jaew (), a popular type of dipping sauce in Laos.
Jaew mak khua - made from roasted eggplant.
Jaew mak len - made from roasted sweet tomatoes.
Jaew bong - sweet and spicy paste made with roasted chilies, pork skin, galangal and other ingredients.
Jaew padaek - made from fried padaek, fish, roast garlic, chilies, lemon grass, and other ingredients.
Appetizers
Kap kaem (), are dishes served as snacks, before the main dish, or with beer.
Kaipen - fried snack made of fresh water algae, usually served with jaew bong.
Khai khuam - stuffed eggs "upside down".
Khai nug - steamed, boiled egg made by making a hole in the egg to remove the contents and pouring it back in after mixing the yolk with other ingredients.
Khua pak bong - stir fried water spinach.
Look seen - Laotian beef meatballs.
Mekong river moss - fried moss from the Mekong River.
Miang
Sai kok - chunky pork sausage.
Sai oua - grilled pork sausage.
Seen hang - Laotian beef jerky that is flash-fried beef.
Seen savanh - thinly sliced beef jerky with sweeter taste and covered with sesame seeds.
Seen tork
Som khai pa - pickled fish roe.
Som moo - pickled pork with pork skin (summer sausages).
Som pa - pickled fish.
Som phak kad - pickled greens.
Som phak kai lum who moo - pickled cabbage with pickled pork ears.
Yaw - Laotian pork roll. Known as giò lụa in Vietnam.
Yaw dip - a type of spring roll made with rice paper, vermicelli, lettuce, and various fillings including shrimp. It's usually eaten with peanut sauce or Laotian sweet sauce. Known as Gỏi cuốn in Vietnam.
Yaw jeun - fried spring roll.
Salads
Sarad (), is a general name to describe a dish with mixed vegetables, herbs, and spices. Meat salads in Laos are known as larb or laap.
Larb - a spicy Lao minced meat salad made with fermented fish and herbs. Various meats include fish, duck, chicken, pork, and beef, as well as mushrooms.
Nam tok - a meat-based salad similar to larb. It can also be made into a stew.
Pon - spicy puree of cooked fish.
Tam som - is the following salads made with Lao chili peppers, lime juice, tomatoes, fish sauce/paste, and sugar. Crab paste and shrimp paste are optional.
Tam khao poon - spicy vermicelli noodles salad.
Tam mak guh - spicy plantain salad.
Tam mak hoong - spicy green papaya salad.
Tum mak khua - spicy eggplant salad.
Tam mak taeng - spicy cucumber salad.
Tam mak thua - spicy green long/yard beans salad.
Soups and stews
Kaeng (; lit. 'soup')
Kaeng jeut - vegetable and pork soup.
Kaeng galee - Lao curry.
Keng No Mai or soup naw mai - a green stew made with bamboo shoots.
Or - green vegetable stew.
Or lam - Luang Prabang style green vegetable stew.
Tom jeaw pa - spicy fish soup.
Tom kha gai - a spicy and sour soup made with coconut milk, mushrooms, and chicken.
Tom padaek - fish stewed in padaek.
Tom yum - a spicy and sour soup made with lemongrass, and various meats such as beef, chicken, pork, and shrimp or other seafood.
Grilled dishes
Ahan ping (; lit. 'grilled food')
Ping gai - grilled, marinated chicken.
Ping hua ped - grilled, marinated duck head. It can be considered as an appetizer.
Ping moo - grilled, marinated pork.
Ping pa - grilled fish mixed with spices and herbs.
Ping ped - grilled, marinated duck.
Ping seen - grilled, marinated beef.
Ping theen gai - grilled, marinated chicken feet.
Seen dat - Laotian-styled barbecue. Traditional meats and vegetables are seared on a dome-shaped griddle.
Steamed dishes
Ahan neung (; lit. 'steamed food')
Mok pa - fish steamed in banana leaf.
Mok gai - chicken steamed in banana leaf.
Mok khai
Mok kai pa
Ua dok kae
Titi gai - steak in a banana leaf wrap.
Rice dishes
Ahan kap khao (; lit. 'food with rice'), are dishes made with rice as the main ingredient. In most Lao meals, glutinous rice known as khao niao, is a staple to the Laotian diet.
Khao khua or khao phat - Laotian-styled fried rice.
Khao niao - steamed glutinous rice. Popularly known as "sticky rice". This type of rice is usually kept in a bamboo basket and is shared among all diners. Different ingredients such as coconut milk and red beans can be added to make the rice into a sweet dessert.
Khao piak khao (lit. 'rice wet rice') - rice porridge. Toppings may contain blood curds, century eggs, fried onions or garlic, and scallions.
Khao ping or khao chee - baked sticky rice seasoned with eggs. Khao chee is also another name for bread.
Khao jao or khao neung - steamed white rice. Jasmine rice is generally used. This type of rice is also used as an ingredient for many stir-fried dishes.
Nam khao - crispy rice salad made with deep-fried rice balls, chunks of fermented pork sausage called som moo, chopped peanuts, grated coconut, sliced scallions or shallots, mint, cilantro, lime juice, fish sauce, and other ingredients.
Noodles
Feu () or Mee (). Noodles are popular dishes in northern and central Laos. These can vary from "wet noodles", served with broth, or "dry noodles" which are typically stir-fried.
Feu - Laotian-styled Pho, or rice noodle soup.
Kaeng sen lon - soup made with glass noodles and meatballs.
Khao piak sen - rice flour noodles in chicken broth. Similar to the Vietnamese dish, bánh canh, and the Japanese dish, udon.
Khao poon - rice vermicelli soup, also known as "Lao laksa".
Khua mee - pan-fried rice noodles topped with thinly sliced egg omelette.
Lard na - stir-fried noodles covered in gravy.
Mee haeng - wheat noodles with vegetables and meat.
Mee ka tee - rice vermicelli made in coconut milk.
Mee nam - wheat noodles in a broth of vegetables and meat.
Pad Lao - stir-fried noodles mixed with lightly scrambled egg. Similar to Pad Thai.
Pad ki mao - stir-fried broad rice noodles.
Pad sen lon - stir-fried glass noodles.
Suki - Laotian-styled Sukiyaki.
Yum sen lon - tangy salad made with glass noodles.
Desserts
Khong van (; lit. 'sweet things'). Lao desserts are generally made with the combination of tropical fruits and glutinous rice products. These can vary from types of cakes, to jelly, to drinks, and custards.
Khao lam - a sweet sticky rice dish made with red beans, coconut, coconut milk, and sugar prepared in bamboo.
Khao niao mak muang - sticky rice with coconut and mango.
Khao pard - jelly-like rice cake, unique for its layers. It's usually green from the use of pandan leaves as an ingredient.
Khao tom - steamed rice wrapped in banana leaf. Various fillings include pork, bananas, and taro.
Khanom kok - coconut dumpling made on a griddle. It may be topped with green onions.
Khanom maw kaeng - coconut custard cake.
Lod xong - a green, worm-like dessert made with rice jelly, coconut milk, and liquefied palm sugar.
Nam van - a general name for a dessert which can contain tapioca and various fruits including durian, jack fruit, and water chestnuts.
Sangkaya - custard made with Kabocha, a type of Asian squash.
Voon - jelly made with coconut milk
Drinks
Lao coffee is often called Pakxong coffee (cafe pakxong in Lao), which is grown on the Bolovens Plateau around the town of Pakxong. This area is sometimes said to be the best place in Southeast Asia for coffee cultivation. Both Robusta and Arabica are grown in Laos, and if you ask for Arabica, there is a very good chance the proprietor will know what you are talking about. Most of the Arabica in Laos is consumed locally and most of the Robusta is exported to Thailand, where it goes into Nescafé. The custom in Laos is to drink coffee in glasses, with condensed milk in the bottom, followed by a chaser of green tea. The highly regarded tea is also grown on the Bolovens Plateau.
There are two general types of traditional alcoholic beverages, both produced from rice: lao hai and lao lao. Lao hai means jar alcohol and is served from an earthen jar. It is communally and competitively drunk through straws at festive occasions. It can be likened to sake in appearance and flavor. Lao lao or Lao alcohol is more like a whiskey. It is also called lao khao or, in English, white alcohol. However, there is also a popular variant of lao lao made from purple rice, which has a pinkish hue.
In more recent times, the Lao state-owned brewery's Beerlao has become very popular in Laos. The Bangkok Post has described it as the Dom Perignon of Asian beers. In 2004, Time magazine described it as Asia's best beer. In June 2005, it beat 40 other brews to take the silver prize at Russia's Osiris Beer Festival, which it had entered for the first time.
Non-alcoholic
Ca fay - Laotian coffee.
Nam oi - sugarcane juice.
Nam pun - Smoothie
Nam mak pow - coconut juice; with or without coconut meat.
Oliang - iced coffee; black or with condensed milk.
Saa - Laotian tea.
Alcoholic
Beerlao
Lau-khao - Laotian rice wine.
Lau-lao - Laotian whiskey.
Lau-hai - Laotian rice wine made with glutinous rice.
See also
Hmong cuisine
Phia Sing
References
Further reading
Davidson, Alan (1975). Fish and Fish Dishes of Laos. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Co. .
Du Pont De Bie, Natacha (2004). Ant Egg Soup: The Adventures of a Food Tourist in Laos. London: Sceptre. .
Sing, Phia. Alan Davidson and Jennifer Davidson, eds. (1981) Traditional Recipes of Laos: Being the Manuscript Recipe Books of the Late Phia Sing, from the Royal Palace at Luang Prabang, Reproduced in Facsimile and Furnished With an English Translation. London: Prospect Books. .
Culloty, Dorothy (2010). Food from Northern Laos - The Boat Landing Cookbook. Te Awamutu, New Zealand: Galangal Press
Xaixana Champanakone (2010). "Lao Cooking and The Essence of Life". Vientiane Publishing
External links
New York Times Article on Lao food
Excerpts from Traditional Recipes of Laos
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210015
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutinous%20rice
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Glutinous rice
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Glutinous rice (Oryza sativa var. glutinosa; also called sticky rice, sweet rice or waxy rice) is a type of rice grown mainly in Southeast and East Asia, Northeastern India and Bhutan which has opaque grains, very low amylose content, and is especially sticky when cooked. It is widely consumed across Asia.
It is called glutinous () in the sense of being glue-like or sticky, and not in the sense of containing gluten (which it does not). While often called sticky rice, it differs from non-glutinous strains of japonica rice which also become sticky to some degree when cooked. There are numerous cultivars of glutinous rice, which include japonica, indica and tropical japonica strains.
History
In China, glutinous rice has been grown for at least 2,000 years. However, researchers believe that glutinous rice distribution appears to have been culturally influenced and closely associated with the early southward migration and distribution of the Tai ethnic groups, particularly the Lao along the Mekong River basin originating from Southern China.
Along the Greater Mekong Sub-region, Lao people have been cultivating glutinous rice for approximately 4000 - 6000 years. Glutinous rice is the national dish of Laos. In Laos, a tiny landlocked nation with a population of approximately 6 million, per-capita sticky rice consumption is the highest on earth at 171 kg or 377 pounds per year. Sticky rice is deeply ingrained in the culture, religious tradition and national identity of Laos. Sticky, or glutinous rice is said to glue their community and country together. Lao people often identify themselves as the "children of sticky rice" and if they did not eat sticky rice, they would not be Lao.
Cultivation
Glutinous rice is grown in Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan, Northeast India, China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and the Philippines. An estimated 85% of Lao rice production is of this type. The rice has been recorded in the region for at least 1,100 years.
The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) has described Laos as a "collector's paradise". Laos has the highest degrees of biodiversity of sticky rice in the world. As of 2013, approximately 6,530 glutinous rice varieties were collected from five continents (Asia, South America, North America, Europe and Africa) where glutinous rice are grown for preservation at the International Rice Genebank (IRGC). IRRI-trained collector gathered more than 13,500 samples and 3,200 varieties from Laos.
The improved rice varieties (in terms of yield) adopted throughout Asia during the Green Revolution were non-glutinous, and Lao farmers rejected them in favor of their traditional sticky varieties. Over time, higher-yield strains of glutinous rice have become available from the Lao National Rice Research Programme. By 1999, more than 70% of the area along the Mekong River Valley was of these newer strains.
Composition
Glutinous rice is distinguished from other types of rice by having no (or negligible amounts of) amylose, and high amounts of amylopectin (the two components of starch). Amylopectin is responsible for the sticky quality of glutinous rice. The difference has been traced to a single mutation that was selected for by farmers.
Like all types of rice, glutinous rice does not contain dietary gluten (i.e. does not contain glutenin and gliadin), and should be safe for gluten-free diets.
Glutinous rice can be used either milled or unmilled (that is, with the bran removed or not removed). Milled glutinous rice is white and fully opaque (unlike non-glutinous rice varieties, which are somewhat translucent when raw), whereas the bran can give unmilled glutinous rice a purple or black color. Black and purple glutinous rice are distinct strains from white glutinous rice. In developing Asia, there is little regulation, and some governments have issued advisories about toxic dyes being added to colour adulterated rice. Both black and white glutinous rice can be cooked as discrete grains, or ground into flour and cooked as a paste or gel.
Use in foods
Sticky rice is used in many recipes throughout Southeast and East Asia.
Bangladesh
In Bangladesh and especially in the Chittagong (Cox's Bazar and Sylhet areas), sticky rice called bini dhan (unhusked sticky rice) is very popular. Both white and pink varieties are cultivated at many homestead farms. Husked sticky rice is called bini choil (chal) in some dialects. Boiled or steamed bini choil is called Bini Bhat. Served with a curry of fish or meat and grated coconut, Bini Bhat is a popular breakfast. Sometimes it is eaten with a splash of sugar, salt, and coconut alone. Bin dhan is also used to make khoi (popcorn-like puffed rice) and chida (bitten husked rice).
Many other sweet items made of bini choil are also popular:
One of the favorite pitas made of bini choil is atikka pita (pitha). It is made with a mixture of cubed or small sliced coconut, white or brown sugar, ripe bananas and bini choil wrapped with banana leaf and steamed.
Another delicacy is Patishapta pita made of ground bini choil. Ground bini choil is sprayed over a hot pan and a mixture of grated coconut, sugar, milk powder; then ghee is sprayed over that and rolled out. Dumplings made of powdered fried bini choil called laru. First bini choil is fried and ground into flour. This flour is mixed with sugar or brown sugar, and ghee or butter and is made into small balls or dumplings.
One kind of porridge or khir made of bini choil is called modhu (honey) bhat. This modhu bhat becomes naturally sweet without mixing any sugar. It is one of the delicacies of local people. To make modhu bhat first prepare some normal paddy or rice (dhan) for germination by soaking it in the water for few days. After coming out of little sprout dry the paddy and husk and grind the husked rice called jala choil into flour. It tastes sweet. Mixing this sweet flour with freshly boiled or steamed warm bini bhat and then fermenting the mixture overnight yields modhu bhat. It is eaten either on its own or with milk, jaggery or grated coconut.
Cambodia
Glutinous rice is known as bay damnaeb () in Khmer.
In Cambodian cuisine, glutinous rice is used exclusively for desserts and is an essential ingredient for most sweet dishes, such as ansom chek, kralan, and num ple aiy.
China
In the Chinese language, glutinous rice is known as nuòmǐ (糯米) or chu̍t-bí (秫米) in Hokkien.
Glutinous rice is also often ground to make glutinous rice flour. This flour is made into niangao and sweet-filled dumplings tangyuan, both of which are commonly eaten at Chinese New Year. It is also used as a thickener and for baking.
Glutinous rice or glutinous rice flour are both used in many Chinese bakery products and in many varieties of dim sum. They produce a flexible, resilient dough, which can take on the flavors of whatever other ingredients are added to it. Cooking usually consists of steaming or boiling, sometimes followed by pan-frying or deep-frying.
Sweet glutinous rice is eaten with red bean paste.
Nuòmǐ fàn (糯米飯), is steamed glutinous rice usually cooked with Chinese sausage, chopped Chinese mushrooms, chopped barbecued pork, and optionally dried shrimp or scallop (the recipe varies depending on the cook's preference).
Zongzi (Traditional Chinese 糭子/糉子, Simplified Chinese 粽子) is a dumpling consisting of glutinous rice and sweet or savory fillings wrapped in large flat leaves (usually bamboo), which is then boiled or steamed. It is especially eaten during the Dragon Boat Festival, but may be eaten at any time of the year. It is popular as an easily transported snack, or a meal to consume while traveling. It is a common food among Chinese in Hong Kong, Singapore and Malaysia.
Cifangao (Traditional Chinese 糍飯糕, Simplified Chinese 糍饭糕) is a popular breakfast food originating in Eastern China consisting of cooked glutinous rice compressed into squares or rectangles, and then deep-fried. Additional seasoning and ingredients such as beans, zha cai, and sesame seeds may be added to the rice for added flavour. It has a similar appearance and external texture to hash browns.
Cifantuan (Traditional Chinese 糍飯糰, Simplified Chinese 糍饭团) is another breakfast food consisting of a piece of youtiao tightly wrapped in cooked glutinous rice, with or without additional seasoning ingredients. Japanese onigiri resembles this Chinese food.
Lo mai gai (糯米雞) is a dim sum dish consisting of glutinous rice with chicken in a lotus-leaf wrap, which is then steamed. It is served as a dim sum dish in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Malaysia.
Ba bao fan (八寶飯), or "eight treasure rice", is a dessert made from glutinous rice, steamed and mixed with lard, sugar, and eight kinds of fruits or nuts. It can also be eaten as the main course.
A distinctive feature of the Cuisine of the Hakka people of Southern China is its variety of steamed snack-type buns, dumplings and patties made with a dough of coarsely ground rice, or ban. Collectively known as "rice snacks", some kinds are filled with various salty or sweet ingredients.
Common examples of rice snacks made with ban from glutinous or sticky rice and non-glutinous rice include Aiban (mugwort patty), Caibao (yam bean bun), Ziba (sticky rice balls) and Bantiao (Mianpaban or flat rice noodles).
Aiban encompasses several varieties of steamed patties and dumplings of various shapes and sizes, consisting of an outer layer made of glutinous ban dough filled with salty or sweet ingredients. It gets its name from the aromatic ai grass (mugwort), which after being dried, powdered and mixed with the ban, gives the dough a green color and an intriguing tea-like taste. Typical salty fillings include ground pork, mushrooms, and shredded white turnips. The most common sweet filling is made with red beans.
Caibao is a generic term for all types of steamed buns with various sorts of filling. Hakka-style caibao are distinctive in that the enclosing skin is made with glutinous rice dough in the place of wheat flour dough. Besides ground pork, mushrooms and shredded turnips, fillings may include ingredients such as dried shrimp and dry fried-shallot flakes.
Ziba is glutinous rice dough which, after steaming in a big container, is mashed into a sticky, putty-like mass from which small patties are formed and coated with a layer of sugary peanut powder. It has no filling.
Philippines
In the Philippines, glutinous rice is known as malagkit in Tagalog or pilit in Visayan, among other names. Both mean "sticky". The most common way glutinous rice is prepared in the Philippines is through soaking uncooked glutinous rice in water or coconut milk (usually overnight) and then grinding it into a thick paste (traditionally with stone mills). This produces a rich and smooth viscous rice dough known as galapóng, which is the basis for numerous rice cakes in the Philippines. However, in modern preparation methods, galapong is sometimes made directly from dry glutinous rice flour (or from commercial Japanese mochiko), with poorer-quality results.
Galapong was traditionally allowed to ferment, which is still required for certain dishes. A small amount of starter culture of microorganisms (tapay or bubod) or palm wine (tubâ) may be traditionally added to rice being soaked to hasten the fermentation. These can be substituted with yeast or baking soda in modern versions. Other versions of galapong may also be treated with wood ash lye.
Aside from the numerous white and red glutinous rice cultivars, the most widely used glutinous rice heirloom cultivars in the Philippines are tapol rice, which is milky white in color, and pirurutong rice, which range in color from black to purple to reddish brown. However both varieties are expensive and becoming increasingly rare, thus some Filipino recipes nowadays substitute it with dyed regular glutinous rice or infuse purple yam (ube) to achieve the same coloration.
Dessert delicacies in the Philippines are known as kakanin (from kanin, "prepared rice"). These were originally made primarily from rice, but in recent centuries, the term has come to encompass dishes made from other types of flour, including corn flour (masa), cassava, wheat, and so on. Glutinous rice figures prominently in two main subtypes of kakanin: the puto (steamed rice cakes), and the bibingka (baked rice cakes). Both largely utilize glutinous rice galapong. A notable variant of puto is puto bumbong, which is made with pirurutong.
Other kakanin that use glutinous rice include suman, biko, and sapin-sapin among others. There is also a special class of boiled galapong dishes like palitaw, moche, mache, and masi. Fried galapong is also used to make various types of buchi, which are the local Chinese-Filipino versions of jian dui. They are also used to make puso, which are boiled rice cakes in woven leaf pouches.
Aside from kakanin, glutinous rice is also used in traditional Filipino rice gruels or porridges known as lugaw. They include both savory versions like arroz caldo or goto which are similar to Chinese-style congee; and dessert versions like champorado, binignit, and ginataang mais.
Indonesia
Glutinous rice is known as beras ketan or simply ketan in Java and most of Indonesia, and pulut in Sumatra. It is widely used as an ingredient for a wide variety of sweet, savoury or fermented snacks. Glutinous rice is used as either hulled grains or milled into flour. It is usually mixed with santan, meaning coconut milk in Indonesian, along with a bit of salt to add some taste. Glutinous rice is rarely eaten as a staple. One example is lemang, which is glutinous rice and coconut milk cooked in bamboo stem lined by banana leaves. Glutinous rice is also sometimes used in a mix with normal rice in rice dishes such as nasi tumpeng or nasi tim. It is widely used during the Lebaran seasons as traditional food. It is also used in the production of alcoholic beverages such as tuak and brem bali.
Japan
In Japan, glutinous rice is known as mochigome (). It is used in traditional dishes such as sekihan is known as the red rice, okowa, and ohagi. It may also be ground into mochiko (もち粉) a rice flour, used to make mochi (もち) which are known as sweet rice cakes. Mochi a traditional rice cake prepared for the Japanese New Year but also eaten year-round. Many different types of mochi exist from different regions, and they are normally flavored with traditional ingredients red beans, water chestnuts, green tea and pickled cherry flowers. See also Japanese rice.
Korea
In Korea, glutinous rice is called chapssal (Hangul: 찹쌀), and its characteristic stickiness is called chalgi (Hangul: 찰기). Cooked rice made of glutinous rice is called chalbap (Hangul: 찰밥) and rice cakes (Hangul: 떡, ddeok) are called chalddeok or chapssalddeok (Hangul: 찰떡, 찹쌀떡). Chalbap is used as stuffing in samgyetang (Hangul: 삼계탕).
Laos
Glutinous rice is the main rice eaten in Laos (see Lao cuisine), the Lao eat more sticky rice than any other people in the world. Sticky rice is considered the essence of what it means to be Lao. It has been said that no matter where they are in the world, sticky rice will always be the glue that holds the Lao communities together, connecting them to their culture and to Laos. Often the Lao will refer to themselves as luk khao niao, which can be translated as 'sticky rice children'. Sticky rice is known as khao niao (Lao:ເຂົ້າໜຽວ): khao means rice, and niao means sticky. It is cooked by soaking for several hours and then steaming in a bamboo basket or houat (Lao: ຫວດ). After that, it should be turned out on a clean surface and kneaded with a wooden paddle to release the steam; this results in rice balls that will stick to themselves but not to fingers. The large rice ball is kept in a small basket made of bamboo or thip khao (Lao:ຕິບເຂົ້າ). The rice is sticky but dry, rather than wet and gummy like non-glutinous varieties. Laotians consume glutinous rice as part of their main diet; they also use toasted glutinous rice khao khoua (Lao:ເຂົ້າຄົ່ວ) to add a nut-like flavor to many dishes. A popular Lao meal is a combination of larb (Lao:ລາບ), Lao grilled chicken ping gai (Lao:ປີ້ງໄກ່), spicy green papaya salad dish known as tam mak hoong (Lao:ຕຳໝາກຫູ່ງ), and sticky rice (khao niao).
Khao lam (Lao:ເຂົ້າຫລາມ): sticky rice is mixed with coconut milk, red or black bean, or taro, and is filled in a bamboo tube. The tube is roasted until all the ingredients are cooked and blended together to give a sweet aromatic treat. Khao Lam is such a popular food for Laotians and is sold on the streets.
Nam Khao (Lao:ແໝມເຂົ້າ): sticky rice has also been used for preparing a popular dish from Laos called Nam Khao (or Laotian crispy rice salad). It is made with a deep-fried mixture of sticky rice and jasmine rice balls, chunks of Lao-style fermented pork sausage called som moo, chopped peanuts, grated coconut, sliced scallions or shallots, mint, cilantro, lime juice, fish sauce, and other ingredients.
Khao Khua (Lao:ເຂົ້າຂົ້ວ): sticky rice are toasted and crushed. Khao Khua is a necessary ingredient for preparing a national Laotian dish called Larb (Lao:ລາບ) and Nam Tok (Lao:ນ້ຳຕົກ) that are popular for ethnic Lao people living in both Laos and in the Northeastern region of Thailand called Isan.
Khao tom (Lao:ເຂົ້າຕົ້ມ): a steamed mixture of khao niao with sliced fruits and coconut milk wrapped in banana leaf.
Khao jee: Lao sticky rice pancakes with egg coating, an ancient Laotian cooking method of grilling glutinous rice or sticky rice over an open fire.
Sai Krok (Lao:ໄສ້ກອກ): Lao sausage made from coarsely chopped fatty pork seasoned with lemongrass, galangal, kaffir lime leaves, shallots, cilantro, chillies, garlic, salt and sticky rice.
Or lam (Lao:ເອາະຫຼາມ): a mildly spicy and tongue-numbing stew originating from Luang Prabang, Laos.
Lao-Lao (Lao:ເຫລົ້າລາວ): Laotian rice whisky produced in Laos.
Khao niao is also used as an ingredient in desserts. Khao niao mixed with coconut milk can be served with ripened mango or durian.
Malaysia
In Malaysia, glutinous rice is known as pulut. It is usually mixed with santan (coconut milk) along with a bit of salt to add some taste. It is widely used during the Raya festive seasons as traditional food which is shared both with certain parts of Indonesia, such as:
Dodol - traditional sweets made of glutinous rice flour and coconut sugar. Similar variants are wajik (or wajit).
Inang-inang - glutinous rice cracker. Popular in Melaka.
Kelupis - a type of glutinous rice kuih in East Malaysia.
Ketupat - square-shaped crafts made from the same local leaves as palas, but it is usually filled with regular rice grains instead of pulut, though it depends on the maker.
Kochi - Malay-Peranakan sweet and sticky kuih.
Lamban - another type of glutinous rice dessert in East Malaysia.
Lemang - wrapped in banana leaves and inside a bamboo, and left to be barbecued/grilled on an open fire, to make the taste and texture tender and unique.
Pulut inti – wrapped in banana leaf in the shape of a pyramid, this kuih consists of glutinous rice with a covering of grated coconut candied with palm sugar.
Pulut panggang – glutinous rice parcels stuffed with a spiced filling, then wrapped in banana leaves and char-grilled. Depending on the regional tradition, the spiced filling may include pulverised dried prawns, caramelised coconut paste or beef floss. In the state of Sarawak, the local pulut panggang contains no fillings and are wrapped in pandan leaves instead.
Tapai - cooked glutinous rice fermented with yeast, wrapped in banana, rubber tree or roseapple leaves.
Myanmar
Glutinous rice, called kao hnyin (), is very popular in Myanmar (also known as Burma).
Kao hnyin baung () is a breakfast dish with boiled peas (pèbyouk) or with a variety of fritters, such as urad dal (baya gyaw), served on a banana leaf. It may be cooked wrapped in a banana leaf, often with peas, and served with a sprinkle of salted toasted sesame seeds and often grated coconut.
The purple variety, known as kao hynin ngacheik (), is equally popular cooked as ngacheik paung.
They may both be cooked and pounded into cakes with sesame called hkaw bouk, another favourite version in the north among the Shan and the Kachin, and served grilled or fried.
The Htamanè pwè festival () takes place on the full moon of Dabodwè() (February), when htamanè () is cooked in a huge wok. Two men, each with a wooden spoon the size of an oar, and a third man coordinate the action of folding and stirring the contents, which include kao hnyin, ngacheik, coconut shavings, peanuts, sesame and ginger in peanut oil.
Si htamin () is glutinous rice cooked with turmeric and onions in peanut oil, and served with toasted sesame and crisp-fried onions; it is a popular breakfast like kao hnyin baung and ngacheik paung.
Paung din () or "Kao hyin kyi tauk" () is another ready-to-eat portable form cooked in a segment of bamboo. When the bamboo is peeled off, a thin skin remains around the rice and also gives off a distinctive aroma.
Mont let kauk () is made from glutinous rice flour; it is donut-shaped and fried like baya gyaw, but eaten with a dip of jaggery or palm sugar syrup.
Nga pyaw douk () or "Kao hynin htope" (), banana in glutinous rice, wrapped in banana leaf and steamed and served with grated coconut - another favourite snack, like kao hnyin baung and mont let kauk, sold by street hawkers.
Mont lone yay baw () are glutinous rice balls with jaggery inside, thrown into boiling water in a huge wok, and ready to serve as soon as they resurface. Their preparation is a tradition during Thingyan, the Burmese New Year festival.
Htoe mont (), glutinous rice cake with raisins, cashews and coconut shavings, is a traditional dessert for special occasions. It is appreciated as a gift item from Mandalay.
Nepal
In Nepal, Latte/Chamre is a popular dish made from Glutinous Rice during Teej festival, the greatest festival of Nepalese women.
Northeastern India
Sticky rice called bora saul is the core component of indigenous Assamese sweets, snacks, and breakfast. This rice is widely used in the traditional sweets of Assam, which are very different from the traditional sweets of India whose basic component is milk.
Such traditional sweets in Assam are Pitha (Narikolor pitha, Til pitha, Ghila pitha, Tel pitha, Keteli pitha, Sunga pitha, Sunga saul etc.). Also, its powder form is used as breakfast or other light meal directly with milk. They are called Pitha guri (if the powder was done without frying the rice, by just crushing it after soaking) or Handoh guri (if rice is dry fried first, and then crushed).
The soaked rice is also cooked with no added water inside a special kind of bamboo (called sunga saul bnaah). This meal is called sunga saul.
During religious ceremonies, indigenous Assamese communities make Mithoi (Kesa mithoi and Poka mithoi) using Gnud with it. Sometimes Bhog, Payokh are also made from it using milk and sugar with it.
Different indigenous Assamese communities make rice beer from sticky rice, preferring it over other varieties of rice for the sweeter and more alcoholic result. This rice beer is also offered to their gods and ancestors (demi-gods). Rice cooked with it is also taken directly as lunch or dinner on rare occasions.
Similarly, other indigenous communities from NE India use sticky rice in various forms similar to native Assamese style in their cuisine.
Savoury snacks
Ketan - traditionally refers to the glutinous rice itself as well as sticky rice delicacy in its simplest form. The handful mounds of glutinous rice are rounded and sprinkled with grated coconut, either fresh or sauteed as serundeng.
Ketupat - square-shaped crafts made from the same local leaves as palas, but it is usually filled with regular rice grains instead of pulut, though it depends on the maker.
Gandos - a snack made from ground glutinous rice mixed with grated coconut, and the fried.
Lemang - wrapped in banana leaves and inside a bamboo, and left to be barbecued/grilled on an open fire, to make the taste and texture tender and unique
Lemper - cooked glutinous rice with shredded meat inside and wrapped in banana leaves, popular in Java
Nasi kuning - either common rice or glutinous rice can be made into ketan kuning, yellow rice colored with turmeric
Tumpeng - glutinous rice can be made into tumpeng nasi kuning, yellow rice colored by turmeric, and shaped into a cone.
Songkolo or Sokko - steamed black glutinous rice serves with serundeng, anchovies, and sambal. It was very popular in Makassar
Sweet snacks
Variety of kue - glutinous rice flour is also used in certain traditional local desserts, known as kue, such as kue lapis.
Bubur ketan hitam - black glutinous rice porridge with coconut milk and palm sugar syrup
Candil - glutinous rice flour cake with sugar and grated coconut
Dodol - traditional sweets made of glutinous rice flour and coconut sugar. Similar variants are wajik (or wajit).
Klepon - glutinous rice flour balls filled with palm sugar and coated with grated coconut
Lupis - glutinous rice wrapped in individual triangles using banana leaves and left to boil for a few hours. The rice pieces are then tossed with grated coconut all over and served with palm sugar syrup.
Onde-onde - glutinous rice flour balls filled with sweetened mung bean paste and coated with sesame similar to Jin deui
Wingko babat - baked glutinous rice flour with coconut
Gemblong - white glutinous rice flour balls smeared with palm sugar caramel. In East Java, it was known as getas, except it uses black glutinous rice flour as the main ingredient.
Fermented snacks
Brem - solid cake from the dehydrated juice of pressed fermented glutinous rice
Tapai ketan - cooked glutinous rice fermented with yeast, wrapped in banana or roseapple leaves. Usually eaten as is or in a mixed cold dessert
Crackers
Rengginang - a traditional rice crackers related to kerupuk
In addition, glutinous rice dishes adapted from other cultures are easily available. Examples include kue moci (mochi, Japanese) and bacang (zongzi, Chinese).
Indonesian glutinous rice dishes
Thailand
In Thailand, glutinous rice is known as khao niao (; lit. 'sticky rice') in central Thailand and Isan, and as khao nueng (; lit. 'steamed rice') in northern Thailand. Northern Thais (Lanna people) and northeastern Thais traditionally eat glutinous rice as their staple food. Southern and central Thais, and northeastern Thais from Surin Province and neighboring areas influenced by the Khmer-Thai people favor non-sticky khao chao. Sticky rice at table is typically served individually in a small woven basket (, ).
Steamed glutinous rice is one of the main ingredients in making the sour-fermented pork skinless sausage called naem, or its northern Thai equivalent chin som, which can be made from pork, beef, or water buffalo meat. It is also essential for the fermentation process in the northeastern Thai sausage called sai krok Isan. This latter sausage is made, in contrast to the first two, with a sausage casing.
Sweets and desserts: Famous among tourists in Thailand is khao niao mamuang (): sweet coconut sticky rice with mango, while khao niao tat, sweet sticky rice with coconut cream and black beans, Khao niao na krachik (), sweet sticky rice topped with caramelized roasted grated coconut, khao niao kaeo, sticky rice cooked in coconut milk and sugar and khao tom hua ngok, sticky rice steamed with banana with grated coconut and sugar, are traditional popular desserts.
Khao lam () is sticky rice with sugar and coconut cream cooked in specially prepared bamboo sections of different diameters and lengths. It can be prepared with white or dark purple (khao niao dam) varieties of glutinous rice. Sometimes a few beans or nuts are added and mixed in. Thick khao lam containers may have a custard-like filling in the center made with coconut cream, egg and sugar.
Khao chi () are cakes of sticky rice having the size and shape of a patty and a crunchy crust. In order to prepare them, the glutinous rice is laced with salt, often also lightly coated with beaten egg, and grilled over a charcoal fire. They were traditionally made with leftover rice and given in the early morning to the children, or to passing monks as an offering.
Khao pong () is a crunchy preparation made of leftover steamed glutinous rice that is pounded and pressed into thin sheets before being grilled.
Khao tom mat (), cooked sticky rice mixed with banana and wrapped in banana leaf, khao ho, sticky rice molded and wrapped in conical shape, khao pradap din, kraya sat and khao thip are preparations based on glutinous rice used as offerings in religious festivals and ceremonies for merit-making or warding off evil spirits.
Khao niao ping (), sticky rice mixed with coconut milk and taro (khao niao ping pheuak), banana (khao niao ping kluai) or black beans (khao niao ping tua), wrapped in banana leaf and grilled slowly over charcoal fire. Glutinous rice is traditionally eaten using the right hand
Khao khua (), roasted ground glutinous rice, is indispensable for making the northeastern Thai dishes larb, nam tok, and nam chim chaeo. Some recipes also ask for khao khua in certain northern Thai curries. It imparts a nutty flavor to the dishes in which it is used.
Naem khluk (Thai: ยำแหนม) or yam naem khao thot is a salad made from crumbled deep-fried, curried-rice croquettes, and naem sausage
Chin som mok is a northern Thai specialty made with grilled, banana leaf-wrapped pork skin that has been fermented with glutinous rice
Sai krok Isan: grilled, fermented pork sausages, specialty of northeastern Thailand
Glutinous rice is also used as the basis for the brewing of sato (), an alcoholic beverage also known as "Thai rice wine".
Vietnam
Glutinous rice is called gạo nếp in Vietnamese. Dishes made from glutinous rice in Vietnam are typically served as desserts or side dishes, but some can be served as main dishes. There is a wide array of glutinous rice dishes in Vietnamese cuisine, the majority of them can be categorized as follows:
Bánh, the most diverse category, refers to a wide variety of sweet or savoury, distinct cakes, buns, pastries, sandwiches, and food items from Vietnamese cuisine, which may be cooked by steaming, baking, frying, deep-frying, or boiling. It is important to note that not all bánh are made from glutinous rice; they can also be made from ordinary rice flour, cassava flour, taro flour, or tapioca starch. The word "bánh" is also used to refer to certain varieties of noodles in Vietnam, and absolutely not to be confused with glutinous rice dishes. Some bánh dishes that are made from glutinous rice include:
Bánh chưng: a square-shaped, boiled glutinous rice dumpling filled with pork and mung bean paste, wrapped in a dong leaf, usually eaten in Vietnamese New Year.
Bánh giầy: white, flat, round glutinous rice cake with tough, chewy texture filled with mung bean or served with Vietnamese sausage (chả), usually eaten in Vietnamese New Year with bánh chưng.
Bánh dừa: glutinous rice mixed with black bean paste cooked in coconut juice, wrapped in coconut leaf. The filling can be mung bean stir-fried in coconut juice or banana.
Bánh rán: a northern Vietnamese dish of deep-fried glutinous rice balls covered with sesame, scented with a jasmine flower essence, filled with either sweetened mung bean paste (the sweet version) or chopped meat and mushrooms (the savory version).
Bánh cam: a southern Vietnamese version of bánh rán. Unlike bánh rán, bánh cam is coated with a layer of sugary liquid and has no jasmine essence.
Bánh trôi: made from glutinous rice mixed with a small portion of ordinary rice flour (the ratio of glutinous rice flour to ordinary rice flour is typically 9:1 or 8:2) filled with sugarcane rock candy.
Bánh gai: made from the leaves of the "gai" tree (Boehmeria nivea) dried, boiled, ground into small pieces, then mixed with glutinous rice, wrapped in banana leaf. The filling is made from a mixture of coconut, mung bean, peanuts, winter melon, sesame, and lotus seeds.
Bánh cốm: the cake is made from young glutinous rice seeds. The seeds are put into a water pot, stirred on fire, juice extracted from the pomelo flower is added. The filling is made from steamed mung bean, scraped coconut, sweetened pumpkin, and sweetened lotus seeds.
Other bánh made from glutinous rice are bánh tro, bánh tét, bánh ú, bánh măng, bánh ít, bánh khúc, bánh tổ, bánh in, bánh dẻo, bánh su sê, bánh nổ...
Xôi are sweet or savory dishes made from steamed glutinous rice and other ingredients. Sweet xôi are typically eaten as breakfast. Savory xôi can be eaten as lunch. Xôi dishes made from glutinous rice include:
Xôi lá cẩm: made with the magenta plant.
Xôi lá dứa: made with pandan leaf extract for the green color and a distinctive pandan flavor.
Xôi chiên phồng: deep-fried glutinous rice patty
Xôi gà: made with coconut juice and pandan leaf served with fried or roasted chicken and sausage.
Xôi thập cẩm: made with dried shrimp, chicken, Chinese sausage, Vietnamese sausage (chả), peanuts, coconut, onion, fried garlic ...
Other xôi dishes made from glutinous rice include: xôi lạc, xôi lúa, xôi đậu xanh, xôi nếp than, xôi gấc, xôi vò, xôi sắn, xôi sầu riêng, xôi khúc, xôi xéo, xôi cá, xôi vị...
Chè refers to any traditional Vietnamese sweetened soup or porridge. Though chè can be made using a wide variety of ingredients, some chè dishes made from glutinous rice include:
Chè đậu trắng: made from glutinous rice and black-eyed peas.
Chè con ong: made from glutinous rice, ginger root, honey, and molasses.
Chè cốm: made from young glutinous rice seeds, kudzu flour, and juice from the pomelo flower.
Chè xôi nước: balls made from mung bean paste in a shell made of glutinous rice flour; served in a thick clear or brown liquid made of water, sugar, and grated ginger root.
Cơm nếp: glutinous rice that is cooked in the same way as ordinary rice, except that the water used is flavored by adding salts or by using coconut juice, or soups from chicken broth or pork broth.
Cơm rượu: Glutinous rice balls cooked and mixed with yeast, served in a small amount of rice wine.
Cơm lam: Glutinous rice cooked in a tube of bamboo of the genus Neohouzeaua and often served with grilled pork or chicken.
Glutinous rice can also be fermented to make Vietnamese alcoholic beverages, such as rượu nếp, rượu cần and rượu đế.
Beverages
Choujiu
Sato (rice wine)
Home brew sato kits
Rượu nếp
Rượu cần
Non-food uses
In construction, glutinous rice is a component of sticky rice mortar for use in masonry. Chemical tests have confirmed that this is true for the Great Wall of China and the city walls of Xi'an. In Assam also, this rice was used for building palaces during Ahom rule.
Glutinous rice starch may also be used to create wheatpaste, an adhesive material.
See also
Cuisine of Assam
Cuisine of Burma
Cuisine of Cambodia
Cuisine of China
Hakka cuisine
Cuisine of Indonesia
Cuisine of Japan
Cuisine of Korea
Cuisine of Laos
Cuisine of Malaysia
Cuisine of the Philippines
Cuisine of Thailand
Cuisine of Vietnam
References
External links
Rice varieties
Bangladeshi cuisine
Bhutanese cuisine
Burmese cuisine
Cambodian cuisine
Chinese cuisine
Crops originating from China
Food ingredients
Indian cuisine
Japanese cuisine
Korean cuisine
Lao cuisine
Philippine cuisine
Thai cuisine
Vietnamese cuisine
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20King%27s%20College
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University of King's College
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The University of King's College, established in 1789, is in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It is the oldest chartered university in Canada, and the first English-speaking university in the Commonwealth outside the United Kingdom. The university is regarded for its Foundation Year Program, a comprehensive and interdisciplinary examination of Western culture through great books, designed for first-year undergraduates. It is also known for its upper-year interdisciplinary programs – particularly its contemporary studies program, early modern studies program, and its history of science and technology program. In addition, the university has a journalism school that attracts students from across the world for its intensive Master of Journalism programs and its Master of Fine Arts in creative nonfiction, the first of its kind in Canada. Its undergraduate journalism programs are known for leading content in digital formats.
Although the university was first established as the King's Collegiate School in Windsor, Nova Scotia in 1788, a fire destroyed the original university in 1920, and the institution relocated to Halifax. The relocation was made possible with the help of Dalhousie University, which has since maintained a joint faculty of Arts and Social Sciences with King's. This partnership provides students at King's with full access to Dalhousie’s facilities and services. Despite this partnership, King's remains independent under its own charter.
The university is located on the northwest corner of the Dalhousie University campus.
History
Late 18th century and 19th century
King's College traces its origins to the King's College of New York City. On 31 October 1754, King George II of Great Britain issued the charter for King's College within New York City, establishing it as the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York and the fifth-oldest in the United States. In 1776, during the eruption of the American Revolutionary War, studies at the university halted for the subsequent eight years. During this period, the college's library was looted, and its sole building was requisitioned for use as a military hospital first by American and then British forces. When Patriots took over the university, Bishop Charles Inglis, the rector of Trinity Church, led the flight of Loyalists to Windsor, Nova Scotia. After the American Revolution, the old institution was resuscitated and eventually renamed Columbia College, which would develop into Columbia University.
In 1788, these resettled Anglican Loyalists founded the King's Collegiate School in Windsor. During the following year, the University of King's College emerged from the collegiate. In the same year, 1789, an act passed for "the permanent establishment and effectual support of a college at Windsor," and £400 per annum was granted towards its maintenance. The College opened in 1790, and received a Royal Charter from King George III in 1802, becoming Canada's first university. Even though the University of New Brunswick traces its history to King's College at Fredericton, which was established in 1785, it did not initially receive university powers and did not receive a Royal Charter until 1827. Similarly, McGill University traces its origins to 1801 but did not receive a Royal Charter until 1821.
The university was generally modelled on older English universities which were residential, tutorial, and closely tied to the Church of England. With its strong Anglican affiliation, all students at King's College were required to take oaths affirming their assent to the 39 Articles of the Anglican Church during the 19th century.
Upon discovering the chalice and paten of St. Peter's Anglican Church (West LaHave, Nova Scotia) were being sold in Halifax, Senator William Johnston Almon purchased them and donated them to the King's College Chapel (1891). The chalice is reported to be the oldest Anglican chalice in Canada, dated to c. 1663.
The Town of Windsor assert that students at King's College invented ice hockey c. 1800 on Long Pond adjacent to the campus. (A similar game developed, perhaps independently, in Kingston, Ontario several years later which has led to occasional confusion about the sport's origins.)
The noted Canadian poet Sir Charles G. D. Roberts taught at King's College from 1885 to 1895.
Early and mid-20th century
On February 5, 1920, a fire consumed the university campus. Though the cause of the blaze is still unknown, tradition states it was caused by students "playing with matches" in a dormitory. Due to frozen fire hydrants, the blaze could not be put out and the buildings burned to the ground.
In 1922, the Carnegie Foundation offered a conditional grant to rebuild King's College. Among the provisions were that King's College was to be rebuilt in Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, and that it was to enter into an association with Dalhousie University. The partnership required King's to pay the salaries of select Dalhousie professors, who, in return, would help manage King's College. In addition, students at King's would be permitted to study at Dalhousie, while Dalhousie students would be permitted to study at King's with the exception of divinity; the granting of all other degrees outlined in the 1802 charter was to be temporarily halted. The conditions were in hope that one day all of Nova Scotia's universities would merge into a single body, much like the University of Toronto.
King's College accepted the funding, and relocated adjacent to Dalhousie's Studley Campus, at the corner of Oxford Street and Coburg Road. Alongside the move, the institution renamed itself "University of King's College'. Other universities in Halifax similarly did not follow through with the Carnegie Foundation's merger plan.
In the formative years of King's College, many more types of degrees were offered than the institution offers today; for example, the University of New Brunswick Faculty of Law traces its history to the "King's College Law School" that was established in 1892 in Saint John, New Brunswick by King's College (Windsor). While the University of King's College has never lost nor relinquished interest in these granting powers, they are held in abeyance due to agreements with the University of King's College's partner, Dalhousie University, as part of the agreement to allow the portion of Dalhousie's campus to be used by the University of King's College.
Consolidation was a way to strengthen this small and financially insecure institution. In the early part of this century, professional education expanded beyond the traditional fields of theology, law and medicine. Graduate training based on the German-inspired American model of specialized course work and the completion of a research thesis was introduced.
In 1923, the former site of King's College in Windsor was designated a National Historic Site.
When World War II broke out, King's was requisitioned by the military for the training of naval officers between 1941 and 1945. King's functioned as a "stone frigate", providing a facility for navigation training before officers were sent to their ships. This role is highlighted in the 1943 Hollywood feature film, Corvette K-225, a part of which was filmed on the University campus. The academic life of the College carried on during those years elsewhere in Halifax, aided by Dalhousie University and the United Church's Pine Hill Divinity Hall. In reflection of this naval past, the student bar on campus is known as the HMCS King's Wardroom, often referred to as "the Wardroom" or "the Wardy".
During the war, the Germans would occasionally broadcast names of Allied ships they had sunk. As ships had to keep radio silence, these reports could not be verified, and it was suspected that many were false. Allies circulated lists of non-active ships in the hopes of feeding the Germans misinformation; when the Germans broadcast that they had sunk HMCS King's, their ruse was exposed.
After the war, the campus was returned to the University. The policy of university education initiated in the 1960s responded to population pressure and the belief that higher education was a key to social justice and economic productivity for individuals and for society.
Late 20th century and 21st century
Until the spring of 1971, the university granted graduate theological degrees as well as undergraduate degrees. In the same year, the Faculty of Divinity was moved to Pine Hill, where it was formally amalgamated into the Atlantic School of Theology, an ecumenical venture with the United Church of Canada and the Roman Catholic Church. While this new institution now grants its own degrees, King's holds in abeyance its rights to grant divinity credentials and still continues to grant annual honorary degrees.
In 1972, King's faculty and alumni created the Foundation Year Program (FYP), a first-year great books course that would count for four of a student's five first-year credits. The program consisted of six sections from The Ancient World to The Contemporary World, in which students would read the work of major philosophers, poets, historians and scientists, receive lectures from a range of experts in all these areas, write critical papers and engage in small-group discussion and tutorials. The program initially had 30 students; it now draws almost 300 a year, most of whom live in residence on campus. Many of those who taught in the program in its early days were colleagues and students of the philosopher James Doull, who exercised a considerable degree of influence on the program in its formative stages. In 1989, Doull was awarded an honorary doctorate by the university.
In 1977, King's introduced two Bachelor of Journalism programs: a four-year honours degree and a one-year compressed degree for students who already hold a bachelor's degree.
In 1989, a campus library building was erected to commemorate the bicentennial of the university. It replaced a smaller library in the Arts and Administration building. The library has won numerous architectural awards. In 2000, the same architect designed the school's New Academic Building. In 2001, additional residence rooms were added in the basement of Alexandra Hall to accommodate some of the new students. Residence can currently accommodate 274 students, and nearly all on-campus living spaces are reserved for FYP students, though some spaces are reserved for upper-year students. All buildings on the present campus are celebrated reconstructions and derivations of the buildings of the original 1789 campus in Windsor, Nova Scotia. A system of tunnels connects the residences to the other buildings of the campus: a feature common to North American universities, and particularly common to many institutional buildings in Halifax.
The King's Library houses an impressive collection not only of rare Anglican church documents, but also a vast collection of original artwork, Renaissance and medieval books, and extensive archival material of relevance both to the history of Nova Scotia and the university. It also has some ancient artifacts, along with the Weldon Collection of fine imported china. Many of the rare books stem from the original, private collection of university founder, Charles Inglis. Recently, the blueprints for the buildings of the current campus were consulted in the library to restore the famed cupola crowning the A&A Building to its original, 1920s condition.
In 1993, King's created the Contemporary Studies program. In 1999, King's launched the Early Modern Studies program. In 2000, King's commenced the History of Science and Technology program. Each of these programs can constitute one component of a jointly conferred combined honours degree with Dalhousie. The Upper Year Program, like the Foundation Year Program, place a strong emphasis on historical contextualized, interdisciplinary study as opposed to traditional university departmentalization.
Today, there are over 1,000 students at King's, which represents significant growth over enrolment in the 1960s and 1970s. Its first-year class is made up mainly of Foundation Year Program students. In 2001, the FYP class was 274 students, with slightly over a hundred of these students coming from Ontario. The growing number of students from out of province reflects King's growing academic reputation and its transformation from a small, local college to a nationally acclaimed university. However, King's maintains strong ties to its host city and province and the number of Nova Scotians attending King's rose 23 per cent between 1994 and 2004.
The largest ever FYP class was in 2004, with 309 students. However, the administration has resolved to cap future classes at just under 300. With improved retention rates, the school's population looks to stabilize at around 1,200 in future years. The number of students leaving after first year has dropped significantly since the introduction of the upper year inter-disciplinary programs.
King's' transformation from a small college catering mainly to local Anglican students into a more intellectually cosmopolitan university with a strong national profile has been a resounding success. In terms of teaching quality, King's has been placed in the same academic league as top Canadian research universities like McGill and Toronto. One recent academic commentator summed up King's growing renown for its quality of teaching and eccentric student culture by remarking "If there is a Harvard of the North, it’s more likely King’s than McGill — although a better analogy would be a cross between Harry Potter’s Hogwarts and Camp Wanapitei in Temagami." The new programs, combined with a rigorous set of academic expectations and a cooperative academic culture, have proven a hit with high achieving high school students. Conservative estimates put the entrance average of first year King's students at 87%, or a strong A in Canadian high school marks.
In October 2003, Dr. William Barker was installed as president and vice-chancellor, replacing Dr. Colin Starnes. Dr. Barker and the rest of the university administration have declared that King's has grown as much as it can and should. They describe the coming years as "a time of consolidation", with a focus on retention and development of new programs.
The university's growth has changed some King's traditions. Formal meals, with Latin grace and academic gowns, formerly held at regular intervals, were suspended from 2001 until 2003. Only with the arrival of Dr. Barker were they reinstated. They now take place on the first Wednesday of every month.
In July 2006, the King's Student Union founded the King's Co-op Bookstore; it stocks every title on the FYP Reading List, as well as all necessary books for King's other courses and a number of Dalhousie courses and general interest fiction and non-fiction. The bookstore is a student-owned co-operative which functions separately from both the student union and the university.
King's College administration has not avoided controversy. After the Sodexo cleaning staff unionized in 2004, the housekeeping contract was awarded to a different company during the summer. The King's Student Union had been involved in encouraging the workers to unionize in order to improve their working conditions, and there were strenuous objections to the awarding of the new contract.
The University of King’s College's arms were registered with the Canadian Heraldic Authority on August 15, 2007.
Academics
King's best known program is its Foundation Year Program (FYP) for first year students, an intensive survey course of history, philosophy, and literature in the western tradition. The Contemporary Studies Program (CSP), the Early Modern Studies Program (EMSP), and the History of Science and Technology Program (HOST) are offered jointly with Dalhousie University as combined honours degrees requiring a second honours discipline. If the students decide to do a King's subject as their primary honours subject, they are required to write an honours thesis, varying in length from program to program. A Bachelor of Journalism program is offered as either a four-year honours degree or an intensive one-year program to students already holding a bachelor's degree. King's College and Dalhousie University also jointly offer a 10-month Master of Journalism program and a two-year limited residency Master of Fine Arts degree in Creative Nonfiction program.
King's students generally take FYP in their first year and choose a specific degree program to pursue in their final three years. Most students at King's take at least some classes through programs at Dalhousie University. With the exception of the journalism program, King's students graduate with joint degrees from King's and Dalhousie. King's students are eligible to complete these degrees in any subject from Dalhousie's Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences or Faculty of Science.
Foundation Year Program
The Foundation Year Program is a core-text program for first-year students; it surveys the history of western thought and culture from ancient times to the present day. It has been offered since 1972. The course has traditionally been divided into six sections.
The Foundation Year Program (FYP) has been described by the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada as having "a national reputation for excellence as an alternative first-year of undergraduate studies", and is regarded as a prototype for similar programs elsewhere; the principal Canadian news magazine Maclean's expresses the view in a discussion of small, specialized undergraduate programs in Canada that "it's unlikely that any of the other programs would exist if not for the Foundation Year at King's". In both 2008 and 2009, the FYP program had been ranked first in Canada by the National Survey of Student Engagement.
Student life
Traditions
Once every two months, formal meals are held. Students wearing traditional academic gowns are led into the meal hall by a bagpiper. Once they have found their seat, a Latin grace is said. Afterwards, the catered meal begins. These meals were formerly held at regular intervals, but were suspended from 2001 until 2003. They were reinstated during the presidency of William Barker at his behest.
The UKing's Literary Society (formerly the Haliburton Society), a student-run literary society, has hosted discussions concerning poetry and prose since 1884. The society remains the longest-standing university literary society throughout the Commonwealth of Nations and North America. The society took its original name from the Canadian politician Thomas Chandler Haliburton. It adopted its current name in 2020, as a result of a long-standing controversy over Haliburton's pro-slavery views.
Residence
The residences are built in the Georgian style typical of the original campus. Each "bay", as the original residences were termed in Windsor, is modelled on the system of 'staircases' at England's Oxford University. Each has also been named with a seemingly ironic moniker: North Pole Bay sits atop the university's boiler rooms, and is arguably the warmest location on campus; Chapel Bay is named after the campus chapel, but is located the furthest distance from it; Radical Bay originally housed the refined, quiet divinity students; Middle Bay, which was named for its location as it is between Chapel and Radical, is named ironically as being the only non-ironic name; in addition, there is Cochran Bay, named after the first president of the College, William Cochran, and is the closest to the campus chapel.
Often residence-wide parties, known as 'bay parties,' occurred, but were cancelled for in 2003. However, there was a brief a revival during the 2005-2006 school year, with both Radical Bay and Cochran Bay hosting several highly successful events. In place of this tradition, each Bay now organizes a themed-event on campus during different times of the school year.
Another consequence of increased enrolment has been a more unbalanced composition of the residences. Traditionally, students from all years of study have lived in residence, but increasingly, very few upper year students continue to live on campus, thus making way for more first years. In 2006, Alexandra Hall, traditionally the all-women's residence, was made co-ed for the first time with rooms in the basement alternating between male and female occupants as well as one wing of the first floor becoming all-male. In addition, two of the five bays were re-converted to co-ed living spaces in 2006.
Annual events
Alex Fountain Memorial Lecture
Since 2011, an annual memorial lecture is given by an individual chosen each year by the student body. After a nomination process at the beginning of the winter semester, a long list of twenty is narrowed to a short list of ten by student election. The short list is then prioritized by a student committee, which includes the program directors and president. The lecture is free, open to the public, and concludes in a question and answer period. Previous lecturers and lectures include Michaëlle Jean on 'Building Social Change Locally and Globally', Charles Taylor on 'Is Democracy in Danger?', Michael Ondaatje on 'Mongrel art: A discussion of literature and its neighbours', Jan Zwicky on 'What Meaning Is and Why It Matters', and Tanya Tagaq on 'Climate, culture, and collaboration', as well as Canadian author Joseph Boyden.
The event is held in memorial after Alex Fountain, a student who died by suicide on 22 August 2009 at the age of 20. His family donated $1 million to the mental health program at the Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre, as well as additional contributions to other mental health programs at Dalhousie University, the IWK Health Centre and Capital Health. In addition, they founded the lecture series.
Athletics
King's is a member of the Atlantic Colleges Athletic Association (ACAA). The Varsity athletics teams at the University of King's College are named the Blue Devils. Sporting teams include men's and women's basketball, soccer, badminton and rugby, and women's volleyball.
People
List of presidents
William Cochran (1789–1804)
Thomas Cox (1804–1805)
Charles Porter (1805–1836)
George McCawley (1836–1875)
John Dart (1875–1885)
Isaac Brock (1885–1889)
Charles E. Willets (1889–1904)
Ian Hannah (1904–1906)
C. J. Boulden (1906–1909)
T. W. Powell (1909–1914)
Charles E. Willets (Acting President, 1914–1916)
T. S. Boyle (1916–1924)
A. H. Moore (1924–1937)
A. Stanley Walker (1937–1953)
H. L. Puxley (1954–1963)
H. D. Smith (1963–1969)
F. Hilton Page (Acting President, 1969–1970)
J. Graham Morgan (1970–1977)
John Godfrey (1977–1987)
Marion G. Fry (1987–1993)
Colin Starnes (1993–2003)
William Barker (2003–2011)
Anne Leavitt (2011–2012)
George Cooper (2012–2016)
William Lahey (2016–present)
Notable current and former faculty
Michael Bishop - Author of The Endless Theory of Days and Scholar of French Contemporary. Director of Editions VVV Editions
George Bain - Director of the School of Journalism, 1979–85
Wayne Hankey - Carnegie Professor and Chair of the Classics department at Dalhousie, 2001-2015
Robert D. Crouse - Chair of Classics department at Dalhousie, co-founder of Dionysius
Sir Charles G. D. Roberts - prominent member of the group known as the Confederation Poets
Henry How - Chemist and mineralogist, described two minerals new to science: howlite and mordenite
Dean Jobb - Associate Professor of Journalism, former reporter and editor for The Chronicle Herald
Kim Kierans - Vice president (2010–2017), former director of the King's School of Journalism, and writer/editor for CBC Radio One
Stephen Kimber - Rogers Communications Chair in Journalism, prominent journalist and columnist for The Daily News
Daniel Brandes - Director of the Foundation Year Program, and author of Nietzsche, Arendt, and the Promise of the Future and Fackenheim on Self-Making, Divine and Human
Gordon McOuat - former Director of the History of Science and Technology Program
Susan Newhook - Assistant Professor of Journalism and researcher, reporter and editor for CBC from 1980 to 1998
Samuel Henry Prince - Founder of the Dalhousie School of Social Work, and author of Catastrophe and Social Change.
Stephen Snobelen - Director of the History of Science and Technology Program; Featured in BBC documentary Newton: The Dark Heretic
Walter Stewart - Director of the School of Journalism
Kelly Toughill - Director of the King's School of Journalism and former Deputy Executive Editor of the Toronto Star
Fred Vallance-Jones - Associate Professor of Journalism and former Investigative reporter at The Hamilton Spectator and CBC Radio
Laura Penny - Author of Your Call Is Important To Us: The Truth About Bullshit and More Money Than Brains: Why School Sucks, College is Crap, and Idiots Think They're Right
Notable alumni
Rich Aucoin - Canadian indie rock musician.
Kathryn Borel - writer, editor, radio producer.
Margaret Sibella Brown - Bryologist
Ryan Hemsworth - Producer and DJ
William Johnston Almon
Charles Austin, Matthew Murphy and Drew Yamada of The Super Friendz - Influential Canadian rock band of the 90s
James "Calbert" Best - Journalist and Canadian Diplomat.
Frederick Borden - Canadian Minister of Militia and Defence from 1896–1911
Jordan Breen - Senior Editor at Sherdog.com, curator of Sherdog FightFinder, featured Mixed Martial Arts Columnist.
Ben Caplan - folk musician
Amor de Cosmos (1825–1897) - Premier of British Columbia, 1872-1874
Darrell Dexter - Nova Scotia Premier, 2009–2013
Starr Dobson - CTV Atlantic Live At 5 Reporter, 1990-2013
Jay Ferguson and Patrick Pentland of Sloan
Lionel Avard Forsyth - President of the Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation
Simon Gibbons - Canada's first Inuit priest
Trevor Greene - Writer, journalist, Canadian veteran wounded in the War in Afghanistan and subject of the documentary Peace Warrior
Darren Greer - Winner of the 2015 Thomas Head Raddall Award for his novel Just Beneath My Skin
Thomas Chandler Haliburton - Author
John Hamm - Nova Scotia Premier, 1999–2006
Emily Horne - Co-creator and photographer for the weekly comic strip A Softer World
Sir John Eardley Inglis (1814–1862), in charge of the British forces at the Siege of Lucknow
Martine L. Jacquot - Author, journalist and academic
Amber MacArthur - Internet media personality
Russell MacLellan - Nova Scotia Premier, 1997–1999
Steve Maich - Editor of Canadian Business magazine
Stephen Marche - Author of Raymond & Hannah
David McGuffin - CBC Africa correspondent
H. R. Milner - lawyer and businessman; Chancellor from 1957 to 1963
Stephanie Nolen - Africa correspondent for The Globe and Mail and author of 28: Stories of AIDS in Africa
Roland Ritchie - Justice of the Supreme Court of Canada
Cuthbert Aikman Simpson - Dean of Christ Church and Regius Professor of Hebrew at Oxford University
Johanna Skibsrud - Author of The Sentimentalists, 2010 Scotiabank Giller Prize winner
Thomas Suther - Bishop of Aberdeen
Miriam Toews - winner, 2004 Governor General's Award for Fiction for her novel A Complicated Kindness.
Al Tuck - folksinger
Ian Walker - Sports columnist with The Vancouver Sun turned television and film screenwriter
Augustus Welsford - One of two soldiers whose heroic deaths at the Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War are marked by the Welsford-Parker Monument in Halifax's Old Burying Ground
Stuart J. Woods - Editor of Quill & Quire magazine
Millefiore Clarkes - PEI filmmaker
See also
List of Anglo-Catholic churches
Royal eponyms in Canada
List of oldest universities in continuous operation
Higher education in Nova Scotia
List of universities in Nova Scotia
Canadian university scientific research organizations
List of National Historic Sites in Nova Scotia
References
Further reading
Roper, Henry. "Aspects of the History of a Loyalist College: King's College, Windsor, and Nova Scotian Higher Education in the Nineteenth Century". Anglican and Episcopal History 61 (1991).
Vroom, Fenwick Williams. King's College: A Chronicle, 1789-1939.
DeWolf, Mark. All the King's Men: The Story of a Colonial University (1972)
Kinghorn, Alexander Manson. University of King’s College Halifax, Nova Scotia : The Overseas Commonwealth’s Oldest University (1965)
External links
King's Student Union
King's College National Historic Site of Canada
1789 establishments in Nova Scotia
History of Halifax, Nova Scotia
Kings
Kings
Educational institutions established in 1789
|
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] |
210019
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Kelley
|
Edward Kelley
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Sir Edward Kelley or Kelly, also known as Edward Talbot (; 1 August 1555 – 1597/8), was an English Renaissance occultist and self-declared spirit medium. He is best known for working with John Dee in his magical investigations. Besides the professed ability to summon spirits or angels in a "shew-stone" or mirror, which John Dee so valued, Kelley also claimed to possess the secret of transmuting base metals into gold, the goal of alchemy, as well as the supposed philosopher's stone itself.
Legends began to surround Kelley shortly after his death. His flamboyant biography, his relationships with Queen Elizabeth I's royal magus Sir John Dee and the Emperor Rudolf II, and his claims of great alchemical skill and the ability to communicate with angels have all led to his relative notoriety among historians.
Biography
Birth and early career
Much of Kelley's early life is obscure. He claimed descent from the family of Ui Maine in Ireland. He was born at Worcester on 1 August 1555, at 4 P.M. according to a horoscope that John Dee drew up (based on notes Dee kept in his almanac/diary). His sister Elizabeth was born in 1558, and he had a brother Thomas who later joined him in Dee's household. However, much of Kelley's life before meeting John Dee is not known. He may have studied at Oxford under the name of Talbot; whether or not he attended university, Kelly was educated and knew Latin and possibly some Greek by the time he met Dee.
Anthony à Wood records in Athenae Oxoniensis that Kelley, "being about 17 years of age, at which time he attained to a competency of Grammar learning at Worcester and elsewhere, was sent to Oxford, but to what house I cannot tell. However, I have been informed by an ancient Bachelor of Divinity who in his younger years had been an Amanuensis to Mr Thomas Allen of Gloucester-hall, that he (Kelly) had spent some time in that House; whereupon I, recurring to the matriculation, could not find the name Kelly, only Talbot of Ireland, three of which name were students there in 1573, 74, &c... This relation being somewhat dubiously delivered to me, I must tell you that Kelly having an unsettled mind, left Oxford abruptly, without being entitled into the matricula." According to some accounts, Kelley was pilloried in Lancaster for forgery or counterfeiting. Both his ears were supposedly cropped, a common punishment during the Tudor Dynasty. He usually wore a cap on his head, and it was thought this was to hide his lack of ears. John Weever says, "Kelly (otherwise called Talbot) that famous English alchemist of our times, who flying out of his own country (after he had lost both his ears at Lancaster) was entertained with Rudolf the second, and last of that Christian name, Emperor of Germany." Some accounts say that he first worked as an apothecary's apprentice: some say he worked as a notary in London.
With Dee in England
Kelley approached John Dee in 1582. Dee had already been trying to contact angels with the help of a scryer, or crystal-gazer, but he had not been successful. Kelley professed the ability to do so, and impressed Dee with his first trial. Kelley became Dee's regular scryer or medium. Dee and Kelley devoted huge amounts of time and energy to these "spiritual conferences". From 1582 to 1589, Kelley's life was closely tied to Dee's. In those seven years, they conducted conferences or seances, including "prayers for enlightenment... in the spirit of Dee's ecumenical hopes that alchemy and angelic knowledge would heal the rift of Christendom". Dee also believed that the angels held knowledge that would aid the English in their discoveries of new and uncharted lands on Earth.
Kelley married a widow, Jane (or Joanna) Cooper of Chipping Norton (1563–1606). He helped educate her two children: the girl, future poet Westonia, later described him as a 'kind stepfather' and noted how he took her in after the deaths of her two grandmothers. Kelley had also hired a Latin tutor for her, named John Hammond (Johannes Hammonius in Latin).
About a year after entering into Dee's service, Kelley appeared with an alchemical book (The Book of Dunstan) and a quantity of a red powder which, Kelley claimed, he and a certain John Blokley had been led to by a "spiritual creature" at Northwick Hill. (Accounts of Kelley's finding the book and the powder in the ruins of Glastonbury Abbey were first published by Elias Ashmole, but are contradicted by Dee's diaries.) With the powder (whose secret was presumably hidden in the book) Kelley believed he could prepare a red "tincture" which would allow him to transmute base metals into gold. He reportedly demonstrated its power a few times over the years, including in Bohemia (present Czech Republic) where he and Dee resided for many years.
With Dee on the Continent
In 1583, Dee became acquainted with Olbracht Łaski, a Polish nobleman interested in alchemy. In September of that year, Dee, Kelley, and their families left England with Łaski for the Continent. Dee sought the patronage of Emperor Rudolf II in Prague and King Stefan I of Poland in Kraków; Dee apparently failed to impress either monarch enough to earn a permanent station. Dee and Kelley lived a nomadic life in Central Europe, meanwhile continuing their spiritual conferences. While Kelley was apparently more interested in alchemy than in scrying, Dee seemed more interested in making contact with the angels. Kelley's supposed value was as a medium, as only he was able to understand and scribe their language. According to those close to Dee (particularly his son Arthur) there was no little tension between the two men and their families as they journeyed through Europe. Some claim that "Dee seems to have driven Kelly to the brink of insanity, forcing him to perform long skrying sessions on a nearly daily basis".
Kelley and Dee's involvement in necromancy eventually caught the attention of the Catholic Church, and on 27 March 1587 they were required to defend themselves in a hearing with the papal nuncio, Germanico Malaspina, bishop of San Severo. Dee handled the interview with tact, but Kelley is said to have infuriated the nuncio by stating that one of the problems with the Catholic Church is the "poor conduct of many of the priests." The nuncio noted in a letter that he was tempted to toss Kelley out of the window (defenestration was a somewhat common tradition in Prague at the time).
In 1586, Kelley and Dee found the patronage of the wealthy Bohemian Lord William of Rosenberg, a senior official from a powerful family who also shared Kelley and Dee's alchemical interests and is known to have participated in spiritual sessions with the two men. Kelley and Dee settled in the town of Třeboň and continued their research there (in Dee's journal, he states "Oct. 26th, Mr. Edward Kelly came to Trebona from Prage"), and according to Dee's diary it was during this time that Kelley is said to have performed his first alchemical transmutation (on 19 December 1586). Kelley's skilled draughtsmanship is evident in the notes taken by Dee during certain séances (these notes are available in Dee's Book of Enoch). These notes show Kelley's initial commitment to the alchemists' mutual goal. However, he soon began to waver and expressed a desire to stop. Dee insisted that they continue. In 1587, possibly as an act to sever the sessions, Kelley revealed to Dee that the angels (namely a spirit "Madimi") had ordered them to share everything they had, including their wives. Dee, anguished by the "order" of the angels, subsequently broke off the spiritual conferences. He did, however, share his wife. This "cross-matching" occurred on 22 May 1587 and is noted in John Dee's diary: “May 22nd, Mistris Kelly received the sacrament, and to me and my wife gave her hand in charity; and we rushed not from her.” Nine months later, on 28 February, Dee's wife Jane gave birth to a son, Theodorus Trebonianus Dee. Although there may have been speculation among the families that the child was actually Kelley's, he was raised as Dee's son (references to the child's communion are present in Dee's diary); the "cross-matching" incident remained a secret (as did many of their activities) until after the post-mortem publication of Dee's diaries; there was no controversy at the time.
Though it seems the two shared an intimate and often cooperative partnership, it was often characterised as "quarrelsome" and "tense" by contemporaries and historians. Also they were clearly involved in activities that could be seen as heretical to the Catholic Church of the time, so a certain amount of tact and secrecy was required. Kelly left Dee at Třeboň in 1589, possibly to join the emperor's court at Prague. Dee returned to England. They did not see each other again.
The manuscript collector Karl Widemann from Augsburg was between 1587 and 1588 his secretary at the court of Rudolf II, and also worked for the Rosenberg family in Třeboň.
Apogee and fall
In England in 1588 rumours circulated that Kelley was arrested by the Emperor for falsely advertising that he could transmute base metals to gold, a skill that Queen Elizabeth could employ. William Cecil wrote to Edward Dyer, an English diplomat inviting Kelly to return to England and the queen's service.
In October 1590 one of his associates, Ralph Lacy, a recusant from Yorkshire, arrived at the court of James VI of Scotland from Prague. He had served the king's grandfather, the Earl of Lennox. The English ambassador Robert Bowes was suspicious of him, and persuaded James VI to send him back.
By 1590 Kelley was living an opulent lifestyle in Europe, enjoying the patronage of nobility: he received several estates and large sums of money from Rosenberg. Meanwhile, he continued his alchemical experiments until he had convinced Rudolf II that he was ready to start producing gold, the purpose of his work. Rudolf knighted him Sir Edward Kelley of Imany and New Lüben on 23 February 1590 (but it is possible that this happened in 1589). In May 1591, Rudolf had Kelley arrested and imprisoned in the Křivoklát Castle outside Prague, supposedly for killing an official named Jiri Hunkler in a duel; it is possible that he also did not want Kelley to escape before he had actually produced any gold. In 1595, Kelly agreed to co-operate and return to his alchemical work; he was released and restored to his former status. When he failed to produce any gold, he was again imprisoned, this time in Hněvín Castle in Most. His wife and stepdaughter attempted to hire an imperial counselor who might free Kelley from imprisonment, but he died a prisoner in late 1597/early 1598 of injuries received while attempting to escape. However, according to the account of Simon Tadeá, Rudolf II's geologist, he poisoned himself in front of his wife and children.
In 1674, Sir Thomas Browne, an acquaintance of John Dee's son Arthur Dee, in correspondence to Elias Ashmole, stated that "Arthur Dee said also that Kelley dealt not justly by his father, and that afterwards imprisoned by the Emperor in a castle, from whence attempting an escape down the wall, he fell and broke his leg and was imprisoned again."
A few of Kelley's writings are extant today, including two alchemical verse treatises in English, and three other treatises, which he dedicated to Rudolf II from prison. They were entitled Tractatus duo egregii de lapide philosophorum una cum theatro astronomiae (1676). The treatises have been translated as The Alchemical Writings of Edward Kelley (1893).
Angelical, the "Enochian" language
Kelley's angels communicated to him in a special language termed 'Angelical', subsequently called Enochian, which he then relayed to Dee. Some modern cryptographers argue that Kelley invented it (see for example the introduction to The Complete Enochian Dictionary by Donald Laycock). Some say that this was all a farce, but are not clear whether Dee was a victim or an accomplice. Because of this precedent, and of a dubious connection between the Voynich Manuscript and John Dee (through Roger Bacon), Kelley has been suspected of having fabricated that book too, to swindle Rudolf.
Kelley said that Angelical was dictated by angels who he saw and heard by means scrying in a crystal ball or mirror. He also described the angels as communicating by means of tapping out letters displayed in a rectangular tablet. The first third were tapped out with each Angelical word backwards; the following two-thirds with each word forwards. There are no significant errors or discrepancies in word usage between the first and following parts. The English translations were not tapped out but, according to Kelley, appeared on little strips of paper coming out of the angels' mouths.
Dee considered the dictation of the Angelical material highly important for three reasons. First, Dee believed Angelical represented a documentable case of true glossolalia, thereby proving that Kelley was actually speaking with angels and not from his imagination. Second, the angels claimed that their language was actually the original prototype of Hebrew: the language with which God spoke to Adam, and thus the first human word. Third, the Angelical material takes the form of a set of conjurations that would summon an extremely powerful set of angels who would reveal many secrets to those who sought them, especially the key to the philosopher's stone, to god-like wisdom, and eternal life.
Notes
References
Citations
Works cited
Further reading
Also available in a fair copy by Elias Ashmole, Sloane MS. 3677.
External links
Alchemical Writings of Edward Kelly
John Dee reports of Dee/Kelley Angel Conversations edited in PDF by Clay Holden:
Mysteriorum Liber Primus (with Latin translations)
Notes to Liber Primus by Clay Holden
Mysteriorum Liber Secundus
Mysteriorum Liber Tertius
Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of Edward Kelley in .jpg and .tiff format.
Morris, Tom. John Dee and Edward Kelley (2013) Available online
1555 births
1597 deaths
16th-century alchemists
16th-century occultists
Angelic visionaries
English alchemists
English occultists
English people imprisoned abroad
Enochian magic
John Dee
People educated at King's School, Worcester
People from Worcester, England
People of the Elizabethan era
Prisoners and detainees of Austria
Escapees from Austrian detention
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third%20Geneva%20Convention
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Third Geneva Convention
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The Third Geneva Convention, relative to the treatment of prisoners of war, is one of the four treaties of the Geneva Conventions. The Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War was first adopted in 1929, but significantly revised at the 1949 conference. It defines humanitarian protections for prisoners of war. There are 196 state parties to the Convention.
Part I: General provisions
This part sets out the overall parameters for GCIII:
Articles 1 and 2 cover which parties are bound by GCIII
Article 2 specifies when the parties are bound by GCIII
That any armed conflict between two or more "High Contracting Parties" is covered by GCIII;
That it applies to occupations of a "High Contracting Party";
That the relationship between the "High Contracting Parties" and a non-signatory, the party will remain bound until the non-signatory no longer acts under the strictures of the convention. "...Although one of the Powers in conflict may not be a party to the present Convention, the Powers who are parties thereto shall remain bound by it in their mutual relations. They shall furthermore be bound by the Convention in relation to the said Power, if the latter accepts and applies the provisions thereof."
Article 3 has been called a "Convention in miniature." It is the only article of the Geneva Conventions that applies in non-international conflicts. It describes minimal protections which must be adhered to by all individuals within a signatory's territory during an armed conflict not of an international character (regardless of citizenship or lack thereof): Non-combatants, members of armed forces who have laid down their arms, and combatants who are hors de combat (out of the fight) due to wounds, detention, or any other cause shall in all circumstances be treated humanely, including prohibition of outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment. The passing of sentences must also be pronounced by a regularly constituted court, affording all the judicial guarantees which are recognised as indispensable by civilised peoples. Article 3's protections exist even if one is not classified as a prisoner of war. Article 3 also states that parties to the internal conflict should endeavour to bring into force, by means of special agreements, all or part of the other provisions of GCIII.
Article 4 defines prisoners of war to include:
4.1.1 Members of the armed forces of a Party to the conflict and members of militias of such armed forces
4.1.2 Members of other militias and members of other volunteer corps, including those of organised resistance movements, provided that they fulfill all of the following conditions:
that of being commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates;
that of having a fixed distinctive sign recognisable at a distance (there are limited exceptions to this among countries who observe the 1977 Protocol I);
that of carrying arms openly;
that of conducting their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war.
4.1.3 Members of regular armed forces who profess allegiance to a government or an authority not recognised by the Detaining Power.
4.1.4 Civilians who have non-combat support roles with the military and who carry a valid identity card issued by the military they support.
4.1.5 Merchant marine and the crews of civil aircraft of the Parties to the conflict, who do not benefit by more favourable treatment under any other provisions of international law.
4.1.6 Inhabitants of a non-occupied territory, who on the approach of the enemy spontaneously take up arms to resist the invading forces, without having had time to form themselves into regular armed units, provided they carry arms openly and respect the laws and customs of war.
4.3 makes explicit that Article 33 takes precedence for the treatment of medical personnel of the enemy and chaplains of the enemy.
Article 5 specifies that prisoners of war (as defined in article 4) are protected from the time of their capture until their final repatriation. It also specifies that when there is any doubt whether a combatant belongs to the categories in article 4, they should be treated as such until their status has been determined by a competent tribunal.
Part II: General Protection of Prisoners of War
This part of the convention covers the status of prisoners of war.
Article 12 states that prisoners of war are the responsibility of the state, not the persons who capture them, and that they may not be transferred to a state that is not party to the Convention.
Articles 13 to 16 state that prisoners of war must be treated humanely without any adverse discrimination and that their medical needs must be met.
Part III: Captivity
This part is divided into several sections:
Section 1 covers the beginning of captivity (Articles 17–20). It dictates what information a prisoner must give ("surname, first names and rank, date of birth, and army, regimental, personal or serial number"), and interrogation methods that the detaining power may use ("No physical or mental torture, nor any other form of coercion"). It dictates what private property a prisoner of war may keep and that the prisoner of war must be evacuated from the combat zone as soon as possible.
Section 2 covers the internment of prisoners of war and is broken down into 8 chapters which cover:
General observations (Articles 21–24)
Quarters, food and clothing (Articles 25–28)
Hygiene and medical attention (Articles 29–32)
The treatment of enemy medical personnel and chaplains retained to assist prisoners of war (Article 33)
Religious, intellectual and physical activities (Articles 34–38)
Discipline (Articles 39–42)
Military rank (Articles 43–45)
Transfer of prisoners of war after their arrival in a camp (Articles 46–48)
Section 3 (Articles 49–57) covers the type of labour that a prisoner of war may be compelled to do, taking such factors as rank, age, and sex into consideration, and that which because it is unhealthy or dangerous can only be done by prisoners of war who volunteer for such work. It goes into details about such things as the accommodation, medical facilities, and that even if the prisoner of war works for a private person the military authority remains responsible for them. Rates of pay for work done are covered by Article 62 in the next section.
Section 4 (Articles 58–68) covers the financial resources of prisoners of war.
Section 5 (Articles 69–74) covers the relations of prisoners of war with the exterior. This covers the frequency of which a prisoner of war can send and receive post, including parcels. The Detaining power has the right to censor all mail, but must do so as quickly as possible.
Section 6 covers the relations between prisoners of war and the detaining authorities: it is broken down into three chapters.
Complaints of prisoners of war respecting the conditions of captivity(Article 78)
Prisoner of war representatives (Articles 79–81). Where there is no senior officer available in a camp the section stipulates that "prisoners shall freely elect by secret ballot, [a representative] every six months". The representative, whether the senior officer or an elected person, acts as a conduit between the authorities of the detaining power and the prisoners.
The sub-section on "Penal and disciplinary sanctions" is subdivided into three parts:
General provisions (Articles 82–88)
Disciplinary sanctions (Articles 89–98)
Juridical proceedings (Articles 99–108)
Part IV: Termination of Captivity
This part is divided into several sections:
Section 1 (Articles 109–117) covers the direct repatriation and accommodation in neutral countries.
Section 2 (Articles 118–119) covers the release and repatriation of prisoners of war at the close of hostilities.
Section 3 (Articles 120–121) covers the death of a prisoner of war.
Part V: Information Bureau and Relief Societies for Prisoners of War
The Information Bureau is an organisation that must be set up by the Detaining Power to facilitate the sharing of information by the parties to conflict and neutral powers as required by the various provisions of the Third Geneva Convention. It will correspond freely with "A Central Prisoners of War Information Agency ... created in a neutral country" to act as a conduit with the Power to which the prisoners of war owe their allegiance. The provisions of this part are contained in Articles 122 to 125.
The central prisoners of war information agency was created within the Red Cross.
Part VI: Execution of the Convention
Consists of two sections.
Section 1 (Articles 126–132) General provisions.
Section 2 (Articles 133–143) Final provisions.
See also
Code of the United States Fighting Force
Command responsibility
List of parties to the Geneva Conventions
Unlawful combatant
War crime
References
External links
ICRC Commentaries on the Convention (III) relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War
List of countries that have ratified the Third Geneva Convention
Text of the Third Geneva Convention
3
Treaties concluded in 1949
Treaties entered into force in 1950
Treaties of the Kingdom of Afghanistan
Treaties of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania
Treaties of Algeria
Treaties of Andorra
Treaties of the People's Republic of Angola
Treaties of Antigua and Barbuda
Treaties of Argentina
Treaties of Armenia
Treaties of Australia
Treaties of Austria
Treaties of Azerbaijan
Treaties of the Bahamas
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Treaties of Bangladesh
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Treaties of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
Treaties of Belgium
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Treaties of the Republic of Dahomey
Treaties of Bhutan
Treaties of Bolivia
Treaties of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Treaties of Botswana
Treaties of the Second Brazilian Republic
Treaties of Brunei
Treaties of the People's Republic of Bulgaria
Treaties of Burkina Faso
Treaties of Myanmar
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Treaties of the Kingdom of Cambodia (1953–1970)
Treaties of Cameroon
Treaties of Canada
Treaties of Cape Verde
Treaties of the Central African Republic
Treaties of Chad
Treaties of Chile
Treaties of the People's Republic of China
Treaties of Colombia
Treaties of the Comoros
Treaties of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (1964–1971)
Treaties of the Republic of the Congo
Treaties of the Cook Islands
Treaties of Costa Rica
Treaties of Ivory Coast
Treaties of Croatia
Treaties of Cuba
Treaties of Cyprus
Treaties of the Czech Republic
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Treaties of Denmark
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Treaties of Dominica
Treaties of the Dominican Republic
Treaties of East Timor
Treaties of Ecuador
Treaties of the Kingdom of Egypt
Treaties of El Salvador
Treaties of Equatorial Guinea
Treaties of Eritrea
Treaties of Estonia
Treaties of the Ethiopian Empire
Treaties of Fiji
Treaties of Finland
Treaties of the French Fourth Republic
Treaties of Gabon
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Treaties of Georgia (country)
Treaties of West Germany
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Treaties of Ghana
Treaties of the Kingdom of Greece
Treaties of Grenada
Treaties of Guatemala
Treaties of Guinea
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Treaties of Guyana
Treaties of Haiti
Treaties of the Holy See
Treaties of Honduras
Treaties of the Hungarian People's Republic
Treaties of Iceland
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Treaties of Pahlavi Iran
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Treaties of Ireland
Treaties of Israel
Treaties of Italy
Treaties of Jamaica
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Treaties of Kazakhstan
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Treaties of Kuwait
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Treaties of the Kingdom of Laos
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Treaties of the Federation of Malaya
Treaties of the Maldives
Treaties of Mali
Treaties of Malta
Treaties of the Marshall Islands
Treaties of Mauritania
Treaties of Mauritius
Treaties of Mexico
Treaties of the Federated States of Micronesia
Treaties of Moldova
Treaties of Monaco
Treaties of the Mongolian People's Republic
Treaties of Montenegro
Treaties of Morocco
Treaties of the People's Republic of Mozambique
Treaties of Namibia
Treaties of Nauru
Treaties of Nepal
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Treaties of Nicaragua
Treaties of Niger
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Treaties of Norway
Treaties of Oman
Treaties of the Dominion of Pakistan
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Treaties of Peru
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Treaties of the Polish People's Republic
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Treaties of Qatar
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Treaties of San Marino
Treaties of São Tomé and Príncipe
Treaties of Saudi Arabia
Treaties of Senegal
Treaties of Serbia and Montenegro
Treaties of Seychelles
Treaties of Sierra Leone
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Treaties of Slovakia
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Treaties of the Solomon Islands
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Treaties of the Union of South Africa
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Treaties of the Soviet Union
Treaties of Francoist Spain
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Treaties of the Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969)
Treaties of Suriname
Treaties of Eswatini
Treaties of Sweden
Treaties of Switzerland
Treaties of the Syrian Republic (1930–1963)
Treaties of Tajikistan
Treaties of Tanganyika
Treaties of Thailand
Treaties of Togo
Treaties of Tonga
Treaties of Trinidad and Tobago
Treaties of Tunisia
Treaties of Turkey
Treaties of Turkmenistan
Treaties of Tuvalu
Treaties of Uganda
Treaties of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
Treaties of the United Arab Emirates
Treaties of the United Kingdom
Treaties of the United States
Treaties of Uruguay
Treaties of Uzbekistan
Treaties of Vanuatu
Treaties of Venezuela
Treaties of South Vietnam
Treaties of North Vietnam
Treaties of South Yemen
Treaties of the Yemen Arab Republic
Treaties of Yugoslavia
Treaties of Zambia
Treaties of the Sultanate of Zanzibar
Treaties of Zimbabwe
Treaties extended to Greenland
Treaties extended to the Faroe Islands
Treaties extended to Niue
Treaties extended to Aruba
Treaties extended to the Netherlands Antilles
Treaties extended to the Territory of Papua and New Guinea
Treaties extended to the Belgian Congo
Treaties extended to Ruanda-Urundi
Treaties extended to French Somaliland
Treaties extended to Surinam (Dutch colony)
Treaties extended to Portuguese Macau
Treaties extended to the West Indies Federation
Treaties extended to the Colony of the Bahamas
Treaties extended to Bahrain (protectorate)
Treaties extended to Bermuda
Treaties extended to the British Antarctic Territory
Treaties extended to the Falkland Islands
Treaties extended to the Colony of Fiji
Treaties extended to the Gambia Colony and Protectorate
Treaties extended to Gibraltar
Treaties extended to British Guiana
Treaties extended to British Hong Kong
Treaties extended to the Gilbert and Ellice Islands
Treaties extended to the Sheikhdom of Kuwait
Treaties extended to Basutoland
Treaties extended to the Crown Colony of Malta
Treaties extended to British Mauritius
Treaties extended to the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria
Treaties extended to Qatar (protectorate)
Treaties extended to Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Treaties extended to the Colony of Sierra Leone
Treaties extended to the British Solomon Islands
Treaties extended to South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Treaties extended to Tanganyika (territory)
Treaties extended to the Kingdom of Tonga (1900–1970)
Treaties extended to the Trucial States
Treaties extended to West Berlin
ru:Конвенция об обращении с военнопленными 1929
|
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210026
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentin%20Tomberg
|
Valentin Tomberg
|
Valentin Arnoldevitch Tomberg (February 26, 1900 – February 24, 1973) was an Estonian-Russian Christian mystic, polyglot scholar and hermetic magician. Robert Powell and others have identified Tomberg as the 20th Century incarnation of the boddhisattva who they say will in time incarnate as the Maitreya Buddha, a claim contested by T. H. Meyer and other Anthroposophists.
Early life
Valentin Tomberg was born on February 26, 1900 (February 14 in the Old Russian Julian calendar) in St. Petersburg, Russia. His parents were Lutheran, the mother was a Russian and the father an Estonian of Baltic-German origin, he was an official in the Tsarist government. As an adolescent, Tomberg was drawn to Theosophy and the mystical practices of Eastern Orthodoxy. In 1917 he was initiated into Hermetic Martinism by Prof. G. O. Mebes. He also discovered the works of Rudolf Steiner. In 1920, Tomberg fled with his family to Tallinn in Estonia, where, searching for his mother who had left the house, he discovered her with her dog tied to a tree, both shot by Communist revolutionaries. Tomberg worked as a nurse at a hospital, in a pharmacy, on a farm and in the Tallinn Central Post Office. He studied languages and comparative religion at the University of Tartu in Estonia.
Career
In 1925, Tomberg joined Rudolf Steiner's Anthroposophical Society. In the early 1930s he married divorcée Maria Belozwetow (née Demski) (died March 1973), a Polish Catholic; they had a son, Alexis (August 31, 1933 - 1975). During the 1930s, Tomberg, then in his 30s, published his original occult research in a number of articles and lectures, which made him a controversial figure in Anthroposophical circles. As a result of the controversies, in 1938 the Tombergs were invited to move to Amsterdam. In 1940, however, he was asked to withdraw from the Anthroposophical Society in the Netherlands as well, by its chairman Willem Zeylmans van Emmichoven (1893-1961), due to his being too controversial.
He was active in Dutch anti-Nazi resistance by hiding allied pilots and parachutists. Tomberg and a Russian friend, the poet-philosopher Nikolai Nikolaevich Bielotsvietov (Nikolaj Belozwetow) (1892-1950), allegedly approached the leader of the Christian Community, Emil Bock (1895-1959) about creating a new ritual focusing on Sophia, but were rebuffed. He then joined the Russian Orthodox Church in the Netherlands but left shortly thereafter, as its leadership turned out to be sympathetic to National Socialism.
Towards the end of World War II, Tomberg received a Ph.D. in jurisprudence from the University of Cologne, where he had moved in 1944. He studied under Ernst Arthur Franz von Hippel (1895-1984), professor of law in the University of Cologne, who became a personal friend and an anthroposophist. Tomberg's thesis was published as Degeneration and Regeneration in the Science of Law, followed by the thesis Peoples' Rights as Humanity's Rights in 1946. Around this time, he converted to Roman Catholicism.
Shortly after the war he helped founding a community college in the Ruhr area. In 1948, however, he moved to England, where he became a translator for the BBC, monitoring Soviet broadcasts during the Cold War at BBC Caversham Park. He retired early, in 1960, to the suburbanized village of Emmer Green, not far from Reading, where he worked on the manuscripts for his main work, written in French and entitled Méditations sur les 22 arcanes majeurs du Tarot (Meditations on the Tarot in English).
Death
Tomberg died on a holiday in Majorca. Two weeks later his wife and collaborator Maria died as well. A Dutch or German rough translation of the manuscript to Méditations sur les 22 arcanes majeurs du Tarot was circulated in the Netherlands against Tomberg's intentions a year before his death, but was only formally published in 1984.
Published works
Tomberg's major written works were published posthumously. They include:
Lazarus, komm heraus: vier Schriften (Come Forth, Lazarus), a study of Christian mysticism, written in German and published in 1985, . Translated as Covenant of the Heart and published in English in 1992. Also published as Lazarus, come forth! Meditations of a Christian esotericist on the mysteries of the raising of Lazarus, the Ten Commandments, the Three Kingdoms, and the Breath of Life. .
Méditations sur les 22 arcanes majeurs du Tarot (a study of the Tarot of Marseilles) published anonymously in French in 1980 (with a foreword by a Catholic theologian and priest, Hans Urs von Balthasar). An English translation was then published in 1985, with Robert A. Powell basing his rendering on the author's original French manuscript, whereas the published French edition () does not always follow the French original manuscript.
Christ and Sophia: anthroposophic meditations on the Old Testament, New Testament, and apocalypse, Great Barrington, MA: SteinerBooks, 2006. .
Degeneration und Regeneration der Rechtswissenschaft, Bonn: Bouvier, 1974 [German]. .
Le Mat itinérant. L'amour et ses symboles. Une méditation chrétienne sur le Tarot, introduced and edited by Friederike Migneco and Volker Zotz. Luxembourg: Kairos Edition 2007 [French with German translation]. .
Innere Gewissheit: über den Weg, die Wahrheit und das Leben, introduced and edited by Friederike Migneco and Volker Zotz. Luxembourg: Kairos Edition 2012, [German] .
References
John Michael Greer, The New Encyclopedia of the Occult. p 488. Llewellyn Worldwide, 2003. .
Valentin Tomberg - Leben, Werk, Wirkung, Band 1.1: Valentin Tombergs Leben von 1900-1944, Eine Biographie von Liesel Heckmann [German]. .
Valentin Tomberg - Leben, Werk, Wirkung, Band 1.2: Valentin Tombergs Leben von 1944-1973, Eine Biographie von Liesel Heckmann & Michael Frensch [German]. .
Valentin Tomberg - Band II: Werk, Edited by the Ramsteiner Kreis, Trier [German].
Private conversations with Prof. Jur. Dr. Martin Kriele, Tomberg's literary heir.
1900 births
1973 deaths
People from Saint Petersburg
Converts to Roman Catholicism from atheism or agnosticism
Anthroposophists
Russian spiritual writers
Martinism
Tarotologists
Tarot readers
Hermeticists
Baltic-German people
|
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210027
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine%20Pinay
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Antoine Pinay
|
Antoine Pinay (; 30 December 1891 – 13 December 1994) was a French conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of France from 1952 to 1953.
Life
Antoine Pinay was born on 30 December 1891 in Saint-Symphorien-sur-Coise. He was a child of Claude Pinay (5 July 1852 – 4 March 1919), and his wife, Marie Antoinette Besson (10 October 1861 – 23 November 1936).
On 25 April 1917, Pinay married Marguerite Fouletier (3 June 1895 – 3 December 1970) and had two daughters and one son, Geneviève (1918–2017), Odette (1920–2015), and Pierre (1922–1964).
As a young man, Pinay fought in World War I and injured his arm so that it was paralyzed for the rest of his life.
After the war, he managed a small business and in 1929 he was elected mayor of Saint-Chamond, Loire.
He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1936, running as an independent candidate opposed to the Popular Front. In 1938 he was elected to the Senate, where he joined the Independent Radicals. On 10 July 1940 he voted to give the Cabinet presided over by Marshal Philippe Pétain authority to draw up a new constitution, effectively ending the French Third Republic and establishing Vichy France. In 1941, Antoine Pinay was appointed to the Conseil National of the Vichy regime. He was also awarded the Order of the Francisque. During the occupation, Antoine Pinay remained mayor of Saint-Chamond, although he had been urged by General Georges to move to Algiers, in order to better protect the residents of this city. Yet, trying to associate him with Vichy is inappropriate: he resigned from the Conseil National within a few months and refused any official position with the Vichy regime, such as the préfecture de l'Hérault offered by Laval. Besides, he gave several hundreds of identity papers to help Jews and members of the Resistance flee from France to Algiers or Switzerland. An official commission in 1946 recognized his long lasting opposition to the Nazis and the help he gave to the Resistance and let him totally free of any charge.
In 1944, he was first placed on house arrest, and stripped of his right to be candidate to an election on 5 September 1945. After the intervention of René Cassin, the vice-president of the Conseil d'État, who pointed to his fierce opposition to the German occupation, his citizen rights were restored on 5 October 1945. On 2 June 1946, he could successfully run for election to the Assemblée Constituante as a moderate candidate.
He helped create a conservative party, the National Center of Independents and Peasants (CNIP). He acquired the reputation as one of France's more spirited politicians and in 1952 became prime minister by virtue of being the most popular elected CNIP official. His ministry was seen as the return of the "classical right", discredited since the Liberation. He stabilized the finances of the French nation and the French currency.
In 1955, he was one of the participants of the Messina Conference, which would lead to the Treaty of Rome in 1957.
During the May 1958 crisis precipitated by the Algerian war, he supported Charles de Gaulle's return to power and approved of the Fifth Republic's constitution. He served as finance minister until 1960. In 1973, he was made médiateur de la République (ombudsman) by President Georges Pompidou.
Having died at age of , he is the third longest lived national head of government or head of state in history, behind only Chau Sen Cocsal Chhum and Celâl Bayar. He passed away 17 days before his 103rd birthday, and was buried in Saint-Symphorien-sur-Coise. From 14 December 1990, when former Republic of China Premier Zhang Qun died until his own death, Pinay was the world's oldest living former head of government.
Pinay's ministry, 8 March 1952 – 8 January 1953
Antoine Pinay – President of the Council and Minister of Finance and Economic Affairs
Henri Queuille – Vice President of the Council
Robert Schuman – Minister of Foreign Affairs
René Pleven – Minister of National Defense
Charles Brune – Minister of the Interior
Jean-Marie Louvel – Minister of Commerce and Energy
Pierre Garet – Minister of Labour and Social Security
Léon Martinaud-Deplat – Minister of Justice
Pierre-Olivier Lapie – Minister of National Education
Emmanuel Temple – Minister of Veterans and War Victims
Camille Laurens – Minister of Agriculture
Pierre Pflimlin – Minister of Overseas France
André Morice – Minister of Public Works, Transport, and Tourism
Paul Ribeyre – Minister of Public Health and Population
Eugène Claudius-Petit – Minister of Reconstruction and Town Planning
Roger Duchet – Minister of Posts
Jean Letourneau – Minister of Relations with Partner States
Changes
11 August 1952 – André Marie succeeds Lapie as Minister of National Education.
References
Further reading
Morris, Peter. "Homo politicus; the political careers of Pierre Pflimlin and Jacques Chaban‐Delmas." Modern & Contemporary France 1.1 (1993): 42–44.
1891 births
1994 deaths
People from Rhône (department)
Politicians from Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
Independent Radical politicians
National Centre of Independents and Peasants politicians
Prime Ministers of France
French Ministers of Finance
French Foreign Ministers
Transport ministers of France
Ombudsmen in France
Members of the 16th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic
French Senators of the Third Republic
Senators of Loire (department)
Members of the Constituent Assembly of France (1946)
Deputies of the 1st National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic
Deputies of the 2nd National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic
Deputies of the 3rd National Assembly of the French Fourth Republic
Deputies of the 1st National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
French politicians with physical disabilities
French centenarians
French military personnel of World War I
French people of the Algerian War
Légion d'honneur refusals
Order of the Francisque recipients
Men centenarians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile%20Bay%20jubilee
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Mobile Bay jubilee
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Jubilee is the name used locally for a natural phenomenon that occurs sporadically on the shores of Mobile Bay, a large body of water on Alabama's Gulf Coast. During a jubilee many species of crab and shrimp, as well as flounder, eels, and other demersal fish will leave deeper waters and swarm—in large numbers and very high density—in a specific, shallower coastal area of the bay. A jubilee is a celebrated event in Mobile Bay, and it attracts large crowds, many drawn by the promise of abundant and easy-to-catch seafood.
Although similar events have been reported in other bodies of water, Mobile Bay is the only place where the regular appearance of this phenomenon has been documented.
Descriptions
The Mobile Bay jubilee typically takes place at least annually, and sometimes several times per year; years without a jubilee have been recorded, but they are exceedingly rare. Many accounts of the jubilee exist, the oldest dating back to the 1860s.
The size, scope, and duration of the jubilee can vary greatly. Sometimes a stretch of coast representing most of the eastern shore can be affected, and at other times the extent can be limited to as little as of coastline. Smaller jubilees occur more frequently than larger ones, but can be difficult to find. Most jubilees happen in the pre-dawn hours.
Author Archie Carr comments, "At a good jubilee you can quickly fill a washtub with shrimp. You can gig a hundred flounders and fill the back of your pickup truck a foot deep in crabs."
In addition, harvesting them is made considerably easier by the effect that the oxygen deprivation has on the animals. Their behavior has been described as "depressed and moribund", or "unnatural"; crabs are observed "climbing tree stumps to escape the water" and flounder "slither up the banks."
Causes
It was not until 1960 that the phenomenon was explored in-depth by marine biologist Harold Loesch for the journal Ecology. Locals and laymen had based some earlier attempts to explain the animals' strange behaviors on the interaction of sea- and fresh water during the incoming tide.
After researching the oral histories and journalistic records of past jubilees, measuring physical and meteorologic conditions, and taking biological and chemical measurements, Loesch concluded that accumulated organic material on the bay floor could, under a certain set of conditions, result in a rapid depletion of oxygen in parts of the bay, driving fish to the surface seeking oxygenated water.
Another, more comprehensive study by Edwin B. May in 1973, as well as smaller studies by the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources and the NOAA confirmed many of Loesch's hypotheses. If wind direction, surface temperature, salinity, and tidal variation interact in ways that allow or promote a jubilee, the situation can develop rather quickly. May sums up the mechanism of action thus:
History
While the occurrence of jubilees in Mobile Bay predates European settlement in the region, it is unknown exactly when or how these events came to be known by this name. The first recorded printed use of the term "jubilee" in this context was in the Mobile Daily Register (now the Mobile Press-Register) on July 29, 1912:
In an oral account from 1960 a local fishing captain named Frank Phillips stated that he had observed jubilee events for the previous 60 years, indicating that "[N]either [the] frequency nor intensity ... had changed". He also stated that his father had also seen jubilee events "...during all his life."
Favorable conditions, locations, and frequency
Loesch studied jubilee events spanning 11 years, from 1946–1956, hoping to find patterns in the jubilee occurrence. From this data he was able to conclude several things.
Month
Over the 11-year period studied, the 37 jubilees all occurred between the months of June and September, more frequently in August than all other months combined.
Location
Jubilees are most common on the upper eastern shore of the bay, from Point Clear to slightly north of Daphne, but they also occur with less frequency south of Point Clear to Mullet Point, and on the Bay's western shore at Deer River and Dog River Point south to Fowl River.
Time of day
Most jubilees occur in the hours immediately preceding dawn.
Wind, rain and tide
There is disagreement as to what, if any, effect local rainfall can have on the jubilee. Almost all jubilees occur with an incoming tide, and an easterly wind.
Folk consensus
Loesch lists five observations that he reported as having a strong concurrence among witnesses of several jubilees:
Jubilees occur only in the summer.
They usually occur in early morning hours, i.e., before sunrise.
The wind on the day previous and during the jubilee is from some easterly direction. If wind direction changes, the jubilee will cease.
There is a rising tide during a jubilee; a change to falling will stop the jubilee.
There are two water masses meeting, with the saltier water invading during a jubilee.
Jubilee in local culture
The length of coast that serves as the most popular jubilee grounds is densely populated. When a jubilee is spotted people living near the shore will often ring bells and call out to alert their neighbors so that everyone can rush down to the water with washtubs, gigs and nets, and gather a bountiful—and easily reaped—harvest of seafood. As jubilees only happen on warm summer nights, often in the early pre-dawn hours, the event takes on the character of a community beach party, with lights shining into the waters of Mobile Bay.
References
Alabama culture
Seafood
Mobile Bay
Crowds
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210031
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separate%20but%20equal
|
Separate but equal
|
Separate but equal was a legal doctrine in United States constitutional law, according to which racial segregation did not necessarily violate the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which nominally guaranteed "equal protection" under the law to all people. Under the doctrine, as long as the facilities provided to each "race" were equal, state and local governments could require that services, facilities, public accommodations, housing, medical care, education, employment, and transportation be segregated by "race", which was already the case throughout the states of the former Confederacy. The phrase was derived from a Louisiana law of 1890, although the law actually used the phrase "equal but separate".
The doctrine was confirmed in the Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation. Though segregation laws existed before that case, the decision emboldened segregation states during the Jim Crow era, which had commenced in 1876, and supplanted the Black Codes, which restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans during the Reconstruction Era.
In practice, the separate facilities provided to African Americans were rarely equal; usually they were not even close to equal, or they did not exist at all. For example, in the 1930 census, Black people were 42% of Florida's population. Yet according to the 1934–36 report of the Florida Superintendent of Public Instruction, the value of "white school property" in the state was $70,543,000, while the value of African-American school property was $4,900,000. The report says that "in a few south Florida counties and in most north Florida counties many Negro schools are housed in churches, shacks, and lodges, and have no toilets, water supply, desks, blackboards, etc. [See Station One School.] Counties use these schools as a means to get State funds and yet these counties invest little or nothing in them." At that time, high school education for African Americans was provided in only 28 of Florida's 67 counties. In 1939–40, the average salary of a white teacher in Florida was $1,148, whereas for a Black teacher it was $585.
During the era of segregation, the myth was that the races were separated but were provided equal facilities. No one believed it. Almost without exception, black students were given inferior buildings and instructional materials. Black educators were generally paid less than were their white counterparts and had more students in their classrooms.... In 1938, Pompano white schools collectively had one teacher for every 25 students, while the Pompano Colored School had one teacher for every 54 students. At the Hammondville School, the single teacher employed there had 67 students.
Because new research showed that segregating students by "race" was harmful to them, even if facilities were equal, "separate but equal" facilities were found to be unconstitutional in a series of Supreme Court decisions under Chief Justice Earl Warren, starting with Brown v. Board of Education of 1954. However, the subsequent overturning of segregation laws and practices was a long process that lasted through much of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, involving federal legislation (especially the Civil Rights Act of 1964), and many court cases.
Background
The U.S. Declaration of Independence refers to secession from the British empire as a process by which groups of people take up "the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them." In this sense, the phrase evoked two fundamentally disconnected and independent nations rather than two populations sharing and to some extent intermingling within a single nation.
The American Civil War brought slavery in the United States to an end with the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865. Following the war, the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guaranteed equal protection under the law to all people and Congress established the Freedmen's Bureau to assist the integration of former slaves into Southern society. The Reconstruction Era brought new freedoms and laws promoting racial equality to the South. However, after the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction and withdrew federal troops from all Southern states, many former slaveholders and Confederates were elected to office. The Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal protection to all people but Southern states contended that the requirement of equality could be met in a way that kept the races separate. Furthermore, the state and federal courts tended to reject the pleas by African Americans that their Fourteenth Amendment rights were violated, arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment applied only to federal, not state, citizenship. This rejection is evident in the Slaughter-House Cases and Civil Rights Cases.
After the end of Reconstruction, the federal government adopted a general policy of leaving racial segregation up to the individual states. One example of this policy was the second Morrill Act (Morrill Act of 1890). Before the end of the war, the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act (Morrill Act of 1862) had provided federal funding for higher education by each state with the details left to the state legislatures. The 1890 Act implicitly accepted the legal concept of "separate but equal" for the 17 states that had institutionalized segregation.
Provided, That no money shall be paid out under this act to any State or Territory for the support and maintenance of a college where a distinction of race or color is made in the admission of students, but the establishment and maintenance of such colleges separately for white and colored students shall be held to be a compliance with the provisions of this act if the funds received in such State or Territory be equitably divided as hereinafter set forth."104th Congress 1st Session, H. R. 2730" To eliminate segregationist language from the Second Morrill Act.
Early legal support
Laws
In the late 1800s, many states of the former Confederacy adopted laws, collectively known as Jim Crow laws, that mandated separation of whites and African Americans. The Florida Constitution of 1885 and that of West Virginia mandated separate educational systems. In Texas, laws required separate water fountains, restrooms, and waiting rooms in railroad stations. In Georgia, restaurants and taverns could not serve white and "colored" patrons in the same room; separate parks for each "race" were required, as were separate cemeteries. These are just examples from a large number of similar laws.
Prior to the Second Morrill Act, 17 states excluded blacks from access to the land-grant colleges without providing similar educational opportunities. In response to the Second Morrill Act, 17 states established separate land-grant colleges for blacks which are now referred to as public historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). In fact, some states adopted laws prohibiting schools from educating blacks and whites together, even if a school was willing to do so. (The constitutionality of such laws was upheld in Berea College v. Kentucky (1908) 211 U.S. 45)
Plessy v. Ferguson
The legitimacy of such laws under the 14th amendment was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896). The Plessy doctrine was extended to the public schools in Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education, 175 U.S. 528 (1899).
In 1892, Homer Plessy, who was of mixed ancestry and appeared to be white, boarded an all-white railroad car between New Orleans and Covington, Louisiana. The conductor of the train collected passenger tickets at their seats. When Plessy told the conductor he was white and black, he was informed that he had to move to a coloreds-only car. Plessy said he resented sitting in a coloreds-only car and was arrested immediately.
One month after his arrest, Plessy appeared in court before Judge John Howard Ferguson. Plessy's lawyer, Albion Tourgee, claimed Plessy's 13th and 14th amendment rights were violated. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery, and the 14th amendment gave equal protection to all under the law.
The Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson formalized the legal principle of "separate but equal". The ruling required "railway companies carrying passengers in their coaches in that State to provide equal, but separate, accommodations for the white and colored races". Accommodations provided on each railroad car were required to be the same as those provided on the others. Separate railroad cars could be provided. The railroad could refuse service to passengers who refused to comply, and the Supreme Court ruled this did not infringe upon the 13th and 14th amendments.
The "separate but equal" doctrine applied in theory to all public facilities: not only railroad cars but schools, medical facilities, theaters, restaurants, restrooms, and drinking fountains. However, neither state nor Congress put "separate but equal" into the statute books, meaning the provision of equal services to non-whites could not be legally enforced. The only possible remedy was through federal court, but costly legal fees and expenses meant that this was out of the question for individuals; it took an organization with resources, the NAACP, to file and pursue Brown v. Board of Education.
Equal facilities were unusual. The facilities and social services offered to African Americans were almost always of a lower quality than those offered to white Americans, if they existed at all. Most African-American schools had less public funding per student than nearby white schools; they had old textbooks, discarded by the white schools, used equipment, and poorly paid, prepared, or taught and trained teachers. In addition, according to a study conducted by the American Psychological Association, black students are emotionally impaired when segregated at a young age. In Texas, the state established a state-funded law school for white students but none for black students. As previously mentioned, the majority of counties in Florida during the 1930s had no high school for African-American students. African Americans had to pay state and local taxes that were used for the benefit of whites only. (See Florida A&M Hospital for an example.)
Although the "Separate but Equal" doctrine was eventually overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the implementation of the changes this decision required was long, contentious, and sometimes violent (see massive resistance and Southern Manifesto). While modern legal doctrine interprets the 14th amendment to prohibit explicit segregation on the basis of race, societal issues surrounding racial discrimination still remain topical (see racial profiling).
Legal rejection
Before Warren Court
The repeal of such restrictive laws, generally known as Jim Crow laws, was a key focus of the Civil Rights Movement prior to 1954. In Sweatt v. Painter, the Supreme Court addressed a legal challenge to the doctrine when a Texan black student, Heman Marion Sweatt, was seeking admission into the state-supported School of Law of the University of Texas. Since Texas did not have a law school for black students, the lower court continued the case for six months so that a state-funded law school for black students (now known as Thurgood Marshall School of Law at Texas Southern University) could be created. When further appeals to the Texas Supreme Court failed, Sweatt, along with the NAACP, took the case to the federal courts, before it eventually reached the Supreme Court of the United States. Here, the original decision was reversed and Sweatt was admitted into the University of Texas School of Law. This decision was based on the grounds that the separate school failed to qualify as being "equal", because of both quantitative differences, such as its facilities, and intangible factors, such as its isolation from most of the future lawyers with whom its graduates would interact. The court held that, when considering graduate education, intangible factors must be considered as part of "substantive equality". The same day, the Supreme Court in McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents ruled that segregation laws in Oklahoma, which had required an African-American graduate student working on a Doctor of Education degree to sit in the hallway outside the classroom door, did not qualify as "separate but equal". These cases ended the "separate but equal" doctrine in graduate and professional education.
The Warren Court
In 1953, Earl Warren became the 14th Chief Justice of the United States, and the Warren Court started a liberal Constitutional Revolution which outlawed racial segregation and "Separate but equal" throughout the United States in a series of landmark rulings.
In Brown v. Board of Education (1954) 347 U.S. 483 , attorneys for the NAACP referred to the phrase "equal but separate" used in Plessy v. Ferguson as a custom de jure racial segregation enacted into law. The NAACP, led by Thurgood Marshall (who became the first black Supreme Court Justice in 1967), was successful in challenging the constitutional viability of the "separate but equal" doctrine. The Warren Court voted to overturn sixty years of law that had developed under Plessy. The Warren Court outlawed segregated public education facilities for blacks and whites at the state level. The companion case of Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497 outlawed such practices at the Federal level in the District of Columbia. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote in the court opinion:
We conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.
Although Brown overturned the doctrine of "separate but equal" in institutions of public education, it would be almost ten more years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964 would prohibit racial discrimination in facilities that were deemed public accommodations (transportation, hotels, etc.).
Additionally, in 1967, under Loving v. Virginia, the Warren Court declared Virginia's anti-miscegenation statute, the Racial Integrity Act of 1924, unconstitutional, thus invalidating all anti-miscegenation laws in the United States. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote in the court majority opinion:
After Warren Court
Although federal legislation prohibits racial discrimination in college admissions, the historically black colleges and universities continue to teach student bodies that are 75% to 90% African American. However, this does not necessarily indicate racial discrimination within college admissions in those schools, when factors such as student preference are taken into account. In 1975, Jake Ayers Sr. filed a lawsuit against Mississippi, stating that they gave more financial support to the predominantly white public colleges. The state settled the lawsuit in 2002, directing $503 million to three historically black colleges over 17 years.
See also
Apartheid ("separate development")
Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States
Jim Crow laws
Racial segregation in the United States
Federal voting rights in Puerto Rico
References
External links
Cornell Legal Information Institute
American phraseology
United States law
Segregation
|
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] |
210041
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Dean%20Howells
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William Dean Howells
|
William Dean Howells (; March 1, 1837 – May 11, 1920) was an American realist novelist, literary critic, and playwright, nicknamed "The Dean of American Letters". He was particularly known for his tenure as editor of The Atlantic Monthly, as well as for his own prolific writings, including the Christmas story "Christmas Every Day" and the novels The Rise of Silas Lapham and A Traveler from Altruria.
Biography
Early life and family
William Dean Howells was born on March 1, 1837, in Martinsville, Ohio (now known as Martins Ferry, Ohio), to William Cooper Howells and Mary Dean Howells, the second of eight children. His father was a newspaper editor and printer who moved frequently around Ohio. In 1840, the family settled in Hamilton, Ohio, where his father oversaw a Whig newspaper and followed Swedenborgianism. Their nine years there were the longest period that they stayed in one place. The family had to live frugally, although the young Howells was encouraged by his parents in his literary interests. He began at an early age to help his father with typesetting and printing work, a job known at the time as a printer's devil. In 1852, his father arranged to have one of his poems published in the Ohio State Journal without telling him.
Early career
In 1856, Howells was elected as a clerk in the State House of Representatives. In 1858, he began to work at the Ohio State Journal where he wrote poetry and short stories, and also translated pieces from French, Spanish, and German. He avidly studied German and other languages and was greatly interested in Heinrich Heine. In 1860, he visited Boston and met with writers James T. Fields, James Russell Lowell, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry David Thoreau, and Ralph Waldo Emerson. He became a personal friend to many of them, including Henry Adams, William James, Henry James, and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
In 1860 Howells wrote Abraham Lincoln's campaign biography Life of Abraham Lincoln and subsequently gained a consulship in Venice. He married Elinor Mead on Christmas Eve 1862 at the American embassy in Paris. She was a sister of sculptor Larkin Goldsmith Mead and architect William Rutherford Mead of the firm McKim, Mead, and White. Among their children was architect John Mead Howells.
Editorship and other literary pursuits
The Howells returned to America in 1865 and settled in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He wrote for various magazines, including The Atlantic Monthly and Harper's Magazine. In January 1866, James Fields offered him a position as assistant editor at The Atlantic Monthly; he accepted after successfully negotiating for a higher salary, though he was frustrated by Fields' close supervision.
Howells was made editor in 1871, after five years as assistant editor, and he remained in this position until 1881. In 1869, he met Mark Twain with whom he formed a longtime friendship. But his relationship with journalist Jonathan Baxter Harrison was more important for the development of his literary style and his advocacy of Realism. Harrison wrote a series of articles for The Atlantic Monthly during the 1870s on the lives of ordinary Americans. Howells gave a series of twelve lectures on "Italian Poets of Our Century" for the Lowell Institute during its 1870-71 season.
He published his first novel Their Wedding Journey in 1872, but his literary reputation soared with the realist novel A Modern Instance (1882), which described the decay of a marriage. His 1885 novel The Rise of Silas Lapham became his best known work, describing the rise and fall of an American entrepreneur of the paint business. His social views were also strongly represented in the novels Annie Kilburn (1888), A Hazard of New Fortunes (1890), and An Imperative Duty (1891).
He was particularly outraged by the trials resulting from the Haymarket Riot, which led him to portray a similar riot in A Hazard of New Fortunes and to write publicly to protest the trials of the men allegedly involved in the Haymarket affair. In his public writing and in his novels, he drew attention to pressing social issues of the time. He joined the Anti-Imperialist League in 1898, in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines.
His poems were collected in 1873 and 1886, and a volume was published in 1895 under the title Stops of Various Quills. He was the initiator of the school of American realists, and he had little sympathy with any other type of fiction. However, he frequently encouraged new writers in whom he discovered new ideas or new fictional techniques, such as Stephen Crane, Frank Norris, Hamlin Garland, Harold Frederic, Abraham Cahan, Sarah Orne Jewett, and Paul Laurence Dunbar.
Later years
In 1902, Howells published The Flight of Pony Baker, a book for children partly inspired by his own childhood. That same year, he bought a summer home overlooking the Piscataqua River in Kittery Point, Maine. He returned there annually until Elinor's death when he left the house to his son and family and moved to a house in York Harbor. His grandson, John Noyes Mead Howells, donated the property to Harvard University as a memorial in 1979. In 1904 he was one of the first seven people chosen for membership in the American Academy of Arts and Letters, of which he became president.
In February 1910, Elinor Howells began using morphine to treat her worsening neuritis. She died on May 6, a few days after her birthday, and only two weeks after the death of Howells's friend Mark Twain. Henry James offered his condolences, writing, "I think of this laceration of your life with an infinite sense of all it will mean for you". Howells and his daughter Mildred decided to spend part of the year in their Cambridge home on Concord Avenue; though, without Elinor, they found it "dreadful in its ghostliness and ghastliness".
Howells died in his sleep shortly after midnight on May 11, 1920, and was buried in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Eight years later his daughter published his correspondence as a biography of his literary life.
Literary criticism
In addition to his own creative works, Howells also wrote criticism, and essays about contemporary literary figures such as Henrik Ibsen, Émile Zola, Giovanni Verga, Benito Pérez Galdós, and, especially, Leo Tolstoy, which helped establish their reputations in the United States. He also wrote critically in support of American writers Hamlin Garland, Stephen Crane, Emily Dickinson, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, Paul Laurence Dunbar, Sarah Orne Jewett, Charles W. Chesnutt, Abraham Cahan, Madison Cawein, and Frank Norris. It is perhaps in this role that he had his greatest influence. In his "Editor's Study" column at The Atlantic Monthly and, later, at Harper's, he formulated and disseminated his theories of "realism" in literature.
Howells viewed realism as "nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material."
In defense of the real, as opposed to the ideal, he wrote, "I hope the time is coming when not only the artist, but the common, average man, who always 'has the standard of the arts in his power,' will have also the courage to apply it, and will reject the ideal grasshopper wherever he finds it, in science, in literature, in art, because it is not 'simple, natural, and honest,' because it is not like a real grasshopper. But I will own that I think the time is yet far off, and that the people who have been brought up on the ideal grasshopper, the heroic grasshopper, the impassioned grasshopper, the self-devoted, adventureful, good old romantic card-board grasshopper, must die out before the simple, honest, and natural grasshopper can have a fair field."
Howells believed the future of American writing was not in poetry but in novels, a form which he saw shifting from "romance" to a serious form.
Howells was a Christian socialist whose ideals were greatly influenced by Russian writer Leo Tolstoy. He joined a Christian socialist group in Boston between 1889 and 1891 and attended several churches, including the First Spiritual Temple and the Church of the Carpenter, the latter being affiliated with the Episcopal Church and the Society of Christian Socialists. These influences led him to write on issues of social justice from a moral and egalitarian point of view, being critic of the social effects of industrial capitalism. He was, however, not a Marxist.
Reception
Noting the "documentary" and truthful value of Howells's work, Henry James wrote: "Stroke by stroke and book by book your work was to become, for this exquisite notation of our whole democratic light and shade and give and take, in the highest degree documentary." The late nineteenth century English novelist George Gissing read two of Howells's works, The Shadow of a Dream and A Fearful Responsibility, calling the latter "inane triviality". Bliss Perry considered a knowledge of his work vital for an understanding of the American provincial novel and believed that "he has never in his long career written an insincere, a slovenly, or an infelicitous page."
Gallery
Works
Lives and Speeches of Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin (New York, W. A. Townsend & Co.; Columbus, Follett, Foster & co., 1860).
Venetian Life (London: N. Trübner & Co., 1866; later American edition with additional cancels: New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1866).
Italian Journeys (New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1867).
"No Love Lost," Putnam's Magazine, Vol. 2 (new series), No. 12, pp. 641–51 (December 1868). Reprinted as No Love Lost. A Romance of Travel (New York: G.P. Putnam & Son, 1869).
Suburban Sketches (New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1871).
Their Wedding Journey (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., 1872).
A Chance Acquaintance (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., 1873).
Sketch of the Life and Character of Rutherford B. Hayes (New York & Boston: Hurd and Houghton, [1876]).
A Foregone Conclusion (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., 1875).
A Day's Pleasure (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., 1876).
The Parlor Car: A Farce (Boston: J.R. Osgood, 1876) (originally published in the ASeptember 1876 issue of Atlantic Monthly).
A Counterfeit Presentment: A Comedy (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., 1877).
Out of the Question (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., 1877).
The Lady of The Aroostook (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1879).
The following were written during his residence in England and in Italy, as was The Rise of Silas Lapham in 1885.
The Undiscovered Country (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1880).
A Modern Instance: A Novel (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1881).
A Fearful Responsibility and Other Stories (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., 1881) (in addition to the title story: "At the Sign of the Savage" and "Tonelli's Marriage").
Dr. Breen's Practice: A Novel (Boston & New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1881).
A Day's Pleasure, and Other Sketches (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1881) (in addition to title story: "Buying a Horse," "Flitting," "The Mouse" and "A Year in a Venetian Palace").
Out of the Question; and, At the Sign of the Savage (Edinburgh: D. Douglas, 1882) (The first story was first published in the February–April 1877 issue of Atlantic Monthly).
A Woman's Reason: A Novel (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., [c1882] 1883).
The Sleeping Car: A Farce (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., 1883).
Niagara Revisited 12 Years after their Wedding Journey by the Hoosac Tunnel Route (Chicago: D. Dalziel, 1884) (Revision of piece from May 1883 issue of Atlantic Monthly).
Three Villages (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., 1884).
The Register: A Farce (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., 1884).
Tuscan Cities (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., 1884).
The Rise of Silas Lapham (Boston: Ticknor & Co., 1885).
A Sea-Change, or, Love's Stowaway: A Comic Opera in Two Acts and an Epilogue (London: Trübner & Co.; Boston: A.P. Schmidt & Co., c1884).
Poems (Boston: Ticknor, 1885).
The Elevator: A Farce (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1885; 0James R. Osgood, c1886).
He returned to the United States in 1886. He wrote various types of works, including fiction, poetry, and farces, of which The Sleeping Car, The Mouse-Trap, The Elevator; Christmas Every Day; and Out of the Question are characteristic.
Indian Summer (Boston: Ticknor & Co. 1885).
The Garroters: A Farce (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1886).
The Minister's Charge: or The Apprenticeship of Lemuel Barker (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1886).
Modern Italian Poets: Essays and Versions (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1887).
April Hopes: A Novel (Edinburgh: David Douglas 1887; New York: Harper & Brothers, 1888).
with Thomas Sergeant Ferry (eds.), Library of Universal Adventure by Sea and Land including Original Narratives and Authentic Stories of Personal Prowess and Peril in All the Waters and Regions of the Globe from the Year 79 A.D. to the Year 1888 A.D. (New York: Harper & Bros., 1888).
A Sea-Change: or, Love's Stowaway, a Lyricated Farce in Two Acts and an Epilogue (Boston: Ticknor & Company, 1888).
with Mark Twain and Charles Hopkins Clark (comps.), Mark Twain's Library of Humor (New York: Charles L. Webster & Co., 1888).
The Mouse-Trap and Other Farces (New York: Harper, 1889) (in addition to the title farce:The Garotters, Five o'Clock Tea, and A Likely Story).
Annie Kilburn: A Novel (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1889).
A Hazard of New Fortunes: A Novel (New York: Harper & Brothers / (Harper's Franklin square library: new ser, no. 661. Extra, Nov. 1889)).
The Shadow of a Dream: A Story (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1890).
A Boy's Town: described for "Harper's Young People" (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1890).
An Imperative Duty (Author's ed.: Edinburgh: D. Douglas / (David Douglas' series of American authors, 54) 1891).
Criticism and Fiction (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1891).
The Quality of Mercy (New York; London: Harper, 1891).
The Albany Depot (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1892 [i.e.1891]).
A Little Swiss Sojourn (New York: Harper & Brothers / (Harper's black & white series), 1892).
A Letter of Introduction: Farce (New York: Harper & Brothers / (Harper's black and white series), 1892).
The World of Chance (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1893).
The Unexpected Guest (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1893).
My Year in a Log Cabin (New York: Harper & Brothers / (Harper's black and white series), 1893).
Christmas Every Day and Other Stories Told to Children (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1893).
The Coast of Bohemia: A Novel (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1893).
Evening Dress: A Farce (New York: Harper & Brothers / (Harper's black and white series), 1893).
A Traveler from Altruria: Romance (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1894).
My Literary Passions (New York: Harper, 1895).
Stops of Various Quills (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1895).
A Parting and a Meeting: Story (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1896).
Impressions and Experiences (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1896) (consisting of "The Country Printer," "Police Report," "I Talk of Dreams," "An East-Side Ramble," "Tribulations of a Cheerful Giver," "The Closing of the Hotel," "Glimpses of Central Park" and "New York Streets").
Stories of Ohio (New York, Cincinnati: American Book Co., 1897).
The Landlord At Lion's Head (Edinburg: David Douglas, 1897).
An Open-Eyed Conspiracy: An Idyl of Saratoga (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1897).
A Previous Engagement: Comedy (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1897).
The Story of a Play: A Novel (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1898).
Ragged Lady: A Novel (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1899).
Their Silver Wedding Journey (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1899).
An Indian Giver: A Comedy (Boston, New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1900).
Bride Roses: A Scene (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1900 [c1893]).
Literary Friends and Acquaintance: A Personal Retrospect of American Authorship (New York, Harper & Brothers, 1900).
Doorstep Acquaintance, and Other Sketches (Cambridge, Mass.: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1900) (in addition to title story: "Tonelli's Marriage," "A Romance of Real Life" and "At Padua").
Room Forty-Five: A Farce (Boston, New York, Houghton, Mifflin, 1900).
A Pair of Patient Lovers (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1901).
Heroines of Fiction (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1901).
The Kentons: A Novel (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1902).
The Flight of Pony Baker: A Boy's Town Story (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1902).
Literature and Life: Studies (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1902) (consisting of the following essays: "The Man of Letters as a Man of Business," "Worries of a Winter Walk," "Confessions of a Summer Colonist," "The Editor's Relations with the Young Contributor," "Summer Isles of Eden," "Wild Flowers of the Asphalt, "Last Days in a Dutch Hotel," "Some Anomalies of the Short Story," "A Circus in the Suburbs," "A She Hamlet," "Spanish Prisoners of War," "The Midnight Platoon," "The Beach at Rockaway," "American Literary Centres," "Sawdust in the Arena," "At a Dime Museum," "American Literature in Exile," "The Horse Show," "The Problem of the Summer," "Esthetic New York Fhty-Odd Years Ago," "From New York into New England," "The Standard Household-Effect Company," "Staccato Notes of a Vanished Summer," "The Art of the Adsmith," "The Psychology of Plagiarism," "Puritanism in American Fiction," "The What and the How in Art," "Politics of American Authors," "Storage' and "'Floating Down the River on the O-hi-o'").
Letters Home (New York, London, Harper & Brothers, 1903).
Questionable Shapes (New York, London, Harper & Brothers, 1903) (consisting of "His Apparition," "The Angel of the Lord" and "Though One Rose from the Dead).
The Son of Royal Langbrith: A Novel (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1904).
Miss Bellard's Inspiration: A Novel (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1905).
London Films (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1905).
Braybridge's Offer in William Dean Howells & Henry Mills Alden (eds.), Quaint Courtships: Harper's Novelettes (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, [1906]).
The Amigo in William Dean Howells & Henry Mills Alden (eds.), The Heart of Childhood: Harper's Novelettes (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1906).
Editha in William Dean Howells & Henry Mills Alden (eds.), Different Girls: Harper's Novelettes (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1906).
The Mulberries in Pay's Garden (Cincinnati: Western Literary Press, 1906).
Certain Delightful English Towns with Glimpses of the Pleasant Country Between (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1906).
Between the Dark and the Daylight: Romances (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1907) (consisting of: "A Sleep and a Forgetting," "The Eidolons of Brooks Alford," "A Memory that Worked Overtime," "A Case of Metaphantasmia," "Editha," "Braybridge’s Offer" and "The Chick of the Easter Egg").
Through the Eye of the Needle: A Romance (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1907).
Roman Holiday and Others (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1908) (in addition to the title piece: ""Up and Down Medeira," "The Up-Town Blocks into Spain," "Ashore at Genoa," "Naples and Her Joyful Noise," "Pompeii Revisited," "A Week at Leghorn," "Over at Pisa," "Back at Genoa" and "Eden After the Fall").
The Whole Family: A Novel by Twelve Authors (co-written) (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1908).
Fennel and Rue: A Novel (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1908).
Seven English Cities (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1909).
The Mother and Father: Dramatic Passages (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1909).
My Mark Twain: Reminiscences and Criticisms (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1910).
Imaginary Interviews (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1910) (consisting of the following essays: "The Restoration of the Easy Chair by Way of Introduction, "A Year of Spring and a Life of Youth," "Sclerosis of the Tastes," "The Practices and Precepts of Vaudeville," "Intimations of Italian Opera," "The Superiority of Our Inferiors," "Unimportance of Women in Republics," "Having Just Got Home," "New York to the Home-Comer's Eye," "Cheapness of the Costliest City on Earth," "Ways and Means of Living in New York," "The Quality of Boston and the Quantity of New York," "The Whirl of Life in Our First Circles," "The Magazine Muse," "Comparative Luxuries of Travel," "Qualities without Defects," "A Wasted Opportunity," "A Niece's Literary Advice to Her Uncle," "A Search for Celebrity," "Practical Immortality on Earth," "Around a Rainy-Day Fire," "The Advantages of Quotational Criticism," "Reading for a Grandfather," "Some Moments with the Muse," "A Normal Hero and Heroine Out of Work," "Autumn in the Country and City," "Personal and Epistolary Addresses," "Dressing for Hotel Dinner," "The Counsel of Literary Age to Literary Youth," "The Unsatisfactoriness of Unfriendly Criticism," "The Fickleness of Age," "The Renewal of Inspiration," "The Summer Sojourn of Florindo and Lindora," "To Have the Honor of Meeting" and "A Day at Bronx Park").
"A Counsel of Consolation" in In After Days: Thoughts on the Future Life (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1910).
Parting Friends: A Farce (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1911).
New Leaf Mills: A Chronicle (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1913).
Familiar Spanish Travels (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1913).
Seen and Unseen at Stratford-upon-Avon: A Fantasy (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1914).
The Leatherwood God (New York: The Century Co., 1916).
The Daughter of the Storage, and Other Things in Prose and Verse (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1916) (in addition to the title story: "A Presentiment," "Captain Dunlevy's Last Trip," "The Return to FavorSomebody's Mother," "The Face at the Window," "An Experience," "The Boarders," "Breakfast Is My Best Meal," "The Mother-Bird," "The Amigo," "Black Cross Farm," "The Critical Bookstore," "A Feast of Reason," "City and Country in the Fall," "Table Talk," "The Escapade of a Grandfather," "Self-sacrifice: A Farce-tragedy" and "The Night before Christmas").
Years of My Youth (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1916).
"Eighty Years and After," Harper's Monthly Magazine, Vol. CXL, No. DCCXXXV (December 1919), pp. 21–28.
The Vacation of the Kelwyns: An Idyl of the Middle Eighteen-Seventies (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1920).
Hither and Thither in Germany (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1920).
Mrs. Farrell: A Farce (New York, London: Harper & Brothers, 1921) (first printed as "Private Theatricals [Part I]," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. XXXVI, No. CCXVII (November 1875), pp. 513–22 and "Private Theatricals [Part II]," Atlantic Monthly, Vol. XXXVI, Nol. CCXVIII (December 1875), pp. 674–87).
See also
William Dean Howells House, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Redtop, his home in Belmont, Massachusetts
American realism
Notes
References
Fryckstedt, Olov W. 1958. In Quest of America: A Study of Howells' Early Development as a Novelist. Uppsala, Sweden: Thesis.
Goodman, Susan and Carl Dawson. William Dean Howells: A Writer's Life. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
Lynn, Kenneth S. William Dean Howells: An American Life. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1970.
Olsen, Rodney. Dancing in Chains: The Youth of William Dean Howells. New York: New York University Press, 1991.
Further reading
Peter J. Frederick, Knights of the Golden Rule: The Intellectual As Christian Social Reformer in the 1890s. Lexington, KY: University Press Of Kentucky, 1976.
Ulrich Halfmann and William Dean Howells, "Interviews with William Dean Howells," American Literary Realism, 1870–1910, vol. 6, no. 4 (Fall 1973), pp. 274–275, 277–279, 281–399, 401–416. In JSTOR.
Ulrich Halfmann and Don R. Smith, "William Dean Howells: A Revised and Annotated Bibliography of Secondary Comment in Periodicals and Newspapers, 1868–1919," American Literary Realism, 1870–1910, vol. 5, no. 2 (Spring 1972), pp. 91–121. In JSTOR.
Radavich, David. "Twain, Howells, and the Origins of Midwestern Drama." MidAmerica XXXI (2004): 25–42.
N. S. Witschi, Traces of Gold: California's Natural Resources and the Claim to Realism in Western American Literature. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 2002.
External links
Essays by William Dean Howells at Quotidiana.org
William Dean Howells Society includes a biographical sketch of Howells, links to his works (including the "Editor's Study" columns), questions and replies, bibliographies, and pictures.
Realism in American Literature at the Literary Movements site
Finding aid to the Clara and Rudolf Kirk collection of William Dean Howells material at the University of Pennsylvania Libraries
Finding aid to William Dean Howells papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
1837 births
1920 deaths
19th-century American essayists
19th-century American male writers
19th-century American novelists
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American essayists
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American novelists
American anti-capitalists
American Christian socialists
American literary critics
American male essayists
American male dramatists and playwrights
American male novelists
The Atlantic (magazine) people
Journalists from Ohio
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Novelists from Massachusetts
Novelists from Ohio
People from Hamilton, Ohio
People from Martins Ferry, Ohio
Presidents of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Writers from Cambridge, Massachusetts
Place of death missing
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] |
210043
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal%20bull
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Papal bull
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A papal bull is a type of public decree, letters patent, or charter issued by a pope of the Catholic Church. It is named after the leaden seal (bulla) that was traditionally appended to the end in order to authenticate it.
History
Papal bulls have been in use at least since the 6th century, but the phrase was not used until around the end of the 13th century, and then only internally for unofficial administrative purposes. However, it had become official by the 15th century, when one of the offices of the Apostolic Chancery was named the "register of bulls" ("registrum bullarum").
By the accession of Pope Leo IX in 1048, a clear distinction developed between two classes of bulls of greater and less solemnity. The majority of the "great bulls" now in existence are in the nature of confirmations of property or charters of protection accorded to monasteries and religious institutions. In an epoch when there was much fabrication of such documents, those who procured bulls from Rome wished to ensure that the authenticity of their bull was above suspicion. A papal confirmation, under certain conditions, could be pleaded as itself constituting sufficient evidence of title in cases where the original deed had been lost or destroyed.
Since the 12th century, papal bulls have carried a leaden seal with the heads of the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul on one side and the pope's name on the other. Papal bulls were originally issued by the pope for many kinds of communication of a public nature, but by the 13th century, papal bulls were only used for the most formal or solemn of occasions. Papyrus seems to have been used almost uniformly as the material for these documents until the early years of the eleventh century, after which it was rapidly superseded by a rough kind of parchment.
Modern scholars have retroactively used the word "bull" to describe any elaborate papal document issued in the form of a decree or privilege, solemn or simple, and to some less elaborate ones issued in the form of a letter. Popularly, the name is used for any papal document that contains a metal seal.
Today, the bull is the only written communication in which the pope will refer to himself as "Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei" ("Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God").
While papal bulls always used to bear a metal seal, they now do so only on the most solemn occasions. A papal bull is today the most formal type of public decree or letters patent issued by the Vatican Chancery in the name of the pope.
Format
A bull's format formerly began with one line in tall, elongated letters containing three elements: the pope's name, the papal title "Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei" ("Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God"), and its incipit, i.e., the first few Latin words from which the bull took its title for record keeping purposes, but which might not be directly indicative of the bull's purpose.
The body of the text had no specific conventions for its formatting; it was often very simple in layout. The closing section consisted of a short "datum" that mentioned the place of issuance, day of the month and year of the pope's pontificate on which issued, and signatures, near which was attached the seal.
For the most solemn bulls, the pope signed the document himself, in which case he used the formula "Ego N. Catholicae Ecclesiae Episcopus" ("I, N., Bishop of the Catholic Church"). Following the signature in this case would be an elaborate monogram, the signatures of any witnesses, and then the seal. Nowadays, a member of the Roman Curia signs the document on behalf of the pope, usually the Cardinal Secretary of State, and thus the monogram is omitted.
Seal
The most distinctive characteristic of a bull was the metal seal (bulla), which was usually made of lead, but on very solemn occasions was made of gold, as those on Byzantine imperial instruments often were (see Golden Bull). On the obverse it depicted, originally somewhat crudely, the early Fathers of the Church of Rome, the Apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul, identified by the letters Sanctus PAulus and Sanctus PEtrus (thus, SPA •SPE or SPASPE). St. Paul, on the left, was shown with flowing hair and a long pointed beard composed of curved lines, while St. Peter, on the right, was shown with curly hair and a shorter beard made of dome-shaped globetti (beads in relief). Each head was surrounded by a circle of globetti, and the rim of the seal was surrounded by an additional ring of such beads, while the heads themselves were separated by a depiction of a cross. On the reverse was the name of the issuing pope in the nominative Latin form, with the letters "PP", for ("Shepherd of Shepherds"). This disc was then attached to the document either by cords of hemp, in the case of letters of justice and executory letters, or by red and yellow silk, in the case of letters of grace, that was looped through slits in the vellum of the document. The term "bulla" derives from the Latin "bullire" ("to boil"), and alludes to the fact that, whether of wax, lead, or gold, the material making the seal had to be melted to soften it for impression.
In 1535, the Florentine engraver Benvenuto Cellini was paid 50 scudi to recreate the metal matrix which would be used to impress the lead bullae of Pope Paul III. Cellini retained definitive iconographic items like the faces of the two Apostles, but he carved them with a much greater attention to detail and artistic sensibility than had previously been in evidence. On the reverse of the seal he added several fleurs-de-lis, a heraldic device of the Farnese family, from which Pope Paul III descended.
Since the late 18th century, the lead bulla has been replaced with a red ink stamp of Saints Peter and Paul with the reigning pope's name encircling the picture, though very formal letters, e. g. the bull of Pope John XXIII convoking the Second Vatican Council, still receive the leaden seal.
Original papal bulls exist in quantity only after the 11th century onward, when the transition from fragile papyrus to the more durable parchment was made. None survives in entirety from before 819. Some original lead bullae, however, still survive from as early as the 6th century.
Content
In terms of content, the bull is simply the format in which a decree of the pope appears. Any subject may be treated in a bull, and many were and are, including statutory decrees, episcopal appointments, dispensations, excommunications, Apostolic constitutions, canonizations, and convocations.
The bull was the exclusive letter format from the Vatican until the 14th century, when the papal brief appeared. The brief is the less formal form of papal communication and was authenticated with a wax impression, now a red ink impression, of the Ring of the Fisherman. There has never been an exact distinction of usage between a bull and a brief, but nowadays most letters, including encyclicals, are issued as briefs.
See also
Abbreviator
Bull of the Crusade
Canonical Coronation
Edict
Encyclical
Fatwa
Golden Bull
Heirloom Seal of the Realm
Great Seal of the Realm
Letters Patent
Papal brief
Proclamation
Rota (papal signature)
Ukase
Notes
References
Chambers, Ephraim. Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, 1728
Further reading
Albert, C.S. “Bull.” Lutheran Cyclopedia. New York: Scribner, 1899. p. 67
Papal Encyclicals Online
List of Conciliar documents at the Theology Library
Cherubini Laertius: Magnum Bullarium Romanum
Christian genres
Seals (insignia)
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210045
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inini
|
Inini
|
Inini was an inland territory of French Guiana, administered separately between 6 June 1930 and 19 March 1946, after which all of French Guiana became a department of France. The territory remained governed as a special entity, until 17 March 1969 when it was dissolved into communes, and subject to regular government. Its capital was Saint-Élie. The population of the territory consisted of Amerindians, Maroons, and gold prospectors. The district was named after the river Inini, a major river in the interior of French Guiana which runs east to west, unlike the other major rivers which run south to north.
History
The purpose of the colony was to develop the interior separately from the coastal area around Cayenne. The colony came into effect on 6 June 1930, and was mainly a military affair. The territory was ruled by decree first by the Governor of French Guiana and later by the Prefect. Initially only three services were offered: water management, forest management, and mines.
In 1930, a total of seven military officers and nine gendarmes were stationed in the territory. The main focus was on the legal gold mining companies, and the difficult access to the mines in the jungle. In 1931, a labour force consisting of 535 Annamite prisoners who had revolted against French rule in Indochina were brought in to make the territory accessible. Senegalese Tirailleurs were used to guard and oversee the prisoners. In 1936, the Governor informed Paris that the project was successful, because the interior could soon be opened for colonisation. In 1937, the prisoners at Camp Crique Anguille revolted.
In 1941, Suriname became an American Protectorate, and a year later, Brazil declared war on Germany. Inini was part of Vichy France, an ally of Nazi Germany, and now found itself squeezed between two hostile countries, therefore the main efforts of the administration was guarding the borders until 16 March 1943 when Inini sided with Free France. On 6 December 1944, the prisoner camps were abandoned and the Annamites returned to the normal prisons. The first group was released in July 1946, however the last group had to wait until August 1953.
The plan to develop the territory did not work out, owing to the difficulties of railroad construction in the interior. The ruins of the three prisons used may still be seen. In 1944, the Brazzaville Conference was held among Free French leaders which promised all citizens of France's colonies equal rights with French citizens after the war. Therefore, on 19 March 1946 all of French Guiana became a department of France, however Inini would be administrated separately, because it was lacking basic services like health care and education. On 17 March 1969, the territory was dissolved into communes, and subject to regular democratic government.
Postage stamps
During this period, the postage stamps of French Guiana were overprinted with several variations on "TERRITOIRE DE L'ININI" and the omnibus issues for the Colonial Arts Exhibition in 1937 and the New York World's Fair in 1939 included stamps inscribed "ININI". Despite the limited audience, the stamps of Inini are commonly available at minimal prices today.
See also
References
Bibliography
History of French Guiana
Former colonies in South America
Former French colonies
French colonization of the Americas
1930s in South America
1940s in South America
1930s in the French colonial empire
1940s in the French colonial empire
States and territories established in 1930
States and territories disestablished in 1946
1930 establishments in the French colonial empire
1946 disestablishments in the French colonial empire
1930 establishments in South America
1946 disestablishments in South America
20th century in French Guiana
Former polities of the interwar period
|
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] |
210047
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prairie%20Chapel%20Ranch
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Prairie Chapel Ranch
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Prairie Chapel Ranch, nicknamed Bush Ranch, is a 1,583-acre (6.4 km2) ranch in unincorporated McLennan County, Texas, located northwest of Crawford (about from Waco). The property was acquired by George W. Bush in 1999 and was known as the Western White House during his presidency. Bush spent vacation time at the house, where he also entertained visiting dignitaries from around the world. The ranch received its name from the Prairie Chapel School which was built nearby on land donated by mid-19th century German immigrant Heinrich Engelbrecht from Oppenwehe, Germany, who owned the land that now comprises the Bush ranch. Engelbrecht also donated land for the nearby Canaan Baptist Church (the "Prairie Chapel").
History
Engelbrecht and his heirs raised turkeys and hogs. The original Engelbrecht ranch house is about from the main house on Rainey Road and is now called the "Governor's House" and is used to accommodate overflow guests. The Bushes stayed in the house during construction of the new house.
In 1999, a year before he became president, shortly after earning a $14.3 million profit from the sale of the Texas Rangers, then-Texas Governor Bush bought the land for an estimated $1.3 million from the Engelbrecht family. Assisting Bush in arrangements for the purchase was the then Texas Secretary of State Elton Bomer.
Bush removed five large hog barns on Mill Road leading into the compound in order to construct a new house, guest house, and garage.
On May 10, 2008, the ranch played host to the wedding of Jenna Bush to Henry Hager, a son of former Lieutenant Governor of Virginia, John H. Hager. The ceremony was relatively simple and was attended by some two hundred friends and family members.
House and grounds
House
David Heymann, then an associate professor of architecture at the University of Texas at Austin, designed the four-bedroom, honey-colored native limestone single-level home with painted white galvanized tin roof manufactured and installed on the site. Heymann said the house was built from the less sought after portion of the local "Lueders limestone". The middle portion of each block of stone has a cream color, while the edges are multicolored. "We bought all this throwaway stone. It's fabulous. It's got great color and it is relatively inexpensive," Heymann said.
In addition there is an open limestone porch that encircles the house. The house was built by Byron Bottoms Builder from nearby Elm Mott, Texas, and wasn't completed until after Bush's inauguration because of needed accommodations for security, meeting space, etc.
Laura Bush said they decided to keep a single level ranch design because "We wanted our older parents to feel comfortable here... We also want to grow old here ourselves."
The passive-solar house is positioned to absorb winter sunlight, warming the interior walkways and walls of the residence. Geothermal heat pumps circulate water through pipes buried ) deep in the ground. A underground cistern collects rainwater gathered from roof urns; wastewater from sinks, toilets, and showers cascades into underground purifying tanks and is also funneled into the cistern. The water from the cistern is then used to irrigate the landscaping around the home.
The one-story, eight-room, ground-level house runs east and west. There are no stairs, even at entrances. There are no thresholds. For the most part, the house is one room wide, making for easy ventilation. The porch is the usual route from one room to another. A few rooms have interior doors.
"Every room has a relationship with something in the landscape that's different from the room next door," Heymann says. "Each of the rooms feels like a slightly different place." In the guest bathroom, for example, when you look up from the sink, you look out on an oak tree rather than into a mirror, which is on a side wall.
"There’s a great grove of oak trees to the west that protects it from the late afternoon sun," Heymann says. "Then there is a view out to the north looking at hills, and to the east out over a lake, and the view to the south running out to beautiful hills."
Heymann says most of the rooms are relatively small and have high ceilings. The living-family room and the kitchen-dining room in the east end of the house are large, laid out for frequent entertaining and family gatherings. The living room has a series of glass picture doors. The tin roof of the house extends beyond the porch. When it rains, it's possible to sit on the patio and watch the water pour down without getting wet. Under a gravel border around the house, a concrete gutter channels the water into the cistern for irrigation. In hot weather, a terrace directly above the cistern is a little cooler than the surrounding area.
The Bushes installed a geothermal heating and cooling system, which uses about 25% of the electricity that traditional heating and air-conditioning systems consume. Several holes were drilled deep, where the temperature is a constant . Pipes connected to a heat pump inside the house circulate water into the ground, then back up and through the house, heating it in winter and cooling it in summer. The water for the outdoor pool is heated with the same system, which proved so efficient that initial plans to install solar energy panels were cancelled.
Other structures
In addition to the house there is a guest house and a garage in separate buildings to the southwest of the main house.
The facility includes a helicopter hangar which was used as an auditorium on the rare occasions when the former president held a press conference at the ranch.
In 2002, the ranch was wired for what Bush described in a 2003 tour of the ranch as "real time, secure videoconferencing" to be used for his briefings from the CIA and other secured communications.
Overnight visitors stay in the main house, its associated guest house, the original Englebrecht farmhouse, or in a five-bedroom three-bath mobile home.
News reporters stayed in hotels in Waco. Press conferences that didn't involve the President were conducted in the gymnasium of Crawford Middle School, away from the ranch. The barn often seen behind TV correspondents during their live reports was actually on private property behind the school.
Grounds
The land includes seven canyons and of frontage along Rainey Creek and the Middle Bosque River. In August 2001 while touring the canyons with reporters Bush noted that the cedars in the canyons would be a good nesting ground for the endangered golden-cheeked warbler although the warblers have not actually been seen on the compound.
Bush added an man-made pond that he stocked with 600 largemouth bass and 30,000 bait fish. There are also bluegill and red ear sunfish. The pond has a maximum depth of . In May 2006, when asked to name the best moment in his administration, Bush jokingly said: "I would say the best moment was when I caught a largemouth bass on my lake."
At the urging of his daughters, Bush also built a swimming pool over the objections of Heymann who thought it would interrupt the stark views. Bush referred to it as "the whining pool"—whine long enough and you get it. It offers a respite from the hot Texas summers, and is heated by the same geothermal system as the house is during the winter.
Activities
A prized souvenir from the ranch is a gray Under Armour athletic shirt emblazoned with a Texas star encircled by the words The President's 100-Degree Club. In order to qualify a visitor must run , or bike for 10, when the thermometer hits triple digits.
When he was president, Bush used the ranch for vacations, meetings, and entertaining foreign dignitaries. In the less formal setting, dress code for meetings called for an open collar and no tie. Guests were typically treated to meals of Southwestern cuisine. When not holding meetings or briefings, Bush spent his time mountain biking, jogging, fishing, bird hunting, and clearing brush.
In 2001–2002, Bush held meetings with Russian President Vladimir Putin, British Prime Minister Tony Blair, and Saudi Arabian Crown Prince Abudallah in his 2001 Ford F-250 pickup truck at the ranch. The meetings were covered by the media as "pickup diplomacy" as part as a personal approach to foreign policy. For security concerns, Presidents cannot drive on public roads, but Bush could drive himself, dignitaries, legislators, press and others around the ranch in his truck. In 2013, President Bush donated his personal 2013 Ford F-150 King Ranch edition to be auctioned for charity.
Bush made clear his preference for spending some time away from his official residence at the White House in Washington, DC. In 2001, he said, "I think it is so important for a president to spend some time away from Washington, in the heartland of America."
Visits from foreign dignitaries
Visitors to the ranch have included:
Russian President Vladimir Putin, November 2001
British Prime Minister Tony Blair, April 2002
Saudi King Abdullah, April 2002, April 2005
Saudi Prince Bandar bin Sultan, August 2002
Chinese President Jiāng Zémín, October 2002
Spanish Prime Minister José María Aznar, February 2003
Australian Prime Minister John Howard, May 2003
Japanese Prime Minister Koizumi Jun'ichirō, May 2003
Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, July 2003
Mexican President Vicente Fox, March 2004, March 2005
Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, April 2004
Spanish King Juan Carlos and Queen Sofía, November 2004
Canadian Prime Minister Paul Martin, March 2005
Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, April 2005
Colombian President Álvaro Uribe, August 2005
German Chancellor Angela Merkel, November 2007
Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen, February 2008
Putin's visit to the ranch
On November 16, 2001, Vladimir Putin visited President Bush on his Prairie ranch where discussions were held as well as relationships amended. With the two holding a press conference at Crawford High School they spoke about how Russia is now an ally and that they should quit holding on to the dead weight of the Cold War and further their friendship with each other. They then spoke about Afghanistan and the arms control that they would like to see in the coming years. They agreed to deep cuts in long-range nuclear warheads. But they did not reach a deal on how to pave the way for testing and deployment of a U.S. missile defense shield. President Bush quickly turned serious. He returned to a theme that had echoed throughout the summit: That U.S.-Russian ties had entered a new phase and arms control was no longer the driving force. "We've found many areas in which we can cooperate and we've found some areas where we disagree. But nevertheless, our disagreements will not divide us, as nations that need to combine to make the world more peaceful and prosperous," he said.
Security considerations
The Federal Aviation Administration had a full-time no fly zone, designated "Prohibited Area 49" (P-49), around the ranch during the Bush Presidency. When President Bush was in residence at the ranch, a Temporary Flight Restriction was issued, expanding the radius to , with lesser restrictions extending to , containing some exceptions for Waco Regional Airport nearby. The size of the restricted area P-49 was reduced in June 2010 to a radius up to an altitude of 2,000 feet, which is still in effect.
Bush normally flew in and out of TSTC Waco Airport (the former Connally Air Force Base that is now owned by Texas State Technical College) on Air Force One, and was shuttled on Marine One to the ranch.
Future of the ranch
At the close of the Bush presidency, the Bushes purchased a home in Dallas. Laura Bush confirmed that they would make that their permanent residence, while spending weekends and holidays at the ranch.
The Wall Street Journal quoted an unnamed White House official: "They'll have their place in Crawford. He just loves it."
Gallery
See also
List of residences of presidents of the United States
References
External links
July 1999: Locals Hope Bush will create a White House in Texas, from the Abilene Reporter-News
December 2000: Home on the Range, from TIME magazine's Person of the Year story on Bush, (non-functioning link)
March 2001: Prohibited Area P-49 established by the FAA over the ranch and enlarged during presidential visits
August 2001: No grocery, $5 haircuts - and the Bush ranch, from the Christian Science Monitor
August 25, 2001: President Gives Tour of Crawford Ranch, (non-functioning link)
December 2002: The Bush Ranch, from Cowboys & Indians magazine
January 2, 2003: President's Remarks on Walking Tour of the Ranch, a White House press release
July 29, 2005: Bush plans 50th ranch trip in five years, an Associated Press report published in USA Today.
August 18, 2005: Can this bike ride be Bush's tour de force?, A report in The Times concerning the visit of Lance Armstrong to the ranch.
George W. Bush
Bush family residences
Houses in McLennan County, Texas
Ranches in Texas
Presidential homes in the United States
Sustainable buildings in the United States
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210052
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave%20Edmunds
|
Dave Edmunds
|
David William Edmunds (born 15 April 1944) is a Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and record producer. Although he is mainly associated with pub rock and new wave, having many hits in the 1970s and early 1980s, his natural leaning has always been towards 1950s-style rock and roll and rockabilly.
Career
Early bands
Edmunds was born in Cardiff, Wales. As a ten-year-old, he first played in 1954 with a band called the Edmunds Bros Duo with his older brother Geoff (born 5 December 1939, Cardiff); this was a piano duo. Then the brothers were in the Stompers later called the Heartbeats formed around 1957 with Geoff on rhythm guitar, Dave on lead guitar, Denny Driscoll on lead vocals, Johnny Stark on drums, Ton Edwards on bass, and Allan Galsworthy on rhythm. Then Dave and Geoff were in The 99ers along with scientist and writer Brian J. Ford. After that Dave Edmunds was in Crick Feather's Hill-Bill's formed in c 1960, with Feathers (Edmunds) on lead guitar; Zee Dolan on bass; Tennessee Tony on lead vocals; Tony Kees on piano and Hank Two Sticks on drums. The first group that Edmunds fronted was the Cardiff-based 1950s style rockabilly trio The Raiders formed in 1961, along with Brian 'Rockhouse' Davies on bass (born 15 January 1943, Cardiff) and Ken Collier on drums. Edmunds was the only constant member of the group, which later included bassist Mick Still, Bob 'Congo' Jones on drums (b. 13 August 1946, Barry, South Wales) and John Williams (stage name John David) on bass. The Raiders worked almost exclusively in the South Wales area.
In 1966, after a short spell in a Parlophone recording band, the Image (1965–1966), with local drummer Tommy Riley, Edmunds shifted to a more blues-rock sound, reuniting with Congo Jones and bassist John Williams and adding second guitarist Mickey Gee to form the short lived Human Beans, a band that played mostly in London and on the UK university circuit. In 1967, the band recorded a cover of "Morning Dew" on the British Columbia label, that failed to have any chart impact. After just eighteen months, the core of 'Human Beans' formed a new band called Love Sculpture that again reinstated Edmunds, Jones and Williams as a trio. Love Sculpture released their debut single "River to Another Day" in 1968. Their second single was a quasi-novelty Top 5, a reworking Khachaturian's classical piece "Sabre Dance" as a speed-crazed rock number, inspired by Keith Emerson's classical rearrangements. "Sabre Dance" became a hit after garnering the enthusiastic attention of British DJ John Peel, who was so impressed he played it twice in one programme on "Top Gear". The band issued two albums.
Solo career
After Love Sculpture split, Edmunds had a UK Christmas Number 1 single in 1970 with "I Hear You Knocking", a Smiley Lewis cover, which he came across while producing Shakin' Stevens and the Sunsets' first album entitled A Legend. The recording was the first release on Edmunds' manager's MAM Records label. This single also reached No. 4 in the US, making it Edmunds' biggest hit by far on either side of Atlantic Ocean. It sold over three million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. Edmunds had intended to record Wilbert Harrison's "Let's Work Together", but when he was beaten to that song by Canned Heat, he adapted the arrangement he intended to use for it to "I Hear You Knocking". The success of the single caused EMI's Regal Zonophone Records to use an option that it had to claim Edmunds' album, 1972's Rockpile, and the momentum from the single's success on a different label went away.
Edmunds' only acting role followed, as a band member in the David Essex movie Stardust. After learning the trade of producer, culminating in a couple of singles in the style of Phil Spector, "Baby I Love You" and "Born to Be with You", he became linked with the pub rock movement of the early 1970s, producing (among others) Brinsley Schwarz, Ducks Deluxe, Flamin' Groovies, and blues rock band Foghat, using a stripped down, grittier sound.
Edmunds had bought a house in Rockfield, Monmouth, a few miles away from Charles and Kingsley Ward's Rockfield Studios where he became an almost permanent fixture for the next twenty years. His working regime involved arriving at the studio in the early evening and working through till well after dawn, usually locked in the building alone. Applying the layered Spector sound to his own productions it was not unusual for Edmunds to multilayer up to forty separately recorded guitar tracks into the mix.
Rockpile and other collaborations
His own solo LP from 1975, Subtle as a Flying Mallet, was similar in style. The Brinsley Schwarz connection brought about a collaboration with Nick Lowe starting with this album, and in 1976 they formed the group Rockpile, with Billy Bremner and Terry Williams. Because Edmunds and Lowe signed to different record labels that year, they could not record as Rockpile until 1980, but many of their solo LPs (such as Lowe's Labour of Lust and Edmunds' own Repeat When Necessary) were group recordings. Edmunds had more UK hits during this time, including Elvis Costello's "Girls Talk", Nick Lowe's "I Knew the Bride", Hank DeVito's "Queen of Hearts" (later a larger, international hit for American country-rock singer Juice Newton), Graham Parker's "Crawling from the Wreckage", and Melvin Endsley's "Singing the Blues" (originally a 1956 US Country No. 1 hit for Marty Robbins, then a US pop No. 1 cover for Guy Mitchell, and a UK No. 1 for both Mitchell and Tommy Steele). The album Repeat When Necessary received a Silver Certification from the British Phonographic Industry on 20 March 1980 (for over 60,000 copies sold in the UK). The single "Girls Talk" also received a Silver Certificate from the BPI.
Unexpectedly, after Rockpile released their first LP under their own name, Seconds of Pleasure (1980), the band split. Edmunds and the band, including Lowe, performed in a music video for the track "Girls Talk", directed by Martin Pitts and produced by Derek Burbidge and Helen Pollack. For the video the band set up on the roof of the Warner Brothers Records building in Midtown Manhattan in the early afternoon. Edmunds spent the 1980s collaborating with and producing an assortment of artists, including Paul McCartney, King Kurt, Stray Cats, Fabulous Thunderbirds, and Status Quo. He recorded the soundtrack for the movie Porky's Revenge!, supplying the main theme, "High School Nights," and was the musical director for a television special starring Carl Perkins, with assorted guests including George Harrison, Ringo Starr, and Rosanne Cash. In 1989, Edmunds produced the album Yo Frankie for Dion.
On his 1983 release, Information, Edmunds collaborated on two songs with Jeff Lynne, the leader of Electric Light Orchestra. One of these songs, a Lynne composition, "Slipping Away", became Edmunds' only other US Top 40 hit, spending a single week at No. 39 while having a video clip in heavy rotation on MTV. It was not a hit in the UK. In 1984, Lynne produced six tracks on Edmunds' following album, Riff Raff.
In late 1985, Dave Edmunds was the musical director and a participating band member of Carl Perkins's Rockabilly Session television special. Other musicians involved in the project included George Harrison, Ringo Starr, and Eric Clapton.
1990 onwards
Edmunds recorded less frequently after the mid-1980s, living in Wales in semi-retirement, but occasionally touring. He joined up with Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band for tours in 1992 and 2000. However, 2007 marked a return to touring for Edmunds, alongside Joe Brown, on a lengthy tour around the UK. He made an appearance on stage alongside Stray Cats, at the Brixton Academy in London, on 10 September 2008, playing "The Race Is On" and "Tear It Up" with the band.
In 1993 Edmunds was in Cardiff Crown Court as a co-defendant along with Shakin' Stevens facing charges of non-payment of playing royalties from former Sunsets' band members Robert Llewellyn, Carl Petersen, Steve Percy and Paul Dolan. The prosecution asserted that the former band members were due a share of those additional royalties that Stevens and Edmunds had received from the successful reissue of the album A Legend during the early eighties. The judge agreed and, while the unpaid royalties only amounted to around £70,000 to be divided between the four musicians, the associated court costs to be paid by Stevens and Edmunds amounted to £500,000.
On New Year's Eve 2008, he appeared on Jools' Annual Hootenanny, performing "Girls Talk" and "I Hear You Knocking". He was Holland's guest again at Borde Hill Garden on 20 June 2009, on 28 August at open-air concert at Carrickfergus Castle., 31 October at Ipswich Regent, 7 November at Stoke Victoria Hall and 14 November at Nottingham Concert Hall. Edmunds also played a five-song set, including "I Hear You Knocking," "I Knew the Bride" and "Sabre Dance" with the Holland Big Band at the Royal Albert Hall on 27 November 2009.
He returned and performed "Sabre Dance" on Jools' Annual Hootenanny on the 2009/10 edition. An album release on 19 November 2013 called ...Again, featured recordings from the 1990s, plus four new tracks, Edmunds' first for almost 20 years, with the title track released as a digital download single. In 2015, Edmunds released his first instrumental album On Guitar... Dave Edmunds: Rags & Classics, which featured instrumental covers of classic songs such as The Beach Boys' "God Only Knows" and Elton John's "Your Song". The album was Edmunds' final album and after playing a final show in July 2017, he was reported to have retired from the music business.
Selected discography
Singles
Studio albums
with Love Sculpture:
Blues Helping (December 1968)
Forms and Feelings (January 1970)
with Brewers Droop:
The Booze Brothers (recorded 1973, released 1989)
as Dave Edmunds:
Rockpile (January 1972) (US #212)
Subtle as a Flying Mallet (April 1975)
Get It (April 1977) (US #209)
Tracks on Wax 4 (September 1978) (US #202)
Repeat When Necessary (June 1979) (UK #39, US #54) (Certified Silver in the United Kingdom 20 March 1980).
with Rockpile:
Seconds of Pleasure (October 1980) (Sweden,#8, Canada #29, UK #34, US #27)
as Dave Edmunds:
Twangin... (April 1981) (UK #37) (Sweden #5)
D.E. 7th (March 1982) (UK #60, US #46)
Information (April 1983) (UK #92, US #51)
Riff Raff (September 1984) (US #140)
Closer to the Flame (April 1990) (US #146)
Plugged In (August 1994)
Hand Picked: Musical Fantasies (1999)
...Again (November 2013)
On Guitar...Rags & Classics (2015)
Live albums
I Hear You Rockin' (June 1987) (US #106)
Live on the King Biscuit Flower Hour (May 1999)
A Pile of Rock: Live Featuring Billy Bremner, Geraint Watkins & The Refreshments (Sweden, 1999) (Pool CD018)
"C'Mon Everybody Live" (Same Source as King Biscuit Flower Hour – May 1999, but different tracks) (January 2004)
Alive & Pickin (Canadian Mail Order Only) (February 2005)
Compilations
with Love Sculpture:
The Classic Tracks 1968/1972 – EMI UK – 1974
The Dave Edmunds & Love Sculpture Singles A's & B's – Harvest Heritage – EMI UK – 1980
as Dave Edmunds''':The Best of Dave Edmunds (January 1982) (US #163)The Dave Edmunds Anthology (1968–1990) (April 1993)From Small Things: The Best of Dave Edmunds (April 2004)The Many Sides of Dave Edmunds: The Greatest Hits and More'' (September 2008) (UK #38)
Music videos
Notes
References
External links
Dave Edmunds biography from BBC Wales
Listen to Dave Edmunds Live at The Capitol Theatre on 6 June 1982
Listen to Dave Edmunds Live at Roseland Ballroom on 18 June 1983
Listen to Dave Edmunds Live at Roseland Ballroom on 19 June 1983
1944 births
Year of birth uncertain
Living people
Musicians from Cardiff
Welsh male singers
Welsh record producers
Rockpile members
Swan Song Records artists
Welsh new wave musicians
Atco Records artists
MAM Records artists
Welsh rock guitarists
Welsh songwriters
Lead guitarists
Slide guitarists
Welsh multi-instrumentalists
British rockabilly musicians
Rhythm guitarists
Power pop musicians
Welsh rock singers
Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band members
|
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] |
210053
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain%20gun
|
Mountain gun
|
Mountain guns are artillery pieces designed for use in mountain warfare and areas where usual wheeled transport is not possible. They are similar to infantry support guns, and are generally capable of being broken down into smaller loads (for transport by horse, human, mule, tractor, and/or truck).
Due to their ability to be broken down into smaller "packages", they are sometimes called pack guns or pack howitzers. During the American Civil War these small portable guns were widely used and were called mountain howitzers.
The first designs of modern breechloading mountain guns with recoil control and the capacity to be easily broken down and reassembled into highly efficient units were made by two Greek army engineers, P. Lykoudis and Panagiotis Danglis (after whom the Schneider-Danglis gun was named) in the 1890s.
Mountain guns are largely outdated, their role being filled by howitzers, mortars, multiple rocket launchers, recoilless rifles and missiles. Most modern artillery is manufactured from light-weight materials and can be transported fully assembled by helicopters.
See also
List of mountain artillery
Images
External links
Popular Science, May 1941, "The Old Army Army Mule Takes Guns Where Wheels Won't Go"
Assembling the Howitzer detail photos showing a 75mm howitzer's various sections being taken off mules and assembled
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belladonna%20%28band%29
|
Belladonna (band)
|
Belladonna is an Italian rock band founded by songwriters Luana Caraffa and Dani Macchi. They have described their style of music as "Rock noir".
Being one of the most listened-to bands on MySpace, their first self-produced album Metaphysical Attraction entered the 2008 Grammy Awards ballot. They have released six albums and several singles, including Let There Be Light, written and recorded with British film composer Michael Nyman. They have toured all over the world, performed at SXSW and have supported Nine Inch Nails, Siouxsie and the Banshees, The Mars Volta, and Dita Von Teese. Belladonna's music has been used in the trailers of major Hollywood films, including Minions, Split, My Cousin Rachel, Godless, The Dark Tower, Black Panther, and Fahrenheit 11/9.
Career
Metaphysical Attraction
Belladonna was formed on 14 February 2005 in Rome, Italy, by Luana Caraffa and Dani Macchi after forming "a songwriting partnership". During the course of the following months Belladonna wrote and recorded many songs, eleven of which would become their first full album: Metaphysical Attraction. Within months of creating a MySpace account in 2005, Belladonna became the most played Italian band on MySpace next to Lacuna Coil.
As Belladonna's celebrity status grew in 2006, they were interviewed by major media outlets such as GQ. Glamour magazine did a two-page photo spread on the band and their MySpace fame. In early 2007 National Italian television La7 resounded Belladonna's web popularity in a news story that described them as "the most listened to Italian band on MySpace".
In August 2007, Belladonna released the music video of Mystical Elysian Love which was filmed on location in Berlin, Germany. The video reached #73 on the worldwide YouTube most watched music videos chart on the same day it was released. In November 2007 Belladonna was the headliner musical act for the Erotica 07 event at The Grand Hall, Olympia in London. Sharing the stage with Belladonna at Erotica 07 was burlesque artist Dita Von Teese, Marilyn Manson's former wife. The attendance of the Erotica 07 event was estimated at over 100,000 people.
In 2008, two tracks from Belladonna's first album Metaphysical Attraction, Black Swan and Foreverland, were nominated in the Ballot of the 2008 Grammy Awards for Best Rock Performance By A Duo Or Group With Vocals (Category 16) and for Best Rock Song (Category 20).
The Noir Album
In June 2008, Belladonna collaborated with Sylvia Massy at Radiostar Studios to produce recordings for their second album. Sylvia Massy has produced bands such as Tool, System of a Down, Skunk Anansie, and Johnny Cash. In December 2008 Belladonna embarked on a promotional tour that included a show at The Fly in London.
Belladonna's second album The Noir Album was released on 6 March 2009. The band played showcases at the Key Club in Los Angeles (CA) on 16 March and at South by Southwest Festival (SXSW) in Austin, Texas on 18 March. In May 2009 Belladonna appeared the cover of the US magazine Muen with Lacuna Coil. From September 2009 the album's first single Till Death Do Us Part received airplay on UK's BBC Four, where Iron Maiden singer Bruce Dickinson aired it on his Friday Rock Show.
On tour around the world
In June 2009, Belladonna played a show as special guests to Guns N' Roses/Velvet Revolver bass player Duff McKagan's band Loaded, and in an open-air music festival in Milan with Mars Volta, Korn and Nine Inch Nails
In October 2009, Belladonna performed at the Fonda Theater in Los Angeles alongside other well-known Italian artists such as Franco Battiato, Giovanni Allevi, and Afterhours.
On 26 November 2009, Belladonna played a UK showcase at The Garage in London.
In 2010, Belladonna toured Belgium once and the UK twice, and gigged regularly around Italy.
Collaboration with Michael Nyman
In December 2010, Belladonna released Let There Be Light, a single written in collaboration with English composer Michael Nyman and based on his The Heart Asks Pleasure First from the soundtrack of the Jane Campion movie The Piano. Michael Nyman himself plays piano on the track.
And There Was Light
In August 2010, the band started pre-production on their third album And There Was Light, which they recorded in November in Los Angeles., produced by Dani Macchi with the help of Grammy-nominated producer Alex Elena and of Metallica's Metallica (album) engineer Mike Tacci, and mixed by Macchi in the band's studio in Rome. The album features several musical guests, including Imani Coppola and Ruby Friedman, as well as spoken word contributions by British occultist Aleister Crowley and German psychologist Carl Jung
In May 2011, And There Was Light was released on iTunes worldwide. The album enters the Italian iTunes Top 100, and reaches the number one spot in the CD Baby chart of the best selling rock albums worldwide.
In September 2011, Belladonna are mentioned alongside Nine Inch Nails, Moby and Marilyn Manson in Mötley Crüe's frontman Vince Neil's autobiography Tattoos and Tequila as one of the most important acts that have been influenced by Mötley Crüe in recent years.
Touring Europe
Belladonna went on tour around Europe during 2012, playing shows in Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and Czech Republic.
In May 2012, Belladonna's guitar player Dani Macchi was voted Best Italian Indie Guitar Player in a poll organized by MEI, the official Italian Indie Labels Association.
The Sweet Child O' Mine single
In March 2013, Belladonna released a cover of the Guns N' Roses track Sweet Child O' Mine and made it available on iTunes, and as free download on their SoundCloud page.
Shooting Dice with God
On 22 April 2013, Belladonna released their fourth album Shooting Dice with God. The video of the first single off the album, Karma Warrior, gets featured as an exclusive preview on the Rolling Stone Italy website.
The band went immediately on tour all over Europe to support this album release.
On 26 February 2014, Belladonna played a headline show in London's legendary rock venue The Borderline
The Undress Your Soul single
On 10 June 2015, Belladonna released Undress Your Soul a song written and produced in collaboration with renowned Italian film composer Pasquale Catalano, based on his music of Italian cult TV series Romanzo criminale – La serie. The track's video is premiered on Italy's best-selling newspaper La Repubblica's website
The God Below single in a Minions TV spot
In July 2015, the Belladonna single The God Below is used in the Fifty Shades of Yellow international TV spot of the animation movie Minions.
The Orchestral Album
The 23 March 2016, the band released The Orchestral Album, featuring 10 songs from their catalogue completely re-arranged and recorded with a concert orchestra featuring many of Ennio Morricone's regular orchestral players and conducted by Kazakh arranger/conductor Angelina Yershova, who co-produced the album with Belladonna's guitarist and producer Dani Macchi.
The Belladonna Soundscape Collection Vol.1
In 2017, Belladonna released The Belladonna Soundscape Collection Vol.1, a film industry-only release of over 200 instrumental tracks all recorded using exclusively original elements from their albums. During the course of the same year tracks from this collection are used in the trailers and TV spots of big-budget Hollywood movies such as Split, My Cousin Rachel, and The Dark Tower. The band then gets commissioned to write music for the trailer of the Marvel movie Black Panther, released in October 2017.
The Spiders of Gomorrah single in a Netflix trailer
In November 2017, Belladonna released the single Spiders of Gomorrah. The song is featured in the trailer of the Netflix series Godless.
Belladonna's guitarist at The Voice of Italy and on Michael Moore's Fahrenheit 11/9 trailer
In 2018, Belladonna's guitarist Dani Macchi was chosen by Lacuna Coil's Cristina Scabbia to be the vocal coach of her team on the 2018 edition of the tv talent show The Voice of Italy. In August 2018 Dani Macchi is featured in the trailer of Michael Moore's movie Fahrenheit 11/9, performing a rock guitar version of "The Star-Spangled Banner".
No Star Is Ever Too Far
In January 2019, the band released its sixth album No Star Is Ever Too Far. Three of its songs have been licensed in international movies and trailers: The Turing Sniper is featured in Remember Me, My Love, the Gabriele Muccino drama featuring Monica Bellucci, Black Beauty is featured in the Michael Moore documentary movie Fahrenheit 11/9, and We Belong To Hell is included in the international tv spot of the thriller My Cousin Rachel.
The New Future Travelogue NFT auction
On the 17th of March 2021 Belladonna put up for auction their new single New Future Travelogue, and become the first artists in the world to auction a song as a 1-of-1 NFT (Non-Fungible token), making the auction winner the only person to own a copy of the song, and including in the sale the song’s Master rights.
Band members
Luana Caraffa – vocals
Dani Macchi – guitar
Martina Petrucci – piano
Anastasia Angelini – bass
Mattia Mari – drums
Discography
Albums
Metaphysical Attraction (2006)
The Noir Album (2009)
And There Was Light (2011)
Shooting Dice with God (2013)
The Orchestral Album (2016)
No Star Is Ever Too Far (2019)
References
External links
Official Belladonna site
Belladonna on Facebook
Belladonna on YouTube
Belladonna on Spotify
Musical groups established in 2005
Italian musical groups
|
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] |
210055
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon%20de%2076%20FRC
|
Canon de 76 FRC
|
The Canon de 76 FRC was a Belgian infantry support gun, produced by the Fonderie Royale des Canons (FRC). The gun was typically of 76 mm calibre; however, an optional 47 mm barrel could be fitted instead. The gun was designed for transport via a trailer towed by a vehicle. In 1940, the Wehrmacht redesignated these as 7.6 cm IG 260(b). At the start of World War II, 198 of these guns had been produced.
See also
47 mm Model 1931 anti-tank gun
References
World War II artillery of Belgium
Infantry guns
76 mm artillery
|
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210056
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infantry%20support%20gun
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Infantry support gun
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Infantry support guns or battalion guns are artillery weapons designed and used to increase firepower of infantry units they are intrinsic to; offering immediate tactical response to the needs of the unit's commanding officer. The designs are typically with short low velocity barrels, and light construction carriages allowing them to be more easily manoeuvred on the battlefield. They are generally used for direct fire missions, as opposed to indirect fire like other artillery units. Their role has generally been replaced by tanks using tank guns, infantry fighting vehicles using autocannons, other combat vehicles, mortars, recoilless rifles, rocket-propelled grenades and shoulder-launched missiles.
Infantry support guns
Development history
Infantry support guns were the first type of artillery employed by armed forces, initially in China, and later brought to Europe by the Mongol invasion. In their initial form, they lacked carriages or wheels, and were simple cast barrels called in French, or in Italian. These weapons were relatively small, immobile, and fired large bolts or quarrels. Along with increases in the sizes of ordnance (the barrels) came the requirement of easier transportation. This led to two divergent approaches, the very light hand-gun, and eventually the arquebus, while another avenue of development led to the light ordnance, now on wheeled carriages, such as the 2-pounder Culvern moyane, the 1-pounder falcon, and the -pounder falconet. These lighter Renaissance pieces eventually led to the development of the 3-pounder and 4-pounder regimental guns of the 17th century as well as the leather cannon, notably in the army of Gustavus Adolphus. The light field guns of the 17th century, commonly known as a drake in England, came in almost 100 different calibres, with each having its own distinct name, some of which were:
5-pound, -inch saker, weighing 1 ton
4-pound, 3-inch minion, weighing ton
2-pound, -inch falcon, weighing ton
1-pound, 2-inch falconet, weighing
-pound, -inch robinet, weighing
The saker and falcon had point-blank ranges of , and extreme ranges respectively.
Although oxen were used to haul the heavier field and siege ordnance, some on wagons rather than limbers, they were too slow to keep up with the infantry, and so horses were used to pull the lighter pieces, leading to the development of the artillery carriage and horse team that survived until the late 19th century.
17th– to 19th-century development
The first School of Artillery in Venice was opened early in the 16th century, and by the late 17th century the different old names of the lighter ordnance were abandoned, and replaced with the French canon, or cannon.
The first regimental guns in English service were ordered by King James II in 1686; two 3-pounders for each of the seven regiments (of one battalion each) encamped in Hyde Park. Attachment of guns to the infantry had practical reasons also. While the allocation of horses was reckoned at one for each 350–500 pounds of ordnance and its carriage, this was only true for availability of good horses and good roads, both in short supply due to unscrupulous civilian contractors and lack of road building technology. In cases where the work was excessive for horses alone, infantry would join them in pulling the guns, calculated at 80 lbs per infantryman, a load which remains at the upper limit of the average light infantry unit requirement today.
The 3 pounder Grasshopper cannon was in use with British forces in the 18th Century. Each British infantry battalion had an officer and 34 non commissioned officers and other ranks trained by the Royal Artillery to handle the two 3 or light 6 pounder guns battalion guns.
Frederick the Great of Prussia was the first to introduce artillery tactics for the regimental guns which were to accompany the infantry units as part of his reform of the Prussian artillery as a whole before and during the Seven Years' War. This included the determination that canister shot was only effective at a range of 100 yards, same as that of the musket range, and therefore put the gunners into the environment of direct infantry combat due to Frederick's insistence that artillery should participate in the infantry attack.
In 1732 Florent-Jean de Vallière standardized French artillery ordnance (barrels) into five calibers. The lightest piece was the Vallière 4-pounder and the heavier cannons were 8-, 12-, 16- and 24-pounders. The 4-pounder proved too heavy to be employed as a battalion gun so Swedish 4-pounders were used for that purpose beginning in 1757. Two years later the French began using the 1-pdr Rostaing gun but it only had limited service.
Manufacture of the ordnance was also revolutionised by the early-18th century invention of the boring mechanism by the Swiss gun-founder Moritz of Geneva which allowed for a far greater precision achieved in the casting, in essence creating a huge lathe on which the barrel casting turned instead of the boring tool. Manufacture of cannonballs was also improved so the projectiles were now well-fitted to the bore of the ordnance, and after conducting experiments with gunpowder, the powder charges were determined to be one-third the weight of the shot (cannonball).
Frederick's artillery doctrine influenced the development of the French artillery troops, and after 1764 Jean Baptiste Vaquette de Gribeauval, the first Inspector of Artillery, after conducting trials in Strasbourg, reorganised French artillery units to provide them with greater mobility, changing length of the barrels to standard 18-calibre length, including the regimental 4-pounders. These were now pulled by four horses and used large six-wheeled vehicles that also included the caissons. The system of ordnance, carriages, ball, and powder charges introduced by de Gribeauval remained virtually unaltered through the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars.
20th-century development
Infantry support guns drew much interest in course of World War I because of the developments in trench warfare. In addition to the usual requirements that they needed to be portable enough to be carried by infantry, two separate capabilities were desired. First, it needed to engage in high angle indirect fire, especially given the prevalence of trenches. Second, it needed to be capable of low angle direct fire, while being carried by assault infantry, to engage strongpoints, bunkers, and other fortifications. Some infantry support guns that appeared between world wars, such as the German 7.5 cm leichtes Infanteriegeschütz 18 and Japanese Type 92 battalion gun were designed to meet all these requirements simultaneously and saw action during WWII.
List of infantry support guns
Belgium
Canon de 76 FRC
The Canon de 76 FRC was a Belgian infantry support gun, produced by the Fonderie Royale des Canons (FRC). The gun was typically of 76 mm calibre; however, an optional 47 mm barrel could be fitted instead. The gun was designed for transport via a trailer towed by a vehicle. In 1940, the Wehrmacht redesignated these as 7.6 cm IG 260(b).
France
Canon d'Infanterie de 37 modèle 1916 TRP
The Canon d'Infantrie de 37 modele 1916 TRP (37mm mle.1916) was a French infantry support gun, first used during World War I. The gun was used by a number of forces during and after the war. The US acquired a number of these guns, which they designated 37mm M1916; however, by 1941 the US Army had put these into storage (or scrapped them). Poland fielded a number. In 1940, the Wehrmacht began using these as 3.7 cm IG 152(f). During the First World War, the Japanese Type 11 was based on this design.
Germany
7.5 cm leichtes Infanteriegeschütz "L/13"
7.5 cm leichtes Infanteriegeschütz 18
7.5 cm Infanteriegeschütz 37
15 cm schweres Infanteriegeschütz 33
7.6 cm IG 260(b)
Japan
Type 11 37 mm infantry gun (heavily inspired by France's Canon d'Infantrie de 37 modele 1916 TRP)
Type 92 Battalion Gun
Imperial Russia
37 mm trench gun M1915
Italy
Cannone da 47/32 M35
Cannone da 65/17 modello 13
Cannone da 70/15
Soviet Union
76.2-mm regimental gun M1927
37 mm anti-tank gun M1930 (1-K)
76.2-mm regimental gun M1943
United Kingdom
1.59 inch Breech-Loading Vickers Q.F. Gun, Mk II ("Vickers-Crayford rocket gun")
United States
M1916 37mm gun
37 mm Gun M3
M116 howitzer
105 mm Howitzer M3
Modern times
Very few support guns are still in service with infantry units, as their roles have been largely replaced by rocket-propelled grenades, grenade launchers, anti-tank guided missiles, Recoilless rifles, howitzers, and mortars. Heavier wire-guided missiles are used to engage point targets such as structures.
Most pack guns (guns designed to be disassembled into parts for movement) and airborne guns (guns designed for use by paratroopers by being either disassemblable for deployment or especially light, or both) are infantry support guns, but these types are also obsolete.
See also
Assault gun
Field gun
Self-propelled gun
Citations and notes
References
Chandler, David G. The Campaigns of Napoleon, Volume 1 Simon and Schuster, 1966
The Corps of Royal Engineers, Aide-mémoire to the Military Sciences: Framed from Contributions of Officers of the Different Services, Volume II, Lockwood & Co., London, 1860
Deane, John, Deanes' Manual of the History and Science of Fire-arms ..., Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans & Roberts, London, 1858
Haythornthwaite, Philip J. & Fosten, Bryan Wellington's Specialist Troops Osprey Publishing, 24/11/1988
Hicks, James Ernest & Jandot, Andre (illustrator), What the Citizen Should Know about Our Arms and Weapons, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1941
Rogers, H.C.B., Col, Artillery through the ages, Seeley, Service & Co., Ltd, London, 1971
External links
Infantry guns
Artillery
Explosive weapons
Artillery by type
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210058
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical%20modifier
|
Grammatical modifier
|
In linguistics, a modifier is an optional element in phrase structure or clause structure which modifies the meaning of another element in the structure. For instance, the adjective "red" acts as a modifier in the noun phrase "red ball", providing extra detail about which particular ball is under discussion. Similarly, the adverb "quickly" acts as a modifier in the verb phrase "run quickly".
Premodifiers and postmodifiers
Modifiers may come either before or after the modified element (the head), depending on the type of modifier and the rules of syntax for the language in question. A modifier placed before the head is called a premodifier; one placed after the head is called a postmodifier.
For example, in land mines, the word land is a premodifier of mines, whereas in the phrase mines in wartime, the phrase in wartime is a postmodifier of mines. A head may have a number of modifiers, and these may include both premodifiers and postmodifiers. For example:
that nice tall man from Canada whom you met
In this noun phrase, man is the head, nice and tall are premodifiers, and from Canada and whom you met are postmodifiers.
Notice that in English, simple adjectives are usually used as premodifiers, with occasional exceptions such as galore (which always appears after the noun) or the adjectives immemorial and martial in the phrases time immemorial and court martial (the latter comes from French, where most adjectives are postmodifiers). Sometimes placement of the adjective after the noun entails a change of meaning: compare a responsible person and the person responsible, or the proper town (the appropriate town) and the town proper (the area of the town as properly defined).
It is possible in English for a modifier to be separated from its head by other modifiers, as in The man here whom you bumped into in the street yesterday, where the relative clause who...yesterday is separated from the word it modifies (man) by the modifier here. In some other languages, words other than modifiers may occur in between, this type of situation is especially likely in languages with free word order, and often agreement between the grammatical gender or singularity/plurality of the modifier and its head is used to indicate the relationship. In English, modifiers may sometimes even be interposed between component words or syllables of the head, such as in split infinitives (to boldly go) or infixation (in-fucking-credible).
Types
The two principal types of modifiers are adjectives (and adjectival phrases and adjectival clauses), which modify nouns; and adverbs (and adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses), which modify other parts of speech, particularly verbs, adjectives and other adverbs, as well as whole phrases or clauses. (Not all adjectives and adverbs are necessarily modifiers, however; an adjective will normally be considered a modifier when used attributively, but not when used predicatively – compare the examples with the adjective red at the start of this article.)
Another type of modifier in some languages, including English, is the noun adjunct, which is a noun modifying another noun (or occasionally another part of speech). An example is land in the phrase land mines given above.
Examples of the above types of modifiers, in English, are given below.
It was [a nice house]. (adjective modifying a noun, in a noun phrase)
[The swiftly flowing waters] carried it away. (adjectival phrase, in this case a participial phrase, modifying a noun in a noun phrase)
She's [the woman with the hat]. (adjectival phrase, in this case a prepositional phrase, modifying a noun in a noun phrase)
I saw [the man whom we met yesterday]. (adjectival clause, in this case a relative clause, modifying a noun in a noun phrase)
His desk was in [the faculty office]. (noun adjunct modifying a noun in a noun phrase)
[Put it gently in the drawer]. (adverb in verb phrase)
He was [very gentle]. (adverb in adjective phrase)
She set it down [very gently]. (adverb in adverb phrase)
[Even more] people were there. (adverb modifying a determiner)
It ran [right up the tree]. (adverb modifying a prepositional phrase)
[Only the dog] was saved. (adverb modifying a noun phrase)
In some cases, noun phrases or quantifiers can act as modifiers:
[A few more] workers are needed. (quantifier modifying a determiner)
She's [two inches taller than her sister]. {noun phrase modifying an adjective}
Ambiguous and dangling modifiers
Sometimes it is not clear which element of the sentence a modifier is intended to modify. In many cases this is not important, but in some cases it can lead to genuine ambiguity. For example:
He painted her sitting on the step.
Here the participial phrase sitting on the step may be intended to modify her (meaning that the painting's subject was sitting on the step), or it may be intended to modify the verb phrase painted her or the whole clause he painted her (or just he), meaning in effect that it was the painter who was sitting on the step.
Sometimes the element which the modifier is intended to modify does not in fact appear in the sentence, or is not in an appropriate position to be associated with that modifier. This is often considered a grammatical or stylistic error. For example:
Walking along the road, a vulture loomed overhead.
Here whoever was "walking along the road" is not mentioned in the sentence, so the modifier (walking along the road) has nothing to modify, except a vulture, which is clearly not the intention. Such a case is called a "dangling modifier", or more specifically, in the common case where (as here) the modifier is a participial phrase, a "dangling participle"
See also
Description
Intensifier
Intersective modifier
Privative adjective
Subsective modifier
References
Syntactic categories
Descriptive technique
|
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] |
210062
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skoda%2075%20mm%20Model%2015
|
Skoda 75 mm Model 15
|
The Skoda 7.5 cm Gebirgskanone M. 15 was a mountain gun used by Austria-Hungary in World War I. In German service, it was known as the 7.5 cm GebK 15. The Italians designated them as the Obice da 75/13 and the Wehrmacht would designate captured guns as 7.5 cm GebK 259(i) after the surrender of Italy in 1943.
History
Its development was quite prolonged, as the Austrians couldn't decide on the specifications that they wanted. Initially, they wanted a gun that could be broken down into no more than five pack-animal loads to replace the various 7 cm mountain guns in service, but prolonged trials proved that the 7.5 cm M. 12 prototype to be the best gun. However, the commander-in-chief of Bosnia-Hercegovina believe it to be too heavy and demanded a return to the 7 cm caliber to save weight. Skoda dutifully built enough guns for a test battery in the smaller caliber and tested them during the spring of 1914 where they were judged inferior to the 7.5 cm guns. This cost the Austrians heavily as the 7.5 cm guns began to be delivered in April 1915 instead of the planned date of April 1914.
For transport, the gun could be dismantled into six parts, generally carried in four loads. In addition, there was a Gun shield fitted on some (perhaps many) such guns. A revised version of this gun was released as the Skoda 75 mm Model 1928. The Germans bought some guns during World War I, but used them as infantry guns in direct support of the infantry, as their light weight would allow them to move with the infantry. They complained that the guns were too fragile and didn't have a high enough muzzle velocity to act as an anti-tank gun. Considering that the guns were designed to be disassembled, it's not too surprising that they couldn't stand the abuse moving through the shell-pocketed front lines on the Western Front.
Surviving examples
Serial number 1399 (manufactured 1917) is displayed in Bundaberg, Queensland, having been gifted to that city as a war trophy - in 1921 - by the Australian Government.
Notes
References
Englemann, Joachim and Scheibert, Horst. Deutsche Artillerie 1934-1945: Eine Dokumentation in Text, Skizzen und Bildern: Ausrüstung, Gliderung, Ausbildung, Führung, Einsatz. Limburg/Lahn, Germany: C. A. Starke, 1974
Gander, Terry and Chamberlain, Peter. Weapons of the Third Reich: An Encyclopedic Survey of All Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the German Land Forces 1939-1945. New York: Doubleday, 1979
Hogg, Ian. Twentieth-Century Artillery. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 2000
Jäger, Herbert. German Artillery of World War One. Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire: Crowood Press, 2001
Ortner, M. Christian. The Austro-Hungarian Artillery From 1867 to 1918: Technology, Organization, and Tactics. Vienna, Verlag Militaria, 2007
External links
GebK M. 15 on Landships
World War I mountain artillery
World War II mountain artillery
Artillery of Czechoslovakia
World War II artillery of Italy
75 mm artillery
World War I artillery of Austria-Hungary
|
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] |
210064
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Swedish%20field%20marshals
|
List of Swedish field marshals
|
This is a list of the 77 field marshals (Fältmarskalk) of Sweden, with their respective years of appointment, from the 16th to the 19th century.
See also
List of wars involving Sweden
List of Swedish military commanders
List of Swedish governors-general
References
Field marshals
Sweden
Field marshals
|
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210074
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harland%20%26%20Wolff
|
Harland & Wolff
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Harland & Wolff is a shipyard, specialising in ship repair, conversion, and offshore construction, located in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Harland & Wolff is famous for having built the majority of the ocean liners for the White Star Line. Well-known ships built by Harland & Wolff include the Olympic-class trio: , and HMHS Britannic, the Royal Navy's , Royal Mail Line's Andes, Shaw Savill's , Union-Castle's , and P&O's . Harland and Wolff's official history, Shipbuilders to the World, was published in 1986.
As of 2011, the expanding offshore wind power industry had been the prime focus, and 75% of the company's work was based on offshore renewable energy.<ref
name=Telegraph1></ref>
Early history
Harland & Wolff was formed in 1861 by Edward James Harland (1831–95) and Hamburg-born Gustav Wilhelm Wolff (1834–1913; he came to the UK at age 14). In 1858 Harland, then general manager, bought the small shipyard on Queen's Island from his employer Robert Hickson.
After buying Hickson's shipyard, Harland made his assistant Wolff a partner in the company. Wolff was the nephew of Gustav Schwabe, Hamburg, who was heavily invested in the Bibby Line, and the first three ships that the newly incorporated shipyard built were for that line. Harland made a success of the business through several innovations, notably replacing the wooden upper decks with iron ones which increased the strength of the ships; and giving the hulls a flatter bottom and squarer cross section, which increased their capacity. Walter Henry Wilson became a partner of the company in 1874.
When Harland died in 1895, William James Pirrie became the chairman of the company until his death in 1924. Thomas Andrews also became the general manager and head of the draughting department in 1907. It was in this period that the company built and the two other ships in her class, and , between 1909 and 1914, commissioning Sir William Arrol & Co. to construct a massive twin slipway and gantry structure for the project.
In 1912, due primarily to increasing political instability in Ireland, the company acquired another shipyard at Govan in Glasgow, Scotland. It bought the former London & Glasgow Engineering & Iron Shipbuilding Co's Middleton and Govan New shipyards in Govan and Mackie & Thomson's Govan Old Yard, which had been owned by William Beardmore and Company. The three neighbouring yards were amalgamated and redeveloped to provide a total of seven building berths, a fitting-out basin and extensive workshops. Harland & Wolff specialised in building tankers and cargo ships at Govan. The nearby shipyard of A. & J. Inglis was also purchased by Harland & Wolff in 1919, along with a stake in the company's primary steel supplier, David Colville & Sons. Harland & Wolff also established shipyards at Bootle in Liverpool, North Woolwich in London and Southampton. However, these shipyards were all eventually closed from the early 1960s when the company opted to consolidate its operations in Belfast.
The war years
In the First World War, Harland and Wolff built monitors and cruisers, including the 15-inch gun armed "large light cruiser" .
In 1918, the company opened a new shipyard on the eastern side of the Musgrave Channel which was named the East Yard. This yard specialised in mass-produced ships of standard design developed in the First World War.
During the 1920s, Catholic workers were routinely expelled from working in the shipyard: see Shipyard Expulsions.
The company started an aircraft manufacturing subsidiary with Short Brothers, called Short & Harland Limited in 1936. Its first order was for 189 Handley Page Hereford bombers built under licence from Handley Page for the Royal Air Force. In the Second World War, this factory built Short Stirling bombers as the Hereford was removed from service.
The shipyard was busy in the Second World War, building six aircraft carriers, two cruisers (including ) and 131 other naval ships; and repairing over 22,000 vessels. It also manufactured tanks and artillery components. It was in this period that the company's workforce peaked at around 35,000 people. However, many of the vessels built in this era were commissioned right at the end of the Second World War, as Harland and Wolff were focused on ship repair in the first three years of the war. The yard on Queen's Island was heavily bombed by the Luftwaffe in April and May 1941 during the Belfast Blitz, causing considerable damage to the shipbuilding facilities and destroying the aircraft factory.
Post-war period
With the rise of the jet-powered airliner in the late 1950s, the demand for ocean liners declined. This, coupled with competition from Japan, led to difficulties for the British shipbuilding industry. The last liner that the company launched was MV Arlanza for Royal Mail Line in 1960, whilst the last liner completed was SS Canberra for P&O in 1961.
In the 1960s, notable achievements for the yard included the tanker Myrina, which was the first supertanker built in the UK and the largest vessel ever launched down a slipway, as it was in September 1967. In the same period the yard also built the semi-submersible drilling rig Sea Quest which, due to its three-legged design, was launched down three parallel slipways. This was a first and only time this was ever done.
In the mid-1960s, the Geddes Committee recommended that the British government advance loans and subsidies to British shipyards to modernise production methods and shipyard infrastructure to preserve jobs. A major modernisation programme at the shipyard was undertaken, centred on the creation of a large construction graving dock serviced by two Krupp Goliath cranes, the iconic Samson and Goliath, enabling the shipyard to build much larger post-war merchant ships, including one of 333,000 tonnes.
The shipyard had a long-standing reputation as a Protestant closed shop, and in 1970, during the Troubles, 500 Catholic workers were expelled from their role.
Continuing financial problems led to the company's nationalisation, though not as part of British Shipbuilders, in 1977. In 1971, the Arrol Gantry complex, within which many ships were built until the early 1960s, was demolished. The nationalised company was sold by the British government in 1989 to a management/employee buy-out in partnership with the Norwegian shipping magnate Fred Olsen; this buy-out led to a new company called Harland & Wolff Holdings Plc. By this time, the number of people employed by the company had fallen to around 3,000.
For the next few years, Harland & Wolff specialised in building standard Suezmax oil tankers, and has continued to concentrate on vessels for the offshore oil and gas industry. It has made some forays outside this market.
In the late 1990s, the yard was part of the then British Aerospace team for the Royal Navy's Future Carrier (CVF) programme. It was envisaged that the ship would be assembled at the Harland & Wolff dry-dock in Belfast. In 1999 BAE merged with Marconi Electronic Systems. The new company, BAE Systems Marine, included the former Marconi shipyards on the Clyde and at Barrow-in-Furness thus rendering H&W's involvement surplus to requirements.
Restructuring and InfraStrata takeover
Faced with competitive pressures, Harland & Wolff sought to shift and broaden their portfolio, focusing less on shipbuilding and more on design and structural engineering, as well as ship repair, offshore construction projects and competing for other projects to do with metal engineering and construction. This led to Harland and Wolff constructing a series of bridges in Britain and also in the Republic of Ireland, such as the James Joyce Bridge and the restoration of Dublin's Ha'penny Bridge, building on the success of its first foray into the civil engineering sector with the construction of the Foyle Bridge in the 1980s.
Harland & Wolff's last shipbuilding project was MV Anvil Point, one of six near identical s built for use by the Ministry of Defence. The ship, built under licence from German shipbuilders Flensburger Schiffbau-Gesellschaft, was launched in 2003.
The company unsuccessfully tendered against Chantiers de l'Atlantique for the construction of Cunard line's .
In 2003, Harland & Wolff's parent company sold 185-acres of surplus shipyard land and buildings to Harcourt Developments for £47 million. This is now known as the Titanic Quarter, and includes the £97 million Titanic Belfast visitor attraction.
In recent years the company had seen its ship-related workload increase. Whilst Harland & Wolff has had no recent involvement in shipbuilding projects, the company is increasingly involved in overhaul, re-fitting and ship repair, as well as the construction and repair of off-shore equipment such as oil platforms. On 1 February 2011 it was announced that Harland & Wolff had won the contract to refurbish , effectively rekindling its nearly 150-year association with the White Star Line. Structural steel work on the ship began on 10 February 2011 and was completed in time for the 2012 Belfast Titanic Festival. In July 2012 Harland & Wolff was to carry out the dry docking and service of the Husky Oil SeaRose FPSO (Floating Production, Storage and Offloading) vessel.
Belfast's skyline is still dominated today by Harland & Wolff's famous twin gantry cranes, Samson and Goliath, built in 1974 and 1969 respectively. There is also speculation about a resurgence in the prosperity of the shipyard thanks to the company's diversification into emerging technologies, particularly in renewable energy development, such as offshore wind turbine and tidal power construction, which may provide an opportunity to further improve the company's fortunes in the long term. For example, the United Kingdom planned to build 7,500 new offshore wind turbines between 2008 and 2020, creating great demand for heavy assembly work. Unlike land-based wind turbines, where assembly occurs on site, offshore wind turbines have part of their assembly done in a shipyard, and then construction barges transport the tower sections, rotors, and nacelles to the site for final erection and assembly. As a result of this, in late 2007, the 'Goliath' gantry crane was re-commissioned, having been moth-balled in 2003 due to the lack of heavy-lifting work at the yard.
In June 2008, assembly work at the Belfast yard was underway on 60 Vestas V90-3MW wind turbines for the Robin Rigg Wind Farm. This was the second offshore wind farm assembled by the company for Vestas having completed the logistics for the Barrow Offshore Wind Farm in 2006. In August 2011 Harland and Wolff completed the logistics for the Ormonde Wind Farm which consisted of 30 REpower 5MW turbines.
In March 2008, the construction of the world's first commercial tidal stream turbine, for Marine Current Turbines, was completed at the Belfast yard. The installation of the 1.2MW SeaGen Tidal System was begun in Strangford Lough in April 2008.
In July 2010, Harland & Wolff secured a contract to make a prototype tidal energy turbine for Scotrenewables Ltd. Manufacture of the SR250 device was completed in May 2011 and has been undergoing testing in Orkney since.
As of April 2012, the booming offshore wind power industry had taken centre stage. Harland & Wolff had been working on three innovative meteorological mast foundations for the Dogger Bank and Firth of Forth offshore wind farms, as well as putting the finishing touches to two Siemens substations for the Gwynt y Môr offshore wind farm. Seventy-five per cent of the company's work was based on offshore renewable energy. Harland & Wolff was one of many UK and international companies profiting from the emergence of UK wind- and marine-generated electricity, which had been attracting significant inward investment. As the business environment became increasingly competitive the yard began to have difficulty in generating enough business to meet overhead expenses. The yard was last profitable in 2015 and the following year it had an operating loss of £6 million.
In 2018 the parent company Fred. Olsen & Co. restructured and decided to place Harland and Wolff up for sale. No buyer emerged and on 5 August 2019 the company announced that they would cease trading and entered formal administration.
Subsequently, on 1 October 2019 it was announced that the shipyard had been bought for £6 million by the London-based energy firm, InfraStrata.
In August 2020, InfraStrata also bought the dormant Appledore shipyard for £7 million. The deal will see the shipyard renamed H&W Appledore complementing the H&W Belfast shipyard by focusing on smaller ships of up to 119 metres in the shipbuilding and ship repair market.
In February 2021, InfraStrata acquired two BiFab yards, the £850,000 deal was struck for the Methil and Arnish yards, (but not the Burntisland facility). These Scottish facilities will trade under the Harland & Wolff brand and will help the company deliver on its existing strategy for a UK-wide footprint quicker than it would have done with only its two existing sites.
Archives
A collection of Harland & Wolff papers are held at Public Record Office of Northern Ireland (PRONI). Their "Introduction to the Harland and Wolff Papers" issued 2007, notes: "The Harland & Wolff archive in PRONI comprises c.2,000 files, c.200 volumes and c.16,000 documents, 1861–1987, documenting most aspects of the history of Belfast's famous shipbuilding firm". A further major archive is held at the Ulster Folk and Transport Museum (UFTM). This has a photographic collection and a ships' plans collection (i.e., technical drawings). Around 8,000 prints of Harland & Wolff-built ships covering the period 1890-1945 are held in bound volumes in the UFTM's library. However the UFTM's collection of ships' plans is not currently available to the public nor is there a copy service. Selected early ship's plans (dating from 1860 to 1882) are reproduced in a pictorial book by McCluskie (1998). Records relating to the Govan yard of Harland & Wolff plc are maintained by the Archives of the University of Glasgow (GUAS).
List of ships built
See: List of ships built by Harland and Wolff
References
Further reading
(Poems about the Belfast Shipyard)
External links
Harland and Wolff Heavy Industries
Companies based in Belfast
British companies established in 1861
Engineering companies of Northern Ireland
History of Belfast
Shipbuilding companies of the United Kingdom
RMS Titanic
1861 establishments in Ireland
British brands
British Shipbuilders
Companies that have entered administration in the United Kingdom
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210081
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20New%20Jersey
|
List of governors of New Jersey
|
The governor of New Jersey is the head of government of New Jersey and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the New Jersey Legislature, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of treason or impeachment.
There have been 55 official governors of New Jersey, 1 of whom was female, with several others acting as governor for a time. In the official numbering, governors are counted only once each, and traditionally, only elected governors were included. However, legislation signed on January 10, 2006, allowed acting governors who had served at least 180 days to be considered full governors. The law was retroactive to January 1, 2001; it therefore changed the titles of Donald DiFrancesco and Richard Codey, affecting Jim McGreevey's numbering. The current governor is Phil Murphy, who took office on January 16, 2018.
Governors
New Jersey was one of the original thirteen colonies and was admitted as a state on December 18, 1787. Prior to declaring its independence, New Jersey was a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain.
The first New Jersey State Constitution, ratified in 1776, provided that a governor be elected annually by the state legislature, the members of which were selected by the several counties. Under this constitution, the governor was president of the upper house of the legislature, then called the Legislative Council. The 1844 constitution provided for a popular vote to elect the governor, who no longer presided over the upper house of the legislature, now called the Senate. The 1844 constitution also lengthened the governor's term to three years, set to start on the third Tuesday in January following an election, and barred governors from succeeding themselves. The 1947 constitution extended terms to four years, and limits governors from being elected to more than two consecutive terms, though they can run again after a third term has passed. Joseph Bloomfield, Peter Dumont Vroom, Daniel Haines, Joel Parker, Leon Abbett, and Walter Evans Edge each served two non-consecutive stints as governor while A. Harry Moore served three non-consecutive stints. Foster McGowan Voorhees, James Fairman Fielder, and Richard Codey each served two non-consecutive stints, one as acting governor and one as official governor.
The 1776 constitution provided that the vice-president of the Legislative Council would act as governor (who was president of the Council) should that office be vacant. The 1844 constitution placed the president of the Senate first in the line of succession, as did the subsequent 1947 constitution. A constitutional amendment in 2006 created the office of lieutenant governor, to be elected on the same ticket for the same term as the governor, and if the office of governor is vacant, the lieutenant governor becomes governor. This office was first filled in 2010.
Succession
Acting governor
Prior to 2010, unlike most other states, New Jersey did not have the office of lieutenant governor. Until 2010, when the office of governor was vacant or the governor was unable to fulfill his/her duties through injury, the President of the State Senate served as the acting governor. The Senate President continued in the legislative role during his/her tenure as the state's acting chief executive, thus giving the person control over executive and legislative authority. The acting governor served either until a special election was held (which would occur if the governor died, resigned, or was removed from office with more than 16 months before the end of the term), until the governor recovered from his/her injuries, or, if the governor died, resigned, or was removed from office less than 16 months before end of the term, until the end of the term. Richard Codey served as acting governor of New Jersey until January 2006, following the resignation of Jim McGreevey in late 2004. Following the resignation of Christine Todd Whitman in 2001 to become EPA Administrator, Donald DiFrancesco assumed the acting governor's post. The position of lieutenant governor was created in the 2005 state election effective with the 2009 election.
Following Whitman's resignation and DiFrancesco's departure, John O. Bennett served as acting governor for three and a half days. During that time, he signed a few bills into law, gave a State of the State Address, and held parties at Drumthwacket, the New Jersey governor's mansion. Similarly, Richard J. Codey served as acting governor as well. Because control of the New Jersey State Senate was split, resulting in two Senate co-presidents, Codey and Bennett, each held the office of acting governor for three days. Perhaps this spectacle as much as any other factor led to the voters' decision to amend the state constitution to create the office of Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey.
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional seats, other federal offices, and other governorships held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented New Jersey. Acting governors are included only when they filled a vacancy in the office of governor, not when they acted for a time when the governor was out of state or unable to serve.
Living former governors of New Jersey
, there are 10 former governors of New Jersey and two former acting governors of New Jersey who are living, the oldest of which is Thomas Kean (served 1982–1990, born 1935). The most recent former governor to die and the most recently serving former governor to have died was Brendan Byrne (served 1974–1982), on January 4, 2018.
See also
List of New Jersey state legislatures
Notes
References
General
Biographies of New Jersey Governors, New Jersey State Library
Constitutions
Specific
External links
Office of the Governor of New Jersey
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors
|
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] |
210083
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh%20SE/30
|
Macintosh SE/30
|
The Macintosh SE/30 is a personal computer designed, manufactured and sold by Apple Computer from January 1989 to October 1991. It is the fastest of the original black-and-white compact Macintosh series.
The SE/30 has a black-and-white monitor and a single Processor Direct Slot (rather than the NuBus slots of the IIx, with which the SE/30 shares a common architecture) which supported third-party accelerators, network cards, or a display adapter. The SE/30 could expand up to 128 MB of RAM (a significant amount of RAM at the time), and included a 40 or 80 MB hard drive. It was also the first compact Mac to include a 1.44 MB high density floppy disk drive as standard (late versions of the SE had one, but earlier versions did not). The power of the SE/30 was demonstrated by its use to produce the This Week newspaper, the first colour tabloid newspaper in the UK to use new, digital pre-press technology on a personal, desktop computer. In keeping with Apple's practice, from the Apple II+ until the Power Macintosh G3 was announced, a logic board upgrade was available for US$1,699 to convert a regular SE to an SE/30. The SE would then have exactly the same specs as an SE/30, with the difference only in the floppy drive if the SE had an 800 KB drive. The set included a new front bezel to replace the original SE bezel with that of an SE/30.
This machine was followed in 1991 by the Macintosh Classic II, which, despite the same processor and clock speed, was only 60% as fast as the SE/30 due to its 16-bit data path, supported no more than 10 MB of memory, lacked an internal expansion slot, and made the Motorola 68882 FPU an optional upgrade.
Hardware
Although it uses 32-bit instructions, the SE/30 ROM, like the IIx ROM, includes some code using 24-bit addressing, rendering the ROM "32-bit dirty". This limited the actual amount of RAM that can be accessed to 8 MB under System 6.0.8. A system extension called MODE32 enables access to installed extra memory under System 6.0.8. Under System 7.0 up to System 7.5.5 the SE/30 can use up to 128 MB of RAM. Alternatively, replacing the ROM SIMM with one from a Mac IIsi or Mac IIfx makes the SE/30 "32-bit clean" and thereby enables use of up to 128 MB RAM and System 7.5 through OS 7.6.1.
A standard SE/30 can run up to System 7.5.5, since Mac OS 7.6 requires a "32-bit clean" ROM.
Additionally, the SE/30 can run A/UX, Apple's older version of Unix that was able to run Macintosh programs.
Though there was no official upgrade path for the SE/30, several third-party processor upgrades were available. A 68040 upgrade made it possible to run Mac OS 8.1, which extended the SE/30's productive life for many more years. The Micron Technology Xceed Gray-Scale 30 video card fit into the SE/30's Processor Direct Slot, enabling it to display greyscale video on its internal display, the only non-color compact Mac able to do so.
Models
Macintosh SE/30: Available in multiple configurations.
: 1 MB RAM, No hard disk
: 1 MB RAM, 40 MB hard disk
: 4 MB RAM, 80 MB hard disk
Reception
Bruce F. Webster wrote in Macworld in March 1989 that the SE/30 did not "break new ground. It does, however, establish Apple's commitment to the classic Mac product line, and it provides users with an Apple-supported alternative to either a small, slow Mac or a large, powerful one. More important, it fills a gap in the Macintosh family ... a new level of power and portability for the Macintosh community".
In a January 2009 Macworld feature commemorating the 25th anniversary of the Macintosh, three industry commentators – Adam C. Engst of TidBITS, John Gruber of Daring Fireball, and John Siracusa of Ars Technica – chose the SE/30 as their favorite Mac model of all time. "Like any great Mac," wrote Gruber, "the SE/30 wasn't just a terrific system just when it debuted; it remained eminently usable for years to come. When I think of the original Mac era, the machine in my mind is the SE/30."
The SE/30 remains popular with hobbyists, and has been described as “the best computer Apple will ever make,” with used models selling for a significant premium relative to other machines of the era. Contemporary PDS upgrades allowed an SE/30's internal monitor to be upgraded to support 256 shades of gray (the only original-design Macintosh to support such an upgrade) or a 68040 processor, and the SE/30's standard RAM limit of 128MB greatly exceeded even that of much later models such as the Color Classic and Macintosh LC II. In 2018, add-ons and software became available to add WiFi and even make the SE/30 work as a remote control for Spotify.
In popular culture
In the NBC TV series Seinfeld, Jerry has an SE/30 sitting on his desk during the first seasons. This would be the first of many Macs to occupy the desk, including a PowerBook Duo and a Twentieth Anniversary Macintosh.
In the FX series It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia, the Waitress is seen with a Macintosh SE/30 on her bedroom desk in the episode "The Gang Gives Back".
In the film Watchmen, Ozymandias has an all-black TEMPEST-shielded SE/30 on his desk.
References
SE 30
SE 30
SE 30
Computer-related introductions in 1989
sv:Macintosh SE#SE/30
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre%20fiction
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Genre fiction
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Genre fiction, also known as popular fiction, is a term used in the book-trade for fictional works written with the intent of fitting into a specific literary genre, in order to appeal to readers and fans already familiar with that genre.
A number of major literary figures have written genre fiction. John Banville publishes crime novels as Benjamin Black, and both Doris Lessing and Margaret Atwood have written science fiction. Georges Simenon, the creator of the Maigret detective novels, has been described by André Gide as "the most novelistic of novelists in French literature".
The main genres are crime, fantasy, romance, science fiction and horror—as well as perhaps Western, inspirational and historical fiction.
Genre and the marketing of fiction
In the publishing industry the term "category fiction" is often used as a synonym for genre fiction, with the categories serving as the familiar shelf headings within the fiction section of a bookstore, such as Western or mystery.
Some adult fans are embarrassed to read genre fiction in public. Some authors known for literary fiction have written novels under pseudonyms, while others have employed genre elements in literary fiction.
Romance fiction had an estimated $1.375 billion share in the US book market in 2007. Religion/inspirational literature followed with $819 million, science fiction/fantasy with $700 million, mystery with $650 million and then classic literary fiction with $466 million.
History of genres
Genre began as a classification system for ancient Greek literature. Poetry, prose, and drama had specific calculated styles that related to the theme of the story. Among the genres were the epic in poetry and tragedy and comedy for plays. In later periods other genres such as the chivalric romance, opera, and prose fiction developed.
Though the novel is often seen as a modern genre, Ian Watt, in The Rise of the Novel (1957) suggests that the novel first came into being in the early 18th century, it has also been described as possessing "a continuous and comprehensive history of about two thousand years", from the time of both Classical Greece and Rome.
The "romance" is a closely related long prose narrative. Walter Scott defined it as "a fictitious narrative in prose or verse; the interest of which turns upon marvellous and uncommon incidents", whereas in the novel "the events are accommodated to the ordinary train of human events and the modern state of society". However, many romances, including the historical romances of Scott, Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights and Herman Melville's Moby-Dick, are also frequently called novels, and Scott describes romance as a "kindred term". Romance, as defined here, should not be confused with the genre fiction love romance or romance novel. Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel: "a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo."
Genre fiction developed from various subgenres of the novel (and its "romance" version) during the nineteenth century, along with the growth of the mass-marketing of fiction in the twentieth century: this includes the gothic novel, fantasy, science fiction, adventure novel, historical romance, and the detective novel. Some scholars see precursors to the genre fiction romance novels in literary fiction of the 18th and 19th centuries, including Samuel Richardson's sentimental novel Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded (1740) and the novels of Jane Austen such as Pride and Prejudice (1813).
Critics have often regarded genre fiction as having less artistic merit than literary fiction, but this assumption been contested after the growth of fiction that blurs these boundaries and the serious study of genre fiction within universities.
The genres
The following are some of the main genres as they are used in contemporary publishing:
Crime
Crime fiction is the literary genre that fictionalises crimes, their detection, criminals, and their motives. It is usually distinguished from mainstream fiction and other genres such as historical fiction or science fiction, but the boundaries are indistinct. Crime fiction has multiple subgenres, including detective fiction (such as the whodunit), courtroom drama, hard-boiled fiction, mystery fiction, and legal thrillers. Suspense and mystery are key elements to the genre.
Fantasy
Fantasy is a genre of fiction that uses magic or other supernatural elements as a main plot element, theme, or setting. Many works within the genre take place in imaginary worlds where magic and magical creatures are common. Fantasy is generally distinguished from the genres of science fiction and horror by the expectation that it steers clear of scientific and macabre themes, respectively, though there is a great deal of overlap among the three, all of which are subgenres of speculative fiction. Fantasy works frequently feature a medieval setting.
Romance
The romance novel or "romantic novel" primarily focuses on the relationship and romantic love between two people, and must have an "emotionally satisfying and optimistic ending." There are many subgenres of the romance novel including fantasy, historical, science fiction, same sex romantic fiction, and paranormal fiction.
There is a literary fiction form of romance, which Walter Scott defined as "a fictitious narrative in prose or verse; the interest of which turns upon marvellous and uncommon incidents".
According to Romance Writers of America data, the most popular subgenres are: Romantic suspense, Contemporary romance, Historical romance, Erotic romance, Paranormal romance, Young adult romance, and Christian romance
Other: Inspirational romance, chick-lit, Contemporary series romance, women's fiction, .
Science fiction
Science fiction is a genre of speculative fiction dealing with imaginative concepts such as futuristic science and technology, space travel, time travel, faster than light travel, parallel universes and extraterrestrial life. Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a "literature of ideas". It usually eschews the supernatural, and unlike the related genre of fantasy, historically science fiction stories were intended to have at least pretense of science-based fact or theory at the time the story was created, but this connection has become tenuous or non-existent in much of science fiction.
Horror
Horror fiction aims to frighten or disgust its readers. Although many horror novels feature supernatural phenomena or monsters, it is not required. Early horror took much inspiration from Romanticism and Gothic fiction. Modern horror, such as cosmic horror and splatterpunk, tends to be less melodramatic and more explicit. Horror is often mixed with other genres.
Critical reception and controversies
A number of major literary figures have written either genre fiction books, or books that contain genre fiction elements. For instance, the novel Crime and Punishment by Fydor Dostoevsky contains elements of the crime fiction genre. Gabriel García Márquez's Love in the Time of Cholera is a romance novel. Frankenstein and Dracula are gothic horror novels. Graham Greene at the time of his death in 1991 had a reputation as a writer of both deeply serious novels on the theme of Catholicism, and of "suspense-filled stories of detection". Acclaimed during his lifetime, he was shortlisted in 1966 for the Nobel Prize for Literature. The Nobel laureate André Gide stated that Georges Simenon, best known as the creator of the fictional detective Jules Maigret, was "the most novelistic of novelists in French literature".
Stephen King was awarded the Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters; but this polarized opinions and led to debate on genre fiction's literary merit. Negative comments about genre fiction have sparked responses from Time, Salon, the Atlantic, and the Los Angeles Review of Books. Nobel laureate Doris Lessing described science fiction as "some of the best social fiction of our time", and called Greg Bear, author of Blood Music, "a great writer".
In the 2000s, the BBC defended itself against charges that it had sneered at genre fiction, while the Man Booker and National Book Awards have been criticized for ignoring genre fiction in their selection process.
Some critics have claimed that reading romance and suspense thrillers makes readers more sensitive, because these novels focus on interpersonal relationships.
19th-century British and Irish genre fiction
Sir John Barrow's descriptive 1831 account of the Mutiny on the Bounty immortalised the Royal Navy ship and her people. The legend of Dick Turpin was popularised when the 18th-century English highwayman's exploits appeared in the novel Rookwood in 1834.
Although pre-dated by John Ruskin's The King of the Golden River in 1841, the history of the modern fantasy genre is generally said to begin with George MacDonald, the influential author of The Princess and the Goblin and Phantastes (1858). William Morris was a popular English poet who also wrote several fantasy novels during the latter part of the nineteenth century. Wilkie Collins' epistolary novel The Moonstone (1868), is generally considered the first detective novel in the English language, while The Woman in White is regarded as one of the finest sensation novels. H. G. Wells's (1866–1946) writing career began in the 1890s with science fiction novels like The Time Machine (1895), and The War of the Worlds (1898) which describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians, and Wells is seen, along with Frenchman Jules Verne (1828–1905), as a major figure in the development of the science fiction genre. He also wrote realistic fiction about the lower middle class in novels like Kipps (1905) and The History of Mr Polly (1910).
Penny dreadful publications were an alternative to mainstream works, and were aimed at working class adolescents, introducing the infamous Sweeney Todd. The premier ghost story writer of the 19th century was the Irish writer Sheridan Le Fanu. His works include the macabre mystery novel Uncle Silas 1865, and his Gothic novella Carmilla 1872, tells the story of a young woman's susceptibility to the attentions of a female vampire. The vampire genre fiction began with John William Polidori's "The Vampyre" (1819). This short story was inspired by the life of Lord Byron and his poem The Giaour. An important later work is Varney the Vampire (1845), where many standard vampire conventions originated: Varney has fangs, leaves two puncture wounds on the neck of his victims, and has hypnotic powers and superhuman strength. Varney was also the first example of the "sympathetic vampire", who loathes his condition but is a slave to it. Bram Stoker, yet another Irish writer, was the author of seminal horror work Dracula and featured as its primary antagonist the vampire Count Dracula, with the vampire hunter Abraham Van Helsing his arch-enemy. Dracula has been attributed to a number of literary genres including vampire literature, horror fiction, gothic novel and invasion literature.
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes is a brilliant London-based "consulting detective", famous for his intellectual prowess, skilful use of astute observation, deductive reasoning and forensic skills to solve difficult cases. Holmes' archenemy Professor Moriarty, is widely considered to be the first true example of a supervillain, while Sherlock Holmes has become a by-word for a detective. Conan Doyle wrote four novels and fifty-six short stories featuring Holmes, from 1880 up to 1907, with a final case in 1914. All but four Conan Doyle stories are narrated by Holmes' friend, assistant, and biographer, Dr John H. Watson.
The Lost World literary genre was inspired by real stories of archaeological discoveries by imperial adventurers. H. Rider Haggard wrote one of the earliest examples, King Solomon's Mines in 1885. Contemporary European politics and diplomatic manoeuvrings informed Anthony Hope's swashbuckling Ruritanian adventure novels The Prisoner of Zenda 1894, and Rupert of Hentzau, 1898.
F. Anstey's comic novel Vice Versa 1882, sees a father and son magically switch bodies. Satirist Jerome K. Jerome's Three Men in a Boat 1889, is a humorous account of a boating holiday on the river Thames. Grossmith brothers George & Weedon's Diary of a Nobody 1892, is also considered a classic work of humour.
20th-century genre fiction
Early 20th century
Erskine Childers' The Riddle of the Sands (1903), defined the spy novel and Follett has also called it "the first modern thriller".
Emma Orczy's The Scarlet Pimpernel (1903) was originally a highly successful play, when staged in London in 1905. The novel The Scarlet Pimpernel was published soon after the play opened and was an immediate success. Orczy gained a following of readers in Britain and throughout the world. The popularity of the novel, which recounted the adventures of a member of the English gentry in the French Revolutionary period, encouraged her to write a number of sequels for her "reckless daredevil" over the next 35 years. The play was performed to great acclaim in France, Italy, Germany and Spain, while the novel was translated into 16 languages. Subsequently, the story has been adapted for television, film, a musical and other media. Baroness Orczy's character The Old Man in the Corner (1908) was among the earliest armchair detectives to be created. Her short stories about Lady Molly of Scotland Yard (1910) were an early example of a female detective as main character.
John Buchan wrote the adventure novels on Prester John (1910) and four novels telling the adventures of Richard Hannay, of which the first, The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915) is the best known. Novels featuring a gentleman adventurer were popular in the interwar period, exemplified by the series of H. C. McNeile with Bulldog Drummond (1920), and Leslie Charteris, whose many books chronicled the adventures of Simon Templar, alias The Saint.
The medievalist scholar M. R. James wrote highly regarded ghost stories (1904–1928) in contemporary settings.
This was called the Golden Age of Detective Fiction. Agatha Christie, a writer of crime novels, short stories and plays, is best remembered for her 80 detective novels and her successful West End theatre plays. Christie's works, particularly those featuring the detectives Hercule Poirot or Miss Marple, made her one of the most important and innovative writers in the development of the genre. Her most influential novels include The Murder of Roger Ackroyd (1926); one of her most controversial novels, its innovative twist ending had a significant impact on the genre), Murder on the Orient Express (1934), Death on the Nile (1937) and And Then There Were None (1939). Other female writers dubbed "Queens of crime" include Dorothy L. Sayers (gentleman detective, Lord Peter Wimsey), Margery Allingham (Albert Campion, supposedly created as a parody of Sayers' Wimsey,) and New Zealander Ngaio Marsh (Roderick Alleyn). Georgette Heyer recreated the historical romance genre since 1921, and also wrote detective fiction (1932–1953).
A major work of science fiction, from the early 20th century, is A Voyage to Arcturus by Scottish writer David Lindsay, first published in 1920. It combines fantasy, philosophy, and science fiction in an exploration of the nature of good and evil and their relationship with existence. It has been described by critic and philosopher Colin Wilson as the "greatest novel of the twentieth century", and was a central influence on C. S. Lewis's Space Trilogy. Also J. R. R. Tolkien said he read the book "with avidity", and praised it as a work of philosophy, religion, and morality. It was made widely available in paperback form when published as one of the precursor volumes to the Ballantine Adult Fantasy series in 1968.
From the early 1930s to late 1940s, an informal literary discussion group associated with the English faculty at the University of Oxford, were the "Inklings". Its leading members were the major fantasy novelists; C. S. Lewis and J. R. R. Tolkien. Lewis is known for The Screwtape Letters (1942), The Chronicles of Narnia (1950–1956) and The Space Trilogy (1938–1945), while Tolkien is best known as the author of The Hobbit (1937), The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955), and The Silmarillion (1977).
Later 20th-century
In thriller writing, Ian Fleming created the character James Bond 007 in January 1952, while on holiday at his Jamaican estate, Goldeneye. Fleming chronicled Bond's adventures in twelve novels, including Casino Royale (1953), Live and Let Die (1954), Dr. No (1958), Goldfinger (1959), Thunderball (1961), The Spy Who Loved Me (1962), and nine short story works.
In contrast to the larger-than-life spy capers of Bond, John le Carré was an author of spy novels who depicted a shadowy world of espionage and counter-espionage, and his best known novel The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (1963), is often regarded as one of the greatest in the genre. Frederick Forsyth writes thriller novels, including The Day of the Jackal (1971), The Odessa File (1972), The Dogs of War (1974) and The Fourth Protocol (1984). Ken Follett writes spy thrillers, his first success being Eye of the Needle (1978), followed by The Key to Rebecca (1980), as well as historical novels, notably The Pillars of the Earth (1989), and its sequel World Without End (2007). Elleston Trevor is remembered for his 1964 adventure story The Flight of the Phoenix, while the thriller novelist Philip Nicholson is best known for Man on Fire. Peter George's Red Alert (1958), is a Cold War thriller.
War novels include Alistair MacLean thriller's The Guns of Navarone (1957), Where Eagles Dare (1968), and Jack Higgins' The Eagle Has Landed (1975). Patrick O'Brian's nautical historical novels feature the Aubrey–Maturin series set in the Royal Navy, the first being Master and Commander (1969).
Ronald Welch's Carnegie Medal winning novel Knight Crusader is set in the 12th century and gives a depiction of the Third Crusade, featuring the Christian leader and King of England Richard the Lionheart.
In crime fiction, the murder mysteries of Ruth Rendell and P. D. James are popular.
Nigel Tranter wrote historical novels of celebrated Scottish warriors; Robert the Bruce in The Bruce Trilogy, and William Wallace in The Wallace (1975), works noted by academics for their accuracy.
Science fiction
John Wyndham wrote post-apocalyptic science fiction, his most notable works being The Day of the Triffids (1951), and The Midwich Cuckoos (1957). George Langelaan's The Fly (1957), is a science fiction short story. Science fiction novelist Arthur C. Clarke's 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), is based on his various short stories, particularly The Sentinel (1951). His other major novels include Rendezvous with Rama (1972), and The Fountains of Paradise (1979). Brian Aldiss is Clarke's contemporary.
Michael Moorcock (born 1939) is a writer, primarily of science fiction and fantasy, who has also published a number of literary novels. He was involved with the 'New Wave' of science fiction writers "part of whose aim was to invest the genre with literary merit" Similarly J. G. Ballard (born 1930) "became known in the 1960s as the most prominent of the 'New Wave' science fiction writers". A later major figure in science fiction was Iain M. Banks who created a fictional anarchist, socialist, and utopian society named "The Culture". The novels that feature in it include Excession (1996), and Inversions (1998). He also published mainstream novels, including the highly controversial The Wasp Factory in 1984. Nobel prize winner Doris Lessing also published a sequence of five science fiction novels the Canopus in Argos: Archives between 1979 and 1983.
Fantasy
Terry Pratchett is best known for his Discworld series of comic fantasy novels, that begins with The Colour of Magic (1983), and includes Mort (1987), Hogfather (1996), and Night Watch (2002). Pratchett's other most notable work is the 1990 novel Good Omens.
Philip Pullman's fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials comprises Northern Lights (1995), The Subtle Knife (1997), and The Amber Spyglass (2000). It follows the coming-of-age of two children as they wander through a series of parallel universes against a backdrop of epic events.
Neil Gaiman is a writer of science fiction, fantasy short stories and novels, whose notable works include Stardust (1998), Coraline (2002), The Graveyard Book (2009), and The Sandman series.
Alan Moore's works include Watchmen, V for Vendetta set in a dystopian future UK, The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, and From Hell, speculating on the identity and motives of Jack the Ripper.
Douglas Adams wrote the five-volume science fiction comedy trilogy The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, and also wrote the humorous fantasy detective novel Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency.
Horror
Clive Barker horror novels include The Hellbound Heart
Age categories
Most genres of fiction may also be segmented by the age of the intended reader:
Children's fiction
Young adult fiction
New adult fiction
Adult fiction
See also
References
Further reading
Forbes, Jamie M. (1998). "Fiction Dictionary". In Herman, Jeff, Writer's Guide to Book Editors, Publishers, and Literary Agents 1999–2000, pp. 861–871. Rocklin, California: Prima Publishing.
Gelder, Ken (2004). Popular Fiction: The Logics and Practices of a Literary Field. London and New York: Routledge.
Schneider-Mayerson, Matthew (2010). Popular Fiction Studies: The Advantages of a New Field." Studies in Popular Culture, vol. 33, no 1 (2010): 21-35
Sutherland, John (1981). Bestsellers: Popular Fiction of the 1970s. London and Boston: Routledge.
Swirski, Peter (2005). From Lowbrow to Nobrow''. Montreal, London: McGill-Queen's University Press.
Fiction
Genres
Theme
Literary theory
|
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] |
210088
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh%20IIci
|
Macintosh IIci
|
The Macintosh IIci is a personal computer designed, manufactured, and sold by Apple Computer, Inc. from September 1989 to February 1993. It is a more powerful version of the Macintosh IIcx, released earlier that year, and shares the same compact case design. With three expansion slots, the IIci improved upon the IIcx's 16 MHz Motorola 68030 CPU and 68882 FPU, replacing them with 25 MHz versions of these chips.
The Macintosh Quadra 700 was introduced at the end of 1991 as Apple's mainstream workstation product to replace the IIci, albeit at a significantly higher price point: by this time, Apple authorized resellers were offering entry-level IIci systems for US$4,000 or less, whereas the Quadra 700 entered the market above US$6,000. Because of this, Apple continued to sell the IIci until early 1993 when the less expensive Quadra 650 and comparably-priced Quadra 800 were introduced.
Hardware
The IIci introduced several technical and architectural enhancements, some of which were important in preparing for System 7 (which was then called the Blue project) and would influence future Macintoshes, though some of them came at the cost of compatibility:
a new, 32-bit clean ROM with built-in 32-bit QuickDraw that consists of two parts: one part that is the same across all Macintoshes, and another area (called the overpatch area) that is specific to each Macintosh.
discontiguous physical memory that is mapped into a contiguous memory area by the MMU. Some of the System 7 virtual memory functions had to be added to the ROM to support getting the physical address of the memory.
an optional 32KB Level 2 cache. The cache card, which fit into a dedicated slot on the motherboard, was later included in all systems at no charge. Third-party cards offered up to 128KB, but the added cache size yielded little benefit over the base card.
a first for a modular Macintosh — onboard graphics for an external display. This freed one of the system's three NuBus slots. However, because the integrated graphics used the system's RAM for its frame buffer, some users used a NuBus graphics card to reclaim the lost memory. Also, it was popular to install faster memory in the first bank of SIMM slots, as this is the bank used by the video subsystem.
The IIci was one of the most popular and longest-lived Macintosh models of the 20th century. For much of its lifespan, it was the business "workhorse" of the Macintosh line. For a short time in 1989, before the introduction of the 40 MHz Macintosh IIfx, the IIci was the fastest Mac available.
The IIci came with either a 40- or an 80-megabyte hard disk.
Upgradability
Possible upgrades include 25, 33, 40 or 50 MHz Daystar 68030 boards, a Quadra 700 motherboard, a couple of different third-party 68040 upgrades, and two PowerPC 601 upgrade cards running at either 66 MHz or 100 MHz, exclusively from Daystar Digital, which was bought by XLR8, which still holds the Daystar product logo and name for its line of products. 68030 and 68040 upgrades were also made by Sonnet, Diimo and other companies.
When the Quadra 700 was released in 1991, a logic board upgrade was made available for the IIci to upgrade it to the performance level of the Quadra.
Easter eggs
An easter egg exists in the IIci ROM. If the system date is set to September 20, 1989 (the machine's release date) and the keys are held during boot time, an image of the development team will be displayed.
The signatures of the product design team can be seen in the molded plastic of the case if one removes the motherboard.
References
Macintosh Buyer's Guide, vol. 7 no. 3 (Summer 1990)
External links
Macintosh IIci technical specification at apple.com
ci
IIci
IIci
IIci
Computer-related introductions in 1989
|
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210091
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive%20space
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Reflexive space
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In the area of mathematics known as functional analysis, a reflexive space is a locally convex topological vector space (TVS) for which the canonical evaluation map from into its bidual (which is the strong dual of the strong dual of ) is an isomorphism of TVSs.
Since a normable TVS is reflexive if and only if it is semi-reflexive, every normed space (and so in particular, every Banach space) is reflexive if and only if the canonical evaluation map from into its bidual is surjective;
in this case the normed space is necessarily also a Banach space.
In 1951, R. C. James discovered a Banach space, now known as James' space, that is reflexive but is nevertheless isometrically isomorphic to its bidual (any such isomorphism is thus necessarily the canonical evaluation map).
Reflexive spaces play an important role in the general theory of locally convex TVSs and in the theory of Banach spaces in particular. Hilbert spaces are prominent examples of reflexive Banach spaces. Reflexive Banach spaces are often characterized by their geometric properties.
Definition
Definition of the bidual
Suppose that is a topological vector space (TVS) over the field (which is either the real or complex numbers) whose continuous dual space, separates points on (that is, for any there exists some such that ).
Let and both denote the strong dual of which is the vector space of continuous linear functionals on endowed with the topology of uniform convergence on bounded subsets of ;
this topology is also called the strong dual topology and it is the "default" topology placed on a continuous dual space (unless another topology is specified).
If is a normed space, then the strong dual of is the continuous dual space with its usual norm topology.
The bidual of denoted by is the strong dual of ; that is, it is the space
If is a normed space, then is the continuous dual space of the Banach space with its usual norm topology.
Definitions of the evaluation map and reflexive spaces
For any let be defined by where is a linear map called the evaluation map at ;
since is necessarily continuous, it follows that
Since separates points on the linear map defined by is injective where this map is called the evaluation map or the canonical map.
Call semi-reflexive if is bijective (or equivalently, surjective) and we call reflexive if in addition is an isomorphism of TVSs.
A normable space is reflexive if and only if it is semi-reflexive or equivalently, if and only if the evaluation map is surjective.
Reflexive Banach spaces
Suppose is a normed vector space over the number field or (the real numbers or the complex numbers), with a norm Consider its dual normed space that consists of all continuous linear functionals and is equipped with the dual norm defined by
The dual is a normed space (a Banach space to be precise), and its dual normed space is called bidual space for The bidual consists of all continuous linear functionals and is equipped with the norm dual to Each vector generates a scalar function by the formula:
and is a continuous linear functional on that is, One obtains in this way a map
called evaluation map, that is linear. It follows from the Hahn–Banach theorem that is injective and preserves norms:
that is, maps isometrically onto its image in Furthermore, the image is closed in but it need not be equal to
A normed space is called reflexive if it satisfies the following equivalent conditions:
the evaluation map is surjective,
the evaluation map is an isometric isomorphism of normed spaces,
the evaluation map is an isomorphism of normed spaces.
A reflexive space is a Banach space, since is then isometric to the Banach space
Remark
A Banach space is reflexive if it is linearly isometric to its bidual under this canonical embedding James' space is an example of a non-reflexive space which is linearly isometric to its bidual. Furthermore, the image of James' space under the canonical embedding has codimension one in its bidual.
A Banach space is called quasi-reflexive (of order ) if the quotient has finite dimension
Examples
Every finite-dimensional normed space is reflexive, simply because in this case, the space, its dual and bidual all have the same linear dimension, hence the linear injection from the definition is bijective, by the rank–nullity theorem.
The Banach space of scalar sequences tending to 0 at infinity, equipped with the supremum norm, is not reflexive. It follows from the general properties below that and are not reflexive, because is isomorphic to the dual of and is isomorphic to the dual of
All Hilbert spaces are reflexive, as are the Lp spaces for More generally: all uniformly convex Banach spaces are reflexive according to the Milman–Pettis theorem. The and spaces are not reflexive (unless they are finite dimensional, which happens for example when is a measure on a finite set). Likewise, the Banach space of continuous functions on is not reflexive.
The spaces of operators in the Schatten class on a Hilbert space are uniformly convex, hence reflexive, when When the dimension of is infinite, then (the trace class) is not reflexive, because it contains a subspace isomorphic to and (the bounded linear operators on ) is not reflexive, because it contains a subspace isomorphic to In both cases, the subspace can be chosen to be the operators diagonal with respect to a given orthonormal basis of
Properties
If a Banach space is isomorphic to a reflexive Banach space then is reflexive.
Every closed linear subspace of a reflexive space is reflexive. The continuous dual of a reflexive space is reflexive. Every quotient of a reflexive space by a closed subspace is reflexive.
Let be a Banach space. The following are equivalent.
The space is reflexive.
The continuous dual of is reflexive.
The closed unit ball of is compact in the weak topology. (This is known as Kakutani's Theorem.)
Every bounded sequence in has a weakly convergent subsequence.
Every continuous linear functional on attains its supremum on the closed unit ball in (James' theorem)
Since norm-closed convex subsets in a Banach space are weakly closed,
it follows from the third property that closed bounded convex subsets of a reflexive space are weakly compact. Thus, for every decreasing sequence of non-empty closed bounded convex subsets of the intersection is non-empty. As a consequence, every continuous convex function on a closed convex subset of such that the set
is non-empty and bounded for some real number attains its minimum value on
The promised geometric property of reflexive Banach spaces is the following: if is a closed non-empty convex subset of the reflexive space then for every there exists a such that minimizes the distance between and points of This follows from the preceding result for convex functions, applied to Note that while the minimal distance between and is uniquely defined by the point is not. The closest point is unique when is uniformly convex.
A reflexive Banach space is separable if and only if its continuous dual is separable. This follows from the fact that for every normed space separability of the continuous dual implies separability of
Super-reflexive space
Informally, a super-reflexive Banach space has the following property: given an arbitrary Banach space if all finite-dimensional subspaces of have a very similar copy sitting somewhere in then must be reflexive. By this definition, the space itself must be reflexive. As an elementary example, every Banach space whose two dimensional subspaces are isometric to subspaces of satisfies the parallelogram law, hence
is a Hilbert space, therefore is reflexive. So is super-reflexive.
The formal definition does not use isometries, but almost isometries. A Banach space is finitely representable
in a Banach space if for every finite-dimensional subspace of and every there is a subspace of such that the multiplicative Banach–Mazur distance between and satisfies
A Banach space finitely representable in is a Hilbert space. Every Banach space is finitely representable in The Lp space is finitely representable in
A Banach space is super-reflexive if all Banach spaces finitely representable in are reflexive, or, in other words, if no non-reflexive space is finitely representable in The notion of ultraproduct of a family of Banach spaces
allows for a concise definition: the Banach space is super-reflexive when its ultrapowers are reflexive.
James proved that a space is super-reflexive if and only if its dual is super-reflexive.
Finite trees in Banach spaces
One of James' characterizations of super-reflexivity uses the growth of separated trees.
The description of a vectorial binary tree begins with a rooted binary tree labeled by vectors: a tree of height in a Banach space is a family of vectors of that can be organized in successive levels, starting with level 0 that consists of a single vector the root of the tree, followed, for by a family of 2 vectors forming level
that are the children of vertices of level In addition to the tree structure, it is required here that each vector that is an internal vertex of the tree be the midpoint between its two children:
Given a positive real number the tree is said to be -separated if for every internal vertex, the two children are -separated in the given space norm:
Theorem.
The Banach space is super-reflexive if and only if for every there is a number such that every -separated tree contained in the unit ball of has height less than
Uniformly convex spaces are super-reflexive.
Let be uniformly convex, with modulus of convexity and let be a real number in By the properties of the modulus of convexity, a -separated tree of height contained in the unit ball, must have all points of level contained in the ball of radius By induction, it follows that all points of level are contained in the ball of radius
If the height was so large that
then the two points of the first level could not be -separated, contrary to the assumption. This gives the required bound function of only.
Using the tree-characterization, Enflo proved
that super-reflexive Banach spaces admit an equivalent uniformly convex norm. Trees in a Banach space are a special instance of vector-valued martingales. Adding techniques from scalar martingale theory, Pisier improved Enflo's result by showing
that a super-reflexive space admits an equivalent uniformly convex norm for which the modulus of convexity satisfies, for some constant and some real number
Reflexive locally convex spaces
The notion of reflexive Banach space can be generalized to topological vector spaces in the following way.
Let be a topological vector space over a number field (of real numbers or complex numbers ). Consider its strong dual space which consists of all continuous linear functionals and is equipped with the strong topology that is,, the topology of uniform convergence on bounded subsets in The space is a topological vector space (to be more precise, a locally convex space), so one can consider its strong dual space which is called the strong bidual space for It consists of all continuous linear functionals and is equipped with the strong topology Each vector generates a map by the following formula:
This is a continuous linear functional on that is,, This induces a map called the evaluation map:
This map is linear. If is locally convex, from the Hahn–Banach theorem it follows that is injective and open (that is, for each neighbourhood of zero in there is a neighbourhood of zero in such that ). But it can be non-surjective and/or discontinuous.
A locally convex space is called
semi-reflexive if the evaluation map is surjective (hence bijective),
reflexive if the evaluation map is surjective and continuous (in this case is an isomorphism of topological vector spaces).
Semireflexive spaces
Characterizations
If is a Hausdorff locally convex space then the following are equivalent:
is semireflexive;
The weak topology on had the Heine-Borel property (that is, for the weak topology every closed and bounded subset of is weakly compact).
If linear form on that continuous when has the strong dual topology, then it is continuous when has the weak topology;
is barreled;
with the weak topology is quasi-complete.
Characterizations of reflexive spaces
If is a Hausdorff locally convex space then the following are equivalent:
is reflexive;
is semireflexive and infrabarreled;
is semireflexive and barreled;
is barreled and the weak topology on had the Heine-Borel property (that is, for the weak topology every closed and bounded subset of is weakly compact).
is semireflexive and quasibarrelled.
If is a normed space then the following are equivalent:
is reflexive;
The closed unit ball is compact when has the weak topology
is a Banach space and is reflexive.
Every sequence with for all of nonempty closed bounded convex subsets of has nonempty intersection.
Sufficient conditions
Normed spaces
A normed space that is semireflexive is a reflexive Banach space.
A closed vector subspace of a reflexive Banach space is reflexive.
Let be a Banach space and a closed vector subspace of If two of and are reflexive then they all are. This is why reflexivity is referred to as a .
Topological vector spaces
If a barreled locally convex Hausdorff space is semireflexive then it is reflexive.
The strong dual of a reflexive space is reflexive.Every Montel space is reflexive. And the strong dual of a Montel space is a Montel space (and thus is reflexive).
Properties
A locally convex Hausdorff reflexive space is barrelled.
If is a normed space then is an isometry onto a closed subspace of This isometry can be expressed by:
Suppose that is a normed space and is its bidual equipped with the bidual norm. Then the unit ball of
is dense in the unit ball
of for the weak topology
Examples
Every finite-dimensional Hausdorff topological vector space is reflexive, because is bijective by linear algebra, and because there is a unique Hausdorff vector space topology on a finite dimensional vector space.
A normed space is reflexive as a normed space if and only if it is reflexive as a locally convex space. This follows from the fact that for a normed space its dual normed space coincides as a topological vector space with the strong dual space As a corollary, the evaluation map coincides with the evaluation map and the following conditions become equivalent:
is a reflexive normed space (that is, is an isomorphism of normed spaces),
is a reflexive locally convex space (that is, is an isomorphism of topological vector spaces),
is a semi-reflexive locally convex space (that is, is surjective).
A (somewhat artificial) example of a semi-reflexive space that is not reflexive is obtained as follows: let be an infinite dimensional reflexive Banach space, and let be the topological vector space that is, the vector space equipped with the weak topology. Then the continuous dual of and are the same set of functionals, and bounded subsets of (that is, weakly bounded subsets of ) are norm-bounded, hence the Banach space is the strong dual of Since is reflexive, the continuous dual of is equal to the image of under the canonical embedding but the topology on (the weak topology of ) is not the strong topology that is equal to the norm topology of
Montel spaces are reflexive locally convex topological vector spaces. In particular, the following functional spaces frequently used in functional analysis are reflexive locally convex spaces:
the space of smooth functions on arbitrary (real) smooth manifold and its strong dual space of distributions with compact support on
the space of smooth functions with compact support on arbitrary (real) smooth manifold and its strong dual space of distributions on
the space of holomorphic functions on arbitrary complex manifold and its strong dual space of analytic functionals on
the Schwartz space on and its strong dual space of tempered distributions on
Counter-examples
There exists a non-reflexive locally convex TVS whose strong dual is reflexive.
Other types of reflexivity
A stereotype space, or polar reflexive space, is defined as a topological vector space (TVS) satisfying a similar condition of reflexivity, but with the topology of uniform convergence on totally bounded subsets (instead of bounded subsets) in the definition of dual space More precisely, a TVS is called polar reflexive or stereotype if the evaluation map into the second dual space
is an isomorphism of topological vector spaces. Here the stereotype dual space is defined as the space of continuous linear functionals endowed with the topology of uniform convergence on totally bounded sets in (and the stereotype second dual space is the space dual to in the same sense).
In contrast to the classical reflexive spaces the class Ste of stereotype spaces is very wide (it contains, in particular, all Fréchet spaces and thus, all Banach spaces), it forms a closed monoidal category, and it admits standard operations (defined inside of Ste) of constructing new spaces, like taking closed subspaces, quotient spaces, projective and injective limits, the space of operators, tensor products, etc. The category Ste have applications in duality theory for non-commutative groups.
Similarly, one can replace the class of bounded (and totally bounded) subsets in in the definition of dual space by other classes of subsets, for example, by the class of compact subsets in – the spaces defined by the corresponding reflexivity condition are called , and they form an even wider class than Ste, but it is not clear (2012), whether this class forms a category with properties similar to those of Ste.
See also
A generalization which has some of the properties of reflexive spaces and includes many spaces of practical importance is the concept of Grothendieck space.
Notes
Citations
References
.
.
Banach spaces
Duality theories
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanz%C5%8D%20Nosaka
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Sanzō Nosaka
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was a founder of the Japanese Communist Party (JCP) who worked for periods as a writer, editor, labor organizer, communist agent, politician, and university professor. He was the son of a wealthy Japanese merchant, and attended the prestigious Keio University. While in university, Nosaka became interested in social movements, and joined a moderate labor organization after graduation, working as a research staff member, and as a writer and editor of the organization's magazine. He traveled to Britain in 1919 to study political economy, where he deepened his studies of Marxism and became a confirmed communist. Nosaka was a founding member of the Communist Party of Great Britain, but his activity within British communist circles led to him being deported from Britain in 1921.
After leaving Britain, Nosaka traveled through the Soviet Union (USSR). He returned to Japan in 1922, where he co-founded the Japanese Communist Party (JCP). Nosaka became a labor organizer, but was arrested twice by the Japanese government for his activities. After being released from prison a second time, Nosaka secretly returned to the USSR in 1931, where he became an agent of the Comintern. He traveled to the West Coast of the United States, where he worked as a spy from 1934 to 1938.
After leaving the United States, Nosaka worked in China from 1940 to 1945, supporting the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) by encouraging and recruiting captured Japanese soldiers to support and fight for the Chinese communists against the Imperial Japanese Army, and coordinating a spy network that operated throughout Japanese-occupied China. After the surrender of Japan in 1945, Nosaka returned to Japan with hundreds of other Japanese communists, where he led the Japanese Communist Party during the occupation of Japan.
Nosaka attempted to brand the JCP as a "lovable" populist party supporting Japan's peaceful transition to socialism, but his strategy was criticized within the party and within the Soviet Union. During the Korean War the JCP temporarily endorsed violence, and Nosaka disappeared from public life and went underground. He re-emerged to lead the JCP again in 1955, after which he attempted to disrupt the US-Japan Security Treaty by organizing public demonstrations, but he generally supported the JCP's role as a peaceful party. In 1958 Nosaka became Chairman of the JCP, a position he held until retirement at the age of 90, after which he was declared Honorary Chairman. Nosaka joined the faculty of Keio University, and he was widely idolized among left-wing intellectuals until shortly before his death, when the fall of the Soviet Union exposed controversial aspects of his relationship with Stalin's Communist regime.
Biography
Early life
Sanzō Nosaka was the son of a prosperous Japanese merchant and was raised in a bourgeois environment. As a young man Nosaka was known for his fashionable taste in clothing and for the large dog that often accompanied him in public. He was quiet, serious, studious, introverted, and more comfortable in libraries than at public demonstrations. After his secondary education, Nosaka attended Keio University, which was then considered a "rich boys school". At Keio, Nosaka became interested in the international labor movement, an interest that was largely supported by one of his professors, Kiichi Horie. Nosaka decided to write his senior thesis on the moderate labor organization founded by Bunji Suzuki, "Yuaikai" ("The Friendly Society"). To research his thesis, Nosaka contacted Yuaikai'''s head office, and acquainted himself with its senior leaders: Suzuki initially mistook Nosaka for a salesman the first time they met, but eventually grew fond of Nosaka. When Nosaka graduated from Keio, in 1915, he joined Yuaikai and worked for the organization as a research staff member and as an editor of the organization's journal, Rodo Oyobi Sangyo (Labour and Industry).
Nosaka became interested in communism after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. As a greater volume of leftist literature entered Japan from the West, Nosaka's political orientation moved farther from the center. The first Western texts on revolutionary social theory available in Japan were mostly on anarchism, but Nosaka also enjoyed Edward Bellamy's utopian novel, Looking Backward. In 1918-1919 Nosaka read an English copy of The Communist Manifesto brought to Japan by his friend, Shinzo Koizumi. After reading The Communist Manifesto, Nosaka embraced the theories of Marxism.
Nosaka announced his intentions to go abroad to study social theory in the November 1918 issue of Rodo Oyobi Sangyo. He sailed out of Kobe harbor on July 7, 1919, and arrived in London on August 27. After his arrival, Nosaka studied political economy at London University. Like many British intellectuals at the time, Nosaka deepened his studies of Marxism, and became a confirmed communist at the university. While in London Nosaka became active in communist circles. He affiliated himself with notable trade union leaders active in London, and attended the September 8–13, 1919 Glasgow Trade Union Congress as a correspondent for Rodo Oyobi Sangyo. Nosaka was a founding member of the Communist Party of Great Britain in 1920, and attended the Party's first session as a representative from London. Nosaka's activities within the Communist Party brought him to the attention of Scotland Yard, and Nosaka was deported from Britain in 1921. After he left Britain, Nosaka traveled through Europe to the newly formed Soviet Union. In Russia, with the help of friendly contacts in the communist hierarchy, Nosaka became influential within the Communist Party. Nosaka was suspected of being either a British or Japanese agent; but, because of his contacts among high-ranking Finnish and Russian leaders, Nosaka was never purged. Nosaka wrote A Brief Review of the Labour Movement in Japan. It was published by the International Council of Trade and Industrial Unions in 1921
After attending the Far Eastern People's Conference in the Soviet Union, Nosaka returned to Japan in 1922, and helped found the Japanese Communist Party (JCP) that same year. Nosaka was more secretive about his relationship with the Communist Party than he had been in Britain, and kept his membership a secret from Bunji Suzuki and other moderate labour leaders. After his return, Nosaka worked as a trade unionist and editor of the JCP's official newspaper, Musansha Shimbun.
Because of his activities within the Communist Party (which was illegal in Japan), Nosaka, like many communists in Japan, was arrested (twice in his case), interrogated, and tortured by the Kenpeitai, but he was released after short periods both times. Nosaka was first arrested in 1923, and released within a year. After his release, Nosaka became more active within the Japanese labor movement. In March 1928, the Japanese police began a campaign to harass and destroy the JCP, beginning with the May 15 Incident. After his second arrest in 1929, Nosaka spent two years in jail. He was released in 1931 on the grounds of illness. The short lengths of Nosaka's arrests aroused suspicion among other Japanese communists that Nosaka had given important information to the Japanese secret police, but these suspicions were never acted upon.
Comintern agent
Upon his release, Nosaka secretly returned to the Soviet Union, arriving in Moscow in March 1931. While there, Nosaka served as a representative of the JCP, and worked as an executive member of the Comintern. While in Moscow Nosaka helped to draft the "1932 Thesis", which became the guiding document of the JCP until 1946. Most of his colleagues active in the JCP, who were not able to go abroad, were subsequently arrested by the kempeitai by the fall of 1932.Ariyoshi, Beechert, and Beechert p. 124
One of Nosaka's friends was Kenzo Yamamoto, a legendary Japanese communist who had been in the Soviet Union with his common-law wife, Matsu, since 1928. Yamamoto had a reputation as a great womanizer; and, when rumors circulated that Yamamoto was engaged in an affair with Nosaka's wife, Ryu, Nosaka wrote a confidential letter to the NKVD (dated February 22, 1939) indicating that he believed Yamamoto and his wife were likely Japanese spies in the pay of the Kenpeitai. On Stalin's orders, both Yamamoto and Matsu were arrested as spies. A firing squad executed Yamamoto, and Matsu died in a gulag. Both Yamamoto and his wife were formally rehabilitated after their deaths by Nikita Khrushchev on May 23, 1956, recognizing the lack of any evidence that the two were actually spies. In his autobiography, Nosaka later wrote that he had tried to save Yamamoto's life.
In 1934, Nosaka secretly traveled to the West Coast of the United States, where he became involved in intelligence work on behalf of the International Liaison Department of the Comintern against the Imperial Japanese government. Nosaka's activities included disseminating information to communists still active in Japan, infiltrating and making contact with the Japanese communities active in the United States, and establishing a number of communist front organizations in Seattle, Los Angeles, and other cities on the West Coast. Nosaka worked to gain funding from the Comintern for his activities, and attempted to have other Japanese Communists secretly relocated to America. He planned to recruit American and Japanese agents to send to Yokohama to establish a cell that would operate as a communist front organization. Because the records from this period are incomplete, historians cannot be certain to what extent Nosaka's efforts in America were successful. Nosaka worked as a Comintern agent in America until 1938, when he returned to Moscow. In 1940, the Comintern ordered Nosaka to aid communist forces in China.
In May 1943, Nosaka was the representative of the JCP in the case of the dissolution of the Comintern.
Activities in China
From March 1940 to the end of 1945, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Nosaka resided at the Chinese Red Army base in Yan'an, in Shaanxi Province, where he headed the Japanese People's Emancipation League (JPEL). The JPEL engaged in the "re-education" of numerous Japanese prisoners of war (POWs) and created propaganda on behalf of the Chinese Communists. Japanese troops captured by the Communists were then used by the Communists in various civilian and military roles, and were especially valued because their level of technical expertise was generally greater than that of most Chinese soldiers. "Re-educated" Japanese troops were instrumental in a number of Communist victories after World War II, including the 1949 Pingjin Campaign, in which most of the artillery fielded by the Communists was manned by Japanese gunners. In general, the method of "re-education" devised and employed by Nosaka was highly effective.
Initially, the Red Army was a purely guerrilla force without the facilities to imprison POWs. The policy of the Eighth Route Army, the main communist force active during World War II, was to interrogate prisoners and then release them. After reports surfaced that the Japanese were punishing Japanese prisoners after they returned, the Red Army's policy gradually changed to one of retraining POWs, and the communists began to implement this policy after Nosaka arrived in Yan'an. By the time of its war with China, the Japanese army was educating its officers and common soldiers to die rather than surrender. Injured soldiers were easily captured, and made up the bulk of Japanese POWs. Captured Japanese believed that they would be killed, but were instead fed and clothed, and began to develop a rapport with their captors.
Besides Nosaka's regimen of psychological indoctrination, there were several reasons that Japanese POWs chose to join the Chinese communists. Communist guerrillas took care to develop an early rapport with their prisoners by treating them well. Captured Japanese soldiers were generally moved when they learned of the terrible conditions the war inflicted on the Chinese people, a perspective that they had not been exposed to before their capture. Closer to the end of the war, the growing possibility of defeat created anxiety among the Japanese army. Because of the Japanese military's policy to never surrender, Japanese soldiers never received any training about how to act as POWs: upon returning to Japanese ranks, many would face disgrace, punishment, and starvation. Many Japanese soldiers committed suicide after their capture, but those who chose to live generally came to sympathize with the Chinese. The Japanese army was aware of the existence of Nosaka's Communist Japanese soldiers, and feared the phenomena out of proportion to their actual threat. Koji Ariyoshi, an American who met Nosaka in Yan'an wrote that Nosaka was "the Japanese national who undoubtedly contributed the most in the war against Japanese militarism". The Japanese army attempted to use numerous spies and assassins in order to eliminate Nosaka (who used the name "Okano Susumu" for the duration of the war), but were unsuccessful. Nosaka maintained a network of agents throughout Japanese-occupied China, which he used to gather information about events within the Japanese Empire and about the war.
From 1940 to 1943, Nosaka's presence in China was kept a secret. Under a Chinese name, Lin Zhe, he directed the work of the Research Office of the Japanese Problem. His work with the Research Office in Yan'an brought Yan'an's intelligence information about Japan up to date. Nosaka collected newspapers and other publications from Japan. To research the enemy, Nosaka and his crew took care to analyze current events in Japan and China, which they did by stocking Japanese newspapers, magazines, journals, and diaries that were purchased or seized on the battlefield.
Nosaka's Japanese "prisoner converts" fought freely for the Chinese communists once their re-education was complete. In Yan'an, the Japanese lived normal lives without guards, owned a cooperative store, and printed their own news bulletins and propaganda. Visiting American officers used Nosaka's Japanese soldiers to critique and improve their own methods of anti-Japanese psychological warfare. Shortly after Japan's surrender in 1945, Nosaka began to march with approximately 200 other Japanese Communists across northern China. They arrived at the coast after picking up hundreds of other Japanese along the way. Demanding immediate repatriation from the first Americans they found, they declared their intention to return and work "for the democratization of Japan and the establishment of peace in the Far East". Although there are no records of the exact number of Japanese "re-educated" by Nosaka who elected to remain in Communist-occupied China after 1945, it is estimated that "the number must have been considerable".
Nosaka's contributions to the eventual victory of the Red Army were not forgotten by the leaders he had worked with in China. In 1965, on the twentieth anniversary of Japan's defeat, Nosaka was publicly praised by name by the highest-ranking general in China at the time, Lin Biao.
Postwar
Japanese political career
After the World War II, Nosaka's return to Japan was facilitated by E. Herbert Norman, the Canadian representative to the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, who may also have been a Soviet spy. Before returning to Japan, Nosaka gained Stalin's endorsement for the leadership of the Japanese Communist Party. Nosaka's re-entry to Japan was also aided by the American diplomat John S. Service, who had a history of being friendly to Chinese Communists. Before returning to Japan, Nosaka advised Joseph Stalin to retain the position of the Japanese Emperor, but to replace Emperor Hirohito with Crown Prince Akihito if the Communists ever gained control of Japan.
Nosaka returned to Japan in January 1946, and received a hero's welcome by the JCP. He returned to China as a recognized protege of Mao Zedong, and enjoyed the informal recognition as a "roving ambassador" for Japanese communism. After his return to Japan, Nosaka worked to organize Japanese communists. In the general elections of 1946, he and four other members of the JCP were elected to the Diet, and the party received 4% of the popular vote.
The JCP made progress infiltrating Japanese labor associations and socialist parties; and, in the general elections of 1949, the JCP gained 10% of the popular vote. In May 1950, shortly after the United States entered the Korean War with the support of the United Nations, the Cominform criticized the JCP's gradualist policies, and directed the party to actively disrupt the American occupation.
Throughout the 1950s, Nosaka's efforts were challenged by American occupying forces, as part of a broader effort to suppress leftists. In 1949, a Communist-led general railroad strike led to several attempted derailments, and Sadanori Shimoyama, the president of Japanese National Railways, was found lying across a set of train tracks in Tokyo with his arms and legs cut off. These and other incidents of terrorism were received poorly by the Japanese public, and cost the JCP most of its popular support. The American commander of occupied Japan, Douglas MacArthur, declined to outlaw the JCP, but held the Party's leaders responsible, and, in June 1950, ejected Nosaka and the other Communist legislators who were elected in 1946. After losing his seat in the Diet, Nosaka disappeared from public life and was forced to work underground.
After Nosaka went underground, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency reported that he had temporarily returned to China. His strategy of "peaceful revolution" was criticized by the Cominform, and the Party temporarily endorsed violent revolution until 1952. After working covertly for several years, Nosaka re-emerged in 1955 as the First Secretary of the JCP. Nosaka was briefly arrested after he resurfaced, but quickly released. In 1958, Nosaka became the chairman of the JCP's Central Committee. He played a part in organizing the Anpo Protests in 1960 against the revised US-Japan Security Treaty. In May 1960, as the protests were reaching their height, Nosaka published a lengthy essay in the Communist journal Zen'ei titled "We Will Not Accept the New Security Treaty." These massive demonstrations forced the American president, Dwight Eisenhower, to cancel a visit to Japan, and forced the Japanese Premier, Nobusuke Kishi, to resign, but failed to achieve their main goal of seriously disrupting US-Japan relations. In Japanese public opinion, the demonstrations were received as a national embarrassment, and the JCP received only 3% of the popular vote in the 1960 elections. After the bill was passed in spite of opposition, Inejiro Asanuma, the leader of the Japanese Socialist Party that was among the opposition, held a rally for an upcoming election, during which Otoya Yamaguchi, a far-right activist, rushed onto the stage and fatally stabbed Asanuma twice in the stomach with a wakizashi while Asanuma was taking part in a debate. After his arrest, Yamaguchi told police that he had hoped to assassinate Nosaka as well. In Nov 1963, Nosaka survived an assassination attempt while making a speech in Osaka. The perpetrator was 22-year-old Masahiro Nakao, a member of the rightist group Dai Nippon Gokuku Dan. Nakao, armed with a dagger, leaped on a platform where Nosaka was giving his speech. Nakao was subdued by Party members who turned him over to the police.
Nosaka attempted to keep the JCP neutral during the Sino-Soviet Split of the 1960s, though the CIA interpreted that Nosaka's party remained somewhat more friendly with the Chinese. On Nosaka's seventieth birthday party in 1962, Nosaka received extravagant praise from Beijing. Deng Xiaoping praised Nosaka as an "outstanding fighter of the Japanese people and comrade-in-arms of the Chinese people". The Soviets sent Nosaka a matter-of-fact confirmation of his status within the JCP, and within a month sent the JCP another letter scolding the Party for not adequately supporting Soviet positions. The Soviets' measured praise of Nosaka was consistent with earlier Cominform criticism of Nosaka's political theories, which advocated a peaceful transition into communism.
After his re-entry into public life in 1955, Nosaka was elected to the House of Councillors, a post that he held until 1977. Nosaka joined the faculty of Keio University, and was one of many prominent communist intellectuals active in Japanese academic institutions in his time. Nosaka remained the JCP's chairman from 1958 to 1982, when he stepped down at the age of 90 and took the role of "Honorary Chairman".
Scandal
On September 27, 1992, two Journalists working for the magazine Shukan Bunshun, Akira Kato and Shun'ichi Kobayashi, publicly revealed evidence of Nosaka's involvement in the deaths of Kenzo Yamamoto and his wife. On a trip to Moscow, Kobayashi and Kato had managed to purchase a number of KGB documents, which had been kept secret since the Stalinist era. Among these documents was the letter that Nosaka had written in 1939 denouncing Yamamoto and his wife.
The revelations of Nosaka's involvement in Yamamoto's death shocked the JCP, already reduced to six seats in the Diet after the 1991 elections. Akahata ("Red Flag"), a prominent communist newspaper, sent a team of journalists to Moscow to investigate the allegations, and they confirmed the authenticity of the documents.
After the allegations against Nosaka became widely known, he checked himself into Yoyogi Hospital in Tokyo (a common tactic of Japanese politicians facing scandal). When a team of investigators sent by the JCP visited him, Nosaka confessed that the letter was his, but refused to discuss the matter further. The JCP ordered Nosaka to be present for a general Party meeting on December 27, 1992. After some deliberation, the party that Nosaka helped found expelled him by unanimous vote. The Party newspaper reported that Nosaka, when asked if he had any reply to the charges against him, would only state: "I have nothing to say".
One year after being expelled from the Japanese Communist Party, Sanzō Nosaka died in his home of old age. Outside the JCP, Nosaka was remembered for his gentle demeanor, good manners, and conservative sense of style, "just like a British gentleman". He was 101 years old.
Legacy
The Chinese Documentary series "Today In The History Of Anti-Japanese War" dedicated an episode to Sanzō Nosaka.
Sanzō Nosaka was featured in the "International Friends during the Anti-Japanese War". A show organized by the Beijing People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries. The show "features 160 pictures of 39 foreign friends who worked together with the Chinese people and made contributions to China's independence and freedom."
Family
Yonago Nosaka was the foster daughter of Sanzō Nosaka. She attended the 60th anniversary of the victory of the War against Fascism. She received a medal as a daughter of Sanzō Nosaka.
Names
Nosaka used the pen names of Okano and Lin Zhe.
See also
Japanese dissidence during the Shōwa period
Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan
Wataru Kaji
Hideo Noda
Hotsumi Ozaki
Works
Footnotes
References
Ariyoshi, Koji, Alice M. Beechert, and Edward D. Beechert. From Kona to Yenan: The Political Memoirs of Koji Ariyoshi. United States of America: Biography Research Center. 2000. . Retrieved on August 14, 2011.
Associated Press. "Obituaries: Sanzo Nosaka; Japanese Communist". Los Angeles Times. November 17, 1993. Retrieved August 14, 2011.
"Sanzo Nosaka Ousted Communist". The Baltimore Sun. November 15, 1993. Retrieved September 25, 2011.
"Nosaka Sanzo". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2011. Retrieved August 14, 2011.
Gillin, Donald G. and Etter, Charles. "Staying On: Japanese Soldiers and Civilians in China, 1945-1949." The Journal of Asian Studies. Vol. 42, No. 3, May 1983. Retrieved on February 23, 2011.
Inoue, Prof. Hisashi. "CCP/Eighth Route Army’s Policies Toward POWs and the Japanese Anti-War Movement in China". Harvard University. June 2002. Retrieved August 17, 2011.
"Spy Against Japan: Letters Shed New Light on Nosaka's Espionage Acts". The Japan Times Online. October 22, 2000. Retrieved August 16, 2011.
Kifner, John. "John Service, a Purged 'China Hand,' Dies at 89". The New York Times. February 4, 1999. Retrieved December 7, 2011.
Kirkup, James. "Obituary: Sanzo Nosaka". The Independent. November 16, 1993. Retrieved August 14, 2011.
Lin Biao. "Build a People’s Army of a New Type". Long Live the Victory of People’s War! Foreign Languages Press. September 3, 1965. Retrieved August 17, 2011.
Lucas, Dean. "By the Sword". Famous Pictures: The Magazine. July 7, 2010. Retrieved June 1, 2013.
Miwa, Yoshiro & Ramseyer, J. Mark "The Good Occupation". Harvard: John M. Olin Center for Law, Economics, and Business. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Law School. May 2005. Retrieved December 7, 2011.
Pace, Eric. "Sanzo Nosaka, 101, Communist in Japan Ejected by the Party". The New York Times. November 15, 1993. Retrieved August 14, 2011.
Scalapino, Robert A. The Japanese Communist Movement: 1920-1966. London, England: Cambridge University Press. 1967. Retrieved December 8, 2011.
Taylor, John. The Japanese Communist Party: 1955-1963. CIA/RSS. March 20, 1964. Retrieved August 16, 2011.
Whitney, Maj. Gen. Courtney. "Lifting Up a Beaten People" LIFE Magazine. Chicago: TIME. August 22, 1955. Retrieved August 16, 2011.
Universalium. "Nosaka, Sanso". Academic Dictionaries and Encyclopedias''. 2010. Retrieved August 14, 2011.
Further reading
External links
1892 births
1993 deaths
Comintern people
Japanese centenarians
Men centenarians
Japanese Communist Party politicians
Japanese revolutionaries
Keio University alumni
Keio University faculty
Members of the House of Councillors (Japan)
Members of the House of Representatives (Empire of Japan)
Members of the House of Representatives (Japan)
Politicians from Yamaguchi Prefecture
People of the Second Sino-Japanese War
Japanese spies for the Soviet Union
Japanese expatriates in the Soviet Union
Political party founders
Japanese anti-fascists
Communist Party of Great Britain members
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] |
210093
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrait
|
Portrait
|
A portrait is a painting, photograph, sculpture, or other artistic representation of a person, in which the face and its expressions are predominant, though in a full-length one the body will take up more space. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person. For this reason, in photography a portrait is generally not a snapshot, but a composed image of a person in a still position. A portrait often shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer, in order to most successfully engage the subject with the viewer.
History
Prehistorical portraiture
Plastered human skulls were reconstructed human skulls that were made in the ancient Levant between 9000 and 6000 BC in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period. They represent some of the oldest forms of art in the Middle East and demonstrate that the prehistoric population took great care in burying their ancestors below their homes. The skulls denote some of the earliest sculptural examples of portraiture in the history of art.
Historical portraiture
Most early representations that are clearly intended to show an individual are of rulers, and tend to follow idealizing artistic conventions, rather than the individual features of the subject's body, though when there is no other evidence as to the ruler's appearance the degree of idealization can be hard to assess. Nonetheless, many subjects, such as Akhenaten and some other Egyptian pharaohs, can be recognised by their distinctive features. The 28 surviving rather small statues of Gudea, ruler of Lagash in Sumeria between c. 2144–2124 BC, show a consistent appearance with some individuality, although it is sometimes disputed that these count as portraits.
Some of the earliest surviving painted portraits of people who were not rulers are the Greco-Roman funeral portraits that survived in the dry climate of Egypt's Fayum district. These are almost the only paintings from the classical world that have survived, apart from frescos, though many sculptures and portraits on coins have fared better. Although the appearance of the figures differs considerably, they are considerably idealized, and all show relatively young people, making it uncertain whether they were painted from life.
The art of the portrait flourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of an idealized symbol of what that person looked like. (Compare the portraits of Roman Emperors Constantine I and Theodosius I at their entries.) In the Europe of the Early Middle Ages representations of individuals are mostly generalized. True portraits of the outward appearance of individuals re-emerged in the late Middle Ages, in tomb monuments, donor portraits, miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and then panel paintings.
Moche culture of Peru was one of the few ancient civilizations which produced portraits. These works accurately represent anatomical features in great detail. The individuals portrayed would have been recognizable without the need for other symbols or a written reference to their names. The individuals portrayed were members of the ruling elite, priests, warriors and even distinguished artisans. They were represented during several stages of their lives. The faces of gods were also depicted. To date, no portraits of women have been found. There is particular emphasis on the representation of the details of headdresses, hairstyles, body adornment and face painting.
One of the best-known portraits in the Western world is Leonardo da Vinci's painting titled Mona Lisa, which is a painting of Lisa del Giocondo. What has been claimed as the world's oldest known portrait was found in 2006 in the Vilhonneur grotto near Angoulême and is thought to be 27,000 years old.
Self-portraiture
When the artist creates a portrait of themself, it is called a self-portrait. Identifiable examples become numerous in the late Middle Ages. But if the definition is extended, the first was by the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten's sculptor Bak, who carved a representation of himself and his wife Taheri c. 1365 BC. However, it seems likely that self-portraits go back to the cave paintings, the earliest representational art, and literature records several classical examples that are now lost.
Official portrait
The official portrait is a photographic production of record and dissemination of important personalities, notably kings, presidents and governors. It is usually decorated with official colors and symbols such as flag, presidential stripes and coat of arms of countries, states or municipalities. There is also connotation as an image of events, products and meetings.
Portrait photography
Portrait photography is a popular commercial industry all over the world. Many people enjoy having professionally made family portraits to hang in their homes, or special portraits to commemorate certain events, such as graduations or weddings.
Since the dawn of photography, people have made portraits. The popularity of the daguerreotype in the middle of the 19th century was due in large part to the demand for inexpensive portraiture. Studios sprang up in cities around the world, some cranking out more than 500 plates a day. The style of these early works reflected the technical challenges associated with 30-second exposure times and the painterly aesthetic of the time. Subjects were generally seated against plain backgrounds and lit with the soft light of an overhead window and whatever else could be reflected with mirrors.
As photographic techniques developed, an intrepid group of photographers took their talents out of the studio and onto battlefields, across oceans and into remote wilderness. William Shew's Daguerreotype Saloon, Roger Fenton's Photographic Van and Mathew Brady's What-is-it? wagon set the standards for making portraits and other photographs in the field.
Some photographers took the technique to other countries. Augustus Washington moved to Monrovia, Liberia from Hartford, Connecticut and created daguerreotype portraits for many political leaders for the country.
Politics
In politics, portraits of the leader are often used as a symbol of the state. In most countries it is common protocol for a portrait of the head of state to appear in important government buildings. Excessive use of a leader's portrait, such as that done of Joseph Stalin, Adolf Hitler, or Mao Zedong, can be indicative of a personality cult.
Literature
In literature the term portrait refers to a written description or analysis of a person or thing. A written portrait often gives deep insight, and offers an analysis that goes far beyond the superficial. For example, the American author Patricia Cornwell wrote a best-selling book entitled Portrait of a Killer about the personality, background, and possible motivations of Jack the Ripper, as well as the media coverage of his murders, and the subsequent police investigation of his crimes.
However, in literature a portrait of a character is a subtle combination of fact and fiction, exploring the individual psychology of the character in the wider context of their environment. When the subject of the narrative is a historical figure, then the writer is free to create a compelling and dramatic portrait of the person that draws on imaginative invention for verisimilitude. An example is Hilary Mantel's Wolf Hall (2009) which, while acknowledging the work of the historian Mary Robertson for background information, imagines an intimate portrait of Thomas Cromwell and his intense relationship with Henry VIII at a critical time in English history. It could be argued that in literature any portrait is a discreet assembly of facts, anecdotes, and author's insights. Plutarch's Parallel Lives, written in the 2nd century AD, offer a prime example of historical literary portraits, as a source of information about the individuals and their times.
Painted portraits can also play a role in literature. These can be fictional portraits, such as that of Dorian Gray in the eponymous novel by Oscar Wilde. But sometimes also real portraits feature in literature. An example is the portrait of Richard III that plays a role in Josephine Tey's The Daughter of Time.
See also
Caricature
Environmental portrait
Head shot
Hidden faces
Hierarchy of genres
Painting the Century: 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900–2000
Portrait painting
Self-portrait
Royal Society of Portrait Painters
References
External links
Digitaler Portraitindex
National Portrait Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution
National Portrait Gallery London
National Portrait Gallery Moscow
Painting The Century 101 Portrait Masterpieces
Jeanne Ivy's Self-Portrait Page - What Artists Find When They Search in the Mirror.
Portrait Detectives - Fun interactive introduction to the analysis of portraiture.
Reportret - A gallery of reconstructions of missing portraits from world history.
Royal Society of Portrait Painters
Portrait
Visual arts genres
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210098
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunter-gatherer
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Hunter-gatherer
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A hunter-gatherer is a human living a lifestyle in which most or all food is obtained by foraging (gathering edible wild plants) and hunting (pursuing and killing of wild animals), in the same way that most natural omnivores do. Hunter-gatherer societies stand in contrast to the more sedentary agricultural societies, which rely mainly on cultivating crops and raising domesticated animals for food production, although the boundaries between the two ways of living are not completely distinct.
Hunting and gathering was humanity's original and most enduring successful competitive adaptation in the natural world, occupying at least 90 percent of human history. Following the invention of agriculture, hunter-gatherers who did not change were displaced or conquered by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world. However, the division between the two is no longer presumed to be a fundamental marker in human history, and there is not necessarily a hierarchy which places agriculture and industry at the top as a goal to be reached.
Only a few contemporary societies are classified as hunter-gatherers, and many supplement their foraging activity with horticulture or pastoralism.
Archaeological evidence
Hunting and gathering was presumably the subsistence strategy employed by human societies beginning some 1.8 million years ago, by Homo erectus, and from its appearance some 200,000 years ago by Homo sapiens. Prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived in groups that consisted of several families resulting in a size of a few dozen people. It remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the Mesolithic period some 10,000 years ago, and after this was replaced only gradually with the spread of the Neolithic Revolution.
During the 1970s, Lewis Binford suggested that early humans obtained food via scavenging, not hunting. Early humans in the Lower Paleolithic lived in forests and woodlands, which allowed them to collect seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits besides scavenging. Rather than killing large animals for meat, according to this view, they used carcasses of such animals that had either been killed by predators or that had died of natural causes. Archaeological and genetic data suggest that the source populations of Paleolithic hunter-gatherers survived in sparsely wooded areas and dispersed through areas of high primary productivity while avoiding dense forest cover.
According to the endurance running hypothesis, long-distance running as in persistence hunting, a method still practiced by some hunter-gatherer groups in modern times, was likely the driving evolutionary force leading to the evolution of certain human characteristics. This hypothesis does not necessarily contradict the scavenging hypothesis: both subsistence strategies could have been in use sequentially, alternating or even simultaneously.
Starting at the transition between the Middle to Upper Paleolithic period, some 80,000 to 70,000 years ago, some hunter-gatherer bands began to specialize, concentrating on hunting a smaller selection of (often larger) game and gathering a smaller selection of food. This specialization of work also involved creating specialized tools such as fishing nets, hooks, and bone harpoons. The transition into the subsequent Neolithic period is chiefly defined by the unprecedented development of nascent agricultural practices. Agriculture originated as early as 12,000 years ago in the Middle East, and also independently originated in many other areas including Southeast Asia, parts of Africa, Mesoamerica, and the Andes.
Forest gardening was also being used as a food production system in various parts of the world over this period. Forest gardens had originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions. In the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species were identified, protected, and improved, whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior introduced species were selected and incorporated into the gardens.
Many groups continued their hunter-gatherer ways of life, although their numbers have continually declined, partly as a result of pressure from growing agricultural and pastoral communities. Many of them reside in the developing world, either in arid regions or tropical forests. Areas that were formerly available to hunter-gatherers were—and continue to be—encroached upon by the settlements of agriculturalists. In the resulting competition for land use, hunter-gatherer societies either adopted these practices or moved to other areas. In addition, Jared Diamond has blamed a decline in the availability of wild foods, particularly animal resources. In North and South America, for example, most large mammal species had gone extinct by the end of the Pleistocene—according to Diamond, because of overexploitation by humans, one of several explanations offered for the Quaternary extinction event there.
As the number and size of agricultural societies increased, they expanded into lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers. This process of agriculture-driven expansion led to the development of the first forms of government in agricultural centers, such as the Fertile Crescent, Ancient India, Ancient China, Olmec, Sub-Saharan Africa and Norte Chico.
As a result of the now near-universal human reliance upon agriculture, the few contemporary hunter-gatherer cultures usually live in areas unsuitable for agricultural use.
Archaeologists can use evidence such as stone tool use to track hunter-gatherer activities, including mobility.
Ethnobotany is the field of study whereby food plants of various peoples and tribes world wide are documented.
Common characteristics
Habitat and population
Most hunter-gatherers are nomadic or semi-nomadic and live in temporary settlements. Mobile communities typically construct shelters using impermanent building materials, or they may use natural rock shelters, where they are available.
Some hunter-gatherer cultures, such as the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and the Yakuts, lived in particularly rich environments that allowed them to be sedentary or semi-sedentary. Amongst the earliest example of permanent settlements is the Osipovka culture (14–10.3 thousand years ago), which lived in a fish-rich environment that allowed them to be able to stay at the same place all year. One group, the Chumash, had the highest recorded population density of any known hunter and gatherer society with an estimated 21.6 persons per square mile.
Social and economic structure
Hunter-gatherers tend to have an egalitarian social ethos, although settled hunter-gatherers (for example, those inhabiting the Northwest Coast of North America) are an exception to this rule. For example, the San people or "Bushmen" of southern Africa have social customs that strongly discourage hoarding and displays of authority, and encourage economic equality via sharing of food and material goods. Karl Marx defined this socio-economic system as primitive communism.
The egalitarianism typical of human hunters and gatherers is never total, but is striking when viewed in an evolutionary context. One of humanity's two closest primate relatives, chimpanzees, are anything but egalitarian, forming themselves into hierarchies that are often dominated by an alpha male. So great is the contrast with human hunter-gatherers that it is widely argued by paleoanthropologists that resistance to being dominated was a key factor driving the evolutionary emergence of human consciousness, language, kinship and social organization.
Most anthropologists believe that hunter-gatherers do not have permanent leaders; instead, the person taking the initiative at any one time depends on the task being performed.
Within a particular tribe or people, hunter-gatherers are connected by both kinship and band (residence/domestic group) membership. Postmarital residence among hunter-gatherers tends to be matrilocal, at least initially. Young mothers can enjoy childcare support from their own mothers, who continue living nearby in the same camp. The systems of kinship and descent among human hunter-gatherers were relatively flexible, although there is evidence that early human kinship in general tended to be matrilineal.
The conventional assumption has been that women did most of the gathering, while men concentrated on big game hunting. An illustrative account is Megan Biesele's study of the southern African Ju/'hoan, 'Women Like Meat'. A recent study suggests that the sexual division of labor was the fundamental organizational innovation that gave Homo sapiens the edge over the Neanderthals, allowing our ancestors to migrate from Africa and spread across the globe.
This view was challenged by feminist anthropologists in the 1970s who pointed out that anthropology had historically overly emphasized men. The stereotype of "man the hunter, women the gatherer" may have described a common division of labor, but men in hunter-gatherer societies still help with the gathering, especially when women are tired or sick, or the hunt is unsuccessful. Women hunted with different weapons. Women hunted with dogs or blowpipes and poison darts. Women could trap animals too, using nets or baskets to snare crabs and fish.
A 1986 study found most hunter-gatherers have a symbolically structured sexual division of labor. However, it is true that in a small minority of cases, women hunted the same kind of quarry as men, sometimes doing so alongside men. Among the Ju'/hoansi people of Namibia, women help men track down quarry. In the Australian Martu, both women and men participate in hunting but with a different style of gendered division; while men are willing to take more risks to hunt bigger animals such as kangaroo for political gain as a form of "competitive magnanimity", women target smaller game such as lizards to feed their children and promote working relationships with other women, preferring a more constant supply of sustenance.
9000-year-old remains of a female hunter along with a toolkit of projectile points and animal processing implements were discovered at the Andean site of Wilamaya Patjxa, Puno District in Peru.
At the 1966 "Man the Hunter" conference, anthropologists Richard Borshay Lee and Irven DeVore suggested that egalitarianism was one of several central characteristics of nomadic hunting and gathering societies because mobility requires minimization of material possessions throughout a population. Therefore, no surplus of resources can be accumulated by any single member. Other characteristics Lee and DeVore proposed were flux in territorial boundaries as well as in demographic composition.
At the same conference, Marshall Sahlins presented a paper entitled, "Notes on the Original Affluent Society", in which he challenged the popular view of hunter-gatherers lives as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short", as Thomas Hobbes had put it in 1651.
According to Sahlins, ethnographic data indicated that hunter-gatherers worked far fewer hours and enjoyed more leisure than typical members of industrial society, and they still ate well. Their "affluence" came from the idea that they were satisfied with very little in the material sense. Later, in 1996, Ross Sackett performed two distinct meta-analyses to empirically test Sahlin's view. The first of these studies looked at 102 time-allocation studies, and the second one analyzed 207 energy-expenditure studies. Sackett found that adults in foraging and horticultural societies work, on average, about 6.5 hours a day, whereas people in agricultural and industrial societies work on average 8.8 hours a day.
Researchers Gurven and Kaplan have estimated that around 57% of hunter-gatherers reach the age of 15. Of those that reach 15 years of age, 64% continue to live to or past the age of 45. This places the life expectancy between 21 and 37 years. They further estimate that 70% of deaths are due to diseases of some kind, 20% of deaths come from violence or accidents and 10% are due to degenerative diseases.
Mutual exchange and sharing of resources (i.e., meat gained from hunting) are important in the economic systems of hunter-gatherer societies. Therefore, these societies can be described as based on a "gift economy."
A 2010 paper argued that while hunter-gatherers may have lower levels of inequality than modern, industrialised societies, that does not mean inequality does not exist. The researchers estimated that the average Gini coefficient amongst hunter-gatherers was 0.25, equivalent to the country of Denmark in 2007. In addition, wealth transmission across generations was also a feature of hunter-gatherers, meaning that "wealthy" hunter-gatherers, within the context of their communities, were more likely to have children as wealthy as them than poorer members of their community and indeed hunter-gatherer societies demonstrate an understanding of social stratification. Thus while the researchers agreed that hunter-gatherers were more egalitarian than modern societies, prior characterisations of them living in a state of egalitarian primitive communism were inaccurate and misleading.
Variability
Hunter-gatherer societies manifest significant variability, depending on climate zone/life zone, available technology, and societal structure. Archaeologists examine hunter-gatherer tool kits to measure variability across different groups. Collard et al. (2005) found temperature to be the only statistically significant factor to impact hunter-gatherer tool kits. Using temperature as a proxy for risk, Collard et al.'s results suggest that environments with extreme temperatures pose a threat to hunter-gatherer systems significant enough to warrant increased variability of tools. These results support Torrence's (1989) theory that the risk of failure is indeed the most important factor in determining the structure of hunter-gatherer toolkits.
One way to divide hunter-gatherer groups is by their return systems.
James Woodburn uses the categories "immediate return" hunter-gatherers for egalitarianism and "delayed return" for nonegalitarian.
Immediate return foragers consume their food within a day or two after they procure it.
Delayed return foragers store the surplus food (Kelly, 31).
Hunting-gathering was the common human mode of subsistence throughout the Paleolithic, but the observation of current-day hunters and gatherers does not necessarily reflect Paleolithic societies; the hunter-gatherer cultures examined today have had much contact with modern civilization and do not represent "pristine" conditions found in uncontacted peoples.
The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture is not necessarily a one-way process.
It has been argued that hunting and gathering represents an adaptive strategy, which may still be exploited, if necessary, when environmental change causes extreme food stress for agriculturalists. In fact, it is sometimes difficult to draw a clear line between agricultural and hunter-gatherer societies, especially since the widespread adoption of agriculture and resulting cultural diffusion that has occurred in the last 10,000 years.
Nowadays, some scholars speak about the existence within cultural evolution of the so-called mixed-economies or dual economies which imply a combination of food procurement (gathering and hunting) and food production or when foragers have trade relations with farmers.
Modern and revisionist perspectives
Some of the theorists who advocate this "revisionist" critique imply that, because the "pure hunter-gatherer" disappeared not long after colonial (or even agricultural) contact began, nothing meaningful can be learned about prehistoric hunter-gatherers from studies of modern ones (Kelly, 24–29; see Wilmsen)
Lee and Guenther have rejected most of the arguments put forward by Wilmsen. Doron Shultziner and others have argued that we can learn a lot about the life-styles of prehistoric hunter-gatherers from studies of contemporary hunter-gatherers—especially their impressive levels of egalitarianism.
There are nevertheless a number of contemporary hunter-gatherer peoples who, after contact with other societies, continue their ways of life with very little external influence or with modifications that perpetuate the viability of hunting and gathering in the 21st century. One such group is the Pila Nguru (Spinifex people) of Western Australia, whose habitat in the Great Victoria Desert has proved unsuitable for European agriculture (and even pastoralism). Another are the Sentinelese of the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean, who live on North Sentinel Island and to date have maintained their independent existence, repelling attempts to engage with and contact them. The Savanna Pumé of Venezuela also live in an area that is inhospitable to large scale economic exploitation and maintain their subsistence based on hunting and gathering, as well as incorporating a small amount of manioc horticulture that supplements, but is not replacing, reliance on foraged foods.
Americas
Evidence suggests big-game hunter-gatherers crossed the Bering Strait from Asia (Eurasia) into North America over a land bridge (Beringia), that existed between 47,000–14,000 years ago. Around 18,500–15,500 years ago, these hunter-gatherers are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America.
Hunter-gatherers would eventually flourish all over the Americas, primarily based in the Great Plains of the United States and Canada, with offshoots as far east as the Gaspé Peninsula on the Atlantic coast, and as far south as Chile, Monte Verde. American hunter-gatherers were spread over a wide geographical area, thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the individual groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making knapping styles and progress identifiable. This early Paleo-Indian period lithic reduction tool adaptations have been found across the Americas, utilized by highly mobile bands consisting of approximately 25 to 50 members of an extended family.
The Archaic period in the Americas saw a changing environment featuring a warmer more arid climate and the disappearance of the last megafauna. The majority of population groups at this time were still highly mobile hunter-gatherers. Individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally, however, and thus archaeologists have identified a pattern of increasing regional generalization, as seen with the Southwest, Arctic, Poverty Point, Dalton and Plano traditions. These regional adaptations would become the norm, with reliance less on hunting and gathering, with a more mixed economy of small game, fish, seasonally wild vegetables and harvested plant foods.
Scholars like Kat Anderson have suggested that the term Hunter-gatherer is reductive because it implies that Native Americans never stayed in one place long enough to affect the environment around them. However, many of the landscapes in the Americas today are due to the way the Natives of that area originally tended the land. Anderson specifically looks at California Natives and the practices they utilized to tame their land. Some of these practices included pruning, weeding, sowing, burning, and selective harvesting. These practices allowed them to take from the environment in a sustainable manner for centuries.
California Indians view the idea of wilderness in a negative light. They believe that wilderness is the result of humans losing their knowledge of the natural world and how to care for it. When the earth turns back to wilderness after the connection with humans is lost then the plants and animals will retreat and hide from the humans.
See also
Beachcombing
Nomads
Cro-Magnon
Homo floresiensis
Human migration
Human history
Indigenous peoples
Neanderthals
Neolithic Revolution
Origins of society
Paleolithic
Prehistoric music
Primitive skills
Stateless society
Tribe
Clan
Caucasian Hunter-Gatherer
Modern hunter-gatherer groups
Aeta people
Aka people
Andamanese people
Angu people
Awá-Guajá people
Batek people
Efé people
Fuegians
Hadza people
Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast
Inuit people
Iñupiat
Jarawa people (Andaman Islands)
Kawahiva people
Maniq people
Mbuti people
Mlabri people
Moriori people
Nukak people
Onge people
Penan people
Pirahã people
Raute people
San people
Semang people
Sentinelese people
Tjimba people
Yaruro (Pumé) people
Ye'kuana people
Yupik people
Social movements
Anarcho-primitivism, which strives for the abolishment of civilization and the return to a life in the wild.
Freeganism involves gathering of food (and sometimes other materials) in the context of an urban or suburban environment.
Gleaning involves the gathering of food that traditional farmers have left behind in their fields.
Paleolithic diet, which strives to achieve a diet similar to that of ancient hunter-gatherer groups.
Paleolithic lifestyle, which extends the paleolithic diet to other elements of the hunter-gatherer way of life, such as movement and contact with nature
References
Further reading
Books
(Reviewed in The Montreal Review)
Articles
External links
International Society for Hunter Gatherer Research (ISHGR)
History of the Conference on Hunting and Gathering Societies (CHAGS)
The Association of Foragers: An international association for teachers of hunter-gatherer skills.
A wiki dedicated to the scientific study of the diversity of foraging societies without recreating myths
Anthropological categories of peoples
Nomads
Stone Age
Human evolution
Economic systems
Foraging
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210101
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willem%20Mengelberg
|
Willem Mengelberg
|
Joseph Wilhelm Mengelberg (28 March 1871 – 21 March 1951) was a Dutch conductor, famous for his performances of Beethoven, Brahms, Mahler and Strauss with the Concertgebouw Orchestra in Amsterdam. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest symphonic conductors of the 20th century.
Biography
Mengelberg was the fourth of fifteen children of German-born parents in Utrecht, Netherlands. His father was the well-known Dutch-German sculptor Friedrich Wilhelm Mengelberg. After studies in Utrecht with the composer and conductor Richard Hol, the composer Anton Averkamp (1861–1934) and the violinist Henri Wilhelm Petri (1856–1914), he went on to study piano and composition at the Cologne conservatory (now the Hochschule für Musik Köln), where his principal teachers were Franz Wüllner, Isidor Seiss and Adolf Jensen.
In 1891, when he was 20, he was chosen as General Music Director of the city of Lucerne Switzerland, where he conducted an orchestra and a choir, directed a music school, taught piano lessons and continued to compose.
Four years later, in 1895, when he was 24, Mengelberg was appointed principal conductor of the Concertgebouw Orchestra, a position he held until 1945.
In this position, Mengelberg was to premiere a number of masterpieces. For example, in 1898, Richard Strauss dedicated his tone poem Ein Heldenleben to Mengelberg and the Concertgebouw Orchestra, telling journalists that he "had at last found an orchestra capable of playing all passages, so that he no longer needed to feel embarrassed when writing difficulties." Among other notable premieres were those on 29 March 1939, when Mengelberg conducted the premiere of the Violin Concerto no. 2 by Béla Bartók with violinist Zoltán Székely, and on 23 November 1939, he premiered the Peacock Variations of Zoltán Kodály.
Mengelberg founded the long-standing Mahler tradition of the Concertgebouw. He met and befriended Gustav Mahler in 1902, and invited Mahler to conduct his Third Symphony in Amsterdam in 1903, and on 23 October 1904 Mahler led the orchestra in his Fourth Symphony twice in one concert, with no other work on the program. Mahler wrote to his wife Alma Mahler that this programming idea (presumably Mengelberg's) was a "stroke of genius." Mahler regularly visited The Netherlands to introduce his work to Dutch audiences, including also his First, Fifth, and Seventh Symphonies, as well as Das Klagende Lied and Kindertotenlieder. Mahler edited some of his symphonies while rehearsing them with the Concertgebouw Orchestra, making them sound better for the acoustics of the Concertgebouw. This is perhaps one reason that this concert hall and its orchestra are renowned for their Mahler tradition. In 1920, Mengelberg instituted a Mahler Festival in which all the composer's music was performed in nine concerts.
Mengelberg also founded, in 1899, the annual Concertgebouw tradition of performing the St. Matthew Passion of Johann Sebastian Bach on Palm Sunday.
One criticism of Mengelberg's influence over Dutch musical life, most clearly articulated by the composer Willem Pijper, was that Mengelberg did not particularly champion Dutch composers during his Concertgebouw tenure, especially after 1920.
Mengelberg was music director of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra from 1922 to 1928. Beginning in January 1926, he shared the podium with Arturo Toscanini; Toscanini biographer Harvey Sachs has documented that Mengelberg and Toscanini clashed over interpretations of music and even rehearsal techniques, creating division among the musicians that eventually resulted in Mengelberg leaving the orchestra. Mengelberg made a series of recordings with the Philharmonic for both the Victor Talking Machine Company and Brunswick Records, including a 1928 electrical recording of Richard Strauss' Ein Heldenleben that was later reissued on LP and CD. One of his first electrical recordings, for Victor, was a two-disc set devoted to A Victory Ball by Ernest Schelling.
In 1933, Mengelberg generated negative publicity in what was known as the "Mengelberg Crisis". Mengelberg had changed his residence to Switzerland to evade high tax rates in the country.
Mengelberg was described by Fred Goldbeck as "the perfect dictator/conductor, a Napoleon of the orchestra"; Alan Sanders writes, "his treatment of the orchestra was autocratic. In later years his behaviour became extreme, and there are extraordinary stories of abusive verbal exchanges between him and his players at rehearsal". Berta Geissmar records an incident in 1938 when Mengelberg rehearsed the London Philharmonic Orchestra in the Vorspiel und Liebestod from Tristan and he gave them tortuous lectures as though they had never seen the music before.
The most controversial aspect of Mengelberg's biography centers on his actions and behaviour during the years of the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands between 1940 and 1945. His biographer Frits Zwart writes (for Radio Nederland) of an "interview Mengelberg had given with the Völkische Beobachter, the German Nazi newspaper...the gist of it was that, on hearing of the Dutch surrender to the German invaders on May 10, 1940, he had brought a toast with a glass of champagne [and] had also spoken about the close bond existing between the Netherlands and Germany." Zwart also notes that Mengelberg conducted in Germany and in German-occupied countries throughout the war, and was photographed in the company of Nazis such as Arthur Seyss-Inquart.
Explanations have ranged from political naiveté in general, to a general "blind spot" for criticism of anything German, given his own ancestry. After the war, in 1945, the Netherlands' Honour Council for Music banned him from conducting in the Netherlands for life; in 1947, after an appeal by his lawyers, the Council reduced his ban to six years, though also in 1947, Queen Wilhelmina withdrew his Gold Medal of Honor. This notwithstanding, he continued to draw a pension from the orchestra until 1949 when cut off by the city council of Amsterdam. Mengelberg retreated in exile to Zuort, Sent, Switzerland, where he remained until his death in 1951, just two months before the expiration of his exile order.
Willem Mengelberg was a distant cousin of the musicologist and composer Rudolf Mengelberg and the uncle of the conductor, composer and critic Karel Mengelberg, who was himself the father of the improvising pianist and composer Misha Mengelberg.
Performance style
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1980) entry on Mengelberg describes him as a "martinet addicted to meticulous and voluble rehearsals"; it also notes that he did not hesitate to make what he called changements to a composer's scores when he felt it would aid clarity.
Mengelberg's recordings with the Concertgebouw Orchestra are marked by frequent use of an unusually prominent portamento, the sliding of the string players' left fingers from one note to another. The scholar Robert Philip has shown that Mengelberg's recordings with other orchestras do not show this portamento, and that "the unusual approach to portamento... was a stylistic feature which he developed with [the Concertgebouw] over a long period of rehearsal, and that it was not a style which could be transferred to other orchestras when Mengelberg visited them" Philip also notes that this portamento required the strings to use uniform fingering prescribed by Mengelberg, and that this was also unusual for the time, when much orchestral fingering was typically "free," with different players fingering a passage differently. Freely bowed portamento sounded lighter than that we hear in Mengelberg's recordings, as not all players would slide on the same notes. Philip mentions recordings by the Vienna Philharmonic under Bruno Walter as examples of this style.
In addition, Mengelberg employed fluctuations of tempo that were extreme even in an era in which tempo fluctuation was more common than in modern practice. While admirers of Mengelberg value his tempo inflections, detractors have criticized them. For example, the musicologist and music theorist Walter Frisch has argued that "in the Brahms performances recorded by Willem Mengelberg, tempo fluctuation too often tends to obscure the broader shape of a passage or movement." Frisch argues that this obscuring of structure does not result from the tempo fluctuations of two conductors he admires who also used much tempo inflection, Wilhelm Furtwängler and Hermann Abendroth.
Recorded legacy
Mengelberg made commercial recordings in the United States with the New York Philharmonic for Victor (1922–30) and Brunswick (1926-27). In Amsterdam with the Concertgebouw Orchestra he made a series of records issued in various countries on the Columbia and Odeon labels (1926–32) as well as two works recorded for the Dutch branch of Decca in 1935. Mengelberg recorded with the Concertgebouw Orchestra and the Berlin Philharmonic for Telefunken (1937–42). After his death, Philips issued recordings of live performances recorded by Dutch radio services, and these have been reissued by Decca.
In addition to his recordings of Richard Strauss's Ein Heldenleben and Don Juan, Mengelberg left discs of symphonies by Beethoven, Tchaikovski and Brahms, Bach's St Matthew Passion, Gustav Mahler's Symphony No. 4 and the Adagietto from Symphony No. 5.
His most characteristic performances are marked by a tremendous expressiveness and freedom of tempo, perhaps most remarkable in his recording of Mahler's Fourth Symphony but certainly present in the aforementioned St Matthew Passion and other performances as well. These qualities, shared (perhaps to a lesser extent) by only a handful of other conductors of the era of sound recording, such as Wilhelm Furtwängler and Leonard Bernstein, make much of his work unusually controversial among classical music listeners; recordings that more mainstream listeners consider unlistenable will be hailed by others as among the greatest recordings ever made.
Many of his recorded performances, including some live concerts in Amsterdam during World War II, have been reissued on LP and CD. While he was known for his recordings of the German repertoire, Capitol Records issued a powerful, nearly high fidelity recording of César Franck's Symphony in D minor, recorded in the 1940s by Telefunken with the Concertgebouw Orchestra.
Due to the Dutch government's six-year ban on Mengelberg's conducting activities, he made no more recordings after 1945. Some of his performances in Amsterdam were recorded on the innovative German tape recorder, the Magnetophon, resulting in unusually high fidelity for the time.
Sound films of Mengelberg conducting the Concertgebouw Orchestra, during live concerts in Amsterdam, have survived; among these are a 1931 performance of Weber's Oberon overture. His 1939 recording of Bach's St Matthew Passion, while not captured on film, was created on a Philips optical system which used film as the (audio-only) recording medium.
References
Further reading
Zwart, Frits, Conductor Willem Mengelberg, 1871–1951: Acclaimed and Accused, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2019.
External links
Willem Mengelberg Archives at the Netherlands Music Institute
Willem Mengelberg at the Bach Cantatas Website
Listen to Mengelberg conduct and read his biography
Discography
Mengelberg's legendary recording of Bach's St. Matthew Passion
Festival de Musique de Wissembourg
1871 births
1951 deaths
Dutch conductors (music)
Male conductors (music)
Bach conductors
Dutch people of German descent
Honorary Members of the Royal Philharmonic Society
London Symphony Orchestra principal conductors
Musicians from Utrecht (city)
Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra chief conductors
Hochschule für Musik und Tanz Köln alumni
Music directors of the New York Philharmonic
Willem
|
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] |
210102
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20birds%20of%20Santa%20Cruz%20County%2C%20California
|
List of birds of Santa Cruz County, California
|
List of birds of Santa Cruz County, California. The county is in Northern California, located on the California coast, including northern Monterey Bay, and west of the San Francisco Bay and Silicon Valley. It includes the southwestern Santa Cruz Mountains.
Avian habitats include: coastal prairie, Northern coastal scrub, Maritime Ponderosa Pine forests, Coast redwood forests, Interior chaparral and woodlands, and mixed evergreen forests.
Included are: common (C), fairly common (F), and uncommon (U) sightings/occurrences. Not included are: rare, casual, and irregular sightings.
See also
List of birds of California
References
California, Santa Cruz
Birds Santa Cruz
Natural history of Santa Cruz County, California
Santa Cruz County, California
|
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] |
210105
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund%20Gettier
|
Edmund Gettier
|
Edmund Lee Gettier III (; October 31, 1927 – March 23, 2021) was an American philosopher at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. He is best known for his short 1963 article "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?", which has generated an extensive philosophical literature trying to respond to what became known as the Gettier problem.
Life
Edmund Lee Gettier III was born on October 31, 1927, in Baltimore, Maryland.
Gettier obtained his B.A. from Johns Hopkins University in 1949. He earned his PhD in philosophy from Cornell University in 1961 with a dissertation on “Bertrand Russell’s Theories of Belief” written under the supervision of Norman Malcolm.
Gettier taught philosophy at Wayne State University from 1957 until 1967 initially as an Instructor, then as an assistant professor, and, latterly, as an associate professor. His philosophical colleagues at Wayne State included, amongst others, Alvin Plantinga and Héctor-Neri Castaneda.
In the academic year of 1964-65 he held a postdoctoral Mellon Fellowship at the University of Pittsburgh. His recorded field of research being "Bertrand Russell's theories of belief, and their effect on contemporary thought." Whilst at Pittsburgh he met a young Bas C. Van Fraasen and published his second academic paper, a review of John Passmore's Philosophical Reasoning.
In 1967 Gettier was recruited to the faculty of philosophy at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, being promoted to full professor there in 1972. He taught there until his retirement, as Professor Emeritus, in 2001.
Gettier died on March 23, 2021, aged 93.
Gettier's fame rests on a three-page article, published in Analysis in 1963 that remains one of the most famous in recent philosophical history. In the same, Gettier challenges the "justified true belief" definition of knowledge that dates back to Plato's Theaetetus, but is discounted at the end of that very dialogue. This account was accepted by most philosophers at the time, most prominently the epistemologist Clarence Irving Lewis and his student Roderick Chisholm. Gettier's article offered counter-examples to this account in the form of cases such that subjects had true beliefs that were also justified, but for which the beliefs were true for reasons unrelated to the justification. Some philosophers, however, thought the account of knowledge as justified true belief had already been questioned in a general way by the work of Wittgenstein. (Later, a similar argument was found in the papers of Bertrand Russell.)
Work
Gettier problem
Gettier provides several examples of beliefs that are both true and justified, but that we should not intuitively term knowledge. Cases of this sort are now termed "Gettier (counter-)examples". Because Gettier's criticism of the justified true belief model is systemic, other authors have imagined increasingly fantastical counterexamples. For example: I am watching the men's Wimbledon Final, and John McEnroe is playing Jimmy Connors, it is match point, and McEnroe wins. I say to myself: "John McEnroe is this year's men's champion at Wimbledon". Unbeknownst to me, however, the BBC were experiencing a broadcasting fault and so had broadcast a tape of last year's final, when McEnroe also beat Connors. I had been watching last year's Wimbledon final, so I believed that McEnroe had bested Connors. But at that same time, in real life, McEnroe was repeating last year's victory and besting Connors! So my belief that McEnroe bested Connors to become this year's Wimbledon champion is true, and I had good reason to believe so (my belief was justified) — and yet, there is a sense in which I could not really have claimed to "know" that McEnroe had bested Connors because I was only accidentally right that McEnroe beat Connors — my belief was not based on the right kind of justification.
Gettier inspired a great deal of work by philosophers attempting to recover a working definition of knowledge. Major responses include:
Gettier's use of "justification" is too general, and only some kinds of justification count.
Gettier's examples do not count as justification at all, and only some kinds of evidence are justificatory.
Knowledge must have a fourth condition, such as "no false premises" or "indefeasibility".
Robert Nozick suggests knowledge must consist of justified true belief that is "truth-tracking" — a belief such that if it was revealed to be false, it would not have been believed, and conversely.
Colin McGinn suggests that knowledge is atomic (it is not divisible into smaller components). We have knowledge when we have knowledge, and an accurate definition of knowledge may even contain the word "knowledge".
A 2001 study by Weinberg, Nichols, and Stich suggests that the effect of the Gettier problem varies by culture. In particular, people from Western countries seem more likely to agree with the judgments described in the story than do those from East Asia. Subsequent studies were unable to replicate these results.
Complete works
"Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?" Analysis, Vol. 23, pp. 121–123 (1963).
"Review: [Untitled]" The Philosophical Review 74, no. 2 (1965): 266–69. https://doi.org/10.2307/2183277
“Comments on A. J. Ayer’s ‘The Concept of a Person’,” in Intentionality, Minds, and Perception: Discussions on Contemporary Philosophy, ed. Hector-Neri Castañeda (Detroit, 1967).
See also
American philosophy
List of American philosophers
References
External links
Gettier's paper, "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?"
1927 births
2021 deaths
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American philosophers
20th-century essayists
American male essayists
American male non-fiction writers
American philosophy academics
Analytic philosophers
Cornell University alumni
Epistemologists
Metaphilosophers
Metaphysicians
Ontologists
Philosophers of culture
Philosophers of mind
Philosophers of social science
Philosophy writers
University of Massachusetts Amherst faculty
University of Massachusetts Lowell faculty
Wayne State University faculty
Wittgensteinian philosophers
Writers from Baltimore
20th-century American male writers
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210114
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Nickerson
|
Thomas Nickerson
|
Thomas Gibson Nickerson (March 20, 1805 – February 7, 1883) was an American sailor and author. In 1819, when he was fourteen years old, Nickerson served as cabin boy on the whaleship Essex. On this voyage, the ship was sunk by a whale it was pursuing, and the crew spent three months at sea before the survivors were rescued. In 1876 he wrote The Loss of the Ship "Essex", an account of the ordeal and of his subsequent experiences at sea. The manuscript was lost until 1960, and was first published in 1984.
Overview
Nickerson was born in Harwich, Massachusetts, the son of Rebecca (Gibson) and Thomas Nickerson. Nickerson made his first sea voyage in 1819, at the age of fourteen, on the ill-fated whaler Essex, which sailed from Nantucket Harbor. A whale rammed and sank Essex on 20 November 1820. The first mate, Owen Chase, later wrote about the incident in the Narrative of the Most Extraordinary and Distressing Shipwreck of the Whale-Ship Essex, a book that inspired Herman Melville to write Moby-Dick.
Nickerson returned to sea after his rescue, serving on other whale ships and eventually working his way up to captain of a merchant vessel. Upon retiring he ran a boarding house in Nantucket, which was visited by the writer Leon Lewis, who encouraged him to write down his story of the three months he was lost at sea with the Essex survivors. Nickerson did this, and in 1876, he sent an 80-page manuscript, as well as accounts of other adventures he had later in life, to Lewis for editing. Lewis, however, was having a personal crisis and the manuscript was abandoned. When Lewis journeyed to England, he left a trunk in the care of Rhea Ogden, a neighbor at his summer cottage on Lake Keuka, near Penn Yan, New York. The trunk containing the manuscript was later given by Ogden to her nephew, James M. Finch, Jr. of Hamden, Connecticut. Nickerson died in 1883, seven years after sending his manuscript to Lewis. The trunk's contents were finally inspected in 1960 and The Loss of the Ship "Essex" Sunk by a Whale and the Ordeal of the Crew in Open Boats was discovered. Finch's wife Ann, recognizing the manuscript's importance, contacted the Nantucket Historical Association. It took another twenty years before it was authenticated by Edouard A. Stackpole, a Nantucket whaling historian. The Finches donated the manuscript to the Association, who published an abridged version in 1984, a century after Nickerson's death.
In popular culture
Books
The 1851 novel, Moby-Dick or, The Whale by Herman Melville, which has been adapted several times for film, theatre and radio.
In the Heart of the Sea: The Tragedy of the Whaleship Essex by Nathaniel Philbrick (2000) - partly based on Nickerson's account.
Movies
Nickerson's historical character was dramatized in three films:
A 2001 dramatized documentary, entitled Revenge of the Whale, was produced and broadcast on 7 September 2001 by NBC, in which Thomas Nickerson was voiced by actor Jeffrey Carlson.
In 2013, the television movie The Whale was broadcast on BBC One on 22 December, wherein an elderly Thomas Nickerson recounted the events of Essex. The elder Nickerson was played by Martin Sheen, and the younger Nickerson by Charles Furness.
In 2015, the theatrical film In the Heart of the Sea was released, directed by Ron Howard. The older Thomas Nickerson is portrayed by Brendan Gleeson and the young Nickerson is played by Tom Holland.
References
1805 births
1883 deaths
19th-century American writers
American sailors
Maritime writers
People from Nantucket, Massachusetts
Writers from Massachusetts
19th-century American male writers
American people in whaling
|
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210118
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group%20f/64
|
Group f/64
|
Group 64 or f.64 was a group founded by seven 20th-century San Francisco Bay Area photographers who shared a common photographic style characterized by sharply focused and carefully framed images seen through a particularly Western (U.S.) viewpoint. In part, they formed in opposition to the pictorialist photographic style that had dominated much of the early 20th century, but moreover, they wanted to promote a new modernist aesthetic that was based on precisely exposed images of natural forms and found objects.
Background
The late 1920s and early 1930s were a time of substantial social and economic unrest in the United States. The United States was suffering through the Great Depression, and people were seeking some respite from their everyday hardships. The American West was seen as the base for future economic recovery because of massive public works projects like the Hoover Dam. The public sought out news and images of the West because it represented a land of hope in an otherwise bleak time. They were increasingly attracted to the work of such photographers as Ansel Adams, whose strikingly detailed photographs of the American West were seen as "pictorial testimony…of inspiration and redemptive power."
At the same time, workers throughout the country were beginning to organize for better wages and working conditions. There was a growing movement among the economically oppressed to band together for solidarity and bargaining strength, and photographers were directly participating in these activities. Shortly before Group 64 was formed, Edward Weston went to a meeting of the John Reed Club, which was founded to support Marxist artists and writers. These circumstances not only helped set up the situation in which a group of like-minded friends decided to come together around a common interest, but they played a significant role in how they thought about their effort. Group 64 was more than a club of artists; they described themselves as engaged in a battle against a "tide of oppressive pictorialism" and purposely called their defining proclamation a manifesto, with all the political overtones that the name implies.
While all of this social change was going on, photographers were struggling to redefine what their medium looked like and what it was supposed to represent. Until the 1920s the primary aesthetic standard of photography was pictorialism, championed by Alfred Stieglitz and others as the highest form of photographic art. That began to change in the early 1920s with a new generation of photographers like Paul Strand and Imogen Cunningham, but by the end of that decade there was no clear successor to pictorialism as a common visual art form. Photographers like Weston were tired of the old way of seeing and were eager to promote their new vision.
Formation and participants
Group f/64 was created when Ansel Adams and Willard Van Dyke, an apprentice of Edward Weston, decided to organize some of their fellow photographers for the purposes of promoting a common aesthetic principle. In the early 1930s Van Dyke established a small photography gallery in his home at 683 Brockhurst in Oakland. He called the gallery 683 "as our way of thumbing our nose at the New York people who didn't know us", a direct reference to Stieglitz and his earlier New York gallery called 291. Van Dyke's home/gallery became a gathering place for a close circle of photographers that eventually became the core of Group f/64.
In 1931, Weston was given an exhibition at the M.H. de Young Memorial Museum in San Francisco, and because of the public's interest in that show the photographers who gathered at Van Dyke's home decided to put together a group exhibition of their work. They convinced the director at the de Young Museum to give them the space, and on November 15, 1932, the first exhibition of Group f/64 opened to large crowds. The group members in the exhibition were Ansel Adams (10 photographs), Imogen Cunningham, John Paul Edwards, Sonya Noskowiak, Henry Swift, Willard Van Dyke, and Edward Weston (nine photographs each). Four other photographers—Preston Holder, Consuelo Kanaga, Alma Lavenson, and Edward Weston's son Brett Weston—were invited to join the exhibition, each contributing four photographs. Edward Weston's prints were priced at $15 each; all of the others were $10 each. The show ran for six weeks.
In 1934 the group posted a notice in Camera Craft magazine that said "The F:64 group includes in its membership such well known names as Edward Weston, Ansel Adams, Willard Van Dyke, John Paul Edwards, Imogene Cunningham, Consuela Kanaga and several others." While this announcement implies that all of the photographers in the first exhibition were "members" of Group f/64, not all of the individuals considered themselves as such. In an interview later in her life, Kanaga said "I was in that f/64 show with Edward Weston, Imogen Cunningham, Willard Van Dyke and Ansel Adams, but I wasn't in a group, nor did I belong to anything ever. I wasn't a belonger."
Some photo historians view Group f/64 as an organized faction consisting of the first seven photographers, and view the other four photographers as associated with the group by virtue of their visual aesthetics. However, in an interview in 1997 Dody Weston Thompson reported that in 1949 she was invited to join Group f/64. She also recounted that Brett Weston, whom she married in 1952, also considered himself a member. This suggests that an absolute delineation of membership is difficult to determine in light of the informality of the group’s shifting social composition during the 1930s and 1940s.
Name and purpose
There is some difference of opinion about how the group was named. Van Dyke recalled that he first suggested the name "US 256", which was then the commonly used Uniform System designation for a very small aperture stop on a camera lens. According to Van Dyke, Adams thought the name would be confusing to the public, and Adams suggested "f/64", which was a corresponding aperture setting in the focal system that was gaining popularity. However, in an interview in 1975 Holder recalled that he and Van Dyke thought up the name during a ferry ride from Oakland to San Francisco. The group originally wrote their name "Group f.64", but as the notation with a slash was replacing that with a dot or period, they soon changed it to "Group f/64".
The term f/64 refers to a small aperture setting on a large format camera, which secures great depth of field, rendering a photograph evenly sharp from foreground to background. Such a small aperture sometimes requires a long exposure and therefore a selection of relatively slow-moving or motionless subject matter, such as landscapes and still life, but in the typically bright California light this is less a factor in the subject matter chosen than the sheer size and clumsiness of the cameras, compared to the smaller cameras increasingly used in action and reportage photography in the 1930s.
The even sharpness corresponds to the ideal of straight photography which the group espoused in response to the pictorialist methods that were still in fashion at the time in California (even though they had long since died away in New York).
Manifesto
Group f/64 displayed the following manifesto at their 1932 exhibit:
Aesthetics
Photography historian Naomi Rosenblum described Group f/64's vision as focused on "what surrounded them in such abundance: the landscape, the flourishing organic growth and the still viable rural life. Pointing their lenses at the kind of agrarian objects that had vanished from the artistic consciousness of many eastern urbanites - fence posts, barn roofs, and rusting farm implements - they treated these objects with the same sharp scrutiny as were latches and blast furnaces in the East. However, even in California, these themes look to a vanishing way of life, and the energy contained in the images derived in many instances from formal design rather than from the kind of intense belief in the future that had motivated easterners enamored of machine culture."
In 1933 Adams wrote the following for Camera Craft magazine:
History
After their initial show in 1932, records indicate that some or all of the photographs from that show were exhibited in Los Angeles, Seattle, Portland, Oregon and Carmel. There are no detailed lists of the photos in those shows, so it has been impossible to say exactly which images were exhibited.
By 1934 the effects of the Great Depression were felt throughout California, and the Group members had a series of difficult discussions about the premises for art in those challenging economic times. The effects of the Depression, coupled with the departure of several members of the group from San Francisco (including Weston who moved to Santa Barbara to be with his son and Van Dyke who moved to New York) led to the dissolution of Group f/64 by the end of 1935. Many of its members continued to photograph and are now known as some of the most influential artists of the 20th century.
The most complete collections of prints from Group 64 photographers are now housed at the Center for Creative Photography and the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.
Notes
Sources
Group 64
Ansel Adams, America's Saint George of Conservation by Peter Barr, November 2000
Group f/64 The Timeline of the History of Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
* Franz-Xaver Schlegel, Das Leben der toten Dinge - Studien zur modernen Sachfotografie in den USA 1914–1935, 2 Bände, Stuttgart/Germany: Art in Life 1999, .
American artist groups and collectives
American photography organizations
Arts organizations based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Organizations based in San Francisco
Ansel Adams
|
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] |
210119
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nag%20Hammadi%20library
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Nag Hammadi library
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The Nag Hammadi library (also known as the "Chenoboskion Manuscripts" and the "Gnostic Gospels") is a collection of early Christian and Gnostic texts discovered near the Upper Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi in 1945.
Thirteen leather-bound papyrus codices buried in a sealed jar were found by a local farmer named Muhammed al-Samman. The writings in these codices comprise 52 mostly Gnostic treatises, but they also include three works belonging to the Corpus Hermeticum and a partial translation/alteration of Plato's Republic. In his introduction to The Nag Hammadi Library in English, James Robinson suggests that these codices may have belonged to a nearby Pachomian monastery and were buried after Saint Athanasius condemned the use of non-canonical books in his Festal Letter of 367 A.D. The discovery of these texts significantly influenced modern scholarship's pursuit and knowledge of early Christianity and Gnosticism.
The contents of the codices were written in the Coptic language. The best-known of these works is probably the Gospel of Thomas, of which the Nag Hammadi codices contain the only complete text. After the discovery, scholars recognized that fragments of these sayings attributed to Jesus appeared in manuscripts discovered at Oxyrhynchus in 1898 (P. Oxy. 1), and matching quotations were recognized in other early Christian sources. The written text of the Gospel of Thomas is dated to the second century by most interpreters, but based on much earlier sources. The buried manuscripts date from the 3rd and 4th centuries.
The Nag Hammadi codices are currently housed in the Coptic Museum in Cairo, Egypt.
Discovery
Scholars first became aware of the Nag Hammadi library in 1946. Making careful inquiries from 1947–1950, Jean Doresse discovered that a local farmer (boy) dug up the texts from a graveyard in the desert, located near tombs from the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt. In the 1970s, James Robinson sought out the local farmer in question, identifying him as Muhammad ‘Ali al-Samman. Al-Samman told Robinson a complex story involving a blood feud, cannibalism, digging for fresh soil for agricultural use, and superstitions about a jinn. His mother claimed that she burned some of the manuscripts; Robinson identified these with Codex XII. Robinson gave multiple accounts of this interview, with the number of people present at the discovery ranging from two to eight. Jean Doresse's account contains none of these elements.
Later scholarship has drawn attention to al-Samman's mention of a corpse and a "bed of charcoal" at the site, aspects of the story that were vehemently denied by al-Samman's brother. It is suggested that the library was initially a simple grave robbing, and the more fanciful aspects of the story were concocted as a cover story. Burials of books were common in Egypt in the early centuries AD, but if the library was a funerary deposit, it conflicts with Robinson's belief that the manuscripts were purposely hidden out of fear of persecution. Instead, Lewis & Blount (2014) have proposed that the Nag Hammadi codices had been privately commissioned by a wealthy non-monastic individual, and that the books had been buried with him as funerary prestige items. The blood feud, however, is well attested by multiple sources.
Slowly, most of the tracts came into the hands of Phokion J. Tanos, a Cypriot antiques dealer in Cairo, thereafter being retained by the Department of Antiquities, for fear that they would be sold out of the country. After the revolution in 1952, these texts were handed to the Coptic Museum in Cairo, and declared national property. Pahor Labib, the director of the Coptic Museum at that time, was keen to keep these manuscripts in their country of origin.
Meanwhile, a single codex had been sold in Cairo to a Belgian antiques dealer. After an attempt was made to sell the codex in both New York City and Paris, it was acquired by the Carl Gustav Jung Institute in Zurich in 1951, through the mediation of Gilles Quispel. It was intended as a birthday present to the famous psychologist; for this reason, this codex is typically known as the Jung Codex, being Codex I in the collection. Jung's death in 1961 resulted in a quarrel over the ownership of the Jung Codex; the pages were not given to the Coptic Museum in Cairo until 1975, after a first edition of the text had been published. The papyri were finally brought together in Cairo: of the 1945 find, eleven complete books and fragments of two others, 'amounting to well over 1000 written pages', are preserved there.
Translation
The first edition of a text found at Nag Hammadi was from the Jung Codex, a partial translation of which appeared in Cairo in 1956, and a single extensive facsimile edition was planned. Due to the difficult political circumstances in Egypt, individual tracts followed from the Cairo and Zurich collections only slowly.
This state of affairs did not change until 1966, with the holding of the Messina Congress in Italy. At this conference, intended to allow scholars to arrive at a group consensus concerning the definition of Gnosticism, James M. Robinson, an expert on religion, assembled a group of editors and translators whose express task was to publish a bilingual edition of the Nag Hammadi codices in English, in collaboration with the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity at the Claremont Graduate University in Claremont, California.
Robinson was elected secretary of the International Committee for the Nag Hammadi Codices, which had been formed in 1970 by UNESCO and the Egyptian Ministry of Culture; it was in this capacity that he oversaw the project. A facsimile edition in twelve volumes was published between 1972 and 1977, with subsequent additions in 1979 and 1984 from the publisher E.J. Brill in Leiden, entitled, The Facsimile Edition of the Nag Hammadi Codices. This made all the texts available for all interested parties to study in some form.
At the same time, in the German Democratic Republic, a group of scholars—including Alexander Böhlig, Martin Krause and New Testament scholars Gesine Schenke, Hans-Martin Schenke and Hans-Gebhard Bethge—were preparing the first German language translation of the find. The last three scholars prepared a complete scholarly translation under the auspices of the Berlin Humboldt University, which was published in 2001.
The James M. Robinson translation was first published in 1977, with the name The Nag Hammadi Library in English, in collaboration between E.J. Brill and Harper & Row. The single-volume publication, according to Robinson, 'marked the end of one stage of Nag Hammadi scholarship and the beginning of another' (from the Preface to the third revised edition). Paperback editions followed in 1981 and 1984, from E.J. Brill and Harper, respectively. A third, completely revised, edition was published in 1988. This marks the final stage in the gradual dispersal of gnostic texts into the wider public arena—the full complement of codices was finally available in unadulterated form to people around the world, in a variety of languages. A cross-reference apparatus for Robinson's translation and the Biblical canon also exists.
Another English edition was published in 1987, by Yale scholar Bentley Layton, called The Gnostic Scriptures: A New Translation with Annotations (Garden City: Doubleday & Co., 1987). The volume included new translations from the Nag Hammadi Library, together with extracts from the heresiological writers, and other gnostic material. It remains, along with The Nag Hammadi Library in English, one of the more accessible volumes of translations of the Nag Hammadi find. It includes extensive historical introductions to individual gnostic groups, notes on translation, annotations to the text, and the organization of tracts into clearly defined movements.
Not all scholars agree that the entire library should be considered Gnostic. Paterson Brown has argued that the three Nag Hammadi Gospels of Thomas, Philip and Truth cannot be so labeled, since each, in his opinion, may explicitly affirm the basic reality and sanctity of incarnate life, which Gnosticism by definition considers illusory.
List of codices and tractates
In the following table contains a list of codices and tractates in the Nag Hammadi library as given by Aleksandr Leonovich Khosroev. Abbreviations are from The Coptic Gnostic Library.
The so-called "Codex XIII" is not a codex, but rather the text of Trimorphic Protennoia, written on "eight leaves removed from a thirteenth book in late antiquity and tucked inside the front cover of the sixth." (Robinson, NHLE, p. 10) Only a few lines from the beginning of Origin of the World are discernible on the bottom of the eighth leaf.
Dating
Although the manuscripts discovered at Nag Hammadi are generally dated to the 4th century, there is some debate regarding the original composition of the texts.
The Gospel of Thomas is held by most to be the earliest of the "gnostic" gospels composed. Scholars generally date the text to the early-mid 2nd century. The Gospel of Thomas, it is often claimed, has some gnostic elements but lacks the full gnostic cosmology. However, even the description of these elements as "gnostic" is based mainly upon the presupposition that the text as a whole is a "gnostic" gospel, and this idea itself is based upon little other than the fact that it was found along with gnostic texts at Nag Hammadi. Some scholars including Nicholas Perrin argue that Thomas is dependent on the Diatessaron, which was composed shortly after 172 by Tatian in Syria. Others contend for an earlier date, with a minority claiming a date of perhaps 50 AD, citing a relationship to the hypothetical Q document among other reasons.
The Gospel of Truth and the teachings of the Pistis Sophia can be approximately dated to the early 2nd century as they were part of the original Valentinian school, though the gospel itself is 3rd century.
Documents with a Sethian influence (like the Gospel of Judas, or outright Sethian like Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians) can be dated substantially later than 40 and substantially earlier than 250; most scholars giving them a 2nd-century date. More conservative scholars using the traditional dating method would argue in these cases for the early 3rd century.
Some gnostic gospels (for example Trimorphic Protennoia) make use of fully developed Neoplatonism and thus need to be dated after Plotinus in the 3rd century.
See also
Apocalyptic literature
Acts of the Apostles (genre)
Agrapha
Biblical archaeology
Development of the New Testament canon
Epistles
Gospel of Mary Magdalene
List of Gospels
List of Mandaean scriptures
List of New Testament papyri
New Testament apocrypha
Pseudepigraphy
Textual criticism
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
The Nag Hammadi Library – Complete texts at The Gnostic Society Library
The Gospel of Thomas – Multiple translations and resources.
How the manuscripts were found – A complete list of the manuscripts can be found here.
Jung Codex
Gnosticism
Gnostic Gospels
Manuscripts
Coptic literature
Religion in Egypt
Papyrus
Archaeological corpora
1945 archaeological discoveries
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210123
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20individual%20elephants
|
List of individual elephants
|
This is a list of elephants by name.
Abul-Abbas, Charlemagne's elephant
Arjuna, lead elephant of the Mysore Dasara procession and carries the idol of the deity Chamundeshwari on the Golden Howdah
Balarama, preceded Arjuna (see above); Golden Howdah-carrier between 1999 and 2011
Bamboo, lived at the Woodland Park Zoo for many years and was the center of a campaign to have her moved to a sanctuary
Batyr (1970–93), "talking elephant" of Karagandy Zoo in Kazakhstan
Black Diamond, Indian elephant with Al G. Barnes Circus; killed four people and was subsequently shot in 1929
Castor and Pollux, served as food to the wealthy citizens of Paris during the siege in 1870
Chengalloor Dakshayani, an Asian female elephant lived in Chengalloor Mahadeva Temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. At the time of her death on 5 February 2019, she was believed to be the oldest elephant in captivity in Asia.
Chirakkal Kalidasan, one of the tallest elephants in Kerala, also notable for acting in some films, the major being the 2017 epic film, Baahubali 2: The Conclusion.
Chunee, elephant in the menagerie at Exeter Exchange; executed by soldiers from Somerset House in March 1826
The Cremona elephant, given to Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II by the Sultan of Egypt in 1229
Dhurbe, wild elephant responsible for the deaths of 15 people
Drona, preceded Balarama (see above); died from accidentally electrocuting himself in 1998
The Dundee Elephant, exhibited in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries
Dunk, the first elephant to reside at the National Zoo in the United States
Echo, "most studied elephant in the world, the subject of several books and documentaries, including two NATURE films"
Fanny the elephant, former circus elephant that resided in Slater Park Zoo in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, from 1958 to 1993. She was moved to the Cleveland Amory Black Beauty Ranch sanctuary in 1993 because the city closed the zoo exhibits due to financial crises. She lived the last ten years of her life at the sanctuary and died in 2003. A statue to her memory stands in Slater Park.
Gabi, a male Asian elephant born in 2005 at the Jerusalem Biblical Zoo and the first elephant in Israel conceived via artificial insemination.
Gita, death at the Los Angeles Zoo in 2006 sparked public outcry
Gold Dust, one of the first elephants to reside at the National Zoo in the United States
Guruvayur Keshavan, an Indian elephant which was associated with the Guruvayur temple in Kerala, India. The elephant was known for its extremely devout behaviour.
Hanno the elephant, pet elephant of Pope Leo X
Hansken, toured many European countries from 1637 to 1655 demonstrating circus tricks
Hattie of New York City's Central Park Zoo, in 1903 was described as the "most intelligent of all elephants"
Heiyantuduwa Raja, carried the Relic of the tooth of the Buddha from 1989 to 2000
Isilo of Tembe Elephant Park was one of South Africa’s largest African elephants and the largest living tusker in the southern hemisphere before his death in 2014
John L. Sullivan (1860?–1932), boxing elephant in Adam Forepaugh's circus. In 1922, he made a pilgrimage from Madison Square Garden to the Elephant Hotel in Somers, New York, to pay tribute to Old Bet the elephant.
Jumbo, P. T. Barnum's elephant whose name is the origin of the word jumbo (meaning "very large" or "oversized"). The African elephant was given the name Jumbo by zookeepers at the London Zoo. The name was most likely derived from the Swahili word jumbe meaning "chief". The Tufts University mascot is named after Jumbo. In Mysore, India Vijayadashami Elephant procession during Dasara is called as Jumbo Savari (referred to as Jumbo Savari by the British during their control of Mysore State). The original name to this procession is Jumbi Savari (going to the Banni(Shami)tree). Now Goddess Chamundeshwari is taken in procession on an Elephant. But the "Jumbo" name is still intact. Jumbo was the name of another elephant, used by John Hoyte et al. to cross the Alps in 1959 to retrace Hannibal's march across the Alps.
Kaavan, subject to a lengthy campaign to have him moved to a sanctuary after the death of his companion
Kandula, the royal war elephant of the Sri Lankan prince Dutugamunu in the 2nd century BC. The king and his elephant grew up together. A Sri Lankan elephant born November 25, 2001, at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. is named after Kandula.
Kashin, Asian Elephant from New Zealand. She was famous for being sponsored by ASB Bank, and featured in the New Zealand produced television programme The Zoo.
Kolakolli, Indian rogue elephant from Peppara sanctuary that died in captivity in 2006.
Kongad Kuttisankaran, a famous native elephant lived in Kerala
Kosik, able to imitate a number of Korean words
Kottur Soman, the oldest living elephant in the world
Lallah Rookh, elephant with Dan Rice's circus. She died in 1860 soon after swimming across the Ohio River.
Lizzie, who in 1916–1918 worked hauling goods in Sheffield in England.
Lin Wang, Burmese elephant that served with the Chinese Expeditionary Force during the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) and later moved to Taiwan with the Kuomintang army. Lin Wang became a fond childhood memory among many Taiwanese. When he died at 86 years old in 2003, he was (and still is) the longest-living captive elephant.
Mademoiselle D'Jeck, performed in plays in Europe and the United States in the 19th century
Maha Pambata, war elephant belonging to Tamil King Ellalan
Mali, major attraction at the Manila Zoo in the Philippines
Mangalamkunnu Karnan, a famous elephant in Kerala known for his ability to hold the heads-up for a long time
Mary a.k.a. "Mighty Mary" and "Murderous Mary", circus elephant executed on September 13, 1916, in Erwin, Tennessee. She was hanged by a railroad derrick car at the Clinchfield Railroad yard. This is the only known elephant hanging in history. Mary, who toured with the Sparks World Famous Shows circus, killed her inexperienced keeper, Walter "Red" Eldridge, on September 12, 1916, during a circus parade in Kingsport, Tennessee. Eldridge had supposedly hit Mary's tusk or ear when she wandered from the parade line to eat a piece of discarded watermelon.
Millangoda Raja, believed to be the longest-tusked Asian elephant during his lifetime
Miss Jim, "The First Lady of the St. Louis Zoo" was the zoo's first elephant, and a star attraction from 1916 to 1948.
Mona, euthanized June 21, 2007 at the Birmingham Zoo in Birmingham, Alabama. Thought, at 60, to have been the oldest Asian elephant in the United States. After the death of her companion, Susie, Mona's health and living conditions were the subject of a long campaign to have her transferred out of the zoo to a sanctuary.
Motola, an Asian elephant in Thailand who stepped on a landmine in 1999
Motty, only confirmed Asian/African hybrid elephant; survived for just 10 days
Nadungamuwa Raja, current main casket bearer of the procession of Esala
Old Bet, early American circus elephant owned by Hachaliah Bailey. On July 24, 1816, she was shot and killed while on tour near Alfred, Maine, by a farmer who thought it was sinful for poor people to waste money on a traveling circus. Old Bet's owner responded by building a three-story memorial called the Elephant Hotel, which now serves as a town hall.
Old Hannibal, part of Isaac A. Van Amburgh's menagerie
Osama bin Laden, rogue elephant which killed at least 27 people in India from 2004 to 2006, and another that was active until killed in 2008
Packy (1962–2017), resident of Oregon Zoo (formerly Washington Park Zoo, originally Portland Zoo) in Portland, Oregon. First Asian elephant born in the Western Hemisphere in 44 years. At his death, he was the patriarch of the zoo's herd and had sired seven offspring (although only one remains alive in 2021, and none have produced any offspring).
Pampadi Rajan, one of the tallest elephants in Kerala.
Paramekkavu Rajendran, an elephant from Kerala with the record for participating in most number of Thrissur Poorams.
Queenie (Melbourne elephant) (−1944), gave rides for children at Melbourne Zoo for 40 years.
Queenie (waterskiing elephant) (1952–2011), noted in the late 1950s and early 1960s for waterskiing for entertainment.
Raja, elephant who carried the holiest Buddhist shrine in Kandy, Sri Lanka
Raja Gaj, bull elephant that lived in the Bardiya National Park, Nepal who was considered to be the world's largest Asian Elephant of modern times
Rajje (1951?–1963), performing elephant that escaped into the streets of Lansing, Michigan, and was killed by gunfire.
Rogue elephant of Aberdare Forest, ferocious bull elephant killed by J. A. Hunter in the Aberdare Range, Kenya
Rosie the Elephant, famous for promoting Miami Beach, Florida
Ruby (1973–1998), elephant artist, resided at the Phoenix Zoo; at least one painting by her was sold for $100,000
Salt and Sauce, considered the most famous British elephants of their era and mentioned in several circus books
Satao, one of Kenya's largest African elephants, had unusually large tusks and was killed by poachers in 2014
Suleiman the elephant, presented in 1551 to Maximilian II, the Holy Roman Emperor, by John III, the King of Portugal, and named after the Ottoman Sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent
Surus ("the Syrian"), mentioned as the bravest of Hannibal's 37 war elephants which crossed the Alps in 218 BC during the Second Punic War, by Cato the Elder in his book Origines.
Tai, known for featuring in the films Larger than Life and Water for Elephants
Thechikottukavu Ramachandran, an Indian elephant
Thiruvambadi Sivasundar, an Indian elephant who lived at the Thiruvambadi Sri Krishna Temple in Thrissur, Kerala
Thrikkadavoor Sivaraju, one of the tallest elephants from Kerala
Tikiri, participated in the Kandy Esala Perahera
Tillie, the mascot of the John Robinson Circus known for wintering and spending her retirement in Terrace Park, Ohio.
Topsy, (c. 1875 – January 4, 1903). In 1902, while with the Forepaugh Circus, she killed a spectator who burned her trunk with a lit cigar. In 1903 the owners of a Coney Island park where she ended up claimed they could no longer keep her and killed her via poison, electrocution, and strangling. The Edison Manufacturing movie company shot a film of the execution called Electrocuting an Elephant.
Tricia, last elephant residing at the Perth Zoo and one of the world's oldest captive elephants
Tuffi, young female elephant who fell from Wuppertal's suspended monorail into the river Wupper on July 21, 1950 (and survived the fall)
Tusko, billed as the meanest elephant
Tyke, circus elephant who on August 20, 1994, in Honolulu, Hawaii, killed her trainer Allen Campbell and gored her groom Dallas Beckwith, causing severe injuries during a Circus International performance before hundreds of horrified spectators. Tyke then bolted from the arena and ran through downtown streets of Kakaako for more than 30 minutes. Police fired 86 shots at Tyke, who eventually collapsed from the wounds and died.
Ziggy, famously rebellious elephant at Brookfield Zoo
See also
List of fictional pachyderms
Elephant Encyclopedia
References
Elephants
Lists of elephants
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schipperke
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Schipperke
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A Schipperke (; ) is a small breed of dog that originated since the 1600's in Belgium. There has been a long informal debate over whether this type of dog is a spitz or miniature sheepdog. In their home country of Belgium they are considered a small shepherd. DNA research has shown that Schipperkes have a close relationship to the Spitz family of dog breeds.
Description
Physical
The Schipperke is a small, sturdy, usually black dog in the Spitz family. Their pointed ears are erect atop the head. Schipperkes are double coated with a soft, fluffy undercoat that is covered by a somewhat harsher-feeling and longer outer coat. One of the breed characteristics is a long ruff that surrounds the neck and then a strip trails down towards the rear of the dog. They also have longer fur on their hind legs called culottes. The breed is usually black, but sometimes blonde or cream colored (some blondes have a silkier coat), very rarely they can have a liver-red coloration. And the coat is shiny. Dogs of this breed usually weigh .
In Canada and the United States, the tail is usually docked (cut off) the day after birth. In countries that have bans on docking, adult Schipperkes often have Spitz-like and often up-curled, spiraled, long-haired tails can which occasionally vary in type. There have been animal cruelty complaints about the practice of docking. This includes the fact that dogs often express emotions and various behavioral modes with their tails. It is not known how this loss of behavioral and emotional expression effects the animal.
Owners of undocked adult Schipperke have often commented that the spiral curled, long-haired tails of the dog are quite attractive and that the practice of removing them makes the breed less appealing to the eye. Puppies are born with tails in different lengths. However, they are among those dogs with the rare natural bobtail C189G mutation.[4]
Personality and behavior
Schipperkes are naturally curious and high-energy dogs and require much exercise. They are sometimes very active, running very fast and then breaking into quick, agile criss-cross patterns. However the same Schipperke can also rest for hours on end. So they are not constantly active, in contrast to the Jack Russell terrier. The Schipperke is Known for a stubborn, mischievous, and headstrong temperament, it also chases small animals. The Schipperke is sometimes referred to as the "little black fox", or the "little black devil". In Australia they are sometimes called the "Tasmanian black devil." Schipperkes are very smart and independent; and sometimes debate listening to owners, instead choosing to do whatever benefits them the most, and are not necessarily the proper dog for a first-time dog owner. Schipperkes require training and a secure, fenced-in space in which to run. They must be leash-trained or they will often pull the leash as if they were a sled dog with no regard for the owner. This is easily correctable using training methods from a reliable source. Schipperkes are also escape prone and very fast so they require a leash or a fence at all times.
Schipperkes are notorious around horses and should only be kept leashed when near them. Even if a horse is in full trot, a Schipperke may run at it and then and dart back and forth between its hoofs, narrowly avoiding being crushed and barking furiously all the while. The dogs are so agile and fast that they rarely get hurt, but the horse and rider, not to mention the owner can be surprised by this. Not all Schipperkes do this. Some are calm around large hoofed animals and may only give a couple of curious sniffs before turning away. Good training can also help.
Schipperkes are formidable barkers and can be aggressive with other dogs if they are strangers. Yet they get along well with dogs whom they already know, especially dogs from their own household. They are known for challenging dogs they are unfamiliar with and can sometimes get into fights. Schipperkes are fearless and will, without reservation, go after a dog that is much larger than themselves. Sometimes this results in the Schipperke getting bitten, even badly so. Wounds and bites can be hidden by fur and can so go undetected until a dangerous infection sets in. A trip to the vet after a dogfight is therefore always required in order to find and stitch up any wounds and especially to provide antibiotics. The vet will often shave the fur off of a suspected area in order to find the real extent of bite holes or gashes that might need treatment. This is a good reason why keeping a Schipperke leased and fenced at all times is advisable.
But if a Schipperke is properly introduced to a new dog in the home, there will be no problems. They make good companions for dogs that they know. Schipperkes are known for getting along well with cats in the same household too and some will even play with cats, especially if raised with them.
Schipperkes are very good with children and were once guard dogs so they make good family protectors. They have no fear of intruders, despite their small size and will bark aggressively, sounding an alarm. They can also harass an intruder by dancing in fast circles around their legs while barking. But they almost never bite humans. And when strangers are outside Schipperkes will bark to alert their owners. Schipperkes are often the first to alert the household because their hearing is better than that of humans. Consequently they make good guard dogs.
Schipperkes are somewhat aloof but will readily accept affection from others. Despite being less affectionate themselves, they will sleep with their head in an owners lap, if there is a close relationship. They have also been known to rest their head in an owner's hand. This is more likely to happen when someone spends a lot of time with the dog. Schipperkes will also sleep in an owners bed although they rarely spend a whole night in one location, so they will usually be gone halfway through the night. If there is more than one Schipperke in a household they will often keep watch, lay and sleep together.
Schipperkes are very aware of who is the dominant human in the home and they will display exclusive submissive affection towards them. Typically they will lie on their backs with their bellies exposed, their ears folded back, and if petted or stroked, will lick the dominant humans hand slowly. They will only do this for one person in the house and are keen observers of who is the strongest sounding human in the "pack". Schipperkes will however, become very excited and demonstrative towards anyone who grabs a leash as they know this means they will be going outside. They can sometimes have similar responses when someone is preparing food for them in their bowl. As aloof as they can be, they can become very excited and expressive in these situations.
Schipperkes who live alone in a back yard can become problem barkers. One way to solve this is to get another Schipperke, so the first one will have a companion. This will tend to quiet them down. They do well in groups up to four and since they know each other, they will get along and even rest close to each other. If encouraged by the owner making a howling sound, they will howl together, but not very often on their own initiative and not for very long.
Health
The Schipperke has no particular health problems. The UK Kennel Club survey puts the median lifespan of the breed at 13 years old, with about 20% living to 15 years or more. Of the 36 deceased dogs in the survey, the oldest dog was years old. There is a known case where a Schipperke lived to be 18 to 19 years old. Nonetheless, inactivity, lack of exercise and over-feeding are very harmful, and can lead to joint and skeletal problems and tooth, heart, lung or digestive conditions. Schipperke's primary orthopedic problem tends to be luxating patella and Legg-Perthes syndrome. Some Schipperkes have demonstrated tendencies to epilepsy, although there are no tests: these seem to be related to genetic transmission.
The one caveat to the Schipperke's good health is MPS IIIB, a genetic mutation that occurs in at most 15% of the total breed population. It only occurs in Schipperkes. The University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine has developed a test for the disease and began accepting samples in April 2003. Clinical signs appear between two and four years of age, and there are no known cures or treatments. The disease affects balance, negotiation of obstacles (such as stairs), and is similar to such lysosomal storage diseases in humans as Tay–Sachs disease and Gaucher disease.
The Schipperke is also prone to some other physical problems as reported by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals.
DNA research has shown that Schipperkes have a rising rate of inbreeding in their population.
Grooming
The Schipperke does not need expensive or excessive grooming. This breed is a moderate shedder, however; a brush that can reach the undercoat is best. Regular weekly brushing is usually enough to keep the coat in good condition. There is no need for cutting or trimming and the ruff (hair around the neck) fluffs up naturally.
Schipperkes can "blow" their coats up to several times a year, and usually females more frequently than males. When this happens, they lose their undercoat. Owners typically find warm baths helpful during this time to remove the undercoat, rather than getting fur all over the home. A blown undercoat can last several days or weeks, and can take up to 2–3 months to grow back.
History
The earlier common references to Schipperkes suggest that they may have originated in the 1600's in Belgium.
Schipperkes were first recognized as a formal breed in the 1880s, their standard being written in 1889. Much of what is known of their origins and early history comes from Chasse et Pêche (French for "Hunting and Fishing") magazine, articles from which were translated into English and published by the English magazine The Stockkeeper.
The breed name "Schipperke" means "little boatman" or "little captain" in the Flemish language. However while they were occasionally seen on barges it was not their original or primary function, and in the areas of Leuven and Brussels "scheper" (which sounds similar to "schipper"; a German Shepherd dog is known in Dutch as a "Duitse scheper") was the word for shepherd, making the name translate as "little shepherd".
Before the name "Schipperke" was officially taken, the breed was also known colloquially as "Spits" or "Spitzke", a name commonly used to describe a small dog with pointed ears. They were also occasionally called "Moorke", meaning "little black animal". Schipperkes are widely referred to in the United States, albeit erroneously, as "Belgian canal barge dogs" or "Belgian ship dogs." Apparently, however, their history dates to a seventeenth-century black shepherd dog commonly called the Leuvenaar, a 40-pound dog often found in the Louvain region of Belgium and employed to guard flocks and transport. These dogs are apparently the foundational breed for both the modern, and smaller, Schipperke and the modern, and larger, Black Belgian Shepherd Dog, also known as the Groenendael.
In World War II, the Belgian Resistance used the dogs to run messages between various resistance hideouts and cells, to which occupying Nazi forces were none the wiser.
Genetic genealogy/DNA research
DNA laboratory studies have shown that the Schipperke is more closely related to the Pomeranian dog than the Belgian sheepdog and is very closely tied to Spitz type breeds. DNA studies also show a steady increase of inbreeding in Schipperkes.
In popular culture
A Schipperke is intermittently featured in the tiger-centric movie Two Brothers (2004) and also appears in Daphne Du Maurier's short story "A Borderline Case."
See also
Dogs portal
List of dog breeds
Spitz
Shepherd
Groenendael, also known as the Black Belgian Shepherd.
Belgian Laekenois
Belgian Tervuren
References
External links
American Kennel Club, Schipperke breed info
Official Standard of the Schipperke General Appearance
Spitz breeds
Herding dogs
FCI breeds
Dog breeds originating in Belgium
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210131
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Prynne
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William Prynne
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William Prynne (1600 – 24 October 1669), an English lawyer, voluble author, polemicist and political figure, was a prominent Puritan opponent of church policy under William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury (1633–1645). His views were presbyterian, but he became known in the 1640s as an Erastian, arguing for overall state control of religious matters.
Early life
Born at Swainswick, near Bath, Somerset, William Prynne was educated at Bath Grammar School and Oriel College, Oxford. He graduated as a BA on 22 January 1621, entered as a student of Lincoln's Inn in the same year, and was called to the bar in 1628.
According to Anthony Wood, he was confirmed in his militant puritanism by the influence of John Preston, then a lecturer at Lincoln's Inn. In 1627 he published his first of over 200 works, a theological treatise entitled The Perpetuity of a Regenerate Man's Estate. This was followed in the next three years by three others attacking Arminianism and its teachers. In the preface to one of them he appealed to Parliament to suppress anything written against Calvinist doctrine and to force the clergy to subscribe to the conclusion of the Synod of Dort.
Prynne was a strong disciplinarian. After arguing that the custom of drinking healths was sinful, he asserted that for men to wear their hair long was "unseemly and unlawful unto Christians", while it was "mannish, unnatural, impudent, and unchristian" for women to cut it short.
1630s
Like many Puritans abhorring decadence, Prynne strongly opposed religious feast days, including Christmas, and revelry such as stage plays. He included in his Histriomastix (1632) a denunciation of actresses which was widely felt to be an attack on Queen Henrietta Maria. This book led to the most prominent incidents in his life, but the timing was accidental.
About 1624 Prynne had begun a book against stage-plays; on 31 May 1630 he gained a licence to print it and about November 1632 it was published. Histriomastix has over a thousand pages, in which he presents plays as unlawful, incentives to immorality, and condemned by the Scriptures, Church Fathers, modern Christian writers, and pagan philosophers. By chance, the Queen and her ladies, in January 1633, took part in the performance of Walter Montagu's The Shepherd's Paradise: this was an innovation at court. A passage reflecting on the character of female actors in general was construed as an aspersion on the Queen; passages attacking the spectators of plays and magistrates who failed to suppress them, pointed by references to Nero and other tyrants, were taken as seen on King Charles I.
The Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lord Cottington, ordered Historiomatrix to "be burnt, in the most public manner that can be." As David Cressy has pointed out, this was an innovative act of public censorship. It imported continental public book-burning by the hangman for the first time. "Though not used in England", Lord Cottington noted, this manner of book burning suited Prynne's work because of its "strangeness and heinousness".William Noy, as attorney-general, took proceedings against Prynne in the Star-chamber. After a year's imprisonment in the Tower of London, he was sentenced on 17 February 1634 to life imprisonment, a fine of £5,000, expulsion from Lincoln's Inn, deprival of his Oxford University degree, and amputation of both his ears in the pillory, where he was held on 7–10 May. His book was burnt before him, and with over a thousand pages it suffocated Prynne in its smoke.
On 11 June Prynne addressed a letter to Archbishop Laud, whom he saw as his chief persecutor, charging him with illegality and injustice. Laud handed the letter to the Attorney-General as material for a new prosecution, but when Prynne was required to own his handwriting, he contrived to get hold of the letter and tore it to pieces. Prynne wrote in the Tower and published anonymous tracts against episcopacy and the Book of Sports. In A Divine Tragedy lately acted, or a Collection of sundry memorable Examples of God's Judgment upon Sabbath-breakers he introduced Noy's recent death as a warning. In an appendix to John Bastwick's Flagellum Pontificis and in A Breviate of the Bishops' intolerable Usurpations he attacked prelates in general (1635). An anonymous attack on Matthew Wren, Bishop of Norwich brought him again before the Star Chamber. On 14 June 1637 Prynne was sentenced once more to a fine of £5,000, to imprisonment for life, and to lose the rest of his ears. At the proposal of Chief Justice John Finch, he was also to be branded on the cheeks with the letters S. L., standing for "seditious libeller". Prynne was pilloried on 30 June in company with Henry Burton and John Bastwick; Prynne was handled barbarously by the executioner. He made, as he returned to his prison, a couple of Latin verses explaining the 'S. L.' with which he was branded to mean 'stigmata laudis' ("sign of praise", or "sign of Laud").
His imprisonment was then much closer: no pens or ink, nor any books allowed but the Bible, the prayer book, and some orthodox theology. To isolate him from his friends, he was sent first to Carnarvon Castle in July 1637, and then to Mont Orgueil in Jersey. The governor, Sir Philip Carteret treated Prynne well, which he repaid by defending Carteret's character in 1645. when he was accused as a malignant and a tyrant. He occupied his imprisonment by writing verse.
1640s
He was released by the Long Parliament in 1640. The House of Commons declared the two sentences against him illegal, restored him to his degree and to his membership of Lincoln's Inn, and voted him pecuniary reparation (as late as October 1648 he was still trying to collect it). He supported the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War, particularly in the press, and in many pamphlets, while still pursuing the bishops.
In 1643 Prynne became involved in the controversy which followed the surrender of Bristol by Nathaniel Fiennes. Together with his ally Clement Walker, he presented articles of accusation against Fiennes to the House of Commons (15 November 1643), managed the case for the prosecution at the court-martial, which took place in the following December, and secured a condemnation of the offending officer. Prynne was also one of the counsel for the parliament at the trial of Lord Maguire in February 1645.
He was able to have the satisfaction of overseeing the trial of William Laud, which was to end in Laud's execution. He collected and arranged evidence to prove the charges against him, bore testimony himself in support of many of them, hunted up witnesses against the archbishop, and assisted the counsel for the prosecution in every way. At the time some thought he was clearly tampering with the witnesses. Prynne had the duty of searching Laud's room in the Tower for papers. He published a redacted edition of Laud's diary and a volume intended to serve as an introduction to his trial. After Laud's execution, Prynne was charged by the House of Commons (4 March 1645) to produce an account of the trial; other controversies prevented him from finishing the book.
In the rapidly shifting climate of opinion of the time, Prynne, having been at the forefront of radical opposition, soon found himself a conservative figure, defending Presbyterianism against the Independents favoured by Oliver Cromwell and the army. From 1644 he wrote pamphlets against Independents. He attacked John Goodwin and crossed his old companion in suffering, Henry Burton. The proposal to lift the thirteenth-century ban on the residence of Jews, being promoted then in England by Manasseh ben Israel, among others, inspired him with a pamphlet against the scheme, called in brief the Short Demurrer. The pamphlet was printed shortly before the Whitehall Conference, and was influential in strengthening opinion against the readmission of the Jews. In particular, Prynne doubts the probability that the Jews would be converted to Christianity once in England. Oliver Cromwell allowed the Jews to return to the British Isles on the condition that the Jews attend compulsory Christian sermons on a Sunday, to encourage their conversion to Christianity. Cromwell based this decision on St. Paul's epistle to the Romans 10:15. The offer of the crown to Cromwell by the "petition and advice" suggested a parallel between Cromwell and Richard III. Similarly, when the Protector, as Cromwell then was styled, set up a House of Lords, Prynne expanded the tract in defence of their rights which he had published in 1648 into an historical treatise of five hundred pages. These writings, however, attracted little attention.
After the fall of Richard Cromwell he regained the popular ear. As soon as the Long Parliament was re-established, Prynne got together a few of the members excluded by Pride's purge and endeavoured to take his place in the house. On 7 May 1659 he was kept back by the guards, but on 9 May he managed to get in, and kept his seat there for a whole sitting. Arthur Haslerig and Sir Henry Vane threatened him, but Prynne told them he had as good right there as either, and had suffered more for the rights of parliament than any of them. They could only get rid of him by adjourning the house, and forcibly keeping him out when it reassembled. On 27 December when the parliament was again restored after its interruption by John Lambert, Prynne and his friends made a fresh attempt to enter, but were once more excluded. From May 1659 to February 1660 he went on publishing tracts on the case of the "secluded members and attacks on the ref-formed Rump Parliament and the army". Marchamont Nedham, Henry Stubbe, John Rogers, and others printed serious answers to his arguments, while obscure libellers ridiculed him.
On 21 February 1660 George Monck ordered the guards of the house to readmit the secluded members. Prynne, girt with an old basket-hilted sword, marched into Westminster Hall at their head; though the effect was spoiled when Sir William Waller tripped on the sword. The house charged him to bring in a bill for the dissolution of the Long parliament. In the debate on the bill Prynne asserted the rights of Charles II of England and claimed that the writs should be issued in his name. He also helped to forward the Restoration by accelerating the passing of the Militia Bill, which placed the control of the forces in the hands of the king's friends. A letter which he addressed to Charles II shows that he was personally thanked by the king for his services.
From 1660
Prynne supported the Restoration, and was rewarded with public office. In April 1660 he was elected MP for Bath in the Convention Parliament. He was bitter against the regicides and the supporters of the previous government, trying to restrict the scope of the Act of Indemnity. He successfully moved to have Charles Fleetwood excepted, and urged the exclusion of Richard Cromwell and Judge Francis Thorpe. He proposed punitive and financial measures of broad scope, was zealous for the disbanding of the army, and was one of the commissioners appointed to pay it off. In the debates on religion he was one of the leaders of the presbyterians, spoke against the Thirty-nine Articles, denied the claims of the bishops, urged the validity of presbyterian ordination, and supported the bill for turning the king's ecclesiastical declaration into law.
As a politician Prynne was during his latter years of minor importance. He was re-elected MP for Bath to the Cavalier Parliament of May 1661. He asserted his presbyterianism by refusing to kneel when the two houses received the sacrament together. A few weeks earlier he had published a pamphlet demanding the revision of the prayer-book, but the new parliament was opposed to any concessions to nonconformity. On 15 July a pamphlet by Prynne against the Corporation Bill was voted scandalous and seditious. In January 1667 Prynne was one of the managers of Lord Mordaunt's impeachment. He spoke several times on Clarendon's impeachment, and opposed the bill for his banishment. On constitutional subjects and points of procedure his opinion had weight, and in 1667 he was privately consulted by the king on the question whether a parliament which had been prorogued could be convened before the day fixed for its resumption.
He became the Keeper of Records in the Tower of London; as a writer his most lasting works belong to that period, for the amount of historical material they contain. Histriomastix is the one of his works that receives attention from modern scholars, but for its relevance to English Renaissance theatre. Anthony à Wood found him affable, obliging towards researchers, and courteous in the fashion of the early part of the century. Prynne died unmarried on 24 October 1669. He was buried in the undercroft of the chapel of Lincoln's Inn.
References
Sources
Kirby, Ethyn Williams. William Prynne: A Study in Puritanism. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1931.
Lamont, William M. Puritanism and Historical Controversy. Montreal, McGill-Queen's Press, 1996.
Fitch, Thomas. Caroline Puritanism as exemplified in the life and work of William Prynne. PhD thesis Edinburgh, 1949.
External links
1600 births
1669 deaths
17th-century English writers
17th-century English male writers
17th-century Presbyterians
Alumni of Oriel College, Oxford
English barristers
English MPs 1640–1648
English MPs 1660
English MPs 1661–1679
English political writers
English Presbyterians
English religious writers
Erastians
Members of Lincoln's Inn
Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall
People from Bath and North East Somerset
Prisoners and detainees of Jersey
Roundheads
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Thayer%20Mahan
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Alfred Thayer Mahan
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Alfred Thayer Mahan (; September 27, 1840 – December 1, 1914) was a United States naval officer and historian, whom John Keegan called "the most important American strategist of the nineteenth century." His book The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783 (1890) won immediate recognition, especially in Europe, and with its successor, The Influence of Sea Power Upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793–1812 (1892), made him world-famous and perhaps the most influential American author of the nineteenth century.
Early life
Mahan was born on September 27, 1840, at West Point, New York, to Dennis Hart Mahan (a professor at the United States Military Academy) and Mary Helena Okill Mahan (1815–1893), daughter of John Okill and Mary Jay (daughter of Sir James Jay). Mahan's middle name honors "the father of West Point", Sylvanus Thayer. Mahan attended Saint James School, an Episcopal college preparatory academy in western Maryland. He then studied at Columbia for two years, where he was a member of the Philolexian Society debating club. Against the better judgment of his father, Mahan then entered the Naval Academy, where he graduated second in his class in 1859.
Early career
After graduation he was assigned to the frigate from 9 June 1859 until 1861. He then joined the steam-corvette of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron and participated in the attack on Port Royal, South Carolina, early in the American Civil War. Commissioned as a lieutenant in 1861, Mahan served as an officer on and and as an instructor at the Naval Academy. In 1865, he was promoted to lieutenant commander, and then to commander (1872), and captain (1885). As commander of the he was stationed at Callao, Peru, protecting US interests during the final stages of the War of the Pacific.
While in actual command of a ship, his skills were not exemplary; and a number of vessels under his command were involved in collisions with both moving and stationary objects. He had an affection for old square-rigged vessels rather than the smoky, noisy steamships of his own day; and he tried to avoid active sea duty.
Naval War College and writings
In 1885, he was appointed as a lecturer in naval history and tactics at the Naval War College. Before entering on his duties, College President Rear Admiral Stephen B. Luce pointed Mahan in the direction of writing his future studies on the influence of sea power. During his first year on the faculty, he remained at his home in New York City researching and writing his lectures. Though he was prepared to become a professor in 1886, Luce was given command of the North Atlantic Squadron, and Mahan became President of the Naval War College by default (June 22, 1886 – January 12, 1889, July 22, 1892 – May 10, 1893). There, in 1888, he met and befriended future president Theodore Roosevelt, then a visiting lecturer.
Mahan's lectures, based on secondary sources and the military theories of Jomini, became his sea-power studies: The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783 (1890); The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793–1812 (2 vols., 1892); Sea Power in Relation to the War of 1812 (2 vols., 1905), and The Life of Nelson: The Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain (2 vols., 1897). Mahan stressed the importance of the individual in shaping history and extolled the traditional values of loyalty, courage, and service to the state. Mahan sought to resurrect Horatio Nelson as a national hero in Britain and used his biography as a platform for expressing his views on naval strategy and tactics. Mahan was criticized for so strongly condemning Nelson's love affair with Lady Emma Hamilton, but it remained the standard biography until the appearance of Carola Oman's Nelson, 50 years later.
Mahan struck up a friendship with pioneering British naval historian Sir John Knox Laughton, the pair maintaining the relationship through correspondence and visits when Mahan was in London. Mahan was later described as a "disciple" of Laughton, but the two were at pains to distinguish between each other's line of work. Laughton saw Mahan as a theorist while Mahan called Laughton "the historian". Mahan also worked closely with William McCarty Little, another critical figure in the early history of the Naval War College and a principal developer of wargaming in the United States Navy. Mahan credited McCarty Little for assisting him with preparing maps and charts for his lectures and first book.
Origin and limitation of strategic views
Mahan's views were shaped by 17th-century conflicts between the Dutch Republic, England, France and Spain, and by the nineteenth-century naval wars between France and Great Britain. British naval superiority eventually defeated France, consistently preventing invasion and an effective blockade. Mahan emphasized that naval operations were chiefly to be won by decisive battles and blockades. In the 19th-century the United States sought greater control over its seaborne commerce in order to protect its economic interests which relied heavily on exports bound mainly for Europe.
According to Peter Paret's Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age, Mahan's emphasis on sea power as the most important cause of Britain's rise to world power neglected diplomacy and land arms. Furthermore, theories of sea power do not explain the rise of land empires, such as Bismarck's Germany or the Russian Empire.
Sea power
Mahan believed that national greatness was inextricably associated with the sea, with its commercial use in peace and its control in war; and he used history as a stock of examples to exemplify his theories, arguing that the education of naval officers should be based on a rigorous study of history. Mahan's framework derived from Antoine-Henri Jomini, and emphasized strategic locations (such as choke points, canals, and coaling stations), as well as quantifiable levels of fighting power in a fleet. Mahan also believed that in peacetime, states should increase production and shipping capacities and acquire overseas possessions, though he stressed that the number of coal fueling stations and strategic bases should be limited to avoid draining too many resources from the mother country.
The primary mission of a navy was to secure the command of the sea, which would permit the maintenance of sea communications for one's own ships while denying their use to the enemy and, if necessary, closely supervise neutral trade. Control of the sea could be achieved not by destruction of commerce but only by destroying or neutralizing the enemy fleet. Such a strategy called for the concentration of naval forces composed of capital ships, not too large but numerous, well-manned with crews thoroughly trained, and operating under the principle that the best defense is an aggressive offense.
Mahan contended that with a command of the sea, even if local and temporary, naval operations in support of land forces could be of decisive importance. He also believed that naval supremacy could be exercised by a transnational consortium acting in defense of a multinational system of free trade. His theories, expounded before the submarine became a serious factor in warfare, delayed the introduction of convoys as a defense against German U-boats during World War I. By the 1930s, the US Navy had built long-range submarines to raid Japanese shipping; but in World War II, the Japanese, still tied to Mahan, designed their submarines as ancillaries to the fleet and failed to attack American supply lines in the Pacific. Mahan's analysis of the Spanish-American War suggested to him that the great distances in the Pacific required the American battle fleet to be designed with long-range striking power.
Mahan believed first, that good political and naval leadership was no less important than geography when it came to the development of sea power. Second, Mahan's unit of political analysis insofar as sea power was concerned was a transnational consortium, rather than a single nation state. Third, his economic ideal was free trade rather than autarky. Fourth, his recognition of the influence of geography on strategy was tempered by a strong appreciation of the power of contingency to affect outcomes.
In 1890 Mahan prepared a secret contingency plan for war between Britain and the United States. Mahan believed that if the British blockaded the eastern ports, the US Navy should be concentrated in one of them, preferably New York, with its two widely separated exits, and employ torpedo boats to defend the other harbors. This concentration of the US fleet would force the British to tie down such a large proportion of their navy to watch the New York exits that other American ports would be relatively safe. Detached American cruisers should wage "constant offensive action" against the enemy's exposed positions; and if the British were to weaken their blockade force off New York to attack another American port, the concentrated US fleet could capture British coaling ports in Nova Scotia, thereby seriously weakening British ability to engage in naval operations off the American coast. This contingency plan was a clear example of Mahan's application of his principles of naval war, with a clear reliance on Jomini's principle of controlling strategic points.
Impact
Timeliness contributed no small part to the widespread acceptance of Mahan's theories. Although his history was relatively thin, based as it was on secondary sources, his vigorous style, and clear theory won widespread acceptance of navalists and supporters of the New Imperialism in Africa and Asia.
Given the rapid technological changes underway in propulsion (from coal to oil and from reciprocating engines to turbines), ordnance (with better fire directors, and new high explosives), and armor and the emergence of new craft such as destroyers and submarines, Mahan's emphasis on the capital ship and the command of the sea came at an opportune moment.
Germany
Mahan's name became a household word in the German navy after Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered his officers to read Mahan, and Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz (1849–1930) used Mahan's reputation to finance a powerful surface fleet. Tirpitz, an intense navalist who believed ardently in Mahan's dictum that whatever power rules the sea also ruled the world, had The Influence of Sea Power Upon History translated into German in 1898 and had 8,000 copies distributed for free as a way of pressuring the Reichstag to vote for the First Navy Bill.
Tirpitz used Mahan not only as a way of winning over German public opinion but also as a guide to strategic thinking. Before 1914, Tirpitz completely rejected commerce raiding as a strategy and instead embraced Mahan's ideal of a decisive battle of annihilation between two fleets as the way to win command of the seas. Tirpitz always planned for the German High Seas Fleet to win the Entscheidungsschlacht (decisive battle) against the British Royal Navy somewhere in "the waters between Helgoland and the Thames", a strategy he based on his reading of The Influence of Sea Power Upon History.
United Kingdom
Mahan and British admiral John Fisher (1841–1920) both addressed the problem of how to dominate home waters and distant seas with naval forces unable to do both. Mahan argued for a universal principle of concentration of powerful ships in home waters with minimized strength in distant seas. Fisher instead decided to use submarines to defend home waters and mobile battlecruisers to protect British interests.
France
Though in 1914 French naval doctrine was dominated by Mahan's theory of sea power, the course of World War I changed ideas about the place of the navy. The refusal of the German fleet to engage in a decisive battle, the Dardanelles expedition of 1915, the development of submarine warfare, and the organization of convoys all showed the Navy's new role in combined operations with the army. The Navy's part in securing victory was not fully understood by French public opinion in 1918, but a synthesis of old and new ideas arose from the lessons of the war, especially by Admiral Raoul Castex (1878–1968), who synthesized in his five-volume Théories Stratégiques the classical and materialist schools of naval theory. He reversed Mahan's theory that command of the sea precedes maritime communications and foresaw the enlarged roles of aircraft and submarines in naval warfare.
Japan
The Influence of Seapower Upon History, 1660–1783 was translated into Japanese and was used as a textbook in the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). That usage strongly affected the IJN's plan to end Russian naval expansion in the Far East, which culminated in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905). It has been argued that the IJN's pursuit of the "decisive battle" (Kantai Kessen) contributed to Imperial Japan's defeat in World War II, because the development of the submarine and the aircraft carrier, combined with advances in technology, largely rendered obsolete the doctrine of the decisive battle between fleets. Nevertheless, the IJN did not adhere strictly to Mahanian doctrine because its forces were often tactically divided, particularly during the attack on Pearl Harbor and the Battle of Midway.
United States
Mahan believed that if the United States were to build an Isthmian canal, it would become a Pacific power, and therefore it should take possession of Hawaii to protect the West Coast. Nevertheless, his support for American imperialism was more ambivalent than is often stated, and he remained lukewarm about American annexation of the Philippines.
Later career
Between 1889 and 1892, Mahan was engaged in special service for the Bureau of Navigation, and in 1893 he was appointed to command the powerful new protected cruiser on a visit to Europe, where he was feted. He returned to lecture at the War College and then, in 1896, he retired from active service, returning briefly to duty in 1898 to consult on naval strategy during the Spanish–American War.
Mahan continued to write, and he received honorary degrees from Oxford, Cambridge, Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Dartmouth, and McGill. In 1902, Mahan popularized the term "Middle East," which he used in the article "The Persian Gulf and International Relations," published in September in the National Review.
As a delegate to the 1899 Hague Convention, Mahan argued against prohibiting the use of asphyxiating gases in warfare on the ground that such weapons would inflict such terrible casualties that belligerents would be forced to end wars more quickly, thus providing a net advantage for world peace.
In 1902 Mahan was elected president of the American Historical Association, and his address, "Subordination in Historical Treatment", is his most explicit explanation of his philosophy of history.
In 1906, Mahan became rear admiral by an act of Congress that promoted all retired captains who had served in the American Civil War. At the outbreak of World War I, he published statements favorable to the cause of Great Britain, but in an attempt to enforce American neutrality, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that all active and retired officers refrain from publicly commenting on the war.
Religious life
Mahan was reared as an Episcopalian and became a devout churchman with High Church sympathies. For instance, late in life he strongly opposed revision of the Book of Common Prayer. Nevertheless, Mahan also appears to have undergone a conversion experience about 1871, when he realized that he could experience God's favor, not through his own merits, but only through "trust in the completed work of Christ on the cross." Geissler called one of his religious addresses almost "evangelical, albeit of the dignified stiff-upper-lip variety." And Mahan never mentioned a conversion experience in his autobiography.
In later life, Mahan often spoke to Episcopal parishes. In 1899, at Holy Trinity Church in Brooklyn, Mahan emphasized his own religious experience and declared that one needed a personal relationship with God given through the work of the Holy Spirit. In 1909, Mahan published The Harvest Within: Thoughts on the Life of the Christian, which was "part personal testimony, part biblical analysis, part expository sermon."
Death and commemoration
Mahan died in Washington, D.C., of heart failure on December 1, 1914, a few months after the outbreak of World War I.
Four ships have been named , including the lead vessel of a class of destroyers.
The United States Naval Academy's Mahan Hall was named in his honor, as was Mahan Hall at the Naval War College. (Mahan Hall at the United States Military Academy was named for his father, Dennis Hart Mahan.)
A. T. Mahan Elementary School and A. T. Mahan High School at Keflavik Naval Air Station, Iceland, were named in his honor.
A former mission school in Yangzhou, China, was named for Mahan.
A U.S. Naval Sea Cadet Corps unit in Albany, New York, is named for both Mahan and his father.
Mahan Road is an entrance to the former Naval Ordnance Laboratory in White Oak, Silver Spring, Maryland. The facility is now the headquarters of the FDA.
Family
Alfred Thayer Mahan married Ellen Lyle Evans in June 1872. They had two daughters and one son.
Dates of rank
Acting midshipman: 30 September 1856
Midshipman: 9 June 1859
Lieutenant: 31 August 1861
Lieutenant commander: 7 June 1865
Commander: 20 November 1872
Captain: 23 September 1885
Retired list: 17 November 1896
Rear Admiral on the retired list: 1906
Awards
Civil War Campaign Medal
Spanish Campaign Medal
Chesney Gold Medal
In fiction
In 1901, an alternate history by Robert Conroy, the main character is a young United States Army officer named Patrick Mahan, a fictitious nephew of Admiral Mahan, who himself appears briefly in the story as well.
In Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory, another alternate history, Mahan is frequently mentioned but never appears. He is spoken of as having been President of the United States from 1889 to 1897, and the Mahan Bedroom is a famous room in the Powel House in Philadelphia, analogous to the actual Lincoln Bedroom in the White House. As President, Mahan prevented the construction of a Confederate shipping canal in Nicaragua and opined that the main problem with republics is that "over time, the voters are apt to get tired of paying for what their country needs to defend itself".
The protagonist in G.C. Edmondson's novel The Ship that Sailed the Time Stream frequently mentions Mahan and/or Mahan's ghost as an exclamation.
In The Riddle of the Sands, Erskine Childers has his character Davies "aimlessly fingering a volume of Mahan".
Works
The Gulf and Inland Waters (1883)
The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783 (1890)
The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1805 (abridged ed, 1980)
The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783 (1890) at archive.org
The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793–1812 (1892) at archive.org
Url
The Future in Relation To American Naval Power, Harper's New Monthly Magazine, Oct 1895
The Life of Nelson: The Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain (1897)
The Interest of America in Sea Power, Present and Future (1897)
Lessons of the War with Spain, and Other Articles (1899)
The Problem of Asia and Its Effect Upon International Policies (1900)
Story of the War in South Africa 1899–1900 (1900) online
Types of Naval Officers Drawn from the History of the British Navy (1901) online Sea Power in Its Relation to the War of 1812 (2 vols.) (1905) (Boston: Little Brown) American Library Association.
Reflections, Historic and Other, Suggested by the Battle of the Japan Sea. (1906) Proceedings magazine, June 1906, United States Naval Institute.
From Sail to Steam, Recollections of Naval life (1907)
Naval Administration and Warfare: Some General Principles, with Other Essays (1908)
The Harvest Within: Thoughts on the Life of the Christian (1909)
Naval Strategy: Compared and Contrasted with the Principles and Practice of Military Operations on Land (1911)
Armaments and Arbitration; or, The Place of Force in the International Relations of States (1912)
The Major Operations of the Navies in the War of American Independence (1913) at Project Gutenberg
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Primary sources
Seager II, Robert, ed. Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan (3 vol 1975) v. 1. 1847–1889. – v. 2. 1890–1901. – v. 3. 1902–1914
Mahan, Alfred Thayer. The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783 (1890) online edition
Mahan, Alfred Thayer. The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793–1812 (2 vols., 1892) online edition
Mahan, Alfred Thayer. Sea Power in Relation to the War of 1812 (2 vols., 1905). online edition
Mahan, Alfred Thayer., Reflections, Historic and Other, Suggested by the Battle of the Japan Sea. By Captain A. T. Mahan, U.S. Navy. US Naval Proceedings magazine, June 1906, Volume XXXVI, No. 2 United States Naval Institute.
Mahan, Alfred Thayer. The Life of Nelson: The Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain (2 vols., 1897) online edition
Mahan, Alfred Thayer. Mahan on Naval Strategy: selections from the writings of Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan ed by John B. Hattendorf (1991)
Mahan, Alfred Thayer. "The Negotiations at Ghent in 1814", The American Historical Review, Vol. 11, No. 1 (Oct., 1905), pp. 68–87, Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the American Historical Association Article Stable URL:
Further reading
Apt, Benjamin. "Mahan's Forebears: The Debate over Maritime Strategy, 1868–1883." Naval War College Review (Summer 1997). Online. Naval War College. September 24, 2004
Bowling, Roland Alfred. "The Negative Influence of Mahan on the Protection of Shipping in Wartime: The Convoy Controversy in the Twentieth Century." PhD dissertation U. of Maine 1980. 689 pp. DAI 1980 41(5): 2241-A. 8024828 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
Crowl, Philip A. "Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Naval Historian" in Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age, ed. Peter Paret (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986)
Hattendorf, John B., ed. The Influence of History on Mahan. Naval War College Press, 1991. 208 pp.
Holmes, James R., "Strategic Features of the South China Sea: A Tough Neighborhood for Hegemons", Naval War College Review, Spring 2014, Volume 67, Number 2, pp. 30–51.
Kaplan, Robert D. (2012) The Revenge of Geography: What the Maps Tell Us About the Coming Conflicts and the Battle Against Fate New York: Random House.
Karsten, Peter. "The Nature of 'Influence': Roosevelt, Mahan and the Concept of Sea Power." American Quarterly 1971 23(4): 585–600. in Jstor
LaFeber, Walter. "A Note on the "Mercantilistic Imperialism" of Alfred Thayer Mahan," The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 48, No. 4 (Mar., 1962), pp. 674–685 online at JSTOR
Livezey, William E. Mahan on Sea Power (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, reprinted 1981)
Puleston, W. D. Mahan: The Life and Work of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, U.S.N 1939 online edition
St. John, Ronald B. "European Naval Expansion and Mahan, 1889–1906." Naval War College Review 1971 23(7): 74–83. . Argues that key Europeans were already set to expand their navies and that Mahan crystallized their ideas and generate broad support.
Schluter, Randall Craig. "Looking Outward for America: An Ideological Criticism of the Rhetoric of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, USN, in American Magazines of the 1890s." PhD dissertation U. of Iowa 1995. 261 pp. DAI 1995 56(6): 2045-A. DA9536247 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
Seager, Robert. Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Man and His Letters (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1977), the standard biography
Shulman, Mark Russell. "The Influence of Mahan upon Sea Power." Reviews in American History 1991 19(4): 522–527. in Jstor
Shulman, Mark Russell. Navalism and the Emergence of American Sea Powers, 1882–1893 (1995)
Sumida, Jon Tetsuro. Inventing Grand Strategy and Teaching Command: The Classic Works of Alfred Thayer Mahan (2000) 184 pages excerpt and online search from Amazon.com
Turk, Richard W. The Ambiguous Relationship: Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Thayer Mahan (1987) online edition
Varacalli, Thomas F.X. "National Interest and Moral Responsibility in the Political Thought of Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan" Naval War College Review, Vol. 69, no. 2 (Spring 2016), 108–127
Zimmermann, Warren. First Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made Their Country a World Power. (2002). 562 pp., chapter on Mahan
External links
Past Presidents of the Naval War College – from the Naval War College website
The Life of Nelson – review
1840 births
1914 deaths
Union Navy officers
Geopoliticians
Historians of the American Revolution
Historians of the United States
American naval historians
American male non-fiction writers
Saint James School (Maryland) alumni
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Navy rear admirals (upper half)
Presidents of the American Historical Association
Presidents of the Naval War College
Columbia University alumni
Naval War College faculty
American military writers
Military theorists
Naval history
Writers from New York (state)
19th-century American Episcopalians
20th-century American Episcopalians
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210136
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess%20Claire%20of%20Belgium
|
Princess Claire of Belgium
|
Princess Claire of Belgium (born Claire Louise Coombs on 18 January 1974) is a British-Belgian land surveyor. She has been married to Prince Laurent since 2003 and is the sister-in-law of King Philippe of Belgium.
Family
She is the daughter of Nicholas John Coombs (Bath, 14 April 1938), a British-born businessman, and his Belgian wife, Nicole Eva Gabrielle Thérèse, née Mertens (Ixelles, 20 June 1951). She has an older sister, Joanna, and a younger brother, Matthew. Her family relocated to Dion-le-Val, near to Brussels in francophone Wallonia in 1977. She has therefore lived in Belgium since age 3.
Marriage and children
On 12 April 2003, she married Prince Laurent of Belgium, the second son and youngest child of the King Albert II of Belgium and Queen Paola of Belgium. The civil ceremony was held at Brussels Town Hall, and the religious ceremony at the Cathedral of Saints Michael and Gudula.
The couple have three children:
Princess Louise Sophie Mary, born 6 February 2004 at Saint Luc University Hospital in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert.
Prince Nicolas Casimir Marie, born 13 December 2005 (twin) at Saint Luc University Hospital in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert.
Prince Aymeric Auguste Marie, born 13 December 2005 (twin) at Saint Luc University Hospital in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert.
The family live in Villa Clementine, in Tervuren.
Public life
Unlike Queen Mathilde and Princess Astrid, Princess Claire has no defined official role.
She occasionally appears in public accompanying her husband, generally in support of environmental causes or animal charities. She is also a leading patron of the Brussels Choral Society, which sang at the religious part of her marriage ceremony. She is also active in organisations related to the United Kingdom in Belgium. She is a member of the Board of Trustees at the British School of Brussels and actively attends charitable and commemorative events hosted by the British Ambassador to Belgium.
In March 2020, amid the large-scale outbreak of COVID-19, it was officially announced that Princess Claire had tested positive for the infectious disease, which is caused by a coronavirus called SARS-CoV-2.
Titles and styles
Coombs received the title Princess of Belgium from the King ten days before her marriage, by Royal Decree of 1 April 2003 (effective as of the date of the wedding, on 12 April 2003).
Honours
National
: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold I
Foreign
: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown
: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Merit
: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Infante Henry
References
External links
Her official webpage at the official site of the Belgian monarchy
Princess Claire's ancestry
Belgian princesses
Belgian surveyors
1974 births
Living people
Walloon people
House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Belgium)
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Netherlands)
Grand Crosses of the Order of Prince Henry
English surveyors
People from Bath, Somerset
|
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210137
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der%20Spiegel
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Der Spiegel
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Der Spiegel (, lit. "The Mirror") is a German weekly news magazine published in Hamburg. With a weekly circulation of 695,100 copies, it is the largest such publication in Europe.
It was founded in 1947 by John Seymour Chaloner, a British army officer, and Rudolf Augstein, a former Wehrmacht radio operator who was recognised in 2000 by the International Press Institute as one of the fifty World Press Freedom Heroes. Typically, the magazine has a content to advertising ratio of 2:1.
Der Spiegel is known in German-speaking countries mostly for its investigative journalism. It has played a key role in uncovering many political scandals such as the Spiegel scandal in 1962 and the Flick affair in the 1980s. According to The Economist, Der Spiegel is one of continental Europe's most influential magazines.
The news website by the same name was launched in 1994 under the name Spiegel Online with an independent editorial staff. Today, the content is created by a shared editorial team and the website uses the same media brand as the printed magazine.
History
The first edition of Der Spiegel was published in Hanover on Saturday, 4 January 1947. Its release was initiated and sponsored by the British occupational administration and preceded by a magazine titled Diese Woche (meaning This Week in English), which had first been published in November 1946. After disagreements with the British, the magazine was handed over to Rudolf Augstein as chief editor, and was renamed Der Spiegel. From the first edition in January 1947, Augstein held the position of editor-in-chief, which he retained until his death on 7 November 2002.
After 1950, the magazine was owned by Rudolf Augstein and John Jahr; Jahr's share merged with Richard Gruner in 1965 to form the publishing company Gruner + Jahr. In 1969, Augstein bought out Gruner + Jahr for DM 42 million and became the sole owner of Der Spiegel. In 1971, Gruner + Jahr bought back a 25% share in the magazine. In 1974, Augstein restructured the company to make the employees shareholders. All employees with more than three years seniority were offered the opportunity to become an associate and participate in the management of the company, as well as in the profits.
Since 1952, Der Spiegel has been headquartered in its own building in the old town part of Hamburg.
Der Spiegel circulation rose quickly. From 15,000 copies in 1947, it grew to 65,000 in 1948 and 437,000 in 1961. It was nearly 500,000 copies in 1962. By the 1970s, it had reached a plateau at about 900,000 copies. When the German re-unification in 1990 made it available to a new readership in former East Germany, the circulation exceeded one million.
The magazine's influence is based on two pillars; firstly the moral authority established by investigative journalism since the early years and proven alive by several impressive scoops during the 1980s; secondly the economic power of the prolific Spiegel publishing house. Since 1988, it has produced the TV program Spiegel TV, and further diversified during the 1990s.
During the second quarter of 1992 the circulation of Der Spiegel was 1.1 million copies. In 1994, Spiegel Online was launched. It had separate and independent editorial staff from Der Spiegel. In 1999, the circulation of Der Spiegel was 1,061,000 copies.
Der Spiegel had an average circulation of 1,076,000 copies in 2003. In 2007 the magazine started a new regional supplement in Switzerland. It was the first regional supplement of the magazine which covers 50-page review of Switzerland.
In 2010 Der Spiegel was employing the equivalent of 80 full-time fact checkers, which the Columbia Journalism Review called "most likely the world's largest fact checking operation". The same year it was the third best-selling general interest magazine in Europe with a circulation of 1,016,373 copies.
In 2018, Der Spiegel became involved in a journalistic scandal after it discovered and made public that one of its leading reporters, Claas Relotius, had "falsified his articles on a grand scale".
Reception
When Stefan Aust took over in 1994, the magazine's readers realized that his personality was different from his predecessor. In 2005, a documentary by Stephan Lamby quoted him as follows: "We stand at a very big cannon!" Politicians of all stripes who had to deal with the magazine's attention often voiced their disaffection for it. The outspoken conservative Franz Josef Strauß contended that Der Spiegel was "the Gestapo of our time". He referred to journalists in general as "rats". The Social Democrat Willy Brandt called it "Scheißblatt" (i.e., a "shit paper") during his term in office as Chancellor.
Der Spiegel often produces feature-length articles on problems affecting Germany (like demographic trends, the federal system's gridlock or the issues of its education system) and describes optional strategies and their risks in depth. The magazine plays the role of opinion leader in the German press.
Investigative journalism
Der Spiegel has a distinctive reputation for revealing political misconduct and scandals. Online Encyclopædia Britannica emphasizes this quality of the magazine as follows: "The magazine is renowned for its aggressive, vigorous, and well-written exposés of government malpractice and scandals." It merited recognition for this as early as 1950 when the federal parliament launched an inquiry into Spiegels accusations that bribed members of parliament had promoted Bonn over Frankfurt as the seat of West Germany's government.
During the Spiegel scandal in 1962, which followed the release of a report about the possible low state of readiness of the German armed forces, minister of defense and conservative figurehead Franz Josef Strauß had Der Spiegel investigated. In the course of this investigation, the editorial offices were raided by police while Rudolf Augstein and other Der Spiegel editors were arrested on charges of treason. Despite a lack of sufficient authority, Strauß even went after the article's author, Conrad Ahlers, who was consequently arrested in Spain where he was on holiday. When the legal case collapsed, the scandal led to a major shake-up in chancellor Konrad Adenauer's cabinet, and Strauß had to stand down. The affair was generally received as an attack on the freedom of the press. Since then, Der Spiegel has repeatedly played a significant role in revealing political grievances and misdeeds, including the Flick Affair.
The Spiegel scandal is now remembered for altering the political culture of post-war Germany and—with the first mass demonstrations and public protests—being a turning point from the old Obrigkeitsstaat (authoritarian state) to a modern democracy.
In 2010, the magazine supported WikiLeaks in publishing leaked materials from the United States State Department, along with The Guardian, The New York Times, El País, and Le Monde and in October 2013 with the help of former NSA contractor Edward Snowden unveiled the systematic wiretapping of Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel's private cell phone over a period of over 10 years at the hands of the National Security Agency's Special Collection Service (SCS).
The leading role of the magazine in investigative journalism and its monopoly came to end in 2013 since other German media outlets, including Süddeutsche Zeitung, Bild, ARD and ZDF, began to effectively deal with political scandals.
Criticism
One of the main criticism of Der Spiegel concerns its use of language. In 1957, writer Hans Magnus Enzensberger published his essay Die Sprache des Spiegels ("The Language of Der Spiegel"), in which he criticized what he called a "pretended objectivity". Wolf Schneider, an eminent journalist and stylist has called Der Spiegel "the biggest mangler of the German language" and used quotations from the magazine as examples of inept German in his style guides. Their criticism was not so much one of linguistic aesthetics as an argument that Der Spiegel "hides and distorts its actual topics and issues by manipulative semantics and rhetoric rather than by reporting and analyzing them". In 1957, however, Enzensberger admitted in a written statement that no other contemporary German magazine attained the Spiegels level of objectivity.
Opinions about the level of language employed by Der Spiegel changed in the late 1990s. After hiring many of Germany's best feature writers, Der Spiegel has become known for its "Edelfedern" ("noble quills"—wordsmiths). The magazine frequently wins the Egon Erwin Kisch Prize for the best German feature. Der Spiegel ended up joining the ranks of the guardians of proper grammar and jargon with the Zwiebelfisch ("(printer's) pie") column on the magazine's website, which has even produced several best-selling books.
Some critics, in particular the media historian Lutz Hachmeister and the Augstein biographer and former Der Spiegel author Otto Köhler, have brought charges against the magazine's dealings with former Nazis, even SS officers. Allegedly, Der Spiegel, which at other times showed no restraint when exposing the Nazi past of public figures, distorted history and covered up for criminals after enlisting insiders hired to write about Third Reich topics. Its early reports and serials about the Reichstag fire, written by former SS officers Paul Carell (who had also served as chief press spokesman for Nazi Germany's Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop) and Fritz Tobias, have since been considered influential in historiography because since the 1960s the Spiegel reports written by these two authors have been corroborated by authoritative historian Hans Mommsen.
2018 fabrication scandal
On 19 December 2018, Der Spiegel made public that reporter Claas Relotius had admitted that he had "falsified his articles on a grand scale", inventing facts, persons and quotations in at least 14 of his stories. The magazine uncovered the fraud after a co-author of one of Relotius's stories, Juan Moreno, became suspicious of the veracity of Relotius's contributions and gathered evidence against him. Relotius resigned, telling the magazine that he was "sick" and needed to get help. Der Spiegel left his articles accessible, but with a notice referring to the magazine's ongoing investigation into the fabrications.
The Wall Street Journal cited a former Der Spiegel journalist who said "some of the articles at issue appeared to confirm certain German stereotypes about Trump voters, asking "was this possible because of ideological bias?" An apology ensued from Der Spiegel for looking for a cliché of a Trump-voting town, and not finding it. Mathias Bröckers, former Die Tageszeitung editor, wrote: "the imaginative author simply delivered what his superiors demanded and fit into their spin". The Atlantic claimed that "Der Spiegel has long peddled crude and sensational anti-Americanism."
The Russian businessman Yevgeny Prigozhin described the magazine as a 'resource of offal'.
Bans
A special 25 March 2008 edition of Der Spiegel on Islam was banned in Egypt in April 2008 for publishing material deemed by authorities to be insulting Islam and the Prophet Muhammed.
Head office
Der Spiegel began moving into its current head office in HafenCity in September 2011. The facility was designed by Henning Larsen Architects of Denmark. The magazine was previously located in a high-rise building with of office space.
Editors-in-chief
1962–1968: Claus Jacobi
1968–1973: Günter Gaus
1973–1986: Erich Böhme and Johannes K. Engel
1986–1989: Erich Böhme and Werner Funk
1989–1994: Hans Werner Kilz and Wolfgang Kaden
1994–2008: Stefan Aust
2008–2011: Mathias Müller von Blumencron and Georg Mascolo
2011–2013: Georg Mascolo
2013–2014: Wolfgang Büchner
13 January 2015 – 15 October 2018: Klaus Brinkbäumer
1 January 2019: Steffen Klusmann and Barbara Hans
16 April 2019: Clemens Höges
See also
List of magazines in Germany
List of non-English newspapers with English language subsections
Media of Germany
Spiegel affair
References
External links
Der Spiegel, printed edition
Der Spiegel cover gallery and archive since 1947
Spiegel-Mobil (Mobile Website, E-Paper, App)
Spiegel TV Magazin
1947 establishments in West Germany
German-language magazines
News magazines published in Germany
Weekly magazines published in Germany
Magazines established in 1947
Magazines published in Hamburg
Mass media in Hanover
Centre-left newspapers
Liberal media in Germany
Online magazines
Censored works
Weekly news magazines
Investigative journalism
Websites utilizing paywalls
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] |
210142
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20II%20of%20Yugoslavia
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Peter II of Yugoslavia
|
Peter II (; 6 September 1923 – 3 November 1970) was the last king of Yugoslavia, reigning from October 1934 until his deposition in November 1945. He was the last reigning member of the Karađorđević dynasty.
The eldest child of King Alexander I and Maria of Romania, Peter succeeded to the Yugoslav throne in 1934 at the age of 11 after his father was assassinated during a state visit to France. A regency was set up under his cousin Prince Paul. After Paul declared Yugoslavia's accession to the Tripartite Pact in late March 1941, a pro-British coup d'état deposed the regent and declared Peter of age.
In response, Axis forces invaded Yugoslavia ten days later and quickly overran the country, forcing the king and his ministers into exile. A government-in-exile was set up in June 1941 following Peter's arrival at London. In March 1944, he married Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark. Their only son, Alexander, was born a year later. In November 1945, the Yugoslav Constituent Assembly formally deposed Peter and proclaimed Yugoslavia a republic.
Peter settled in the United States after his deposition. Suffering from depression and alcoholism later in his life, he died of cirrhosis in November 1970 at the age of 47. His remains were buried at the Saint Sava Monastery Church in Libertyville, Illinois, before being transferred to the Royal Mausoleum of Oplenac in 2013.
Early life
Peter II was born on 6 September 1923 in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He was the eldest son of Alexander I of Yugoslavia and Maria of Romania. His godparents were Queen Elizabeth of Greece, King Ferdinand of Romania, and the future King George VI of the United Kingdom.
Prince Peter was initially tutored at the Royal Palace, Belgrade, before attending Sandroyd School then in Cobham, Surrey where Reed's School now stands. When he was 11 years old, Prince Peter succeeded to the Yugoslav throne on 9 October 1934 upon his father's assassination in Marseille during a state visit to France. In view of the new monarch's young age, a regency was set up under his father's cousin Prince Paul.
Prince Regent Paul took the view that he must not change the kingdom from the way that King Alexander had left it so that his son could take possession of it unaltered when he turned 18 in September 1941, and resisted any attempts to revise the 1931 constitution. On 20 August 1939, Paul permitted the prime minister, Dragiša Cvetković, to sign an agreement with Vladko Maček, the leader of the Croatian Peasant Party, which created a new Banovina of Croatia with substantial autonomy and a much greater size, covering much of what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina, and satisfying at least in part the long-standing demands of the Croats.
The agreement was very unpopular with the Serbs, especially when reports emerged that the prečani Serbs were being discriminated against by the authorities of the autonomous banovina. The tense international situation of August 1939 with the Danzig crisis pushing Europe to the brink of war meant Paul wanted to settle one of the more debilitating internal disputes in order to make Yugoslavia more capable of surviving the coming storm.
The agreement came at the cost of both Paul and Cvetković being condemned by Serbian public opinion for "selling out" to the Croats, all the more so as many Croats made it clear that they saw the banovina of Croatia as only a stepping stone towards independence. The unpopularity of the agreement and the Cvetković government, was one of the reasons for the coup d'état of 27 March 1941 as many Serbs believed that Peter, the son of King Alexander, would continue with his father's centralising policies when he reached his majority.
Second World War
Prince Regent Paul declared that the kingdom of Yugoslavia would join the Tripartite Pact on 25 March 1941. Two days later, King Peter, at age 17, was proclaimed of age after a pro-British coup d'état. The initially bloodless coup was led by General Dušan Simović on 27 March 1941 in the name of Peter. As General Simović led his men toward the Royal Compound, which was surrounded by guards loyal to the Regent, Peter climbed down a drain-pipe to greet the rebels.
As the Regent's guards surrendered without fighting, Simović arrived to tell Peter: "Your Majesty, I salute you as King of Yugoslavia. From this moment you will exercise your full sovereign power". The coup was very popular in Belgrade and Peter was well received by the crowds. The people who had come out in Belgrade to show their support for the coup had a very pro-Allied character, many of the protesters waving British and French flags. The crowds in Belgrade cheered Peter wildly as the 17-year-old king drove his car down the streets without his bodyguards to be greeted by his subjects.
The new government that Peter swore in on 27 March 1941 was headed by General Simović and comprised members of the People's Radical Party, the Croatian Peasant Party, the Democratic Party, the Croatian Independent Democrats, the Slovene People's Party, the Yugoslav Muslim Organization, the Agrarian Party and the Yugoslav National Party. With the exception of the Yugoslav Radical Alliance and the banned Yugoslav Communist Party and the Ustashe, all of the main political parties were represented in the new government.
Postponing Operation Barbarossa, Nazi Germany simultaneously attacked Yugoslavia and Greece on 6 April 1941, Orthodox Easter Sunday. The Luftwaffe bombed Belgrade, killing between 3,000 and 4,000 people. Within a week, Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary and Italy invaded Yugoslavia, and the government was forced to surrender on 17 April. Parts of Yugoslavia were annexed by Italy, Bulgaria, Hungary and Germany. The remaining parts were governed by two German-controlled puppet governments, the Independent State of Croatia and the Serbian Government of National Salvation.
Peter left the country with the Royal Yugoslav Government's ministers following the Axis invasion. Initially the Yugoslav king and his government ministers went to Greece where they refuelled at a British airfield in rural Greece where locals did not at first believe that he was king of Yugoslavia. They then went to British-ruled Jerusalem in Mandatory Palestine, and Cairo in Egypt. In Athens on 16 April 1941, Peter issued a press statement saying he would fight until victory before fleeing Greece.
In Jerusalem on 4 May 1941, Peter affirmed in a press statement the Cvetković–Maček agreement of 23 August 1939, which turned Yugoslavia into a semi-federation as the basis of the post-war political system he was planning to introduce once his nation was liberated. Of the 22 men Peter had sworn in as ministers on 27 March 1941, two were killed during the German invasion and another five chose not to go into exile.
Džafer Kulenović of the Yugoslav Muslim Organization switched sides and went over to the Ustashe, urging Bosnian Muslims to join the Croats in killing Serbs; Father Franc Kulovec of the Slovene People's Party was killed during the bombing of Belgrade; and Vladko Maček of the Croatian Peasant Party decided not to go into exile. As a result, the Yugoslav government-in-exile was dominated by Serb ministers.
The constitutional basis of the government-in-exile was always murky as the government had come into power as a result of a coup d'état yet it professed to be based on the 1931 constitution which made the king the chief executive officer of the state with ministers only responsible to the Crown. The politicians took the view that the 1941 coup d'état had been a popular revolution which had restored democracy, but as long as the 1931 constitution was technically still in effect, King Peter had very broad executive powers.
Government in exile
In June 1941, King Peter arrived in London, where he joined other governments in exile from Nazi-occupied Europe. When Peter and his government landed in London they were greeted as heroes by the British media. The British press presented what the Serbian historian Stevan K. Pavlowitch called a "romanticized" picture of the young Peter, who became a "symbol of his country's struggle to keep its freedom in alliance with Great Britain". He was supplied with a Lendrum & Hartman Limited Buick delivered to his exile home near Cambridge.
A sign of the initial high regard for Peter in the neutral United States, he was featured as a hero in October 1941 edition of the comic book Military Comics: Stories of the Army and Navy, which presented a somewhat fictionalized version of the 27 March 1941 coup d'état in Belgrade, in which a group of high-school students upset by Yugoslavia's signing of the Tripartite Pact rally for the king and overthrow the regent.
Peter quickly learned that the degree of attention the British were willing to give to the governments-in-exile was directly related to what assets the government-in-exile could bring to the Allied cause. As only a few hundred Yugoslav soldiers had escaped to Egypt, the Yugoslav government-in-exile did not have much to contribute.
Initially, the government-in-exile planned to make good its losses by recruiting an army from Yugoslav immigrants in the neutral United States, but the American government objected to this plan, and instead the government-in-exile had to recruit from the ethnic Slovene POWs captured while fighting with the Royal Italian Army. From the British POW camps, enough ethnic Slovenes volunteered to provide one infantry battalion, who were reluctant to fight against the Italians as they would be executed for treason if captured. In terms of military forces available in the Middle East, Yugoslavia was as Pavlowitch put it the "least important of the allies". The Yugoslav officer corps in Egypt was prone to feuding between younger officers who blamed the senior officers for Yugoslavia's swift defeat in April 1941, and such was the extent of the in-fighting that the government-in-exile had to ask the British military police to impose its will on its own army.
In this context, when King Peter and the rest of the government-in-exile heard reports in mid-1941 that a guerrilla movement called the Chetniks led by Colonel Draža Mihailović were fighting the Germans, he triumphantly seized upon these reports as proving that he did have an asset to the Allied cause that was tying down German forces that otherwise would be fighting on the other fronts. It was not until October 1941 that the government-in-exile was finally able to establish contact with General Mihailović. In September 1941, a liaison mission from the Special Operations Executive (SOE) parachuted into Yugoslavia to meet Mihailović, and afterwards, became the main means which Mihailović communicated with the Allies. It was through the SOE mission attached with the Chetniks that King Peter and the rest of government-in-exile communicated with Mihailović.
The news that the Croat fascists of the Ustashe had started a campaign to exterminate one-third of the prečani Serbs in the Krajina region and in Bosnia, expel another one-third and force the rest to convert to Roman Catholicism brought tensions in the government-in-exile between the Serb ministers and the few remaining Croat ministers to the boiling point and by October–November 1941, the cabinet almost collapsed. Adding to the tension was that the Croatian ministers refused to believe the reports about Ustashe atrocities, dismissing them as anti-Croat "Serb propaganda", which infuriated the Serbian ministers.
Several Serb ministers told King Peter that after hearing about the Ustashe were doing to the prečani Serbs that they found it difficult to be in the same room as the Croat ministers who were so airily dismissive of the reports of the Ustashe killing Serbs in a variety of gruesome ways. It was felt necessary to retain the Croat ministers in order to maintain the claim that the Yugoslav government-in-exile spoke for all the peoples of Yugoslavia while the Croat ministers were afraid if they resigned, then it would lead to a Serb-dominated government returning after the war, and for these reasons the crisis passed as neither the Croat nor Serb ministers were willing to see the cabinet collapse, through relations between the Croat and Serb ministers remained notably cold and distant.
Disagreements had emerged over who was to head the government-in-exile. General Borivoje Mirković wanted a cabinet of generals headed by himself, which was opposed by all of the politicians and Simović. Radoje Knežević wanted a coalition government of the political parties whose leaders had chosen to go into exile. General Simović wanted a "government of national salvation" made up of "distinguished personalities" from all walks of life which he would lead, which would exclude most of the politicians.
Simović as Prime Minister had an authoritarian manner and a disdain for politicians and was soon feuding with the rest of his cabinet, who started writing letters to Peter asking him to dismiss his overbearing prime minister. The leader of the anti-Simović group was the historian Slobodan Jovanović who served as deputy prime minister, who was widely respected as an distinguished scholar, a liberal and a Serb opposed to the more chauvinistic Serb nationalists, giving him a degree of credibility with the non-Serb ministers. Peter's own relations with Simović became strained as he found Simović to be too dominating and resented being "lectured" by his prime minister, who felt he had a duty to "tutor" the teenage king in the ways of statecraft and politics.
Outside of the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia was the only place in Europe in 1941 that a full-scale guerrilla war was being waged against the Axis, leading as Pavlowitch put for Mihailović "...being built up by Yugoslav and British propaganda into an Allied superman". The popularity of Mihailović in Britain helped to seal the end of Simović's political career as the latter had been turned into a hero by the British press for leading the 27 March coup d'état, which made Peter for a long time reluctant to dismiss him. But with another Yugoslav hero in the form of Mihailović, Peter could dispense with Simović without fear of Fleet Street.
The instructions given by the prime minister Slobodan Jovanović to Mihailović in January 1942 were to protect the prečani Serbs from the massacres being waged by the Ustashe, but otherwise he was not to engage in any actions that would bring down reprisals against civilians unless absolutely necessary while at the same time he was to build up his forces to engage in a general uprising when the Allies landed in the Balkans. In October 1941, Mihailović had already decided upon a policy of limiting the Chetniks to sabotage attacks and of building up his forces for an uprising when the Allies returned to the Balkans. The German policy that for every German soldier killed, 100 Serb civilians would be shot in reprisal and for every wounded German soldier, 50 Serb civilians would be shot in reprisal worked to deter Chetniks from attacking the Wehrmacht after October 1941 as Mihailović concluded that guerrilla attacks were not worth the reprisals.
The Chetniks were most active in Serbia and Montenegro while the Communist Partisans drew most of their support from the prečani Serbs in Bosnia and in the Krajina and from anti-fascist Croats, Slovenes and Bosnian Muslims. Unlike the Chetniks who had a narrowly Serbian and Orthodox nationalist message, the Partisans were a pan-Yugoslav force. The Partisans were considerably better organized than the Chetniks and were more willing to accept the reprisals committed against innocent civilians by the Axis when they staged guerrilla attacks, leading to a situation where the Partisans ended up doing more of the fighting against the occupiers and the collaborators, an aspect of the war in Yugoslavia which caused Britain and the United States to ultimately favor the Partisans.
At the same time, British policy in Yugoslavia was increasingly for the resistance to engage in maximum violence against the Axis in order to tie down German and Italian divisions that would otherwise be fighting the Allies, no matter what the cost in reprisals to innocent civilians, a policy that clashed with the Chetnik policy of waiting for the Allies to return to Yugoslavia before engaging in a general uprising. The very way in which Mihailović and the Chetniks had been built up in 1941 in the British media, partly by the Yugoslav government-in-exile itself, as a force of ferocious guerrillas fiercely fighting the Germans at every turn, led to very grave disappointments by 1942 when it emerged at very best the Chetniks were waiting for the British to return to the Balkans before they were willing to engage in heavy fighting.
The King completed his education at Cambridge University before being commissioned in the Royal Air Force. In mid-1941, the Yugoslav government-in-exile opened talks with the Greek government-in-exile for a post-war confederation––the Balkan Union––that would unite Yugoslavia, Greece and Bulgaria once King Boris III of Bulgaria was overthrown. The Greek prime minister Emmanouil Tsouderos supported the confederation plan, but objected to the Yugoslav plans to bring in Bulgaria and for the proposed confederation to have an executive government in charge of all economic, foreign policy and military questions, leading Tsouderous to ask the British Foreign Secretary Sir Anthony Eden to mediate.
In July 1941, the Yugoslav government-in-exile recognized the Czechoslovak government-in-exile, and starting in September 1941 Peter regularly met with President Edvard Beneš to discuss a new Yugoslav-Czechoslovak alliance to replace the Little Entente that Beneš had negotiated with Peter's father, King Alexander, in 1921. On 31 December 1941, the Greek-Yugoslav talks concluded and on 15 January 1942 the Accord entre le Royaume de Yougoslavie et le Royaume Grèce concernant la constitution de l'Union balkanique was signed in London. The accord committed Yugoslavia and Greece after the war to have a common currency; a customs union; to co-ordinate their foreign policies; for a military alliance with joint staff talks for a common defense plan; and a committee consisting of the Yugoslav and Greek finance ministers, foreign ministers, and defense ministers to meet regularly to plan policies for the Balkan Union.
After signing the accord, King Peter and King George II of Greece spoke to the British press at a luncheon where the two kings spoke of the "Balkan Union" as being open to all of the states of the Balkans. On 11 January 1942, Peter dismissed his prime minister, General Dušan Simović, who proved himself to be an inept politician who was unable to get along with his cabinet, which had been threatening to all jointly resign since late 1941 if General Simović continued as prime minister. The new prime minister was Slobodan Jovanović, a widely respected historian.
At the same time that Peter dismissed Simović, he appointed Mihailović minister of war; as Mihailović remained in Yugoslavia, his position in the cabinet was purely symbolic. On 19 January 1942 at the Dorchester Hotel in London, the king and President Beneš together with the rest of the Yugoslav and Czechoslovak cabinets had lunch together to discuss a post-war regional association. Peter in his speech noted that he was happy that two of the men who negotiated the Little Entente, Momčilo Ninčić and Edvard Beneš "are here today" in this room. The plans to ally the proposed Greek-Yugoslav confederation with the proposed Czechoslovak-Polish confederation that Beneš had signed with General Władysław Sikorski, the leader of the Polish government-in-exile, drew intense objections from the Soviet Union which preferred the states of eastern Europe remain separate to keep them weak.
As in Yugoslavia, the Greek resistance was divided between communists and royalists, and Tsouderos objected to Peter that his friendship with Beneš and his plans to link the "Balkan Union" with the Polish-Czechoslovak confederation would cause the Soviets to cease recognizing George II as the king of the Hellenes. Tsouderos's fear was that the Soviet Union would recognize the Communist-dominated EAM as the legitimate government of Greece, and for this reason, wanted to do nothing that would antagonize Moscow. It was largely because of opposition from Tsouderos that Peter shelved his plans for a post-war Polish-Czechoslovak-Yugoslav-Greek alliance.
The very dependence of the government-in-exile on the British was a source of much tension, and Peter in 1942 tried to involve the Soviet Union and the United States as counter-balances. In 1942 Peter made a diplomatic visit to America and Canada, where he met American President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King. The whirlwind tour was unsuccessful in securing Allied support for the exiled Yugoslav monarchist cause. Roosevelt and Churchill had already engaged the support of the Communist Yugoslav Government in the Allied effort to defeat Nazi Germany, with a view to ending the Second World War. Roosevelt made Yugoslavia eligible for Lend-Lease aid during Peter's visit, but given the small size of the Yugoslav forces in exile, this was not of much assistance.
During his visit to the United States, King Peter met the Serbian-American scientist Nikola Tesla on 8 July 1942 and wrote in his diary: "I visited Dr Nikola Tesla, in his apartment in the Hotel New Yorker. After I had greeted him the aged scientist said: 'It is my greatest honour. I am glad you are in your youth, and I am content that you will be a great ruler. I believe I will live until you come back to free Yugoslavia.' From your father you have received his last words: "Guard Yugoslavia. I am proud to be a Serbian and a Yugoslav. Our people cannot perish. Preserve the unity of all Yugoslavs - the Serbs, the Croats and the Slovenes."
In order to obtain support from Britain, Peter put his hopes for restoration on General Draža Mihailović, the leader of the Chetniks. On 10 June 1942, Peter promoted Mihailović to full general and made him the Chief of Staff of the Royal Yugoslav Army. Pavlowitch summarized the importance of Mihailović to King Peter by noting: "There was no other instance of the leader of a resistance movement being taken directly into an exiled government while remaining in occupied territory". Peter and the rest of the government-in-exile failed to appreciate the Serb nationalism of Mihailović and the other Chetnik leaders was extremely offensive to the other peoples of Yugoslavia, all the more so as when reports of massacres committed by the Chetniks against Croats and Bosnian Muslims emerged.
For the peoples of Yugoslavia who were not Serbian, the king's support for the Chetniks seemed to suggest that after the war he was planning to establish a state that would be dominated by chauvinistic Serb nationalists, which led to those who wanted to resist the Axis occupation to support the Partisans who at least promised to establish a state where all the peoples of Yugoslavia would be equal.
The intense Serb nationalism of the Chetniks also caused alarm in London and Washington, sparking fears about the stability of Yugoslavia if it were restructured as a Serb-dominated state, which caused some decision-makers to feel that Yugoslavia would be more stable if ruled by the Croatian Communist Josip Broz Tito. Peter's efforts to have the United States as a counterbalance failed as the Americans shared the British frustration with the unwillingness of the Chetniks to engage in maximum violence against the Germans and were increasingly troubled by the reports that the Chetniks were collaborating with the Germans.
The Chetnik movement was motivated by a strong sense of resentment against all of the pre-war elites who were felt to have failed Yugoslavia in April 1941, and Mihailović did not have full control of his movement, being in many cases more of a figurehead whom many Chetnik commanders ignored whenever it was convenient for them. Besides for foreign policy considerations, the government-in-exile felt threatened by the anti-elitist and populist sentiments of the Chetniks and wanted to harness Mihailović to keep the Chetniks in a conservative direction.
The government-in-exile in London saw the Chetniks as a military movement whereas the Chetnik commanders saw their movement as both political and military. All of the Chetnik commanders professed to be monarchists who were loyal to King Peter, but in many cases the monarchism of the Chetniks was only superficial, being more of a legitimising device for the Chetnik leaders who justified their actions in the name of the distant king in London. Finally, the allegations, which first appeared in the press in 1942, that the Chetniks were not engaging in resistance, but instead collaborating with the Germans and the Italians in order to fight against the Communist Partisans proved to be extremely damaging to the image of King Peter in the West.
The government-in-exile tried its best to prevent the civil war between the Partisans and the Chetniks, but with no control over either the communists or the royalists, its efforts were futile. Jovanović at first tried to mediate an end to the civil war, arguing the Partisans and Chetniks should be co-operating in fighting the Axis instead of each other, and when that failed, he tried to promote a "neutrality" agreement that would commit both movements from refraining from attacking each other that was likewise futile.
King Peter did not know much about what was happening in occupied Yugoslavia and his statements in 1942 that the Chetniks were all engaging in resistance were made in good faith. By 1943, the evidence that at least some Chetnik commanders were co-operating with the Axis was much stronger and Peter's insistence on defending the Chetniks was to do his reputation enormous damage in both Britain and the United States. Peter also did nothing to silence those ministers in his government who told the Anglo-American press that the Chetniks should crush the Communist Partisans to save the pre-1941 social order, which gave the impression that the government-in-exile cared more about restoring the social order than it did about winning the war.
Pavlowitch described Peter as an "immature" young man who was easily manipulated by the feuding politicians within the cabinet of his government-in-exile, and as a result, he was highly inconsistent in his policies as he changed his mind depending on who had last spoken to him. The Croat ministers preferred to talk directly to the king rather than their Serb counterparts while generally none of the Serb ministers were prepared to openly challenge the king, instead of flattening his ego. Peter always spoke of enjoying "ruling" rather more than he did the duty of "reigning", and did not behave as a strict constitutional monarch, becoming the focal point of the culture of intrigue which characterised the cabinet of the government-in-exile.
Marriage
The Chicago Tribune reported on 1 August 1943 about the royal romance in London between King Peter and Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark that: "The princess, a pretty, dark-haired girl, used to serve waffles and coffee to American officers and nurses over a snack bar at the London Red Cross club. There she met King Peter, a slender young man in naval uniform who often dropped in to listen to the music of a United States infantry band". In April 1942, Peter proposed marriage to Princess Alexandra after a few weeks of courtship and she accepted.
While the Western media portrayed a "fairy tale romance" across the backdrop of wartime London between the young Yugoslav king and a Greek princess, the announcement of Peter's engagement to Alexandra in July 1943 caused immense controversy in his homeland. According to Serbian tradition, a leader must not marry during a national emergency, and the news that Peter had become engaged while his homeland was torn by war caused a backlash against him.
This was all the more so because of the catastrophic turn in Yugoslavia starting in April 1941 with war, genocide, revolution, civil war and a disastrous collapse in living standards, in what had been before 1941 one of Europe's poorest and most backward countries, all ravaging the land. However much Peter was in love with Alexandra, his engagement and "fairy tale" wedding in the relative comfort of London while his subjects were suffering so much was seen as a callous break with Serbian traditions.
The cabinet in a rare show of unity had all objected to Peter's plans for a wedding in wartime when the issue was first discussed in April 1942, and the issue was not raised again until April 1943. Again, when the matter was discussed in early 1943 the Serb ministers had objected while from Serbia itself General Mihailović reported that public opinion strongly disapproved. The Prime Minister, Slobodan Jovanović, was opposed to announcing the engagement while Yugoslavia was still occupied, predicting the news would discredit the monarchy in Serbia, and rather than postpone the engagement, which was announced in July 1943, Peter dismissed Jovanović on 26 June 1943.
In early 1944, the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill applied strong pressure on Peter to dismiss his prime minister, Božidar Purić, whom almost everybody viewed as incompetent, and to sever his links with General Mihailović, whom Churchill was convinced by this point was a collaborator. At the same time, the British threatened to stop arms shipments to Josip Broz Tito's Partisans unless he recognized King Peter as the rightful king of Yugoslavia. Churchill wanted to preserve the Yugoslav monarchy to keep the country in the western sphere of influence after the war while incorporating the Partisans into the royalist government-in-exile.
Peter married Alexandra in London on 20 March 1944. Attending the wedding which was held at the Yugoslav legation in London was King George VI who served as Peter's best man together with King Haakon VII of Norway, King George II of Greece, and Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands all attending. They had one son, Crown Prince Alexander, who was born on 17 July 1945.
The news that King Peter had married in wartime did much to discredit him with his people, and becoming very unsettled as it started to sink in that he might have sacrificed his throne for love, Peter became unusually open to British "advice" in early 1944. Churchill had announced in the House of Commons in May 1944 that Peter had dismissed Purić as Prime Minister and Mihailović as Chief of Staff and the new prime minister was Ivan Šubašić, when none of these things had actually happened.
After a week of strong British pressure, Peter capitulated and on 1 June 1944 appointed Šubašić prime minister. The mandate of the new Šubašić government was to form a coalition with Marshal Tito's People's Liberation Movement. On 10 June 1944, Šubašić flew to the island of Vis to meet Tito for talks, and on 16 June 1944 it was announced that the Partisans were the only recognized agents of the government-in-exile in Yugoslavia and the governing bodies set up by the Communists were the provisional government of Yugoslavia.
Šubašić did not consult with King Peter and presented the agreement with Tito as a fait accompli to the king. The cabinet announced by Šubašić was very left-wing and on 29 August 1944 Mihailović was dismissed as chief of staff. On 12 September 1944, King Peter went on the BBC to appeal to all his subjects to support Tito and warned that the "stigma of treason" would stick to those who refused this command. At the same time, Stalin, anxious to allay Western fears about the future of Eastern Europe, ordered a very reluctant Tito, in a meeting in Moscow, to allow Peter to return to Yugoslavia though with the advice that he "should slip a knife into his back at the appropriate moment".
Deposition and exile
Though the war ended, Peter was not allowed to return home. Prime Minister Šubašić arrived in Belgrade in November 1944 and shortly afterwards went to Moscow to negotiate an agreement with Stalin that Peter would not be allowed to return until a plebiscite was held on if Yugoslavia should become a republic or remain a monarchy. Šubašić also agreed to Stalin's demand for a three-man regency council to govern until the plebiscite, which enraged Peter who noted that he was 21 years old and not a minor anymore.
Peter also objected to the regents who numbered 1 Croat, 1 Slovene and 1 Serb as they were all nominated by Tito, complaining the regents were biased against him. In March 1945, the regency council started to govern in Belgrade while a cabinet was formed what was now called the Democratic Federation of Yugoslavia numbering 28 men, of whom 23 were Partisans. The National Liberation Front government was in theory a coalition, but in fact it was a Communist-dominated regime with the non-communist ministers there only as a "window dressing" to disguise the extent of Communist dominance.
The new government attempted to freeze Peter's assets abroad, claiming that they were stolen. Peter and Tito took to denouncing each other with Tito telling the press that he was creating a democracy in Yugoslavia while Peter accused him of creating a communist dictatorship. In the elections for the constituent assembly on 11 November 1945 there was widespread voting fraud and intimidation and opposition newspapers were prevented from publishing by the government denying them paper.
Peter was deposed by Yugoslavia's Communist Constituent Assembly on 29 November 1945 with Yugoslavia proclaimed a republic. After that, he settled in the United States. In 1948, Peter visited Chicago, staying at the Drake hotel, visited the Inland Steel works and Armour stockyards "where many Yugoslavs work" and spent much time at the Serbian Orthodox Seminary of St. Sava.
As a king without a throne, Peter was something of a novelty for Americans, and addressed various civic groups in the Midwest, for example in 1949 it was reported that the "young, modern, democratic monarch who refused to accept the situation in his country" spoke to the Kohler Woman's club in Sheboygan on the subject of "My kingdom for freedom". In 1951, Peter went on the Ford Festival TV show, where he was described as a "sad-eyed youth" who was "a flop as a TV personality" as he was noticeably nervous in front of the TV cameras and was quickly dismissed by the host, James Melton.
Up until his death, Peter continued to nurture hopes that one day he would be restored to the Yugoslav throne, in the words of the American journalist Peter Hockenos being a "forlorn figure" while "rival emigre groups drew the hapless king into their incessant schemings and quarrels. The royalist community resembled a bad caricature of a powerless, squabbling diaspora". A romantic, impractical man, Peter held to a completely unrealistic hope that there were still bands of Chetniks active in the rural areas of central Serbia who would rise up at the right moment when Peter led an army of emigres in an invasion of Yugoslavia, and together they would overthrow Marshal Tito.
In 1953, the Sunday Express newspaper in London reported that Peter who was living in France was suffering from a "money tangles", had a "cheque bounce in Paris" and was involved in an "unpleasant scene" in a party in Biarritz hosted by the Marquis de Cuevas. Peter filed for divorce in 1953. He hired attorney René de Chambrun, the son-in-law of former Vichy French Prime Minister Pierre Laval. The couple reconciled in 1955.
While living in France in the 1950s, Peter whose life style was beyond his means, had a problem with the "bouncing cheques" he kept writing and which led him to being banned from the expensive French restaurants and hotels he loved so much, as he spent money that he did not have. The actress Ilka Chase who met the former king and queen Alexandra on the French Riveria in 1955, and wrote:
In 1956, Queen Alexandra published a memoir, For the Love of a King, which one American reviewer described as:
In 1959, the Chicago Tribune reported about Peter's visit to the Chicago suburb of Waukegan:
Final years and death
From 1964 to his death Peter served as the Royal Patron of the Sovereign Military Order of the Temple of Jerusalem in the United States. In 1963, Alexandra, who was suffering from severe depression, tried to commit suicide. Peter himself suffered from depression and alcoholism, and his heavy drinking caused him to suffer from liver cirrhosis. As the Chicago area had a substantial Yugoslav immigrant population, Peter spent much of his exile in Chicago, where he maintained ties with anti-communist Serbian emigres, especially with the Serbian National Defense Council.
The Non-Aligned Movement of the Third World nations, which had as one of its leaders Marshal Tito of Yugoslavia, was felt to be useful for American foreign policy in the Cold War as being disruptive to the Soviet bloc, creating the example of a communist regime in eastern Europe that was independent of the Soviet Union. The United States did not wish to push Tito towards the Kremlin by supporting the Serb royalist movement.
In 1963, Peter told the Chicago Tribune: "The State Department has told me that I am a guest in your country, and so I must not discuss American foreign policy towards Yugoslavia." Instead, Peter frequently attended various civic events in the Chicago area, speaking at a fundraiser for the Knights of Malta in 1964, hosting the local meeting of the Alliance Francaise in 1965, attending a memorial for General Mihailović at the Milhailovich Memorial Home in 1966 and in 1967 attending an event for the Knights of Malta where he knighted "50 persons from Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin”. In 1967, Peter took on a job for the first time in his life, working for the Sterling Savings & Loan Association in Los Angeles. When asked about the press if working for a living would hurt his image as a king, Peter replied: "I think it raises my stature a little."
After many years of suffering from cirrhosis of the liver, he died in Denver, Colorado, on 3 November 1970, after a failed liver transplant. He was interred in Saint Sava Monastery Church at Libertyville, Illinois, the only European monarch so far to have been buried in the United States.
In the 1980s, the American soap opera Dynasty was dubbed into Serbo-Croatian and shown on Yugoslav television. As one of the stars of Dynasty, the actress Catherine Oxenberg, is descended from the House of Karađorđević, being the granddaughter of the Prince Regent Paul, this sparked immense national pride in Serbia and by 1990 led to a major revival of popular interest in the House of Karađorđević, which was exploited by the regime of Slobodan Milošević to burnish its nationalist line. The revival of Karađorđević nostalgia led to something of a popular rehabilitation of King Peter, whose death in 1970 had been barely noticed in his homeland.
Return of remains and state funeral
On 4 March 2007, former Crown Prince Alexander announced plans to have his father's remains repatriated to Serbia. Peter II had chosen St. Sava Serbian Orthodox Monastery as his interim resting place because of the extenuating circumstances that afflicted his homeland. After talks with the Serbian government, the move was confirmed in January 2013 with the burial place being the Royal Family Mausoleum in Oplenac.
On 22 January 2013, Peter's remains were returned to Belgrade. He lay in state in the Royal Chapel in Dedinje before being buried in the Royal Family Mausoleum at Oplenac on 26 May 2013 along with his wife, Queen Alexandra. His mother, Queen Maria, and his brother, Prince Andrej, lie nearby. The Serbian Royal Regalia were placed over Peter's coffin. Present at the return ceremony were the Prime Minister Ivica Dačić, Peter's son Alexander with his family, and Serbian Patriarch Irinej. The latter openly advocated for the restoration of the Serbian monarchy.
Honours
Bibliography
Petar: A King's Heritage; The Memoirs of King Peter II of Yugoslavia; London: Cassell, 1955.
Crampton, Richard Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century-and After, London: Routledge, 1997,
Hockenos, Peter Homeland Calling: Exile Patriotism and the Balkan Wars, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2018,
Pavlowitch, Stevan "Out of Context - The Yugoslav Government in London 1941-1945" pages 89–118 from The Journal of Contemporary History, Volume 16, No. 1, January 1981.
Pavlowitch, Stevan "Momčilo Ninčić and the European Policy of the Yugoslav Government in Exile, 1941-1943: I" pages 400-421 from The Slavonic and East European Review, Volume 62, No. 3 July 1984.
References
External links
The Royal Family
The Mausoleum of the Serbian Royal Family
Prince Pauel and King Peter II celebrate Christmas with Royal Guard on Jaunuar 7, 1940 (Yugoslav Film Archive - Official Channel)
1923 births
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210145
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortoise%20%28band%29
|
Tortoise (band)
|
Tortoise is an American post-rock band formed in Chicago, Illinois in 1990. The band incorporates krautrock, dub, minimal music, electronica and jazz into their music, a combination sometimes termed "post-rock". Tortoise have been consistently credited for the rise of the post-rock movement in the 1990s.
History
1990s
The group's origins lie in the late 1980s pairing of Doug McCombs (bassist with Eleventh Dream Day) and drummer John Herndon, who initially wanted to establish themselves as a freelance rhythm section (like reggae legends Sly and Robbie). The idea did not come to fruition, but their interest in grooving rhythms, as well as their recording studio knowledge led to partnerships with drummer John McEntire and bassist Bundy K. Brown (both formerly of Bastro and Gastr Del Sol) joining, followed by percussionist Dan Bitney. Though songs are credited to all the musicians, McEntire became perceived as the group's guiding force, as his contributions mainly took the form of being the recording engineer and mixer.
Their first single was issued in 1993, and their self-titled debut album followed a year later. Instrumental and mostly mid-tempo, Tortoise slowly garnered praise and attention, notably for its unusual instrumentation (two bass guitars, three percussionists switching between drums, vibraphones and marimbas). A remix album followed, Rhythms, Resolutions and Clusters.
Brown left and was replaced by David Pajo (formerly of Slint) for 1996's Millions Now Living Will Never Die, which showed up on many year-end best of lists, and the 20-minute Djed was described by critic John Bush as proof that "Tortoise made experimental rock do double duty as evocative, beautiful music." Also in 1996, the band contributed to the AIDS benefit album Offbeat: A Red Hot Soundtrip produced by the Red Hot Organization.
They released a Japanese-only compilation featuring tracks from the eponymous debut, Rhythms, singles and compilation appearances, named A Digest Compendium of the Tortoise's World on November 21, 1996.
In 1998, Tortoise released TNT, arguably their most jazz-inflected album. Jeff Parker had joined as a guitarist alongside Pajo, who left the band following the album's completion.
2000s–present
2001 led to Standards, where Tortoise incorporated more electronic sounds and post-production into its music than in previous works. In 2001, the band curated an edition of the British All Tomorrow's Parties festival. They then returned in 2004 to curate another day of the same event.
It's All Around You was released in 2004. In 2006, Tortoise collaborated with Bonnie 'Prince' Billy on an album of covers entitled The Brave and the Bold, and released A Lazarus Taxon, a box set containing two CDs of single tracks and remixes, a third CD with an expanded Rhythms, Resolutions and Clusters (out of print) and a DVD of videos and film of live performances. In 2001, the band recorded "Didjeridoo" for the Red Hot Organization's compilation album Red Hot + Indigo, a tribute to Duke Ellington, which raised money for various charities devoted to AIDS related causes.
Bitney and McEntire also contributed to the Bright Eyes album Cassadaga. The group has worked with multi-instrumentalist Paul Duncan of the band Warm Ghost.
Tortoise released their previous to last album, Beacons of Ancestorship, on June 23, 2009. The band toured the Midwestern US in September and October 2009, and then in Europe in November and December. The band performed at the ATP New York 2010 music festival, which was held in Monticello, New York.
In 2012, Tortoise wrote and recorded the soundtrack to Eduardo Sánchez's Lovely Molly, a psychological horror film partly inspired by traditional folk songs. A seventh studio album, The Catastrophist, was released by Thrill Jockey in early 2016, preceded by the single Gesceap.
Musical style
As Tortoise rose to prominence in their early career, their often instrumental music has been noted for its ambiguous categorization. The members have roots in Chicago's fertile music scene, playing in various indie rock and punk rock groups. Tortoise was among the first American indie rock bands to incorporate styles closer to krautrock, dub, minimal music, electronica and various jazz styles, rather than the strong rock and roll roots that had dominated the genre.
Tortoise has been cited as one of the prime forces behind the development and popularity of the post-rock movement. CMJ writer Jim Allen highlighted the influence of progressive rock on Tortoise's post-rock style.
Other groups related to Tortoise include The Sea and Cake, Brokeback, Slint, Isotope 217, Chicago Odense Ensemble, Tar Babies, and the Chicago Underground Duo. Tortoise records on the Thrill Jockey label.
Discography
Studio albums
Tortoise (1994)
Millions Now Living Will Never Die (1996)
TNT (1998)
Standards (2001)
It's All Around You (2004)
Beacons of Ancestorship (2009)
The Catastrophist (2016)
Other releases
In the Fishtank (1999) – EP, collaboration with The Ex
"Gently cupping the chin of the ape" (2001) – two track tour CD with enhanced content
The Brave and the Bold (2006) – covers album, collaboration with Bonnie 'Prince' Billy
A Lazarus Taxon (2006) – compilation box set of rare material, 3 CDs and 1 DVD
Why Waste Time? (2010) – Japan-only tour EP, Enhanced CD
Remix albums and compilations
Rhythms, Resolutions & Clusters (1995) – remix album
A Digest Compendium of the Tortoise's World (1996) – Japan-only compilation featuring tracks from debut album, remixes and singles
Remixed (1998) – remix album (2001 re-release with additional remix from autechre)
Metro: The Official Bootleg Series, Volume 1 (2010) – live compilation, one Tortoise track
Grand Theft Auto: Chinatown Wars (2009) – a dedicated Tortoise radio station (28-minute track) in the IOS/ANDROID/PSP version
Yanni Live at the Acropolis (2010) – part of Beck's online musical project Record Club; collaboration with Beck, Thurston Moore and Brian LeBarton
Singles and music videos
1996 – "Glass Museum"
1996 – "Dear Grandma and Papa"
1998 – "The Suspension Bridge at Iguazú Falls"
1998 – "Four-day Interval"
2001 – "Seneca"
2004 – "Salt the Skies"
2004 – "It's All Around You"
2009 – "Prepare your Coffin"
2016 – "Yonder Blue"
References
External links
American post-rock groups
Musical groups established in 1990
Musical groups from Chicago
Art rock musical groups
Thrill Jockey artists
Tortoise (band) members
City Slang artists
|
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210151
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock%2C%20Stock%20and%20Two%20Smoking%20Barrels
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Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels
|
Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels is a 1998 crime comedy film written and directed by Guy Ritchie, produced by Matthew Vaughn and starring an ensemble cast featuring Jason Flemyng, Dexter Fletcher, Nick Moran, Steven Mackintosh, Sting with Vinnie Jones and Jason Statham in their feature film debuts.
The story is a heist involving a self-confident young card sharp who loses £500,000 to a powerful crime lord in a rigged game of three-card brag. To pay off his debts, he and his friends decide to rob a small-time gang who happen to be operating out of the flat next door.
The film brought Ritchie international acclaim and introduced actors Jones, a former Wales international footballer, and Statham, a former diver, to worldwide audiences. Based on a $1.35 million budget, the film had a box office gross of over $28 million, making it a commercial success.
A British television series, Lock, Stock..., followed in 2000, running for seven episodes including the pilot.
Plot
In London, long-time friends and small-time criminals Eddie, Tom, Soap, and Bacon put together £100,000 so that Eddie, a genius card sharp, can buy into one of "Hatchet" Harry Lonsdale's high-stakes three-card brag games. The game is rigged and the friends end up owing Harry £500,000. Harry then sends his debt collector Big Chris, who is often accompanied by his son, Little Chris, to ensure that the debt is paid within a week.
Harry is also interested in a pair of expensive antique shotguns that are up for auction and gets his enforcer Barry "the Baptist" to hire a pair of thieves, Gary and Dean, to steal them from a bankrupt lord. The two turn out to be highly incompetent and unwittingly sell the shotguns to Nick "the Greek", a local fence. Barry threatens the two into getting the guns back. Eddie returns home one day and overhears his neighbours—a gang of robbers led by a brutal man called "Dog"—planning a heist on some cannabis growers loaded with cash and drugs. Eddie relays this information to the group, intending for them to rob the neighbours as they return from their heist. Preparing for the robbery, Tom visits Nick the Greek to buy weapons and ends up buying the two antique shotguns.
The neighbours' heist gets underway and despite a gang member being killed by his own Bren gun and an incriminating encounter with a traffic warden, they succeed, returning home with a duffel bag full of money and a van loaded with bags of cannabis. Eddie and his friends ambush them as planned and drive away in the neighbours' van containing the cannabis and the traffic warden. They transfer the loot to their own van and return home, then have Nick fence the drugs to Rory Breaker, a gangster with a violent reputation. Rory agrees to buy the cannabis at half price but two of Rory's men visit the house of the cannabis-growers, discover they've been robbed and the cannabis he just bought had been stolen from his own growers. Rory threatens Nick into giving him Eddie's address and tasks one of the growers, Winston, to identify the robbers.
Eddie and his friends spend the night at Eddie's father's bar to celebrate. Dog's crew accidentally learns that their neighbours robbed them and set up an ambush in Eddie's flat. Rory and his gang arrive instead and in an ensuing shoot-out, all except Dog and Winston are killed. Winston leaves with the drugs, while Dog leaves with the two shotguns and the money but is waylaid by Big Chris, who incapacitates him and takes everything. Gary and Dean, having learned who bought the shotguns and unaware that Chris works for Harry, follow Chris to Harry's place.
Chris delivers the money and guns to Harry but when he returns to his car he finds Dog holding Little Chris at knifepoint, demanding the money be returned to him. Chris complies and starts the car. Gary and Dean burst into Harry's office, starting a confrontation that ends up killing them both along with Harry and Barry. Returning to see the carnage at their flat and their loot missing, Eddie and his friends head to Harry's but upon discovering Harry's corpse, they decide to take the money for themselves. Before they are able to leave, Chris crashes into their car to disable Dog and then bludgeons him to death with his car door. He then takes the debt money back from the unconscious friends but allows Tom to leave with the antique shotguns after a brief stand-off in Harry's office.
The friends are arrested but soon acquitted after the traffic warden identifies Dog and his crew as the culprits. Back at the bar, they send Tom out to dispose of the antique shotguns—the only remaining evidence linking them to the case. Chris then arrives to give back the duffel bag, from which he has taken all the money for himself and his son and which is empty except for a catalogue of antique weapons. Leafing through the catalogue, the friends learn that the shotguns are actually quite valuable (worth £250,000 to £300,000) and quickly call Tom to stop him from disposing of the guns. The film ends with Tom leaning over a bridge, with his mobile phone in his mouth and ringing, as he prepares to drop the shotguns into the River Thames.
Cast
Nick Moran as Eddie
Jason Flemyng as Tom
Dexter Fletcher as Soap
Jason Statham as Bacon
Steven Mackintosh as Winston
Vinnie Jones as Big Chris
Nicholas Rowe as J
Lenny McLean as Barry "the Baptist"
P. H. Moriarty as "Hatchet" Harry Lonsdale
Frank Harper as Dog
Sting as JD
Huggy Leaver as Paul
Stephen Marcus as Nick "the Greek"
Vas Blackwood as Rory Breaker
Vera Day as Tanya
Alan Ford as Alan
Danny John-Jules as Barfly Jack
Victor McGuire as Gary
Rob Brydon as the traffic warden
Steve Collins as boxing gym bouncer
Soundtrack
The soundtrack to the film was released in 1998 in the United Kingdom by Island Records. Madonna's Maverick Records label released the soundtrack in the United States in 1999 but omitted nine tracks from the UK release.
"When I Fall Asleep" by Amir Fox
"It's a Deal, It's a Steal" by Tom, Nick & Ed*
"The Boss" by James Brown
"Truly, Madly, Deeply" by Skanga*
"Hortifuckinculturist" – Winston
"Police and Thieves" by Junior Murvin
"18 With a Bullet" by Lewis Taylor & Carleen Anderson*
"Spooky" by Dusty Springfield
"The Game" by John Murphy & David A. Hughes*
"Muppets" by Harry, Barry & Gary
"Man Machine" by Robbie Williams*
"Walk This Land" by E-Z Rollers
"Blaspheming Barry" by Barry
"I Wanna Be Your Dog" by The Stooges
"It's Kosher" by Tom & Nick
"Liar, Liar" by The Castaways*
"I've Been Shot" by Plank & Dog
"Why Did You Do It" by Stretch
"Guns 4 show, knives for a pro" by Ed & Soap
"Oh Girl" by Evil Superstars
"If the Milk Turns Sour" by John Murphy & David A. Hughes (with Rory)*
"Zorba the Greek" by John Murphy & David A. Hughes
"I'll Kill Ya" by John Murphy & David A. Hughes (with Rory)*
"The Payback" by James Brown
"Fool's Gold" by The Stone Roses*
"It's Been Emotional" by Big Chris
"18 With a Bullet" by Pete Wingfield
* Track omitted from 1999 US release.
Release history
Production
The production of the film followed Guy Ritchie's single short film which preceded Lock, Stock. As stated in filmscouts.com:Although it was Ritchie's first feature, his previous short film The Hard Case was sufficiently impressive to secure interest not only from financial backers but also persuaded Sting to take the role of JD. "I'd seen Guy's short film and was excited by the pace and energy in it. The way in which he handles violence and action appealed to me. I don't like gratuitous violence. I think it's much more chilling when it's suggested rather than graphic." For Ritchie, getting exactly the right actor for each role was essential. "The casting took forever and we auditioned hundreds of people, but I was determined to hold out until we got the real McCoy." This led to employing several genuine ex-cons, who certainly invest the film with its menacing undertones. Ritchie also looked to the celebrity arena to secure the right cast such as Vinnie Jones. "I didn't hesitate in casting Vinnie as I have the most incredible respect for his acting capabilities."
A one-hour documentary of the production of the film was released featuring much of the cast along with Ritchie.
Locations include Shoreditch for the gang hideout and Clerkenwell for JD's bar.
Marketing material
The film poster depicting the lead characters as very graphic black and white portraits against a stark white background was created by the advertising photographer John Mac, who is known for his advertising campaigns for luxury brands. He would use a similar technique some years later in 2019 when creating the front cover for the psychological thriller The Chair Man by Alex Pearl, which features a man in a wheelchair as a black silhouette against a stark white background.
Reception
Box office
The film was released on 28 August 1998 in the United Kingdom and was the second-highest grossing local production for the year behind Sliding Doors with a gross of $18.9 million. It was released on 5 March 1999 in the United States, where its total gross was .
Critical reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 74% based on 66 reviews, with an average rating of 6.70/10. The site's critical consensus reads "Lock, Stock, and Two Smoking Barrels is a grimy, twisted, and funny twist on the Tarantino hip gangster formula". On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 66 out of 100 based on 30 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
John Ferguson, writing for the Radio Times, called the film "the best British crime movie since The Long Good Friday". Roger Ebert, in his review for Chicago Sun-Times, wrote: "Lock, Stock, etc.'' seems more like an exercise in style than anything else. And so it is. We don't care much about the characters (I felt more actual affection for the phlegmatic bouncer, Barry the Baptist, than for any of the heroes). We realize that the film's style stands outside the material and is lathered on top (there are freeze frames, jokey subtitles, speed-up and slo-mo). And that the characters are controlled by the demands of the clockwork plot. But "Lock, Stock'' is fun, in a slapdash way; it has an exuberance, and in a time when movies follow formulas like zombies, it's alive".
Accolades
The film was nominated for a British Academy Film Award in 1998 for the outstanding British Film of the Year. In 2000, Ritchie won an Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America for Best Motion Picture Screenplay. In 2004, Total Film named it the 38th greatest British film of all time. In 2016, Empire magazine ranked Lock, Stock 75th on their list of the 100 best British films, with their entry stating, “to call the plot "complex" is to do it a disservice – it's all so slickly done, delivered with such balls-out confidence and written with such an amazing turn of phrase that somehow the convoluted to-ing-and-froing works like clockwork. So well, in fact, that over 18 years later, it remains Ritchie's finest film, a fantastic achievement from a first-time director who took a group of meticulously-cast but relatively unknown actors and spun them into solid fackin' gold.”
Director's cut
Focus Features released the Locked n' Loaded Director's Cut in 2006. This version of the film contains more of each of the characters' backstories, and runs at a total time of 120 minutes.
See also
Hyperlink cinema – the film style of using multiple interconnected story lines
Heist film
Phir Hera Pheri - An unofficial remake of the movie, with a similar plot but a slightly different storyline.
References
Further reading
External links
1998 films
1990s crime comedy films
1990s heist films
1998 independent films
1990s comedy thriller films
British films
British crime comedy films
British gangster films
British heist films
British independent films
British comedy thriller films
British neo-noir films
Edgar Award-winning works
1990s English-language films
Films scored by John Murphy (composer)
British films about cannabis
Films about drugs
Films adapted into television shows
Films directed by Guy Ritchie
Films set in London
Gambling films
Gramercy Pictures films
HandMade Films films
PolyGram Filmed Entertainment films
Summit Entertainment films
Universal Pictures films
Films produced by Matthew Vaughn
Films with screenplays by Guy Ritchie
Hyperlink films
1998 directorial debut films
|
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210155
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Core
|
The Core
|
The Core is a 2003 American science fiction disaster film directed by Jon Amiel and starring Aaron Eckhart, Hilary Swank, Delroy Lindo, Stanley Tucci, Tchéky Karyo, DJ Qualls, Bruce Greenwood and Alfre Woodard. The film focuses on a team whose mission is to drill to the center of the Earth and set off a series of nuclear explosions in order to restart the rotation of the Earth's core. The film was released on March 28, 2003, by Paramount Pictures. It received mixed reviews from critics and grossed $74 million worldwide with a production budget of $85 million.
Plot
Several small, disparate incidents involving the Earth's magnetic field cause scientists led by geophysicist Dr. Josh Keyes and scientists Dr. Serge Leveque and Dr. Conrad Zimsky to conclude that the Earth's molten core has stopped rotating. Unless it can be restarted, the field will collapse within months, exposing the surface to devastating solar radiation. The U.S. government back a secret project to build a vessel that can drill to the core and release nuclear weapons to restart the rotation. They utilize the work of Dr. Ed "Braz" Brazzelton who has developed a material "Unobtainium" that can withstand and convert extreme heat into electricity, as well as a laser-based high-speed drilling array. NASA pilots Commander Robert Iverson and Major Rebecca "Beck" Childs are enlisted to pilot the multi-compartment vessel USS Virgil, while computer hacker Theodore Donald "Rat" Finch is brought on to keep news of the pending disaster or the attempt to restart the core from the Internet.
Virgil is launched through the Marianas Trench and successfully makes its way through the crust. The team accidentally drills through a gigantic empty geode structure, damaging the lasers when it lands at its base. As they traverse outside the ship to free the vessel from the crystalline structures, the geode starts to flood with magma, and Iverson is impaled by a falling shard and falls into the magma. The rest manage to return in time as Virgil continues its descent. Further down, they pass through a field of gigantic diamond formations, one which breaches the last compartment housing the detonation timers for the nuclear charges. Leveque sacrifices himself to make sure the others have the charges and launch codes before the compartment is crushed by the extreme pressure.
The team reaches the molten core and realizes it is much less dense than previously thought, throwing off their calculations on restarting its motions. They communicate with the surface, where Lieutenant General Thomas Purcell, overseeing the operation, orders them to abandon the effort and return immediately as they plan to use a secondary protocol to restart the core. Finch secretly communicating with the Virgil team and learns that this secondary protocol is the top-secret project "DESTINI" (Deep Earth Seismic Trigger INItiative). Keyes finds that Zimsky was a lead scientist on "DESTINI", which was intended to be used as a weapon by the U.S. but when it was first tested had caused the core's rotation to stop. Finch redirects power from DESTINI to prevent Purcell from activating it again, as Keyes fears it could destroy the Earth instead of restarting the core. Meanwhile, destructive events, including a lightning storm in Rome, Italy and a burst of ultraviolet rays that destroys San Francisco, alert the world to the situation.
On Virgil, the remaining team comes up with a plan to place an explosive in each of the remaining compartments, release them, and time their detonations in an exact sequence to trigger the core's rotation through constructive wave interference. Due to the faulty design of the Virgil because of time constraints, Brazzelton has to sacrifice himself to engage the compartment detachment mechanism in the vessel's underbelly. As they set the charges, Keyes and Zimsky realize they need more explosive power than previously thought and in their race to adjust timings, Zimsky becomes trapped in a detached compartment. Keyes uses Virgils nuclear power source to provide the additional energy for the final detonation. While it leaves the main compartment powerless and Keyes and Childs trapped, the other explosions do successfully restart the core's rotation. Keyes recalls that the unobtainium shell can convert the heat and pressure to energy, and the two wire the shell directly to their systems in time to power the craft and ride the pressure wave out of the core and up towards the surface through tectonic plates, eventually breaching into the floor of the ocean near Hawaii. Due to the much lower heat and pressure in this environment, the Virgil no longer has sufficient power to establish communications. The government searches for them, and Finch, tracking nearby whale sound, realizes the Virgil crew are using low-power ultrasound to draw whales nearby. Keyes and Childs are soon rescued.
In the aftermath, Finch uploads information about Virgil and its team and the classified information about "DESTINI" across the Internet, causing the world to revere the crew as heroes.
Cast
Aaron Eckhart as Dr. Joshua "Josh" Keyes, a scientist and professor at the University of Chicago who designs the navigation system for Virgil and is assigned as head of the project.
Hilary Swank as Major Rebecca "Beck" Childs, USAF, an astronaut who distinguished herself during an emergency crash landing of the Space Shuttle Endeavour in Los Angeles, California, a result of the magnetic instability.
Delroy Lindo as Dr. Edward "Braz" Brazzelton, the designer of Virgil and the ultrasonic lasers.
Stanley Tucci as Dr. Conrad Zimsky, Earth specialist and designer of Project D.E.S.T.INI., based in Alaska. He went on high alert after the magnetic instability caused an attack in Trafalgar Square by an enormous flock of pigeons.
Tchéky Karyo as Dr. Serge Leveque, nuclear weapons specialist.
Bruce Greenwood as Commander Robert "Bob" Iverson, USN, Major Childs' commander and mentor.
DJ Qualls as Theodore Donald "Rat" Finch, a computer hacker who is widely regarded as the best in the world, crippled the FBI's database, recruited to control the flow of information on the Internet to prevent public panic.
Alfre Woodard as Flight Commander Dr. Talma "Stickor" Stickley, the mission controller for NASA Space Shuttle Endeavour and Virgil.
Richard Jenkins as Lieutenant General Thomas Purcell, U.S. Army, leader of the operation.
Fred Ewanuick (credited as Fred Ewanvick) as Endeavor Flight Engineer Jenkins.
Production
The Core had out-to-sea scenes, starring , with full support of the US Navy.
The original plan for the shuttle landing scene had been for Endeavour to attempt a landing at Los Angeles International Airport with the shuttle coming to a halt on the nearby beaches. However, due to the events of September 11, 2001, the crew was not allowed to film at LAX. The scene was therefore rewritten with Endeavour landing in the LA river.
Reception
The film has an approval rating of 40% based on 157 reviews, with an average rating of 5.30/10, on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes; the site's consensus states, "A B-movie with its tongue planted firmly in cheek, The Core is so unintentionally (intentionally?) bad that it's a hoot." On Metacritic, another aggregation website, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100 based on reviews from 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". In his review, Roger Ebert gave the film two and a half stars out of four and said "I have such an unreasonable affection for this movie, indeed, that it is only by slapping myself alongside the head and drinking black coffee that I can restrain myself from recommending it."
The film grossed $31.1 million in United States theaters, and another $43.0 million overseas for a total worldwide gross of $74.1 million against a production budget of $85 million.
Several reviews cited the numerous scientific inaccuracies in the film. Elvis Mitchell, of The New York Times, said, "The brazen silliness of The Core is becalming and inauthentic, like taking a bath in nondairy coffee creamer. The Earth core's inability to turn is mirrored in the cast's inability to give the picture any spin." Kenneth Turan, of the Los Angeles Times, was a little more forgiving, saying, "If The Core finally has to be classified as a mess, it is an enjoyable one if you're in a throwback mood. After all, a film that comes up with a rare metal called unobtainium can't be dismissed out of hand."
In response to criticism of his screenplay's lack of scientific realism, screenwriter John Rogers responded that he tried to make the science accurate, but expended three years fighting "to get rid of the ... dinosaurs, magma-walks in 'space-suits', bullshit-sci-crap sources for the Earth's crisis, and a windshield for the ship Virgil."
On March 30, 2009, it was reported that Dustin Hoffman was leading a campaign to get more real science into science-fiction movies. Hoffman is on the advisory board of the Science & Entertainment Exchange, an initiative of the United States National Academy of Sciences, intended to foster collaborations between scientists and entertainment industry professionals in order to minimize inaccurate representations of science and technology such as those found in The Core.
In a poll of hundreds of scientists about bad science fiction films, The Core was voted the worst.
On February 21, 2010, The Guardian ran an article about American professor Sidney Perkowitz's proposals to curb bad science in science fiction movies. In the article, Perkowitz is said to have hated The Core. "If you violate [the coherent rules of science] you are in trouble. The chances are that the public will pick it up and that is what matters to Hollywood. The Core did not make money because people understood the science was so out to lunch," he added.
See also
Crack in the World, 1965 film with a similar plot
Deep Core, 2000 film with a similar plot
Descent, 2005 film with a similar plot
Polar Storm, 2009 film with a similar plot
List of disaster films
References
External links
Review of The physics of The Core at Bad Astronomy
Review of The Core at Intuitor.com
2003 films
2000s disaster films
2003 science fiction action films
2000s science fiction adventure films
American disaster films
American science fiction action films
American science fiction adventure films
American films
English-language films
Films about nuclear technology
Films about scientists
Films about the United States Navy
Films directed by Jon Amiel
Films scored by Christopher Young
Films set in Alaska
Films set in Boston
Films set in California
Films set in Chicago
Films set in London
Films set in Los Angeles
Films set in Paris
Films set in Rome
Films set in San Francisco
Films set in the Middle East
Films set in the Pacific Ocean
Films set in the San Francisco Bay Area
Films set in Utah
Films set in Washington, D.C.
Films shot in Vancouver
Films with screenplays by John Rogers
Paramount Pictures films
Travel to the Earth's center
Films set in subterranea
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aston%20University
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Aston University
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Aston University (abbreviated as Aston. for post-nominals) is a public research university situated in the city centre of Birmingham, England. Aston began as the Birmingham Municipal Technical School in 1895, evolving into the UK's first College of Advanced Technology in 1956. Aston University received its royal charter from Queen Elizabeth II on 22 April 1966.
Aston pioneered the integrated placement year concept over 50 years ago, and more than 73% of Aston students take a placement year, the highest percentage in the UK.
In September 2021, it was announced that Aston University was shortlisted for University of the Year in the Times Higher Education Awards 2021.
In 2020, Aston University was named "University of the Year" by The Guardian, and the newspaper also awarded Aston Students' Union its "Buildings That Inspire" award. The Times Higher Education Awards named Aston University as its "Outstanding Entrepreneurial University" in 2020.
In 2021, the university announced plans to close its Department of History, Languages and Translation, focusing instead on health, engineering, and business. This decision led to protests from members of the university, as well as humanities scholars broadly.
History
Predecessor institutions
The origins of Aston University are a School of Metallurgy formed in the Birmingham and Midland Institute in 1875. The Birmingham Municipal Technical School separated from the Institute in 1895, teaching chemistry, physics, metallurgy and electrical engineering; it expanded and by 1917 was also teaching botany and other subjects to trainee teachers. In 1911, commercial classes were introduced and grew into an independent School of Commerce by 1916. The school changed its name in 1927 to the Birmingham Central Technical College, to reflect its changing approach to teaching technology.
In 1951, the Technical College was renamed the College of Technology, Birmingham and work began on the Main Building at Gosta Green. In 1956, it became the first elite designated College of Advanced Technology and underwent a major expansion. It moved into buildings that were constructed between 1949 and 1955 to a design by Ashley & Newman. Princess Margaret laid one of the first foundation stones at the base of the new building in 1951. The building is one of Europe's largest freestanding brick buildings. In 1955, the College of Advanced Technology was opened by Her Majesty The Queen. The college expanded again to a design by the City Architect of Birmingham Alwyn Sheppard Fidler between 1957 and 1965.
University status
It officially became the University of Aston in Birmingham on receipt of its Royal Charter on 22 April 1966 and the first Chancellor of the University, Lord Nelson of Stafford, was installed on 10 May. The Charter of the University outlines objectives appropriate to a technological university: "to advance, disseminate and apply learning and knowledge by teaching and research, for the benefit of industry and commerce and of the community generally: and to enable students to obtain the advantage of a university education, and such teaching and research may include periods outside the University in industry or commerce or wherever the University considers proper for the best advancement of its objects." The emphasis given to the sandwich course system, and the maintenance of strong links with industry, arises naturally from the institution's history. The motto of the University is the same as that of the City of Birmingham – Forward.
In 1983, Aston University, in partnership with Birmingham City Council and Lloyds Bank, established Birmingham Technology Ltd., which manages the Aston Science Park adjacent to the university site. The establishment of the Aston Science Park and Aston University's contribution to the city of Birmingham was fully recognised when the area was granted its own postal address "The Aston Triangle" in 1984, emphasising the campus as an official district of Birmingham. The logo of the establishment takes from the shape of the area.
2000 to present
Aston University hosted the British Science Festival in September 2010, said to be Europe's largest public science event.
Since May 2011, Sir John Sunderland has been the Chancellor of Aston University.
The university is a lead sponsor of Aston University Engineering Academy, a university technical college (UTC) which opened in September 2012. The UTC is for students aged 14 to 19 wishing to pursue further study and careers in engineering, and is located at the edge of the Aston University campus.
In October 2014, Aston announced plans to launch Aston Medical School in October 2015. The University also announced a £35 million cash injection for a major upgrade of the campus, including a new £19 million revamp of Aston Business School and improvement work to the Aston Institute of Photonic Technologies and the School of Languages and Social Sciences.
In February 2017, Aston University launched its online programme website. Four of their MSc programmes are offered 100% online to students in the UK and worldwide, including the Aston Business School's MBA.
In July 2017, Aston became the first University in the UK to have degree apprenticeship graduates. Aston began working in close partnership with Capgemini, to create the first degree apprenticeship: Digital and Technology Solutions in 2012.
The University informed staff in March 2021 that it intended to terminate History and Modern Languages, and was formally consulting on whether to close the entire Department of History, Languages and Translation Studies. This decision led to protests from members of the university, as well as humanities scholars broadly. Professional groups, including the Royal Historical Society and the American Historical Association, condemned the move, and public figures, including Sir Keith Burnett and Shadow Education Secretary Kate Green criticised the university leadership. Facing mounting public opposition and protests from staff and students, university officials reversed their position and agreed to save the History programme. Although cuts to language instruction would continue.
Campus
Established in 1895 as the Birmingham Municipal Technical School, The university is situated on a 60-acre campus at Gosta Green, in the city centre of Birmingham, England. As well as being home to over 3,000 students, the Aston University campus has the following amenities available: sports centres, swimming pool, 120 station gym, library, cafés, restaurants, pubs, shops, travel centre, hairdresser, health centre, dentist, places of worship, opticians, a bank, automated teller machines and plenty of outside space.
Aston University Library is on four floors and contains over 250,000 books, 800 current printed periodicals and has over 700 reader places. It provides online access to over 40 electronic databases and more than 3,400 electronic journals. The Library is open 24 hours a day to Aston students and staff during exam time, and on average, around 12 hours a day during term time.
Around the campus there are also various open-access IT suites, offering computer and internet access 24 hours a day, seven days a week. They offer access to a range of software packages, database systems and computer-aided learning materials.
Sports
The Aston's sports facilities include a 25m swimming pool, sauna and steam room, two sports halls, 120 station Gym, weights and fitness rooms, two-storey dance studio and 35 sports clubs. The campus also has two 3G floodlit sports pitches. Clubs train and compete, many in the British Universities and Colleges Sports (BUCS) Leagues. Off campus the University manages a 40-acre sports ground with floodlit pitches, pavilion for all outdoor sports.
Organisation and administration
Faculties and Colleges
All of Aston University's faculties are based on one campus. Key subjects delivered and structure prior to 2020:
Aston Business School
Aston Law
Economics and Strategy
Finance and Accounting
Marketing Group
Operations and Information Management Group
Work and Organisational Psychology
School of Engineering and Applied Science
Applied Physics
Civil Engineering
Chemical Engineering & Applied Chemistry
Computer Science
Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Engineering Systems and Management
Mathematics
Mechanical Engineering and Design
School of Life and Health Sciences
Audiology
Biology
Biochemistry
Biomedical Science
Medicine
Neuroscience
Optometry
Pharmacy
Psychology
School of Social Sciences and Humanities
English language and literature
History
Politics and international relations
Sociology and social policy
Translation
Early in 2020, Aston restructured its Schools into three Colleges, notably merging the School of Languages and Social Sciences with Aston Business School, and Aston Medical School with the School of Life and Health Sciences. Additional restructuring followed in 2021 after the University agreed to save its courses in History and Translation Studies. The resulting Colleges, Schools, and Departments are as follows:
College of Business and Social Sciences
Aston Business School
Accounting
Economics, Finance, and Entrepreneurship
Marketing and Strategy
Operations and Information Management
Work and Organisation
Aston Law School
School of Social Sciences and Humanities
English, Languages and Applied Linguistics
Sociology and Policy
Politics, History and International Relations
College of Engineering and Physical Sciences
School of Informatics and Digital Engineering
Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Mathematics
Computer Science
School of Engineering and Technology
Mechanical Engineering and Design
Biomedical Engineering
Aston Foundation Centre
Aston Professional Engineering Centre
School of Infrastructure and Sustainable Engineering
Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry
Engineering Systems and Supply Chain Management
Civil Engineering
College of Health and Life Sciences
School of Biosciences
Aston Medical School
School of Optometry
Audiology and Healthcare Sciences
Aston Pharmacy School
Neuroscience
School of Psychology
Coat of arms
The university's arms were granted on 18 March 1955 by Garter, Clarenceux and Norroy and Ulster Kings of Arms to the Birmingham Corporation, for use by the former College of Technology. They were designed to show the college's connection with the city and with the teaching of technology. The arms consist of a shield and crest. The shield has two sections – the field (the main background) which is coloured blue and a chief (the broad band across the top of the shield) of silver. On the field is a diagonal line of five gold diamonds joined one to the other, similar to the first quarter of the Arms of the City of Birmingham and incorporated in the Arms of the college to show its connection with the city. This was adopted by the family of Birmingham which derived its name from the then hamlet of Birmingham, and provided the Lords of the Manor from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries. On the chief is depicted an open book bound in red placed between two black hammers, showing the connection of the University with technology, the book representing learning and the hammers engineering and allied trades.
The crest is also designed to stress the pursuit of knowledge. It consists of a red torch held erect by a forearm between two branches of gold laurel. Having been originally worn on the helmet of a fully armed person, the crest is always placed on the top of the helm. The method of joining the crest to the helm was usually concealed by decoration and, in the University's arms, this is effected by the use of a wreath and a crown. The wreath is silver, red and black, these colours being taken from the shield. It is surmounted by a mural crown (resembling a wall), which is reserved in modern grants for persons and organisations connected with public corporations. The cloth mantling which hangs down from the top of the helm is the survival of the cloak which was originally worn to protect the armour, coloured in the two principal colours of the shield, blue and gold.
In 2016, to mark the 50th anniversary of the University, Her Majesty's College of Arms granted the favour of supporters to Aston University's arms, following a request from the Vice-Chancellor, Julia King, the Baroness Brown of Cambridge.
On 29 September, during a service at St Phillips Cathedral, The Letters Patent was formally presented to Aston University by the York Herald, Michael Peter Desmond O'Donoghue Esq..
The arms are supported by a Canada goose and a red squirrel. The Canada goose represents the family of geese living on the University campus. The squirrel is the crest of the arms of Aston Manor and is a rebus. (The picture is a pun on the persons name. The owners of Aston Manor were the Holte family and a squirrel's nest is called a holt). This explains the ancient connection between the squirrel and Aston. The animal also appears on the University mace and on the Chancellor's chain of office. This chain was originally the property of the Mayor of Aston Manor.
The gorse around the animals' necks is a reference to Gosta Green. During the 18th century, it was known as Gostie Green, this combined the name of the landowner (William de Gorsty) with the local plant called 'gorse'
Academic dress
The academic dress for graduates of the University is as follows:
Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Engineering and Master of Engineering
Gown: Black stuff of special design, having coat-type sleeve, narrow facings which continue round the neck and with extra wide gathers round the back
Hood: Black stuff, modified simple shape, faced inside for three inches with University lining
Hat: Black mortar board
Master of Science
Gown: Black stuff of special design, having coat-type sleeve, narrow facings which continue round the neck and with extra wide gathers round the back
Hood: Black stuff, modified simple shape, fully lined with University lining
Hat: Black mortar board
Master of Philosophy
Gown: Black stuff of special design, having coat-type sleeve, narrow facings which continue round the neck and with extra wide gathers round the back
Hood: Blue stuff, modified simple shape, fully lined with University lining
Hat: Black mortar board
Doctor of Philosophy
Gown: Claret colour cloth robe, having coat-type sleeve, narrow facings which continue round the neck and with extra wide gathers round the back
Hood: Modified simple shape, in University Red stuff, faced inside for three inches with University lining
Hat: Black cloth bonnet with cord and tassels of University Red
Doctor of Science
Gown: Same shape as for Doctor of Philosophy but in University Red, with facings on collar of University lining and gold cuffs on sleeves
Hood: Same shape as for Doctor of Philosophy but of gold silk and fully lined with University lining
Hat: Black velvet bonnet with cord and tassels in gold
Academic profile
Research
In the latest 2008 Research Assessment Exercise, Aston University was ranked in the top 12 in the UK in all four of its broad subject areas, with 86% of research undertaken was described as 'internationally significant'. 88% of Aston academic staff were submitted for research assessment, one of the highest proportions in the UK. According to the RAE, the university's strengths include Business and Management, General Engineering, Subjects Allied to Medicine (Optometry, Biology, Pharmacy and Psychology), Languages and European Studies.
Rankings
Aston University has been ranked in the top 25 of UK institutions in the 2022 Guardian University Guide.
Aston University received a Gold award as part of the UK Government's Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF). The framework evaluates universities on criteria including teaching quality, learning environment and student outcomes, taking into account factors such as student satisfaction, retention rates and employment
Many factors make up the overall League Table rankings; Aston prides itself on consistently strong performances for the metrics related to student outcome successes. For example, in the 2021 Guardian University Guide Aston are ranked 11th in the UK for ‘Continuation’ which measures the proportion of students that drop-out of University following their first year. The 2021 Guardian also ranks Aston joint 24th in the UK for ‘Value Added’ which compares student University grades against their expected grades based on entry qualifications.
In addition to this, the 2021 Times/Sunday Times Good University Guide ranks Aston University 31st in the UK for the proportion of students achieving a 1st or 2:1 degree classification, and the same publication ranks Aston 30th in the UK for ‘Graduate Prospects’, based on the proportion of graduates in a professional level job or further study within 15 months of graduation.
In addition to these immediate successes of Aston's students and graduates, there is also evidence of strong long-term benefits of Aston degrees, as the 2020 Longitudinal Education Outcomes study found that Aston graduates had the 15th largest median salary of all UK institutions 5 years after graduation.
Aston Business School
Founded in 1947 Aston Business School (ABS) is one of the largest and oldest business schools in the UK. The school was ranked 8th in the UK and 33rd in the world by QS in 2012 and it is among the top 60 of business schools in the world to hold triple accreditation. ABS was the first UK business school to be awarded the prestigious EQUIS accreditation, in 1999. ABS is the first institution in the UK to be allied with Beta Gamma Sigma by establishing a BGS Collegiate Chapter. In 2006 it opened a new £22m extension including new study rooms and two new lecture theatres.
Aston University is currently top 100 in the World for Business and Management in the 2020 QS World Subject Rankings and top 200 for Accounting and Finance in the same publication.
The business school's Masters Management course was ranked by the Financial Times in 2012 as 5th in the UK, 33rd in Europe and 36th in the world. The paper also ranked Aston Business School as 4th in the world for careers in 2011. In the school's most recent Research Assessment Exercise in 2008, all research areas submitted ranked in the top 9 in the UK. 45% of the research submitted was judged to be "excellent" or "world-leading". Top 1% of Business Schools Worldwide with Triple Accreditation from AMBA, AACSB and EQUIS World Top 100 Universities for Business and Management Studies by QS Ranking (2019).
Aston is 2nd in the UK for developing marketing professionals and 7th in the UK for finance professionals, based on the career outcome data of more than 313+ million LinkedIn members. The University was also 23rd in the UK for accounting professionals. According to the Complete University Guide 2016, Aston is ranked 6th for marketing, 22nd for accounting and finance, 22nd for economics and 23rd for business and management studies in the UK.
Student life
Students' Union
Aston Students' Union (SU) (formerly Guild) is a non-profit, independent charity set up with the aim of representing and supporting its members who are primarily current students at Aston University. The SU operates a number of commercial and non-commercial services including; the Advice & Representation Centre (ARC), the Aston Athletic Union which supports the university sports clubs, the Aston Societies Federation which supports a large number of non-sporting societies, the SU Shop, Copyshop and B4 Bar. The SU is funded by grant income from Aston University and by funds raised by the SU's commercial services. The SU is led by a Trustee Board consisting of elected students and external trustees. Day-to-day management is by a team of permanent staff and by an elected student team called the Executive Committee. The SU building consists of 5 floors and is located in the centre of the Aston University Campus.
On 29 November 2006, the students voted to disaffiliate the Guild (now Union) from the National Union of Students, but voted to re-affiliate on 26 November 2014.
Student housing
All of the student housing that Aston owned was sold to UNITE Students in 2016. In the 1970s, three tower blocks containing student accommodation were constructed on Aston University campus; Dalton, Lawrence and Stafford Towers. In April 2007, Aston University submitted a planning application for demolition of the three 1970s towers and to replace them with new student accommodation blocks as well as apartments for tutors, retail units and administrative offices. Lawrence and Dalton Towers were demolished on 8 May 2011. Stafford Tower, Gem Sports Centre and Lakeside Conference Centre were demolished on 27 April 2014 to make way for a new entrance to Aston University and a five-acre green space. The new landscaped area includes a new walkway into the university from the city centre and a pavilion, to be used for teaching and as a catering facility for outdoor events. The new buildings are named the William Murdoch, the James Watt, the Harriet Martineau and the Mary Sturge Residences.
Another addition to Aston University student dwelling stock is the Lakeside complex on campus which was completed in August 1999.
Notable people
List of chancellors
Lord Nelson of Stafford (May 1966 – September 1979)
Sir Adrian Cadbury (September 1979 – September 2004)
Michael Bett (September 2004 – May 2011)
John Sunderland (Since May 2011)
List of vice-chancellors
Peter Venables (April 1966 – July 1969)
Sir Joseph Pope (August 1969 – September 1979)
Frederick W. Crawford (July 1980 – August 1996)
Michael T. Wright (September 1996 – November 2006)
Dame Julia King (November 2006 – September 2016)
Alec Cameron (September 2016 – Present)
Lecturers
Geoffrey Vernon Ball – The first full-time lecturing professor of ophthalmics, (1948–1981)
Alumni
Academia and science
Andrew Campbell, American computer scientist
Stewart Clegg, Australian sociologist
Paul Drayson, Baron Drayson, vaccine manufacturer and Minister of State for Science, Drayson Racing Driver
Veronica German, Scientist, Member of the National Assembly for Wales
Abdollah Jassbi, President of Azad University
Rahul Potluri, Founder of ACALM, Doctor, Researcher, Scientist
John Rickard, Former Chief Economic Advisor to the British Government
Adam Ryland, British programmer
Kevin Warwick, Professor of cybernetics and Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research) at Coventry University
Steve Wharton, British academic
David Willey, American Physicist and entertainer
Arts and media
Frankie Boyle, Stand-up, Television
Laura Jones, BBC Journalist
Ivan Noble, BBC journalist
Nic Robertson, Senior International Correspondent at CNN
Kate Walsh, Television presenter
Business
Viswas Raghavan, CEO of J.P. Morgan EMEA
Ben Francis, Founder and majority shareholder of Gymshark
Chris Banks, British businessman
Rob Brighouse, Managing Director Chiltern Railways
Tony Hayward, Former chief executive of BP Group
Ravi Kant, Vice Chairman of TATA Motors, India
Kevin Morley, Former Managing Director of the former Rover Group
Rob Perrins, Managing Director of Berkeley Group Holdings
Phil Popham, Global Operations Director for the global Jaguar Land Rover business
Sir Arthur Smout, former Director-General of Ammunition Production for the British Armed Forces during the Second World War, and managing director of Imperial Chemical Industries metals group.
Mike Wright, Executive Director Jaguar Land Rover
Politics
Keith Bradley, Baron Bradley, Labour Party politician and life peer
Anthony Cheung, Secretary for Transport and Housing in Hong Kong
Simon D'Ujanga, State Minister for Energy in Uganda
Malcolm Harbour, British politician
Mohammad Nizar Jamaluddin, Former Chief Minister of the state of Perak
Ashok Kumar, Labour Party politician
Rachel Maclean, Conservative Party politician
Terry Pitt, Political adviser and former Member of the European Parliament
Jeff Rooker, Baron Rooker, Labour Peer
Claire Curtis-Thomas, British Labour Party politician and former Member of Parliament (MP)
Robert Walter, Conservative MP
Salma Yaqoob, Leader, and former vice-chairman, of Respect – The Unity Coalition
Sports
Rūta Bunkutė, IFBB/NPC Amateur fitness and figure competitor from Lithuania
Gregor Townsend MBE, Scottish and British Lions Rugby Union Player
Acting
Burak Ozcivit
Other
Ernest Henry Wilson, notable plant collector and explorer
See also
List of universities in the United Kingdom
References
External links
Aston University website
Aston University online programmes
Aston Guild of Students
Educational institutions established in 1895
1895 establishments in England
Universities established in the 1960s
Education in Birmingham, West Midlands
Universities UK
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210162
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20F.%20Albright
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William F. Albright
|
William Foxwell Albright (May 24, 1891– September 19, 1971) was an American archaeologist, biblical scholar, philologist, and expert on ceramics.
Biography
Albright was born on May 24, 1891, in Coquimbo, Chile, the eldest of six children of the American evangelical Methodist missionaries Wilbur Finley Albright and Cornish-American Zephine Viola Foxwell. Albright was an alumnus of Upper Iowa University. He married Ruth Norton in 1921 and had four sons. He received his Doctor of Philosophy degree from Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1916 and accepted a professorship there in 1927. Albright was W. W. Spence Professor of Semitic Languages from 1930 until his retirement in 1958. He was the Director of the American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem from 1922–1929, and 1933–1936, and did important archaeological work at sites in Palestine such as Gibeah (Tell el-Fûl, 1922) and Tell Beit Mirsim (1926, 1928, 1930, and 1932).
Albright became known to the public in 1948 for his role in the authentication of the Dead Sea Scrolls, but made his scholarly reputation as the leading theorist and practitioner of biblical archaeology, "that branch of archaeology that sheds light upon 'the social and political structure, the religious concepts and practices and other human activities and relationships that are found in the Bible or pertain to peoples mentioned in the Bible." Albright was not, however, a biblical literalist; in his Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, for example, he argued that Yahwism and ancient Caananite religion had a reciprocal relationship, in which "both gained much in the exchange which set in about the tenth century and continued until the fifth century B.C".
Although primarily a biblical archaeologist, Albright was a polymath who made contributions in almost every field of Near Eastern studies: an example of his range is a 1953 paper, "New Light from Egypt on the Chronology and History of Israel and Judah", in which he established that Egyptian pharaoh Shoshenq I—the Biblical Shishaq—came to power somewhere between 945 and 940 BC.
A prolific author, his works in addition to Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, include The Archaeology of Palestine: From the Stone Age to Christianity, and The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra. He also edited the Anchor Bible volumes on Jeremiah, Matthew, and Revelation.
Throughout his life Albright was honored with awards, honorary doctorates, and medals, and was proclaimed "Yakir Yerushalayim" (Worthy Citizen of Jerusalem)—the first time that title had been awarded to a non-Jew. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1956. After his death on September 19, 1971, his legacy continued through the many scholars inspired by his work, who specialized in the fields pioneered by Albright. The American School of Oriental Research, Jerusalem, was renamed the Albright Institute of Archaeological Research, in honor of Albright's archeological achievements.
Historical research and hypotheses
From the 1930s until his death, he was the dean of biblical archaeologists and the acknowledged founder of the biblical archaeology movement. Coming from his background in German biblical criticism of the historicity of the biblical accounts, Albright, through his seminal work in archaeology (and his development of the standard pottery typology for Palestine and the Holy Land) concluded that the biblical accounts of Israelite history were, contrary to the dominant German biblical criticism of the day, largely accurate. This area remains widely contested among scholars. Albright's student George Ernest Wright inherited his leadership of the biblical archaeology movement, contributing definitive work at Shechem and Gezer. Albright inspired, trained and worked with the first generation of world-class Israeli archaeologists, who have carried on his work, and maintained his perspective.
Other students such as Joseph Fitzmyer, Frank Moore Cross, Raymond E. Brown, and David Noel Freedman, became international leaders in the study of the Bible and the ancient Near East, including Northwest Semitic epigraphy and paleography. John Bright, Cyrus H. McCormick Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Interpretation at Union Seminary in Richmond (PhD, Johns Hopkins, 1940), went on to become "the first distinguished American historian of the Old Testament" and "arguably the most influential scholar of the Albright school", owing to his "distinctly American commonsense flavor, similar to that of W[illiam] James". Thus Albright and his students influenced a broad swath of American higher education from the 1940s through the 1970s, after which revisionist scholars such as T. L. Thompson, John Van Seters, Niels Peter Lemche, and Philip R. Davies developed and advanced a minimalist critique of Albright's view that archaeology supports the broad outlines of the history of Israel as presented in the Bible. Like other academic polymaths (Edmund Husserl in phenomenology and Max Weber in the fields of sociology and the sociology of religion), Albright created and advanced the discipline of biblical archaeology, which is now taught at universities worldwide and has exponents across national, cultural, and religious lines.
Influence and legacy
Albright's publication in the Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 1932, of his excavations of Tell Beit Mirsim, and descriptions of the Bronze Age and Iron Age layers at the site in 1938 and 1943, marked a major contribution to the dating of sites based on ceramic typologies, which is still in use. "With this work, Albright made Israeli archaeology into a science, instead of what it had formerly been: a digging in which the details are more or less well-described in an indifferent chronological framework which is as general as possible and often wildly wrong".
As editor of the Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research from 1931 to 1968, Albright influenced biblical scholarship and Palestinian archaeology. Albright advocated "biblical archaeology" in which the archaeologist's task, according to fellow biblical archaeologist William G. Dever, is "to illuminate, to understand, and, in their greatest excesses, to 'prove' the Bible." Here, Albright's American Methodist upbringing was clearly apparent. He insisted, for example, that "as a whole, the picture in Genesis is historical, and there is no reason to doubt the general accuracy of the biographical details" (i.e., of figures such as Abraham). Similarly he claimed that archaeology had proved the essential historicity of the Book of Exodus, and the conquest of Canaan as described in the Book of Joshua and the Book of Judges.
In the years since his death, Albright's methods and conclusions have been increasingly questioned. In a 1993 article for The Biblical Archaeologist, William G. Dever stated that: [Albright's] central theses have all been overturned, partly by further advances in Biblical criticism, but mostly by the continuing archaeological research of younger Americans and Israelis to whom he himself gave encouragement and momentum... The irony is that, in the long run, it will have been the newer 'secular' archaeology that contributed the most to Biblical studies, not 'Biblical archaeology.'
Biblical scholar Thomas L. Thompson wrote that by 2002 the methods of "biblical archaeology" had also become outmoded:[Wright and Albright's] historical interpretation can make no claim to be objective, proceeding as it does from a methodology which distorts its data by selectivity which is hardly representative, which ignores the enormous lack of data for the history of the early second millennium, and which wilfully establishes hypotheses on the basis of unexamined biblical texts, to be proven by such (for this period) meaningless mathematical criteria as the "balance of probability" ...
Publications
The Archaeology of Palestine: From the Stone Age to Christianity (1940/rev.1960)
From the Stone Age to Christianity: Monotheism and the Historical Process, Johns Hopkins Press, 1946
Views of the Biblical World. Jerusalem: International Publishing Company J-m Ltd, 1959.
Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: An Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths (1968)
Matthew (with C. S. Mann) in the Anchor Bible series (1971)
The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra
See also
Biblical archaeology
List of artifacts in biblical archaeology
Views of the Biblical World
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Archaeology and the Hebrew patriarchs
Archaeology and the prophets of Israel
Light from archaeology on oral and written literature
National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
Official AIAR website
Question and answer session with William F. Albright after his lecture, Archaeology and the Hebrew patriarchs
William Foxwell Albright, in Historical Handbook of Major Biblical Interpreters
1891 births
1971 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American archaeologists
20th-century Christian biblical scholars
American orientalists
American biblical scholars
Critics of the Christ myth theory
Upper Iowa University alumni
Johns Hopkins University faculty
Archaeologists of the Near East
Biblical archaeologists
Johns Hopkins University alumni
American people of Cornish descent
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Old Testament scholars
People from Coquimbo
American expatriates in Chile
American expatriates in Mandatory Palestine
Palestinologists
American United Methodists
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Methodist biblical scholars
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy
|
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210164
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphaeus%20Philemon%20Cole
|
Alphaeus Philemon Cole
|
Alphaeus Philemon Cole (July 12, 1876 – November 25, 1988) was an American artist, engraver and etcher. He was born in Jersey City, New Jersey, the son of noted engraver Timothy Cole. At the time of his death, at age 112 years and 136 days, Alphaeus was the world's oldest verified living man and the oldest living person in the United States.
Biography
Cole studied art first under Isaac Craig, in Italy, then in Paris from 1892 to 1901 with Jean Paul Laurens and Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant at the Académie Julian, and later at the École des Beaux-Arts. In the mid-1890s, he began to produce many vibrant works, mostly various still lifes and portraits. His painting of Dante was exhibited in the 1900 Paris Salon, and more artwork was displayed at the 1901 Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York.
Cole moved to England and married sculptress Margaret Ward Walmsley in 1903. He began to venture into the fields of wood/steel engraving and etching, but these works sold less than his portraits. He contributed several drawings to the Encyclopædia Britannica. They moved again, to the United States, in 1911. In 1918, Cole became a member of the Salmagundi Club, the nation's oldest professional art club. From 1924 to 1931, he taught portrait and still life classes at Cooper Union. He was elected to the National Academy of Design in 1930. He was the president of the New York Water Color Club from 1931 to 1941. In the 1940s, Cole worked as a judge of paintings in Max Pochapin's Manhattan Hall of Art, a merchandising art gallery, which was a revolutionary idea at the time. From 1952 to 1953, he was president of Allied Artists of America. His first wife died in 1961, and Cole married Anita Rio (1873–1971), a singer, and the widow of painter Eugene Higgins, in 1962. She died in 1971.
Cole actively painted and exhibited up to the age of 103. He died at New York's Chelsea Hotel, where he had lived for 35 years. Cole's work is in the permanent collections of London's National Portrait Gallery and the Brooklyn Museum, and his papers are stored at the Smithsonian Institution.
Although not recognized at the time, Cole is now verified as having been the oldest living man from the death of another notable supercentenarian, 111-year-old Norwegian skier Herman Smith-Johannsen, on January 5, 1987 to his own death, and was also the oldest living person in the United States for eight months after the death of 112-year-old Elzona Maxey on April 25, 1988, although none of them were recognized as the oldest living American person as Lucy Hannah, who died in March 1993 at the claimed age of 117, was believed to be older, but whose longevity claim has since been debunked.
As of August 11, 2013, prices for Cole's works now reach $5,000 or more. He died in New York City, at the age of 112 years, 136 days.
See also
Oldest people
Supercentenarian
References
1876 births
1988 deaths
American engravers
American etchers
American printmakers
American supercentenarians
Men supercentenarians
Artists from Jersey City, New Jersey
Artists from New York City
Cooper Union faculty
Alumni of the Académie Julian
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthroscopy
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Arthroscopy
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Arthroscopy (also called arthroscopic or keyhole surgery) is a minimally invasive surgical procedure on a joint in which an examination and sometimes treatment of damage is performed using an arthroscope, an endoscope that is inserted into the joint through a small incision. Arthroscopic procedures can be performed during ACL reconstruction.
The advantage over traditional open surgery is that the joint does not have to be opened up fully. For knee arthroscopy only two small incisions are made, one for the arthroscope and one for the surgical instruments to be used in the knee cavity. This reduces recovery time and may increase the rate of success due to less trauma to the connective tissue. It has gained popularity due to evidence of faster recovery times with less scarring, because of the smaller incisions. Irrigation fluid (most commonly 'normal' saline) is used to distend the joint and make a surgical space.
The surgical instruments are smaller than traditional instruments. Surgeons view the joint area on a video monitor, and can diagnose and repair torn joint tissue, such as ligaments. It is technically possible to do an arthroscopic examination of almost every joint, but is most commonly used for the knee, shoulder, elbow, wrist, ankle, foot, and hip.
Types
Knee
Knee arthroscopy, or arthroscopic knee surgery, is a surgery that uses arthroscopic techniques.
It has, in many cases, replaced the classic open surgery (arthrotomy) that was performed in the past. Arthroscopic knee surgery is one of the most common orthopaedic procedures, performed approximately 2 million times worldwide each year. The procedures are more commonly performed to treat meniscus injury and to perform anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.
While knee arthroscopy is commonly used for partial meniscectomy (trimming a torn meniscus) on middle aged to older adults with knee pain, the claimed positive results seem to lack scientific evidence. Many studies have shown the outcomes from knee arthroscopic surgery for osteoarthritis and degenerative meniscal tears are no better than the outcomes from placebo (fake) surgery or other treatments (such as exercise therapy).
During an average knee arthroscopy, a small fiberoptic camera (the arthroscope) is inserted into the joint through a small incision, about 4 mm (1/8 inch) width. More incisions might be performed in order to visually check other parts of the knee and to insert the miniature instruments that are used to perform surgical procedures.
Knee osteoarthritis
The BMJ Rapid Recommendations group makes a strong recommendation against arthroscopy for osteoarthritis on the basis that there is high quality evidence that there is no lasting benefit and less than 15% of people have a small short-term benefit. There are rare but serious adverse effects that can occur, including venous thromboembolism, infections, and nerve damage The BMJ Rapid Recommendation includes infographics and shared decision making tools to facilitate a conversation between doctors and patients about the risks and benefits of arthroscopic surgery.
Two major trials of arthroscopic surgery for osteoarthritis of the knee found no benefit for these surgeries. Even though randomized control trials have demonstrated this to be a procedure which involves the risks of surgery with questionable or no demonstrable long-term benefit, insurance companies (government and private) world-wide have generally felt obliged to continue funding it. An exception is Germany, where funding has been removed for the indication of knee osteoarthritis. It is claimed that German surgeons have continued to perform knee arthroscopy and instead claim rebates on the basis of a sub-diagnosis, such as meniscal tear.
A 2017 meta-analysis confirmed that there is only a very small and usually unimportant reduction in pain and improvement in function at 3 months (e.g. an average pain reduction of approximately 5 on a scale from 0 to 100). A separate review found that most people would consider a reduction in pain of approximately 12 on the same 0 to 100 scale important—suggesting that for most people, the pain reduction at 3 months is not important. Arthroscopy did not reduce pain or improve function or quality of life at one year. There are important adverse effects.
Meniscal tears
One of the primary reasons for performing arthroscopies is to repair or trim a painful and torn or damaged meniscus. The technical terms for the surgery is arthroscopic partial meniscectomy (APM). Arthroscopic surgery, however, does not appear to result in benefits to adults when performed for knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis who have a meniscal tear. This may be due to the fact that a torn meniscus may often not cause pain and symptoms, which may be caused by the osteoarthritis alone. Some groups have made a strong recommendation against arthroscopic partial meniscectomy in nearly all patients, stating that the only group of patients who may - or may not - benefit are those with a true locked knee. Professional knee societies, however, highlight other symptoms and related factors they believe are important, and continue to support limited use of arthroscopic partial meniscectomy in carefully selected patients.
Hip
Hip arthroscopy was initially used for the diagnosis of unexplained hip pain, but is now widely used in the treatment of conditions both in and outside the hip joint. The most common indication currently is for the treatment of femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) and its associated pathologies. Hip conditions that may be treated arthroscopically also includes labral tears, loose / foreign body removal, hip washout (for infection) or biopsy, chondral (cartilage) lesions, osteochondritis dissecans, ligamentum teres injuries (and reconstruction), Iliopsoas tendinopathy (or ‘snapping psoas’), trochanteric pain syndrome, snapping iliotibial band, osteoarthritis (controversial), sciatic nerve compression (piriformis syndrome), ischiofemoral impingement and direct assessment of hip replacement.
Hip arthroscopy is a widely adopted treatment for a range of conditions, including labral tears, femoroacetabular impingement, osteochondritis dissecans.
Shoulder
Arthroscopy is commonly used for treatment of diseases of the shoulder including subacromial impingement, acromioclavicular osteoarthritis, rotator cuff tears, frozen shoulder (adhesive capsulitis), chronic tendonitis, removal of loose bodies and partial tears of the long biceps tendon, SLAP lesions and shoulder instability. The most common indications include subacromial decompression, bankarts lesion repair and rotator cuff repair. All these procedures were done by opening the joint through big incisions before the advent of arthroscopy.
Arthroscopic shoulder surgeries have gained momentum in the past decade. "Keyhole surgery" of the shoulder as it is popularly known has reduced inpatient time and rehabilitation requirements and is often a daycare procedure.
Wrist
Arthroscopy of the wrist is used to investigate and treat symptoms of repetitive strain injury, fractures of the wrist and torn or damaged ligaments. It can also be used to ascertain joint damage caused by wrist osteoarthritis.
Spine
Many invasive spine procedures involve the removal of bone, muscle, and ligaments to access and treat problematic areas. In some cases, thoracic (mid-spine) conditions require a surgeon to access the problem area through the rib cage, dramatically lengthening recovery time.
Arthroscopic procedures (also endoscopic spinal procedures) allow access to and treatment of spinal conditions with minimal damage to surrounding tissues. Recovery times are greatly reduced due to the relatively small size of incisions, and many patients are treated as outpatients. Recovery rates and times vary according to condition severity and the patient's overall health.
Arthroscopic procedures treat
Spinal disc herniation and degenerative discs
spinal deformity
tumors
general spine trauma
Temporomandibular joint
Arthroscopy of the temporomandibular joint is sometimes used as either a diagnostic procedure for symptoms and signs related to these joints, or as a therapeutic measure in conditions like temporomandibular joint dysfunction. TMJ arthroscopy can be a purely diagnostic procedure, or it can have its own beneficial effects which may result from washing out of the joint during the procedure, thought to remove debris and inflammatory mediators, and may enable a displaced disc to return to its correct position. Arthroscopy is also used to visualize the inside of the joint during certain surgical procedures involving the articular disc or the articular surfaces, similar to laparoscopy. Examples include release of adhesions (e.g., by blunt dissection or with a laser) or release of the disc. Biopsies or disc reduction can also be carried out during arthroscopy. It is carried out under general anesthetic.
History
Professor Kenji Takagi in Tokyo has traditionally been credited with performing the first arthroscopic examination of a knee joint, in 1919. He used a 7.3 mm cystoscope for his first arthroscopies. Recently it has been discovered that the Danish physician Severin Nordentoft reported on arthroscopies of the knee joint in 1912 at the Proceedings of the 41st Congress of the German Society of Surgeons at Berlin. He called the procedure (in Latin) arthroscopia genu, and used sterile saline or boric acid solution as his optic media, and entering the joint by a portal on the outer border of the patella. It is not clear if these examinations were of deceased or of living patients.
Pioneering work began as early as the 1920s with the work of Eugen Bircher. He published several papers in the 1920s about his use of arthroscopy of the knee for diagnostic purposes. After diagnosing torn tissue, he used open surgery to remove or repair the damaged tissue. Initially, he used an electric Jacobaeus thoracolaparoscope for his diagnostic procedures, which produced a dim view of the joint. Later, he developed a double-contrast approach to improve visibility. He gave up endoscopy in 1930, and his work was largely neglected for several decades.
While he is often considered the inventor of arthroscopy of the knee, the Japanese surgeon Masaki Watanabe, MD, receives primary credit for using arthroscopy for interventional surgery. Watanabe was inspired by the work and teaching of Dr Richard O'Connor. Later, Dr. Heshmat Shahriaree began experimenting with ways to excise fragments of menisci.
The first operating arthroscope was designed by them, and they worked together to produce the first high-quality color intraarticular photography. The field benefited significantly from technological advances, particularly advances in flexible fiber optics during the 1970s and 1980s.
Canadian doctor Robert Jackson is credited with bringing the procedure to the Western world. In 1964, Jackson was in Tokyo completing a one year fellowship and serving as a physician for the Canadian Olympic team. While there, he spent time at the clinic of Dr. Watanabe learning the thirty year old procedure that had only been used to investigate arthritis in the elderly. Dr. Jackson returned to Toronto where he continued to practice the technique, eventually becoming "the world's foremost expert on arthroscopy".
According to Sports Illustrated, "Jackson's particular genius was to recognize a wider application for the procedure than Watanabe ever did." Dr. Jackson realized the technique could be used for young, athletic patients that had suffered injuries. Torn knee cartilage or ligaments previously would require an arthrotomy procedure and might mean a year or more of rehab or the end of a career. Dr. Jackson believed the less invasive procedure with its smaller incisions would be able to save the career of injured athletes. While many were skeptical at first, Dr. Jackson's efforts to develop, teach and popularize the procedure helped to prolong the careers of athletes such as Bobby Orr, Willis Reed, Joan Benoit and Mary Lou Retton. For this, Dr. Jackson was named one of Sports Illustrated's forty most impactful people in sport's history, coming in at #37, and the only doctor on the list.
Complications
Arthroscopy is considered a low risk procedure with a very low rates of serious complications. Commonly, irrigation fluid may leak (extravasates) into the surrounding soft tissue, causing edema which is generally a temporary phenomenon, taking anywhere from 7–15 days to completely settle. Rarely, this fluid may be the cause of a serious complication, compartment syndrome. However, Postarthroscopic glenohumeral chondrolysis (PAGCL) is a rare complication of arthroscopic surgery and involves chondrolysis wherein the articular cartilage of the shoulder undergoes rapid, degenerative changes shortly after arthroscopic surgery.
See also
Arthroscopy: The Journal of Arthroscopic and Related Surgery
Invasiveness of surgical procedures
Laparoscopic surgery
Notes
External links
Arthroscopy Association of North America
Arthroscopy: The Journal of Arthroscopic and Related Surgery
SpineUniverse Minimally Invasive Spine Surgery Information Center — Articles from different institutes, organizations, and spine professionals.
Endoscopy
Orthopedic surgical procedures
Veterinary diagnosis
|
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210170
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Plea%20for%20Captain%20John%20Brown
|
A Plea for Captain John Brown
|
"A Plea for Captain John Brown" is an essay by Henry David Thoreau. It is based on a speech Thoreau first delivered to an audience at Concord, Massachusetts, on October 30, 1859, two weeks after John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, and repeated several times before Brown's execution on December 2, 1859. It was later published as a part of Echoes of Harper's Ferry in 1860.
Context
John Brown, a radical abolitionist, and 21 other men seized the Federal armory at Harper's Ferry, the holding place for approximately 100,000 rifles and muskets, hoping to arm slaves and create a violent rebellion against the South. After 36 hours, the revolt was suppressed by Federal forces led by Robert E. Lee, and Brown was jailed. The raid resulted in thirteen deaths: twelve rebels and one U.S. Marine. After being found guilty of murder, treason, and inciting a slave insurrection, Brown was hanged on December 2, 1859. Although largely called a failure at the time, the raid and Brown's subsequent execution impelled the American Civil War.
Synopsis
Thoreau's essay espoused John Brown and his fight for abolition. In opposition with popular opinion of the time – Thoreau vehemently refuted the claims of newspapers and his fellow countrymen who characterized Brown as foolish and insane – he painted a portrait of a peerless man whose embrace of a cause was unparalleled. Brown's commitment to justice and adherence to the United States Constitution forced him to fight state-sponsored injustice, one he was only affected by in spirit.
A unique man, Thoreau proclaimed in admiration, Brown was highly moral and humane. Independent, "under the auspices of John Brown and nobody else", and direct of speech, Brown instilled fear, which he attributed to a lack of cause, into large groups of men who supported slavery. Incomparable to man, Thoreau likens Brown's execution – he states that he regards Brown as dead before his actual death – to Christ's crucifixion at the hands of Pontius Pilate, with whom he compares the American government.
Thoreau vents at the scores of Americans who have voiced their displeasure and scorn for John Brown. The same people, Thoreau says, can't relate to Brown because of their concrete stances and "dead" existences; they are truly not living, only a handful of men have lived. Thoreau also criticizes contemporary Christians, who say their prayers and then go to sleep aware of injustice but doing nothing to change it. Similarly, Thoreau states those who believe Brown threw his life away and died as a fool, are themselves fools. Brown gave his life for justice, not for material gains, and was completely sane, perhaps more so than any other human being. Rebutting the arguments based on the small number of rebels, Thoreau responds "when were the good and the brave ever in a majority?" Thoreau also points out the irony of The Liberator, an abolitionist newspaper, labeling Brown's actions as misguided.
See also
Remarks After the Hanging of John Brown
References
On-line sources
A Plea for Captain John Brown– Wikisource
A Plea for Captain John Brown– Project Gutenberg
Thoreau on John Brown– includes A Plea and two additional works
External links
Comparing Thoreau's journals with A Plea for Captain John Brown
A Plea For Captain John Brown on Books.discogs.com
1859 essays
Massachusetts in the American Civil War
John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
Essays by Henry David Thoreau
Essays about politics
American Civil War documents
Abolitionism in the United States
Cultural depictions of John Brown (abolitionist)
|
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] |
210174
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skoda%2075%20mm%20Model%201928
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Skoda 75 mm Model 1928
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The Skoda 75 mm Model 1928 (75 mm M.28) was a mountain gun manufactured by Skoda Works and exported to Yugoslavia. It was a modernized version of the Skoda 75 mm Model 15. The gun typically had a 75 mm barrel; however, it could be fitted with a 90 mm barrel. The Wehrmacht redesignated these guns as 7.5 cm GebK 28 (in Einheitslafette mit 9 cm GebH) or 7.5 cm GebK 285(j). The gun crew was protected by an armoured shield.
References
Chamberlain, Peter and Gander, Terry. Infantry, Mountain and Airborne Guns
Gander, Terry and Chamberlain, Peter. Weapons of the Third Reich: An Encyclopedic Survey of All Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the German Land Forces 1939-1945. New York: Doubleday, 1979
http://worldwar2.ro/arme/?article=305
Mountain artillery
World War II field artillery
Artillery of Czechoslovakia
75 mm artillery
Military equipment introduced in the 1920s
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210178
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandula%20%28elephant%29
|
Kandula (elephant)
|
Kandula is a famous war elephant mentioned in the Sinhala chronicle Mahavamsa.
According to the chronicle, when Dutugamunu of Sri Lanka (101–77 BC) was born, many items of value were said to have appeared spontaneously, which were found and brought in by various people as gifts to the newborn. Among them a fine elephant who was found by a fisherman named Kandula. The elephant was named for its finder and became the companion of Dutugamunu, serving as his mount during the wars that led to the unification of Sri Lanka. The climactic duel between the Indian king Ellalan and Dutugemunu is said to have occurred near Anuradhapura where the two kings mounted on elephants; Dutugemunu mounting Kandula and Elara mounting Maha Pambata. King Ealara is said to have been slain in this elephant mounted duel.
An Asian Elephant born in 2001 at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. was named after Kandula. He is the first Asian elephant to be conceived by artificial insemination and the 5th AI birth ever utilizing a method developed by a team of German veterinarians.
The mascot of the Sri Lanka Light Infantry Regiment is also named Kandula, after the royal elephant of Dutugamunu.
References
2001 animal births
Individual elephants
National Zoological Park (United States)
War elephants
Elephants in Sri Lanka
|
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210179
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Martin%27s%20Cathedral%2C%20Utrecht
|
St. Martin's Cathedral, Utrecht
|
St. Martin's Cathedral, Utrecht, or Dom Church (), is a Gothic church dedicated to Saint Martin of Tours, which was the cathedral of the Diocese of Utrecht during the Middle Ages. It is the country's only pre-Reformation cathedral, but has been a Protestant church since 1580.
It was once the Netherlands' largest church, but the nave collapsed in a storm in 1674 and has never been rebuilt, leaving the tower isolated from the east end.
The building is the one church in the Netherlands that closely resembles the style of classic Gothic architecture as developed in France. All other Gothic churches in the Netherlands belong to one of the many regional variants. Unlike most of its French predecessors, the building has only one tower, the Dom Tower, which is the hallmark of the city.
History
The first chapel in Utrecht was founded around 630 by Frankish clergy under the patronage of the Merovingian kings but was destroyed during an attack of the Frisians on Utrecht shortly thereafter. The site of this first chapel within Utrecht is unknown. Saint Willibrord (died 739), the Apostle to the Frisians, established a second chapel devoted to Saint Martin on (or close to) the site of the current building. This church was destroyed by the Normans in the 9th century during one of their many raids on Utrecht, but was reconstructed by Bishop Balderic in the 10th century. During this period St. Martin's came to be the principal church of Utrecht, see of the bishop. The church had its own small territorial close (known as an "immunity") and was led by a cathedral chapter of canons, who generally belonged to the nobility.
The church was repeatedly destroyed by fires and then rebuilt. A Romanesque style church was built by Bishop Adalbold and consecrated in 1023. It is thought to have been the center of a cross-shaped conglomeration of 5 churches, called a , built to commemorate Conrad II. This building, also known as Adalbold's Dom, was partially destroyed in the fire of 1253 which ravaged much of Utrecht, leading Bishop Henry van Vianen to initiate the construction of the current Gothic structure in 1254. The construction of the Gothic cathedral continued into the 16th century. The first part to be built was the choir. The Dom Tower was started in 1321 and finished in 1382. After 1515, steadily diminishing financing prevented completion of this building project, of which an almost complete series of building accounts exists. In 1566, the or Iconoclast Fury swept across much of the Low Countries, justified by the Calvinist belief that statues in a house of God were idolatrous images which must be destroyed. As a result, many of the ornaments on both the exterior and interior of the cathedral were destroyed.
In 1580 the Utrecht city government devolved the cathedral from the Diocese of Utrecht to local Calvinists. From then on Protestant services were held in the building with one brief exception, in 1672 and 1673, during the Franco-Dutch War, when Catholic Masses were again held in the cathedral. A year after the French retreat, the still unfinished and insufficiently supported nave collapsed on 1 August 1674 during a massive storm that caused a tornado. Over the subsequent centuries, much of the enormous building fell into further neglect. The pitiable state of the cathedral led to some small restoration activities in the nineteenth century, followed by major renovations in the early twentieth century with the aim of returning the Cathedral to its original state. However, the nave was never rebuilt.
The Catholic Church remained strong within Utrecht following the Reformation but was legally obliged to worship discreetly in clandestine churches (). One of these churches, St. Gertrude's, later became the principal cathedral of the Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands.
The Catholic Church, during the 1853 reestablishment of the episcopal hierarchy in the Netherlands, designated the former St. Catherine's Church of the Carmelites as the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Utrecht.
The church today
What remains of St. Martin's today are the choir, the transept and the Dom Tower. The central nave of the cathedral which collapsed in the storm of 1674 is now a square with large trees, the . Stones in various colours indicate in the pavement the original outlines of the church.
In 2004, 750 years after construction began, the collapsed parts were temporarily rebuilt in scaffolding material. The scaffolding was also blown down in a storm, like the original nave.
In 2013 a project has started to expose archaeological artifacts of the St. Martin cathedral.
A cloister and a chapter house, which is now the main hall of Utrecht University, are also still standing. The Union of Utrecht, a founding document of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, was signed in the chapter house.
Burials and memorials in the Dom
Utrecht was an important city in the western Holy Roman Empire and had particularly close links to the imperial Salian dynasty. In the early Middle Ages the Holy Roman Emperor was always an honorary canon of the cathedral. The Emperor Conrad II and the Emperor Henry V both died in Utrecht, in 1039 and 1125 respectively. Their bowels and hearts were interred in the cathedral. The modest "Emperors' stones" (keizerssteentjes) in the floor of the choir of the cathedral are a reminder of this fact.
The only medieval tomb of importance to remain relatively unscathed in the cathedral is that of the 14th-century Bishop Guy of Avesnes – the brother of John II, Count of Holland, Hainaut , and Zeeland.
There are many other beautifully carved burial slabs and memorials in the cathedral. Of particular note is the monumental cenotaph, which contained the heart of the 16th-century Bishop George van Egmond.
References
External links
domkerk.nl, the church's official website
Churches in Utrecht (city)
History of Utrecht (city)
Rijksmonuments in Utrecht (city)
Protestant churches in the Netherlands
Cathedrals in the Netherlands
Gothic architecture in the Netherlands
Pre-Reformation Roman Catholic cathedrals
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] |
210182
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skoda%2075%20mm%20Model%201936
|
Skoda 75 mm Model 1936
|
The Skoda 75 mm Model 1936 (75 mm M.36) was a mountain gun manufactured by Skoda Works, in Czechoslovakia, and a variant was produced in Soviet Union (as the 76 mm mountain gun M1938). Skoda also produced a handful of the 76.2 mm variant. For transport, the gun could be broken down into 3 sections, and further broken down into ten loads. The gun crew was protected by an armoured shield.
References
Mountain artillery
Artillery of Czechoslovakia
75 mm artillery
Military equipment introduced in the 1930s
|
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] |
210183
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development%20economics
|
Development economics
|
Development economics is a branch of economics which deals with economic aspects of the development process in low income countries. Its focus is not only on methods of promoting economic development, economic growth and structural change but also on improving the potential for the mass of the population, for example, through health, education and workplace conditions, whether through public or private channels.
Development economics involves the creation of theories and methods that aid in the determination of policies and practices and can be implemented at either the domestic or international level. This may involve restructuring market incentives or using mathematical methods such as intertemporal optimization for project analysis, or it may involve a mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods. Common topics include growth theory, poverty and inequality, human capital, and institutions.
Unlike in many other fields of economics, approaches in development economics may incorporate social and political factors to devise particular plans. Also unlike many other fields of economics, there is no consensus on what students should know. Different approaches may consider the factors that contribute to economic convergence or non-convergence across households, regions, and countries.
Theories of development economics
Mercantilism and physiocracy
The earliest Western theory of development economics was mercantilism, which developed in the 17th century, paralleling the rise of the nation state. Earlier theories had given little attention to development. For example, scholasticism, the dominant school of thought during medieval feudalism, emphasized reconciliation with Christian theology and ethics, rather than development. The 16th- and 17th-century School of Salamanca, credited as the earliest modern school of economics, likewise did not address development specifically.
Major European nations in the 17th and 18th centuries all adopted mercantilist ideals to varying degrees, the influence only ebbing with the 18th-century development of physiocrats in France and classical economics in Britain. Mercantilism held that a nation's prosperity depended on its supply of capital, represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state. It emphasised the maintenance of a high positive trade balance (maximising exports and minimising imports) as a means of accumulating this bullion. To achieve a positive trade balance, protectionist measures such as tariffs and subsidies to home industries were advocated. Mercantilist development theory also advocated colonialism.
Theorists most associated with mercantilism include Philipp von Hörnigk, who in his Austria Over All, If She Only Will of 1684 gave the only comprehensive statement of mercantilist theory, emphasizing production and an export-led economy. In France, mercantilist policy is most associated with 17th-century finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, whose policies proved influential in later American development.
Mercantilist ideas continue in the theories of economic nationalism and neomercantilism.
Economic nationalism
Following mercantilism was the related theory of economic nationalism, promulgated in the 19th century related to the development and industrialization of the United States and Germany, notably in the policies of the American System in America and the Zollverein (customs union) in Germany. A significant difference from mercantilism was the de-emphasis on colonies, in favor of a focus on domestic production.
The names most associated with 19th-century economic nationalism are the first United States Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, the German-American Friedrich List, and the American economist Henry Clay. Hamilton's 1791 Report on Manufactures, his magnum opus, is the founding text of the American System, and drew from the mercantilist economies of Britain under Elizabeth I and France under Colbert. List's 1841 Das Nationale System der Politischen Ökonomie (translated into English as The National System of Political Economy), which emphasized stages of growth. Hamilton professed that developing an industrialized economy was impossible without protectionism because import duties are necessary to shelter domestic "infant industries" until they could achieve economies of scale. Such theories proved influential in the United States, with much higher American average tariff rates on manufactured products between 1824 and the WWII period than most other countries, Nationalist policies, including protectionism, were pursued by American politician Henry Clay, and later by Abraham Lincoln, under the influence of economist Henry Charles Carey.
Forms of economic nationalism and neomercantilism have also been key in Japan's development in the 19th and 20th centuries, and the more recent development of the Four Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore), and, most significantly, China.
Following Brexit and the 2016 United States presidential election, some experts have argued a new kind of "self-seeking capitalism" popularly known as Trumponomics could have a considerable impact on cross-border investment flows and long-term capital allocation
Post-WWII theories
The origins of modern development economics are often traced to the need for, and likely problems with the industrialization of eastern Europe in the aftermath of World War II. The key authors are Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, Kurt Mandelbaum, Ragnar Nurkse, and Sir Hans Wolfgang Singer. Only after the war did economists turn their concerns towards Asia, Africa and Latin America. At the heart of these studies, by authors such as Simon Kuznets and W. Arthur Lewis was an analysis of not only economic growth but also structural transformation.
Linear-stages-of-growth model
An early theory of development economics, the linear-stages-of-growth model was first formulated in the 1950s by W. W. Rostow in The Stages of Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto, following work of Marx and List. This theory modifies Marx's stages theory of development and focuses on the accelerated accumulation of capital, through the utilization of both domestic and international savings as a means of spurring investment, as the primary means of promoting economic growth and, thus, development. The linear-stages-of-growth model posits that there are a series of five consecutive stages of development that all countries must go through during the process of development. These stages are "the traditional society, the pre-conditions for take-off, the take-off, the drive to maturity, and the age of high mass-consumption" Simple versions of the Harrod–Domar model provide a mathematical illustration of the argument that improved capital investment leads to greater economic growth.
Such theories have been criticized for not recognizing that, while necessary, capital accumulation is not a sufficient condition for development. That is to say that this early and simplistic theory failed to account for political, social and institutional obstacles to development. Furthermore, this theory was developed in the early years of the Cold War and was largely derived from the successes of the Marshall Plan. This has led to the major criticism that the theory assumes that the conditions found in developing countries are the same as those found in post-WWII Europe.
Structural-change theory
Structural-change theory deals with policies focused on changing the economic structures of developing countries from being composed primarily of subsistence agricultural practices to being a "more modern, more urbanized, and more industrially diverse manufacturing and service economy." There are two major forms of structural-change theory: W. Lewis' two-sector surplus model, which views agrarian societies as consisting of large amounts of surplus labor which can be utilized to spur the development of an urbanized industrial sector, and Hollis Chenery's patterns of development approach, which holds that different countries become wealthy via different trajectories. The pattern that a particular country will follow, in this framework, depends on its size and resources, and potentially other factors including its current income level and comparative advantages relative to other nations. Empirical analysis in this framework studies the "sequential process through which the economic, industrial and institutional structure of an underdeveloped economy is transformed over time to permit new industries to replace traditional agriculture as the engine of economic growth."
Structural-change approaches to development economics have faced criticism for their emphasis on urban development at the expense of rural development which can lead to a substantial rise in inequality between internal regions of a country. The two-sector surplus model, which was developed in the 1950s, has been further criticized for its underlying assumption that predominantly agrarian societies suffer from a surplus of labor. Actual empirical studies have shown that such labor surpluses are only seasonal and drawing such labor to urban areas can result in a collapse of the agricultural sector. The patterns of development approach has been criticized for lacking a theoretical framework.
International dependence theory
International dependence theories gained prominence in the 1970s as a reaction to the failure of earlier theories to lead to widespread successes in international development. Unlike earlier theories, international dependence theories have their origins in developing countries and view obstacles to development as being primarily external in nature, rather than internal. These theories view developing countries as being economically and politically dependent on more powerful, developed countries that have an interest in maintaining their dominant position. There are three different, major formulations of international dependence theory: neocolonial dependence theory, the false-paradigm model, and the dualistic-dependence model. The first formulation of international dependence theory, neocolonial dependence theory, has its origins in Marxism and views the failure of many developing nations to undergo successful development as being the result of the historical development of the international capitalist system.
Neoclassical theory
First gaining prominence with the rise of several conservative governments in the developed world during the 1980s, neoclassical theories represent a radical shift away from International Dependence Theories. Neoclassical theories argue that governments should not intervene in the economy; in other words, these theories are claiming that an unobstructed free market is the best means of inducing rapid and successful development. Competitive free markets unrestrained by excessive government regulation are seen as being able to naturally ensure that the allocation of resources occurs with the greatest efficiency possible and the economic growth is raised and stabilized.
It is important to note that there are several different approaches within the realm of neoclassical theory, each with subtle, but important, differences in their views regarding the extent to which the market should be left unregulated. These different takes on neoclassical theory are the free market approach, public-choice theory, and the market-friendly approach. Of the three, both the free-market approach and public-choice theory contend that the market should be totally free, meaning that any intervention by the government is necessarily bad. Public-choice theory is arguably the more radical of the two with its view, closely associated with libertarianism, that governments themselves are rarely good and therefore should be as minimal as possible.
Academic economists have given varied policy advice to governments of developing countries. See for example, Economy of Chile (Arnold Harberger), Economic history of Taiwan (Sho-Chieh Tsiang). Anne Krueger noted in 1996 that success and failure of policy recommendations worldwide had not consistently been incorporated into prevailing academic writings on trade and development.
The market-friendly approach, unlike the other two, is a more recent development and is often associated with the World Bank. This approach still advocates free markets but recognizes that there are many imperfections in the markets of many developing nations and thus argues that some government intervention is an effective means of fixing such imperfections.
Topics of research
Development economics also includes topics such as third world debt, and the functions of such organisations as the International Monetary Fund and World Bank. In fact, the majority of development economists are employed by, do consulting with, or receive funding from institutions like the IMF and the World Bank. Many such economists are interested in ways of promoting stable and sustainable growth in poor countries and areas, by promoting domestic self-reliance and education in some of the lowest income countries in the world. Where economic issues merge with social and political ones, it is referred to as development studies.
Geography and Development
Economists Jeffrey D. Sachs, Andrew Mellinger, and John Gallup argue that a nation's geographical location and topography are key determinants and predictors of its economic prosperity. Areas developed along the coast and near "navigable waterways" are far wealthier and more densely populated than those further inland. Furthermore, countries outside the tropic zones, which have more temperate climates, have also developed considerably more than those located within the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. These climates outside the tropic zones, described as "temperate-near," hold roughly a quarter of the world's population and produce more than half of the world's GNP, yet account for only 8.4% of the world's inhabited area. Understanding of these different geographies and climates is imperative, they argue, because future aid programs and policies to facilitate must account for these differences.
Economic development and ethnicity
A growing body of research has been emerging among development economists since the very late 20th century focusing on interactions between ethnic diversity and economic development, particularly at the level of the nation-state. While most research looks at empirical economics at both the macro and the micro level, this field of study has a particularly heavy sociological approach. The more conservative branch of research focuses on tests for causality in the relationship between different levels of ethnic diversity and economic performance, while a smaller and more radical branch argues for the role of neoliberal economics in enhancing or causing ethnic conflict. Moreover, comparing these two theoretical approaches brings the issue of endogeneity (endogenicity) into questions. This remains a highly contested and uncertain field of research, as well as politically sensitive, largely due to its possible policy implications.
The role of ethnicity in economic development
Much discussion among researchers centers around defining and measuring two key but related variables: ethnicity and diversity. It is debated whether ethnicity should be defined by culture, language, or religion. While conflicts in Rwanda were largely along tribal lines, Nigeria's string of conflicts is thought to be – at least to some degree – religiously based. Some have proposed that, as the saliency of these different ethnic variables tends to vary over time and across geography, research methodologies should vary according to the context. Somalia provides an interesting example. Due to the fact that about 85% of its population defined themselves as Somali, Somalia was considered to be a rather ethnically-homogeneous nation. However, civil war caused ethnicity (or ethnic affiliation) to be redefined according to clan groups.
There is also much discussion in academia concerning the creation of an index for "ethnic heterogeneity". Several indices have been proposed in order to model ethnic diversity (with regards to conflict). Easterly and Levine have proposed an ethno-linguistic fractionalization index defined as FRAC or ELF defined by:
where si is size of group i as a percentage of total population. The ELF index is a measure of the probability that two randomly chosen individuals belong to different ethno-linguistic groups. Other researchers have also applied this index to religious rather than ethno-linguistic groups. Though commonly used, Alesina and La Ferrara point out that the ELF index fails to account for the possibility that fewer large ethnic groups may result in greater inter-ethnic conflict than many small ethnic groups. More recently, researchers such as Montalvo and Reynal-Querol, have put forward the Q polarization index as a more appropriate measure of ethnic division. Based on a simplified adaptation of a polarization index developed by Esteban and Ray, the Q index is defined as
where si once again represents the size of group i as a percentage of total population, and is intended to capture the social distance between existing ethnic groups within an area.
Early researchers, such as Jonathan Pool, considered a concept dating back to the account of the Tower of Babel: that linguistic unity may allow for higher levels of development. While pointing out obvious oversimplifications and the subjectivity of definitions and data collection, Pool suggested that we had yet to see a robust economy emerge from a nation with a high degree of linguistic diversity. In his research Pool used the "size of the largest native-language community as a percentage of the population" as his measure of linguistic diversity. Not much later, however, Horowitz pointed out that both highly diverse and highly homogeneous societies exhibit less conflict than those in between. Similarly, Collier and Hoeffler provided evidence that both highly homogenous and highly heterogeneous societies exhibit lower risk of civil war, while societies that are more polarized are at greater risk. As a matter of fact, their research suggests that a society with only two ethnic groups is about 50% more likely to experience civil war than either of the two extremes. Nonetheless, Mauro points out that ethno-linguistic fractionalization is positively correlated with corruption, which in turn is negatively correlated with economic growth. Moreover, in a study on economic growth in African countries, Easterly and Levine find that linguistic fractionalization plays a significant role in reducing national income growth and in explaining poor policies. In addition, empirical research in the U.S., at the municipal level, has revealed that ethnic fractionalization (based on race) may be correlated with poor fiscal management and lower investments in public goods. Finally, more recent research would propose that ethno-linguistic fractionalization is indeed negatively correlated with economic growth while more polarized societies exhibit greater public consumption, lower levels of investment and more frequent civil wars.
Economic development and its impact on ethnic conflict
Increasingly, attention is being drawn to the role of economics in spawning or cultivating ethnic conflict. Critics of earlier development theories, mentioned above, point out that "ethnicity" and ethnic conflict cannot be treated as exogenous variables. There is a body of literature that discusses how economic growth and development, particularly in the context of a globalizing world characterized by free trade, appears to be leading to the extinction and homogenization of languages. Manuel Castells asserts that the "widespread destructuring of organizations, delegitimation of institutions, fading away of major social movements, and ephemeral cultural expressions" which characterize globalization lead to a renewed search for meaning; one that is based on identity rather than on practices. Barber and Lewis argue that culturally-based movements of resistance have emerged as a reaction to the threat of modernization (perceived or actual) and neoliberal development.
On a different note, Chua suggests that ethnic conflict often results from the envy of the majority toward a wealthy minority which has benefited from trade in a neoliberal world. She argues that conflict is likely to erupt through political manipulation and the vilification of the minority. Prasch points out that, as economic growth often occurs in tandem with increased inequality, ethnic or religious organizations may be seen as both assistance and an outlet for the disadvantaged. However, empirical research by Piazza argues that economics and unequal development have little to do with social unrest in the form of terrorism. Rather, "more diverse societies, in terms of ethnic and religious demography, and political systems with large, complex, multiparty systems were more likely to experience terrorism than were more homogeneous states with few or no parties at the national level".
Recovery from conflict (civil war)
Violent conflict and economic development are deeply intertwined. Paul Collier describes how poor countries are more prone to civil conflict. The conflict lowers incomes catching countries in a "conflict trap." Violent conflict destroys physical capital (equipment and infrastructure), diverts valuable resources to military spending, discourages investment and disrupts exchange.
Recovery from civil conflict is very uncertain. Countries that maintain stability can experience a "peace dividend," through the rapid re-accumulation of physical capital (investment flows back to the recovering country because of the high return). However, successful recovery depends on the quality of legal system and the protection of private property. Investment is more productive in countries with higher quality institutions. Firms that experienced a civil war were more sensitive to the quality of the legal system that similar firms that had never been exposed to conflict.
Growth indicator controversy
Per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP per head) is used by many developmental economists as an approximation of general national well-being. However, these measures are criticized as not measuring economic growth well enough, especially in countries where there is much economic activity that is not part of measured financial transactions (such as housekeeping and self-homebuilding), or where funding is not available for accurate measurements to be made publicly available for other economists to use in their studies (including private and institutional fraud, in some countries).
Even though per-capita GDP as measured can make economic well-being appear smaller than it really is in some developing countries, the discrepancy could be still bigger in a developed country where people may perform outside of financial transactions an even higher-value service than housekeeping or homebuilding as gifts or in their own households, such as counseling, lifestyle coaching, a more valuable home décor service, and time management. Even free choice can be considered to add value to lifestyles without necessarily increasing the financial transaction amounts.
More recent theories of Human Development have begun to see beyond purely financial measures of development, for example with measures such as medical care available, education, equality, and political freedom. One measure used is the Genuine Progress Indicator, which relates strongly to theories of distributive justice. Actual knowledge about what creates growth is largely unproven; however recent advances in econometrics and more accurate measurements in many countries are creating new knowledge by compensating for the effects of variables to determine probable causes out of merely correlational statistics.
Recent developments
Recent theories revolve around questions about what variables or inputs correlate or affect economic growth the most: elementary, secondary, or higher education, government policy stability, tariffs and subsidies, fair court systems, available infrastructure, availability of medical care, prenatal care and clean water, ease of entry and exit into trade, and equality of income distribution (for example, as indicated by the Gini coefficient), and how to advise governments about macroeconomic policies, which include all policies that affect the economy.
Education enables countries to adapt the latest technology and creates an environment for new innovations.
The cause of limited growth and divergence in economic growth lies in the high rate of acceleration of technological change by a small number of developed countries . These countries' acceleration of technology was due to increased incentive structures for mass education which in turn created a framework for the population to create and adapt new innovations and methods. Furthermore, the content of their education was composed of secular schooling that resulted in higher productivity levels and modern economic growth.
Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute also highlight the importance of using economic growth to improve the human condition, raising people out of poverty and achieving the Millennium Development Goals. Despite research showing almost no relation between growth and the achievement of the goals 2 to 7 and statistics showing that during periods of growth poverty levels in some cases have actually risen (e.g. Uganda grew by 2.5% annually between 2000–2003, yet poverty levels rose by 3.8%), researchers at the ODI suggest growth is necessary, but that it must be equitable. This concept of inclusive growth is shared even by key world leaders such as former Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, who emphasises that:
"Sustained and equitable growth based on dynamic structural economic change is necessary for making substantial progress in reducing poverty. It also enables faster progress towards the other Millennium Development Goals. While economic growth is necessary, it is not sufficient for progress on reducing poverty."
Researchers at the ODI thus emphasise the need to ensure social protection is extended to allow universal access and that active policy measures are introduced to encourage the private sector to create new jobs as the economy grows (as opposed to jobless growth) and seek to employ people from disadvantaged groups.
Notable development economists
Daron Acemoglu, professor of economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Clark Medal winner.
Philippe Aghion, professor of economics at the London School of Economics and Collège de France, co-authored textbook in economic growth, forwarded Schumpeterian growth, and established creative destruction theories mathematically with Peter Howitt.
Nava Ashraf, professor of economics at the London School of Economics.
Oriana Bandiera, professor of economics at the London School of Economics and Director of the International Growth Centre.
Abhijit Banerjee, professor of economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Director of Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab, co-recipient of the 2019 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.
Pranab Bardhan, professor of economics at the University of California, Berkeley, author of texts in both trade and development economics, and editor of the Journal of Development Economics from 1985–2003.
Kaushik Basu, professor of economics at Cornell University and author of Analytical Development Economics.
Peter Thomas Bauer, former professor of economics at the London School of Economics, author of Dissent on Development.
Tim Besley, professor of economics at the London School of Economics, and commissioner of the UK National Infrastructure Commission.
Nancy Birdsall is the founding president of the Center for Global Development (CGD) in Washington, DC, USA, and former executive vice-president of the Inter-American Development Bank.
David E. Bloom, professor of economics and demography at the Harvard School of Public Health.
François Bourguignon, professor of economics and Director of the Paris School of Economics.
Robin Burgess, professor of economics at the London School of Economics and Director of the International Growth Centre.
Francesco Caselli, professor of economics at the London School of Economics.
Paul Collier, author of The Bottom Billion which attempts to tie together a series of traps to explain the self-fulfilling nature of poverty at the lower end of the development scale.
Partha Dasgupta, professor of economics at the University of Cambridge.
Dave Donaldson, professor of economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Clark Medal winner.
Angus Deaton, professor of economics at Princeton University and winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics.
Melissa Dell, professor of economics at Harvard University and Clark Medal winner.
Simeon Djankov, research fellow at the Financial Markets Group of the London School of Economics.
Esther Duflo, Director of Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab, professor of Economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2009 MacArthur Fellow, 2010 Clark Medal winner, advocate for field experiment, co-recipient of the 2019 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.
William Easterly, author of The Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists' Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics and White Man's Burden: How the West's Efforts to Aid the Rest Have Done So Much Ill and So Little Good.
Oded Galor, Israeli-American economist at Brown University; editor-in-chief of the Journal of Economic Growth, the principal journal in economic growth. Developer of the unified growth theory, the newest alternative to theories of endogenous growth.
Maitreesh Ghatak, professor of economics at the London School of Economics.
Peter Howitt, Canadian economist at Brown University; past president of the Canadian Economics Association, introduced the concept of Schumpeterian growth and established creative destruction theory mathematically with Philippe Aghion.
Seema Jayachandran, professor of economics at Northwestern University.
Dean Karlan, American economist at Northwestern University; co-director of the Global Poverty Research Lab at the Buffett Institute for Global Studies; founded Innovations for Poverty Action (IPA), a New Haven, Connecticut, based research outfit dedicated to creating and evaluating solutions to social and international development problems.
Michael Kremer, Gates Professor of Developing Societies at Harvard University, co-recipient of the 2019 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.
Eliana La Ferrara, professor of economics at Bocconi University.
W. Arthur Lewis, winner of the 1979 Nobel Prize in Economics for work in development economics.
Justin Yifu Lin, Chinese economist at Peking University; former chief economist of World Bank, one of the most prominent Chinese economists.
Sendhil Mullainathan, professor of computation and behavioural science at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business.
Nathan Nunn, professor of economics at Harvard University.
Benjamin Olken, professor of economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Rohini Pande, professor of economics at Yale University.
Lant Pritchett, professor at Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government, and has held several prominent research positions at the World Bank.
Nancy Qian, professor of economics at Northwestern University.
Kate Raworth, Senior Research Associate at the Environmental Change Institute of the University of Oxford, author of Doughnut Economics: Seven Ways to Think Like a 21st-Century Economist, formerly economist for the United Nations Development Programme's Human Development Report and Senior Researcher at Oxfam.
James Robinson, professor of economics at the University of Chicago Harris School of Public Policy Studies.
Dani Rodrik, professor at Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government, has written extensively on globalization.
Mark Rosenzweig, a professor at Yale University and director of Economic Growth Center at Yale
Jeffrey Sachs, author of The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities of Our Time ( preview) and Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet.
Amartya Sen, Indian economist, Nobel Prize winner, author of Development as Freedom.
Nicholas Stern, professor of economics at the London School of Economics, former President of the British Academy and former World Bank Chief Economist.
Joseph Stiglitz, Nobel Prize winner and former chief economist at the World Bank.
John Sutton, emeritus professor of economics at the London School of Economics.
Erik Thorbecke, a co-originator of Foster–Greer–Thorbecke poverty measure who also played a significant role in the development and popularization of social accounting matrix.
Michael Todaro, known for the Todaro and Harris–Todaro models of migration and urbanization; Economic Development.
Robert M. Townsend, professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology known for his Thai Project, a model for many other applied and theoretical projects in economic development.
Anthony Venables, professor of economics at the University of Oxford.
Hernando de Soto, author of The Other Path: The Economic Answer to Terrorism and The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else.
See also
Demographic economics
Dependency theory
Development Cooperation Issues
Development Cooperation Stories
Development Cooperation Testimonials
Development studies
Development wave
Environmental determinism
Human Development and Capability Association
International Association for Feminist Economics
International Monetary Fund
International development
Important publications in development economics
Economic development
International development
UN Human Development Index
Gini coefficient
Lorenz curve
Harrod–Domar model
Debt relief
Human security
Kaldor's growth laws
The Poverty of "Development Economics"
Social development
Sustainable development
Women's education and development
Footnotes
Bibliography
Development Economics through the Decades: A Critical Look at 30 Years of the World Development Report World Bank Publications, Washington DC (2009),
The Complete World Development Report, 1978–2009 (Single User DVD): 30th Anniversary Edition World Bank Publications, Washington DC (2009),
Behrman, J.R. (2001). "Development, Economics of," International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 3566–3574 Abstract.
Easterly, William (2002), Elusive Quest for Growth: Economists' Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics, The MIT Press
Ben Fine and Jomo K.S. (eds, 2005), The New Development Economics: Post Washington Consensus Neoliberal Thinking, Zed Books
Peter Griffiths (2003), The Economist's Tale: A Consultant Encounters Hunger and the World Bank, Zed Books
K.S. Jomo (2005), Pioneers of Development Economics: Great Economists on Development, Zed Books – the contributions of economists such as Marshall and Keynes, not normally considered development economists
Gerald M. Meier (2005), Biography of a Subject: An Evolution of Development Economics, Oxford University Press
Gerald M. Meier, Dudley Seers [editors] (1984), Pioneers in Development, World Bank
Dwight H. Perkins, Steven Radelet, Donald R. Snodgrass, Malcolm Gillis and Michael Roemer (2001). Economics of Development, 5th edition, New York: W. W. Norton.
Jeffrey D. Sachs (2005), The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time, Penguin Books
George Mavrotas and Anthony Shorrocks (eds, 2007), Advancing Development: Core Themes in Global Development, Palgrave Macmillan
Debraj Ray (1998). Development Economics, Princeton University Press, . Other editions: Spanish, Antoni Bosch. 2002 Chinese edition, Beijing University Press. 2002, Indian edition, Oxford, 1998. Description, table of contents, and excerpt, ch. 1.
World Institute for Development Economics Research Publications/Discussion Papers
The Center for Global Development
Arno Tausch (1993; in collaboration with Fred Prager) Towards a Socio-Liberal Theory of World Development. Basingstoke and New York: Macmillan/St. Martin's Press
Arno Tausch (2007, Editor, with Almas Heshmati)., Roadmap to Bangalore? Globalization, the EU's Lisbon Process and the Structures of Global Inequality Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science Publishers.
Michael Todaro and Stephen C. Smith, Economic Development, 10th Ed., Addison-Wesley, 2008. Description.
Handbook of Development Economics, Elsevier. Description and table of contents:
Hollis B. Chenery and T. N. Srinivasan, eds. (1988, 1989). Vol. 1 and 2
Jere Behrman and T.N. Srinivasan, eds. (1995). Vol 3A and 3B
T. Paul Schultz and John Strauss, eds. (2008). Vol 4
Dani Rodrik and Mark R. Rosenzweig, eds. (2009). Vol 5
Temesgen M. Erena, Perverted Development: What role for Institutions, Oromian Economist, June 2011
External links
Development Economics and Economic Development, a list of resources for development economics.
Technology in emerging economies (The Economist).
Top 10% institutions in the field of Development, a list of research institutions specialized in Development at Ideas.Repec
Economics
Economic globalization
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] |
210186
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickard%20Christophers
|
Rickard Christophers
|
Brevet Colonel Sir (Samuel) Rickard Christophers (27 November 1873 – 19 February 1978) was a British protozoologist and medical entomologist specialising in mosquitoes.
Education
Christophers was born and raised in Liverpool, the son of Samuel Hunt Christophers and Mary Selina Christophers née Rickard and educated at the Liverpool Institute and University of Liverpool, graduating MB in 1896.
Career
In 1897, he took part in an Amazonian expedition and in 1898 went to Italy as part of the Malaria Commission, followed by a trip to Africa to study malaria. In 1901, the Malaria Commission moved to India.
On his return to England in 1902, he became a Lieutenant in the Indian Medical Service, moving back to India in 1904. In 1910 he was appointed the first Director of the Central Malaria Bureau, coordinating anti-malarial training and research throughout India. He spent World War I on anti-malaria duties in Iraq and in 1919 returned again to India as Director of the Central Research Institute at Kasauli in the foothills of the Himalayas.
Christophers was also an honorary physician to King George V from 1927 to 1930. He was awarded CIE in 1915, OBE in 1918 and knighted in 1931. He retired from the Indian Medical Service 27 November 1930 a Brevet Colonel. On his retirement in 1932–38, he joined the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine where he became Professor of Malaria Studies in the University of London and Leverhulme Fellow of the Medical Research Council in charge of the Malaria unit at the LSHTM. In 1944 Christophers was awarded the Manson Medal by the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene for his significant contribution to the fields of tropical medicine and hygiene.
Personal life
Sir Philip Manson-Bahr, son-in-law of Sir Patrick Manson, described Sir Rickard Christophers in 1956:
'Christophers is known everywhere for his endearing qualities. He has a modest bearing and a curious hesitant manner accompanied by a cheerful giggle. He is the friend, philosopher and mentor of all keen young men of science'''
He died at Broadstone in Dorset.
He had married Elise Emma Sherman in London in September 1902. She was the daughter of the owner of a coffee estate in India. Their first child, Elise Iseult, was born in June 1903 in Allahabad, India, and their son, Samuel Vagn, in December the following year in Madras. Lady Christophers died in England in 1962.
Awards
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in May 1926. He was the sixteenth president of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene from 1939 to 1943.
An expert on tropical medicines, Christophers studied many diseases, particularly malaria. His work on the research of this disease won him the Royal Society's 1952 Buchanan Medal for "outstanding research" on the Anopheles mosquito that transmitted malaria. In his career he also contributed to the taxonomy of other parasites.
Works
A summary of the recent observations upon the Anopheles of the Middle East. Indian Journal of Medical Research 7, pp. 710–716 (1920).
With Shortt, H.E.: Malaria in Mesopotamia. Indian Journal of Medical Research 8, pp. 508–529 (1921).The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma''. Diptera Volume IV (1933).
References
1873 births
1978 deaths
People educated at Liverpool Institute High School for Boys
Medical doctors from Liverpool
British zoologists
British entomologists
English centenarians
Men centenarians
Malariologists
Manson medal winners
British parasitologists
Scientists from Liverpool
Fellows of the Royal Society
Naturalists of British India
Indian Medical Service officers
|
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210187
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brennus
|
Brennus
|
Brennus or Brennos (Gaulish: Brano "raven") is the name of two Gaulish chieftains, famous in ancient history:
Brennus, chieftain of the Senones, a Gallic tribe originating from the modern areas of France known as Seine-et-Marne, Loiret, and Yonne; in 387 BC, in the Battle of the Allia, he led an army of Cisalpine Gauls in their attack on Rome.
Another Brennus was one of the leaders of the army of Gauls who attempted to invade and settle in the Greek mainland in 278 BC. After a looting spree and after managing to pass Thermopylae by encircling the Greek army and forcing it to retreat he made his way to the rich treasury at Delphi but he was defeated by the re-assembled Greek army. Brennus was heavily injured at the battle of Delphi and committed suicide there.
The linguistic origins of the name are unclear, despite two theories linking it to Welsh words. Despite suggestions by scholars as early as the 12th century AD, including one by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Historia Regum Britanniae, Brennus is not likely to share a common origin with the Welsh personal name (or ) meaning "crow"; the similarity of the names is deemed to be superficial. Recurrence of the name Brennus makes it possible that it was a title rather than a proper name. However, despite assertions by some 19th-century scholars, Brennus and the modern Welsh word for "king", (earlier ) are not related. Brenin is instead derived from the Celtic , meaning "(someone) pre-eminent, outstanding".
Similar names
Variants and/or adaptations of the name may include:
Brân the Blessed; Welsh Bendigeidfran ; a legendary giant leader of the British from the Mabinogion - the probable Welsh antecedent of Geoffrey's Brennius
Brinno, chief of the Cananefates – a tribe from Germania Inferior – whose name was said by Tacitus to be that of "a family of rebels".
"Brennius", listed in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia as brother of Bellinus, the latter a legendary king of the Britons; the two are said to have conquered Gaul and then Rome. Monmouth likely created Brennius as a composite of the two historical Gauls named Brennus. Geoffrey's Brennius was mentioned by Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, in 1530, when the duke, while arguing in favor of the claims of the House of Tudor claims to imperial status, told Holy Roman Imperial ambassador Eustace Chapuys that Brennius had founded Bristol and conquered Rome.)
Allusions
The name was given to the French battleship Brennus (commissioned 1896).
The name in its form "Brennos" is used for one of three fictitious "barbarian" chieftains in the 2008 video game Civilization Revolution.
References
Notes
General references
John T. Koch, "Brân, Brennos: an instance of Early Gallo-Brittonic history and mythology'", Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies 20 (Winter 1990:1-20).
Celtic names
|
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] |
210190
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20mapping%20theorem
|
Open mapping theorem
|
Open mapping theorem may refer to:
Open mapping theorem (functional analysis) (also known as the Banach–Schauder theorem), states that a surjective continuous linear transformation of a Banach space X onto a Banach space Y is an open mapping
Open mapping theorem (complex analysis), states that a non-constant holomorphic function on a connected open set in the complex plane is an open mapping
Open mapping theorem (topological groups), states that a surjective continuous homomorphism of a locally compact Hausdorff group G onto a locally compact Hausdorff group H is an open mapping if G is σ-compact. Like the open mapping theorem in functional analysis, the proof in the setting of topological groups uses the Baire category theorem.
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo
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Philo
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Philo of Alexandria (; ; ; ), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt.
Philo's deployment of allegory to harmonize Jewish scripture, mainly the Torah, with Greek philosophy was the first documented of its kind, and thereby often misunderstood. Many critics of Philo assumed his allegorical perspective would lend credibility to the notion of legend over historicity. Philo often advocated a literal understanding of the Torah and the historicity of such described events, while at other times favoring allegorical readings.
Though never properly attributed, Philo's marriage of Jewish exegesis and Stoic philosophy provided a formula later picked up by other Midrash content from the 3rd and 4th centuries C.E. Some claimed this lack of credit or affinity for Philo by the Rabbinic leadership at the time, was due to his adoption of allegorical instead of literal interpretations of the Hebrew Bible, though it was likely due to his criticism of Rabbinic scholars, citing their works and ideas were "full of Sybaritic profligacy and licentiousness to their everlasting shame", "eager to give a specious appearance to infamous actions, so as to secure notoriety for disgraceful deeds", and ultimately, that he "disregards the envious disposition of such men, and shall proceed to narrate the true events of Moses' life" of which Philo felt were unjustly hidden and covered over.
According to Josephus, Philo was largely inspired by Aristobulus of Alexandria and the Alexandrian school. The only event in Philo's life that can be decisively dated is his participation in the embassy to Rome in 40 CE; whereby he represented the Alexandrian Jews in a delegation to the Roman Emperor Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (Caligula) following civil strife between the Alexandrian Jewish and Greek communities.
Life
Philo's dates of birth and death are unknown but can be judged by Philo's description of himself as "old" when he was part of the delegation to Gaius Caligula in 38 CE. Jewish history professor Daniel R. Schwartz estimates his birth year as sometime between 20 and 10 BCE. Philo's reference to an event under the reign of Emperor Claudius indicates that he died sometime after 41 CE.
Although the names of his parents are unknown, it is known that Philo came from a family which was noble, honourable and wealthy. It was either his father or paternal grandfather who was granted Roman citizenship from Roman dictator Gaius Julius Caesar. Jerome wrote that Philo came de genere sacerdotum (from a priestly family). His ancestors and family had social ties and connections to the priesthood in Judea, the Hasmonean dynasty, the Herodian dynasty and the Julio-Claudian dynasty in Rome.
Philo had two brothers, Alexander the Alabarch and Lysimachus. Through Alexander, Philo had two nephews, Tiberius Julius Alexander and Marcus Julius Alexander. The latter was the first husband of the Herodian princess Berenice. Marcus died in 43 or 44.
Philo visited the Second Temple in Jerusalem at least once in his lifetime. Philo along with his brothers received a thorough education. They were educated in the Hellenistic culture of Alexandria and the culture of ancient Rome, to a degree in Ancient Egyptian culture and particularly in the traditions of Judaism, in the study of Jewish traditional literature and in Greek philosophy.
Embassy to Gaius
In (Embassy to Gaius), Philo describes his diplomatic mission to Gaius Caligula, one of the few events in his life which is known specifically. He relates that he was carrying a petition describing the sufferings of the Alexandrian Jews and asking the emperor to secure their rights. Philo gives a description of their sufferings, more detailed than Josephus's, to characterize the Alexandrian Greeks as the aggressors in the civil strife that had left many Jews and Greeks dead.
Philo lived in an era of increasing ethnic tension in Alexandria, exacerbated by the new strictures of imperial rule. Some expatriate Hellenes (Greeks) in Alexandria condemned the Jews for a supposed alliance with Rome, even as Rome was seeking to suppress Jewish nationalism in the Roman province of Judea. In Ad Flaccum, Philo describes the situation of the Jews in Egypt, writing that they numbered not less than a million and inhabited two of the five districts in Alexandria. He recounts the abuses of the prefect Aulus Avilius Flaccus, who he says retaliated against the Jews when they refused to worship Caligula as a god. Daniel Schwartz surmises that given this tense background it may have been politically convenient for Philo to favor abstract monotheism instead of overt pro-Judeanism.
Philo considers Caligula's plan to erect a statue of himself in the Second Temple to be a provocation, asking, "Are you making war upon us, because you anticipate that we will not endure such indignity, but that we will fight on behalf of our laws, and die in defence of our national customs? For you cannot possibly have been ignorant of what was likely to result from your attempt to introduce these innovations respecting our temple." In his entire presentation, he implicitly supports the Jewish commitment to rebel against the emperor rather than allow such sacrilege to take place.
Philo says he was regarded by his people as having unusual prudence, due to his age, education, and knowledge. This indicates that he was already an older man at this time (40 CE).
In Antiquities of the Jews, Josephus tells of Philo's selection by the Alexandrian Jewish community as their principal representative before the Roman emperor Gaius Caligula. He says that Philo agreed to represent the Alexandrian Jews in regard to civil disorder that had developed between the Jews and the Greeks. Josephus also tells us that Philo was skilled in philosophy, and that he was brother to the alabarch Alexander. According to Josephus, Philo and the larger Jewish community refused to treat the emperor as a god, to erect statues in honour of the emperor, and to build altars and temples to the emperor. Josephus says Philo believed that God actively supported this refusal.
Josephus' complete comments about Philo:
This event is also described in Book 2, Chapter 5 of Eusebius's Historia Ecclesiae
Works
Some of Philo's works have been preserved in Greek, while others have survived through Armenian translations, and a smaller amount survives in a Latin translation. Exact date of writing and original plan of organization is not known for much of the text attributed to Philo.
Most of Philo's surviving work deals with the Torah (the first five books of the Bible). Within this corpus are three categories:
Quaestiones ("Inquiries") – short verse-by-verse exposition: four books on the Book of Genesis and two on the Book of Exodus. All six books are preserved through an Armenian translation, which was published by Jean-Baptiste Aucher in 1826. Comparison with surviving Greek and Latin fragments recommends the translation as literal and accurate so far as it goes, but suggests that some of the original content is missing. There are thought to be twelve original books, six on Genesis and six on Exodus.
Allegorical Commentary – longer exegesis explaining esoteric meanings; the surviving text deals only with the Book of Genesis, with the notable omission of Genesis 1.
"Exposition of the Law" – more straightforward synthesis of topics in the Pentateuch, probably written for gentiles as well as Jews.
Philo is also credited with writing:
Apologies for Judaism including On the Life of Moses, On the Jews, and On the Contemplative Life.
Historical works (describing current events in Alexandria and the Roman Empire), including Ad Flaccum and De legatione ad Gaium
Philosophical works including Every Good Man Is Free, On the Eternity of the World, On Animals, and On Providence, the latter two surviving only through Armenian translation.
Works now lost, but mentioned by Eusebius of Caesarea.
Philosophy
Philo represents the apex of Jewish-Hellenistic syncretism. His work attempts to combine Plato and Moses into one philosophical system. His ethics were strongly influenced by Pythagoreanism and Stoicism, preferring a morality of virtues without passions, such as lust/desire and anger, but with a "common human sympathy".
View of scripture
Philo bases his doctrines on the Hebrew Bible, which he considers as the source and standard not only of religious truth but of all truth. Its pronouncements are the , , and (holy word, godly word, righteous word), uttered sometimes directly and sometimes through the mouth of a prophet, and especially through Moses, whom Philo considers the real medium of revelation. Although he distinguishes between the words uttered by God himself, such as the Ten Commandments, and the edicts of Moses, as the special laws.
Philo regards the Bible as the source not only of religious revelation, but also of philosophic truth; for he claimed that Greek philosophers' ideas had already been laid out in the Bible: Heraclitus' idea of binary oppositions, according to Who is the Heir of Divine Things? § 43 [i. 503]; and the conception of the wise man expounded by Zeno, the founder of Stoicism, according to Every Good Man is Free, § 8 [ii. 454].
Philo's allegorical interpretation of scripture allows him to grapple with morally disturbing events and impose a cohesive explanation of stories. Specifically, Philo interprets the characters of the Bible as aspects of the human being, and the stories of the Bible as episodes from universal human experience. For example, Adam represents the mind and Eve the senses. Noah represents tranquility, a stage of "relative" (incomplete but progressing) righteousness.
View of God
Philo affirms a transcendent God without physical features or emotional qualities resembling those of human beings. In Philo, God exists beyond time and space and does not make special interventions into the world because he already encompasses the entire cosmos.
Philo's notion is even more abstract than that of the monad of Pythagoras or the Good of Plato. Only God's existence is certain, no appropriate predicates can be conceived. Following Plato, Philo equates matter to nothingness and sees its effect in fallacy, discord, damage, and decay of things. This view enables Philo to combine the Jewish belief in creation with the Greek conviction about the formation of all things from the permanent matter.
View of man
Philo seems to look at man as trichotomous, nous (mind), psyche (soul), soma (body), common to the Hellenistic view of mind-soul-body. In Philo's writings, however, mind and spirit are used interchangeably.
Logos
Philo wrote that God created and governed the world through mediators. Logos is the chief among them, the next to God, demiurge of the world. Logos is immaterial, an adequate image of God, his shadow, his firstborn son. Being the mind of the Eternal, Logos is imperishable. He is neither uncreated as God is, nor created as men are, but occupies a middle position. He has no autonomous power, only an entrusted one.
Philo probably was the first philosopher who identified Plato's Ideas with Creator's thoughts. These thoughts make the contents of Logos; they were the seals for making sensual things during world creation. Logos resembles a book with creature paradigms. An Architect's design before the construction of a city serves to Philo as another simile of Logos. Since creation, Logos binds things together. As the receptacle and holder of ideas, Logos is distinct from the material world. At the same time, Logos pervades the world, supporting it.
Logos has the function of an advocate on behalf of humanity and also that of a God's envoy to the world. He puts human minds in order. The right reason is an infallible law, the source of any other laws. The angel closing Balaam's way (Numbers XXII, 31) is interpreted by Philo as manifestation of Logos, which acts as man's conscience.
Numbers
Philo frequently engages in Pythagorean-inspired numerology, explaining at length the importance of religious numbers such as six, seven, and ten.
Politics
Commentators can infer from his mission to Caligula that Philo was involved in politics. However, the nature of his political beliefs, and especially his viewpoint on the Roman Empire, is a matter of debate.
Philo did suggest in his writings that a prudent man should withhold his true opinion about tyrants:
Knowledge of Greek and Hebrew
Philo was more fluent in Greek than in Hebrew and read the Jewish Scriptures chiefly from the Septuagint, a Koine Greek translation of Hebraic texts later compiled as the Hebrew Bible and the deuterocanonical books.
The Septuagint translates the phrase (, ) as (, ). Philo identified the angel of the Lord (in the singular) with the Logos. Peter Schäfer argues that Philo's Logos was derived from his understanding of the "postbiblical Wisdom literature, in particular the Wisdom of Solomon". The Wisdom of Solomon is a Jewish work composed in Alexandria, Egypt, around the 1st century BCE, with the aim of bolstering the faith of the Jewish community in a hostile Greek world. It is one of the seven Sapiential or wisdom books included within the Septuagint.
The extent of Philo's knowledge of Hebrew is debated. His numerous etymologies of Hebrew names—which are along the lines of the etymologic midrash to Genesis and of the earlier rabbinism, although not modern Hebrew philology—suggest some familiarity. Philo offers for some names three or four etymologies, sometimes including the correct Hebrew root (e.g., , , as the origin of the name Jordan). However, his works do not display much understanding of Hebrew grammar, and they tend to follow the translation of the Septuagint more closely than the Hebrew version.
The name of God
In the text attributed to Philo, he "consistently uses as a designation for God". According to David B. Capes "the problem for this case, however, is that Christian scholars are responsible for copying and transmitting Philo's words to later generations" and add that "George Howard surveys evidence and concludes: 'Although it is improbable that Philo varied from the custom of writing the Tetragram when quoting from Scripture, it is likely that he used the word when making a secondary reference to the divine name in his exposition'." James Royse concludes: "(1) the exegete [Philo] knows and reads biblical manuscripts in which the tetragram is written in palaeo-Hebrew or Aramaic script and not translated by kyrios and that (2) he quotes scriptures in the same way he would have pronounced it, that is, by translating it as kurios."
Influence and interpretations
For a long time, Philo was read and explained mostly by Christian authors. Azariah dei Rossi's Me'or Enayim: Imre Binah (1575), one of the first Jewish commentaries on Philo, describes four "serious defects" of Philo: reading the Torah in Greek, not Hebrew; belief in primordial matter rather than ; unbelief in the Lord as evidenced by excessively allegorical interpretation of scripture; and neglect of the Jewish oral tradition. Dei Rossi later gives a possible defense of Philo and writes that he can neither absolve nor convict him.
Texts and translations
Cohn, Leopold & Paul Wendland, Philonis Alexandrini Opera quæ supersunt (The Surviving Works of Philo of Alexandria) [Greek and Latin]. Berlin: George Reimer.
Volumes 1–3 (1896, 1897, 1898)
Voumes 4–6 (1902, 1906, 1915)
Volume 7 (1926; indexed by Hans Leisegang)
[Online Greek text of Volumes 1-7 above. Under "Graecum - Greco - Greek" section]
See also
Allegorical interpretations of Plato
Land of Onias
Pseudo-Philo
Explanatory notes
Citations
General sources
Goodenough, Erwin R. (1938). The Politics of Philo Judaeus: Practice and Theory. With a "General Bibliography of Philo" by Howard L. Goodhart and Erwin R. Goodenough. Yale University Press.
Kamesar, Adam, ed. (2009). The Cambridge Companion to Philo. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Pearce, Sarah (2007) The Land of the Body: Studies in Philo's Representation of Egypt Tübingen, Mohr Siebeck.
Runia, David T. (1986). Philo of Alexandria and the Timaeus of Plato. Philosophia antiqua, 44. Brill, Leiden.
Runia, D. T. (2001). On the Creation of the Cosmos according to Moses. Number 1 in Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series. Brill, Leiden.
Sandmel, Samuel. (1979). Philo of Alexandria: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. .
External links
Lecture on Philo Judaeus of Alexandria: Jews in the Greek World by Dr. Henry Abramson
Open source XML versions of Philo's works have been made available by the Open Greek and Latin Project at the University of Leipzig. English translations of Philo's writings are also available here.
20s BC births
50s deaths
1st-century BCE Jews
1st-century BC Romans
1st-century Jews
1st-century Romans
Ancient Roman philosophers
Epistemologists
Hellenistic-era philosophers
Hellenistic Jewish writers
Jewish philosophers
Jews of Roman Alexandria
Metaphysicians
Ontologists
Philosophers of Judaism
Philosophers of mind
Philosophers of religion
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo%27s%20works
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Philo's works
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The works of Philo, a first-century Alexandrian philosopher, are mostly allegorical interpretations of the Torah (known in the Hellenic world as the Pentateuch), but also include histories and comments on philosophy. Most of these have been preserved in Greek by the Church Fathers; some survive only through an Armenian translation.
List of extant works
Some 50 works by Philo have survived, and he is known to have written some 20 to 25 further works which have been lost.
The following list gives conventional Latin and English titles and abbreviations commonly used in reference works.
Commentaries on the Pentateuch
Philo's commentary on the Pentateuch is usually classified within three genres.
Quaestiones
The Quaestiones explain the Pentateuch catechetically, in the form of questions and answers ("Zητήματα καὶ Λύσεις, Quæstiones et Solutiones"). Only the following fragments have been preserved: abundant passages in Armenian – possibly the full work – in explanation of Genesis and Exodus, an old Latin translation of a part of the "Genesis," and fragments from the Greek text in Eusebius, in the "Sacra Parallela," in the "Catena," and also in Ambrosius. The explanation is confined chiefly to determining the literal sense, although Philo frequently refers to the allegorical sense as the higher.
Allegorical commentary
Νόμων Ἱερῶν Ἀλληγορίαι, or "Legum Allegoriæ," deals, so far as it has been preserved, with selected passages from Genesis. According to Philo's original idea, the history of primal man is here considered as a symbol of the religious and moral development of the human soul. This great commentary included the following treatises:
"Legum allegoriae," books i.-iii., on Gen. ii. 1-iii. 1a, 8b-19 (on the original extent and contents of these three books and the probably more correct combination of i. and ii.)
"De cherubim," on Gen. iii. 24, iv. 1;
"De sacrificiis Abelis et Caini," on Gen. iv. 2–4;
"De eo quod deterius potiori insidiatur";
"De posteritate Caini," on Gen. iv. 16-25
"De gigantibus," on Gen. vi. 1–4;
"Quod Deus sit immutabilis," on Gen. vi. 4-12
"De Agricultura Noë," on Gen. ix. 20;
"De Plantatione," on Gen. ix. 20b;
"De Ebrietate," on Gen. ix. 21
"Resipuit; Noë, seu De Sobrietate," on Gen. ix. 24–27;
"De Confusione Linguarum," on Gen. xi. 1–9;
"De Migratione Abrahami," on Gen. xii. 1–6;
"Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," on Gen. xv. 2–18;
"De Congressu Quærendæ Eruditionis Gratia," on Gen. xvi. 1–6;
"De Profugis," on Gen. xvi. 6–14;
"De Mutatione Nominum," on Gen. xvii, 1-22;
"De Somniis," book i., on Gen. xxviii. 12 et seq., xxxi. 11 et seq. (Jacob's dreams); "De Somniis," book ii., on Gen. xxxvii. 40 et seq. (the dreams of Joseph, of the cupbearer, the baker, and Pharaoh). Philo's three other books on dreams have been lost. The first of these (on the dreams of Abimelech and Laban) preceded the present book i., and discussed the dreams in which God Himself spoke with the dreamers, this fitting in very well with Gen. xx. 3.
Exposition of the Law
Philo wrote a systematic work on Moses and his laws, which is usually prefaced by the treatise "De Opificio Mundi." The Creation is, according to Philo, the basis for the Mosaic legislation, which is in complete harmony with nature ("De Opificio Mundi," § 1 [i. 1]). The exposition of the Law then follows in two sections. First come the biographies of the men who antedated the several written laws of the Torah, as Enos, Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. These were the Patriarchs, who were the living impersonations of the active law of virtue before there were any written laws.
Then the laws are discussed in detail: first the chief ten commandments (the Decalogue), and then the precepts in amplification of each law. The work is divided into the following treatises:
"De Opificio Mundi" (comp. Siegfried in "Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Theologie," 1874, pp. 562–565; L Cohn's important separate edition of this treatise, Breslau, 1889, preceded the edition of the same in "Philonis Alexandrini," etc., 1896, i.).
"De Abrahamo,"on Abraham, the representative of the virtue acquired by learning. The lives of Isaac and Jacob have been lost. The three patriarchs were intended as types of the ideal cosmopolitan condition of the world.
"De Josepho," the life of Joseph, intended to show how the wise man must act in the actually existing state.
"De Vita Mosis," books i.-iii.; Schürer, l.c. p. 523, combines the three books into two; but, as Massebieau shows (l.c. pp. 42 et seq.), a passage, though hardly an entire book, is missing at the end of the present second book (Wendland, in "Hermes," xxxi. 440). Schürer (l.c. pp. 515, 524) excludes this work here, although he admits that from a literary point of view it fits into this group; but he considers it foreign to the work in general, since Moses, unlike the Patriarchs, can not be conceived as a universally valid type of moral action, and can not be described as such. The latter point may be admitted. but the question still remains whether it is necessary to regard the matter in this light. It seems most natural to preface the discussion of the law with the biography of the legislator, while the transition from Joseph to the legislation, from the statesman who has nothing to do with the divine laws to the discussion of these laws themselves, is forced and abrupt. Moses, as the perfect man, unites in himself, in a way, all the faculties of the patriarchal types. His is the "most pure mind" ("De Mutatione Nominum," 37 [i. 610]), he is the "lover of virtue," who has been purified from all passions ("De Allegoriis Legum," iii. 45, 48 [i. 113, 115]). As the person awaiting the divine revelation, he is also specially fitted to announce it to others, after having received it in the form of the Commandments (ib. iii. 4 [i. 89 et seq.]).
"De Decalogo," the introductory treatise to the chief ten commandments of the Law.
"De Specialibus Legibus," in which treatise Philo attempts to systematize the several laws of the Torah, and to arrange them in conformity with the Ten Commandments. To the first and second commandments he adds the laws relating to priests and sacrifices; to the third (misuse of the name of God), the laws on oaths, vows, etc.; to the fourth (on the Sabbath), the laws on festivals; to the fifth (to honor father and mother),the laws on respect for parents, old age, etc.; to the sixth, the marriage laws; to the seventh, the civil and criminal laws; to the eighth, the laws on theft; to the ninth, the laws on truthful testifying; and to the tenth, the laws on lust. The first book includes the following treatises of the current editions: "De Circumcisione"; "De Monarchia," books i. and ii.; "De Sacerdotum Honoribus"; "De Victimis." On the division of the book into these sections, the titles of the latter, and newly found sections of the text, see Schürer, l.c. p. 517; Wendland, l.c. pp. 136 et seq. The second book includes in the editions a section also entitled "De Specialibus Legibus" (ii. 270–277), to which is added the treatise "De Septenario," which is, however, incomplete in Mangey. The greater part of the missing portion was supplied, under the title "De Cophini Festo et de Colendis Parentibus," by Mai (1818), and was printed in Richter's edition, v. 48–50, Leipsic, 1828. The complete text of the second book was published by Tischendorf in his "Philonea" (pp. 1–83). The third book is included under the title "De Specialibus Legibus" in ed. Mangey, ii. 299–334. The fourth book also is entitled "De Specialibus Legibus"; to it the last sections are added under the titles "De Judice" and "De Concupiscentia" in the usual editions; and they include, also, as appendix, the sections "De Justitia" and "De Creatione Principum."
The treatises "De Fortitudine," "De Caritate," and "De Pœnitentia" are a kind of appendix to "De Specialibus Legibus." combines them into a special book, which, he thinks, was composed by Philo.
"De Præmiis et Pœnis" and "De Execratione." On the connection of both This is the conclusion of the exposition of the Mosaic law.
This exposition is more exoteric than allegorical and might have been intended for gentile audiences.
Independent works
"Quod Omnis Probus Liber," the second half of a work on the freedom of the just according to Stoic principles. The genuineness of this work has been disputed by Frankel (in "Monatsschrift," ii. 30 et seq., 61 et seq.), by Grätz ("Gesch." iii. 464 et seq.), and more recently by Ansfeld (1887), Hilgenfeld (in "Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Theologie," 1888, pp. 49–71), and others. Now Wendland, Ohle, Schürer, Massebieau, and Krell consider it genuine, with the exception of the partly interpolated passages on the Essenes.
"In Flaccum" and "De Legatione ad Caium," an account of the Alexandrian persecution of the Jews under Caligula. This account, consisting originally of five books, has been preserved in fragments only (see Schürer, l.c. pp. 525 et seq.). Philo intended to show the fearful punishment meted out by God to the persecutors of the Jews (on Philo's predilection for similar discussions see Siegfried, "Philo von Alexandria," p. 157).
"De Providentia," preserved only in Armenian, and printed from Aucher's Latin translation in the editions of Richter and others (on Greek fragments of the work see Schürer, l.c. pp. 531 et seq.).
"De Animalibus" (on the title see Schürer, l.c. p. 532; in Richter's ed. viii. 101–144).
ϓποθετικά ("Counsels"), a work known only through fragments in Eusebius, Præparatio Evangelica, viii. 6, 7. The meaning of the title is open to discussion; it may be identical with the following
Περὶ Ἰουδαίων an apology for the Jews (Schürer, l.c. pp. 532 et seq.).
For a list of the lost works of Philo see Schürer, l.c. p. 534.
Other works ascribed to Philo
De Vita Contemplativa
This work describes the mode of life and the religious festivals of a society of Jewish ascetics, who according to the author, are widely scattered over the earth, and are found especially in every nome in Egypt. The writer, however, confines himself to describing the Therapeutae, a colony of hermits settled on the Lake Mareotis in Egypt, where each lives separately in his own dwelling. Six days of the week they spend in pious contemplation, chiefly in connection with Scripture. On the seventh day both men and women assemble together in a hall; and the leader delivers a discourse consisting of an allegorical interpretation of a Scriptural passage. The feast of the fiftieth day is especially celebrated. The ceremony begins with a frugal meal consisting of bread, salted vegetables, and water, during which a passage of Scripture is interpreted. After the meal the members of the society in turn sing religious songs of various kinds, to which the assembly answers with a refrain. The ceremony ends with a choral representation of the triumphal festival that Moses and Miriam arranged after the passage through the Red Sea, the voices of the men and the women uniting in a choral symphony until the sun rises. After a common morning prayer each goes home to resume his contemplation. Such is the contemplative life (βίος θεωρητικός) led by these Θεραπευταί ("servants of Yhwh").
The ancient Church looked upon these Therapeutæ as disguised Christian monks. This view has found advocates even in very recent times; Lucius' opinion particularly, that the Christian monkdom of the third century was here glorified in a Jewish disguise, was widely accepted ("Die Therapeuten," 1879). But the ritual of the society, which was entirely at variance with Christianity, disproves this view. The chief ceremony especially, the choral representation of the passage through the Red Sea, has no special significance for Christianity; nor have there ever been in the Christian Church nocturnal festivals celebrated by men and women together.
Massebieau ("Revue de l'Histoire des Religions," 1887, xvi. 170 et seq., 284 et seq.), Conybeare ("Philo About the Contemplative Life," Oxford, 1895), and Wendland ("Die Therapeuten," etc., Leipsig, 1896) ascribe the entire work to Philo, basing their argument wholly on linguistic reasons, which seem sufficiently conclusive. But there are great dissimilarities between the fundamental conceptions of the author of the "De Vita Contemplativa" and those of Philo. The latter looks upon Greek culture and philosophy as allies, the former is hostile to Greek philosophy (see Siegfried in "Protestantische Kirchenzeitung," 1896, No.42). He repudiates a science that numbered among Its followers the sacred band of the Pythagoreans, inspired men like Parmenides, Empedocles, Zeno, Cleanthes, Heraclitus, and Plato, whom Philo prized ("Quod Omnis Probus," i., ii.; "Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," 43; "De Providentia," ii. 42, 48, etc.). He considers the symposium a detestable, common drinking-bout. This can not be explained as a Stoic diatribe; for in this case Philo would not have repeated it. And Philo would have been the last to interpret the Platonic Eros in the vulgar way in which it is explained in the "De Vita Contemplativa," 7 (ii. 480), as he repeatedly uses the myth of double man allegorically in his interpretation of Scripture ("De Opificio Mundi," 24; "De Allegoriis Legum," ii. 24). It must furthermore be remembered that Philo in none of his other works mentions these colonies of allegorizing ascetics, in which he would have been highly interested had he known of them. But pupils of Philo may subsequently have founded near Alexandria similar colonies that endeavored to realize his ideal of a pure life triumphing over the senses and passions; and they might also have been responsible for the one-sided development of certain of the master's principles. While Philo desired to renounce the lusts of this world, he held fast to the scientific culture of Hellenism, which the author of this book denounces. Although Philo liked to withdraw from the world in order to give himself up entirely to contemplation, and bitterly regretted the lack of such repose ("De Specialibus Legibus," 1 [ii. 299]), he did not abandon the work that was required of him by the welfare of his people.
Other
"De Incorruptibilitate Mundi." Jakob Bernays has argued convincingly that this work is spurious. Its Peripatetic basic idea that the world is eternal and indestructible contradicts all those Jewish teachings that were for Philo an indisputable presupposition. Bernays has proved at the same time that the text has been confused through wrong pagination, and he has cleverly restored it.
"De Mundo," a collection of extracts from Philo, especially from the preceding work
"De Sampsone" and "De Jona," in Armenian, published with Latin translation by Jean-Baptiste Aucher.
"Interpretatio Hebraicorum Nominum," a collection, by an anonymous Jew, of the Hebrew names occurring in Philo. Origen enlarged it by adding New Testament names; and Jerome revised it. On the etymology of names occurring in Philo's exegetical works see below.
A "Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum," which was printed in the sixteenth century and then disappeared, has been discussed by Cohn in "J. Q. R." 1898, x. 277–332. It narrates Biblical history from Adam to Saul
The pseudo-Philonic "Breviarium Temporum," published by Annius of Viterbo
See also
Cairo Geniza
Elephantine papyri
Jewish temple at Elephantine
Land of Onias
Philo
Philosophy
Philo's view of God
Pseudo-Philo
Moses in rabbinic literature
References
Kamesar, Adam, ed. (2009). The Cambridge Companion to Philo. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Massebieau, Louis. Le classement des oeuvres de Philon. Extrait du tome I de la Bibliothèque de l'École des Hautes Études, Section des Sceicne religieuses. Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1889.
Massebieau with posthumous editing by Émile Bréhier. "Essai sur la Chronologie de la Vie et des Œuvres de Philon". Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, ed. Jean Réville, vol. 53 (1906), pp. 25–64.
Schürer, Emil. Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi (1886-1890)
External links
Works of Philo, with notes (Yonge 1854/55 Eng. transl.)
Works of Philo (Yonge 1854/55 Eng. transl.)
The Works Of Philo Judaeus Vol II (1854) (Yonge Eng. transl.)
The Works of Philo - searchable text from University of the Aegean (site currently offline)
Works of Philo - searchable text
Many (not all) works of Philo - searchable text
Cohn & Wendland critical edition v1 (1896)
Cohn & Wendland critical edition v2 (1897)
Cohn & Wendland critical edition v3( 1898)
Cohn & Wendland critical edition v4 (1902)
Cohn & Wendland critical edition v5 (1906)
Hellenistic philosophical literature
Jewish philosophy
Philosophy books
Philo
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo%27s%20view%20of%20God
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Philo's view of God
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Philo (c. 30 BCE – c. 50 CE) was a leading writer of the Hellenistic Jewish community in Alexandria, Egypt. He wrote expansively in Koine Greek on the intersection of philosophy, politics, and religion in his time, specifically he explored the connections between Greek Platonic philosophy and late Second Temple Judaism. For example, he maintained that the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible and additional books) and Jewish law (which was still being developed by the rabbis in this period) are a blueprint for the pursuit of individual enlightenment.
Philo interpreted the stories of the Pentateuch (first five books) as elaborate metaphors and symbols. He did not reject the subjective experience of ancient Judaism; yet, he repeatedly explained that the Septuagint cannot be understood as a concrete, objective history. Philo was largely shaped by contemporary Greek philosophy. For example, he explained that ideal Greek forms for reason and wisdom illustrated the deep, mystical truth of God and Judaism.
Philo stated his theology both through the negation of opposed ideas, and through detailed, positive explanations of the nature of God. In his negative statement, he contrasted the nature of God with the nature of the physical world. He integrated select theology from the rabbinic tradition, including God's sublime transcendence, and man's inability to behold an ineffable God. However, he significantly disagreed with the theology that God actively changes the world, is filled with zeal, is moved by repentance, and aids his chosen people.
Philo did not consider God similar to heaven, the world, or man; his God existed neither in time nor space and had no human attributes or emotions. He argued that God has no attributes (ἁπλοῡς), in consequence no name (ἅρρητος), and for that reason he cannot be perceived by man (ἀκατάληπτος). Further, God cannot change (ἅτρεπτος): He is always the same (ἀἱδιος). He needs no other being (χρήζων ὁυδενòς τò παράπαν), and is self-sufficient (ἑαυτῷ ἱκανός). God can never perish (ἅφθαρτος). He is the simply existent (ó ὤν, τὸ ὅν), and has no relations with any other being (τὸ γὰρ ἢ ὄν ἒστιν ουχὶ τῶν πρός τι).
Anthropomorphisms
Philo characterizes as a monstrous impiety the anthropomorphism of the Bible, which ascribes to God hands and feet, eyes and ears, tongue and windpipe. Scripture, he says, adapts itself to human conceptions; and for pedagogic reasons God is occasionally represented as a man. The same holds good also as regards God's anthropopathic attributes. God as such is untouched by unreasonable emotions, as appears, e.g., from Exodus ii. 12, where Moses, torn by his emotions, perceives God alone to be calm. He is free from sorrow, pain, and all such affections. But He is frequently represented as endowed with human emotions; and this serves to explain expressions referring to His repentance.
Similarly God cannot exist or change in space. He has no "where" (πού, obtained by changing the accent in Gen. iii. 9: "Adam, where [ποῡ] art thou?"), is not in any place. He is Himself the place; the dwelling-place of God means the same as God Himself, as in the Mishnah = "God is" (comp. Freudenthal, "Hellenistische Studien," p. 73), corresponding to the tenet of Greek philosophy that the existence of all things is summed up in God. God as such is motionless, as the Bible indicates by the phrase "God stands".
Doctrine of the Divine Attributes
Although, as shown above, Philo repeatedly endeavored to find the Divine Being active and acting in the world, in agreement with Stoicism, yet his Platonic repugnance to matter predominated, and consequently whenever he posited that the divine could not have any contact with evil, he defined matter as evil, with the result that he placed God outside of the world. Hence he was obliged to separate from the Divine Being the activity displayed in the world and to transfer it to the divine powers, which accordingly were sometimes inherent in God and at other times exterior to God.
This doctrine, as worked out by Philo, was composed of very different elements, including Greek philosophy, Biblical conceptions, pagan and late Jewish views. The Greek elements were borrowed partly from Platonic philosophy, insofar as the divine powers were conceived as types or patterns of actual things ("archetypal ideas"), and partly from Stoic philosophy, insofar as those powers were regarded as the efficient causes that not only represent the types of things, but also produce and maintain them. They fill the whole world, and in them are contained all being and all individual things ("De Confusione Linguarum," § 34 [i. 431]). Philo endeavored to harmonize this conception with the Bible by designating these powers as angels ("De Gigantibus," § 2 [i. 263]; "De Somniis," i. 22 [i. 641 et seq.]), whereby he destroyed an essential characteristic of the Biblical view. He further made use of the pagan conception of demons (ib.). And finally he was influenced by the late Jewish doctrine of the throne-chariot, in connection with which he in a way detaches one of God's fundamental powers, a point which will be discussed further on. In the Haggadah this fundamental power divides into two contrasts, which modify each other.
In the same way Philo contrasts the two divine attributes of goodness and power (ἄγαθότης and ἀρχή, δίναμις χαριστική and συγκολαστική). They are also expressed in the names of God; but Philo's explanation is confusing. "Yhwh" really designates God as the kind and merciful one, while "Elohim" designates him as the just one. Philo, however, interpreted "Elohim" (LXX. Θεός) as designating the "cosmic power"; and as he considered the Creation the most important proof of divine goodness, he found the idea of goodness especially in Θεός. On the parallel activity of the two powers and the symbols used therefor in Scripture, as well as on their emanation from God and their further development into new powers, their relation to God and the world, their part in the Creation, their tasks toward man, etc., see Siegfried, "Philo," pp. 214–218. Philo's exposition here is not entirely clear, as he sometimes conceives the powers to be independent hypostases and sometimes regards them as immanent attributes of the Divine Being.
The Logos
Philo used the term Logos to mean an intermediary divine being, or demiurge. Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world. The Logos was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo "the first-born of God."
Philo also wrote that "the Logos of the living God is the bond of everything, holding all things together and binding all the parts, and prevents them from being dissolved and separated."
Philo considers these divine powers in their totality also, treating them as a single independent being, which he designates "Logos". This name, which he borrowed from Greek philosophy, was first used by Heraclitus and then adopted by the Stoics. Philo's conception of the Logos is influenced by both of these schools. From Heraclitus he borrowed the conception of the "dividing Logos" (λόγος τομεύς), which calls the various objects into existence by the combination of contrasts ("Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," § 43 [i. 503]), and from Stoicism, the characterization of the Logos as the active and vivifying power. But Philo borrowed also Platonic elements in designating the Logos as the "idea of ideas" and the "archetypal idea".
There are, in addition, Biblical elements: there are Biblical passages in which the word of Yhwh is regarded as a power acting independently and existing by itself, as Isaiah 55:11; these ideas were further developed by later Judaism in the doctrines of the Divine Word creating the world, the divine throne-chariot and its cherub, the divine splendor and its shekinah, and the name of God as well as the names of the angels; and Philo borrowed from all these in elaborating his doctrine of the Logos. He calls the Logos "second god [deuteros theos]" (Questions and Answers on Genesis 2:62), the "archangel of many names," "taxiarch" (corps-commander), the "name of God," also the "heavenly Adam", the "man, the word of the eternal God."
The Logos is also designated as "high priest", in reference to the exalted position which the high priest occupied after the Exile as the real center of the Jewish state. The Logos, like the high priest, is the expiator of sins, and the mediator and advocate for men: ἱκέτης, and παράκλητος.
From Alexandrian theology Philo borrowed the idea of wisdom as the mediator; he thereby somewhat confused his doctrine of the Logos, regarding wisdom as the higher principle from which the Logos proceeds, and again coordinating it with the latter.
Relation of the Logos to God
Philo's conception of the Logos is directly related to the Middle Platonic view of God as unmoved and utterly transcendent. As such, the Logos becomes the aspect of the divine that operates in the world—through whom the world is created and sustained. Philo, in connecting his doctrine of the Logos with Scripture, first of all bases on Gen. i. 27 the relation of the Logos to God. He translates this passage as follows: "He made man after the image of God," concluding therefrom that an image of God existed. This image of God is the type for all other things (the "Archetypal Idea" of Plato), a seal impressed upon things. The Logos is a kind of shadow cast by God, having the outlines but not the blinding light of the Divine Being.
Pneumatology
The relation of the Logos to the divine powers, especially to the two fundamental powers, must now be examined. And here is found a twofold series of exegetic expositions. According to one, the Logos stands higher than the two powers; according to the other, it is in a way the product of the two powers; similarly it occasionally appears as the chief and leader of the innumerable powers proceeding from the primal powers, and again as the aggregate or product of them.
In its relation to the world the Logos appears as the Universal substance on which all things depend; and from this point of view the manna (as γενικώτατόν τι) becomes a symbol for it. The Logos, however, is not only the archetype of things, but also the power that produces them, appearing as such especially under the name of the Logos τομεύς ("the divider"). It separates the individual beings of nature from one another according to their characteristics; but, on the other hand, it constitutes the bond connecting the individual creatures, uniting their spiritual and physical attributes. It may be said to have invested itself with the whole world as an indestructible garment. It appears as the director and shepherd of the things in the world insofar as they are in motion.
The Logos has a special relation to man. It is the type; man is the copy. The similarity is found in the mind (νοῡς) of man. For the shaping of his nous, man (earthly man) has the Logos (the "heavenly man") for a pattern. The latter officiates here also as "the divider" (τομεύς), separating and uniting. The Logos as "interpreter" announces God's designs to man, acting in this respect as prophet and priest. As the latter, he softens punishments by making the merciful power stronger than the punitive. The Logos has a special mystic influence upon the human soul, illuminating it and nourishing it with a higher spiritual food, like the manna, of which the smallest piece has the same vitality as the whole.
See also
Cairo Geniza
Elephantine papyri
Jewish temple at Elephantine
Land of Onias
Philosophy
Philo's Works
Pseudo-Philo
Moses in rabbinic literature
Notes
References
Ancient Jewish Egyptian history
Conceptions of God
Jewish theology
Philo
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babar%20the%20Elephant
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Babar the Elephant
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Babar the Elephant (, ; ) is an elephant character who first appeared in 1931 in the French children's book Histoire de Babar by Jean de Brunhoff.
The book is based on a tale that Brunhoff's wife, Cécile, had invented for their children. It tells of a young elephant, named Babar, whose mother is killed by a hunter. Babar escapes, and in the process leaves the jungle in exile, visits a big city, and returns to bring the benefits of civilization to his fellow elephants. Just as he returns to his community of elephants, their king dies from eating a bad mushroom. Because of his travels and civilization, Babar is chosen king of the elephant kingdom. He marries his cousin, Celeste, and they subsequently have children and teach them valuable lessons.
Story synopsis
After Babar's mother is shot by a hunter, he flees the jungle and finds his way to an unspecified big city with no particular characteristics. He is befriended by The Old Lady, who buys him clothes and hires him a tutor. Babar's cousins Celeste and Arthur find him in the big city and help him return to the Elephant realm. Following the death of the King of the Elephants, who had eaten a poisonous mushroom (the illustrations indicate that it is a fly agaric), a council of elephants approach Babar, saying that as he has "lived among men and learned much", he would be suitable to become the new King. Babar is crowned King of the Elephants and marries his cousin, Celeste.
In Jean de Brunhoff's second Babar book, The Travels of Babar, when the married couple leave by balloon on their honeymoon: ...stormy winds down the balloon on an island, and yet again will the royal couple escape by whale, be marooned on an even smaller island and be rescued by a passing ocean liner only to be turned over to an animal trainer and put to work in a circus. And when they escape and return home, what awaits them but war with the rhinoceroses. It was sparked when Arthur tied a firecracker to the tail of Lord Rataxes. Babar wins the war by having the elephants paint monster faces on their backsides, which cause the frightened rhinoceroses to run away. After the victory celebrations, the book ends with Babar, Celeste and The Old Lady sitting together and discussing how Babar can rule wisely and make all the elephants happy.
In the third book, Babar the King, Babar founds the city of Celesteville. After many Dromedaries are found, they help with building the city. However, problems arise; the Old Lady is bitten by a snake, and Cornelius' home catches fire. Babar has a dream where he is visited by Misfortune and other demons which are chased away by elephant angels representing Courage, Hope, and other virtues.
Among Babar's other associates in the various incarnations of the series are the monkey Zephir, the old elephant counsellor Cornelius (also later Pompadour who was created for the Babar television series), Babar's cousin Arthur, and Babar's children, Pom, Flora, and Alexander. A younger daughter, Isabelle, is later introduced. The Old Lady comes to live in the Kingdom as an honoured guest.
Despite the presence of these counsellors, Babar's rule seems to be totally independent of any elected body, and completely autocratic. However, his leadership style seems to strive for the overall benefit of his elephant subjects—a form of benevolent dictatorship.
Besides his Westernizing policies, Babar engages in battle with the warlike rhinoceroses of a hostile bordering nation, led by Lord Rataxes. Much later, in Babar and the Adventures of Badou, Pom grows to become the father of Prince Babar II (known as Badou).
History
In 1931, Jean de Brunhoff introduced Babar in Histoire de Babar, and Babar enjoyed immediate success. In 1933, A.A. Milne introduced an English-language version, The Story of Babar, in Britain and the United States.
Before his death in 1937, Jean de Brunhoff published six more stories. His son Laurent de Brunhoff, also a writer and illustrator, carried on the series from 1946, beginning with Babar et Le Coquin d'Arthur.
An animated television series, Babar was produced in Canada by Nelvana Limited and the Clifford Ross Company, originally running from 3 January 1989 to 5 June 1991, with 65 episodes. An additional 13 episodes aired in 2000. The character has also appeared in a number of films. The first two of Jean de Brunhoff's Babar books have inspired two major concert works: L'Histoire de Babar, le petit éléphant (The Story of Babar, the Little Elephant) by Francis Poulenc in 1940; and The Travels of Babar (Le Voyage de Babar) by Raphael Mostel in 1994. In 2010, a sequel and spin-off, Babar and the Adventures of Badou, was released, introducing new characters, including Badou, Babar's grandson and Pom's son. It takes place several years after the original series.
Influence and legacy
Babar, who likes to wear a bright green suit, introduces a very French form of Western civilization to the elephants, and they soon dress in Western attire. The attention to stylish clothing perhaps reflects the fact that the original publisher of the books was Editions du Jardin des Modes, owned by Condé-Nast. The Babar books were the first Condé-Nast publications not specifically about fashion.
Author Maurice Sendak described the innovations of Jean de Brunhoff:
Like an extravagant piece of poetry, the interplay between few words and many pictures, commonly called the picture book, is a difficult, exquisite, and most easily collapsible form that few have mastered....Jean de Brunhoff was a master of this form. Between 1931 and 1937 he completed a body of work that forever changed the face of the illustrated book.
The series has over 100 licensees worldwide, and the "Babar" brand has a multi-generational following. There are 12 Babar stores in Japan. A global cultural phenomenon, whose fans span generations, Babar stands along with Disney's Mickey Mouse as one of the most recognized children's characters in the world. There are now over 30,000 Babar publications in over 17 languages, and over 8 million books have been sold. Laurent de Brunhoff's Babar's Yoga for Elephants is a top seller in the U.S. with over 100,000 copies sold to date. The Babar series of books are recommended reading on former First Lady Laura Bush's national reading initiative list. All 78 episodes of the TV series are broadcast in 30 languages in over 150 countries, making Babar one of the largest distributed animation shows in history. Babar has been a perennial favourite for years at the White House Easter Egg Roll.
Since 2001, the Babar franchise has been owned by Corus Entertainment's Nelvana in conjunction with the artist, Clifford Ross.
Babar made a nameless appearance in The New Traveller's Almanac (part of The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen series). Babar and his elephants escort Mina Murray and Allan Quatermain through the African jungle. Mina considers them "civilized and gentle", but Allan denies that their leader is really wearing a crown.
In the 1988 comedy film Coming to America, the Joffer royal family have a pet elephant named "Babar".
Criticism and controversy
Some writers, notably Herbert R. Kohl and Vivian Paley, have argued that, although superficially delightful, the stories can be seen as a justification for colonialism. Others argue that the French civilization described in the early books had already been destroyed by World War I and the books were originally an exercise in nostalgia for pre-1914 France. Ariel Dorfman's The Empire's Old Clothes is another highly critical view, in which he concludes, "In imagining the independence of the land of the elephants, Jean de Brunhoff anticipates, more than a decade before history forced Europe to put it into practice, the theory of neocolonialism."
Babar's Travels was removed from the shelves by library staff in East Sussex in response to parental complaints for what was perceived as stereotypes of Africans.
Alternatively, in the 2008 New Yorker article "Freeing the Elephants", staff writer Adam Gopnik writes that it "is not an unconscious expression of the French colonial imagination; it is a self-conscious comedy about the French colonial imagination and its close relation to the French domestic imagination. The gist ... is explicit and intelligent: the lure of the city, of civilization, of style and order and bourgeois living is real, for elephants as for humans." He concludes that the satisfaction derived from Babar is based on the knowledge that "while it is a very good thing to be an elephant, still, the life of an elephant is dangerous, wild, and painful. It is therefore a safer thing to be an elephant in a house near a park."
Books
Jean de Brunhoff wrote and illustrated seven Babar books; the series was continued by his son, Laurent de Brunhoff.
Jean de Brunhoff's Babar books (1931–1941), and the titles of the English translations, were:
Histoire de Babar (1931) – The Story of Babar
Le Voyage de Babar (1932) – The Travels of Babar, or Babar's Travels
Le Roi Babar (1933) – Babar the King
L'ABC de Babar (1934) – A.B.C. of Babar
Les vacances de Zéphir (1936) – Zephir's Holidays, Zephir's Vacation, or Babar and Zephir
Babar en famille (1938) – Babar and His Children, or Babar at Home
Babar et le père Noël (1941) – Babar and Father Christmas
Laurent de Brunhoff's books (1948–present) (selected list):
Babar et ce coquin d'Arthur (1948) – Babar's Cousin: That Rascal Arthur
Pique-nique chez Babar (1949) – Babar's Picnic
Babar dans l'Île aux oiseaux (1952) – Babar's Visit to Bird Island
Babar au cirque (1952) – Babar at the Circus
La fête à Celesteville (1954) – Babar's Fair
Babar et le professeur Grifaton (1956) – Babar and the Professor
Le château de Babar (1961) – Babar's Castle
Je parle anglais avec Babar (1963) – Babar's English Lessons (published as French Lessons in English)
Babar Comes to America (1965)
Je parle allemand avec Babar (1966) – Babar's German Lessons
Je parle espagnol avec Babar (1966) – Babar's Spanish Lessons
Babar Loses His Crown (1967)
Babar Visits another Planet (1972)
Babar and the Wully-Wully (1975)
Babar Learns to Cook (1978)
Babar the Magician (1980)
Babar's Little Library (1980)
Babar and the Ghost (1981)
Babar's Anniversary Album (1982)
Babar's ABC (1983)
Babar's Book of Color (1984)
Babar's Counting Book (1986)
Babar's Little Girl (1987)
Babar's Little Circus Star (1988)
Babar's Busy Year (1989)
Babar's Rescue (1993)
Le Musée de Babar (2002) – Babar's Museum
Babar Goes to School (2003)
Babar's Museum of Art (2003)
Babar's Book of Color (2004)
Babar's Busy Year (2005)
Babar's World Tour (2005)
Babar's Yoga for Elephants (2006)
Babar's USA (2008)
Babar's Celesteville Games (2011)
Babar on Paradise Island (2014)
Babar's guide to Paris (2017)
English translations of the original Babar books are routinely republished in the UK and in the US, individually and in collections.
Other English-language titles about Babar include the following:
Babar Comes to America. New York: Random House, 1965.
Babar Learns to Cook. New York: Random House, 1967.
Babar Loses His Crown. New York: Random House, 1967.
Babar's Games. New York: Random House, 1968.
Babar's Fair. New York: Random House, 1969.
Babar Goes Skiing. New York: Random House, 1969.
Babar's Moon Trip. New York: Random House, 1969.
Babar's Trunk. New York: Random House, 1969.
Babar's Birthday Surprise. New York: Random House, 1970
Babar's Other Trunk. New York: Random House, 1971.
Babar Visits Another Planet. New York: Random House, 1972.
Meet Babar and His Family. New York: Random House, 1973.
Babar's Bookmobile. New York: Random House, 1974.
Babar and the Wully-Wully. New York: Random House, 1975.
Babar Saves the Day. New York: Random House, 1976.
Babar's Mystery. New York: Random House, 1978.
Babar's Little Library. New York: Random House, 1980
Babar the Magician. New York: Random House, 1980.
Babar's Anniversary Album. New York: Random House, 1981.
Babar's A.B.C. New York: Random House, 1983.
Babar's Book of Color. New York: Random House, 2009
Babar and the Ghost. Easy to Read Edition. New York: Random House, 1986.
Babar's Counting Book. New York: Random House, 1986.
Christmas with Babar & Baby Isabelle. Woman's Day, 22 December 1987.
Babar's Little Circus Star. New York: Random House, 1988.
Babar's Busy Year. New York: Random House, 1989.
Isabelle's New Friend. New York: Random House, 1990.
Babar and the Succotash Bird. New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc., 2000.
Films and television
Les Aventures de Babar (French language TV series) (1968)
Bill Melendez Productions:
The Story of Babar the Little Elephant (1968)
Babar the Elephant Comes to America (1971)Atkinson Film-Arts Babar and Father Christmas (1986)Nelvana Productions':
Babar (1989–91; 2000)
Babar: The Movie (1989)
Babar: King of the Elephants (1999)
Babar and the Adventures of Badou'' (2010–2015)
References
External links
Official website of Random House, North American publisher of the Babar books of Jean de Brunhoff
Digital maquette of Jean de Brunhoff's Histoire de Babar le petit Éléphant
Official website of Raphael Mostel, composer and publisher & production proprietor of "The Travels of Babar" based on Jean de Brunhoff's classic book and art Le Voyage de Babar
Official website of Harry N. Abrams, North American publisher of the Babar books of Laurent de Brunhoff
Official Babar site of Treehouse TV
New York Review of Books article
Laurent de Brunhoff - Video Interview
Out of Print Babar Yoga Licensed product
Maurice Sendak essay celebrating golden jubilee of Babar the Elephant
Laurent de Brunhoff Reveals Shocking Beginning of Beloved Babar Series
Characters in French novels of the 20th century
Literary characters introduced in 1931
Fictional kings
Fictional anthropomorphic characters
French children's books
French picture books
Anthropomorphic animals
Books about elephants
Novels about death
Novels about orphans
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelvana
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Nelvana
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Nelvana Enterprises, Inc. () (previously known as Nelvana Limited, sometimes known as Nelvana Animation) is a Canadian animation studio and entertainment company owned by Corus Entertainment. Founded on July 30, 1971 by Michael Hirsh, Patrick Loubert and Clive A. Smith, it was named after Nelvana of the Northern Lights, the first Canadian national superhero, who was created by Adrian Dingle. The company's production logo is a polar bear looking at the North Star.
The company is based in Toronto, Ontario, and it maintains international offices in France, Ireland and Japan, as well as smaller offices in the top three cities in the U.S. Many of its films, shows and specials are based on licensed properties and literature, but original programming is also part of its roster. Although the company specializes in children's media, Nelvana has also co-produced adult animations like Clone High, John Callahan's Quads, Bob & Margaret, and Committed.
Nelvana International distributes Nickelodeon's Taina and the first five seasons of The Fairly OddParents & Wolfoo. , its library comprised more than 1,650 cumulative half-hours of original programming.
History
1970s
Nelvana started in 1971 when two graduates of York University, Michael Hirsh and Patrick Loubert, teamed up with a Vitaphone animator-designer Clive A. Smith in Toronto, Ontario. Hirsh and Loubert, who had a passion for underground filmmaking, had founded a small company called Laff Arts in the late 1960s. Smith, whose interest was in rock n' roll music, had previously been among the crew for the Beatles' animated series and their 1968 film, Yellow Submarine. Hirsh has commented on the background of Nelvana's founding:
Soon after they saw a collection of local comic books from the 1940s and acquired the ownership rights. In turn, they made a half-hour television documentary for the CBC focusing on Canadian comics. Their two-year traveling tour of the art from the National Gallery of Canada, "Comic Art Traditions in Canada, 1941–45", gave locals a chance to revisit the country's past heritage in that field. Meanwhile, Hirsh and Loubert collaborated on a related primer from Peter Martin and Associates, The Great Canadian Comic Books. Amid all this success, Hirsh, Loubert and Smith named their new enterprise Nelvana—after a Canadian comic book superheroine from World War II, Nelvana of the Northern Lights, who was one of the characters in the Canadian Whites canon.
A derelict apartment in downtown Toronto served as the company's first building, and a homemade wooden stand mounted over a toilet was among its first camera equipment. "To create zooms," Hirsh recalled of his early experience with this machine, "we would pile up phone books under the art work." During their first year and a half, the trio lived off a superfluous Chargex credit card that Loubert received at university, spending up to C$7,500 on it before they reclaimed double that cost as their first ever transaction. Under those conditions, Nelvana was involved in the production of documentaries and live-action films during the early 1970s. In the area of part-time animation work, they made ten C$1,500 fillers for the CBC.
Among the studio's first productions was a low-budget CBC short subject series, Small Star Cinema, which combined live-action and animation to tell stories of ordinary life from a child's point of view. It was followed by Nelvana's first ever television special Christmas Two Step in 1975, a similarly styled special in which a girl tries to be a lead dancer at a Christmas pageant. When Nelvana was founded in 1971, their original goal was to create live-action productions involving animation in them during their early days.
Nelvana worked on their first television specials: A Cosmic Christmas (1977), The Devil and Daniel Mouse (1978), Romie-0 and Julie-8 (1979), Please Don't Eat the Planet (better known by its subtitle, Intergalactic Thanksgiving) (1979), Easter Fever (1980) and Take Me Up to the Ball Game (1980). During that time, George Lucas, an aficionado of their work, commissioned the company to work on a 10-minute sequence for the CBS and CTV TV film, Star Wars Holiday Special in 1978. This short scene, officially entitled "The Faithful Wookiee", would not only feature the original character's voices including Harrison Ford, Mark Hamill, Carrie Fisher, Anthony Daniels and James Earl Jones, but also introduce audiences to the villainous bounty hunter Boba Fett, who would not make his first theatrical appearance until two years later in 1980's The Empire Strikes Back. This first animated appearance created a great buzz around the new character. Nelvana also started to use the polar bear as its mascot.
1980s
At the beginning of the 1980s, Nelvana was offered the chance to work on Heavy Metal, an animated anthology of science fiction stories that studios in Canada and other countries were working on. Nelvana declined this opportunity, instead going on to concentrate on the production of its first feature film, Rock & Rule.
Based heavily on the earlier special The Devil and Daniel Mouse, and originally titled Drats!, the film was produced for five years using all of the studio's resources, totalling $8 million. Upon its release by MGM/UA in 1983, it received little promotion in the U.S. and quickly disappeared at the box office.
The financial demise of Rock & Rule would have ended Nelvana's operations altogether, had the company never saved themselves from debt by working full-time on children's television series. On its agenda at that time were its first three live-action franchises, The Edison Twins, 20 Minute Workout and Mr. Microchip. With DIC Entertainment, Nelvana worked on the first season of Inspector Gadget, and animated the pilot episode of The Get Along Gang.
Early in the decade, the company worked on four television specials based on American Greetings properties. They were The Magic of Herself the Elf, based on Mattel's toy line; Strawberry Shortcake: Housewarming Surprise; Strawberry Shortcake and the Baby Without a Name; and Strawberry Shortcake Meets the Berrykins, the last three of which featured the eponymous doll. There were two shows from Nelvana based on the AmToy properties, Madballs and My Pet Monster.
Despite the successes of their earlier works, perhaps its greatest success at the time came in the form of the Care Bears, thanks to its acquisition of the character rights from American Greetings, the franchise owners. In early 1985, the first film based on the toy line turned the company's assets around, grossing US$23 million in the U.S., and another $1.5 million in its native Canada. Its tremendous success gave way to two more feature films, A New Generation and Adventure in Wonderland, as well as a television series.
In the area of science fiction, Nelvana produced Droids and Ewoks, two Saturday-morning series based on Star Wars. At one point, there was talk of an animated CBS show from the studio, based on BBC's Doctor Who; the plan never came to fruition, but concept art was created by Ted Bastien.
For Orion Pictures' 1986 live-action western comedy, Three Amigos, the company made use of lip-sync animation for a musical sequence in which the main characters sing a song at a campfire, with their horses singing along. In 1987, Michael Hirsh produced Nelvana's first self-made film of this calibre, the comedy feature Burglar, which was the first live-action feature film the company had ever produced.
Also in 1987, the company, along with independent filmmaker Pierre David, film, video, and television production company Malofilm Group, and home video distributor New Star Entertainment, formed Image Organization, an independent production company that mainly specialized in the thriller genre and tied itself to over 100 films in the international market by 1996. Nelvana and New Star would sell their shares in the company to David and Malofilm in 1989.
In 1988, Nelvana and Scholastic Corporation produced a video series of The Video Adventures of Clifford the Big Red Dog based on the 1962 book. It was also distributed by Family Home Entertainment on the video releases.
The company's fourth live-action series, T. and T., premiered in 1988 on Canada's Global network. The show's titular duo was Mr. T of A-Team fame, playing a former boxer named T.S. Turner, and Canadian actress Kristina Nicoll as an East Coast lawyer by the name of Terri Taler. Nelvana faced bankruptcy for the second time when the show's original U.S. distributor was going out of business; in six weeks, they were saved when they found a replacement. Also that year, Nelvana established BearSpots, a facility for producing television commercials that lasted until 1993.
As the decade came to a close, the revived Nelvana had its next big success with a film and an HBO television show based on Jean de Brunhoff's Babar book series. This franchise, its first international co-production, won many ACE Awards in the U.S. and Geminis in Canada. In September 1989, ABC began to air one of the company's products: an animated series based on Tim Burton's Beetlejuice.
1990s
Following Babar's success, the studio acquired the rights to animated series based on Hergé's The Adventures of Tintin, Maurice Sendak's Little Bear, Joanna Cole's The Magic School Bus and the British comic strip Rupert Bear. Nelvana had self-made successes of its own during the 1990s, such as Eek! The Cat, Dog City (with Jim Henson Productions) and Ned's Newt (with TMO Film GmbH). Less successful was its animated series for children, Roseanne Barr's Little Rosey for the American Broadcasting Company, which was cancelled in 1991, after its first season.
In Autumn 1993, Nelvana signed a multi-year project to produce five feature films for Paramount Pictures, with Kathleen Kennedy and Frank Marshall producing; the first two began production the following summer, at a cost of over US$20 million each. Three of the projects were based on books by E. B. White (The Trumpet of the Swan), Clive Barker (The Thief of Always) and Graeme Base (The Sign of the Seahorse); an original production called Mask Vision was also in the works.
However, none of those films ever made it past the finishing stage. During the 1990s, another set of features from Nelvana was distributed by various companies. A 1993 live-action psychological thriller called Malice came out under the Columbia Pictures banner; 1997 saw the studio's retelling of Pippi Longstocking from Warner Bros.; and Babar: King of the Elephants was released in Canada by Alliance Atlantis in 1999. Among them, only Malice would go on to achieve box-office success in North America. Its US$46 million gross was the highest ever attained by a Nelvana production, doubling what the first Care Bears Movie received during its original release.
In 1993, Nelvana along with Galaxy Films and De Souza Productions produced Cadillacs and Dinosaurs for the CBS network, based on the comic book of the same name (formally known as Xenozoic Tales) by Mark Schultz. It only lasted one season.
In September 1995, Nelvana produced Nancy Drew and The Hardy Boys based on the popular well-known book series. Tracy Ryan portrayed Nancy Drew while Colin Gray and Paul Popowich portrayed Frank and Joe Hardy, respectively. In addition, Jehene Erwin and Joy Tanner portrayed Bess Marvin and George Fayne, respectively, on Nancy Drew, while Fiona Highet played new character Kate Craigen. The series were based on The Nancy Drew Files and The Hardy Boys Casefiles. However, the series was not distributed well, mostly due to it being in first-run syndication, and both series were cancelled in December.
In September 1996, Golden Books Family Entertainment was in talks to acquire the company for US$102 million, just after having purchased the family video library of Broadway Video Entertainment, a subsidiary of Broadway Video. Many of the company's staff members, including Smith and Loubert, expressed interest in the proposition. But Hirsh went up against it, arguing with then COO Eleanor Olmsted about its possible effects on his institution. Two months later Golden Books withdrew from the deal stating that they would concentrate more on children's entertainment.
In November 1996, Virgin Interactive released Toonstruck, a PC-based adventure game featuring animation and artwork produced by Nelvana and Rainbow Animation. The game was set in an animated world using traditional 2D animation, but also featured the digitized likeness of actor Christopher Lloyd as a live-action character trapped in the animated world interacting with the cartoon characters around him. A sequel to the game was planned, but was cancelled due to poor sales.
In 1997, a small computer animation company called Windlight Studios was absorbed into Nelvana's assets. Its co-founder, Scott Dyer, became Nelvana's senior vice-president in charge of production in late 2001.
In late 1997, Nelvana and UK's Channel 4 began work on Bob and Margaret, the company's first animated franchise for adults since Rock & Rule. It was based on the National Film Board of Canada's Bob's Birthday, an Academy Award winner for Best Short, which Channel 4 also produced.
In December 1997, Nelvana began distributing a syndicated programming block, the Nelvana Kidz Klub, through MediaVentures International, a Chicago-based distributor. The block was offered internationally on a barter program distribution model with 1–2 hours of daily sections or 3–4 hours of the weekend block.
In 1998, Nelvana entered into an agreement with U.S. network CBS to program a new Saturday morning animation block for the 1998-99 television season, which would be branded as CBS Kidshow. The block would feature six new series based on children's book properties, and all were to comply with the U.S. government's educational programming guidelines. In April 1998, Nelvana entered into an agreement with ITV franchise Scottish Television to co-produce these new series, and hold distribution rights to them in the United Kingdom. In August 1998, Nelvana acquired Kids Can Press, publishers of the Franklin and Elliot Moose children's books upon which the Franklin and Elliot Moose were based. This turned them into an "integrated company" in which Kids Can's subsequent publications would begin with Nelvana's franchising of those works.
The company's first two computer-animated shows, Donkey Kong Country and Rolie Polie Olie (with Paris-based Sparx* and distributed by Disney Channel) premiered on U.S. television in 1998.
In March 1999, Nelvana reported a 75% increase in earnings in 1998, credited to increased original production and sales of its library programming, the deal with CBS, and the addition of a publishing business with the acquisition of Kids Can Press. In August 1999, Nelvana announced a US$40 million deal to produce six new series based on popular children's books for a planned PBS Kids block. The six series—Timothy Goes to School, Seven Little Monsters, Corduroy, Marvin the Tap-Dancing Horse, George Shrinks and Elliot Moose—were launched the following September as part of the Bookworm Bunch line-up. That same month, it acquired the North American rights to its first anime property, Clamp's Cardcaptor Sakura (which was renamed Cardcaptors for its English dub).
2000s
In April 2000, Nelvana announced that it had filed for two category 2 television licenses from the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission to launch digital cable channels. The first, titled "The Nelvana Channel," would've presented the company's library of material alongside related information in a picture-in-picture format. The second, "Booknet," was to be focused on adaptations of adult and children's literature, and would have been a 60/40 joint venture between Corus Entertainment and Nelvana. The channels were approved that following November. Both licenses expired as neither launched by the required date of November 24, 2004.
On April 14, 2000, Nelvana announced its purchase of the Palo Alto-based children's book publisher Klutz in a US$74 million deal—at that time, its largest buyout ever— and integrated it into its Branded Consumer Products division. The company, founded in 1977, was best known for its children's series, Books Plus. Nelvana's separate subsidiary, Kids Can, began taking advantage of the acquisition by making its output available through Klutz merchandise.
In September 2000, Corus announced that it would acquire Nelvana for $540 million. The company saw the purchase as being a complement to its children's television networks, including YTV and Treehouse.
A year after Corus' purchase, co-founders and co-CEOs Loubert and Smith left the studio. Loubert voluntarily left in November after Corus eliminated 50 positions from the staff, saying "The time has come that Corus will stop acquiring for a while and start operating. John Cassaday has made that clear, but this makes my job less rather than more".
In 2001, Nelvana acquired the rights to the English-language version of yet another anime series, Medabots. The following January, Beyblade (in association with Hasbro and Mitsubishi) became its third such property.
In October 2002, Corus announced Hirsh's resignation; the following month, Paul Robertson, former president of Corus Television and head of YTV, became leader of the studio's senior management. With Hirsh's departure, Corus announced a C$200 million writedown for the company; by next August, it planned to reduce the staff down to 200. Hirsh has also taken an advisory role in the studio.
The following September, Corus launched their home entertainment division. Texas-based FUNimation, along with British company Maverick, has distributed titles from the studio with this label, including Redwall, Pecola, Tales from the Cryptkeeper, Timothy Goes to School and the holiday special The Santa Claus Brothers. Nelvana's newer titles have been distributed by MGM, Lionsgate and ADV Films, which have no involvement with the label. In 2007, home video distribution rights for the company's catalog were transferred to Shout! Factory.
In 2004, the studio produced an animation anthology, which included 10 recurring shorts. Titled Funpak, it aired on YTV for 13 weeks starting in February 2005, with the winning short announced to be greenlit in May of that year. One of the shorts, Sidekick, was the one adapted into a successful cartoon series from 2010 to 2013.
In May 2006, NBC Universal announced a joint venture with Nelvana, Ion Media Networks, Scholastic, and Classic Media, known as Qubo, which aimed to operate a multi-platform children's educational television brand in the U.S. featuring programming from its partners.
In September 2006, Nelvana was integrated into Corus' children's television division. A spin-off unit, Nelvana Enterprises, was created in the process, to focus on international distribution of the company's shows. Scott Dyer, the studio's executive vice-president of production and development, became the overseer of the division, which includes Treehouse TV, Discovery Kids Canada, and YTV. Doug Murphy, another former EVP at Nelvana, became president of the new distribution unit.
In October 2006, Nelvana announced a co-production agreement with Canadian toy maker Spin Master and Japanese partners TMS Entertainment, Sega Toys and Japan Vistec to create the new anime property Bakugan Battle Brawlers. The series debuted in Canada on Teletoon the following summer and became a quick success. In 2008, merchandising rights were sold by Nelvana to Cartoon Network in the U.S., and the series began airing on the channel in February 2008. The initial incarnation of the franchise ran for four seasons, spanning 189 episodes and stimulated billions in merchandise sales.
2010s
Following Bakugan, Nelvana entered into another anime co-production, this time reviving the Beyblade property with d-rights, Takara Tomy, Hasbro, Tatsunoko Pro and SynergySP. Beyblade: Metal Fusion debuted globally in 2010, running for 141 episodes before inspiring a direct spin-off, as well as a sub-franchise consisting of BeyWheelz, BeyWarriors: BeyRaiderz and BeyWarriors: Cyborg.
Detentionaire was produced between 2011 and 2015. Created for Teletoon, the show has also been aired internationally, including on ABC3, and has been released on a digital platform provided by Cartoon Network.
In 2012, Corus Entertainment acquired Canadian animation software developer Toon Boom. Nelvana had already used the company's software on projects like 6teen, Ruby Gloom as well as the aforementioned Detentionaire. Going forward, all of the studio's internally animated 2D productions would utilize their sister company's suite of products.
After Murphy had been appointed as CEO of Corus Entertainment, Scott Dyer was named president of Nelvana in 2015. The next year, Pam Westman became head of Nelvana Enterprises.
On October 19, 2016, Nelvana redesigned their logo to mark the studio's 45th anniversary, as well as take part in Corus' brand refresh following latter's acquisition of Shaw Media. According to Dyer, this also symbolized a strategic shift from merchandise-based properties to more creator-driven projects, as well as a return to international co-productions. At that year's MIPCOM, the studio showcased new shows Esme & Roy (with Sesame Workshop), Hotel Transylvania: The Series and Mysticons. Nelvana also presented Bravest Warriors, a pre-existing series from Frederator Studios that they were now producing and Corn & Peg, a co-production with Nickelodeon.
The following October, Nelvana announced the launch of a new joint venture with Discovery Communications to create children's content for Canada, Latin America and the rest of the world. Later named redknot, the division's first two projects include The Dog & Pony Show and Agent Binky: Pets of the Universe.
In 2018, Nelvana appointed Cinedigm as the company's new U.S. home video partner. In late 2018, the company relaunched Bakugan with Bakugan: Battle Planet, a co-production between Nelvana, Spin Master Entertainment, TMS Entertainment and Man of Action Studios.
The studio launched its first short film, The Most Magnificent Thing, in 2019 to showcase its technical abilities. Later that year, Dyer announced his retirement, with Westman named as his replacement.
2020s
In October 2020, Nelvana agreed to co-produce Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go (with Mattel Television), a re-imagined revival of the original Thomas & Friends series, marking the franchise's first 2D-animated television series. That same month, the company entered an agreement with Duncan Studio to produce animated feature films. Nelvana is currently working on even more series.
Franchises
Many of Nelvana's TV shows are based on properties from other companies, most of which started in other forms of media (excluding its namesake superhero, which never received an adaptation of any kind). A great deal of them are based on children's literature and comic books; examples include Blazing Dragons, Stickin' Around, Wayside, The Adventures of Tintin, Anatole, Babar, The Berenstain Bears (2003 version), Franklin the Turtle, Jane and the Dragon, Little Bear, The Magic School Bus, Pippi Longstocking, Redwall, Rupert, My Dad the Rock Star, and the shows of the PBS Kids Bookworm Bunch block, as well as Tales From the Cryptkeeper, Beetlejuice, Jacob Two-Two, Sidekick and Teletoon/Nick Jr.'s Miss Spider's Sunny Patch Friends.
Nelvana has also had considerable success with animated fare based on toys; American Greetings' Care Bears has been the most familiar example of this. Also, there have been series and specials based on Strawberry Shortcake (also from American Greetings), Madballs and My Pet Monster (from AmToy) and Rescue Heroes (from Fisher-Price). Nelvana also produced Fresh Beat Band of Spies, an animated revival of The Fresh Beat Band that is produced by 6 Point Harness for Nickelodeon.
It has also translated big-screen franchises to televised properties, such as Star Wars (Droids and Ewoks), Beetlejuice, An American Tail (Fievel's American Tails), Free Willy and The Neverending Story. It has even ventured into the video game world with a show based on Nintendo's Donkey Kong in Donkey Kong Country.
In the field of anime, the company holds the North American rights to Clamp/Kodansha's Cardcaptor Sakura series. Also, it holds international licensing rights to Beyblade and Medabots and the Bakugan franchise.
As with many other animation studios, Nelvana has a wide range of established original series and characters within its roster. 6teen, Clone High, Birdz, Corn & Peg and Eek! The Cat among others, are some of Nelvana's more notable animated series that were not based on any other source material.
, the studio has made close to 25 feature films for theatrical, home entertainment, and television distribution. Well-known releases include Rock & Rule, the first five Care Bears movies, two Babar films and 1997's Pippi Longstocking.
Live-action has been a part of its mainstay from its early years. The company has had Burglar and Malice as its own feature projects in that area, and has contributed as such to Star Wars Holiday Special and Three Amigos. On television, Nelvana has made live-action shows such as The Edison Twins, Nancy Drew, The Hardy Boys, and Life with Boys.
On April 29, 2015 they launched a YouTube channel promoted by YTV as Nelvana Retro, which was renamed "YTV Direct" in 2016 after also deciding to incorporate non-Nelvana content such as Nickelodeon shows. It was later renamed Keep it Weird to incorporate more content from the company.
Around the world
The Fairly OddParents, created by animator Butch Hartman, was distributed by Nelvana outside the U.S. from 2001 to 2004. This show has been in the top of the ratings for Nickelodeon, YTV and the BBC, and has also been successful among viewers in several European markets, Latin America and Australia, Canada.
In the United States, Nelvana's series have been broadcast on terrestrial and cable networks, and internationally on over 360 television stations in more 180 countries, in approximately 50 languages.
Notable personnel
Apart from its three founders, there have been several key personnel from Nelvana's past and present, a great deal of whom have left the company. Among the better-known people to work in the studio are Bill Perkins, John de Klein, Wayne Gilbert, John Halfpenny, Peter Hudecki, Vincenzo Natali, Arna Selznick, Laura Shepherd, Kim Cleary, Natalie Turner, Susan Snooks, and John van Bruggen.
Eight former Nelvana employees, Roger Allers, Charles Bonifacio, Darlie Brewster, Anne Marie Bardwell, Tom Sito, Ralph Palmer, David Soren, Mark Koetsier, Andrew Hickson, Dick Zondag and Ralph Zondag, went on to become staff members at Walt Disney Feature Animation and DreamWorks Animation in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s. Allers went on to work on Aladdin, The Lion King, and Hercules. Lenora Hume, from the company's early years, is the senior vice-president of DisneyToon Studios.
Influence in popular culture
Star Trek: The Next Generation season 3 episode The Defector featured the planet Nelvana III named in honor of the animation studio.
Nelvana also had a planet named after it in the Star Wars series, on Cartoon Network's expanded universe series Clone Wars. During Chapters 23 to 25, Anakin Skywalker travels to a planet called Nelvaan. Clone Wars also pays homage to the franchise's animation predecessors in the form of the planet's dog-like inhabitants, who resemble characters from Rock & Rule, the studio's first film.
The "Nelvana Independent Short Film Grand Prize", given out at the Ottawa International Animation Festival since 2004, is sponsored by the company. So far, the recipients of this prize have been 2004's Ryan, the Chris Landreth biography about Canadian animator Ryan Larkin; 2005's Milch, from director Igor Kovalyov; and, in 2006, Joanna Quinn's Dreams and Desires: Family Ties.
See also
Cinema of Canada
History of Canadian film
History of Canadian animation
List of Nelvana programs
Related Canadian companies
National Film Board of Canada
Cookie Jar Group (formerly Cinar, bought and folded into DHX Media in 2012)
CinéGroupe
Atkinson Film-Arts (defunct since 1989)
WildBrain
C.O.R.E. (defunct since 2010)
Notes
References
Bibliography
Stoffman, Daniel (2001). The Nelvana Story: Thirty Animated Years. Toronto, Ontario: Nelvana Publishing Company ().
External links
Stamp of the superheroine after whom the company was named
"Three Men and a bear: Nelvana at 25" by Ellen Besen and Marc Glassman, Take One (Autumn 1996) at LookSmart's Find Articles
Canadian Jewish News: "Nelvana has found the formula for success" by Sheldon Kirshner
1971 establishments in Ontario
Canadian companies established in 1971
2000 mergers and acquisitions
American animation studios
Canadian animation studios
Companies based in Toronto
Mass media companies established in 1971
Topcraft
Dubbing (filmmaking)
Television production companies of Canada
Lucasfilm
Corus Entertainment subsidiaries
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia%20Neal
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Patricia Neal
|
Patricia Neal (born Patsy Louise Neal, January 20, 1926 – August 8, 2010) was an American actress of stage and screen. A major star of the 1950s and 60s, she was the recipient of an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, and two British Academy Film Awards, and was nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards. Her most popular film roles were: World War II widow Helen Benson in The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951), radio journalist Marcia Jeffries in A Face in the Crowd (1957), wealthy matron Emily Eustace Failenson in Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961), and the worn-out housekeeper Alma Brown in Hud (1963), for which she won the Academy Award for Best Actress. She featured as the matriarch in the television film The Homecoming: A Christmas Story (1971); her role as Olivia Walton was re-cast for the series it inspired, The Waltons.
Early life and education
Neal was born in Packard, Whitley County, Kentucky, to William Burdette Neal and Eura Mildred (née Petrey) Neal. She had two siblings.
Neal grew up in Knoxville, Tennessee, where she attended Knoxville High School, and studied drama at Northwestern, where she was a member of Pi Beta Phi sorority. At Northwestern, she was crowned Syllabus Queen in a campus-wide beauty pageant.
Career
Neal gained her first job in New York as an understudy in the Broadway production of the John Van Druten play The Voice of the Turtle. Next, she appeared in Lillian Hellman's Another Part of the Forest (1946), winning the 1947 Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play, in the first presentation of the Tony awards.
Neal made her film debut with Ronald Reagan in John Loves Mary, followed by another role with Reagan in The Hasty Heart, and then The Fountainhead (all 1949). The shooting of the last film coincided with her affair with her married co-star, Gary Cooper, with whom she worked again in Bright Leaf (1950).
Neal starred with John Garfield in The Breaking Point (1950), in The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) with Michael Rennie, and in Operation Pacific (also 1951) starring John Wayne. She suffered a nervous breakdown around this time, following the end of her relationship with Cooper, and left Hollywood for New York, returning to Broadway in 1952 for a revival of The Children's Hour. In 1955, she starred in Edith Sommer's A Roomful of Roses, staged by Guthrie McClintic.
While in New York, Neal became a member of the Actors Studio. Based on connections with other members, she subsequently co-starred in the film A Face in the Crowd (1957, directed by Elia Kazan), the play The Miracle Worker (1959, directed by Arthur Penn), the film Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961), and the film Hud (1963), directed by Martin Ritt and starring Paul Newman. During the same period, she appeared on television in an episode of The Play of the Week (1960), featuring an Actors Studio-dominated cast in a double bill of plays by August Strindberg, and in a British production of Clifford Odets' Clash by Night (1959), which co-starred one of the first generation of Actors Studio members, Nehemiah Persoff.
Neal won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in Hud (1963), co-starring with Paul Newman. When the film was initially released it was predicted she would be a nominee in the supporting actress category, but when she began collecting awards, they were always for Best Actress, from the New York Film Critics, the National Board of Review and a BAFTA award from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.
Neal was re-united with John Wayne in Otto Preminger's In Harm's Way (1965), winning her second BAFTA Award. Her next film was The Subject Was Roses (1968), for which she was nominated for an Academy Award. She starred as the matriarch in the television film The Homecoming: A Christmas Story (1971), which inspired the television series The Waltons; she won a Golden Globe for her performance. In a 1999 interview with the Archive of American Television, Waltons creator Earl Hamner said he and producers were unsure if Neal's health would allow her to commit to the schedule of a weekly television series; so, instead, they cast Michael Learned in the role of Olivia Walton. Neal played a dying widowed mother trying to find a home for her three children in an episode of NBC's Little House on the Prairie broadcast in 1975.
Neal appeared in a series of television commercials in the 1970s, notably for pain relief medicine Anacin and Maxim instant coffee.
Neal played the title role in Robert Altman's movie Cookie's Fortune (1999). She worked on Silvana Vienne's movie Beyond Baklava: The Fairy Tale Story of Sylvia's Baklava (2007), appearing as herself in the portions of the documentary talking about alternative ways to end violence in the world. In the same year as the film's release, Neal received one of two annually-presented Lifetime Achievement Awards at the SunDeis Film Festival in Waltham, Massachusetts. (Academy Award nominee Roy Scheider was the recipient of the other.)
Having won a Tony Award in their inaugural year (1947) and eventually becoming the last surviving winner from that first ceremony, Neal often appeared as a presenter in later years. Her original Tony was lost, so she was given a surprise replacement by Bill Irwin when they were about to present the 2006 Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play to Cynthia Nixon. In April 2009, Neal received a lifetime achievement award from WorldFest Houston on the occasion of the debut of her film, Flying By. Neal was a long-term actress with Philip Langner's Theatre at Sea/Sail With the Stars productions with the Theatre Guild. In her final years she appeared in a number of health-care videos.
Neal was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame in 2003. She was a subject of the British television show This Is Your Life in 1978 when she was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at a cocktail party on London's Park Lane.
Personal life
During the filming of The Fountainhead (1949), Neal began an affair with her married co-star Gary Cooper, whom she had met in 1947 when she was 21 and he was 46. At one point in their relationship, Cooper hit her in the face after he caught Kirk Douglas trying to seduce her. During this time, she was a Democrat who supported the campaign of Adlai Stevenson during the 1952 presidential election.
Neal met British writer Roald Dahl at a dinner party hosted by Lillian Hellman in 1952, while Dahl was living in New York. They married on July 2, 1953 at Trinity Church in New York. The marriage produced five children.
Olivia Twenty (1955–1962);
Chantal Sophia "Tessa" (born 1957), who became an author, and mother of author, cookbook writer and former model Sophie Dahl
Theo Matthew (born 1960);
Ophelia Magdalena (born 1964);
Lucy Neal (born 1965).
On December 5, 1960, their son Theo, four months old, suffered brain damage when his baby carriage was struck by a taxicab in New York City. In May 1961, the family returned to Gipsy House in Great Missenden, Buckinghamshire, where Theo continued his rehabilitation. Neal described the two years of family life during Theo's recovery as one of the most beautiful periods of her life. However, on November 17, 1962, their daughter Olivia died at age 7 from measles encephalitis. The story of Olivia's death and how Neal and Dahl coped with the tragedy was dramatized in 2020 as a made-for-TV movie To Olivia.
Neal was a heavy smoker. She suffered three burst cerebral aneurysms while pregnant in 1965 and was in a coma for three weeks. Variety magazine ran an obituary, but she survived with the assistance of Dahl and a number of volunteers who developed a gruelling style of therapy which fundamentally changed the way that stroke patients were treated. This period of their lives was dramatised in the television film The Patricia Neal Story (1981), in which the couple were played by Glenda Jackson and Dirk Bogarde. She subsequently relearned to walk and talk and gave birth to a healthy daughter on August 4, 1965. After her recovery, she was nominated for an Oscar for her 1968 performance in The Subject Was Roses.
Neal's marriage ended in divorce in 1983, and she returned to live in the US. In her autobiography, As I Am (1988), Neal wrote: "A strong positive mental attitude will create more miracles than any wonder drug.".
Legacy
In 1978, Fort Sanders Regional Medical Center in Knoxville dedicated the Patricia Neal Rehabilitation Center in her honor. The center provides intense treatment for stroke, spinal cord, and brain injury patients. It serves as part of Neal's advocacy for paralysis victims. She regularly visited the center in Knoxville, providing encouragement to its patients and staff. Neal appeared as the center's spokeswoman in advertisements until her death.
Death
Neal died at her home in Edgartown, Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, on August 8, 2010, from lung cancer. She was 84 years old.
She had become a Catholic four months before she died and was buried in the Abbey of Regina Laudis in Bethlehem, Connecticut, where the actress Dolores Hart, her friend since the early 1960s, had become a nun and ultimately prioress. Neal had been a longtime supporter of the abbey's open-air theatre and arts program.
Filmography
Film
Television
Stage
Bibliography
References
External links
Patricia Neal papers at the University of Wisconsin's Actors Studio Audio collection
Patricia Neal profile at Allmovie
Patricia Neal interview on BBC Radio 4 Desert Island Discs, August 19, 1988
1926 births
2010 deaths
Actresses from Kentucky
Actresses from Tennessee
American expatriates in the United Kingdom
American film actresses
American television actresses
American health activists
Best Foreign Actress BAFTA Award winners
Best Actress Academy Award winners
Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (television) winners
Deaths from cancer in Massachusetts
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism
Deaths from lung cancer
Donaldson Award winners
Northwestern University School of Communication alumni
People from Knoxville, Tennessee
People from Whitley County, Kentucky
Tony Award winners
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Warner Bros. contract players
People from Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts
Dahl family
Kentucky Democrats
Tennessee Democrats
California Democrats
Massachusetts Democrats
Catholics from Massachusetts
Catholics from Tennessee
Catholics from Kentucky
|
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] |
210216
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20L-Shaped%20Room
|
The L-Shaped Room
|
The L-Shaped Room is a 1962 British kitchen sink drama film directed by Bryan Forbes, based on the 1960 novel of the same name by Lynne Reid Banks. It tells the story of Jane Fosset (Leslie Caron), a young French woman, unmarried and pregnant, who moves into a London boarding house, befriending a young man, Toby (Tom Bell), in the building. The work is considered part of the kitchen sink realism school of British drama.
Caron's performance earned her the Golden Globe Award and BAFTA Award for best actress, as well as a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress.
Synopsis
A 27-year-old French woman, Jane Fosset (Caron), arrives alone at a run down boarding house in Notting Hill, London, moving into an L-shaped room. Beautiful but withdrawn, she encounters the residents of her house, each a social outsider in his or her own way, including a gay black horn player.
Jane is pregnant and has no desire to marry the father. On her first visit to a doctor, she wants to find out if she really is pregnant and consider her options. The doctor's facile assumption that she must want either marriage or an abortion insults her to the extent that Jane determines to have the child. She and Toby (Bell) start a romance, which is disrupted when he learns that she is pregnant by a previous lover. They try to work things out, but he is also unhappy with his lack of income or success as a writer.
Jane befriends the other residents and they help her when she goes into labour. Toby visits her in the hospital and gives her a copy of his new book, called The L-Shaped Room. After leaving the hospital, Jane journeys home to her parents in France, saying goodbye to the room where she has lived for seven months.
Cast
Leslie Caron as Jane Fosset
Tom Bell as Toby
Brock Peters as Johnny
Cicely Courtneidge as Mavis
Bernard Lee as Charlie
Patricia Phoenix as Sonia
Emlyn Williams as Dr. Weaver
Avis Bunnage as Doris
Gerry Duggan as Bert
Mark Eden as Terry
Antony Booth as youth in street
Harry Locke as newsagent
Gerald Sim as doctor in hospital
Nanette Newman as girl at end
Music
Peter Katin's recording of Johannes Brahms's Piano Concerto No. 1 in D minor, Op. 15 is used as the background music, and excerpts occur frequently throughout the film. The original film score was composed by John Barry.
Popular culture
A recording of the song "Take Me Back to Dear Old Blighty" sung in the film was sampled at the beginning of the title track of the album The Queen Is Dead by The Smiths.
Critical reception
In The New York Times, Bosley Crowther wrote "[Leslie Caron] pours into this role so much powerful feeling, so much heart and understanding, that she imbues a basically threadbare little story with tremendous compassion and charm.The credit, however, is not all Miss Caron's. She must share it with an excellent cast, including Tom Bell, a new actor who plays the writer on a par with her. Particularly she must share it with the remarkable young director Bryan Forbes, who also wrote the screenplay from a novel by Lynne Reid Banks. Mr Forbes is a sometime actor whose first directorial job was last year's beautiful and sensitive Whistle Down the Wind. In this little picture, he has achieved much the same human quality, with shadings of spiritual devotion, as in that."
Awards
Nominee, Best Actress – Academy Awards (Leslie Caron)
Winner, Best Actress – Golden Globes (Leslie Caron)
Winner, Best Actress – BAFTA (Leslie Caron)
Nominee, Best Picture – BAFTA (Richard Attenborough, Jack Rix, John and James Woolf)
Selected, Top Ten Films of Year – National Board of Review
Nominee, Best Actress – New York Film Critics Circle (Leslie Caron)
References
External links
1962 films
1962 drama films
1960s pregnancy films
British black-and-white films
British drama films
British films
British Lion Films films
British pregnancy films
1960s English-language films
Films about abortion
Films based on British novels
Films directed by Bryan Forbes
Films featuring a Best Drama Actress Golden Globe-winning performance
Films produced by Richard Attenborough
Films scored by John Barry (composer)
Films set in London
Self-reflexive works
Social realism in film
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] |
210219
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irma%20la%20Douce
|
Irma la Douce
|
Irma la Douce (, "Irma the Sweet") is a 1963 American romantic comedy film directed by Billy Wilder, starring Jack Lemmon and Shirley MacLaine, and written by Wilder and I.A.L. Diamond based upon the 1956 French stage musical Irma La Douce by Marguerite Monnot and Alexandre Breffort.
Plot
Nestor Patou, an honest cop, has been transferred from the Bois de Boulogne to a more urban neighborhood in Paris. He finds a street full of prostitutes working at the Hotel Casanova and raids the place. The inspector fires Nestor, who is mistakenly framed for bribery.
Kicked off the force and humiliated, Nestor finds himself drawn to the very neighborhood that ended his career with the Paris police - returning to Chez Moustache, a popular tavern for prostitutes and pimps. Down on his luck, Nestor befriends Irma la Douce, a popular prostitute. He reluctantly accepts, as a confidante, the proprietor of Chez Moustache, a man known only as Moustache. In a running joke, Moustache tells of a storied prior life, claiming to have been, among other things, an attorney, a colonel in the Foreign Legion, and a doctor who worked with Albert Schweitzer in Africa, ending with the repeated line, "but that's another story". After saving Irma from her abusive pimp, Hippolyte, Nestor moves in with her, and unwittingly becomes Irma's new pimp.
Nestor becomes infatuated and cooks up a plan to derail Irma’s life as a prostitute. Using a disguise, he invents an alter-ego, Lord X, a British lord, who becomes Irma's sole client. Lord X has supposedly been rendered impotent by his service in World War II but is eager to support her in exchange for two visits each week. To pay for Lord X’s exclusive access, Nestor works in the marketplace. Away every night and too tired to make love, Irma thinks he is having an affair.
Irma seduces Lord X and persuades him to take her to England. At that point, Nestor decides to end the charade and kill off his alter ego. Unaware he is being tailed by Hippolyte, he tosses his disguise into the Seine. Seeing Lord X's clothes floating in the water, Hippolyte concludes Nestor murdered him.
Arrested and sent to prison, Nestor escapes when he finds out that Irma is pregnant. He narrowly avoids being recaptured when the police search for him at the apartment; donning his old uniform, Nestor blends in with the other police and eludes capture.
With the help of Hippolyte, Nestor arranges for the police to search for him along the Seine from which, dressed as Lord X, he emerges. Vindicated of the murder, Nestor and Irma agree to get married. At the church, Irma goes into labor and has their baby. Moustache identifies the real Lord X as a guest. As Lord X leaves, a clearly baffled Moustache looks at the audience.
Cast
Production
The film was conceived as Marilyn Monroe's vehicle in 1962. The project would have reunited her with Wilder and Lemmon, both of whom had worked with her on Some Like It Hot. After Monroe's death, Shirley MacLaine was cast in the film after starring in The Apartment. MacLaine was paid $350,000 plus a percentage.
Reception
The film was a hit, grossing $25,246,588 worldwide on a budget of $5 million. It was the fifth highest-grossing film of 1963, earning an estimated $12 million in North America. Irma la Douce earned over $15 million in worldwide rentals, but because of profit participation for Wilder and the two stars, United Artists only made a profit of $440,000 during the film's theatrical run.
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times called it "a brisk and bubbly film" with Lemmon "little short of brilliant" and MacLaine having "a wonderously casual and candid air that sweeps indignation before it and leaves one sweetly enamoured of her." Variety praised the "scintillating performances" by Lemmon and MacLaine but thought that the film "lacks the originality of some of Wilder's recent efforts" and that the 147-minute running time was "an awfully long haul for a frivolous farce." Philip K. Scheuer of the Los Angeles Times reported that "I found it a brilliant, though outrageously outspoken comedy." Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post panned the film as "overblown and overlong, two hours and three quarters tediously spent on a single joke." The Monthly Film Bulletin wrote, "Though the film stretches for two and a third hours, and rarely ventures away from the two principals and the studio-built Rue Casanova, the humour and spontaneity endure surprisingly well ... most credit goes to Shirley MacLaine and Jack Lemmon for yet another tour de force of comedy playing." The film gave 76% ratings on Rotten Tomatoes based on 21 reviews.
Accolades
Soundtrack
All compositions by André Previn, using themes by Marguerite Monnot.
"Main Title" 2:14
"Meet Irma" 1:42
"This Is the Story" 3:16
"Nestor the Honest Policeman" 1:54
"Our Language of Love" 2:04
"Don't Take All Night" 5:43
"The Market" 6:28
"Easy Living the Hard Way" 3:16
"Escape" 2:13
"Wedding Ring" 1:35
"The Return of Lord X" 1:24
"In the Tub with Fieldglasses" 2:27
"Goodbye Lord X" 3:17
"I'm Sorry Irma" 1:38
"Juke Box: Let's Pretend Love" 3:07
"Juke Box: Look Again" 2:16
"But That's Another Story" 0:38
The film also features an a cappella enticement song set to the tune of Alouette.
Remakes
Irma la Douce was remade for French television in 1972.
The film was remade in Turkey as Kırmızı Fener Sokağı in 1968
The film was remade in India as the controversial film Manoranjan with Sanjeev Kumar and Zeenat Aman, reprising the roles of Jack Lemmon and Shirley MacLaine respectively.
Others
In 1968, the Egyptian movie Afrit Mirati (My Wife's Goblin) starring Shadia and Salah Zulfikar contained a soundtrack titled Irma la Douce performed by Shadia. The Egyptian film خمسة باب (khamsa bab) was based on the story in Irma La Douce, with Nadia El Guindy playing the part of Tragy, the Egyptian Irma character.
See also
List of American films of 1963
References
External links
1963 films
1963 romantic comedy films
1960s sex comedy films
American films
American romantic comedy films
American sex comedy films
1960s English-language films
Films about prostitution in Paris
Films based on musicals
Films directed by Billy Wilder
Films featuring a Best Musical or Comedy Actress Golden Globe winning performance
Films scored by André Previn
Films set in Paris
Films that won the Best Original Score Academy Award
Films with screenplays by Billy Wilder
Films with screenplays by I. A. L. Diamond
United Artists films
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel%20Roberts%20%28actress%29
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Rachel Roberts (actress)
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Rachel Roberts (20 September 192726 November 1980) was a Welsh actress. She is best remembered for her screen performances as the older mistress of the central male character in Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960) and This Sporting Life (1963). For both films, she won the BAFTA Award for Best British Actress. She was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for This Sporting Life. Her other notable film appearances included Murder on the Orient Express (1974), Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975) and Yanks (1979).
Roberts' theatre credits included the original production of the musical Maggie May in 1964. She was nominated for the 1974 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for the plays, Chemin de Fer and The Visit, and won a Drama Desk Award in 1976 for Habeas Corpus.
Early life and career
Roberts was born in Llanelli, Carmarthenshire, Wales. After a Baptist upbringing (against which she rebelled), followed by study at the University of Wales and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, she began working with a repertory company in Swansea in 1950. She made her film debut in the Welsh-set comedy Valley of Song (1953), directed by Gilbert Gunn.
Her portrayal of Brenda in Karel Reisz's Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960) won her a British Academy Film Award. Lindsay Anderson cast her as the suffering Mrs Hammond in This Sporting Life (1963), earning another BAFTA and an Oscar nomination. Both films were significant examples of the British New Wave of film-making.
In theatre, she performed at the Royal Court and played the title role as the life-enhancing tart in Lionel Bart's musical Maggie May (1964). In films, she continued to play women with lusty appetites as in Lindsay Anderson's O Lucky Man! (1973), although the haunting Australian-made Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975), directed by Peter Weir, provided her with a different kind of role, as the authoritarian head teacher of a Victorian girls' school.
After relocating to Los Angeles in the early 1970s, she appeared in supporting roles in several American films such as Foul Play (1978). Her final British film was Yanks (1979), directed by John Schlesinger, for which she received a Supporting Actress BAFTA.
In 1976, she won a Drama Desk Award for her performance in Alan Bennett's play Habeas Corpus.
In 1979, Roberts co-starred with Jill Bennett in the London Weekend Television production of Alan Bennett's The Old Crowd, directed by Lindsay Anderson and Stephen Frears.
Personal life
Roberts was married twice and had no children. She first married actor Alan Dobie in 1955. They divorced in 1960. The following year, Roberts married actor Rex Harrison in Genoa, Italy. The marriage was tumultuous; Roberts and Harrison both drank excessively and engaged in public fights. Harrison later left Roberts and they divorced in 1971. Later that year, Harrison married British socialite Elizabeth Rees-Williams, Roberts's former best friend.
Roberts was known in the entertainment industry for the eccentric behaviour that stemmed from her alcoholism. She had a habit of imitating a Welsh Corgi when intoxicated and once, at a party thrown by Richard Harris, attacked actor Robert Mitchum on all fours, chewing his trousers and chomping on his bare skin, while he patted her on the head, saying "there, there". At the time of her death, Roberts was living on and off with Darren Ramirez, an attractive Mexican almost 20 years younger, but it was a largely platonic relationship and her last years were plagued by the obsession of winning back Harrison.
Death
Roberts was devastated by her divorce from Rex Harrison, and her alcoholism and depression worsened.
She moved to Hollywood in 1975 and tried to forget the relationship. In 1980, Roberts attempted to win Harrison back. The attempt proved futile as Harrison was then married to his sixth and final wife, Mercia Tinker.
On 26 November 1980, Roberts died at her home in Los Angeles at the age of 53. Her death was initially attributed to a heart attack. Her gardener found her body on her kitchen floor, lying amidst shards of glass; she had fallen through a decorative glass divide between two rooms. An autopsy later determined that her death was a result of swallowing lye or another alkali, or another unidentified caustic substance, as well as barbiturates and alcohol, as detailed in her posthumously published journals. The corrosive effect of the alkali was the immediate cause of death. The coroner documented the cause of death as "swallowing a caustic substance" and, later, "acute barbiturate intoxication." Her death was ruled a suicide.
Roberts was cremated at the Chapel of the Pines Crematory in Los Angeles. Her journals became the basis for No Bells on Sunday: The Memoirs of Rachel Roberts (1984).
In 1992, Roberts's ashes, along with those of her friend Jill Bennett (who took her own life in 1990), were scattered on the River Thames in London by director Lindsay Anderson during a boat trip, with several of the two actresses' professional colleagues and friends aboard; musician Alan Price sang "Is That All There Is?" The event was included as a segment in Anderson's BBC documentary film, also titled Is That All There Is?
Filmography
References
External links
Rachel Roberts born in Llanelli Llanelli Community Heritage
1927 births
1980 suicides
20th-century Welsh actresses
Alumni of the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art
Alumni of the University of Wales
Burials at Chapel of the Pines Crematory
Best British Actress BAFTA Award winners
Best Supporting Actress BAFTA Award winners
Drama Desk Award winners
Drug-related suicides in California
Barbiturates-related deaths
Former Baptists
People from Llanelli
Welsh expatriates in the United States
Welsh film actresses
Welsh television actresses
Welsh stage actresses
Alcohol-related deaths in California
1980 deaths
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower%20Canada%20Rebellion
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Lower Canada Rebellion
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The Lower Canada Rebellion (), commonly referred to as the Patriots' War () in French, is the name given to the armed conflict in 1837–38 between rebels and the colonial government of Lower Canada (now southern Quebec). Together with the simultaneous rebellion in the neighbouring colony of Upper Canada (now southern Ontario), it formed the Rebellions of 1837–38 ().
As a result of the rebellions, the Province of Canada was created from the former Lower Canada and Upper Canada.
History
The rebellion had been preceded by nearly three decades of efforts at political reform in Lower Canada, led from the early 1800s by James Stuart and Louis-Joseph Papineau, who formed the Parti patriote and sought accountability from the elected general assembly and the appointed governor of the colony. After the Constitutional Act 1791, Lower Canada could elect a House of Assembly, which led to the rise of two parties: the English Party and the Canadian Party. The English Party was mostly composed of the English merchants and bourgeoisie and had the support of bureaucrats and the old seigneurial families. The Canadian Party was formed by aristocrats, French or English. The Catholic Church did not openly advocate for any political party but tended to support the English party. With the power in the hand of the population, the French-Canadian business class needed support from the population more than from the British business class. The population being mostly French-Canadian in Lower Canada, most of those elected at the House of Assembly were French-speaking and supported the French-Canadian business class. The House of Assembly gave an illusion of power to French-Canadians, but the Executive and Legislative Councils advised the governor, who could veto any legislation. Both councils were made of people chosen by the English party. The appointed legislative council was dominated by a small group of businessmen known as the Château Clique, the equivalent of the Family Compact in Upper Canada.
In the early 19th century the economy of Lower Canada changed drastically. Lumber started to be more important than the fur trade or agriculture, which caused fear for those working in the fields. Activists in Lower Canada began to work for reform in a period of economic disfranchisement of the French-speaking majority and working-class English-speaking citizens. The rebellion opposed the injustice of colonial governing as such in which the governor and the upper house of the legislature were appointed by the Crown. Many of its leaders and participants were English-speaking citizens of Lower Canada. French-speakers felt that English-speakers were disproportionately represented in the lucrative fields of banking, the timber trade, and transportation.
In 1807–12, Sir James Henry Craig was governor. He encountered multiple crises. He called elections three times in 16 months because he was not satisfied with the people elected even they were the same each time. Craig thought that the Canadian Party and its supporters wanted a French-Canadian republic. He also feared that if the United States tried to invade Lower Canada, the Canadian Party would collaborate. In 1810, Craig imprisoned journalists working for the newspaper Le Canadien. Pierre-Stanislas Bédard, the leader of the Canadian Party and editor of the newspaper, was put in jail. That created a crisis in the party about who would be in the leadership.
During the War of 1812 many rumours circulated in the colony of a possible invasion. The French-Canadians were dependent on the protection of Britain, which created a certain unity in the colony during wartime.
At the same time, some among the English-speaking business elite advocated a union of Upper and Lower Canada to ensure competitiveness on a national scale with the increasingly-large and powerful economy of the United States (some rebels had been inspired by the success of the American War of Independence). Unification of the colony was favoured by the British-appointed governor, George Ramsey, Earl of Dalhousie. In Lower Canada, the growing sense of nationalism among English- and the French-speaking citizens was organized into the Parti canadien, which, after 1826, was called the parti patriote.
In 1811, James Stuart became leader of the Parti canadien in the assembly, and in 1815, reformer Louis-Joseph Papineau was elected as its speaker in Lower Canada. The elected assembly had little power since its decisions could be vetoed by both the legislative council and the governor, all of whom were appointed by the British government. Dalhousie and Papineau were soon at odds over the issue of uniting the Canadas. Dalhousie forced an election in 1827, rather than accept Papineau as assembly speaker. Dalhousie mistakenly hoped that the elected members would change and then decided to prorogue the parliament. The population reacted by sending a petition signed by 87,000 people to London against Dalhousie. Reformers in England had Dalhousie reassigned to India, but the legislative council and the assembly were still unable to reach a compromise.
From 1828 to 1832, there was a brief calm, and the assembly was able to pass several important laws. In 1832, the Patriote newspapers published controversial articles about the Legislative Council, and both heads of the newspapers got arrested. That created a huge tension in the population against the British government, especially when the army shot three people in a crowd during the elections of 1832 and nobody was arrested.
After hearing about the 99 grievances submitted by Robert Gourlay, Papineau wrote the "Ninety-two Resolutions" while he was secretly co-ordinating with Upper Canada. After protestors were shot in Montreal in 1832, Papineau had to submit the list of "resolutions" to the governor himself. The document that was presented to the House of Assembly on January 7, 1834 and had 92 demands to the British government. By 1834, the assembly had passed the Ninety-two Resolutions, outlining its grievances against the legislative council. The goal was to group all together, in a single document, the people's grievances. It was addressed to the British government to tell it the problems of the colony. The Patriotes were supported by an overwhelming majority of Lower Canada's population of all origins. There were popular gatherings all around the colony to sign a petition that was sent to London to show that the document was popular. In 1834, the Parti patriote swept the election by gaining more than three quarters of the popular vote.
When London received the resolutions, they asked Governor Lord Gosford to analyze it. At first, he was trying to attract the Patriotes away from Papineau and his influence. However, the same governor created a loyal militia made of volunteers to fight the Patriotes. In 1836, the government was able to vote some subsidies to the administration during the assembly because the assembly members from the City of Quebec decided to go against Papineau. The period of calm did not last long because a month later, Papineau found Gosford's secret instructions, which said that the British never planned on accepting the resolutions.
However, the reformers in Lower Canada were divided over several issues. A moderate reformer, John Neilson, had quit the party in 1830 and joined the Constitutional Association four years later. Papineau's anticlerical position alienated reformers in the Catholic Church, and his support for secular, rather than religious, schools resulted in opposition by the powerful Bishop, Jean-Jacques Lartigue, who called on all Catholics to reject the reform movement and to support the authorities, forcing many to choose between their religion and their political convictions.
In 1837, the Russell resolutions rejected all of the Patriotes' resolutions and gave the right to the governor to take subsidies without voting in the assembly. It also said that the legislative council would continue to be chosen by the Crown. The Russell Resolutions were adopted in Westminster by a huge majority.
Organizing for armed conflict
Papineau continued to push for reform. He petitioned the British government but, in March 1837, the government of Lord Melbourne rejected all of Papineau's requests. After the Russel Resolutions were announced, the Patriotes used their newspapers to organize popular gatherings, to inform people. For example, they encouraged people to boycott British products and to import illegal products from the United States. The gatherings took place all around Lower Canada, and thousands participated. Papineau attended most gatherings in the summer of 1837, to ensure that people would pressure the government only by political measures, such as the boycott of the British products. Governor Gosford tried to forbid those gatherings but they were attended even by those loyal to him. At the end of the summer, many of Gosford's local representatives quit, to show support for the Patriotes. Gosford hired loyal people and tried to gain the Patriotes' trust by appointing seven French-Canadian members to the Legislative Assembly. In September and October 1837, a group of more radical Patriotes tried to intimidate the British government by going out into the street and breaking things around the houses of certain loyal people. At the end of October, the largest of the Patriotes' gatherings took place in Saint-Charles and was led by Wolfred Nelson. It lasted for two days and formed La Confédération des Six-Comtés. Papineau organized protests and assemblies and eventually approved formation of the paramilitary Société des Fils de la Liberté during the assemblée des six-comtés.
In the last speech by Papineau before the armed conflict, he said that it is not the time to fight yet. He thought that there was still actions to take on the political side before fighting. Wolfred Nelson made a speech right afterward that said that he disagreed with Papineau and thought that it was time to fight. After the Assemblée des Six-Comtés, the Patriotes were divided because some supported Papineau and others supported Nelson. On the other side, the supporters of the Russell Resolutions, called Constitutional Association led by Peter McGill and John Molson, also held gatherings around the province and wanted the army to return order to the colony.
On November 6, 1837, Les Fils de la Liberté were having a gathering in Montréal, when the Doric Club began fighting with them. That caused violence and vandalism everywhere in the city of Montreal. Arrest warrants were then issued for those responsible for the fight, which they considered to be the leaders of the Assemblée des Six-Comtés. The first armed conflict occurred in 1837 when the 26 members of the Patriotes who had been charged with illegal activities chose to resist their arrest by the authorities under the direction of John Colborne. Arrest warrants against Papineau and other assembly members were issued. They left Montréal and hid in the country. Papineau escaped to the United States, and other rebels organized in the countryside.
On November 16, Constable Malo was sent to arrest three Patriotes. He transported them from Saint-Jean, accompanied by 15 people. The prisoners were liberated in Longueuil, where 150 Patriotes were waiting for them. The victory gave a lot of confidence to the Patriotes, who knew that the event meant they could expect the army would soon intervene. However, the Patriotes were not quite ready to fight an army. Led by Wolfred Nelson, they defeated a British force at Saint-Denis on November 23, 1837. He had 800 people ready to fight, half of them with guns. With confidence among the Patriote supporters wavering, Nelson threatened them to make sure that they would not leave. Papineau was not there during the fight, which surprised a lot of people.
The British troops soon beat back the rebels, defeating them at Saint-Charles on November 25 and at Saint-Eustache on December 14. The troops pillaged and ransacked Saint-Eustache. On December 5, the government declared martial law in Montreal. At the Battle of Saint-Charles, the Patriotes were defeated. General Brown was confident but was not a capable commander. There was no discipline in the camp. Different people offered support to Brown by offering him men, but he turned down all the offers. Once the battle started, Brown escaped the fight. After the Battle of Saint-Charles, Nelson tried to keep Saint-Denis safe, but there was nothing to do since knew there was no hope. The main leaders, like Papineau, O'Callaghan, and Nelson, left for the United States.
The last battle of the rebellions was the Battle of Saint-Eustache. When the battle came, on December 14, 1837, there were between 500 and 600 people ready to fight. The British troops were expecting strong resistance and so had brought 2,000 men. Most Patriote leaders were killed or fled during the fight. The Battle of Saint-Eustache was a significant defeat. The defeat of the rebellions can be explained by the fact that the Patriotes were not quite ready to fight.
When news of the arrest of the Patriote leaders reached Upper Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie launched an armed rebellion in December 1837. In the meantime, filibusters from the United States, the Hunter Patriots, formed a small militia and attacked Windsor, Upper Canada, to support the Canadian Patriotes. That resulted in the declaration of martial law by the Lower Canadian government.
After the insurrection, the army was prepared formal another armed conflict. It reorganized the whole organization, mostly in the urban areas like Montréal and Quebec. The British Army had 5,000 men posted in Lower Canada. The British government knew that the leaders of the Patriote movement were in the United States so it had spies, and the American government keep it updated if there was anything going on.
The next year, leaders who had escaped across the border into the United States raided Lower Canada in February 1838. During the summer of 1838, the Patriotes in the United States formed a secret society, called Frères chasseurs and planned to invade Lower Canada from the United States. The secret group also had members in Lower Canada itself, which would help them invade. It wanted an independent state of Lower Canada.
Two major armed conflicts occurred when groups of Lower Canadian Patriotes, led by Robert Nelson, crossed the Canada–American border in an attempt to invade Lower Canada and Upper Canada, drive out the British army, and establish two independent republics. A second revolt began with the Battle of Beauharnois in November 1838, which was crushed by forces of the colonial government as well.
The Frères Chasseurs had camps around Lower Canada, where they were getting armed. Their main campus was in Napierville. They had a lot of participants but not enough weapons to fight. They were planning on taking control of the road between the United States and Napierville, but they were intercepted by volunteers. The Frères Chasseurs were defeated in 30 minutes.
Shortly afterward, Robert Nelson and other members came from Napierville to take control of the same area. However, volunteers were already waiting and had help from the Loyal Rangers of Clarenceville. This time, the battle lasted longer, but the Frères Chasseurs were defeated. Then, three secondary camps were scattered very easily by armed volunteers. After those camps were destroyed, most Patriotes left the camps when they heard that the army approached. The army was barely involved in the second uprising of the Patriotes.
Britain dispatched Lord Durham to investigate the cause of the rebellion. His report in 1839 recommended for the Canadas to be united into one colony (the Province of Canada) to assimilate the French-speaking Canadiens into Anglophone British culture. For Durham, the fact that there was two groups (English and French) created a hostile environment. He thought that the way to solve to problems in Lower Canada was to assimilate the French-Canadians to eliminate the inferiority feeling of the French-Canadians and end all problems in that colony. He also recommended accepting the rebels' grievances by granting responsible government to the new colony.
Aftermath
After the first insurrection, the Pied-du-Courant Prison in Montreal was overfull. In July, Durham emptied it. When hostilities resumed in 1838, the prison filled with even more prisoners. Martial law was declared. This allowed the government to imprison people without reason. Ninety-nine prisoners from the second rebellion were sentenced to death. Twelve were hanged; the last hanging is dramatized in the 2001 film February 15, 1839. The government feared that the populace would sympathize with the prisoners. So, 141 prisoners from Lower and Upper Canada were instead sent to work camps in Australia. In 1844, they were allowed to return. Although they had to pay for their fare home, most had returned by 1845.
After the military defeat of the Patriotes, Lower Canada was merged with Upper Canada under the Act of Union. The Canadiens had a narrow majority in the new political entity, but with continued emigration of English-speakers to Canada West, that dominance was short lived. Eight years after the Union, an elected responsible government was set up in the united Province of Canada. The instability of this new regime (see Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada) eventually led to the formation of the Great Coalition. 1867 brought another major constitutional change and the formation of the Canadian Confederation.
The Lower Canada Rebellion, along with the Upper Canadian Rebellion, is often seen as an example of what might have occurred in the United States if the American Revolutionary War had failed. In Quebec, the rebellion, as well as the parliamentary and popular struggle, is now commemorated as the Journée nationale des Patriotes (National Patriots' Day) on the Canadian statutory holiday, Victoria Day. Since the late 20th century, the day has become a symbol for the Quebec independence movement and, to a lesser extent, a symbol of Canada's small republican movement.
Leaders
Thomas Storrow Brown (1803–1888)
Jean-Olivier Chénier (1806–1837)
François-Marie-Thomas Chevalier de Lorimier (1803–1839)
Amury Girod (1800–1837)
James Ard (1802–1840)
Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan (1797–1880)
Robert Nelson (1794–1873)
Wolfred Nelson (1791–1863)
Louis-Joseph Papineau (1786–1871)
See also
History of Canada
Upper Canada Rebellion
Timeline of Quebec history
Politics of Quebec
Canada Bay, New South Wales: some French Canadians who took part in the rebellions were expelled to this region of Australia.
Kahnawake Iroquois and the Rebellions of 1837–38
February 15, 1839
Félix Poutré
List of the 108 Lower Canadians prosecuted before the general court-martial of Montreal in 1838–39
References
Further reading
Boissery, Beverly. (1995). A Deep Sense of Wrong: The Treason Trials, and Transportation to New South Wales of Lower Canadian Rebels after the 1838 Rebellion, Toronto: Dundurn Press, 367 p. ()
Brown, Richard. Rebellion in Canada, 1837–1885: Autocracy, Rebellion and Liberty (Volume 1) (2012) excerpt volume 1; Rebellion in Canada, 1837–1885, Volume 2: The Irish, the Fenians and the Metis (2012) excerpt for volume 2
Buckner, Philip Alfred. (1985). The Transition to Responsible Government: British Policy in British North America, 1815–1850, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 358 p.
Burroughs, Peter. (1972). The Canadian Crisis and the British Colonial Policy, 1828–1849, Toronto: MacMillan, 118 p.
Decelles, Alfred Duclos. (1916). The "Patriotes" of '37: A Chronicle of the Lower Canadian Rebellion, Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Co., 140 p. [translated by Stewart Wallace]
Ducharme, Michel. "Closing the Last Chapter of the Atlantic Revolution: The 1837–38 Rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada," Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 116 (2):413–430. 2006
Dunning, Tom. "The Canadian Rebellions of 1837 and 1838 as a Borderland War: A Retrospective," Ontario History (2009) 101#2 pp 129–141.
Greer, Allan (1993). The Patriots and the People: The Rebellion of 1837 in Rural Lower Canada, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 385 p. () (preview)
Senior, Elionor Kyte. (1985). Redcoats and Patriotes: The Rebellions in Lower Canada, 1837–38, Ontario: Canada's Wings, Inc., 218 p. ()
Mann, Michael (1986). A Particular Duty: The Canadian Rebellions 1837–1839, Salisbury (Wiltshire): Michael Russel Publishing, 211 p.
Tiffany, Orrin Edward]. (1980). The Relations of the United States to the Canadian Rebellion of 1837–1838, Toronto: Coles Pub., 147 p.
Ryerson, Stanley Bréhaut (1968). Unequal Union: Confederation and the Roots of Conflict in the Canadas, 1815–1873, Toronto : Progress Books, 477 p.
Manning, Helen Taft (1962). The Revolt of French Canada, 1800–1835. A Chapter in the History of the British Commonwealth, Toronto: Macmillan Company of Canada, 426 p.
Kinchen, Oscar Arvle (1956). The Rise and Fall of the Patriot Hunters, Toronto: Burns and Maceachern, 150 p.
Morison, John Lyle (1919). British Supremacy and Canadian Self-Government, 1839–1854, Toronto: S. B.Gundy, 369 p.
Schull, Joseph (1971). Rebellion: the Rising in French Canada 1837'', Toronto: Macmillan, 226 p.
Primary services
Greenwood, F. Murray, and Barry Wright (2 vol 1996, 2002) Canadian state trials – Rebellion and invasion in the Canadas, 1837–1839 Society for Canadian Legal History by University of Toronto Press,
External links
The Patriotes Rebellion Quebec 1837–1839, selection of French documents translated into English for the Marxists Internet Archive
Les rébellions des Patriotes de 1837–38
Entre la Langue et L'Océan — a feature length film and a critical reading of the events of the Canadian Rebellions of 1837 and 1838 and the true story of the banishment of a political prisoner of the Lower Canada Rebellion to the Australian penal colony
Conflicts in Canada
Political history of Canada
1837 in Lower Canada
1838 in Lower Canada
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210224
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love%20with%20the%20Proper%20Stranger
|
Love with the Proper Stranger
|
Love with the Proper Stranger is a 1963 American romantic comedy-drama film made by Pakula-Mulligan Productions and Boardwalk Productions and released by Paramount Pictures. It was directed by Robert Mulligan and produced by Alan J. Pakula from a screenplay by Arnold Schulman.
The film stars Natalie Wood, Steve McQueen, Edie Adams, Herschel Bernardi and Harvey Lembeck. The film also marked the screen debut of Tom Bosley and features a brief, uncredited appearance by the director's younger brother Richard Mulligan, who later became a well-known television actor. The film received five Academy Award nominations including Best Actress (for Wood).
Plot
The film tells the story of Angie Rossini (Natalie Wood), a salesclerk at Macy's department store who finds herself pregnant after a one-night stand with musician Rocky Papasano (Steve McQueen). When she tracks him down, he doesn't remember her. She wants the name of a doctor for an abortion. Meanwhile, Angie is being pressured by her older brothers, played by Herschel Bernardi and Harvey Lembeck, to marry the unappealing restaurateur Anthony (Tom Bosley).
Rocky and Angie scrape up enough money for the crude backroom abortion. But when he and Angie meet the abortionist, who turns out not to be a doctor, Rocky refuses to let her go through with the dangerous procedure. The maturity he shows in doing this brings them closer. After meeting her brothers, Rocky decides to "take his medicine" by marrying her. Angie is insulted and turns him down. Angie wants romance, with "bells and banjos".
As an act of independence, Angie moves out of her family home. She begins dating Anthony, who offers to marry her and claim the baby as his own. By acting aloof, she attracts Rocky, whom she invites to dinner at her apartment. At dinner, he makes advances on her and is rejected. Angie says she does not want to make the same mistake again. They quarrel and she throws him out. The next day, Rocky waits for her outside Macy's, ringing bells and playing a banjo, and wins her heart.
Cast
Natalie Wood as Angie Rossini
Steve McQueen as Rocky Papasano
Edie Adams as Barbie
Herschel Bernardi as Dominick Rossini
Harvey Lembeck as Julio Rossini
Penny Santon as Mama Rossini
Virginia Vincent as Anna
Nick Alexander as Guido Rossini
Augusta Ciolli as Mrs. Papasano
Anne Hegira as Beetie
Mario Badolati as Elio Papasano
Elena Karam as the Woman
Nina Varela as Mrs. Columbo
Marilyn Chris as Gina
Wolfe Barzell as the Priest
and introducing
Tom Bosley as Anthony Columbo
Accolades
Also, the film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – Nominated
See also
List of American films of 1963
1963 in film
References
External links
1963 films
1963 comedy-drama films
1963 romantic comedy films
1960s romantic comedy-drama films
American black-and-white films
American films
American pregnancy films
American romantic comedy-drama films
1960s English-language films
Films about abortion
Films directed by Robert Mulligan
Films scored by Elmer Bernstein
Films set in New York City
Paramount Pictures films
|
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210227
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Pumpkin%20Eater
|
The Pumpkin Eater
|
The Pumpkin Eater is a 1964 British drama film starring Anne Bancroft as an unusually fertile woman, and Peter Finch as her philandering husband. The film was adapted by Harold Pinter from the 1962 novel of the same title by Penelope Mortimer, and was directed by Jack Clayton. The title is a reference to the nursery rhyme "Peter Peter Pumpkin Eater".
Plot
The film's narrative revolves around Jo Armitage (Anne Bancroft), a woman with an ambiguous number of children from three marriages, who becomes negative and withdrawn after discovering that her third (and current) husband, Jake (Peter Finch), has been unfaithful to her. After a series of loosely related events in which Jake's infidelity is balanced by his reliability as a breadwinner and a father, Jo and Jake take a first tentative step toward reconciliation.
Thematically, there are two issues: Jo's frequent childbearing and Jake's extramarital affairs. The question of Jo's fertility is first broached by her psychiatrist. He suggests that she may feel uncomfortable with the messiness or vulgarity of sex and that she may be using childbirth to justify it to herself. This does not prevent her from becoming pregnant again, but she follows suggestions by Jake and her doctor that she have an abortion and be sterilized, and she seems happy after the operation.
Meanwhile, signs accumulate that Jake has been having affairs while pursuing a successful career as a screenwriter. The first indication of his infidelity concerns a young woman, Philpot (Maggie Smith), who lived with the Armitage family for a while. Jake reacts irrationally and unconvincingly to Jo's questioning after the children tell her the woman fainted into Jake's arms. The second sign comes from Bob Conway (James Mason), an acquaintance who alleges an affair between his wife and Jake during production of a film in Morocco. Finally, Jake admits some of his infidelities under heated interrogation by Jo. After venting her frustration by furiously assaulting him, she retaliates by having an affair with her second husband. This elicits coldness from Jake.
In the film's finale, Jo spends a night alone in a windmill (near the converted barn she had lived in with her second husband and children) that the couple has been renovating. The following morning, Jake and their children arrive at the windmill with food. Seeing how happy her children are with Jake, Jo indicates her acceptance of him by sadly, but graciously, accepting a tin of beer from him, a gesture which echoes another scene in the windmill from a happier time in their marriage.
Cast
Anne Bancroft - Jo Armitage
Peter Finch - Jake Armitage
James Mason - Bob Conway
Cedric Hardwicke - Mr James, Jo's father
Richard Johnson - Giles
Eric Porter - Psychiatrist
Rosalind Atkinson - Mrs. James, Jo's mother
Frances White - Older Dinah
Alan Webb - Mr Armitage, Jake's father
Cyril Luckham - Doctor
Janine Gray - Beth Conway
Yootha Joyce - Woman at hairdresser's
Frank Singuineau - King of Israel
Maggie Smith - Philpot
Reception
Time magazine wrote "Though Pumpkin Eater in outline resembles a compendium of womanly woes, it plays like a house afire, almost invariably ignited by Actress Bancroft, who could probably strike dramatic lightning from a recitation of tide tables... And her spectacular scenes with Finch, pitched against the din of a more or less anonymous army of progeny, are a litany of love, hate, lies, jealousy and excruciating domestic boredom." Variety wrote: "[Pinter's] script vividly brings to life the principal characters in this story of a shattered marriage, though Pinter's resort to flashback technique is confusing in the early stages. Jack Clayton's direction gets off to a slow, almost casual start, but the pace quickens as the drama becomes more intense. He has used the considerable acting talents at his command for the maximum results."
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times was critical of Pinter's script, and Clayton's direction, of which he felt was "somewhat mechanical, too, tumbling his drama in a confusion of jump cuts and fleeting images... With a good deal more body to the drama and point to the characters, Mr. Clayton would have a picture that comes close to representing truth." The Monthly Film Bulletin stated, "There is something phantasmally absurd about this well-meaning, ambitious film... It could well be that Pinter's brilliance is altogether the wrong kind of brilliance to let loose on the scripting of this already nerve-raw, nightmarish subject. Jo ... makes an eminently worthwhile, but virtually intractable, subject for a film: worthwhile because neurotics rarely get a square, sympathetic, penetrating deal in the cinema; intractable because, like many neurotics, she is a fixated and evidently crashing bore, and one of the most difficult things to do is to present a bore fairly without at the same time boring your audience too."
The film has continued to provoke comments. In a 1999 obituary of Penelope Mortimer, Giles Gordon in The Guardian characterized Harold Pinter as someone who values what is "written between the lines," making him "her ideal translator and interpreter" for the film adaptation of Mortimer's novel. In 2006, David Hare wrote that "Pinter regularly offers actors what will become the opportunities of a lifetime: to Meryl Streep, obviously, in The French Lieutenant's Woman; to Peter Finch and Anne Bancroft in one of the most over-looked of all British films, The Pumpkin Eater; and, unforgettably, to Dirk Bogarde, both in Accident and The Servant."
Awards and nominations
Home video
The Pumpkin Eater was released as a Region 1 fullscreen DVD by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment on 4 March 2011. A region-free Blu-ray edition was released by Powerhouse Films on 4 December 2017.
Notes
References
External links
1964 films
1964 drama films
Adultery in films
BAFTA winners (films)
British films
British black-and-white films
British drama films
Columbia Pictures films
1960s English-language films
Films about abortion
Films about psychiatry
Films based on British novels
Films directed by Jack Clayton
Films featuring a Best Drama Actress Golden Globe-winning performance
Films scored by Georges Delerue
British pregnancy films
Films with screenplays by Harold Pinter
1960s pregnancy films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage%20Italian%20Style
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Marriage Italian Style
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Marriage Italian Style ( ) is a 1964 Italian film directed by Vittorio De Sica, starring Sophia Loren, Marcello Mastroianni, and Vito Moricone.
The film was adapted by Leonardo Benvenuti, Renato Castellani, Piero De Bernardi and Tonino Guerra from the play Filumena Marturano by Eduardo De Filippo.
Filumena Marturano was previously adapted as a film in Argentina during 1950.
Plot
Set during the World War II era, we are presented with the story of a cynical, successful 28 year old businessman named Domenico (Marcello Mastroianni), who, after meeting a naive 17 year old country girl, Filumena (Sophia Loren), one night in a Neapolitan brothel during bombing outside, keeps frequenting her for years in an on-again, off-again relationship spanning 22 years. From the very beginning, Filumena is deeply in love with Domenico but her love is not reciprocated. After Filumena expresses her wish to be solely his woman, Domenico arranges a lease for her with Rosalie as maid and Alfredo(Aldo Puglisi) as the butler and arranges a job for her in his shop. He eventually takes her in his house as a semi-official mistress under the pretense that she is the niece of Carmela (his mother's old maid) to take care of his ailing, senile mother. Domenico's mindset about Filumena's past keeps him from taking their relationship seriously.
After having fallen for the 20 year old cashier in his store, Domenico (now 50) plans to marry her. But he finds himself cornered when Filumena feigns illness and while "on her deathbed", asks him to marry her. Thinking she'll be dead in a matter of hours and the 'marriage' won't even be registered, he agrees. After having been proclaimed his legal bride, the shrewd and resourceful Filumena drops the charade of feigning death. This puts Domenico in a fit of rage as he feels that Filumena tricked him for his money. But Filumena reveals the real reason for the marriage: she did it for her 3 children that she bore (Umberto, Riccardo and Michele). As the children were coming of age, she wanted them to have a family name, precisely, Soriano.
Domenico won't accept this and decides to contest the marriage. The law rules in his favour and the marriage is annulled. Filumena accepts the annulment but tells Domenico that he fathered one of the children. She does not say which as she considers all of them as equal. However, she gives him a hint that his child was conceived on the night Domenico said "to pretend we are in love" and gave her a 100 lire note where she wrote the date of that night. She gives that note to Domenico. Domenico is visibly rattled by this revelation but can't solve the clue.
Domenico tries desperately to figure out which child he fathered. He visits the children at their workplace and tries other means but hits a dead end.
He meets up with Filumena and tries to force an answer out of her but she reveals nothing more. As a last resort, Domenico decides to confront the children directly but Filumena vehemently opposes this as it would drive a wedge between the children due to the prospect of Domenico's money. As both of them scuffle, they tumble down and fall into each other's arms. The couple then proclaim their love for each other with a kiss and decide to remarry.
At the church, the boys wait, and Domenico arrives. Domenico mentions that, because he will be marrying their mother, he will give them his name. However, he continues to prod them for clues but again comes out with nothing as they all share some resembling traits. Filumena rushes in, and Domenico smiling with joy, tells her how wonderful she looks and the marriage takes place.
Back at home, the sons bid their mother goodnight. As the boys, one after another say goodnight to their 'father' Domenico, he smiles broadly at this and says that he will see them tomorrow.
Filumena sits and weeps with joy at this. When Domenico asks why she is crying, she states it feels wonderful to cry.
Cast
Sophia Loren as Filumena Marturano
Marcello Mastroianni as Domenico Soriano
Aldo Puglisi as Alfredo
Tecla Scarano as Rosalia
Marilù Tolo as Diana (credited as Marilu' Tolo)
Gianni Ridolfi as Umberto
Generoso Cortini as Michele
Vito Moricone as Riccardo
Rita Piccione as Teresina, seamstress
Lino Mattera
Alfio Vita as Un pasticciere
Alberto Castaldi as (credited as Alberto Gastaldi)
Anna Santoro
Enza Maggi as Lucia, maid
Mara Marilli
Reception and awards
The film was received favorably. The New York Times noted that it was the fourth quality collaboration between director Vittorio De Sica and Sophia Loren, and the second to include Marcello Mastroianni in the mix, the "warmup" for this movie having been 1963's Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow. The review described it as a "wonderfully flamboyant" film, and provided some context for the film, noting that Naples (at least in 1964) was "a quite unusual place, where the people are highly individual and may have bizarre relationships."
It was the second highest-grossing Italian film in Italy for the year, behind A Fistful of Dollars, with a gross of $3,725,000.
The film was nominated for Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film in 1965 and Loren for Best Actress in a Leading Role in 1964. It was also entered into the 4th Moscow International Film Festival.
See also
Filumena Marturano, the original play
List of submissions to the 38th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
List of Italian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film
References
External links
Typical italian marriage
1960s romantic comedy-drama films
1964 films
Films about marriage
Films based on works by Eduardo De Filippo
Films directed by Vittorio De Sica
Films produced by Carlo Ponti
Films scored by Armando Trovajoli
Films set in Italy
Films set in Naples
Italian romantic comedy-drama films
Italian films
Italian films based on plays
Italian-language films
Italian remakes of foreign films
1964 comedy films
1964 drama films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Unsinkable%20Molly%20Brown%20%28film%29
|
The Unsinkable Molly Brown (film)
|
The Unsinkable Molly Brown is a 1964 American Metrocolor musical comedy film directed by Charles Walters and starring Debbie Reynolds, filmed in Panavision. The screenplay by Helen Deutsch is based on the book of the 1960 musical The Unsinkable Molly Brown by Richard Morris. The song score was composed by Meredith Willson. The plot is a fictionalized account of the life of Margaret Brown, who survived the 1912 sinking of the . Debbie Reynolds was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of Brown.
Plot
Rescued from the Colorado River as an infant and raised by Seamus Tobin, tomboy Molly Tobin is determined to find a wealthy man to marry. She journeys to Leadville, Colorado and is hired as a saloon singer by Christmas Morgan. After miner Johnny Brown renovates his cabin, the two wed, and he sells his claim in a silver mine for $300,000.
The Browns and Seamus move into a Denver mansion, and Molly sets out to improve her social status by trying to ingratiate herself with the city's elite, all of whom snub her and her nouveau riche ways. She and Johnny go to Europe, where they are embraced by royalty, and the couple return to Denver with their new friends. Molly's plan to introduce them to the people who formerly rejected her is derailed by Johnny's rough-and-tumble friends, whose unexpected and boisterous arrival ruins the gala party Molly is hosting.
Molly decides to return to Europe, leaving Johnny behind. She initially falls for the charms of Prince Louis de Lanière, but eventually decides she prefers to live with Johnny in Leadville. For the first time in her life, she realizes that someone else's feelings and priorities need to be considered. Setting sail for home aboard the RMS Titanic, she becomes a heroine when the ship sinks and she helps rescue many of her fellow passengers. When her deed makes international headlines, Molly is welcomed home by Johnny and the people of Denver.
Cast
Debbie Reynolds as Molly Brown
Harve Presnell as Johnny Brown
Ed Begley as Seamus Tobin
Jack Kruschen as Christmas Morgan
Hermione Baddeley as Buttercup Grogan
Vassili Lambrinos as Prince Louis de Lanière
Martita Hunt as Grand Duchess Elise Lupovinova
Harvey Lembeck as Polak
Maria Karnilova as Daphne
Audrey Christie as Gladys McGraw
Production
Harve Presnell was the sole member of the original Broadway cast who was invited to reprise his stage role in the film. Although Tammy Grimes had originated the title role and had won the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical for her performance, MGM executives wanted Shirley MacLaine for the film. After she signed, producer Hal Wallis claimed she was under contract to him, and MacLaine was forced to withdraw from the project. After this, many people wanted Judy Garland. Garland was reported to be the star of the film in 1961. When Debbie Reynolds was cast instead, MacLaine publicly accused her of agreeing to accept a lower salary in order to land the role, and director Charles Walters, who preferred MacLaine, tried to persuade Reynolds to turn down the part.
Exteriors were filmed in the Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park in western Colorado. Some brief black-and-white footage from the 1953 movie Titanic, portraying the ill-fated ocean liner's collision with an iceberg and sinking, was interspersed with scenes of Molly Brown aboard the ship and later in a lifeboat.
Only five of the 17 musical numbers from the stage musical were used in the film, and Meredith Willson wrote "He's My Friend" to extend the song score. Peter Gennaro, who had choreographed the original Broadway production, staged the musical sequences.
During production, MGM was putting all its resources into its forthcoming Doctor Zhivago (1965), and at least $1 million was cut from the budget of Molly Brown. Running out of money to complete the film, director Charles Walters proposed cutting the rousing dance number "He's My Friend". To save the number, cast and crew ultimately decided to film it in one rigorous day using multiple cameras to reduce shooting time.
The film grossed $11,070,559 at the domestic box office. It earned $7.5 million in U.S. theatrical rentals.
Musical numbers
"Belly Up to the Bar, Boys" ... Shamus Tobin, Christmas Morgan, Molly Brown, and Ensemble
"I Ain't Down Yet" ... Molly Brown
"Colorado, My Home" ... Johnny Brown
"I'll Never Say No" ... Johnny Brown and Molly Brown
"He's My Friend" ... Molly Brown, Johnny Brown, Mrs. Grogan, Grand Duchess Elise Lupovinova, Shamus Tobin, Christmas Morgan, and Ensemble
"Johnny's Soliloquy" ... Johnny Brown
Reception
Critical reception
A.H. Weiler of The New York Times called the film "big, brassy, bold and freewheeling" but added, "The tones are ringing, but often hollow. Molly is a colorful character all right, and the screen, which is as wide as can be, is filled with vivid colors that help project the fact that this is merely a satisfying musical comedy and not an inspired subject." He continued, "This is not to say that Meredith Willson's score is not tuneful and lilting but to this listener it is good, sweet corn that is more palatable than memorable. Mr. Gennaro, on the other hand, has devised dances that more than complement Mr. Willson's music. They may seem to be improvised but they have the true marks of professionalism in their carefully plotted verve, bounce and exuberance." He concluded, "The Unsinkable Molly Brown, in the person of Miss Reynolds, and the other principals, often mistakes vigor for art. But Metro's lavish and attractive production numbers make up for this basic superficiality. For all of its shallowness, Molly is a cheerful and entertaining addition to the local screen scene."
Variety observed, "In essence, it's a pretty shallow story since the title character, when you get right down to it, is obsessed with a very superficial, egotistical problem beneath her generous, razzmatazz facade. On top of that, Willson's score is rather undistinguished. Debbie Reynolds thrusts herself into the role with an enormous amount of verve and vigor. At times her approach to the character seems more athletic than artful. Harve Presnell ... makes a generally auspicious screen debut as the patient Johnny. His fine, booming voice and physical stature make him a valuable commodity for Hollywood."
Channel 4 called it an "amiable comedy with a handful of good tunes" that "lacks the satirical bite which its story may suggest. Sometimes the director seems to feel more at ease with the melodramatic moments than the comedy ones."
Time Out London noted, "As ebulliently energetic as ever, Reynolds makes the brash social climbing both funny and touching, but the film itself gets trapped in two minds between satire and sentimentality. The score ... though pleasant, is rather thinly spread; but the sets are a delight in the best traditions of the MGM musical, and Walters does a wonderfully graceful job of direction".
TV Guide rated the film three out of four stars and commented, "A rambunctious and spirited effort from Reynolds ... saves this otherwise weakly scripted, familiar musical from the long list of forgotten pictures."
Box office
The film set an opening week record at Radio City Music Hall in New York City, grossing $222,000 and became the number one film in the US that week. It went on to be the highest grossing film at the theater, with a 10-week gross of $2 million.
Awards and honors
DVD release
Warner Home Video released the Region 1 DVD on September 19, 2000. The film is in anamorphic widescreen format with an audio track in English and subtitles in English and French. In 2016, Warner Archive released the film on Blu Ray.
Notes
References
External links
1964 films
1964 musical comedy films
American films
American musical comedy films
English-language films
Films about RMS Titanic
Films about survivors of seafaring accidents or incidents
Films based on musicals
Films directed by Charles Walters
Films set in 1912
Films set in the 1910s
Films set in Colorado
Films shot in Colorado
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Photoplay Awards film of the year winners
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Banana%20Splits
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The Banana Splits
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The Banana Splits Adventure Hour (also known simply as The Banana Splits) is an American television variety show produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions and featuring the Banana Splits, a fictional rock band composed of four costumed animal characters in red marching band hats. The costumed hosts of the show are Fleegle (guitar, vocals), Bingo (drums, vocals), Drooper (bass, vocals) and Snorky (keyboards, effects).
The series ran for 31 episodes on NBC Saturday mornings from September 7, 1968, to September 5, 1970, and in syndication from 1970 to 1982. The show features the Banana Splits band as live-action costumed characters, who host both live-action and animated segments within their program. The Banana Splits was Hanna-Barbera's first series to feature live action with animation, following a 1967 telefilm, Jack and the Beanstalk, which did the same. The costumes and sets were designed by Sid and Marty Krofft, and the series' sponsor was Kellogg's Cereals.
A feature-length comedy horror film adaptation called The Banana Splits Movie premiered at the San Diego Comic-Con on July 18, 2019, and was released worldwide on August 27, 2019.
History
In 1967, William Hanna and Joseph Barbera approached Sid and Marty Krofft to design costumes for a television show, featuring animated and live-action segments, hosted by a bubblegum rock group of anthropomorphic characters. The format of the show was loosely based on Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In, and the characters appeared on one episode of that show. The Banana Splits Adventure Hour premiered on NBC on September 7, 1968. In his autobiography, Barbera said that the show was originally going to be called The Banana Bunch, but permission could not be obtained from the author of a children's book by that same title.
The Krofft brothers credit the series' success for making possible their own entry into television, H.R. Pufnstuf. NBC picked up the Krofft series, which was launched on August 30, 1969, during an hour-long special hosted by the Banana Splits.
The show's live-action segment Danger Island, a cliffhanger serial, as well as the short-lived Micro Ventures, a part-live action, part-animated series consisting of only four episodes, ran alongside the animated segments Arabian Knights and The Three Musketeers. Actors Jan-Michael Vincent (billed as Michael Vincent) and Ronne Troup appeared in the live-action component Danger Island. All the live-action material filmed for the series' first season, including the Banana Splits and Danger Island segments, was directed by Richard Donner.
Jason Ankeny of AllMusic has blamed the show's drastic ratings drop during the second season on the failure of production staff to change backgrounds or set designs, a situation that misled young viewers into believing that they were watching reruns instead of new segments.
Synopsis
Each show represented a meeting of the "Banana Splits Club", and the wraparounds featured the adventures of the club members, who acted as a musical quartet meant to be reminiscent of the Monkees.
The Splits' segments, including songs of the week and comedy skits, served as wraparounds for a number of individual segments.
For the first season, some of the live-action segments—specifically those used during the musical segments—were shot at Six Flags Over Texas, an amusement park located in Arlington, Texas. For the second season, filming took place at the Coney Island amusement park in Cincinnati, Ohio. In many episodes, the Banana Splits were seen riding on the many rides at Six Flags and Coney Island.
The "Banana Buggies", mentioned in the theme song, were customized vehicles driven by each live-action character. The buggies were customized Amphicat six-wheel drive all-terrain vehicles, each decorated to resemble the character who drove it. Plastic 1/25 scale model kits were issued by Aurora Plastics Corporation, under catalog number 832, beginning in 1969. These were never reissued by Aurora, but they have since been released as high-end resin-based kits.
The Banana Splits was one of the first two Hanna-Barbera series in 1968 in which Hanna and Barbera received executive producer credits, the other being The New Adventures of Huckleberry Finn; Edward Rosen served as producer on both series. This Hanna-Barbera series was also one of the first Saturday morning cartoon shows to feature a laugh track.
Characters
Main
Fleegle – The self-proclaimed leader of the Splits, Fleegle is a greenish-brown dog wearing a large red bow tie, black buttons, and brownish-orange chucks. His tongue perpetually hangs out of his mouth, giving him a distinct lisp. He hosts the club meetings that occur at the beginning of each episode, and often finds himself trying to keep the other Splits in line. He is frequently seen trying to get mail from an uncooperative mailbox, reporting on the news, or (beginning in the second season) performing as the Great Fleegali. Suit performed by Jeff Winkless (1968), Ginner Whitcombe (2008), and Terry Sauls (2019 film). Voiced by Paul Winchell (1968–1972), Bill Farmer (2008), Eric Bauza (2019 film), and Paul F. Tompkins (in Jellystone!).
Bingo – A nasal-voiced orange ape wearing white sunglasses and a yellow vest. In the show's first season, Bingo had no act of his own, but other appeared alongside Fleegle and Drooper; the second season rectified this by giving him an exercise program as Coach Bingo. One of the most common setups was to have Bingo make a wish on Fleegle's robot, Mildred, with disastrous results. Suit performed by Terence H. Winkless (1968), Casey Hadfield (2008), and Buntu Plam (2019 film). Voiced by Daws Butler (1968–1972), Frank Welker (2008), Eric Bauza (2019 film), and Jim Conroy (in Jellystone!).
Drooper – A lion with a very long tail wearing yellowish-orange sunglasses and a pair of spats. Drooper, who speaks with a Southern drawl in the style of Michael Nesmith, was frequently seen trying to empty a chaotic trash bin or answering fan mail. When the fan mail segment was expanded to all the Splits in season 2, he was given a new act; namely, a superhero alter-ego named Super Drooper. Suit performed by Anne W. Withrow (1968), Adam Grubner (2008), and Kori Clarke (2019 film). Voiced by Allan Melvin (1968–1972), Carlos Alazraqui (2008), Eric Bauza (2019 film), and C.H. Greenblatt (in Jellystone!).
Snorky – An elephant wearing pink sunglasses. Originally depicted as being covered in shaggy fur, he was redesigned for the second season to more resemble an elephant; he also gained visible eyes and a vest with yellow stripes. Snorky never speaks, but can communicate with the other Splits via clown-esque honks. He appears slightly less frequently that the other Splits, but was occasionally shown cleaning the clubhouse. Suit performed by James Dove and Robert Towers (1968–2008) and Brandon Vraagom (2019 film).
Secondary
Announcer – The unseen announcer is the one who introduces the Banana Splits and certain acts. Voiced by Allan Melvin (1968–1972) and Eric Bauza (2019 film).
The Banana Vac – A blue moose-like head with brown hair and light bulbs on his head. He hangs over the entrance of the clubhouse making different comments and often helps the Banana Splits introduce segments. Voiced by Allan Melvin.
Cuckoo Clock – A clock with a blue and yellow bird head inside that gives snarky remarks to the "What time is it" question. He also helps the Banana Splits introduce segments. Voiced by Paul Winchell.
Goofy Gopher – A gopher who lives in a flower pot. Voiced by Paul Winchell, the Goofy Gopher was created for the show's second season.
Mildred the Robot - An invention of Fleegle's that can grant wishes, often literally. "Performed" by Robby the Robot
The Sour Grapes Bunch – A group of silent human girl characters who are all named Charley (portrayed by Sheri Freeman). They take turns bringing written notes to the Banana Splits. The Sour Grapes Bunch danced one song with the title characters. In the first season on October 5, 1968, a song debuted entitled "Doin' the Banana Split" has all five girls appeared together with the hosts.
The Dilly Sisters – Two human girls who play acoustic classical guitars and sing two songs: "The Mexican Hat Dance" and "Ta-ra-ra Boom-de-ay".
Segments
The show had four segments:
Arabian Knights – Prince Turhan (voiced by Jay North), his cousin Princess Nida (voiced by Shari Lewis), and their allies Fariik the Magician (voiced by John Stephenson), Raseem the Strong (voiced by Frank Gerstle), his donkey Zazuum (voiced by Don Messick), and shapeshifter Bez (voiced by Henry Corden) work to free Persia from the evil Bakaar the Black Sultan (voiced by John Stephenson) and his enforcer Vangore (voiced by Paul Frees).
The Three Musketeers – Based on the novel of the same name. Athos (voiced by Jonathan Harris), Porthos (voiced by Barney Phillips), Aramis (voiced by Don Messick), and D'Artagnian (voiced by Bruce Watson) partake in new adventures fighting the enemies of the crowned heads of France King Louis XIV (voiced by Don Messick) and Queen Anne (voiced by Julie Bennett). They are sometimes assisted by a queen's handmaid named Lady Constance Bonacieux (voiced by Julie Bennett) and her young nephew Tooly (voiced by Teddy Eccles).
Danger Island – The show's only live-action segment. This adventure serial depicts archaeologist Professor Irwin Hayden (portrayed by Frank Aletter), his assistant Lincoln "Link" Simmons (portrayed by Jan Michael Vincent), and his daughter Leslie (portrayed by Ronne Troup) having adventures on an unnamed island chain with a shipwrecked merchant mariner named Elihu Morgan (portrayed by Rockne Tarkington) and his sidekick Chongo (portrayed by Kim Kahana) as they avoid a group of bumbling yet heavily armed modern day pirates led by Captain Mu-Tan (portrayed by Victor Eberg).
Micro Ventures – A four-episode segment where Professor Carter (voiced by Don Messick) and his children Jill (voiced by Patsy Garrett) and Mike (voiced by Tommy Cook) use a shrinking machine to shrink themselves and their dune buggy to miniature size to explore and experience the world from the perspective of an insect.
In the second season, The Three Musketeers segments were replaced with reruns of The Hillbilly Bears, a cartoon segment that previously appeared on The Atom Ant Show (1965–1968). In reruns, episodes of The Atom Ant/Secret Squirrel Show, The Adventures of Gulliver, and The New Adventures of Huckleberry Finn were aired on the show.
The Banana Splits was syndicated in 1970 to local stations under the title of The Banana Splits and Friends Show, but with several other series included in a package deal. All the Banana Splits episodes were syndicated in this package alongside The New Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, The Atom Ant Show, The Secret Squirrel Show, and The Adventures of Gulliver.
Music
The show's theme song, titled "The Tra La La Song (One Banana, Two Banana)", was credited as being written by Ritchie Adams and Mark Barkan, but that was merely contractual. In fact it was written by N. B. Winkless Jr. on the upright piano in his living room—a piano that also spawned the "Snap, Crackle, Pop" jingle, among others. Adams and Barkan were music directors for the show. The song was released as a single, attributed to the Banana Splits, and peaked at number 96 on Billboards Top 100 in February 1969. The version included on the We're The Banana Splits album is the same recording heard at the beginning of the show, while the single version is an entirely different arrangement and recording of the song, featuring an additional verse.
The Banana Splits' bubblegum pop rock and roll was provided by studio professionals, including Joey Levine ("I Enjoy Being a Boy", "It's a Good Day for a Parade"); Al Kooper ("You're the Lovin' End"); Barry White ("Doin' the Banana Split"); Gene Pitney ("Two Ton Tessie") and Jimmy Radcliffe, who provided his songs ("I'm Gonna Find a Cave", "Soul", "Don't Go Away Go-Go Girl", "Adam Had 'Em" and "The Show Must Go On") but did not contribute vocals to Splits recordings.
The music director was music publisher Aaron Schroeder, while production duties were mainly handled by David Mook. When a heavier R&B vocal was needed, the music producers usually turned to singer Ricky Lancelotti, who was billed in the show credits under his stage name Rick Lancelot. Lancelotti went on to record several songs with Frank Zappa. In 1968, The Banana Splits released an album on Decca Records titled We're the Banana Splits.
The Banana Splits was among hundreds of artists whose material was destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.
An unusual claim is that the song may have inspired Bob Marley, with the striking similarity between the song's chorus and the bridge of the Bob Marley and the Wailers song "Buffalo Soldier". A story by the BBC in 2010 examines the claim.
Covers
US punk rock act the Dickies covered the theme song in 1978, entitled "Banana Splits (Tra La La Song)". Their recording reached Number 7 in the UK charts and appears as a bonus on the CD reissue of their 1979 album The Incredible Shrinking Dickies.
Comics
The Banana Splits' adventures continued in comic books. Gold Key began publishing a comic version in 1969, releasing eight issues through 1971. Drawn by Jack Manning, these stories followed the musicians either trying to find work or on the road between gigs.
The Banana Splits had a crossover with the Suicide Squad in Suicide Squad/Banana Splits #1 on March 29, 2017.
Other projects
Made-for-television film
Hanna-Barbera produced The Banana Splits in Hocus Pocus Park, a televised feature film, for ABC in 1972 that has the group rescuing a girl from an evil witch.
Educational films
Hanna-Barbera Educational Filmstrips
The Banana Splits: Healthy and Happy (1978)
The Banana Splits: We Have Five Senses (1978)
The Banana Splits: Safety First (1978)
The Banana Splits: It's a Sense-sational World (1979)
The Banana Splits: Meet the Microbes (1980)
Learning Tree Filmstrip Set
Learning About Holidays with The Banana Splits (1982)
2008 revival
In August 2008, Warner Bros. Consumer Products announced a multi-platform release featuring new comedy shorts and music videos; this debuted on Cartoon Network starting on September 2, 2008. Bill Farmer voiced Fleegle, Frank Welker voiced Bingo, and Carlos Alazraqui voiced Drooper. The relaunch included a live show and a website, as well as a CD and a DVD featuring 13 new songs, released by Universal Records. In addition, a child-themed area named Banana Splitsville''' was placed at Myrtle Beach, South Carolina's Hard Rock Park rock-and-roll theme park, which later became Freestyle Music Park before closing permanently in 2009.
2019 comedy horror film adaptation
On February 19, 2019, Warner Bros. Television Group's Blue Ribbon Content division announced that it was collaborating with Blue Ice Pictures on producing a film adaptation of The Banana Splits television series collectively named The Banana Splits Movie, which would serve as an R-rated parody of slasher films. Danishka Esterhazy was hired to direct the film, based on a script written by Jed Elinoff and Scott Thomas. On June 13, 2019, Syfy Wire released the official trailer for the film."Syfy basically turned the kids show Banana Splits into a Five Nights at Freddy's movie" from Polygon (June 13, 2019)
The plot follows a family attending a taping of The Banana Splits television series, in which the titular characters are animatronics with artificial intelligence instead of humans in costumes. However, the family and everyone else present are soon trying to survive when Fleegle, Bingo, Drooper and Snorky go haywire upon learning of the cancellation of their show. Because of this, their programming malfunctions and they start a killing spree around the studio by targeting the crew members and the adults. The film premiered at the San Diego Comic-Con on July 18, 2019, and was released by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment via Blu-ray and DVD on August 27, 2019. Eric Bauza lent his voice to Fleegle, Bingo, and Drooper as well as the show's announcer.
2021 animated series
The Banana Splits appear in Jellystone! which was released HBO Max on July 29, 2021 with Fleegle voiced by Paul F. Tompkins, Bingo voiced by Jim Conroy, and Drooper voiced by C.H. Greenblatt. They are portrayed as cartoonishly effective criminals and the enemies of El Kabong.
Home media
On September 21, 2009, Warner Home Video released the complete first season on DVD in Region 2. The six-disc set consists of 36 edited half-hour episodes of The Banana Splits and Friends Show'' as aired on Cartoon Network and Boomerang. The series was also released on VHS.
See also
List of works produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions
List of Hanna-Barbera characters
References
External links
Interview with Shirley Hillstrom (now Sheri Freedman), who played Charley the Messenger of the Sour Grapes Bunch
1968 American television series debuts
1970 American television series endings
1960s American children's comedy television series
1970s American children's comedy television series
1960s American musical comedy television series
1970s American musical comedy television series
American children's fantasy television series
American children's musical television series
American television shows featuring puppetry
American television series with live action and animation
Fictional musical groups
English-language television shows
NBC original programming
Television shows adapted into comics
Television series by Hanna-Barbera
Television shows about apes
Television shows about dogs
Television series about elephants
Television series about lions
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim%20Stanley
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Kim Stanley
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Kim Stanley (born Patricia Kimberley Reid; February 11, 1925 – August 20, 2001) was an American actress, primarily in television and theatre, but with occasional film performances.
She began her acting career in theatre, and subsequently attended the Actors Studio in New York City, New York. She received the 1952 Theatre World Award for her role in The Chase (1952), and starred in the Broadway productions of Picnic (1953) and Bus Stop (1955). Stanley was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for her roles in A Touch of the Poet (1959) and A Far Country (1962).
In the 1950s Stanley was a prolific performer in television; she later progressed to film, with a well-received performance in The Goddess (1959). She was the narrator of To Kill a Mockingbird (1962), and starred in Séance on a Wet Afternoon (1964), for which she won the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress. She was less active during the remainder of her career; two of her later film successes were as the mother of Frances Farmer in Frances (1982), for which she received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, and as Pancho Barnes in The Right Stuff (1983). Stanley received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress – Miniseries or a Movie for her performance as Big Mama in a television adaptation of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof in 1985. That same year, she was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame.
Early life
Stanley was born in Tularosa, New Mexico, the daughter of Ann (née Miller), an interior decorator, and J. T. Reid, a professor of philosophy and education at the University of New Mexico, located in Albuquerque. Her father was of Irish or Scottish descent, born and raised in Texas, where he met her mother (who was of German and English ancestry). She had three brothers (Howard Clinton Reid, a psychiatrist; Kenneth Reid, killed in pilot training during World War II; and Justin Truman Reid, a lawyer); and a half-sister (Carol Ann Reid). She was a drama major at the University of New Mexico, and later studied at the Pasadena Playhouse and adopted her maternal grandmother's surname as her stage name.
Career
Theatre
Stanley was a successful Broadway actress with only a few film roles. She was singled out by The New York Times critic Brooks Atkinson for her early work. She eventually attended the Actors Studio, studying under Elia Kazan, Lee Strasberg, and Vivian Nathan. She received the 1952 Theatre World Award for her performance as Anna Reeves in The Chase, and starred in such Broadway hits as Picnic (1953), playing Millie Owens and Bus Stop (1955), playing Cherie.
She was nominated for the 1959 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play for A Touch of the Poet and the 1962 Tony for Best Actress in a Play for her portrayal of Elizabeth von Ritter in Henry Denker's A Far Country. Stanley also portrayed Maggie "The Cat" in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof in the original London production of the play. In 1965, she played Masha in the London run of an Actors Studio production of Anton Chekhov's play The Three Sisters. After a savaging of the production by local critics, she made good on her promise to never act on stage again.
Television
Stanley was a leading lady of live television drama, which flourished in New York City during the 1950s. On October 17, 1950, she starred in "The Vanishing Lady" on The Trap. Her other starring roles included Wilma, a star-struck 15-year-old girl from the U.S. Gulf Coast of Texas in Horton Foote's A Young Lady of Property, which aired on The Philco-Goodyear Television Playhouse on April 5, 1953.
Film
Her first film was The Goddess (1958), playing a tragic movie star. She starred in Séance on a Wet Afternoon (1964), winning both the National Board of Review Award for Best Actress and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress, and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress and the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role.
A filmed version of Strasberg-directed Three Sisters (1966) opened with Stanley reprising the role of Masha, and is the only time one can see her perform in a film alongside Geraldine Page, Sandy Dennis, Shelley Winters and other well-known names of the Actors Studio. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture for her performance as Frances Farmer's possessive mother in Frances (1982). She also played Pancho Barnes in The Right Stuff (1983). Stanley was the uncredited narrator in the drama film To Kill a Mockingbird (1962). As the narrator, she represents the character Jean Louise Finch ("Scout") as an adult. Mary Badham portrays Scout as a child in the film.
She received an Emmy Award for Outstanding Single Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role for her appearance in the episode, "A Cardinal Act of Mercy" (1963), of the television series, Ben Casey (1961–1966), and an Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or a Special for her appearance in the 1984 television adaptation of Tennessee Williams's Southern melodrama Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, this time as Big Mama.
Last years
Stanley did not act during her later years, preferring the role of teacher in New York City, Los Angeles, and later Santa Fe, New Mexico, where she died.
She was inducted into the New Mexico Entertainment Hall of Fame in 2012.
Personal life
Stanley was married four times: to Bruce Hall (1945–1946), Curt Conway (1949–1956), Alfred Ryder (1958–1964), and Joseph Siegel (1964–1967). All four marriages ended in divorce.
She had three children: one by Curt Conway; one by Brooks Clift (brother of Montgomery Clift), while she was married to Conway; and one by Alfred Ryder (Laurie). During her marriage to Ryder, Stanley converted to Judaism.
Death
Stanley died of uterine cancer at a nursing home in Santa Fe at the age of 76. She was survived by her brother Justin, her three children, and several nephews and nieces. A biography, Female Brando: the Legend of Kim Stanley (2006), by Jon Krampner, was published by Back Stage Books, a division of Watson-Guptill.
Stage work
Partial listing of stage work:
Filmography
Film
Television
See also
List of American film actresses
List of American television actresses
References
External links
Telegraph obituary
1925 births
2001 deaths
20th-century American actresses
Actresses from New Mexico
Actresses from New York City
American film actresses
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Scottish descent
American stage actresses
American television actresses
Deaths from cancer in New Mexico
Converts to Judaism
Deaths from uterine cancer
Donaldson Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from Tularosa, New Mexico
Actors from Santa Fe, New Mexico
University of New Mexico alumni
Jewish American actresses
20th-century American Jews
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynasty%20%281981%20TV%20series%29
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Dynasty (1981 TV series)
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Dynasty is an American prime time television soap opera that aired on ABC from January 12, 1981, to May 11, 1989. The series, created by Richard and Esther Shapiro and produced by Aaron Spelling, revolves around the Carringtons, a wealthy family residing in Denver, Colorado. Dynasty stars John Forsythe as oil magnate Blake Carrington, Linda Evans as his new wife Krystle, and later Joan Collins as his former wife Alexis.
Dynasty was conceived by ABC to compete with CBS's prime time series Dallas. Ratings for the show's first season were unimpressive, but a revamp for the second season that included the arrival of Collins as scheming Alexis saw ratings enter the top 20. By the fall of 1982, it was a top 10 show, and by the spring of 1985, it was the #1 show in the United States. The series declined considerably in popularity during its final two seasons, and it was ultimately cancelled in the spring of 1989 after nine seasons and 220 episodes. A two-part miniseries, Dynasty: The Reunion, aired in October 1991. A reboot series with a new cast premiered on The CW in October 2017.
Dynasty was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best TV Drama Series every year from 1981 to 1986, winning in 1983. The series spawned a successful line of fashion and luxury products, and also a spin-off series called The Colbys. Other notable cast members included Pamela Sue Martin, Lloyd Bochner, Heather Locklear, Catherine Oxenberg, Michael Nader, Diahann Carroll, Emma Samms, Rock Hudson, Kate O'Mara and Stephanie Beacham.
Series history
Development
Aaron Spelling, already well known for his successful ABC series, including Starsky and Hutch, Charlie's Angels, The Love Boat, Fantasy Island, Vega$ and Hart to Hart, took on Richard and Esther Shapiro's vision of a rich and powerful family who "lived and sinned" in a 48-room Denver mansion. Esther Shapiro said that an inspiration for the show was I, Claudius, a fictionalized depiction of the Julio-Claudian dynasty of Roman emperors. Shapiro said in 1985, "We wanted to do something that would be fun, an American fantasy. We thought people had seen enough stories where families fell apart. We wanted a strong, nineteenth-century sort of family where people were in conflict but loved each other in spite of everything."
Intended by ABC to be a competitor for CBS's Dallas, the working title for Dynasty was Oil. In early drafts of the pilot script, the two main families featured in the series were known as the Parkhursts and Corbys; by the time production began, they had been renamed the Carringtons and Colbys. George Peppard was cast as series patriarch Blake Carrington, but ultimately had difficulties dealing with the somewhat unsympathetic role, and was quickly replaced with John Forsythe. Filmed in 1980, the pilot was among many delayed due to a strike precipitated by animosity between the television networks and the partnership of the Screen Actors Guild and the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. Dynasty finally premiered on ABC as a three-hour event on January 12, 1981.
During its run, Dynasty explored issues such as rape, homosexuality, and racial integration, and put middle-aged women in the forefront. Acknowledging that the show is, however, primarily entertaining, producer Douglas S. Cramer said, "We walk a fine line, just this side of camp. Careful calculations are made. We sense that while it might be wonderful for Krystle and Alexis to have a catfight in a koi pond, it would be inappropriate for Joan to smack Linda with a koi."
Carringtons
As Dynasty begins, powerful oil tycoon Blake Carrington (John Forsythe) is about to marry the younger Krystle Jennings (Linda Evans), his former secretary. Beautiful, earnest, and new to Blake's world, Krystle finds a hostile reception in the Carrington household—the staff patronizes her, and Blake's headstrong and promiscuous daughter Fallon (Pamela Sue Martin) resents her. Though devoted to Krystle, Blake himself is too preoccupied with his company, Denver-Carrington, and blind to Krystle's predicament. Her only ally is her stepson Steven (Al Corley), whose complicated relationship with Blake stems from their fundamental political differences and Steven's reluctance to step into his role as future leader of the Carrington empire. Meanwhile, Fallon, better suited to follow in Blake's footsteps, is (as a woman) underestimated by and considered little more than a trophy to her father. She channels her energies into toying with various male suitors, including the Carrington chauffeur Michael Culhane (Wayne Northrop). At the end of the three-hour premiere episode "Oil", Steven finally confronts his father, criticizing Blake's capitalistic values and seemingly amoral business practices. Blake explodes, revealing the secret of which Steven thought his father was unaware: Blake is disgusted by Steven's homosexuality, and his refusal to "conform" sets father and son at odds for some time.
In counterpoint to the Carringtons are the Blaisdels; Denver-Carrington geologist Matthew (Bo Hopkins)—unhappily married to the emotionally fragile Claudia (Pamela Bellwood)—is Krystle's ex-lover. Returning from an extended assignment in the Middle East, Matthew quits and goes into business with wildcatter Walter Lankershim (Dale Robertson), and as Blake's behavior begins pushing Krystle toward Matthew, the men are set as both business and romantic rivals. Blake is further enraged when Steven goes to work for longtime friend Matthew, in whom Steven sees qualities lacking in Blake. Though previously in a relationship with another man, Steven finds himself drawn to Claudia, who is putting her life back together after spending time in a psychiatric hospital. Esther Shapiro later said in the DVD commentary of the first season, "The audience told us almost immediately: All they wanted to do was be in the mansion. [They] couldn't care less about the oil fields. They didn't want to see grubby rooms."
Fallon makes a secret business deal with Blake's old friend and more-powerful business rival Cecil Colby (Lloyd Bochner), marrying his nephew Jeff (John James) to secure Cecil's financial assistance for her father. When Blake stumbles upon Steven in an innocent goodbye embrace with his former lover Ted Dinard (Mark Withers), Blake angrily pushes the two men apart; Ted falls backward and hits his head, the injury proving fatal. Blake is arrested and charged with murder, and an angry Steven testifies that Ted's death had been the result of malicious intent. A veiled surprise witness for the prosecution appears in the season finale "The Testimony", and Fallon gasps in recognition: "Oh my God, that's my mother!"
The first season of Dynasty was "modestly popular" among viewers, ranking #28 with a 19.0 Nielsen rating, while #1 series Dallas achieved a 31.8 rating that season. ABC reran season one in summer 1981 at 10:00 PM on Wednesdays, the new time slot for season two, and initiated a media blitz to promote the series.
"Enter Alexis"
In the first episode of the second season, titled "Enter Alexis", the mysterious witness removes her sunglasses to reveal British actress Joan Collins as a new arrival to the series. Collins's Alexis Carrington blazed a trail across the show and its story lines; the additions of Collins and the "formidable writing team" of Eileen and Robert Mason Pollock are generally credited with Dynasty subsequent rise in the Nielsen ratings. The Pollocks "soft-pedaled the business angle" of the show and "bombarded viewers with every soap opera staple in the book, presented at such a fast clip that a new tragedy seemed to befall the Carrington family every five minutes." Alexis's testimony notwithstanding, Krystle is immediately put off by the former Mrs. Carrington's condescending attitude and manipulations; Krystle's subsequent discovery that Alexis had caused her miscarriage by intentionally startling her horse with a gunshot settles Alexis as Krystle's implacable nemesis. Other new characters of the season are the psychiatrist Nick Toscanni (James Farentino), who tries to seduce Krystle while bedding Fallon and plotting against Blake; and Krystle's greedy niece Sammy Jo Dean (Heather Locklear), who marries Steven for his money. The season finale sees Blake left for dead on a mountain after a fight with Nick. By that time, Dynasty had entered the Top 20. Esther Shapiro lamented in the season one DVD commentary, "Had the series been left to us, and been a less huge hit, I think we would have seen these characters realized pretty much the way they are [in season one]. When Alexis came into it, it changed the tenor...And that's the way they are now on television: you have your traditional villain, and I think that plays to a different denominator."
In the third season (ranked fifth in the ratings), Alexis marries Cecil on his deathbed and acquires his company, ColbyCo. In the meantime, Adam Carrington (Gordon Thomson), the long-lost son of Alexis and Blake who had been kidnapped in infancy, reappears in Denver and almost starts an affair with Fallon before they discover they are siblings. Also introduced are Krystle's ex-husband, tennis pro Mark Jennings (Geoffrey Scott), and Kirby Anders (Kathleen Beller), the daughter of longtime Carrington majordomo Joseph (Lee Bergere). Kirby catches Adam's eye but weds Jeff after his divorce from Fallon. In the middle of the season, news that Steven has been killed in an accident in Indonesia comes to the Carringtons; he survives, but undergoes plastic surgery and returns to Denver (portrayed by Jack Coleman). In the third-season cliffhanger, Alexis lures Krystle to Steven's cabin and the two are locked inside while the cabin is set ablaze by an unseen arsonist, later revealed to be Joseph, who had meant for the fire to kill only Alexis and not Krystle.
With the show's popularity soaring in the fourth season (now the third-most-watched program of 1983–1984), former President Gerald Ford guest-starred as himself in 1983, along with his wife Betty and former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. New characters included the charming and ambitious Farnsworth "Dex" Dexter (Michael Nader), the scheming public relations assistant Tracy Kendall (Deborah Adair), the unscrupulous playboy Peter De Vilbis (Helmut Berger), and Blake's illegitimate African American half-sister, Dominique Deveraux (Diahann Carroll). The main story lines included a custody battle between Steven and Blake over Steven and Sammy Jo's son Danny, and a false accusation of illegal weapons dealings orchestrated by Alexis to ruin Blake's financial empire. In the season finale, Fallon disappears just before her second wedding to Jeff (now divorced of Kirby) as her car seemingly collides with a truck on a stormy night (to accommodate the departure of Pamela Sue Martin from the series), while Alexis is arrested for the murder of Mark Jennings.
Driven by the new head writer and producer Camille Marchetta, who had devised the wildly successful "Who Shot J.R.?" scenario on Dallas five years earlier, Dynasty hit No. 1 in the fifth season. In the story, Alexis is exonerated and her secret daughter Amanda Bedford (Catherine Oxenberg) comes to Denver and discovers that Blake is her father. Steven has married Claudia but leaves her for a man and Claudia starts an affair with Adam. The marriage of Blake and Krystle is in crisis after the birth of their daughter Krystina, Dominique struggles to be accepted as a Carrington and loses her husband Brady Lloyd (Billy Dee Williams) in the process, and Sammy Jo discovers she is the heiress to a huge fortune. At the end of the season, an amnesiac Fallon (now portrayed by actress Emma Samms) reappears while the rest of the family go to Europe for the wedding of Amanda and Prince Michael of Moldavia (Michael Praed).
During the season, Dynasty attracted controversy when Rock Hudson's real-life HIV-positive status was revealed after a romantic storyline between his character Daniel Reece and Evans's Krystle. Hudson's scenes required him to kiss Evans and, as news that he had contracted AIDS broke, there was speculation Evans would be at risk. The event led to a Screen Actors Guild rule requiring the notification of performers in advance of any scenes that require open-mouth kissing.
Over the run of the series, the rivalry between Alexis and Krystle is a primary driver for the melodrama. Alexis resents Krystle's role as Blake's wife and mistress of the Carrington household, and tries to undermine her at every opportunity, while Krystle makes increasingly bold efforts to keep Alexis from interfering in the lives of their mutual loved ones. The pair have numerous verbal spats that sometimes lead to physical altercations. "Unfortunately, the thing people remember about this show is the catfights," noted Collins in 1991. Entertainment columnist Sue Cameron said in 2018 that the catfights became so popular that the press were invited to watch the filming of them. Krystle and Alexis famously brawl for the first time in Alexis's studio, and then later in a lily pond. They also hurl mud at each other at a beauty salon, and slide down a ravine together into a puddle of mud, before having their final showdown brawl in a fashion studio in the 1991 miniseries Dynasty: The Reunion. Later in the series, Alexis also has a catfight with Blake's half-sister Dominque (Diahann Carroll), and then her own cousin Sable (Stephanie Beacham). She even has a brawl with her on-again, off-again lover and one-time husband, Dex (Michael Nader). Krystle's niece Sammy Jo (Heather Locklear) also has her fair share of catfights, as she first engages in a slap fight with Claudia (Pamela Bellwood) before taking on Amanda (Catherine Oxenberg) in a brawl in a swimming pool. Sammy Jo later fights Fallon (Emma Samms) in a horse trough and the mud around it. Evans even battles with herself at the climax of a 1985–1986 storyline in which Krystle is imprisoned and replaced by a lookalike named Rita (also played by Evans); Krystle ends up battling Rita in order to escape. In 2008, Entertainment Weekly termed Alexis and Krystle's catfights "the gold standard of scratching and clawing."
"Moldavian Massacre"
Undoubtedly the most famous Dynasty cliffhanger is the so-called "Moldavian Massacre" which occurs during the May 15, 1985 fifth-season finale. Amanda and Prince Michael's royal wedding is interrupted by terrorists during a military coup in Moldavia, riddling the chapel with bullets and leaving all of the major characters lying seemingly lifeless. Esther Shapiro later said, "It was a fairy-tale terrorist attack. It was beautifully shot, like a Goya painting." It became the most talked-about episode of any TV series during the calendar year of 1985, with a viewership of 25.9 million. In 2011, Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly named it one of the seven "Unforgettable Cliff-Hangers" of prime time dramatic television.
When the series resumed on September 25, 1985, viewers quickly learned that only two minor characters of the series had died: Steven's boyfriend Luke Fuller (Billy Campbell), who was mortally wounded saving Claudia's life, and Jeff's love interest Lady Ashley Mitchell (Ali MacGraw). In the 2006 CBS special Dynasty Reunion: Catfights & Caviar, Gordon Thomson stated that it was the "follow-up" that was the letdown, not the cliffhanger itself. John James stated in the 2001 episode of E! The True Hollywood Story featuring Dynasty that the Moldavian Massacre was when the show "maxed out" and "overdosed" on outrageousness. Creator Esther Shapiro stated in 2001 that she thought the cliffhanger was "well produced" but that they "could've done something else".
Joan Collins was conspicuously absent from the season six opener; she was in a tense contract renegotiation with the show, seeking an increased salary. As a result, the first episode had to be rewritten to explain her absence and many of Alexis's scenes were given to Krystle. Collins's demands were met (she reportedly signed a $60,000 per episode contract) and she returned to the series in the season's second episode. Despite Collins's absence, the first episode of season six garnered a 28.1 rating (becoming the most watched episode of the series) as viewers wanted to see who survived the season five cliffhanger.
Continuing seasons and decline
Although still a top ten series, Dynasty dropped from first to seventh place in the ratings for its sixth season, which featured a look-alike woman named Rita who poses as Krystle (with both roles played by Linda Evans), introduced Alexis's sister Caress (Kate O'Mara), and launched the spin-off series The Colbys. Spurned by Blake, Alexis finds his estranged brother Ben (Christopher Cazenove) and the duo successfully plot to strip Blake of his fortune. Steven's budding relationship with the closeted Bart Fallmont (Kevin Conroy) is ruined by Adam's business-motivated public revelation that Bart is gay. Amanda, who has divorced Prince Michael, fights with Sammy Jo for the favors of Clay Fallmont (Ted McGinley). The May 21, 1986 season finale finds Blake strangling Alexis while the rest of the cast is in peril at the La Mirage hotel, which has been accidentally set afire by Claudia.
As the seventh season begins in September 1986, Blake stops short of killing Alexis, whom he had been strangling in the previous season's cliffhanger, after learning she had bought his mansion and was evicting him and Krystle. Claudia has died in the fire she set, and Amanda (now played by Karen Cellini) is rescued by a returning Michael Culhane, Blake's chauffeur from the first season. Blake turns the tables on Ben and Alexis and recovers his wealth, but loses his memory after an oil rig explosion. Alexis finds Blake and, with everyone believing he is dead, perpetuates the belief that they are still married. Living with a clean slate, Alexis finds herself softening to Blake but ultimately tells him the truth as he reunites with Krystle. Krystina receives a heart transplant but is later temporarily kidnapped by Sarah Curtis (Cassie Yates), the mother of the dead girl from whom Krystina received her new heart; Sammy Jo's marriage to Clay crumbles and she falls into bed with Steven; Amanda leaves town; and Ben's daughter Leslie (Terri Garber) arrives. Adam's season-long romance with Blake's secretary Dana Waring (Leann Hunley) culminates in a wedding, which is punctuated in the May 6, 1987 season finale by Alexis's car plunging off a bridge into a river and the violent return of a vengeful Matthew Blaisdel. Although the first episode of season seven premiered with a high Nielsen rating of a 20.1, the competition with Magnum, P.I., now in the same time slot, and the constant storyline changes led to Dynasty falling out of the top 20 to No. 25.
With The Colbys cancelled, Jeff and Fallon return for Dynasty eighth season, their marriage falling apart again. Matthew, returned from the dead but troubled by headaches, holds the Carringtons hostage in hopes that Krystle will run away with him. Steven ends the siege by reluctantly stabbing his old friend to death. Alexis is saved by a handsome, mysterious stranger, Sean Rowan (James Healey). She later marries him, not realizing that he is Joseph's son and Kirby's brother, bent on revenge. Steven and Sammy Jo's reconciliation is short-lived, and the pursuit of children unravels Adam and Dana's marriage. Sean begins to manipulate and destroy the Carringtons from the inside, and he fights Dex to the death in the March 30, 1988 season finale. Blake, who failed being elected as governor of Colorado, comes home to find Krystle missing and their bedroom in shambles. For the first time since its debut, the show had dropped out of the top 30, to No. 41 in the ratings.
David Paulsen joined Dynasty as Executive Supervising Producer for its ninth season, and took over the plotting of the series. In a money-saving move, Evans appeared in only six episodes early in the season as an ailing Krystle seeks brain surgery in Switzerland but is left in an offscreen coma. Similarly to cut costs, Collins was contracted for only 13 out of the season's 22 episodes. Former The Colbys character Sable (Stephanie Beacham) was brought in as both a platonic confidante for Blake and a nemesis for Alexis, and Tracy Scoggins also reprised her Colbys role as Sable's daughter Monica. A storyline involving a murder and an old secret tying the Carrington, Colby, and Dexter families together spanned the season as Alexis and Sable sparred first over business and then over Dex. The series moved from Wednesday to Thursday, but ratings continued to decline and Dynasty was ranked No. 69 in the United States for the season. In May 1989, new ABC entertainment president Robert A. Iger cancelled Dynasty, making the last episode of season nine the series finale. The show ended on a cliffhanger with Blake, Fallon, Krystina, Alexis, and Dex in mortal peril.
Reunion miniseries
As an attempt to wrap up plotlines left unresolved by Dynasty cancellation, ABC produced a two-part miniseries titled Dynasty: The Reunion, which aired in October 1991.
Many of the cast members, including John Forsythe, Joan Collins, John James, Heather Locklear, and Emma Samms agreed to reprise their roles in early 1991. It was unknown during pre-production which characters the reunion film would include. Linda Evans was brought back last-minute, just before the final script was penned, as was Kathleen Beller. Jack Coleman, who had played Steven Carrington from 1982 to 1988, was unavailable to reprise his role, so he was replaced with Al Corley, who originated the part in 1981. Gordon Thomson also originally agreed to appear in the film but ABC refused to align the shooting schedule with his work on the daytime series Santa Barbara, and replaced him with Robin Sachs.
Dynasty: The Reunion aired on October 20 and October 22, 1991. The first night averaged 23 million viewers, the second night averaged 20.3 million. Critical reviews were not favorable, with many feeling the script was poor and that the film was merely an attempt of ABC's wish to "cash-in" on an old series.
Production
Dynasty was shot at Warner Hollywood Studios in West Hollywood, California. The Filoli estate in Woodside, California, was used as the 48-room Carrington mansion in the opening credits, establishing shots, and some outdoor scenes in the pilot episode. Some of the other exterior shots of the Carrington mansion (including the lily pond catfight) were shot at a 17-room Palladian house called Arden Villa in Pasadena, California.
Costume designer Nolan Miller designed approximately 3,000 costumes over the course of the series, saying "I never want to see them wearing the same outfit twice". His weekly wardrobe budget was $35,000.
John Forsythe was the only cast member to appear in all 220 episodes of the series. Linda Evans appeared in 204 of the 220 episodes, leaving the series after appearing in only six episodes of the ninth and final season. Joan Collins, who did not join the cast until the second season, also missed one episode in season 6 and nine episodes in season 9, and was consequently present for a total of 195 episodes. Forsythe and John James were the only two original cast members to appear in the final episode.
Episodes
US Nielsen ratings
Dynasty was a top 30 show from its first through seventh season, reaching No. 1 for the 1984–85 season with a Nielsen rating of 25.0 or an average tune-in audience of 21.2 million homes per episode.
Syndication
Dynasty was initially syndicated in reruns by Metromedia Producers Corporation in September 1985, on stations such as KTTV 11 in Los Angeles, and WNEW-TV 5 in New York City, while season 6 began airing on ABC. This initial syndication package consisted of all 117 episodes (originally 114 on ABC) that had been produced up to this point.
Impact and reception
At the height of Dynasty popularity in 1985, Esther Shapiro said, "we've done important things for women with Dynasty. For middle-aged women. You know, to let them know that it's OK to want power and be romantic." Collins said in 2018, "Every single person on Dynasty was good-looking. You wanted to see rich, good-looking people fighting with each other." In 2012, The New York Times credited the popularity of Nolan Miller's costumes with "setting a trend for thick shoulder pads during a decade of power dressing".
Awards and nominations
Dynasty was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best TV Drama Series every year from 1981 to 1986, winning in 1984. Forsythe and Collins were also nominated for Best Actor and Best Actress every year from 1981 to 1986, and Evans was nominated for Best Actress every year from 1981 to 1985. Evans won in 1982 (tying with Barbara Bel Geddes of rival series Dallas), Forsythe won in 1983 and 1984, and Collins won in 1983. John James and Gordon Thomson were also nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film (James in 1985, and Thomson in 1987).
The series was nominated for 24 Emmy Awards over the course of its run, but only won once, for Outstanding Costumes for a Series in 1984. The show was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series in 1982. From 1982 to 1984, Forsythe received three consecutive nominations for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series. Evans and Collins were each nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Evans in 1983, and Collins in 1984); both actresses lost to Tyne Daly for her work on the CBS police drama series Cagney and Lacey.
Dynasty was also an award winner at the People's Choice Awards. Evans won Favorite Female Performer in a New TV Program in 1982, and Favorite Female TV Performer in 1983. In 1984, she won Favorite Female TV Performer, and the series was named Favorite TV Drama in a tie with the NBC drama Hill Street Blues. Evans and the series again won those same honors in 1985, with Evans sharing the Favorite Female TV Performer prize with her co-star, Collins. Evans won the award again in 1986, and the series tied with Miami Vice for Favorite TV Dramatic Program. In 1987, Dynasty tied with the CBS series Dallas for the award Favorite Nighttime Dramatic Serial. Dynasty won Soap Opera Digest Awards in 1984 and 1985 for Outstanding Primetime Soap. In 1984 Forsythe, Evans and Collins won the awards for Outstanding Lead Actor, Actress and Villainess. John Forsythe won another award for Outstanding Actor in a Mature Role. Evans and Collins won the awards in the same categories in 1985, while Catherine Oxenberg won two awards, for Outstanding Supporting Actress and Outstanding Female Newcomer.
Spin-offs and television events
A spin-off, The Colbys, debuted in 1985, as Fallon "returned from the dead" and ex-husband Jeff followed her to Los Angeles, where they became embroiled in the family intrigues of Jeff's wealthy California relatives. Pamela Sue Martin had been asked to reprise the role of Fallon but declined which led to the casting of Emma Samms in the role. Ratings for The Colbys were poor and the show lasted for just two seasons, ending in 1987. Both Fallon and Jeff returned to Dynasty after the series ended.
The cable channel SOAPnet aired repeats of all nine seasons. In January 2004, creator Esther Shapiro participated in a marathon of the show's episodes, called "Serial Bowl: Alexis vs. Krystle", giving behind-the-scenes tidbits and factoids.
On January 2, 2005, ABC aired a fictionalized television movie titled Dynasty: The Making of a Guilty Pleasure, chronicling the creation and backstage details of Dynasty. It received poor reviews both for content and for historical accuracy, and was criticized by Forsythe, Evans, and Collins in separate press releases. Filmed in Australia, the movie starred Bartholomew John as Forsythe, Melora Hardin as Evans, and Alice Krige as Collins. The film begins with a disclaimer noting the inclusion of "time compression and composite and fictionalized characters and incidents," and takes dramatic license with both the historical timeline and events, as well as the fictional storylines originally presented on Dynasty.
On May 2, 2006, a non-fiction television special named Dynasty Reunion: Catfights & Caviar aired on CBS. It assembled former cast members from the series, including John Forsythe, Joan Collins, and Linda Evans, as well as the four original actors who played the Carrington children (Pamela Sue Martin, Al Corley, Gordon Thomson, and Catherine Oxenberg). Heather Locklear, John James, and Diahann Carroll declined to participate, but cast members Pamela Bellwood and Emma Samms were included in prerecorded interviews. The special showed various clips from the series, as the cast reminisced about their time on the show. The special was filmed at the Filoli estate, the location originally used for exterior shots of the Carringtons' mansion in the series.
On January 26, 2015, Home & Family hosted a Dynasty reunion for one episode on the Hallmark Channel. It assembled former cast members from the series, including Pamela Sue Martin, Al Corley, Gordon Thomson, John James and Pamela Bellwood. The reunion episode focused on the cast's memories of the show, both on and off-screen; a collection of gowns worn by the female characters; as well as members of the cast participating in several cooking, craft and fashion segments. The reunion episode also featured a new opening of the show's iconic theme song, which included Home & Family hosts Mark Steines and Christina Ferrare. Linda Evans did not participate on-air in the reunion episode, but sent a message to the cast, which was read on air.
Commercial tie-ins
The creations of series costume designer Nolan Miller became so popular that Dynasty spawned its own line of women's apparel called "The Dynasty Collection"—a series of haute couture designs based on costumes worn by Joan Collins, Linda Evans and Diahann Carroll. A men's fashion line followed. Esther Shapiro herself came up with the idea to produce licensed products that included sheets and towels, jewelry and furs, 'Forever Krystle' perfume, and 'Carrington' men's cologne. Linda Evans was hired as a spokesperson for the beverage Crystal Light due to her character's name.
Two novels were published, based on scripts from early episodes—Dynasty (1983) and Alexis Returns (1984)—written by Eileen Lottman. In 1984, Doubleday/Dolphin published the companion book Dynasty: The Authorized Biography of the Carringtons, which included an introduction by Esther Shapiro. The Authorized Biography featured storyline synopses in the form of extended biographies of the main characters, descriptions of primary locations (like the Carrington Estate and La Mirage) and dozens of photos from the series.
Home media
The first season of Dynasty was released on Region 1 DVD on April 19, 2005, by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. The rights to subsequent seasons (and Season 1 rights for other regions) reverted to CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) in November 2006. Seasons 1 through 4 were made available on iTunes in May 2012.
Reboot series
The Shapiros announced on January 12, 2011, that they had written a Dynasty prequel feature film script set in the 1960s, and were shopping it to studios for a possible film franchise. In a September 2011 interview, Dynasty actress Joan Collins chatted about a Dynasty television revival: "I've been in constant contact with Esther Shapiro, who wrote it, and apparently they've written a script."
In September 2016, it was announced that a Dynasty reboot was in development at The CW, co-written by Josh Schwartz, Stephanie Savage, and Sallie Patrick. The project received a series order in May 2017. With the Shapiros also producing, the new series finds heiress Fallon facing off against her soon-to-be stepmother Cristal, a Hispanic woman. The CW's Dynasty features Grant Show as Blake; Elizabeth Gillies as Fallon; Sam Adegoke as Jeff; Robert Christopher Riley as Blake's chauffeur Michael; James Mackay as Steven; Rafael de la Fuente as Sam Jones, a gay male version of Sammy Jo; Alan Dale as Carrington majordomo Anders; Nick Wechsler as Matthew Blaisdel; Brianna Brown as Claudia; Wakeema Hollis as Jeff's sister Monica Colby; Maddison Brown as Kirby, Sam Underwood as Adam; and Michael Michele as Dominique. Nathalie Kelley initially appears as Cristal in season one, but is replaced with Ana Brenda Contreras in season two, who is then recast with Daniella Alonso in season three. Nicollette Sheridan plays Alexis in seasons one and two, and Elaine Hendrix steps into the role for season three.
The new Dynasty premiered in the US on October 11, 2017. The series was later renewed for a second, third, and fourth season.
References and notes
External links
Der Denver Clan – German language Dynasty site
Dynastie – French language Dynasty site
Where are the stars of Dynasty now?
1981 American television series debuts
1989 American television series endings
American Broadcasting Company original programming
1980s American LGBT-related drama television series
American primetime television dramas
American primetime television soap operas
American television soap operas
Best Drama Series Golden Globe winners
Culture of Denver
English-language television shows
Nielsen ratings winners
Television series by CBS Studios
Television series by 20th Century Fox Television
Television series by Metromedia
Television series by Spelling Television
Television shows set in Colorado
Television shows adapted into films
Cultural depictions of Henry Kissinger
Cultural depictions of Gerald Ford
Mass media portrayals of the upper class
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9ance%20on%20a%20Wet%20Afternoon
|
Séance on a Wet Afternoon
|
Séance on a Wet Afternoon is a 1964 British thriller film directed by Bryan Forbes, and starring Kim Stanley, Richard Attenborough, Nanette Newman, Mark Eden and Patrick Magee. Based on the 1961 novel by Mark McShane, the film follows a mentally unstable medium who convinces her husband to kidnap a child so she can help the police solve the crime and achieve renown for her abilities. Kim Stanley was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role in the film.
Plot
Myra Savage (Stanley) is a medium who holds séances in her home. Her husband Billy (Attenborough), unable to work because of asthma and cowed by Myra's domineering personality, assists in her séances. Myra's life and psychic work are dominated by her relationship with the spirit of her son Arthur, who died at birth.
At Myra's insistence, Billy kidnaps Amanda (Donner), the young daughter of a wealthy couple, Mr and Mrs Clayton (Eden and Newman), confining her in a room in the Savage home, whilst Myra impersonates a nurse to deceive the girl into believing she is hospitalised. Myra insists she is "borrowing" the girl to demonstrate her psychic abilities to the police in helping them find her. Although they ask for a £25,000 ransom, they plan to return the money with the girl after Myra has become famous for helping find her. Myra visits the Claytons, stating that she is a professional medium and claiming that she had a dream involving their daughter; Clayton is dismissive but his wife believes that Myra may know something. Mrs Clayton then comes to one of Myra's seances.
After Billy hides Amanda, anticipating (correctly) the police coming to the house to investigate, he collects the ransom money, burying it in their garden before taking Amanda back to their house, but she has a high temperature and Billy wants to get a doctor, which Myra violently disagrees with. Myra's plan goes awry as her unsteady mental health begins to fray. Believing that her dead son Arthur wants Amanda to be with him, she tells Billy to kill her; he wants to refuse, realising that his wife is completely unhinged, but he seems to lack the will power to resist her. He takes Amanda into the woods and places her under a tree; it is not clear if she is dead or just sedated.
When the police ask Myra to conduct a séance to help them find the missing girl – as she had hoped they would – she breaks down during the séance and reveals, as if in a psychic trance, what she and Billy have done. As the trance continues, she senses that the girl was not killed. Billy tells the police where he hid the ransom money and reveals that he left Amanda unconscious where she would be found by scouts who were camping nearby, which the police already know, confirming that she is all right.
Cast
Production
Casting
According to Jon Krampner's biography Female Brando: The Legend of Kim Stanley, Forbes and Attenborough initially had encountered difficulty in casting the role of Myra. Deborah Kerr and Simone Signoret originally were approached for the part, but both actresses turned down the role.
Forbes and Attenborough then contacted Kim Stanley, an American theatre and television actress whose previous film work was limited to starring in the 1958 feature The Goddess and providing the uncredited opening and closing narration for the 1962 adaptation of To Kill a Mockingbird. Attenborough later was quoted as stating that Stanley was the best choice, noting that the "complexity of dramatic impression vital to the credibility of Myra was hard to find. Also an intellectual ability to follow and understand the character. I didn’t believe Simone (Signoret) could convey, as Kim did, the otherworldliness which this woman inhabited in her private fantasies."
Shooting
The film was shot at Pinewood Studios and at various locations around London including Trafalgar Square, Wimbledon, several London Underground stations and the derelict Staines Greyhound Stadium. The film's sets were designed by the art director Ray Simm.
Reception
Critical reaction in the British and American media was overwhelmingly strong. London's Daily Express called the film "superbly atmospheric", and The Sunday Telegraph dubbed it "compassionate, intelligent and absorbing." The New York Herald Tribune called Séance on a Wet Afternoon "the perfect psychological suspense thriller and a flawless film to boot", and The New York Times stated "it isn’t often you see a melodrama that sends you forth with a lump in your throat, as well as a set of muscles weary from being tense for nigh two hours."
The film was a commercial failure, and its losses - along with those of Life for Ruth - caused the demise of the Allied Film Makers company.
Awards and nominations
Remakes
Séance on a Wet Afternoon was remade in 2000 as the Japanese horror film Seance (, Kōrei), directed by Kiyoshi Kurosawa. An opera of the same name based on the film, created by Broadway composer Stephen Schwartz, had its world premiere on 26 September 2009, at the Granada Theater at Opera Santa Barbara in California.
References
Bibliography
Paul Wells, Alan Burton & Tim O'Sullivan. Liberal Directions: Basil Dearden and Postwar British Film Culture. Flicks Books, 1997.
External links
1964 films
1964 crime drama films
1960s English-language films
1960s crime thriller films
1960s psychological thriller films
British films
British black-and-white films
British crime thriller films
British psychological thriller films
Edgar Award-winning works
Films about child abduction
Films about psychic powers
Films adapted into operas
Films and television featuring Greyhound racing
Films based on British novels
Films directed by Bryan Forbes
Films produced by Richard Attenborough
Films scored by John Barry (composer)
Films set in London
Films shot at Pinewood Studios
Films shot in London
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textus%20Receptus
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Textus Receptus
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In Christianity, the term Textus Receptus (Latin for "received text") refers to all printed editions of the Greek New Testament from Erasmus' Novum Instrumentum omne (1516) to the 1633 Elzevir edition. It was the most commonly used text type for Protestant denominations.
The biblical Textus Receptus constituted the translation-base for the original German Luther Bible, the translation of the New Testament into English by William Tyndale, the King James Version, the Spanish Reina-Valera translation, the Czech Bible of Kralice, and most Reformation-era New Testament translations throughout Western and Central Europe. The text originated with the first printed Greek New Testament, published in 1516, a work undertaken in Basel by the Dutch Catholic scholar, priest and monk Desiderius Erasmus.
The term textus receptus can also designate the text of a literary work which is generally accepted.
History
Erasmus had been working for years on two projects: a collation of Greek texts and a fresh Latin New Testament. In 1512, he began his work on the Latin New Testament. He collected all the Vulgate manuscripts that he could find to create a critical edition. Then, he polished the Latin, declaring, "It is only fair that Paul should address the Romans in somewhat better Latin." In the earlier phases of the project, he never mentioned a Greek text: "My mind is so excited at the thought of emending Jerome’s text, with notes, that I seem to myself inspired by some god. I have already almost finished emending him by collating a large number of ancient manuscripts, and this I am doing at enormous personal expense."
While his intentions for publishing a fresh Latin translation are clear, it is less clear why he included the Greek text. Some speculate that he intended on producing a critical Greek text or that he wanted to beat the Complutensian Polyglot into print, but there is no evidence to support. Rather, his motivation may have been simpler: he included the Greek text to prove the superiority of his Latin version. He wrote, "There remains the New Testament translated by me, with the Greek facing, and notes on it by me." He further demonstrated the reason for the inclusion of the Greek text when defending his work: "But one thing the facts cry out, and it can be clear, as they say, even to a blind man, that often through the translator's clumsiness or inattention the Greek has been wrongly rendered; often the true and genuine reading has been corrupted by ignorant scribes, which we see happen every day, or altered by scribes who are half-taught and half-asleep." Erasmus' new work was published by Froben of Basel in 1516, becoming the first published Greek New Testament, the Novum Instrumentum omne, diligenter ab Erasmo Rot. Recognitum et Emendatum. He used manuscripts: 1, 1rK, 2e, 2ap, 4ap, 7, 817.
The second edition used the more familiar term Testamentum instead of Instrumentum, and eventually became a major source for Luther's German translation. For the second edition (1519) Erasmus used also Minuscule 3.
Typographical errors, attributed to the rush to complete the work, abounded in the published text. Erasmus also lacked a complete copy of the Book of Revelation and translated the last six verses back into Greek from the Latin Vulgate to finish his edition. Erasmus adjusted the text in many places to correspond with readings found in the Vulgate or as quoted in the Church Fathers; consequently, although the Textus Receptus is classified by scholars as a late Byzantine text, it differs in nearly 2,000 readings from the standard form of that text-type, as represented by the "Majority Text" of Hodges and Farstad (Wallace, 1989). The edition was a sell-out commercial success and was reprinted in 1519, with most but not all of the typographical errors corrected.
Erasmus had been studying Greek New Testament manuscripts for many years, in the Netherlands, France, England and Switzerland, noting their many variants, but had only six Greek manuscripts immediately accessible to him in Basel. They all dated from the 12th Century or later, and only one came from outside the mainstream Byzantine tradition. Consequently, most modern scholars consider his text to be of dubious quality.
With the third edition of Erasmus' Greek text (1522) the Comma Johanneum was included because "Erasmus chose to avoid any occasion for slander rather than persisting in philological accuracy" even though he remained "convinced that it did not belong to the original text of l John." Popular demand for Greek New Testaments led to a flurry of further authorized and unauthorized editions in the early sixteenth century, almost all of which were based on Erasmus' work and incorporated his particular readings but typically also making a number of minor changes of their own.
The overwhelming success of Erasmus' Greek New Testament completely overshadowed the Latin text upon which he had focused. Many other publishers produced their own versions of the Greek New Testament over the next several centuries. Rather than doing their own critical work, most just relied on the well-known Erasmian text.
Robert Estienne, known as Stephanus (1503–1559), a printer from Paris, edited the Greek New Testament four times, in 1546, 1549, 1550 and 1551, the last in Geneva. The first two are called O mirificam; the third edition is a masterpiece of typographical skill. It has critical apparatus in which quoted manuscripts referred to the text. Manuscripts were marked by symbols (from α to ις). He used Polyglotta Complutensis (symbolized by α) and 15 Greek manuscripts. Among them are included Codex Bezae, Codex Regius, minuscules 4, 5, 6, 2817, 8, 9. The first step towards modern textual criticism was made. The third edition is known as the Editio Regia. The edition of 1551 contains the Latin translation of Erasmus and the Vulgate. It is not nearly as fine as the other three and is exceedingly rare. It was in this edition that the division of the New Testament into verses was for the first time introduced.
The third edition of Estienne was used by Theodore Beza (1519–1605), who edited it nine times between 1565 and 1604. In the critical apparatus of the second edition, he used the Codex Claromontanus and the Syriac New Testament published by Emmanuel Tremellius in 1569. Codex Bezae was twice referenced (as Codex Bezae and β' of Estienne).
The origin of the term Textus Receptus comes from the publisher's preface to the 1633 edition produced by Bonaventure and his nephew Abraham Elzevir who were partners in a printing business at Leiden. The preface reads, Textum ergo habes, nunc ab omnibus receptum: in quo nihil immutatum aut corruptum damus ("so you hold the text, now received by all, in which (is) nothing corrupt"). The two words textum and receptum were modified from the accusative to the nominative case to render textus receptus. Over time, that term has been retroactively applied to Erasmus' editions, as his work served as the basis of the others.
Textual criticism
John Mill (1645–1707) collated textual variants from 82 Greek manuscripts. In his Novum Testamentum Graecum, cum lectionibus variantibus MSS (Oxford 1707) he reprinted the unchanged text of the Editio Regia, but in the index he enumerated 30,000 textual variants.
Shortly after Mill published his edition, Daniel Whitby (1638–1725) attacked his work by asserting that the text of the New Testament had never been corrupted and thus equated autographs with the Textus Receptus. He considered the 30,000 variants in Mill's edition a danger to Holy Scripture and called for defending the Textus Receptus against these variants.
Johann Albrecht Bengel (1687–1752) edited in 1725 Prodromus Novi Testamenti Graeci Rectè Cautèque Adornandi and in 1734 Novum Testamentum Graecum. Bengel divided manuscripts into families and subfamilies and favoured the principle of lectio difficilior potior ("the more difficult reading is the stronger").
Johann Jakob Wettstein's apparatus was fuller than that of any previous editor. He introduced the practice of indicating the ancient manuscripts by capital Roman letters and the later manuscripts by Arabic numerals. He published in Basel Prolegomena ad Novi Testamenti Graeci (1731).
J. J. Griesbach (1745–1812) combined the principles of Bengel and Wettstein. He enlarged the Apparatus by considering more citations from the Fathers, and various versions, such as the Gothic, the Armenian, and the Philoxenian. Griesbach distinguished a Western, an Alexandrian, and a Byzantine Recension. Christian Frederick Matthaei (1744–1811) was a Griesbach opponent.
Karl Lachmann (1793–1851) was the first who broke with the Textus Receptus. His object was to restore the text to the form in which it had been read in the Ancient Church in about AD 380. He used the oldest known Greek and Latin manuscripts.
Constantin von Tischendorf's Editio Octava Critica Maior was based on Codex Sinaiticus.
Westcott and Hort published The New Testament in the Original Greek in 1881 in which they rejected what they considered to be the dated and inadequate Textus Receptus. Their text is based mainly on Codex Vaticanus in the Gospels.
Defense
Frederick von Nolan a 19th-century historian and Greek and Latin scholar, spent 28 years attempting to trace the Textus Receptus to apostolic origins. He was an ardent advocate of the supremacy of the Textus Receptus over all other editions of the Greek New Testament, and he argued that the first editors of the printed Greek New Testament intentionally selected those texts because of their superiority and disregarded other texts, which represented other text-types because of their inferiority.
It is not to be conceived that the original editors of the [Greek] New Testament were wholly destitute of plan in selecting those manuscripts, out of which they were to form the text of their printed editions. In the sequel it will appear, that they were not altogether ignorant of two classes of manuscripts; one of which contains the text which we have adopted from them; and the other that text which has been adopted by M. Griesbach.
Regarding Erasmus, Nolan stated:
Nor let it be conceived in disparagement of the great undertaking of Erasmus, that he was merely fortuitously right. Had he barely undertaken to perpetuate the tradition on which he received the sacred text he would have done as much as could be required of him, and more than sufficient to put to shame the puny efforts of those who have vainly labored to improve upon his design. [...] With respect to Manuscripts, it is indisputable that he was acquainted with every variety which is known to us, having distributed them into two principal classes, one of which corresponds with the Complutensian edition, the other with the Vatican manuscript. And he has specified the positive grounds on which he received the one and rejected the other.
The Textus Receptus was defended by John William Burgon in his The Revision Revised (1881) and also by Edward Miller in A Guide to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament (1886). Burgon supported his arguments with the opinion that the Codex Alexandrinus and Codex Ephraemi were older than the Sinaiticus and the Vaticanus; and also that the Peshitta translation into Syriac (which supports the Byzantine Text) originated in the 2nd century. Miller's arguments in favour of readings in the Textus Receptus were of the same kind. However, both Burgon and Miller believed that although the Textus Receptus was to be preferred to the Alexandrian Text, it still required to be corrected in certain readings against the manuscript tradition of the Byzantine text. In that judgement, they are criticised by Edward F. Hills, who argues that the principle that God provides truth through scriptural revelation also must imply that God must ensure a preserved transmission of the correct revealed text, continuing into the Reformation era of biblical translation and printing. For Hills, the task of biblical scholarship is to identify the particular line of preserved transmission through which God is acting; a line that he sees in the specific succession of manuscript copying, textual correction and printing, which culminated in the Textus Receptus and the King James Bible. Hills argues that the principle of providentially-preserved transmission guarantees that the printed Textus Receptus must be the closest text to the Greek autographs and so he rejects readings in the Byzantine Majority Text where they are not maintained in the Textus Receptus. He goes so far as to conclude that Erasmus must have been providentially guided when he introduced Latin Vulgate readings into his Greek text; and even argues for the authenticity of the Comma Johanneum.
Hence the true text is found not only in the text of the majority of the New Testament manuscripts but more especially in the Textus Receptus and in faithful translations of the Textus Receptus, such as the King James Version. In short, the Textus Receptus represents the God-guided revision of the majority text.
Hills was the first textual critic to defend Textus Receptus. Although others have defended it per se, they are not acknowledged textual critics (such as Theodore Letis and David Hocking) or their works are not on a scholarly level (such as Terence H. Brown and D. A. Waite).
Relationship to Byzantine text
The Textus Receptus was mainly established on a basis of manuscripts of the Byzantine text-type, also called 'Majority text', and usually is identified with it by its followers. However, in addition, over many years, Erasmus had extensively annotated New Testament citations in early Fathers, such as Augustine and Ambrose, whose biblical quotations more frequently conformed to the Western text-type; and he drew extensively on these citations (and also on the Vulgate) in support of his choice of Greek readings.
F. H. A. Scrivener (1813–1891) remarked that at Matt. 22:28; 23:25; 27:52; 28:3, 4, 19, 20; Mark 7:18, 19, 26; 10:1; 12:22; 15:46; Luke 1:16, 61; 2:43; 9:1, 15; 11:49; John 1:28; 10:8; 13:20, Erasmus followed the readings of Minuscule 1 (Caesarean text-type). Scrivener showed that some texts were incorporated from the Vulgate (for example, Acts 9:6; Rev. 17:4-8). Daniel B. Wallace enumerated that in 1,838 places (1,005 are translatable) the Textus Receptus differs from the Byzantine text-type.
Minuscule 1rK, Erasmus's only text source for the Book of Revelation, is a manuscript of the Andreas commentary and not a continuous text manuscript. It was not always easy for Erasmus to distinguish this manuscript's commentary text from its biblical source text. The Andreas text is recognised as related to the Byzantine text in Revelation; but most textual critics nevertheless consider it to be a distinct text-type.
Dean Burgon, a great influential supporter of the Textus Receptus, declared that the Textus Receptus needs correction. He suggested 150 corrections in the Textus Receptus Gospel of Matthew alone.
Matthew 10:8 it has Alexandrian reading νεκροὺς ἐγείρετε (raise the dead) omitted by the Byzantine text.
Acts 20:28 it has Alexandrian reading τοῦ Θεοῦ (of God) instead of Byzantine τοῦ Κυρίου καὶ Θεοῦ (of the Lord and God).
English translations from the Textus Receptus
Tyndale New Testament 1526–1530
Coverdale Bible 1535
Matthew Bible 1537
Taverner's Bible 1539
Great Bible 1539
Geneva Bible 1560-1644
Bishops' Bible 1568
Douay-Rheims Bible 1582, 1610, 1749-52. Base translation is from the Vulgate but 1749-1752 editions onwards (Challoner revisions) contain major borrowings from the Tyndale, Geneva and King James versions.
King James Version 1611, 1613, 1629, 1664, 1701, 1744, 1762, 1769, 1850
English Dort Version 1657, English translation of the Statenvertaling by Theodore Haak
Quaker Bible 1764
Webster's Revision 1833
Young's Literal Translation (YLT) 1862, 1887, 1898
Rotherham's Emphasized Bible (EBR) 1872 edition.
Cambridge Paragraph Bible 1873 edition of the KJV in paragraph format, edited by F.H.A. Scrivener.
Julia E. Smith Parker Translation 1876
New King James Version (NKJV) 1982 (New Testament 1979). With an anglicized version originally known as the "Revised Authorized Version".
Green's Literal Translation 1985. Included in The Interlinear Translation 1986.
Third Millennium Bible 1998
New Cambridge Paragraph Bible 2005 edition of the KJV, paragraph format with modernised spelling; edited by David Norton.
Modern English Version 2014
See also
Other text-types
Alexandrian text-type
Other articles
Minuscule 177 – manuscript close to Textus Receptus
King-James-Only Movement
Textual criticism
Biblical manuscripts
List of major textual variants in the New Testament
Other uses
The Latin phrase, textus receptus, is sometimes used in other instances and may refer to "a text of a work that is generally accepted as being genuine or original [1855-60]."
References
Sources
Martin Arhelger, Die Textgrundlage des Neues Testaments, 2006
Martin Arhelger, Die Textgrundlage des Neuen Testaments (2008), pp. 74–79 – differences between editions of Textus Receptus
Bruce M. Metzger, Bart D. Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption and Restoration, Oxford University Press, 2005.
Jacob van Bruggen. The Ancient Text of the New Testament. Winnipeg, Man.: Premier, 1976.
Pickering, Wilbur N. The Identity of the New Testament Text. Rev. ed. Nashville, Tenn.: T. Nelson Publishers, 1980. pbk.
W. W. Combs, Erasmus and the textus receptus, DBSJ 1 (Spring 1996): 35-53.
Daniel B. Wallace, Some Second Thoughts on the Majority Text. Bibliotheca Sacra 146 (1989): 270-290.
Dr James White. King James Only Controversy, Can You Trust the Modern Translations? Bethany House, 1995.
Dr. Edward F. Hills. The King James Version Defended. Des Moines, Iowa, The Christian Research Press, 1984. An online version of Dr. Hills' book is available here and here.
Martin Heide: Der einzig wahre Bibeltext? Erasmus von Rotterdam und die Frage nach dem Urtext, 5. Auflage Nürnberg: VTR, 2006, .
H. J. de Jonge, Daniel Heinsius and the Textus Receptus of the New Testament
S. P. Tregelles, The Printed Text of the Greek New Testament, London 1854.
External links
Text
Robert Estienne, Novum Testamentum Græce (1550)
Abraham Elzevir, Elzevir Textus Receptus (1624)
Scrivener, Novum Testamentum : textus Stephanici A.D. 1550 : accedunt variae lectiones editionum Bezae, Elzeviri, Lachmanni, Tischendorfii, Tregellesii (Cambridge 1877)
Scrivener, Novum Testamentum : Textus Stephanici A.D. 1550 : accedunt variae lectiones editionum Bezae, Elzeviri, Lachmanni, Tischendorfii, Tregellesii, Westcott-Hort, Versionis Anglicanae Emendatorum (1887)
Modern textual criticism
The Textus Receptus at the Encyclopedia of Textual Criticism
Westcott & Hort vs. Textus Receptus from Bible Research
The Majority Text Compared to the Received Text Bible Research
Comparison of the Textus Receptus with other manuscript editions on the Manuscript Comparator
Defense of Textus Receptus
A Brief Look at the Textus Receptus
Is the Received Text Based on a Few Late Manuscripts?
A Wiki Style site promoting the Textus Receptus and the King James Version
Bible For Today
Dean Burgon Society
Books by Desiderius Erasmus
Christian terminology
Greek New Testament
King James Only movement
New Testament editions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint
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Joint
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A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones in the body which link the skeletal system into a functional whole. They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. Some joints, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder, are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements. Other joints such as sutures between the bones of the skull permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the sense organs. The connection between a tooth and the jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a gomphosis. Joints are classified both structurally and functionally.
Classification
The number of joints depends on if sesamoids are included, age of the human and the definition of joints. However, the number of sesamoids is the same in most people with variations being rare.
There are 360 joints in the adult human body.
Joints are mainly classified structurally and functionally. Structural classification is determined by how the bones connect to each other, while functional classification is determined by the degree of movement between the articulating bones. In practice, there is significant overlap between the two types of classifications.
Clinical, numerical classification
monoarticular – concerning one joint
oligoarticular or pauciarticular – concerning 2–4 joints
polyarticular – concerning 5 or more joints
Structural classification (binding tissue)
Structural classification names and divides joints according to the type of binding tissue that connects the bones to each other. There are four structural classifications of joints:
fibrous joint – joined by dense regular connective tissue that is rich in collagen fibers
cartilaginous joint – joined by cartilage. There are two types: primary cartilaginous joints composed of hyaline cartilage, and secondary cartilaginous joints composed of hyaline cartilage covering the articular surfaces of the involved bones with fibrocartilage connecting them.
synovial joint – not directly joined – the bones have a synovial cavity and are united by the dense irregular connective tissue that forms the articular capsule that is normally associated with accessory ligaments.
facet joint – joint between two articular processes between two vertebrae.
Functional classification (movement)
Joints can also be classified functionally according to the type and degree of movement they allow: Joint movements are described with reference to the basic anatomical planes.
synarthrosis – permits little or no mobility. Most synarthrosis joints are fibrous joints (e.g., skull sutures).
amphiarthrosis – permits slight mobility. Most amphiarthrosis joints are cartilaginous joints (e.g., intervertebral discs).
synovial joint (also known as a diarthrosis) – freely movable. Synovial joints can in turn be classified into six groups according to the type of movement they allow: plane joint, ball and socket joint, hinge joint, pivot joint, condyloid joint and saddle joint.
Joints can also be classified, according to the number of axes of movement they allow, into nonaxial (gliding, as between the proximal ends of the ulna and radius), monoaxial (uniaxial), biaxial and multiaxial. Another classification is according to the degrees of freedom allowed, and distinguished between joints with one, two or three degrees of freedom. A further classification is according to the number and shapes of the articular surfaces: flat, concave and convex surfaces. Types of articular surfaces include trochlear surfaces.
Biomechanical classification
Joints can also be classified based on their anatomy or on their biomechanical properties. According to the anatomic classification, joints are subdivided into simple and compound, depending on the number of bones involved, and into complex and combination joints:
Simple joint: two articulation surfaces (e.g. shoulder joint, hip joint)
Compound joint: three or more articulation surfaces (e.g. radiocarpal joint)
Complex joint: two or more articulation surfaces and an articular disc or meniscus (e.g. knee joint)
Anatomical
The joints may be classified anatomically into the following groups:
Joints of hand
Elbow joints
Wrist joints
Axillary joints
Sternoclavicular joints
Vertebral articulations
Temporomandibular joints
Sacroiliac joints
Hip joints
Knee joints
Articulations of foot
Unmyelinated nerve fibers are abundant in joint capsules and ligaments as well as in the outer part of intraarticular menisci. These nerve fibers are responsible for pain perception when a joint is strained.
Clinical significance
Damaging the cartilage of joints (articular cartilage) or the bones and muscles that stabilize the joints can lead to joint dislocations and osteoarthritis. Swimming is a great way to exercise the joints with minimal damage.
A joint disorder is termed arthropathy, and when involving inflammation of one or more joints the disorder is called arthritis. Most joint disorders involve arthritis, but joint damage by external physical trauma is typically not termed arthritis.
Arthropathies are called polyarticular (multiarticular) when involving many joints and monoarticular when involving only a single joint.
Arthritis is the leading cause of disability in people over the age of 55. There are many different forms of arthritis, each of which has a different cause. The most common form of arthritis, osteoarthritis (also known as degenerative joint disease), occurs following trauma to the joint, following an infection of the joint or simply as a result of aging and the deterioration of articular cartilage. Furthermore, there is emerging evidence that abnormal anatomy may contribute to early development of osteoarthritis. Other forms of arthritis are rheumatoid arthritis and psoriatic arthritis, which are autoimmune diseases in which the body is attacking itself. Septic arthritis is caused by joint infection. Gouty arthritis is caused by deposition of uric acid crystals in the joint that results in subsequent inflammation. Additionally, there is a less common form of gout that is caused by the formation of rhomboidal-shaped crystals of calcium pyrophosphate. This form of gout is known as pseudogout.
Temporomandibular joint syndrome (TMJ) involves the jaw joints and can cause facial pain, clicking sounds in the jaw, or limitation of jaw movement, to name a few symptoms. It is caused by psychological tension and misalignment of the jaw (malocclusion), and may be affecting as many as 75 million Americans.
History
Etymology
The English word joint is a past participle of the verb join, and can be read as joined. Joint is derived from Latin iunctus, past participle of the Latin verb iungere, join, unite, connect, attach.
The English term articulation is derived from Latin articulatio.
Humans have also developed lighter, more fragile joint bones over time due to the decrease in physical activity compared to thousands of years ago.
See also
Arthrology
Cracking joints
Kinesiology
Ligament
Replacement joint
References
External links
Synovial joints Illustrations and Classification
Skeletal system
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] |
210243
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orfeo%20Bartolini
|
Orfeo Bartolini
|
Italian tourist Orfeo Bartolini, 51, was murdered in Afghanistan in April 2003.
Bartolini left his home in Rimini, Italy on March 17, 2003, and set out on by motorcycle for India, where he planned to visit the tomb of Mother Teresa.
On April 10, his motorcycle broke down in the Shahjoi district of Zabul province, Afghanistan. He hired a car to take him to Kabul. On the way, the car was stopped by two men on a motorbike, who then shot Bartolini.
Though the area was a known stronghold of the Taliban, looking to regroup following their removal as leaders of the Afghan government by American and allied forces, Italian ambassador Dominico Georgi originally declared that robbery may be the cause of Bartolini's murder. However, as the Italian's Afghan driver was unhurt in the attack and no robbery was reported, Taliban dissidents remained the chief suspects. The week after the killing, eight Taliban fighters were captured by Afghan soldiers investigating Bartolini's murder in the Sur Ghar area of the country.
References
1952 births
2003 deaths
Deaths by firearm in Afghanistan
Italian people murdered abroad
People from Rimini
People murdered in Afghanistan
Afghanistan–Italy relations
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20Strauss
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Leo Strauss
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Leo Strauss (, ; September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973) was a German-American political philosopher and classicist who specialized in classical political philosophy. Born in Germany to Jewish parents, Strauss later emigrated from Germany to the United States. He spent much of his career as a professor of political science at the University of Chicago, where he taught several generations of students and published fifteen books.
Trained in the neo-Kantian tradition with Ernst Cassirer and immersed in the work of the phenomenologists Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger, Strauss established his fame with path-breaking books on Spinoza and Hobbes, then with articles on Maimonides and Farabi. In the late 1930s his research focused on the rediscovery of esoteric writing, thereby a new illumination of Plato and Aristotle, retracing their interpretation through medieval Islamic and Jewish philosophy, and encouraging the application of those ideas to contemporary political theory.
Early life and education
Strauss was born on September 20, 1899, in the small town of Kirchhain in Hesse-Nassau, a province of the Kingdom of Prussia (part of the German Empire), to Hugo Strauss and Jennie Strauss, née David. According to Allan Bloom's 1974 obituary in Political Theory, Strauss "was raised as an Orthodox Jew", but the family does not appear to have completely embraced Orthodox practice. Strauss himself noted that he came from a "conservative, even orthodox Jewish home", but one which knew little about Judaism except strict adherence to ceremonial laws. His father and uncle operated a farm supply and livestock business that they inherited from their father, Meyer (1835–1919), a leading member of the local Jewish community.
After attending the Kirchhain Volksschule and the Protestant Rektoratsschule, Leo Strauss was enrolled at the Gymnasium Philippinum (affiliated with the University of Marburg) in nearby Marburg (from which Johannes Althusius and Carl J. Friedrich also graduated) in 1912, graduating in 1917. He boarded with the Marburg cantor Strauss (no relation), whose residence served as a meeting place for followers of the neo-Kantian philosopher Hermann Cohen. Strauss served in the German army from World War I from July 5, 1917, to December 1918.
Strauss subsequently enrolled in the University of Hamburg, where he received his doctorate in 1921; his thesis, On the Problem of Knowledge in the Philosophical Doctrine of F. H. Jacobi (Das Erkenntnisproblem in der philosophischen Lehre Fr. H. Jacobis), was supervised by Ernst Cassirer. He also attended courses at the Universities of Freiburg and Marburg, including some taught by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. Strauss joined a Jewish fraternity and worked for the German Zionist movement, which introduced him to various German Jewish intellectuals, such as Norbert Elias, Leo Löwenthal, Hannah Arendt and Walter Benjamin. Benjamin was and remained an admirer of Strauss and his work throughout his life.
Strauss's closest friend was Jacob Klein but he also was intellectually engaged with Gerhard Krüger—and also Karl Löwith, Julius Guttman, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and Franz Rosenzweig (to whom Strauss dedicated his first book), as well as Gershom Scholem, Alexander Altmann, and the Arabist Paul Kraus, who married Strauss's sister Bettina (Strauss and his wife later adopted Paul and Bettina Kraus's child when both parents died in the Middle East). With several of these friends, Strauss carried on vigorous epistolary exchanges later in life, many of which are published in the Gesammelte Schriften (Collected Writings), some in translation from the German. Strauss had also been engaged in a discourse with Carl Schmitt. However, after Strauss left Germany, he broke off the discourse when Schmitt failed to respond to his letters.
Career
After receiving a Rockefeller Fellowship in 1932, Strauss left his position at the Higher Institute for Jewish Studies in Berlin for Paris. He returned to Germany only once, for a few short days twenty years later. In Paris, he married Marie (Miriam) Bernsohn, a widow with a young child, whom he had known previously in Germany. He adopted his wife's son, Thomas, and later his sister's child, Jenny Strauss Clay, later a professor of classics at the University of Virginia; he and Miriam had no biological children of their own. At his death, he was survived by Thomas, daughter Jenny Strauss Clay, and three grandchildren. Strauss became a lifelong friend of Alexandre Kojève and was on friendly terms with Raymond Aron, Alexandre Koyré, and Étienne Gilson. Because of the Nazis' rise to power, he chose not to return to his native country. Strauss found shelter, after some vicissitudes, in England, where, in 1935 he gained temporary employment at University of Cambridge, with the help of his in-law, David Daube, who was affiliated with Gonville and Caius College. While in England, he became a close friend of R. H. Tawney, and was on less friendly terms with Isaiah Berlin.
Unable to find permanent employment in England, Strauss moved in 1937 to the United States, under the patronage of Harold Laski, who made introductions and helped him obtain a brief lectureship. After a short stint as Research Fellow in the Department of History at Columbia University, Strauss secured a position at The New School, where, between 1938 and 1948, he worked the political science faculty and also took on adjunct jobs. In 1939, he served for a short term as a visiting professor at Hamilton College. He became a U.S. citizen in 1944, and in 1949 he became a professor of political science at the University of Chicago, holding the Robert Maynard Hutchins Distinguished Service Professorship until he left in 1969.
In 1953, Strauss coined the phrase reductio ad Hitlerum, a play on reductio ad absurdum, suggesting that comparing an argument to one of Hitler's, or "playing the Nazi card", is often a fallacy of irrelevance.
In 1954 he met Löwith and Gadamer in Heidelberg and delivered a public speech on Socrates. He had received a call for a temporary lectureship in Hamburg in 1965 (which he declined for health reasons) and received and accepted an honorary doctorate from Hamburg University and the Bundesverdienstkreuz (German Order of Merit) via the German representative in Chicago. In 1969 Strauss moved to Claremont McKenna College (formerly Claremont Men's College) in California for a year, and then to St. John's College, Annapolis in 1970, where he was the Scott Buchanan Distinguished Scholar in Residence until his death from pneumonia in 1973. He was buried in Annapolis Hebrew Cemetery, with his wife Miriam Bernsohn Strauss, who died in 1985. Psalm 114 was read in the funeral service at the request of family and friends.
Philosophy
For Strauss, politics and philosophy were necessarily intertwined. He regarded the trial and death of Socrates as the moment when political philosophy came into existence. Strauss considered one of the most important moments in the history of philosophy Socrates' argument that philosophers could not study nature without considering their own human nature, which, in the words of Aristotle, is that of "a political animal." However, he also held that the ends of politics and philosophy were inherently irreconcilable and irreducible to one another.
Strauss distinguished "scholars" from "great thinkers", identifying himself as a scholar. He wrote that most self-described philosophers are in actuality scholars, cautious and methodical. Great thinkers, in contrast, boldly and creatively address big problems. Scholars deal with these problems only indirectly by reasoning about the great thinkers' differences.
In Natural Right and History Strauss begins with a critique of Max Weber's epistemology, briefly engages the relativism of Martin Heidegger (who goes unnamed), and continues with a discussion of the evolution of natural rights via an analysis of the thought of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. He concludes by critiquing Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Edmund Burke. At the heart of the book are excerpts from Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero. Much of his philosophy is a reaction to the works of Heidegger. Indeed, Strauss wrote that Heidegger's thinking must be understood and confronted before any complete formulation of modern political theory is possible, and this means that political thought has to engage with issues of ontology and the history of metaphysics.
Strauss wrote that Friedrich Nietzsche was the first philosopher to properly understand historicism, an idea grounded in a general acceptance of Hegelian philosophy of history. Heidegger, in Strauss' view, sanitized and politicized Nietzsche, whereas Nietzsche believed "our own principles, including the belief in progress, will become as unconvincing and alien as all earlier principles (essences) had shown themselves to be" and "the only way out seems to be ... that one voluntarily choose life-giving delusion instead of deadly truth, that one fabricate a myth". Heidegger believed that the tragic nihilism of Nietzsche was itself a "myth" guided by a defective Western conception of Being that Heidegger traced to Plato. In his published correspondence with Alexandre Kojève, Strauss wrote that Hegel was correct when he postulated that an end of history implies an end to philosophy as understood by classical political philosophy.
On reading
In the late 1930s, Strauss called for the first time for a reconsideration of the "distinction between exoteric (or public) and esoteric (or secret) teaching". In 1952 he published Persecution and the Art of Writing, arguing that serious writers write esoterically, that is, with multiple or layered meanings, often disguised within irony or paradox, obscure references, even deliberate self-contradiction. Esoteric writing serves several purposes: protecting the philosopher from the retribution of the regime, and protecting the regime from the corrosion of philosophy; it attracts the right kind of reader and repels the wrong kind; and ferreting out the interior message is in itself an exercise of philosophic reasoning. Taking his bearings from his study of Maimonides and Al Farabi, and pointing further back to Plato's discussion of writing as contained in the Phaedrus, Strauss proposed that the classical and medieval art of esoteric writing is the proper medium for philosophic learning: rather than displaying philosophers' thoughts superficially, classical and medieval philosophical texts guide their readers in thinking and learning independently of imparted knowledge. Thus, Strauss agrees with the Socrates of the Phaedrus, where the Greek indicates that, insofar as writing does not respond when questioned, good writing provokes questions in the reader—questions that orient the reader towards an understanding of problems the author thought about with utmost seriousness. Strauss thus, in Persecution and the Art of Writing, presents Maimonides "as a closet nonbeliever obfuscating his message for political reasons."
Strauss's hermeneutical argument—rearticulated throughout his subsequent writings (most notably in The City and Man [1964])—is that, before the 19th century, Western scholars commonly understood that philosophical writing is not at home in any polity, no matter how liberal. Insofar as it questions conventional wisdom at its roots, philosophy must guard itself especially against those readers who believe themselves authoritative, wise, and liberal defenders of the status quo. In questioning established opinions, or in investigating the principles of morality, philosophers of old found it necessary to convey their messages in an oblique manner. Their "art of writing" was the art of esoteric communication. This was especially apparent in medieval times when heterodox political thinkers wrote under the threat of the Inquisition or comparably obtuse tribunals.
Strauss's argument is not that the medieval writers he studies reserved one exoteric meaning for the many (hoi polloi) and an esoteric, hidden one for the few (hoi aristoi), but that, through rhetorical stratagems including self-contradiction and hyperboles, these writers succeeded in conveying their proper meaning at the tacit heart of their writings—a heart or message irreducible to "the letter" or historical dimension of texts.
Explicitly following Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's lead, Strauss indicates that medieval political philosophers, no less than their ancient counterparts, carefully adapted their wording to the dominant moral views of their time, lest their writings be condemned as heretical or unjust, not by "the many" (who did not read), but by those "few" whom the many regarded as the most righteous guardians of morality. It was precisely these righteous personalities who would be most inclined to persecute/ostracize anyone who was in the business of exposing the noble or great lie upon which the authority of the few over the many stands or falls.
According to his critics, especially Shadia Drury, Strauss wrongly assumes a distinction between an "exoteric" or salutary and an "esoteric" or "true" aspect of the philosophy of pre-modern political philosophers. Furthermore, Strauss is often accused of having himself written esoterically. The accusation would seem to rest upon the belief that in modern-era liberal societies and, especially in the United States, philosophers are not free to voice their philosophical views in public without being accused of impropriety.
On politics
According to Strauss, modern social science is flawed because it assumes the fact–value distinction, a concept which Strauss found dubious. He traced its roots in Enlightenment philosophy to Max Weber, a thinker whom Strauss described as a "serious and noble mind." Weber wanted to separate values from science but, according to Strauss, was really a derivative thinker, deeply influenced by Nietzsche's relativism. Strauss treated politics as something that could not be studied from afar. A political scientist examining politics with a value-free scientific eye, for Strauss, was self-deluded. Positivism, the heir to both Auguste Comte and Max Weber in the quest to make purportedly value-free judgments, failed to justify its own existence, which would require a value judgment.
While modern-era liberalism had stressed the pursuit of individual liberty as its highest goal, Strauss felt that there should be a greater interest in the problem of human excellence and political virtue. Through his writings, Strauss constantly raised the question of how, and to what extent, freedom and excellence can coexist. Strauss refused to make do with any simplistic or one-sided resolutions of the Socratic question: What is the good for the city and man?
Encounters with Carl Schmitt and Alexandre Kojève
Two significant political-philosophical dialogues Strauss had with living thinkers were those he held with Carl Schmitt and Alexandre Kojève. Schmitt, who would later become, for a short time, the chief jurist of Nazi Germany, was one of the first important German academics to review Strauss's early work positively. Schmitt's positive reference for, and approval of, Strauss's work on Hobbes was instrumental in winning Strauss the scholarship funding that allowed him to leave Germany.
Strauss's critique and clarifications of The Concept of the Political led Schmitt to make significant emendations in its second edition. Writing to Schmitt in 1932, Strauss summarised Schmitt's political theology that "because man is by nature evil, he, therefore, needs dominion. But dominion can be established, that is, men can be unified only in a unity against—against other men. Every association of men is necessarily a separation from other men ... the political thus understood is not the constitutive principle of the state, of order, but a condition of the state."
Strauss, however, directly opposed Schmitt's position. For Strauss, Schmitt and his return to Thomas Hobbes helpfully clarified the nature of our political existence and our modern self-understanding. Schmitt's position was therefore symptomatic of the modern-era liberal self-understanding. Strauss believed that such an analysis, as in Hobbes's time, served as a useful "preparatory action", revealing our contemporary orientation towards the eternal problems of politics (social existence). However, Strauss believed that Schmitt's reification of our modern self-understanding of the problem of politics into a political theology was not an adequate solution. Strauss instead advocated a return to a broader classical understanding of human nature and a tentative return to political philosophy, in the tradition of the ancient philosophers.
With Kojève, Strauss had a close and lifelong philosophical friendship. They had first met as students in Berlin. The two thinkers shared boundless philosophical respect for each other. Kojève would later write that, without befriending Strauss, "I never would have known ... what philosophy is". The political-philosophical dispute between Kojève and Strauss centered on the role that philosophy should and can be allowed to play in politics.
Kojève, a senior civil servant in the French government, was instrumental in the creation of the European Economic Community. He argued that philosophers should have an active role in shaping political events. Strauss, on the contrary, believed that philosophers should play a role in politics only to the extent that they can ensure that philosophy, which he saw as mankind's highest activity, can be free from political intervention.
Liberalism and nihilism
Strauss taught that liberalism in its modern form (which is oriented toward universal freedom as opposed to "ancient liberalism" which is oriented toward human excellence), contained within it an intrinsic tendency towards extreme relativism, which in turn led to two types of nihilism:
The first was a "brutal" nihilism, expressed in Nazi and Bolshevik regimes. In On Tyranny, he wrote that these ideologies, both descendants of Enlightenment thought, tried to destroy all traditions, history, ethics, and moral standards and replace them by force under which nature and mankind are subjugated and conquered. The second type—the "gentle" nihilism expressed in Western liberal democracies—was a kind of value-free aimlessness and a hedonistic "permissive egalitarianism", which he saw as permeating the fabric of contemporary American society.
In the belief that 20th-century relativism, scientism, historicism, and nihilism were all implicated in the deterioration of modern society and philosophy, Strauss sought to uncover the philosophical pathways that had led to this situation. The resultant study led him to advocate a tentative return to classical political philosophy as a starting point for judging political action.
Strauss's interpretation of Plato's Republic
According to Strauss, The Republic by Plato is not "a blueprint for regime reform" (a play on words from Karl Popper's Open Society and Its Enemies, which attacks The Republic for being just that). Strauss quotes Cicero: "The Republic does not bring to light the best possible regime but rather the nature of political things—the nature of the city."
Strauss argued that the city-in-speech was unnatural, precisely because "it is rendered possible by the abstraction from eros". Though skeptical of "progress", Strauss was equally skeptical about political agendas of "return"—that is, going backward instead of forward.
In fact, he was consistently suspicious of anything claiming to be a solution to an old political or philosophical problem. He spoke of the danger in trying finally to resolve the debate between rationalism and traditionalism in politics. In particular, along with many in the pre-World War II German Right, he feared people trying to force a world state to come into being in the future, thinking that it would inevitably become a tyranny.<ref>On Tyranny, p. 143</ref> Hence he kept his distance from the two totalitarianisms that he denounced in his century, both fascists and communists.
Strauss and Karl Popper
Strauss actively rejected Karl Popper's views as illogical. He agreed with a letter of response to his request of Eric Voegelin to look into the issue. In the response, Voegelin wrote that studying Popper's views was a waste of precious time, and "an annoyance". Specifically about The Open Society and Its Enemies and Popper's understanding of Plato's The Republic, after giving some examples, Voegelin wrote:
Strauss proceeded to show this letter to Kurt Riezler, who used his influence in order to oppose Popper's appointment at the University of Chicago.
Ancients and Moderns
Strauss constantly stressed the importance of two dichotomies in political philosophy, namely Athens and Jerusalem (reason and revelation) and Ancient versus Modern. The "Ancients" were the Socratic philosophers and their intellectual heirs; the "Moderns" start with Niccolò Machiavelli. The contrast between Ancients and Moderns was understood to be related to the unresolvable tension between Reason and Revelation. The Socratics, reacting to the first Greek philosophers, brought philosophy back to earth, and hence back to the marketplace, making it more political.
The Moderns reacted to the dominance of revelation in medieval society by promoting the possibilities of Reason. They objected to Aquinas's merger of natural right and natural theology, for it made natural right vulnerable to sideshow theological disputes. Thomas Hobbes, under the influence of Francis Bacon, re-oriented political thought to what was most solid but also most low in man—his physical hopes and fears—setting a precedent for John Locke and the later economic approach to political thought, as in David Hume and Adam Smith.
Strauss and Zionism
As a youth, Strauss belonged to the German Zionist youth group, along with his friends Gershom Scholem and Walter Benjamin. Both were admirers of Strauss and would continue to be throughout their lives. When he was 17, as he said, he was "converted" to political Zionism as a follower of Vladimir Jabotinsky. He wrote several essays about its controversies but left these activities behind by his early twenties.
While Strauss maintained a sympathetic interest in Zionism, he later came to refer to Zionism as "problematic" and became disillusioned with some of its aims.
He taught at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem during the 1954–55 academic year. In his letter to a National Review editor, Strauss asked why Israel had been called a racist state by one of their writers. He argued that the author did not provide enough proof for his argument. He ended his essay with the following statement:
Religious belief
Although Strauss accepted the utility of religious belief, there is some question about his religious views. He was openly disdainful of atheism and disapproved of contemporary dogmatic disbelief, which he considered intemperate and irrational. However, like Thomas Aquinas, he felt that revelation must be subject to examination by reason. At the end of The City and Man, Strauss invites us to "be open to ... the question quid sit deus ["What is God?"]" (p. 241), and Edward Feser writes that:
Strauss was not himself an orthodox believer, neither was he a convinced atheist. Since whether or not to accept a purported divine revelation is itself one of the "permanent" questions, orthodoxy must always remain an option equally as defensible as unbelief.
In Natural Right and History Strauss distinguishes a Socratic (Platonic, Ciceronian, Aristotelian) from a conventionalist (materialistic, Epicurean) reading of divinity, and argues that "the question of religion" (what is religion?) is inseparable from the question of the nature of civil society and civil authority. Throughout the volume he argues for the Socratic reading of civil authority and rejects the conventionalist reading (of which atheism is an essential component). This is incompatible with interpretations by Shadia Drury and other scholars who argue that Strauss viewed religion purely instrumentally.Peter Minowitz, Straussophobia: Defending Leo Strauss and Straussians against Shadia Drury and Other Accusers (Lexington Books; 2009)
Responses to his work
Reception by contemporaries
Strauss's works were read and admired by thinkers as diverse as the philosophers Gershom Scholem, Walter Benjamin, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and Alexandre Kojève, and the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. Benjamin had become acquainted with Strauss as a student in Berlin, and expressed admiration for Strauss throughout his life. Gadamer stated that he 'largely agreed' with Strauss's interpretations.
Critical views of Strauss
Some critics of Strauss have accused him of being elitist, illiberalist and anti-democratic. Shadia Drury, in Leo Strauss and the American Right (1999), claimed that Strauss inculcated an elitist strain in American political leaders linked to imperialist militarism, neoconservatism and Christian fundamentalism. Drury argues that Strauss teaches that "perpetual deception of the citizens by those in power is critical because they need to be led, and they need strong rulers to tell them what's good for them." Nicholas Xenos similarly argues that Strauss was "an anti-democrat in a fundamental sense, a true reactionary." As Xenos says, "Strauss was somebody who wanted to go back to a previous, pre-liberal, pre-bourgeois era of blood and guts, of imperial domination, of authoritarian rule, of pure fascism."
Strauss has also been criticized by some conservatives. According to Claes G. Ryn, Strauss's anti-historicist thinking creates an artificial contrast between moral universality and "the conventional," "the ancestral," and "the historical." Strauss, Ryn argues, wrongly and reductively assumes that respect for tradition must undermine reason and universality. Contrary to Strauss's criticism of Edmund Burke, the historical sense may be indispensable to an adequate apprehension of universality. Strauss's abstract, ahistorical conception of natural right distorts genuine universality, Ryn contends. Strauss does not consider the possibility that real universality becomes known to human beings in a concretized, particular form. Strauss and the Straussians have paradoxically taught philosophically unsuspecting American conservatives, not least Roman Catholic intellectuals, to reject tradition in favor of ahistorical theorizing, a bias that flies in the face of the central Christian notion of the Incarnation, which represents a synthesis of the universal and the historical. According to Ryn, the propagation of a purely abstract idea of universality has contributed to the neoconservative advocacy of allegedly universal American principles, which neoconservatives see as justification for American intervention around the world—bringing the blessings of the "West" to the benighted "rest". Strauss's anti-historical thinking connects him and his followers with the French Jacobins, who also regarded tradition as incompatible with virtue and rationality. What Ryn calls the "new Jacobinism" of the "neoconservative" philosophy is, writes Paul Edward Gottfried, also the rhetoric of Saint-Just and Trotsky, which the philosophically impoverished American Right has taken over with mindless alacrity. Republican operators and think tanks apparently believe they can carry the electorate by appealing to yesterday's leftist clichés.Cf. Paul Gottfried, "Paul Gottfried: Archives", Lewrockwell.com. Retrieved February 16, 2007.
Journalists such as Seymour Hersh have opined that Strauss endorsed noble lies, "myths used by political leaders seeking to maintain a cohesive society."Brian Doherty, "Origin of the Specious: Why Do Neoconservatives Doubt Darwin?", Reason Online, July 1997. Retrieved February 16, 2007. In The City and Man, Strauss discusses the myths outlined in Plato's Republic that are required for all governments. These include a belief that the state's land belongs to it even though it may have been acquired illegitimately and that citizenship is rooted in something more than the accidents of birth.
Response to criticism
In his 2009 book, Straussophobia, Peter Minowitz provides a detailed critique of Drury, Xenos, and other critics of Strauss whom he accuses of "bigotry and buffoonery." In his 2006 book review of Reading Leo Strauss, by Steven B. Smith, Robert Alter writes that Smith "persuasively sets the record straight on Strauss's political views and on what his writing is really about." Smith rejects the link between Strauss and neoconservative thought, arguing that Strauss was never personally active in politics, never endorsed imperialism, and questioned the utility of political philosophy for the practice of politics. In particular, Strauss argued that Plato's myth of the philosopher king should be read as a reductio ad absurdum, and that philosophers should understand politics, not in order to influence policy but to ensure philosophy's autonomy from politics. Additionally, Mark Lilla has argued that the attribution to Strauss of neoconservative views contradicts a careful reading of Strauss' actual texts, in particular On Tyranny. Lilla summarizes Strauss as follows:
Philosophy must always be aware of the dangers of tyranny, as a threat to both political decency and the philosophical life. It must understand enough about politics to defend its own autonomy, without falling into the error of thinking that philosophy can shape the political world according to its own lights.
Finally, responding to charges that Strauss's teachings fostered the neoconservative foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration, such as "unrealistic hopes for the spread of liberal democracy through military conquest," Professor Nathan Tarcov, director of the Leo Strauss Center at the University of Chicago, in an article published in The American Interest, asserts that Strauss as a political philosopher was essentially non-political. After an exegesis of the very limited practical political views to be gleaned from Strauss's writings, Tarcov concludes that "Strauss can remind us of the permanent problems, but we have only ourselves to blame for our faulty solutions to the problems of today." Likewise Strauss's daughter, Jenny Strauss Clay, in a New York Times article defended Strauss against the charge that he was the "mastermind behind the neoconservative ideologues who control United States foreign policy." "He was a conservative," she says, "insofar as he did not think change is necessarily change for the better." Since contemporary academia "leaned to the left," with its "unquestioned faith in progress and science combined with a queasiness regarding any kind of moral judgment," Strauss stood outside of the academic consensus. Had academia leaned to the right, he would have questioned it, too—and on certain occasions did question the tenets of the right.
Straussianism
Straussianism is the name given "to denote the research methods, common concepts, theoretical presuppositions, central questions, and pedagogic style (teaching style) characteristic of the large number of conservatives who have been influenced by the thought and teaching of Leo Strauss." While it "is particularly influential among university professors of historical political theory ... it also sometimes serves as a common intellectual framework more generally among conservative activists, think tank professionals, and public intellectuals." Within the discipline of political theory the method calls for its practitioners to use "a 'close reading' of the 'Great Books' of political thought; they strive to understand a thinker 'as he understood himself'; they are unconcerned with questions about the historical context of, or historical influences on, a given author" and strive to be open to the idea that they may find something timelessly true in a great book. The approach "resembles in important ways the old New Criticism in literary studies."
There is some controversy in the approach over what distinguishes a great book from lesser works. Great books are held to be written by authors/philosophers "of such sovereign critical self-knowledge and intellectual power that they can in no way be reduced to the general thought of their time and place," with other works "understood as epiphenomenal to the original insights of a thinker of the first rank." This approach is seen as a counter "to the historicist presuppositions of the mid-twentieth century, which read the history of political thought in a progressivist way, with past philosophies forever cut off from us in a superseded past." Straussianism puts forward the possibility that past thinkers may have "hold of the truth—and that more recent thinkers are therefore wrong."
Harvey Mansfield has argued that there is no such thing as "Straussianism" yet there are Straussians and a school of Straussians. Mansfield describes the school as "open to the whole of philosophy" and without any definite doctrines that one has to believe to belong to it.
Almost the entirety of Strauss's writings has been translated into Chinese; and there even is a school of Straussians in China, the most prominent being Liu Xiaofeng (Renmin University). "Chinese Straussians" (who often are also fascinated by Carl Schmitt) represent a remarkable example of the hybridization of Western political theory in a non-Western context. As the editors of a recent volume write, "the reception of Schmitt and Strauss in the Chinese-speaking world (and especially in the People's Republic of China) not only says much about how Schmitt and Strauss can be read today, but also provides important clues about the deeper contradictions of Western modernity and the dilemmas of non-liberal societies in our increasingly contentious world."
Students
Students who studied under Strauss, or attended his lecture courses at the University of Chicago, include George Anastaplo, Laurence Berns, Hadley Arkes, Seth Benardete, David Bolotin, Christopher Bruell, Allan Bloom, Werner Dannhauser, Murray Dry, Charles Butterworth, William Galston, Victor Gourevitch, Harry V. Jaffa, Roger Masters, Clifford Orwin, Thomas Pangle, Stanley Rosen, Abram Shulsky (Director of the Office of Special Plans), Susan Sontag, Warren Winiarski, and Paul Wolfowitz (who attended two lecture courses by Strauss on Plato and Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws at the University of Chicago). Harvey C. Mansfield, Steven B. Smith and Steven Berg, though never students of Strauss, are "Straussians" (as some followers of Strauss identify themselves). Richard Rorty described Strauss as a particular influence in his early studies at the University of Chicago, where Rorty studied a "classical curriculum" under Strauss.Ryerson, James. "The Quest for Uncertainty Richard Rorty's Pragmatic Pilgrimage." Linguafranca Volume 10, December 2000/January 2001. Web. 21 June 2011. <http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/print/0012/feature_quest.html>.
Bibliography
Books and articles
Gesammelte Schriften. Ed. Heinrich Meier. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1996. Four vols. published to date: Vol. 1, Die Religionskritik Spinozas und zugehörige Schriften (rev. ed. 2001); vol. 2, Philosophie und Gesetz, Frühe Schriften (1997); Vol. 3, Hobbes' politische Wissenschaft und zugehörige Schrifte – Briefe (2001); Vol. 4, Politische Philosophie. Studien zum theologisch-politischen Problem (2010). The full series will also include Vol. 5, Über Tyrannis (2013) and Vol. 6, Gedanken über Machiavelli. Deutsche Erstübersetzung (2014).
Leo Strauss: The Early Writings (1921–1932). (Trans. from parts of Gesammelte Schriften). Trans. Michael Zank. Albany: SUNY Press, 2002.
Die Religionskritik Spinozas als Grundlage seiner Bibelwissenschaft: Untersuchungen zu Spinozas Theologisch-politischem Traktat. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1930.
Spinoza's Critique of Religion. (English trans. by Elsa M. Sinclair of Die Religionskritik Spinozas, 1930.) With a new English preface and a trans. of Strauss's 1932 German essay on Carl Schmitt. New York: Schocken, 1965. Reissued without that essay, Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1997.
"Anmerkungen zu Carl Schmitt, Der Begriff des Politischen". Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik 67, no. 6 (August–September 1932): 732–49.
"Comments on Carl Schmitt's Begriff des Politischen". (English trans. by Elsa M. Sinclair of "Anmerkungen zu Carl Schmitt", 1932.) 331–51 in Spinoza's Critique of Religion, 1965. Reprinted in Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, ed. and trans. George Schwab. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers U Press, 1976.
"Notes on Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political". (English trans. by J. Harvey Lomax of "Anmerkungen zu Carl Schmitt", 1932.) In Heinrich Meier, Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: The Hidden Dialogue, trans. J. Harvey Lomax. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995. Reprinted in Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, ed. and trans. George Schwab. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996, 2007.
Philosophie und Gesetz: Beiträge zum Verständnis Maimunis und seiner Vorläufer. Berlin: Schocken, 1935.
Philosophy and Law: Essays Toward the Understanding of Maimonides and His Predecessors. (English trans. by Fred Baumann of Philosophie und Gesetz, 1935.) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1987.
Philosophy and Law: Contributions to the Understanding of Maimonides and His Predecessors. (English trans. with introd. by Eve Adler of Philosophie und Gesetz, 1935.) Albany: SUNY Press, 1995.
The Political Philosophy of Hobbes: Its Basis and Its Genesis. (English trans. by Elsa M. Sinclair from German manuscript.) Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936. Reissued with new preface, Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1952.
Hobbes' politische Wissenschaft in ihrer Genesis. (1935 German original of The Political Philosophy of Hobbes, 1936.) Neuwied am Rhein: Hermann Luchterhand, 1965.
"The Spirit of Sparta or the Taste of Xenophon". Social Research 6, no. 4 (Winter 1939): 502–36.
"On German Nihilism" (1999, originally a 1941 lecture), Interpretation 26, no. 3 edited by David Janssens and Daniel Tanguay.
"Farabi's Plato" American Academy for Jewish Research, Louis Ginzberg Jubilee Volume, 1945. 45 pp.
"On a New Interpretation of Plato's Political Philosophy". Social Research 13, no. 3 (Fall 1946): 326–67.
"On the Intention of Rousseau". Social Research 14, no. 4 (Winter 1947): 455–87.
On Tyranny: An Interpretation of Xenophon's Hiero. Foreword by Alvin Johnson. New York: Political Science Classics, 1948. Reissued Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1950.
De la tyrannie. (French trans. of On Tyranny, 1948, with "Restatement on Xenophon's Hiero" and Alexandre Kojève's "Tyranny and Wisdom".) Paris: Librairie Gallimard, 1954.
On Tyranny. (English edition of De la tyrannie, 1954.) Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1963.
On Tyranny. (Revised and expanded edition of On Tyranny, 1963.) Includes Strauss–Kojève correspondence. Ed. Victor Gourevitch and Michael S. Roth. New York: The Free Press, 1991.
"On Collingwood’s Philosophy of History". Review of Metaphysics 5, no. 4 (June 1952): 559–86.
Persecution and the Art of Writing. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1952. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1988.
Natural Right and History. (Based on the 1949 Walgrene lectures.) Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1953. Reprinted with new preface, 1971. .
"Existentialism" (1956), a public lecture on Martin Heidegger's thought, published in Interpretation, Spring 1995, Vol.22 No. 3: 303–18.
Thoughts on Machiavelli. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1958. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1978.
What Is Political Philosophy? and Other Studies. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1959. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago Press, 1988.
On Plato's Symposium [1959]. Ed. Seth Benardete. (Edited transcript of 1959 lectures.) Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2001.
" 'Relativism' ". 135–57 in Helmut Schoeck and James W. Wiggins, eds., Relativism and the Study of Man. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, 1961. Partial reprint, 13–26 in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism, 1989.
History of Political Philosophy. Co-editor with Joseph Cropsey. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1963 (1st ed.), 1972 (2nd ed.), 1987 (3rd ed.).
"The Crisis of Our Time", 41–54, and "The Crisis of Political Philosophy", 91–103, in Howard Spaeth, ed., The Predicament of Modern Politics. Detroit: U of Detroit P, 1964.
"Political Philosophy and the Crisis of Our Time". (Adaptation of the two essays in Howard Spaeth, ed., The Predicament of Modern Politics, 1964.) 217–42 in George J. Graham, Jr., and George W. Carey, eds., The Post-Behavioral Era: Perspectives on Political Science. New York: David McKay, 1972.
The City and Man. (Based on the 1962 Page-Barbour lectures.) Chicago: Rand McNally, 1964.
Socrates and Aristophanes. New York: Basic Books, 1966. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1980.
Liberalism Ancient and Modern. New York: Basic Books, 1968. Reissued with foreword by Allan Bloom, 1989. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.
Xenophon's Socratic Discourse: An Interpretation of the Oeconomicus. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1970.
Xenophon's Socrates. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1972.
The Argument and the Action of Plato's Laws. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1975.
Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss. Ed. Hilail Gilden. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1975.
An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss. (Expanded version of Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss, 1975.) Ed. Hilail Gilden. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1989.
Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy. Introd. by Thomas L. Pangle. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1983.
The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism: An Introduction to the Thought of Leo Strauss – Essays and Lectures by Leo Strauss. Ed. Thomas L. Pangle. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1989.
Faith and Political Philosophy: the Correspondence Between Leo Strauss and Eric Voegelin, 1934–1964. Ed. Peter Emberley and Barry Cooper. Introd. by Thomas L. Pangle. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State UP, 1993.
Hobbes's Critique of Religion and Related Writings. Ed. and trans. Gabriel Bartlett and Svetozar Minkov. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2011. (Trans. of materials first published in the Gesammelte Schriften, Vol. 3, including an unfinished manuscript by Leo Strauss of a book on Hobbes, written in 1933–1934, and some shorter related writings.)
Leo Strauss on Moses Mendelssohn. Edited and translated by Martin D. Yaffe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012. (Annotated translation of ten introductions written by Strauss to a multi-volume critical edition of Mendelssohn's work.)
"Exoteric Teaching" (Critical Edition by Hannes Kerber). In Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s. Edited by Martin D. Yaffe and Richard S. Ruderman. New York: Palgrave, 2014, pp. 275–86.
"Lecture Notes for 'Persecution and the Art of Writing'" (Critical Edition by Hannes Kerber). In Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s. Edited by Martin D. Yaffe and Richard S. Ruderman. New York: Palgrave, 2014, pp. 293–304.
Leo Strauss on Political Philosophy: Responding to the Challenge of Positivism and Historicism. Edited by Catherine H. Zuckert. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018.
Writings about Maimonides and Jewish philosophy
Spinoza's Critique of Religion (see above, 1930).
Philosophy and Law (see above, 1935).
"Quelques remarques sur la science politique de Maïmonide et de Farabi". Revue des Etudes juives 100 (1936): 1–37.
"Der Ort der Vorsehungslehre nach der Ansicht Maimunis". Monatschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums 81 (1936): 448–56.
"The Literary Character of The Guide for the Perplexed" [1941]. 38–94 in Persecution and the Art of Writing. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1952.
[1944] "How to Study Medieval Philosophy" [. Interpretation 23, no. 3 (Spring 1996): 319–338. Previously published, less annotations and fifth paragraph, as "How to Begin to Study Medieval Philosophy" in Pangle (ed.), The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism, 1989 (see above).
[1952]. Modern Judaism 1, no. 1 (May 1981): 17–45. Reprinted Chap. 1 (I–II) in Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, 1997 (see below).
[1952]. Independent Journal of Philosophy 3 (1979), 111–18. Reprinted Chap. 1 (III) in Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, 1997 (see below).
"Maimonides' Statement on Political Science". Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research 22 (1953): 115–30.
[1957]. L'Homme 21, n° 1 (janvier–mars 1981): 5–20. Reprinted Chap. 8 in Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, 1997 (see below).
"How to Begin to Study The Guide of the Perplexed". In The Guide of the Perplexed, Volume One. Trans. Shlomo Pines. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1963.
[1965] "On the Plan of the Guide of the Perplexed" . Harry Austryn Wolfson Jubilee. Volume (Jerusalem: American Academy for Jewish Research), pp. 775–91.
"Notes on Maimonides' Book of Knowledge". 269–83 in Studies in Mysticism and Religion Presented to G. G. Scholem. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1967.
Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity: Essays and Lectures in Modern Jewish Thought. Ed. Kenneth Hart Green. Albany: SUNY P, 1997.
Leo Strauss on Maimonides: The Complete Writings. Edited by Kenneth Hart Green. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013.
See also
American philosophy
List of American philosophers
Straussian idealism, a position inspired by the work of Strauss
Lev Shestov
Notes
Further reading
"A Giving of Accounts". In Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity – Essays and Lectures in Modern Jewish Thought. Ed. Kenneth H. Green. Albany: SUNY Press, 1997.
Altman, William H. F., The German Stranger: Leo Strauss and National Socialism. Lexington Books, 2011
Andreacchio, Marco. "Philosophy and Religion in Leo Strauss : Critical Review of Menon's Interpretation". Interpretation: A Journal of Political Philosophy 46, no. 2 (Spring 2020): 383–98.
Benardete, Seth. Encounters and Reflections: Conversations with Seth Benardete. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2002.
Bloom, Allan. "Leo Strauss". 235–55 in Giants and Dwarfs: Essays 1960–1990. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990.
Bluhm, Harald. Die Ordnung der Ordnung : das politische Philosophieren von Leo Strauss. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 2002.
Brague, Rémi. "Leo Strauss and Maimonides". 93–114 in Leo Strauss's Thought. Ed. Alan Udoff. Boulder: Lynne Reiner, 1991.
Brittain, Christopher Craig. "Leo Strauss and Resourceful Odysseus: Rhetorical Violence and the Holy Middle". Canadian Review of American Studies 38, no. 1 (2008): 147–63.
Bruell, Christopher. "A Return to Classical Political Philosophy and the Understanding of the American Founding". Review of Politics 53, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 173–86.
Chivilò, Giampiero and Menon, Marco (eds). Tirannide e filosofia: Con un saggio di Leo Strauss ed un inedito di Gaston Fessard sj. Venezia: Edizioni Ca' Foscari, 2015. .
Colen, Jose. Facts and values. London: Plusprint, 2012.
Deutsch, Kenneth L. and John A. Murley, eds. Leo Strauss, the Straussians, and the American Regime. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999. .
Drury, Shadia B. Leo Strauss and the American Right. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999.
———. The Political Ideas of Leo Strauss. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988.
Gottfried, Paul. Leo Strauss and the Conservative Movement in America: A Critical Appraisal (Cambridge University Press; 2011)
Gourevitch, Victor. "Philosophy and Politics I–II". Review of Metaphysics 22, nos. 1–2 (September–December 1968): 58–84, 281–328.
Green, Kenneth. Jew and Philosopher – The Return to Maimonides in the Jewish Thought of Leo Strauss. Albany: SUNY Press, 1993.
Havers, Grant N. Leo Strauss and Anglo-American Democracy: A Conservative Critique. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2013.
Holmes, Stephen. The Anatomy of Antiliberalism. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1996. .
Howse, Robert. Leo Strauss, Man of Peace, Cambridge University Press, 2014]
Ivry, Alfred L. "Leo Strauss on Maimonides". 75–91 in Leo Strauss's Thought. Ed. Alan Udoff. Boulder: Lynne Reiner, 1991.
Janssens, David. Between Athens and Jerusalem. Philosophy, Prophecy, and Politics in Leo Strauss's Early Thought. Albany: SUNY Press, 2008.
Kartheininger, Markus. "Heterogenität. Politische Philosophie im Frühwerk von Leo Strauss". München: Fink, 2006. .
Kartheininger, Markus. "Aristokratisierung des Geistes". In: Kartheininger, Markus/ Hutter, Axel (ed.). "Bildung als Mittel und Selbstzweck". Freiburg: Alber, 2009, pp. 157–208. .
Kerber, Hannes. "Strauss and Schleiermacher. An Introduction to 'Exoteric Teaching". In Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s. Ed. Yaffe/Ruderman. New York: Palgrave, 2014, pp. 203–14.
Kerber, Hannes. "Leo Strauss on Exoteric Writing". Interpretation. 46, no. 1 (2019): 3–25.
Kinzel, Till. Platonische Kulturkritik in Amerika. Studien zu Allan Blooms The Closing of the American Mind. Berlin: Duncker und Humblot, 2002.
Kochin, Michael S. "Morality, Nature, and Esotericism in Leo Strauss's Persecution and the Art of Writing". Review of Politics 64, no. 2 (Spring 2002): 261–83.
Lampert, Laurence. Leo Strauss and Nietzsche. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996.
Lutz, Mark J. “Living the Theologico-Political Problem: Leo Strauss on the Common Ground of Philosophy and Theology.” The European Legacy. 2018. Vol. 23. No. 8. pp. 1–25.
Macpherson, C. B. "Hobbes's Bourgeois Man". In Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972.
Major, Rafael (ed.). 'Leo Strauss's Defense of the Philosophic Life: Reading "What is Political Philosophy?". University of Chicago Press, 2013. (cloth)
Marchal, Kai, Shaw, Carl K.Y. Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss in the Chinese-speaking World: Reorienting the Political. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2017.
McAllister, Ted V. Revolt Against Modernity : Leo Strauss, Eric Voegelin & the Search for Postliberal Order. Lawrence, KS: UP of Kansas. 1996.
McWilliams, Wilson Carey. "Leo Strauss and the Dignity of American Political Thought". Review of Politics 60, no. 2 (Spring 1998): 231–46.
Meier, Heinrich. Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: The Hidden Dialogue, Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.
———. "Editor's Introduction[s]". Gesammelte Schriften. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1996. 3 vols.
———. Leo Strauss and the Theologico-Political Problem. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006.
———. How Strauss Became Strauss". 363–82 in Enlightening Revolutions: Essays in Honor of Ralph Lerner. Ed. Svetozar Minkov. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2006.
Melzer, Arthur. "Esotericism and the Critique of Historicism". American Political Science Review 100 (2006): 279–95.
Minowitz, Peter. "Machiavellianism Come of Age? Leo Strauss on Modernity and Economics". The Political Science Reviewer 22 (1993): 157–97.
———. Straussophobia: Defending Leo Strauss and Straussians against Shadia Drury and Other Accusers. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009.
Momigliano, Arnaldo. "Hermeneutics and Classical Political Thought in Leo Strauss", 178–89 in Essays on Ancient and Modern Judaism. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1994.
Moyn, Samuel. "From experience to law: Leo Strauss and the Weimar crisis of the philosophy of religion." History of European Ideas 33, (2007): 174–94.
Neumann, Harry. Liberalism. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic P, 1991.
Norton, Anne. Leo Strauss and the Politics of American Empire. New Haven & London: Yale UP, 2004.
Pangle, Thomas L. "The Epistolary Dialogue Between Leo Strauss and Eric Voegelin". Review of Politics 53, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 100–25.
———. "Leo Strauss's Perspective on Modern Politics". Perspectives on Political Science 33, no. 4 (Fall 2004): 197–203.
———. Leo Strauss: An Introduction to His Thought and Intellectual Legacy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2006.
Pelluchon, Corine. Leo Strauss and the Crisis of Rationalism: Another Reason, Another Enlightenment, Robert Howse (tr.), SUNY Press, 2014.
Piccinini, Irene Abigail. Una guida fedele. L'influenza di Hermann Cohen sul pensiero di Leo Strauss. Torino: Trauben, 2007. .
Rosen, Stanley. "Hermeneutics as Politics". 87–140 in Hermeneutics as Politics, New York: Oxford UP, 1987.
Sheppard, Eugene R. Leo Strauss and the Politics of Exile: The Making of a Political Philosopher. Waltham, MA: Brandeis UP, 2006. .
Shorris, Earl. "Ignoble Liars: Leo Strauss, George Bush, and the Philosophy of Mass Deception". Harper's Magazine 308, issue 1849 (June 2004): 65–71.
Smith, Steven B. Reading Leo Strauss: Politics, Philosophy, Judaism. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2006. . (Introd: "Why Strauss, Why Now?", online posting, press.uchicago.edu.)
Smith, Steven B. (editor). The Cambridge Companion to Leo Strauss. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. .
Steiner, Stephan: Weimar in Amerika. Leo Strauss' Politische Philosophie, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2013.
Strong, Tracy B. "Leo Strauss and the Demos," The European Legacy (October, 2012)
Tanguay, Daniel. Leo Strauss: une biographie intellectuelle. Paris, 2005. .
Tarcov, Nathan. "On a Certain Critique of 'Straussianism' ". Review of Politics 53, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 3–18.
———. "Philosophy and History: Tradition and Interpretation in the Work of Leo Strauss". Polity 16, no. 1 (Autumn 1983): 5–29.
——— and Thomas L. Pangle, "Epilogue: Leo Strauss and the History of Political Philosophy". 907–38 in History of Political Philosophy. Ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey. 3rd ed. 1963; Chicago and London, U of Chicago P, 1987.
Tepper, Aryeh. "Progressive Minds, Conservative Politics: Leo Strauss' Later Writings on Maimonides." SUNY: 2013.
Thompson, Bradley C. (with Yaron Brook). Neoconservatism. An Obituary for an Idea. Boulder/London: Paradigm Publishers, 2010. pp. 55–131. .
Velkley, Richard. Heidegger, Strauss, and the Premises of Philosophy: On Original Forgetting. University of Chicago Press, 2011.
West, Thomas G. "Jaffa Versus Mansfield: Does America Have a Constitutional or a "Declaration of Independence" Soul?" Perspectives on Political Science 31, no. 4 (Fall 2002): 35–46.
Xenos, Nicholas. Cloaked in virtue: Unveiling Leo Strauss and the Rhetoric of American Foreign Policy. New York, Routledge Press, 2008.
Zuckert, Catherine H. Postmodern Platos. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996.
Zuckert, Catherine H., and Michael Zuckert. The Truth about Leo Strauss. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2006.
Strauss family
Lüders, Joachim and Ariane Wehner. Mittelhessen – eine Heimat für Juden? Das Schicksal der Familie Strauss aus Kirchhain. Marburg: Gymnasium Philippinum, 1989. (In German; English translation: Central Hesse – a Homeland for Jews? The Fate of the Strauss Family from Kirchhain.)
External links
General resources
The Leo Strauss Center
Claremont Institute For the Study of Statesmanship and Political Philosophy – Claremont Institute website. (Includes a search facility.)
Audio of 1958 lecture by Leo Strauss on Genesis
Profile at SourceWatch
Guide to the Leo Strauss Papers circa 1930-1997 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
Scholarly articles, books and parts of books
Altman, William H. F. Altruism and the Art of Writing: Plato, Cicero, and Leo Strauss, Humanitas Spring–Fall, 2009
Batnitzky, Leora. Leo Strauss, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.); substantive revision May 24, 2016.
Brague, Rémi. Athens, Jerusalem, Mecca: Leo Strauss's "Muslim" Understanding of Greek Philosophy, Poetics Today 19.2 (Summer 1998): 235–59.
Drury, Shadia B. "Leo Strauss and the Neoconservatives". Evatt Foundation, September 11, 2004.
———. "The Esoteric Philosophy of Leo Strauss", Political Theory 13, no. 3 (August 1985): 315–337.
———. "Leo Strauss and the Grand Inquisitor" . Free Inquiry 24, no. 4 (June 2004).
———. "Strauss, Leo (1899–1973)". Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (New York: Routledge, 1998). Accessed October 5, 2007.
George, Jim. "Leo Strauss, Neoconservatism and US Foreign Policy: Esoteric Nihilism and the Bush Doctrine". International Politics 42, no. 2 (June 2005): 174–202.
Gottfried, Paul. "Strauss and the Straussians". Humanitas 18.1&2 (2005): 26–29.
Levine, Peter. "A 'Right' Nietzschean: Leo Strauss and his Followers". 152–67 in Nietzsche and the Modern Crisis of the Humanities. Albany: SUNY Press, 1995. Inc. notes to chap. 8: 260–65. (Published version of the author's Ph.D. dissertation; online posting on author's personal website, PeterLevine.ws.)
Novak, David Leo Strauss and Judaism: Jerusalem and Athens Critically Revisited
Perreau-Saussine, Emile. "Athéisme et politique". Critique n° 728–729 (January–February 2008): 121–35.
Piccinini, Irene Abigail. "Leo Strauss and Hermann Cohen's "arch-enemy:" a quasi-Cohenian apology of Baruch Spinoza" The Journal of Textual Reasoning 3.1 (June 2004).
Pippin, Robert B. "The Modern World of Leo Strauss". Political Theory 20.3 (August 1992): 448–72.
Ryn, Claes G. "Leo Strauss and History: The Philosopher As Conspirator". Humanitas 18.1&2 (2005): 31–58.
Smith, Gregory Bruce. "Leo Strauss and the Straussians: An Anti-Democratic Cult?" Political Science and Politics 30.2 (June 1997): 180–89.
Tkach, David. "Leo Strauss's Critique of Martin Heidegger." PhD Thesis, University of Ottawa, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.20381/ruor-4453
Verskin, Alan. "Reading Strauss on Maimonides: A New Approach". Journal of Textual Reasoning 3, no. 1 (June 2004).
West, Thomas G. "Jaffa Versus Mansfield: Does America Have a Constitutional or a 'Declaration of Independence' Soul?" Perspectives on Political Science 31 (September 2002). "Jaffa Versus Mansfield". ("What were the original principles of the American Constitution? Are those principles true?") Online posting. The Claremont Institute, November 29, 2002. Accessed June 1, 2007.
Xenos, Nicholas. "Leo Strauss and the Rhetoric of the War on Terror". Logos: A Journal of Modern Society and Culture 3.2 (Spring 2004): 1–19. (Printable PDF.)
Zuckert, Catherine, and Michael Zuckert. "Introduction: Mr. Strauss Goes to Washington?" 1–26 in The Truth about Leo Strauss: Political Philosophy and American Democracy. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2006. . Online posting of "Excerpt" (1–20), www.press.uchicago.edu. (Book website updated May 21, 2007. Accessed June 1, 2007.)
Related journalistic commentary, other articles and parts of books
Ashbrook, Tom, with guests Harvey Mansfield, Shadia B. Drury, and Jack Beatty. "Leo Strauss and the American Right". On Point. WBUR Radio (Boston, Massachusetts), May 15, 2003. Accessed May 26, 2007. (Interviews. Inc. audio link to radio program.)
Berkowitz, Peter. What Hath Strauss Wrought? Weekly Standard, June 2, 2003.
Clay, Jenny Strauss. The Real Leo Strauss, the New York Times, June 7, 2003
Hersh, Seymour M. "Selective Intelligence". The New Yorker, May 12, 2003. Accessed June 1, 2007.
Horton, Scott. "Straussophobia: Six Questions for Peter Minowitz," Harper's Magazine, 9/29/09
Smith, Steven B. Hidden Truths: Two Books About the Legacy of Leo Strauss, The New York Times, August 23, 2013.
Wolin, Richard. "Leo Strauss, Judaism, and Liberalism". The Chronicle of Higher Education, April 14, 2006. Accessed May 22, 2007.
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] |
210245
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion
|
Torsion
|
Torsion may refer to:
Science
Torsion (mechanics), the twisting of an object due to an applied torque
Torsion of spacetime, the field used in Einstein–Cartan theory and
Alternatives to general relativity
Torsion angle, in chemistry
Biology and medicine
Torsion fracture or spiral fracture, a bone fracture when torque is applied
Organ torsion, twisting that interrupts the blood supply to that organ:
Splenic torsion, causing splenic infarction
Ovarian torsion
Testicular torsion
Penile torsion, a congenital condition
Torsion of the digestive tract in some domestic animals:
Torsion, a type of horse colic
Gastric torsion, or gastric dilatation volvulus
Torsion (gastropod), a developmental feature of all gastropods
Mathematics
Torsion of a curve
Torsion tensor, in differential geometry
Torsion (algebra), in ring theory
Torsion group, in group theory and arithmetic geometry
Tor functor, the derived functors of the tensor product of modules over a ring
Torsion-free module, in algebra
Analytic torsion (Reidemeister torsion, R-torsion, Franz torsion, de Rham torsion, Ray-Singer torsion), a topological invariant of manifolds
Whitehead torsion, in geometric topology
Other uses
Torsion field (pseudoscience), a field alleged to make faster-than-light communication and paranormal phenomena possible
|
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210247
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20superpower
|
Second superpower
|
"Second superpower" is a term used to conceptualize a global civil society as a world force comparable to or counterbalancing the United States of America. The term originates from a 2003 New York Times article which described world public opinion as one of two superpowers.
It has also been applied to the USSR in the past, and to the China a rising power in the 21st century.
Peace movement in opposition to invasion of Iraq
Invention in response to February 2003 demonstrations
On February 15, 2003 global demonstrations took place against the impending invasion of Iraq. These involved between six and thirty million people and were listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as including the largest anti-war rally in history. In reaction, New York Times writer Patrick Tyler wrote in a February 17 article that:
Popularization as a description of popular opinion
The New York Times article was widely circulated in the peace movement during February 2003, adding to the hope among many participants that galvanizing world public opinion could prevent the Iraq War.
UN Secretary General Kofi Annan began to use the phrase "two superpowers" in speeches. In March, "The Nation" magazine cover story was titled "The Other Superpower". In it, Jonathan Schell wrote:
Though worldwide popular opposition failed to prevent the invasion of Iraq, leading some to reject the notion, the phrase is still popular among people in the anti-war and anti-globalization movements.
Internet-based activism
On March 31, 2003, Dr. James F. Moore of Harvard Law School's Berkman Center for Internet and Society posted an essay entitled The Second Superpower Rears Its Beautiful Head. In it, he advocated four ideas: embrace the concept explicitly within the peace movement as an inspirational goal and a counter to the "first superpower" idea promoted by the Bush administration, continue to develop blogging and other means of linking the community globally, find ways to influence first superpower institutions including international institutions and international law, and continue to develop reflective personal consciousness so as to be able to lead from love rather than fear.
This paper received 50,000 downloads in five days. The substance of the piece was debated by a number of authors, including Jonathan Rauch writing in National Journal. Many bloggers linked the paper with Joi Ito's Emergent Democracy concept and paper.
Some attacked Moore's use of the term to describe primarily the effect of the Internet. Brian Fitzgerald argued in the Greenpeace Weblog:
"Googlewashing"
Moore's paper was the subject of an attack on the dissemination process and the relationship of the author and his reviewers to Google, by Andrew Orlowski of The Register. Orlowski accused a small number of webloggers of "Googlewashing", a word Orlowski invented to describe media manipulation of Google to neuter the political significance of the word. He argued:
Other states
Soviet Union
During the cold war era the term was heavily applied to Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as the USSR was a power of comparable influence, but lagged behind the US in economy and wealth.
China
In the 21st century, the term has also been applied by scholars and geopolitical observer to the possibility that the People's Republic of China could emerge as a "second superpower," with global power and influence on par with the United States.
See also
eGovernment
Great power
Group of Two
Hyperpower
Internet activism
Peace movement
Potential superpowers
Power (international relations)
Superpower
References
External links
New York Times: "A New Power in the Streets"
Greenpeace: "The Second Superpower Rears is Beautiful Head"
James Moore, "The Second Superpower"
Andrew Orlowski's "Anti-war slogan coined, repurposed and Googlewashed… in 42 days"
Joan Hinton: The Second Superpower (Beijing International Peace Vigil)
Professor Geoffrey Nunberg's New York Times feature, As Google Goes, So Goes the Nation, reprinted in Going Nucular (Public Affairs, 2004)
Pierre Lazuly's "Telling Google What To Think, Le Monde Diplomatique
Internet-based activism
Community organizing
Technology in society
Power (international relations)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20guidance%20film
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Social guidance film
|
Social guidance films constitute a genre of educational films attempting to guide children and adults to behave in certain ways. Originally produced by the U.S. government as "attitude-building films" during World War II, the genre grew to be a common source of instruction in elementary and high school classrooms in the United States from the late 1940s to the early 1970s. The films covered topics including courtesy, grammar, social etiquette and dating, personal hygiene and grooming, health and fitness, civic and moral responsibility, sexuality, child safety, national loyalty, racial and social prejudice, juvenile delinquency, drug use, and driver safety; the genre also includes films for adults, covering topics such as marriage, business etiquette, general safety, home economics, career counseling and how to balance budgets. A subset is known as hygiene films addressing mental hygiene and sexual hygiene.
History
Social guidance films were produced by corporations such as Coronet Instructional Films, Centron Corporation for Young America Films, Encyclopædia Britannica Films, and occasionally by better-known companies such as Ford Motor Company and Crawley Films for McGraw-Hill Book Company. Many were made by independent producers, most notably the prolific maverick independent filmmaker Sid Davis. Few of these films featured notable actors, and only a few were produced by a major Hollywood studio, such as the films made by Walt Disney Productions and Warner Bros. In rare instances, the films were sponsored by a major company such as Kotex or General Motors. Ken Smith, in his seminal 1999 book on the genre, Mental Hygiene: Classroom Films 1945 - 1970, estimates that there were "around three thousand" films made that fall into the "social guidance" film genre.
While many of the films were merely instructional (like 1941's Posture and Exercise, 1949's Posture and Personality and 1952's Duck and Cover), others ended with an invitation for a classroom discussion of the topic (1956's What About Alcoholism?; 1959's What About Prejudice?), whereas others were presented as striking cautionary tales (1959's Signal 30; 1961's Seduction of the Innocent; 1967's Narcotics: Pit of Despair).
Although sometimes viewed as conservative or reactionary by today's standards, Smith points out that these films were not made by conservatives or reactionaries but instead "by some of the most liberal and progressive-minded people of their time."
Appearances in other media
As films in this genre are largely in public domain, they have been used in modern productions outside of their intended purpose, usually as a means of unintentional comedy. A number of short social guidance films, such as Posture Pals (1952) and Are You Ready for Marriage? (1950), were featured and lampooned on the television comedy series Mystery Science Theater 3000 to provide padding for episodes in which the featured movie segments did not fill out the program's roughly 90-minute running time. On The Weird Al Show, clips from still other films were taken and edited together with new voiceovers to make parodies.
The 1999 feature film, The Iron Giant, set in 1957, features a social guidance film-within-a-film titled, Atomic Holocaust, the style and tone of which parody 1952's Duck and Cover.
A fifth season episode of the AMC series Mad Men, which takes place between July 1966 and August 1966, uses the title of 1959's Signal 30 as the episode title.
See also
Social problem film
Trigger film
References
Our Secret Century, a collection of 12 CD-ROMs compiled by film archivist Rick Prelinger
External links
Duck and Cover
The Prelinger Archives at the Internet Archive
AV Geeks at the Internet Archive
Film genres
|
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] |
210252
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skoda%2075%20mm%20Model%201939
|
Skoda 75 mm Model 1939
|
The Skoda 75 mm Model 1939 (75 mm M.39) was a mountain gun manufactured in by Skoda Works and exported in small numbers to Romania and Iran. The design was related to the Bofors L/22 sold to Switzerland. For transport, the gun could be broken into eight sections and carried by mule. The gun crew was protected by an armoured shield. Romanian guns equipped two mountain artillery battalions.
Notes
References
Chamberlain, Peter and Gander, Terry. Infantry, Mountain and Airborne Guns
World War II field artillery
Artillery of Czechoslovakia
World War II mountain artillery
75 mm artillery
Military equipment introduced in the 1930s
|
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