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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1804%20in%20literature
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1804 in literature
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This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1804.
Events
March 17 – The first performance of Friedrich Schiller's play Wilhelm Tell takes place at Weimar under the direction of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
April 15 – John Keats' father, a stable worker, dies of a fractured skull, after falling from his horse while returning from visiting John at school.
May – Samuel Taylor Coleridge travels to Attard in Malta, where he obtains employment as Acting Public Secretary.
unknown dates
James Mill's pamphlet critical of the corn trade, An Essay on the Impolicy of a Bounty on the Exportation of Grain, is published.
William Wordsworth writes his best-known poem "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud", describing a scene he witnessed two years earlier.
German Gerhard Bonnier begins a publishing business in Copenhagen (Denmark) by issuing , origin of the Swedish Bonnier Group.
New books
Fiction
Mir Amman – Bagh o Buhar, a Translation into the Hindoostanee Tongue of the Celebrated Persian Tale "Qissui Chuhar Durwesh" "by Meer Ummun"
Sophie Ristaud Cottin – Malvina
Rachel Hunter -The Unexpected Legacy
William Henry Ireland – The Sepulchral Summons
Mary Meeke
Amazement
The Nine Days' Wonder
Amelia Opie – Adeline Mowbray
Ōta Nanpo (大田 南畝) and others – (Collection of Shokusanjin memorabilia)
Anna Maria Porter – The Lake of Killarney
Children
François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil
Elmonde, ou la Fille de l'hospice (Edmonde, the charity girl)
Jules, ou le Toit paternel (Jules, or Under his father's roof)
Maria Edgeworth – Popular Tales
Eliza Fenwick – Mary and Her Cat
Ann Taylor and Jane Taylor – Original Poems for Infant Minds by several young persons, Vol. 1
Drama
Richard Cumberland – The Sailor's Daughter
Friedrich von Schiller – Wilhelm Tell
Friedrich Hölderlin – translations of the dramas of Sophocles (published)
Poetry
William Blake – Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion
William Lisle Bowles – The Spirit of Discovery
Kirsha Danilov – The Ancient Russian Poems
Non-fiction
Thomas Brown – Inquiry into the Relation of Cause and Effect
John Wilson Croker – Familiar Epistles to J. F. Jones, Esquire, on the State of the Irish Stage
Jakob Friedrich Fries – System der Philosophie als evidente Wissenschaft
Jacques Labillardière – Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen
James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale – Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Public Wealth
Births
July 1 – George Sand (Lucile Aurore Dupin), French novelist and memoirist (died 1876)
July 4 – Nathaniel Hawthorne, American novelist (died 1864)
September 8 – Eduard Mörike, German poet (died 1875)
November 6 – Benjamin Hall Kennedy, English classicist (died 1880)
December 10 – Eugène Sue, French novelist (died 1857)
December 21 – Benjamin Disraeli, English novelist and prime minister (died 1881)
Deaths
January 4 – Charlotte Lennox, English novelist and playwright (born c. 1730)
January 11 – James Tytler, Scottish American editor of Encyclopædia Britannica (born 1745)
February 6 – Joseph Priestley, English natural philosopher and theologian (born 1733)
February 12 – Immanuel Kant, German philosopher (born 1724)
February 19 – Philip Yorke, Welsh antiquary and genealogist (born 1743)
April 3 – Jędrzej Kitowicz, Polish historian and diarist (born c. 1727)
April 27 – Jonathan Boucher, English philologist (born 1738)
May 3 – Celestyn Czaplic, Polish poet and politician (born 1723)
July 16 – Jean-Louis de Lolme, Swiss political theorist (born 1741)
August 9 – Robert Potter, English translator, poet and cleric (born 1721)
August 13 – Anica Bošković, Ragusan writer (born 1714)
October 30 – Samuel Ayscough, English librarian and indexer (born 1745)
November 5 – Betje Wolff, Dutch novelist (born 1738)
November 23 – Richard Graves, English poet and novelist (born 1715)
December 9 – Wilhelm Abraham Teller, German theologian (born 1734)
December – John Boydell, English Shakespeare illustrator and engraver (born 1720)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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] |
208518
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1803%20in%20literature
|
1803 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1803.
Events
June 30 – Novelist Mary Butt marries her cousin, Captain Henry Sherwood, acquiring the surname by which she will become best known.
September 9 – Bamberg State Library is established in Upper Franconia.
unknown date – The library which becomes the National Széchényi Library, established in 1802 by Count Ferenc Széchényi, opens to the public in Pest, Hungary.
New books
Fiction
Charles Brockden Brown – Memoirs of Carwin the Biloquist
Sophie Ristaud Cottin – Amélie de Mansfield
Catherine Cuthbertson – The Romance of the Pyrenees
Elizabeth Gunning – The War-Office
Francis Lathom – The Mysterious Freebooter
Mary Meeke – A Tale of Mystery, or Celina
Jean Paul - Titan
Jane Porter – Thaddeus of Warsaw
Germaine de Staël – Margaret of Strafford
Drama
George Colman – John Bull, or an Englishman's Fireside
William Dunlap – Voice of Nature (adapted from the French)
Collin d'Harleville – Malice pour malice
Thomas Holcroft – Hear Both Sides
Heinrich von Kleist – Die Familie Schroffenstein
August von Kotzebue – Die deutschen Kleinstädter (comedy, German Small-towners)
Friedrich Schiller – The Bride of Messina (Die Braut von Messina), premiere in Weimar on March 19
Isaac Reed (ed.) – The Plays of William Shakspeare (first variorum edition)
Poetry
Henry Kirke White – Clifton Grove, a Sketch in Verse, with other Poems
Adam Oehlenschlager – Digte (Poems)
Non-fiction
Alexandre Balthazar Laurent Grimod de La Reynière – Almanach des gourmands (1st edition)
Immanuel Kant – Über Pädagogik (On Pedagogy)
Adamantios Korais – Present Conditions of Civilisation in Greece
Joseph Lancaster – Improvements in Education as It Respects the Industrious Classes
Thomas Malthus – An Essay on the Principle of Population (2nd edition)
Humphry Repton – Observations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening
Births
January 3 – Douglas William Jerrold, English dramatist (died 1857)
January 15 – Marjorie Fleming, Scottish child writer (died 1811)
May 16 – Amelie von Strussenfelt, Swedish novelist (died 1847)
May 25
Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton, English novelist, poet and dramatist (died 1873)
Ralph Waldo Emerson, American poet, essayist and philosopher (died 1882)
July 20 – Dudley Costello, Irish writer and journalist (died 1865)
September 20 – Catherine Crowe, English novelist, playwright and children's writer (died 1876)
September 28 – Prosper Mérimée, French dramatist and historian (died 1870)
October 25 – Maria Doolaeghe, Flemish novelist (died 1884)
November 14 – Jacob Abbott, American children's writer (died 1879)
December 6 – Susanna Moodie, English-born Canadian writer (died 1885)
December 31 – José María Heredia y Heredia, Cuban poet (died 1839)
Unknown date – Evan Bevan, Welsh writer of satirical verse (died 1866)
Deaths
January 1 – James Woodforde, English diarist (born 1740)
February 11 – Jean-François de La Harpe, French dramatist and critic (born 1739)
March 14 – Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, German poet (born 1724)
April 9 – Mihály Bakos (Miháo Bakoš), Slovene hymnist and Lutheran minister (born c. 1742)
June 12 – Richard François Philippe Brunck, French classical scholar (born 1729)
August 2 – John Hoole, English translator (born 1727)
September 5 – Pierre Choderlos de Laclos, French novelist (born 1841)
October 8 – Vittorio Alfieri, Italian dramatist and poet (born 1749)
December 18 – Johann Gottfried Herder, German philosopher, poet and critic (born 1744)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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] |
208519
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20Democrats
|
Social Democrats
|
Social Democrats is a name used by a number of political parties in various countries around the world. Such parties are most commonly aligned to social democracy.
Social Democrats may refer to:
Social Democrats (Denmark), a social-democratic political party in Denmark
Social Democrats (Germany), a social-democratic political party in Germany
Social Democrats (Ireland), a centre-left political party in Ireland
Social Democrats (Slovenia), a centre-left political party in Slovenia
Social Democrats (Sweden), a social-democratic political party in Sweden
Social Democrats, USA, a small association of democratic socialists and social democrats in the United States
Social Democrats of Uganda, a political party in Uganda
Åland Social Democrats, a social-democratic political party on the Åland Islands
Gibraltar Social Democrats, a liberal-conservative, centre-right political party in Gibraltar
Portuguese Social Democrats, a liberal-conservative political party in Portugal
Social Democrats of Montenegro, a centre-left political party in Montenegro
Supporters of social democracy in general
Various parties using the name Social Democratic Party
See also
List of social democratic parties, parties that consider themselves to uphold social democracy
Social-Demokraten (disambiguation)
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1802%20in%20literature
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1802 in literature
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This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1802.
Events
April 15 – William and his sister Dorothy Wordsworth walk by Ullswater and see a belt of daffodils, which inspires his poem "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud", written two years later.
April 19 – Joseph Grimaldi first presents his white-faced clown character "Joey", at Sadler's Wells Theatre in London.
Summer – Adam Oehlenschläger writes at one sitting the poem "Guldhornene", introducing Romanticism into Danish poetry.
July 31 – William Wordsworth, leaving London for Dover and Calais with Dorothy, witnesses an early morning scene he captures in a Petrarchan sonnet "Composed upon Westminster Bridge". In Calais, he will meet his 9-year-old illegitimate daughter Caroline for the first time.
October 4 – William Wordsworth marries Mary Hutchinson at Brompton, Scarborough.
October 10 – The Edinburgh Review, a reforming quarterly, is first published.
November 13 – The first play in English explicitly called a melodrama ("mélodrame") is performed in London: Thomas Holcroft's Gothic A Tale of Mystery (an unacknowledged translation of de Pixerécourt's Cœlina, ou, l'enfant du mystère), at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden.
November 15 – Washington Irving makes a first appearance in print at the age of nineteen, with observational letters to the New York Morning Chronicle under the name Jonathan Oldstyle.
December 2–3 – Jane Austen accepts, then rejects, a proposal of marriage from Harris Bigg-Wither at his Hampshire home.
unknown dates
Henry Boyd completes the first full English translation of Dante's Divine Comedy.
Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron's Latin translation of Oupneck'hat is published, the first published translation of the Upanishads into a Western language.
The first part of Jippensha Ikku's picaresque novel Tōkaidōchū Hizakurige (東海道中膝栗毛, Shank's Mare) is published in Japan.
New books
Fiction
François-René de Chateaubriand – René
Elizabeth Craven – The Soldiers of Dierenstein
John Gilchrist – Hindee Story Teller
Elizabeth Gunning – The Farmer's Boy
Jane Harvey – Warkfield Castle
Rachel Hunter – The History of the Grubthorpe Family
Isabella Kelly – The Baron's Daughter
Francis Lathom – Astonishment
Mary Meeke
Independence
Midnight Weddings
Mary Pilkington – The Accusing Spirit
Anne Louise Germaine de Stael – Delphine
Jane West – The Infidel Father
Drama
Charles-Guillaume Étienne – Les Deux Mères
Heinrich Joseph von Collin – Coriolan
Poetry
Walter Scott, ed., anonymously – Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border
Non-fiction
Saul Ascher – Ideen zur natürlichen Geschichte der politischen Revolutionen (Ideas toward a Natural History of Political Revolutions)
Jeremy Bentham – Civil War and Penal Legislation
Jacob Boehme – Les Trois Principes de l'Essence Divine (translated into French by Louis Claude de Saint-Martin)
François-René de Chateaubriand – Génie du christianisme (The Genius of Christianity)
John Debrett – Debrett's Peerage (first edition)
John Home – History of the Rebellion of 1745
Malcolm Laing – History of Scotland from the Union of the Crowns to the Union of the Kingdoms
Louis Claude de Saint-Martin – Le Ministère de l'homme-esprit
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling – Bruno oder über das göttliche und natürliche Prinzip der Dinge (Bruno, or On the Natural and the Divine Principle of Things)
Joanna Southcott – The Strange Effects of Faith; with Remarkable Prophecies (with fifth and final part)
Noah Webster – The Rights of Neutral Nations in Time of War
Births
January 9 – Catharine Parr Traill, English-Canadian memoirist and children's author (died 1899)
February 11 – Lydia Maria Child, American abolitionist, activist, novelist, and journalist (died 1880)
February 26 – Victor Hugo, French novelist and poet (died 1885)
June 2 – Karl Lehrs, German classicist (died 1878)
June 12 – Harriet Martineau, English social theorist (died 1876)
July 10 – Robert Chambers, Scottish writer and publisher (died 1871)
July 24 – Alexandre Dumas, père, French novelist (died 1870)
July 28 – Winthrop Mackworth Praed, English poet (died 1839)
August 14 - Letitia Elizabeth Landon, English poet and novelist (died 1838)
August 25 – Nikolaus Lenau, Hungarian-born German poet (died 1850)
November 29 – Wilhelm Hauff, German poet and novelist (died 1827)
December 8 – Alexander Odoevsky, Russian poet (died 1839)
December 23 – Sara Coleridge, English poet and translator (died 1852)
December 31 – Richard Henry Horne, English poet, critic and journalist, and public official in Australia (died 1884)
Deaths
February 26 – Alexander Geddes, Scottish theologian, scholar and priest (born 1737)
April 18 – Erasmus Darwin, English poet and natural philosopher (born 1731)
June 5 – Johann Christian Gottlieb Ernesti, German classicist (born 1756)
June 20 – Sophia Burrell, English poet and dramatist (born 1753)
June 29 – Johann Jakob Engel, German teacher and writer (born 1741)
August 10 – Franz Aepinus, German natural philosopher (born 1724)
December 27 – Thomas Cadell, English bookseller and publisher (born 1742)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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208523
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1801%20in%20literature
|
1801 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1801.
Events
April 1 – A letter from "the author of Génie du christianisme" (François-René de Chateaubriand) is published in Le Publiciste, Chateaubriand having returned to France the previous year under an amnesty issued to émigrés.
April 2 – Battle of Copenhagen: In recognition of the English attack on Copenhagen, Adam Oehlenschläger produces his first dramatic sketch April the Second 1801.
April – John Borthwick Gilchrist is appointed a professor at Fort William College in Calcutta, India, where he establishes the Hindusthani Press.
May – Jane Austen moves with her family to Bath.
unknown dates
The second edition of Specimens of the Early English Poets, edited by George Ellis and covering poems from the Old English through to the 17th century, is influential in acquainting the general reading public with Middle English poetry, going through a further 4 editions.
The first complete Bible translation into Scottish Gaelic, Am Bìoball Gàidhlig, is published.
New books
Fiction
François-René de Chateaubriand – Atala
Sophie Ristaud Cottin – Malvina
Anne Seymour Damer – Belmour
Maria Edgeworth – Belinda
Elizabeth Helme – St. Margaret's Cave
Rachel Hunter – Letitia
Isabella Kelly – Ruthinglenne
Sophia King – The Fatal Secret
Mary Meeke – Which is the Man
Amelia Opie – The Father and Daughter
Eliza Parsons – The Peasant of Ardenne Forest
Children
Christoph von Schmid – Biblische Geschichte für Kinder (Bible Stories for Children)
Priscilla Wakefield – The Juvenile Travellers: Containing the Remarks of a Family during a Tour through the Principal States and Kingdoms of Europe
Drama
Heinrich Joseph von Collin – Regulus
William Godwin – Abbas, King of Persia (written)
Matthew Lewis
Adelmorn, the Outlaw
Alfonso, King of Castile
Thomas Moore and Michael Kelly (tenor) – The Gypsy Prince
Friedrich Schiller
The Maid of Orleans (Die Jungfrau von Orleans)
Maria Stuart
Poetry
Henry James Pye – Alfred
William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Lyrical Ballads (2nd edition, dated 1800)
Non-fiction
Francis Barrett – The Magus, or Celestial Intelligencer
Elizabeth Hamilton – Letters on the Elementary Principles of Education
Arthur Murphy – Life of David Garrick
Jane West – Letters to a Young Man
Births
February 16 – Frederic Madden, English palaeographer (died 1873)
February 21 – Cardinal John Henry Newman, English theologian and autobiographer (died 1890)
March 4 – Karl Rudolf Hagenbach, Swiss theologian and historian (died 1874)
March 15 – George Perkins Marsh, American philologist (died 1882)
May 9 – Ulrika von Strussenfelt, Swedish novelist (died 1873)
May 31 – Johann Georg Baiter, Swiss philologist and textual critic (died 1877)
August 10 – Christian Hermann Weisse, German Protestant religious philosopher (died 1866)
September 4 – Alfred d'Orsay, French wit and dandy (died 1852)
September 7 – Hortense Allart, Milanese-born French feminist novelist (died 1879)
November 3 – Karl Baedeker, German guidebook publisher (died 1859)
November 10 – Vladimir Dal, Russian lexicographer (died 1872)
November 22 – Abraham Hayward, English man of letters (died 1884)
November 24 – Ludwig Bechstein, German writer and collector of folk tales (died 1860)
December 4 – Karl Ludwig Michelet, German philosopher (died 1893)
December 7 – Johann Nestroy, Austrian dramatist (died 1862)
December 11 – Christian Dietrich Grabbe, German dramatist (died 1836)
December 12 – Edward Moxon, English poet and publisher (died 1858)
Deaths
January 2 – Johann Kaspar Lavater, Swiss poet (born 1741)
January 9 – Margaretta Faugères, American playwright, poet and political activist (born 1771)
January 13 – Robert Orme, English historian of India (born 1728)
March 14 – Ignacy Krasicki, Polish poet and prince-bishop (born 1735)
March 21 – John Holt, English scholar (born 1743)
March 25 – Novalis, German poet (born 1772)
April 11 – Antoine de Rivarol, French scholar and epigrammatist (born 1753)
September 1 – Robert Bage, English novelist (born 1728)
September 7 – Giovanni Andrea Lazzarini, Italian painter, poet and art historian (born 1710)
September 23 – Thomas Nowell, Welsh-born controversialist and historian (born c. 1730)
December 25 – Hester Chapone, English writer of conduct books (born 1727)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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208524
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1800%20in%20literature
|
1800 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1800.
Events
January – Maria Edgeworth's first extended work of fiction, Castle Rackrent ("an Hibernian Tale: Taken from Facts, and from the Manners of the Irish Squires, Before the Year 1782"), is published anonymously in London, variously regarded as the first historical novel, the first regional novel in English, the first Anglo-Irish novel, the first Big House novel, the first saga novel and the first with an unreliable narrator.
January 10 – The Serampore Mission and Press is established in Serampore (now part of West Bengal) India by Baptist missionaries Joshua Marshman and William Ward. The press will grow into the largest in Asia, printing books in nearly every Indian language.
March – English "ploughboy poet" Robert Bloomfield's The Farmer's Boy is published with engravings by Thomas Bewick, selling over 25,000 copies in the next two years, with 15 editions by 1827 and a number of translations.
April 24 – The United States establishes the Library of Congress.
June 14 – Friedrich Schiller's historical drama Mary Stuart has its première in Weimar.
September – William Blake begins three years' residence in a cottage at Felpham in Sussex to illustrate the works of William Hayley; here he begins work on his poem Milton.
October 3 – William and Dorothy Wordsworth, walking near Grasmere in the English Lake District, encounter a leech gatherer who inspires his poem "Resolution and Independence", first written 18 months later.
New books
Fiction
Helen Craik – The Hermit's Cell
Maria Edgeworth – Castle Rackrent
Anne Ford – The School for Fashion
Stéphanie Félicité, Comtesse de Genlis – The Rival Mothers
William Henry Ireland
Gondez the Monk
Rimualdo
Francis Lathom – Mystery
William Linley – Forbidden Apartments
Mary Meeke – Anecdotes of the Altamont Family
Eliza Parsons – The Miser and his Family
Regina Maria Roche
The Nocturnal Visit
The Vicar of Lansdowne
Catherine Selden – Serena
Horatio Smith – A Family Story
Children
François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil
Les Petits orphelins du hameau (The young orphans from the hamlet)
Paul, ou la Ferme abandonnée (Paul or the abandoned farmstead)
Edward Augustus Kendall
The Swallow: a fiction interspersed with poetry
The Stories of Senex; or little histories of little people
Drama
Prince Hoare – Indiscretion
Friedrich Schiller – Maria Stuart
Non-fiction
Jacob Boehme – L'Aurore naissante (translated into French by Louis Claude de Saint-Martin)
Alexander Geddes – Critical Remarks on the Hebrew Scriptures
Elizabeth Hamilton – Memoirs of Modern Philosophers
Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren – (History of the European System of States)
Immanuel Kant –
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling – System of Transcendental Idealism ()
Parson Weems – A History of the Life and Death, Virtues and Exploits of General George Washington
Births
January 6 – Anna Maria Hall, Irish novelist (died 1881)
January 16 – Robert Bell, Irish-born man of letters (died 1867)
March 25 – Alexis Paulin Paris, French editor of medieval manuscripts (died 1881)
April 17 – Catherine Sinclair, Scottish novelist and children's writer (died 1864)
May 5 – Louis Christophe François Hachette, French publisher (died 1864)
October 18 – Sir Henry Taylor, English dramatist and poet (died 1886)
October 25
Maria Jane Jewsbury, English writer, poet and reviewer (died 1833)
Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay, English-born poet and historian (died 1859)
November 27 – Fanny Kemble, English actress and writer (died 1893)
unknown dates
Costache Aristia, Wallachian translator, poet, dramatist and actor (died 1880)
Thomas Henry Lister, English novelist and Registrar General (died 1842)
Wanda Malecka, Polish translator, poet and novelist (died 1860)
Deaths
January 22 – George Steevens, English Shakespearean commentator (born 1736)
February 22 – Joseph Warton, English academic and literary critic (born 1722)
March 14 – Daines Barrington, English lawyer, antiquary and naturalist (born c. 1727)
March 29 – Marc René, marquis de Montalembert, French military engineer and writer (born 1714)
April 25 – William Cowper, English poet (born 1731)
August 25 – Elizabeth Montagu, English literary critic (born 1718)
September 29 – Michael Denis, Austrian poet (born 1729)
December 26 – Mary Robinson, English poet (born 1757)
References
Years of the 18th century in literature
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20English%20penny%20%281066%E2%80%931154%29
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History of the English penny (1066–1154)
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This article traces the history of the English penny from 1066 to 1154.
The early Norman kings
Following the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror continued the Anglo-Saxon coinage system. As a penny was a fairly large unit of currency at the time, when small change was needed a penny would be cut in half or into quarters at the mint of issue. Most pennies of Kings William I and II show a front-facing bust of the king on the obverse (which was a departure from the Anglo-Saxon kings, who mostly used a sideways-facing bust), surrounded by a legend, usually PILLEMUS REX, PILLEM REX ANGLOR, PILLEM REX AN, PILLELM REX, PILLEM R (King William, or William King of the English — The P may have been a late usage of the letter wynn, a P-shaped rune which had the sound value of a "w"). The reverse of the coin usually showed some form of cross, surrounded by the legend identifying the moneyer and mint.
Moneyers were personally responsible for maintaining the weight (at this time, 20 to 22 grains, 1.3 to 1.6 grams) and the silver fineness of the coins they produced — there are several recorded instances of moneyers who produced short-weight coins being mutilated or occasionally executed. Although there was only a small amount of space on the reverse, the moneyer's "identification details" were considered more important than the mint and were not often abbreviated (although often 'mis-spelt'). The moneyer's name would appear after a small cross, and is usually followed by "ON" (of) and the town's name. During the reign of William I (1066-1087) the demand for coins was so high that there were about 70 mints active; over 50 mints were active at the start of William II's reign in 1087, but only 34 were still in operation at his death in 1100.
Location of mints, 1066–1100
During the reign of the first two Norman kings, mints were located in
Barnstaple, Bath, Bedford, Bedwyn, Bridport, Bristol, Bury St Edmunds, Cambridge, Canterbury, Cardiff, Chester, Chichester, Christchurch, Colchester, Cricklade, Derby, Devitum (probably St David's, South Wales), Dorchester, Dover, Durham, Exeter, Gloucester, Guildford, Hastings, Hereford, Hertford, Huntingdon, Hythe, Ilchester, Ipswich, Launceston, Leicester, Lewes, Lincoln, London, Maldon, Malmesbury, Marlborough, Northampton, Norwich, Nottingham, Oxford, Peterborough, Pevensey, Rhuddlan, Rochester, Romney, Salisbury, Sandwich, Shaftesbury, Shrewsbury, Southwark, Stafford, Stamford, Steyning, Sudbury, Tamworth, Staffordshire, Taunton, Thetford, Totnes, Wallingford, Wareham, Warwick, Watchet, Wilton, Winchcombe, Winchester, Worcester, and York.
During the relatively long reign of King Henry I (1100–1135) the penny remained the chief denomination, although round halfpennies and quarter pennies were introduced [these are mentioned in contemporary accounts] which proved very unpopular and only about twelve specimens (of halfpence, and no round quarters) are known to exist today. Fifteen major types of penny were produced, at around 54 mints which were intermittently active throughout the reign. The quality of the coins in the early part of the reign was poor, as the moneyers made a large profit by producing underweight coins or coins of debased fineness. In 1124 Henry called all 150 moneyers to Winchester and called them to account for their activities — 94 of them were convicted of issuing sub-standard coins and were mutilated, their right hands and one testicle being cut off, as a result of which the quality of coins improved for most of the remainder of his reign. The basic design of the coins remained the same as before with the obverse inscriptions variously being HENRICUS, HENRICUS R, HENRI R, HENRI RE, HENRI REX, HENRY REX, HENRICUS REX, HENRICUS REX A — Henry, King Henry, Henry King of England.
Location of mints, 1100–1135
During the reign of King Henry I, mints were located in Barnstaple, Bath, Bedford, Bristol, Bury St Edmunds, Cambridge, Canterbury, Cardiff, Carlisle, Chester, Chichester, Christchurch, Colchester, Derby, Dorchester, Dover, Durham, Exeter, Gloucester, Hastings, Hereford, Huntingdon, Ilchester, Ipswich, Launceston, Leicester, Lewes, Lincoln, London, Northampton, Norwich, Nottingham, Oxford, Pembroke, Pevensey, Rochester, Romney, Salisbury, Sandwich, Shaftesbury, Shrewsbury, Southampton, Southwark, Stafford, Stamford, Sudbury, Tamworth, Taunton, Thetford, Totnes, Wallingford, Wareham, Warwick, Watchet, Wilton, Winchcombe, Winchester, Worcester, and York.
One of the largest hoards of coins of Henry I was the Lincoln Melandry Hoard found in February 1972. This provided many new examples of coins minted by previously undocumented moneyers for the later issues of Henry I's reign.
The Anarchy
The period following the death of King Henry I is known as The Anarchy. Henry's only legitimate son and heir had been drowned in 1120 in the White Ship disaster, so he had decided that he wished his daughter Matilda to succeed him. When he died, Matilda, also known as the Empress Maud, was in Normandy and her cousin Stephen of Blois managed to get back to London before she did, and claimed the throne - with the support of many barons who were unprepared for the novel idea of a woman ruler. Matilda and Stephen set up rival courts in Bristol and London and proceeded to issue coins from the mints under their control while the political unrest continued for the better part of 20 years. Stephen won the political battle, but when his own son and heir, Eustace, died in 1153 he agreed that Matilda's son Henry would succeed him.
Many of the coins produced during the Anarchy are of poor quality.
King Stephen's coins
There are approximately 5 principal varieties of coins produced by Stephen's mints, normally containing the legend STIEFNE, STIEFNE R, STIEFNE RE, or STIEFNE REX, but one issue bears the legend PERERIC which cannot be translated but is thought to have been constructed by the moneyers to look like the previous reign's HENRICUS, so they could disassociate themselves from the conflict and hedge their bets about who would win, while still providing the required number of new coins.
Stephen's coins were minted at Bedford, Bramber, Bristol, Bury St Edmunds, Cambridge, Canterbury, Cardiff, Carlisle, Castle Rising, Chester, Chichester, Cipen (possibly Ipswich), Colchester, Corbridge, Derby, Dorchester, Dover, Durham, Eden, Exeter, Gloucester, Hastings, Hedon near Hull, Hereford, Huntingdon, Ipswich, Launceston, Leicester, Lewes, Lincoln, London, Newcastle, Northampton, Norwich, Nottingham, Oxford, Pembroke, Peterborough, Pevensey, Rye, Salisbury, Sandwich, Shaftesbury, Shrewsbury, Southampton, Southwark, Stafford, Steyning, Sudbury, Swansea, Tamworth, Taunton, Thetford, Tutbury, Wareham, Warwick, Watchet, Wilton, Winchester, Worcester, and York.
Empress Maud's coins
Matilda's coins tend to show a cruder style than Stephen's regular issues. The obverse legend is MATILDIS IMP — Empress Matilda, MATILDIS COMITISSA — Countess Matilda, or simply MATILDIS — Matilda.
Matilda's coins were minted at Bristol, Cardiff, Gloucester, Oxford, and Wareham, and possibly also at Calne and Canterbury.
References
Coincraft's Standard Catalogue English & UK Coins 1066 to Date, Richard Lobel, Coincraft. .
Coins of medieval England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20English%20penny%20%281154%E2%80%931485%29
|
History of the English penny (1154–1485)
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This is the history of the English penny from the years 1154 to 1485.
The Plantagenets (1154–1485)
Henry II
King Henry II ascended the throne in 1154 as the first of the Plantagenet dynasty. For the first few years of his reign the coins of King Stephen continued to be produced, but in order to restore public confidence in the currency a new standard was introduced, known as the Tealby penny after a hoard of such coins which was found at Tealby, Lincolnshire, in 1807. A total of 30 mints were employed in the initial recoinage (the mint at Ipswich was not active during the early stages – but was extremely productive from class B until the end of the series). The mints in operation at the beginning of the recoinage were: Bedford, Bristol, Bury St Edmunds, Canterbury, Carlisle, Chester, Colchester, Durham, Exeter, Gloucester, Hereford, Ilchester, Launceston, Leicester, Lincoln, London, Newcastle, Northampton, Norwich, Oxford, Pembroke, Salisbury, Shrewsbury, Stafford, Thetford, Wallingford, Wilton, Winchester, and York. However, once the recoinage was completed only 12 mints were allowed to remain active. This marks the beginning of the gradual decline in the number of mints used to strike English coins.
While the Tealby coinage was acceptable in terms of weight and silver quality, the overall quality of production was dreadful, so in 1180 a new style of coin, the short-cross penny, was introduced. This style remained more or less unaltered until 1247, which gave both the coinage and the state a sense of stability. The practice of placing the moneyer's name and mint on the reverse continued, though the reduction in the number of mints enabled better quality control to be applied. The Tealby coins bear the obverse inscriptions HENRI REX ANG, HENRI REX AN, HENRI R ANG, HENRI REX, HENRI REX A, or HENRI REX – Henry King of England, or King Henry, while the short-cross pennies are inscribed HENRICUS REX. Short-cross coins were minted at Carlisle, Exeter, Lincoln, London, Northampton, Norwich, Oxford, Wilton, Winchester, Worcester, and York.
Richard I and John
During the reign of King Richard I (1189–1199) the short-cross coinage continued unchanged, even to the extent of still being inscribed HENRICUS REX. Ricardian coins were minted at Canterbury, Carlisle, Durham, Exeter, Lichfield, Lincoln, London, Northampton, Norwich, Shrewsbury, Winchester, Worcester, and York.
King John's coins (1199–1216) continued the short-cross series, still inscribed HENRICUS REX. John's coins were minted at Bury St Edmunds, Canterbury, Carlisle, Chichester, Durham, Exeter, Ipswich, King's Lynn, Lincoln, London, Northampton, Norwich, Oxford, Rhuddlan (although many of the short-cross coins minted there were doubtless imitative issues by Llywelyn ap Iorwerth, prince of Wales, John's son-in-law), Rochester, Winchester, and York.
Henry III
In King Henry III's long reign (1216–1272) the short-cross penny continued in use until 1247. By then, however, through no fault of the moneyers' there was a problem in that many of the coins in circulation were underweight. This was caused by the illegal practice of clipping silver off the edge of the coin, which was made easier by the cross on the reverse not extending to the rim thus giving people no clear indication of exactly how big the coin was supposed to be. In 1247 therefore, a new long-cross penny replaced the short-cross coin, which made it more obvious when the coin had been clipped. Apart from the change in the size of the cross, the rest of the design did not substantially change, and the long cross made it easy to cut the coin into halves or quarters for change. Because of the introduction of the new coinage it was necessary to reopen many of the old mints to supply sufficient coins. Short-cross Henry III pennies were minted at Bury St Edmunds, Canterbury, Durham, London, Winchester and York. Long-cross pennies were produced at Bristol, Bury St Edmunds, Canterbury, Carlisle, Durham, Exeter, Gloucester, Hereford, Ilchester, Lincoln, London, Newcastle, Northampton, Norwich, Oxford, Shrewsbury, Wallingford, Wilton, Winchester, and York.
The inscription on the short-cross penny was still HENRICUS REX, while the long-cross pennies were variously inscribed HENRICUS REX TERCI, HENRICUS REX III (King Henry the Third), while one issue unpopularly omitted the moneyer's name, instead having HENRICUS REX on the obverse and ANGLIE TERCI on the reverse, while another issue had HENRICUS REX ANG on the obverse and continued on the reverse with LIE TERCI LON (or CAN or AED) indicating it was minted in London or Canterbury or Bury St Edmunds.
Edwardian coins
King Edward I (1272–1307) succeeded his father while on Crusade in the Holy Land. Coin production had to continue while the king made his seven-year journey home, so long-cross pennies inscribed HENRICUS REX III continued to be produced at the Bury St Edmunds, Durham, and London mints. As Edward made his way home he concluded an important wool-trade treaty in the Netherlands, which indicated the importance of foreign trade at that time. He also acknowledged the need to improve the style and fineness of English coins to avoid the poor-quality coins which had sometimes appeared during earlier reigns and shaken public confidence in the currency. There was also a need for larger and smaller denominations since the penny had not changed much in 500 years, so the groat (4d), halfpenny, and farthing were successfully introduced. Finally there was the problem of clipping, for which the Jews were blamed.
In response to all these pressures, a completely new coinage was struck in 1279 with a different design which made clipping much easier to detect. Millions of coins were struck at London and Canterbury and the public could take their old, underweight short- and long-cross pennies to the mint and exchange them for new coins of the correct weight and fineness. This exchange also served as a form of taxation as moneyers were required to charge a fee for the service. The new coins were much admired in Europe and were extensively copied there, often with poorer fineness silver – but this only made Edward's coins even more popular and severely drained the local supply of silver such that the export of English coins was forbidden in 1299. The strong, good-quality coins strengthened the economy and brought prosperity to the country. The 1279 penny was different from earlier issues in many ways. The king's bust is more lifelike, facing the front, and the legend on the obverse is longer, usually EDW REX ANGL DNS HYB – Edward King of England Lord of Ireland. The reverse had a long cross going to the edge of the coin; the moneyer's name is omitted except for one issue, but the name of the mint is usually given in full, e.g. CIVITAS LONDON City of London, or VILLA NOVI CASTRI Town of Newcastle. The new coins also contained a privy mark, small differences such as a rose on the king's breast, differences in the king's hair style, or an alteration in the size of the king's eyes, or the style of a letter; these differences were not caused by carelessness but to enable identification of the moneyer who produced the coin, in place of giving the moneyer's name.
The crockards, pollards, and rosaries minted in Europe as debased forms of Edward's penny were first accepted as the legal equivalents of halfpence and then banned as counterfeit. The treasurer and justiciar of Ireland, Archbishop Stephen de Fulbourn, had permitted the use of similarly debased Dutch shillings as equivalent to pence. These became known as steepings, scaldings, and Bishop's money but were also banned, as were leonines, mitres, and eagles named for the images they bore.
Coins of Edward II (1307–1327) were deliberately made very similar to those of his father. Edward I coins were minted at Berwick-upon-Tweed, Bristol, Bury St Edmunds, Canterbury, Chester, Durham, Exeter, Kingston-upon-Hull, Lincoln, London, Newcastle, Reading, and York. Edward II coins were only minted at Berwick, Bury St Edmunds, Canterbury, Durham, and London.
King Edward III (1327–1377) succeeded his father at the age of 14. His reign was a period of conflict with Scotland and France, which is reflected in his coins. In the first part of Edward's reign only a small quantity of pennies was produced, in a similar style to those of his father. New gold coins – the noble, half noble, and the quarter noble – were introduced, followed later by the silver groat or fourpence which became very popular and eventually superseded the penny in importance, together with the half groat which was also popular. Together with the production of half pennies and farthings, England had at last an adequate supply of varying denominations which benefited both internal trade and trade with other countries in Europe where English coins were readily acceptable.
Edward III's first coinage, between 1327 and 1335, is very similar to the Edward I and II pennies, with the inscription EDWAR ANGL DNS HYB around a front-facing bust of the king; these pennies were minted in London, Bury St Edmunds, Canterbury, Durham, York, and Berwick upon Tweed. No more pennies were minted until his third, or florin, coinage in 1344–1351 (so-called because the dies were made by two craftsmen from Florence). In this coinage the king's hairstyle appears to be much longer and more unkempt. These coins were produced in London, Canterbury, Durham, Reading, and York. During the period of Edward's fourth coinage (1351–1377) politics affected the inscription on most coins, but to a lesser extent on the penny than on the larger coins, due to the lack of available space. Edward claimed the throne of France, but the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360 granted him land in France; on some coins, but not the penny, his overlordship of Aquitaine is recognised. After the treaty was repudiated by the French in 1369 the claim to France was reinstated and England and France went to war again, though England lost most of its French possessions except Calais and Bordeaux. Pre-treaty pennies were minted in London, Durham and York, with the obverse legend EDWARDUS REX ANGLI. During the Treaty period the Durham and York mints continued to mint pennies with that inscription, while ones produced by the London and Calais mints were inscribed EDWARD ANGL R DNS HYB. During the post-treaty period the Durham and York mints became ecclesiastical mints, under the authority of the local bishop or archbishop, and thus a source of money for the Church. Typical inscriptions of this period are EDWARD R ANGL FRANC, EDWARDUS REX ANGLIE FR, EDWARD REX ANGL FR – Edward King of England and France.
Richard II
Edward III's son, the Black Prince died in 1376, a year before his father, which meant that the next king was Edward's eleven-year-old grandson Richard II (1377–1399). England continued to lay claim to France, and remained at war until 1396; high taxation to pay for the war caused several peasant uprisings. During this period large quantities of inferior quality European coins circulated alongside the high-quality English coins, producing a real-life example of Gresham's law as English coins were smuggled to the continent to be melted down, alloyed with other metals and remanufactured as fake pennies and returned to England. Pennies were produced at London, York and Durham, and inscribed RICARDUS REX ANGLIE, RICARDUS REX ANGLE Z FRANC, RICARDUS REX ANGLIE Z, RICARD REX ANGL Z FRANC, RICARD REX ANGLIE or RICARDUS REX ANGL Z F.
Lancastrians and Yorkists
In 1399, Henry, Duke of Lancaster – another grandson of Edward III – overthrew his cousin and ruled as Henry IV (1399–1413). This was a turbulent time with wars being fought in both Scotland and Wales, and the coinage problems of the previous reign continued; the price of silver and gold was low in England compared to Europe, and coins were illegally smuggled abroad, causing major problems in England as not only were there insufficient coins in circulation, but the mints could not buy enough bullion to make new coins. Henry IV's pennies are divided into heavy coinage (prior to 1412), when the weight of the coins had not been adjusted to reflect the continental price of silver, and the light coinage of 1412–13 when the silver content was reduced to correspond to the continental price of silver, thus putting an end to the illegal export of English coinage. The heavy coinage was minted at London and York, inscribed HENRIC DI GRA REX ANGL – Henry by the Grace of God King of England, while the light coinage was minted at London, York, and Durham, inscribed HENRIC REX ANGLIE.
Henry V (1413–1422) continued his father's light coinage, with similar inscriptions on the coins produced at London, Durham, and York.
Henry VI (1422–1461, 1470–1471) came to the throne as an infant. He favoured making peace with France, but his heir, Richard, Duke of York, a descendant of the second son of Edward III, favoured war; this disagreement precipitated the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses between his supporters, the Lancastrians (red rose), and those of the Yorkists (white rose). The nobility attached itself to one side or the other (and often changed sides), but eventually in 1461 Henry was defeated by Richard's son, who became King Edward IV; Henry was incarcerated in the Tower of London for nine years, but the wars continued and in October 1470 Edward was forced to flee to the continent and Henry was restored to the throne. This restoration was only brief, however, as Edward mustered more support and after two battles at Barnet and Tewkesbury Edward was back on the throne in April 1471 where he stayed until his death in 1483. Henry was returned to the Tower, where he was murdered the same night.
Despite the upheavals of the time, Henry VI's administration maintained an adequate supply of coinage throughout the first reign. There were several different issues of pennies distinguished by different features such as rosettes or pinecones appearing in the legend, or a leaf appearing on the king's breast, etc. The normal inscription was HENRICUS REX ANGLIE. Pennies were minted at London, Calais, York, and Durham.
During Edward IV's first reign the problem of English coins' face value being worth less than their metal value in Europe recurred. In 1464 Edward acted to solve the problem by reducing the weight of all silver coins by about 20%: the heavy penny issued between 1461 and 1464 weighed 15 grains (1.0 gram) and was minted at London, York, and Durham; the light penny weighed 12 grains (0.8 gram) and was minted in London, Bristol, Canterbury, Durham, and York. They were all inscribed EDWARD DI GRA REX ANGL.
Despite the short duration of Henry VI's second reign, pennies were produced in similar style to the first reign at London, Bristol, and York. Edward IV's second reign pennies are basically continuations of his first reign, produced at the same mints. By this time all reigns used mintmarks on their coins to identify the moneyers.
Edward IV died suddenly in 1483 and was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son Edward V. In the turbulent times it became known that there was some problem with the legality of Edward IV's marriage, and rather than let Edward be king with a regency, Parliament deposed him and appointed Edward IV's brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester as King Richard III. Edward and his younger brother Richard, Duke of York, were taken to the Tower of London, and the Princes in the Tower were never seen again. Who was responsible for their ultimate fate remains a topic of heated discussion to this day. There is evidence that some coins were struck for King Edward V, but it is uncertain that any have survived.
Richard III (1483–1485) was the last of the Plantagenet kings. Before his demise at the Battle of Bosworth Field, pennies were produced for him, inscribed RICARD DEI GRA REX ANGL, at London, York and Durham, but they are very rare – only one penny is known which was produced in the London mint.
References
Coincraft's Standard Catalogue English & UK Coins 1066 to Date, Richard Lobel, Coincraft.
Coins of medieval England
|
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208529
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20English%20penny%20%281485%E2%80%931603%29
|
History of the English penny (1485–1603)
|
The History of the English penny from 1485 to 1603 covers the period of the Tudor dynasty.
The Tudors (1485–1603)
Henry VII
Henry Tudor, who reigned as King Henry VII between 1485 and 1509, had a rather tenuous claim on the throne, being the Lancastrian claimant via an illegitimate descendant of Edward III when all the more senior candidates had been killed off in the Wars of the Roses. He brought the wars to a conclusion with his 1485 victory at The Battle of Bosworth and subsequently consolidated this power through a variety of means, including his marriage to Elizabeth of York (which united the two warring dynasties.) Henry VII's reign was plagued by pretenders to the throne, whose existence was a result of the King's initially insecure grasp of power. Nevertheless, he was able to subdue each of these attempted usurpers without particular difficulty. The whole style of Henry's coinage marked a break with what had gone before — the king's bust becomes much more lifelike, and the shields on the reverse become much more detailed. Henry's first coinage is very like that of Henry V and VI, minted at London, Canterbury, Durham and York the inscription is one of a variety of HENRIC DI GRA REX ANG — Henry by the grace of God King of England. Soon, however, Henry introduced what is known as the Sovereign coinage, so-called because the king is depicted seated on a throne, while the reverse shows the royal shield over a cross. This issue is regarded as marking the division between the coins of the Middle Ages and of the Renaissance in England. The Sovereign coinage was minted at London, Durham, and York, and inscribed with one of a variety of HENRICUS DI GRA REX ANG.
Henry VIII
Henry VIII (1509–1547) is one of England's more interesting monarchs, not just for having married six times, but numismatically too. Henry's first coinage, to 1526, resembled that of his father and still used his father's portrait. With higher bullion prices on the continent, the weight of the silver coins was reduced again. Pennies were minted at the London, Canterbury, and Durham mints. With the reformation starting in the 1530s, the principal effect as far as the coinage was concerned was the closure of the ecclesiastical mints of Canterbury, Durham and York — in future all mints would be Royal mints, under the control of the crown who would consequently get all the revenue. The second coinage, of 1526–1544 had a completely different inscription, H.D.G. ROSA SIE SPIA — Henry by the grace of God a rose without a thorn. At this time the pound standard for mintage was changed from the local Tower pound to the internationally known troy pound; therefore, the value of a pennyweight increased from 1.46 grams to 1.56 grams. The coins were minted at London, and the Canterbury, Durham and York ecclesiastical mints.
The Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 1530s and the ratification of the First Act of Supremacy in 1534 resulted in a huge financial bonus for the king, but by 1544 Henry was running short of money, thanks partially to his own extravagant lifestyle and expenditure. Henry's solution was to drastically lower the fineness of the third coinage (1544–47) to only one-third silver and two-thirds copper. This was understandably not popular with the people, and it resulted in Henry acquiring the nickname "Old Coppernose" as the silver rubbed off the high-relief part of the coin design. By this time there were two mints in London, at the Tower and in Southwark, and both of them, together with mints in Bristol, Canterbury and York produced the debased coinage which bore the inscription H.D.G. ROSA SINE SPINA.
Edward VI
The debased coinage caused rampant inflation, so when Henry died in 1547 he left behind a country with a nine-year-old king, religious turmoil, and economic unrest. Moreover, the influx of silver and gold from Central and South America into Spain and thus to the rest of Europe was destabilising the price of bullion and making the situation worse.
Until 1551, what is known as the posthumous coinage was produced — these were coins which were exactly the same as Henry's last issue, but with a different portrait of him. Inflation over the last thirty years had made the penny much less important, and in fact for the next few reigns the most common coins would be shillings, sixpences, and groats. The reign of Edward VI though short (1547–1553) was numismatically important for seeing the introduction of new denominations — the silver crown, half crown, shilling, Sixpence, and Threepence — which were to survive until 1971, and which were a reflection of the increasing wealth of the country. The new coins were struck in good silver, with the aim of revitalising the economy. Edward VI's pennies however, were still struck in debased metal (except for one, possibly unique, coin) at the Tower, Southwark, Bristol and York, with the inscription E.D.G. ROSA SINE SPINA — Edward by the grace of God a rose without a thorn.
Mary I
In 1553 Edward died and was succeeded — after the nine-day rule of Lady Jane Grey — by his older sister, the strongly Catholic Queen Mary. Pennies of her first year, bearing her head alone with the inscription M.D.G. ROSA SINE SPINA — Mary by the grace of God a rose without a thorn — are quite rare. In 1554 she married Philip, the Prince of Spain, and put his portrait on the coinage as well as her own. Both fine silver and base metal pennies of this reign were issued from the Tower mint, with the legend P Z M D G ROSA SINE SPINA — Philip and Mary by the grace of God a rose without a thorn.
Elizabeth I
When Elizabeth I ascended the throne in 1558, England was an impoverished country, in religious turmoil, and with a coinage which was in a poor state after Henry VIII's debasement, since when little had been done to improve either the quantity or quality of the coins in circulation. The coinage system as a whole urgently needed reform, and Elizabeth boldly set about doing this. Throughout her reign large quantities of gold and silver coins of many denominations were produced (the gold and silver often being obtained by raiding Spanish shipping); of the silver denominations produced the shilling and sixpence were most important, but small denomination coins — groats, threepences, half-groats, three-halfpence, pennies, three-farthings, and halfpennies — were also struck and were very popular with merchants and small traders.
For the first time in England milled, or machine-produced, coins were produced by Eloye Mestrelle, an ex-employee of the Paris mint, between 1560 and 1572, but while the milled issue was fairly successful there was animosity towards Mestrelle by other employees of the Tower mint who feared for their jobs, which ultimately led to his dismissal. No milled pennies were produced, as they would probably have been too small to be mechanically produced by the equipment of the time. Also for the first time some of Elizabeth's coins were dated.
Elizabethan pennies are very small, and are often found creased or bent. The obverse bears the legend E D G ROSA SINE SPINA — Elizabeth by the grace of God a rose without a thorn — around a left-facing bust of the queen, while the reverse bears the legend CIVITAS LONDON — City of London. All pennies were minted at the Tower mint, in London.
References
Coincraft's Standard Catalogue English & UK Coins 1066 to Date, Richard Lobel, Coincraft.
Coins of England
Tudor England
16th-century economic history
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20English%20penny%20%281603%E2%80%931707%29
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History of the English penny (1603–1707)
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The history of the English penny from 1603 to 1707 covers the period of the House of Stuart, up to the Acts of Union of 1707 which brought about the Union of the Kingdom of England with the Kingdom of Scotland.
The Stuarts and the Commonwealth (1603–1714)
The Early Stuarts
When Elizabeth died unmarried and childless in 1603, the throne passed to James VI of Scotland, a great-grandson of Henry VII, who ruled in England as James I. James's silver coinage changed little from that of Elizabeth in production and style. The most notable feature was the introduction of a copper farthing to help with the problem of small change. With inflation, the penny continued to become a less important denomination.
The first coinage, of 1603–4, shows a bust of the king facing right with the inscription I D G ROSA SINE SPINA on the obverse, and a shield including the Scottish coat of arms on the reverse. The second (1604–1619) and third coinages show a rose instead of the king's bust on the obverse, with the I D G ROSA SINE SPINA inscription, while the reverse contains a thistle surrounded by the inscription TUETUR UNITA DEUS – May God guard these united (kingdoms). All the coins were minted at the Tower of London.
In 1625 the 25-year-old second son of James I, Charles I, inherited the throne (his older brother Henry having died before his father). Unfortunately Charles's political judgment was appalling – he reigned for eleven years without convening the Parliament of England, as he was not disposed to accept direction from it when it was sitting, and the ensuing Civil War eventually cost Charles both his crown and his head.
Numismatically, Charles I's reign is without doubt the most interesting and complicated of any English monarch. Many varieties were produced at the Tower mint, and a number of provincial mints were opened during the Civil War, though as these were mainly opened to produce coins to pay the troops, the number of pennies produced there was quite low, as larger denominations were preferred. Between 1630 and 1639 the Frenchman, Nicholas Briot produced a milled coinage which for the first time included pennies. The quality of Briot's coins is superb, and one can only conclude that the only reason the Tower mint was not turned over completely to machine production was professional jealousy from the other workers.
Charles's hammered pennies produced at the Tower originally had a design of a rose on both sides, with the inscription C D G ROSA SINE SPINA on the obverse and IUS THRONUM FIRMAT – Justice strengthens the throne – on the reverse. Later pennies bore a bust of the king facing left with a I behind the head to denote the denomination of one penny, with the inscription CAROLUS D G MA B F ET HI REX – Charles by the grace of God King of Great Britain France and Ireland, while the reverse shows an oval shield and the IUSTITIA THRONUM FIRMAT inscription. Following the takeover of the Tower mint by the English Parliament in 1642, the same coin designs were produced until 1648 though with an older-looking bust of the king; this was to emphasise the fact that Parliaments' argument was not with the king but with his "evil advisors".
In 1638 a new mint was opened at Aberystwyth castle, Wales, to produce smaller coins (penny to half-crown) from locally produced silver. These are identifiable by having plumes (like the Prince of Wales's feathers on the 1967–2007 era decimal Two decimal pence coin) on the reverse. Following damage to the castle mint in 1648 there was a short-lived mint located at the actual silver mine in Aberystwyth in 1648/9, but no records have survived of what coins were produced there.
With the take-over by the English Parliament of the Tower mint in 1642, the king set up his permanent headquarters at Oxford and established his main mint there. Most pennies produced there were made from dies from the Aberystwyth mint, so they look very similar to Aberystwyth coins. There is a very rare "Declaration penny" produced in 1644 where the reverse contains the declaration RELIG PRO LEG ANG LIBER PAR 1644 – The religion of the Protestants the laws of England the liberty of Parliament. The Oxford mint closed in 1646.
Bristol was captured by the Royalists in July 1643 and a mint was established there, producing pennies with the plume reverse, but it was closed when the English Parliament recaptured the city in 1645. The Exeter mint which operated between 1643 and April 1646 mainly produced crowns and half-crowns, but also made some pennies.
The Commonwealth
The Commonwealth of England (1649–60) is well known for having produced the only English coins which did not contain any Latin inscription at all. This was due to an association of Latin with Catholicism. As far as the Commonwealth penny is concerned, the inscriptions are totally absent. The reverse shows St George's shield within a wreath, while the obverse shows St George's shield and an Irish shield, with the denomination I above them.
The Restored Stuarts
Following the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 in the form of Charles II, both hammered and milled coinage was produced until 1662. The penny was a fairly common denomination and was produced by both methods from dies produced by Thomas Simon. The obverse showed a left-facing bust of the new king with no value indication behind his head, and the inscription CAROLUS II D G MAG BRI F ET H REX – Charles II by the grace of God King of Great Britain France and Ireland. The reverse shows the king's shield over a cross, with the legend CHRISTO AUSPICE REGNO – I reign under the auspices of Christ. This issue marks the end of the English hammered coinage – all subsequent English and British coins have been milled.
The first regular milled silver pennies appeared around 1664 or 1665 and are undated, weighing 0.5 grams and being 12 mm in diameter. They show the king facing left, with I behind the head, inscribed CAROLVS II D G M B F & H REX, and the reverse shows a shield enclosing the Arms of England, Scotland, Ireland and France, inscribed CHRISTO AUSPICE REGNO. From 1670 to 1684 dated pennies were produced each year, showing the king facing right with the inscription CAROLVS II DEI GRATIA, while the reverse shows a crowned "C" with the inscription MAG BR FRA ET HIB REX date.
The same basic design continued in the short reign of James II (1685–1688) with the crowned "C" on the reverse replaced by a crowned "I" which acted not only as the king's initial "Iacobus" but as the indication of the denomination, 1 penny.
Following the birth of the Catholic James II's only son James Francis Edward Stuart ("The Old Pretender"), the English establishment determined to avoid the possibility of a Catholic dynasty on the English throne by engineering the Glorious Revolution, when the throne was offered to the older of James's two Protestant daughters from his first marriage and her husband, the Stadhouder of the Dutch Republic, who reigned as co-monarchs, William III (1689–1702) and Mary II (1689–1694). The silver pennies of this reign bear the combined heads of the two monarchs facing right on the obverse with the inscription GVLIELMVS ET MARIA D G – William and Mary by the grace of God, while the reverse still contains the crowned "I" which now represented only the denomination, with the inscription MAG BR FR ET HIB REX ET REGINA date – King and Queen of Great Britain France and Ireland.
Following the death of Queen Mary from smallpox in 1694 the coins continued with King William's head facing right and the inscription GVLIELMVS III DEI GRA – William III by the grace of God, on the reverse, and the crowned "I" and MAG BR FRA ET HIB REX date – King of Great Britain France and Ireland. Pennies were produced in 1698–1701.
Anglo-Scottish Union
William III was succeeded in 1702 by Mary's younger sister, Anne. During Anne's reign the kingdoms of England and Scotland were united in 1707 (see Acts of Union 1707), to form what is usually referred to as the Kingdom of Great Britain. Twelve Pounds Scots were exchanged for 1 pound sterling so a shilling Scots corresponded to an English penny.
Despite having had ten pregnancies, none of Anne's children survived, and the Stuart dynasty died with her in 1714. In accordance with the Act of Settlement 1701 the crown passed to the Protestant descendants of Sophia, Electress of Hanover, in the form of king George I.
Anne's reign produced silver pennies in 1703, 1705, 1706, 1708, 1709, 1710, and 1713. The obverse of the coins show her left-facing bust with the inscription ANNA DEI GRATIA, while the reverse shows the crowned "I" and (1703) MAG BR FRA ET HIB REG 1703, (1705,6) MAG BR FR ET HIB REG, or (1708–13) MAG BRI FR ET HIB REG.
References
Coincraft's Standard Catalogue English & UK Coins 1066 to Date, Richard Lobel, Coincraft.
External links
British Coins
Coins of England
Economy of Stuart England
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20British%20penny%20%281714%E2%80%931901%29
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History of the British penny (1714–1901)
|
The history of the penny of Great Britain and the United Kingdom from 1714 to 1901, the period in which the House of Hanover reigned, saw the transformation of the penny from a little-used small silver coin to the bronze piece recognisable to modern-day Britons. All bear the portrait of the monarch on the obverse; copper and bronze pennies have a depiction of Britannia, the female personification of Britain, on the reverse.
During most of the 18th century, the penny was a small silver coin rarely seen in circulation, and that was principally struck to be used for Maundy money or other royal charity. Beginning in 1787, the chronic shortage of good money resulted in the wide circulation of private tokens, including large coppers valued at one penny. In 1797 industrialist Matthew Boulton gained a contract to produce official pennies at his Soho Mint in Birmingham; he struck millions of pennies over the next decade. After that, it was not until 1825 that pennies were struck again for circulation, and the copper penny continued to be issued until 1860.
By the late 1850s, the state of the copper coinage was deemed unsatisfactory, with quantities of worn oversized pieces, some dating from Boulton's day, still circulating. They were replaced by lighter bronze coins beginning in 1860; the "Bun penny", named for the hairstyle of Queen Victoria on it, was issued from then until 1894. The final years of Victoria's reign saw the "Veiled head" or "Old head" pennies, which were coined from 1895 until her death in 1901.
Silver penny (18th century)
At the start of King George I's reign in 1714, the English penny had been struck from silver for about a thousand years. The Hanoverian dynasty in Britain began during the time that Sir Isaac Newton was Master of the Mint. Newton had in 1702 considered the issuance of a copper penny, but no action was taken. Silver at this time came to the Royal Mint only as the by-product of mining for other substances, and from chance deposits and windfalls—the scandal-plagued South Sea Company in 1723 was obliged to send a large quantity of silver bullion to the Mint's premises in the Tower of London. Nevertheless, so little was sent overall that MP John Conduitt, Newton's successor as Master, wrote in 1730 that since December 1701, "no silver has been imported to the Mint but what was forced thither". Only small quantities of silver pennies were struck in the early years of George's reign; it and the silver twopence were unpopular in any case because of their small size.
The change in dynasty did not affect the form of the silver penny—a 12 mm diameter coin weighing 0.5 gram. George's pennies had the inscription GEORGIVS DEI GRA continuing onto the other side with MAG BR FR ET HIB REX and the date, around the crowned "I". The representation of George was by John Croker or his assistant Samuel Bull; they had designed the busts of William III and of Queen Anne that had appeared on earlier pennies. The Roman numeral I on the coins dated from the reign of James II, and was at first intended to denote the King's initial in Latin (IACOBUS) but was kept a Roman numeral when the twopence, threepence, and fourpence were given Arabic numerals under William III and Mary. Pennies were minted in 1716, 1718, 1720, 1723, 1725, 1726 and 1727, the last of these the date of George's death and of the accession of his son, George II.
The major purpose for the silver penny in the 18th century was as Maundy money. Most silver pennies after 1727 were likely used for that purpose or for other royal largesse; the mintages were enough to provide for this, but not enough for general circulation. In some years, the Maundy money may have been composed entirely of pennies, though there are accounts of the twopence, threepence, and groat being used as well. At times, there were gaps in the dating as enough for several years was struck at once, to be held against need. There were enough silver pennies in circulation that Maundy recipients could spend their gifts. By 1727, the price of silver guaranteed that pennies were struck at a loss. When other regal coins began use of a bust showing George II as an older man in 1740–1743, the penny remained unaltered. Brian Robinson, in his book on the Royal Maundy, suggested that a new bust for a coin issued only in small quantities would not have been worth the 12 weeks' work it would have taken a Mint engraver to create new dies. In any event, between 1727 and 1816, silver cost too much for there to be much coinage of it. George II's pennies had a left-facing bust of him and the inscription GEORGIVS II DEI GRATIA continuing onto the other side with MAG BRI FR ET HIB REX and the date around the crowned "I". Pennies were minted in 1729, 1731, 1732, 1735, 1737, 1739, 1740, 1743, 1746 and 1750, and between 1752 and 1760. No pennies were issued dated 1733 or 1744, likely because the year in Britain still began on 25 March, and Maundy Thursday did not occur during those twelve-month periods.
Into the reign of King George III (1760–1820), the silver penny continued to be used mostly as a Maundy piece. Pennies similar to those of previous reigns, but bearing George III's head and the inscription GEORGIVS III DEI GRATIA, were struck in 1763, 1766, 1770, 1772, 1776, 1779, 1780, 1781, 1784 and 1786. A new bust of the King was introduced to the penny in 1792, and was struck dated that year, 1795, and 1800. The third, laureated bust of the king with an unchanged obverse inscription was on the silver penny in 1817, 1818 and 1820. George III's first reverse, used until 1780, showed the crowned "I" in high relief, with the inscription MAG BRI FR ET HIB REX. A modification was made in 1781, with the relief of the central "I" on the reverse lowered, likely because part of the outline of the I had been visible on the King's head on the other side of the coin. This second reverse, used until 1786, was similar but in lower relief, the "I" being much flatter; the third reverse, used in 1792 only, was completely redesigned with a much smaller "I" under a smaller crown with the inscription running around the crown, with the same legend as before. The fourth reverse, used in 1795 and 1800 was similar to the first but with a redesigned crown. The fifth reverse, used from 1817, showed the crowned "I" with the inscription BRITANNIARUM REX FID DEF and the date. From 1817, the diameter of the coin was reduced from 12 to 11 millimetres, although the weight remained the same at .5 grams.
Copper penny (1797–1860)
Soho issues (1797–1807)
With little silver coined in the second half of the 18th century, the burden of small change fell on the copper coinage, of which the highest denomination before 1797 was the halfpenny. Many official halfpennies were melted down clandestinely and lightweight counterfeits made with the copper. In 1787, the Mint found that at most eight percent of "halfpennies" in circulation were genuine. A withdrawal of the existing copper coinage was deemed impractical due to transport difficulties. The Government would not accept copper coinage for taxes, and the small merchants who accumulated large stocks of real and dubious copper coin sought relief. Areas of the country not near the capital were sometimes short of coppers, since new issues could only be purchased at the Mint's office at the Tower of London, in packets of 5 or 10 shillings. The small change shortage made it difficult, by the late 1780s, for employers to pay workers.
The gap was filled, beginning in 1787, by private minters and companies, who issued copper halfpenny and penny tokens. Although not money in a legal sense, they served that purpose, and rapidly spread across the country. Many of the manufacturers of these tokens were found in Birmingham, where industrialist Matthew Boulton struck large numbers of tokens and also constructed the Soho Mint, the first to be powered by steam. He aggressively lobbied for a contract to strike official copper coins. In 1797, the government gave Boulton a contract to strike 480 tonnes of copper pennies and 20 tonnes of copper twopences. The first official British coins of those denominations to be made of copper, they were also the first official British coins to be struck by steam rather than by muscle power.
The large size of the coins, combined with the thick rim where the inscription was incuse (i.e. punched into the metal rather than raised from it), led to the coins being nicknamed "cartwheels". The design was by Boulton's employee Conrad Küchler. The obverse of the cartwheel coinage is a laureated right-facing bust of George III, with the inscription GEORGIUS III D G REX, while the reverse showed Britannia seated on a rock, facing left, holding an olive branch and trident with the inscription BRITANNIA 1797. Although Britannia had long appeared on the halfpenny and farthing, the 1797 coinage was the first time she was depicted ruling the waves, an allegory for Britain's status as a maritime power. The word SOHO may be seen in fine print on the face of the rock just below the shield. Boulton's pennies and twopences were meant to contain their face value in copper, i.e. they weighed one and two ounces each (penny28.3 grams, diameter 36 millimetres). In English measure, the penny was just over 1.4 inches in diameter, so that 17 pennies side by side would measure two feet. Boulton obtained a copy of the Royal Society's standard foot to get the measurement right. Even though pennies were struck first, reserving the twopences for later, the existing Soho Mint had trouble stamping such large pieces of copper, and Boulton built a new mint at Soho, where by 1799, each press was striking 60 pennies a minute. The 1,250 tonnes of "cartwheels" struck at Soho between 1797 and 1799 (all pieces were dated 1797) exceeded the total copper coinage by the Royal Mint in the 18th century.
Boulton was given a further contract in 1799, but only halfpennies and farthings were struck then. In 1805, Boulton gained another contract. By then, the price of copper had risen; in 1797, a pound of copper had coined 16 pence of coins, and in 1799 that amount of metal had made 18 pence-worth, but it took 24 of the 1806 pennies to weigh a pound. The pennies were issued dated 1806 or 1807; they weigh 18.9 grams ( ounces) and measure 34 millimetres (one-and-a-third inches) in diameter. These were more conventionally designed, also by Küchler, with a right-facing bust of the King and the same inscription as on the obverse of 1797 pennies. The reverse shows the seated Britannia facing left, with olive branch and trident and the inscription BRITANNIA. There is one unique penny coin known which is dated 1808, but this is thought to have been a proof. A total of 150 tonnes of copper were used to make the 1806 and 1807 pennies.
Regal issues (1825–1860)
Finding its premises at the Tower of London too cramped and unsuited to the new technology, the Mint moved to a new building on Tower Hill, and first struck coins there (for the East India Company) in 1811. The coinage was made by steam power, with equipment supplied by Boulton's firm. At the beginning of the Great Recoinage of 1816, only gold and silver coins were produced; the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Nicholas Vansittart, deemed there to be enough official coppers in commerce to serve. Thus, it was not until after the death of George III in 1820 and the accession of his son George IV that the copper coinage was recommenced. Coinage of pennies and halfpennies resumed in 1825 after the first farthings of the new reign were minted in 1821. The new pennies were authorised by an Order in Council of 14 November 1825, and were made current by a proclamation of 30 January 1826. George IV's pennies were struck in only three years (1825, 1826, 1827) and most of the final year's mintage is believed to have been sent to Tasmania.
The obverse of George IV's pennies shows a left-facing laureated head engraved by William Wyon. This was the second portrait of George IV, and was adopted after the King expressed a dislike for the one engraved by Benedetto Pistrucci, which was never used on the penny. The penny is inscribed GEORGIUS IV DEI GRATIA and the date, while the reverse shows a right-facing seated Britannia with a shield and trident, inscribed BRITANNIAR REX FID DEF. The penny at this time weighed 18.8 grams and had a diameter of 34 millimetres, the same as Boulton's 1806–1807 pennies.
The pennies of King William IV (1830–1837) are similar to those of his predecessor, also being engraved by William Wyon, based on a model by Sir Francis Chantrey. King William's head faces right, with the obverse inscribed GULIELMUS IIII DEI GRATIA, while the reverse is identical to the George IV penny. Pennies were minted in 1831, 1834 and 1837. An 1836 penny has been reported but not confirmed.
The pennies of Queen Victoria (1837–1901) form one of the most intricate denominations of British coinage, both before and after the transition from copper to bronze pennies in 1860. A number of specialist books have been published on the many varieties of Victorian pennies. The final years of the copper penny, from 1839 to 1860, saw a portrait of the Queen by William Wyon, usually dubbed the "Young Head". It had a reverse largely unchanged from King William's but for changing an X to a G, thus REX became REG, short for Regina (queen), denoting the fact that the monarch was now a woman. Thus, the legend on Victorian copper pennies was VICTORIA DEI GRATIA/BRITANNIAR REG FID DEF. Copper pennies were issued for all years between 1839 and 1860 except 1840, 1842, 1850, and 1852. The Heaton Mint, of Birmingham, had been founded with equipment from the wound-up Soho Mint. Beginning in the early 1850s, it supplied large quantities of blanks for pennies to the Royal Mint, and at times was called upon to strike pennies, though its mint mark H would not appear on pennies until 1874. These contracts were because of the needs of Ireland (where counterfeits and tokens were common) and the colonies; the large quantities struck between 1797 and 1807 by Boulton ensured there were no shortages in England, Scotland and Wales.
Bronze penny (from 1860)
By 1857, both the Royal Mint and the public were dissatisfied by the state of the copper coinage. Much of it was worn or defaced by advertisements, and 14 percent of the pennies in commerce were Boulton's 1797 cartwheels. The fact that pennies of different specifications circulated side by side precluded the weighing of quantities of copper coin to ascertain the value. In addition to the pennies struck since 1806, there were Boulton's 1797 coppers and also, to a different standard, coppers struck for Ireland, which had been legal tender since 1826. Each sort of penny was deemed too heavy for daily use. The copper coins were so heavy that Charles Dickens in Nicholas Nickleby had Mr Mantalini contemplate suicide by drowning himself in the Thames, his pockets filled with halfpennies.
Thomas Graham, the Master of the Mint, in 1859 persuaded William Gladstone, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, that the state of the copper currency demanded a lighter, more durable replacement. Bronze was selected as harder and less subject to oxidation. It was a material with which the Mint had experience, having recently struck bronze coins for the Canadian colonies, and it had been used in France since 1852. Gladstone told the House of Commons that were an old and a new penny placed side by side, no one unacquainted with them would dream they represented the same value. Parliament passed legislation in 1860 that allowed the penny to be struck from an alloy of metals. The act required that Britannia appear on the coin, as the design was felt to symbolise Britain as ruler of the waves, and to omit her would be seen as abandoning that role. The Mint in 1860 awarded a contract for 1,720 tonnes of bronze pennies, halfpennies and farthings to James Watt & Co of Birmingham, a contract that would not be completed until 1863. Heaton's was also called upon to supply dies and coins, especially as Watt's prepared to execute its huge contract.
Although there were calls for a public competition, William Wyon's son, Leonard Charles Wyon was chosen to execute the new design. Both the Queen and Prince Albert took a keen interest in the work, and repeated visits by Wyon to Buckingham Palace and Osborne House were necessary before Victoria gave her approval. There is a tale that the Queen returned the penny sent her for final approval by post, but a postman opened the parcel, throwing away the coin in disgust when he realised all that was inside was a penny. The new bronze pieces were made current by a proclamation dated 17 December 1860, and public reaction was positive, both for Wyon's designs and for the weight, which had been halved. The new coins were widely distributed through post offices, and in 1861, the Mint began the recall of the old copper pieces, paying a small premium and for the transport. The old copper coins soon vanished from towns; progress in rural areas was more gradual. The pre-1860 copper penny was demonetised after 1869 in Britain (though accepted at full face value by the Mint until 1873) and in 1877 for the colonies—roughly a quarter of the copper coinage struck by the Royal Mint between 1821 and 1856 had been sent overseas, with Ceylon the leading recipient.
The obverse of the new penny read VICTORIA D G BRITT REG F D. The Mint had intended to render it with the abbreviation BRIT, and some after the coins' release argued it should have done, but Gladstone had intervened to invoke the rule that the last consonant of a Latin abbreviation should be doubled to indicate the plural. The coin is dubbed the "Bun Head penny" or "Bun penny" for the Queen's hairstyle. The reverse depicts Britannia, wearing flowing robes, a breastplate and helmet, and grasping a trident. Her right hand grips a shield, on which is seen the combined crosses of the Union Jack. A ship sails out to sea on her right, and a lighthouse, supposedly the old Eddystone Lighthouse, is seen behind her on her left. The denomination, ONE PENNY, appears for the first time on the base-metal piece.
There are many varieties of the Bun penny, as several non-identical dies were prepared (especially in 1860) the design was tweaked a number of times over its 35 years, and the dies were sometimes used in different combinations. The 2017 edition of Spink & Son's Coins of England & the United Kingdom chronicles 13 obverses, 14 reverses and a large number of die combinations. Differences include the number of leaves on Victoria's wreath and whether the border is beaded or toothed. An "H" below the date on 1874, 1875, 1876, 1881 and 1882 pennies indicates that the coin was produced at Heaton's in Birmingham. When production at the Royal Mint was stopped for a complete reconstruction in 1882, Heaton's, pursuant to contract, produced 50 tonnes of pennies, halfpennies and farthings. Pennies of the Bun type were issued in all years between 1860 and 1894.
Joseph Edgar Boehm's "Jubilee head" of the Queen was placed on the gold and silver coinage in 1887 but was not adopted for the bronze, with the Bun head continuing. Boehm's rendering proved unpopular, and in 1893 was replaced with the "Veiled head" or "Old head", by Thomas Brock, and engraved by Chief Engraver of the Royal Mint George William de Saulles. The new penny design was introduced in 1895, the new version being authorised by a proclamation dated 11 May of that year. Victoria is seen as an elderly woman, wearing a diadem partially eclipsed by a veil. She wears a necklace with a pendant, an earring, and the Garter Riband with Star. The inscription became VICTORIA DEI GRA BRITT REGINA FID DEF IND IMP, as the title of Empress of India had been added to the Queen's titles in 1876. The reverse was modified by de Saulles, with the most significant change the deletion of the ship and lighthouse. The new design was struck each year from 1895 to 1901, the year in which Victoria died. Coins depicting her and dated 1901 continued to be struck until King Edward VII's coinage was ready in May 1902.
Mintages
Total mintage by date and mint mark. "H" is for Heaton Mint, Birmingham.
King George IV 1820–1830
Laureate Bust
1825 ~ 1,075,200
1826 ~ 5,913,000
1827 ~ 1,451,520
King William IV 1830–1837
Laureate Bust
1831 ~ 806,400
1834 ~ 322,560
1837 ~ 174,720
Queen Victoria 1837–1901
Copper:
Young Bust (W.W. on truncation)
1839 ~ Only in proof
1841 ~ 913,920
1843 ~ 483,830
1844 ~ 215,040
1845 ~ 322,560
1846 ~ 483,840
1847 ~ 430,080
1848 ~ 161,280
1849 ~ 268,800
1851 ~ 432,224
1853 ~ 1,021,440
1854 ~ 6,720,000
1855 ~ 5,273,866
1856 ~ 1,212,288
1857 ~ 752,640
Young Bust
1858 ~ 1,559,040
1859 ~ 1,075,200
1860 ~ 32,256
Bronze:
Laureate and Draped Bust – 'L.C.Wyon' (Beaded border)
1860 ~ 5,053,440
Laureate and Draped Bust – 'L.C.Wyon' (Toothed border)
1860 ~ Unknown
1861 ~ 36,449,280
Laureate and Draped Bust (Toothed border)
1861 ~ Unknown
1862 ~ 50,534,400
1863 ~ 28,062,700
1864 ~ 3,440,640
1865 ~ 8,601,600
1866 ~ 9,999,360
1867 ~ 5,483,520
1868 ~ 1,182,720
1869 ~ 2,580,480
1870 ~ 5,695,022
1871 ~ 1,290,318
1872 ~ 8,494,572
1873 ~ 8,494,200
1874 ~ 5,621,865
1874H ~ 6,666,240
1875 ~ 10,691,040
1875H ~ 752,640
1876H ~ 11,074,560
1877 ~ 9,624,747
1878 ~ 2,764,470
1879 ~ 7,666,476
1880 ~ 3,000,831
1881 ~ 2,302,362
1881H ~ 3,763,200
1882H ~ 7,526,400
1883 ~ 6,327,438
1884 ~ 11,702,802
1885 ~ 7,145,862
1886 ~ 6,087,759
1887 ~ 5,315,085
1888 ~ 5,125,020
1889 ~ 12,559,737
1890 ~ 15,330,840
1891 ~ 17,885,961
1892 ~ 10,501,671
1893 ~ 8,161,737
1894 ~ 3,883,452
Veiled Bust
1895 ~ 5,395,830
1896 ~ 24,147,156
1897 ~ 20,752,620
1898 ~ 14,296,836
1899 ~ 26,441,069
1900 ~ 31,778,109
1901 ~ 22,205,568
See also
1844 Victoria One Penny Model
Notes
Citations
References
External links
British Coins – information about British coins (from 1656 to 1952)
Royal Mint History of British Coins
Collection of copper & bronze pennies
Penny
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] |
208535
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Bennington%20%28PG-4%29
|
USS Bennington (PG-4)
|
USS Bennington (Gunboat No. 4/PG-43) was a member of the of steel-hulled, twin-screw gunboats in the United States Navy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. She was the first U.S. Navy ship named in honor of the town of Bennington, Vermont, site of the Battle of Bennington in the American Revolutionary War.
The contract to build Bennington was awarded to N. F. Palmer & Co. of Philadelphia in November 1887. Her hull was subcontracted to the Delaware River Iron Shipbuilding & Engine Works which laid down Benningtons keel in June 1888. Bennington was launched in June 1890. She was just over long and abeam and displaced . She was equipped with two steam engines which were supplemented with three schooner-rigged masts. The ship's main battery consisted of six guns and was augmented by an assortment of smaller caliber guns.
After her June 1891 commissioning, Bennington was attached to the Squadron of Evolution and for its cruise to South America. The gunboat made two Mediterranean tours between 1892 and 1894, after which she was assigned to the duties in the Pacific. She sailed the Pacific coasts of North and Central America and spent time in the Hawaiian Islands to protect American interests there. On her way to support United States Army operations of the Philippine–American War, Bennington claimed Wake Island for the United States. After two years in the Philippines, she returned to the United States and was decommissioned for 18 months of repairs and refitting. After her March 1903 recommissioning, most of the next two years were spent patrolling the Pacific coasts of North and South America.
On 21 July 1905 at San Diego, California, Bennington suffered a boiler explosion, that killed 66 men and injured nearly everyone else on board. Shortly after the explosion, a tug beached the ship to prevent her from sinking. Eleven men were awarded the Medal of Honor for "extraordinary heroism" in the aftermath of the explosion. After Bennington was refloated, the damage was deemed too extensive to repair and the ship was decommissioned in September. The ship was sold for scrap in 1910, but instead served as a water barge for the Matson Line at Honolulu from 1912. In 1924, the former Bennington was scuttled off the coast of Oahu.
Design and construction
The Yorktown class gunboats – unofficially considered third-class cruisers – were the product of a United States Navy design attempt to produce compact ships with good seakeeping abilities and, yet, able to carry a heavy battery. Bennington was authorized in the 1888 fiscal year, and the contract for her construction was awarded to N. F. Palmer & Co. of Chester, Pennsylvania. The hull for Bennington was subcontracted to the Delaware River Iron Shipbuilding & Engine Works and built to the Navy's Bureau of Construction and Repair design. The mechanical design was patterned after the layout for her older sister ship developed by William Cramp & Sons.
Benningtons keel was laid down in June 1888, and the ship was launched on 3 June 1890, sponsored by Anne Aston, the daughter of Rear Admiral Ralph Aston, Chief Engineer of the U.S. Navy.
Layout
As built, Bennington was in length and abeam. Her steel hull had an average draft of , which was expected to give her the ability to escape from larger ships into shallow water. At the waterline was a turtleback deck of ⅜-inch (9.5 mm) steel that formed a watertight seal over the lower spaces. The deck had a crown at the level of the waterline and curved downwards to below the waterline at the sides of the ship. Below this armored deck were twelve compartments separated by watertight bulkheads; the spaces above were equipped with watertight doors intended to be closed during battle.
Above the armored deck, Bennington had forecastle and poop decks with an open gun deck that spanned the length of the ship between them. The conning tower was located forward on the forecastle deck and was oval-shaped to deflect shot. It was outfitted with a steam-powered Ship's wheel, an engine order telegraph, and speaking tubes; it was protected by of steel armor plate.
Propulsion
Bennington was powered by two triple-expansion steam engines which each drove one of the pair of , three-bladed screw propellers. The cylinders of each engine were 22, 31, and 51 inches (56, 79, and 130 cm) in diameter and had a stroke. Each engine was rated at and together were designed to move the ship at , though the ship exceeded that in her trials, topping out at .
The engines, situated in separate watertight compartments, were each fed by a pair of coal-fired boilers. Each boiler was horizontally mounted and was in diameter and in length with a total grate area of . Benningtons coal bunkers could carry up to of fuel, and were shielded from "shot and shell". At a near top-speed of 16 knots, the ship could cover in 6½ days; at the more economical speed of she could cruise over 62 days.
To supplement her steam power plant, Bennington was built with three masts that were schooner-rigged. She had a total sail area of . The steam and sail combination was expected to allow Bennington to remain at sea for months at a time during wartime.
Armament
Benningtons main battery consisted of six /30 caliber Mark 3 guns, with each gun weighing in excess of . Two were mounted on the forecastle deck, two on the poop deck, and the other pair amidships on the gun deck. The two guns on the gun deck were mounted above the waterline, while the other four were above. The guns fired armor-piercing projectiles with a propellant charge weighing at . At an elevation of 30.2°, the guns had a range of . Each gun was shielded with steel plating thick.
Benningtons secondary battery consisted of four 6-pounder () guns, and four 1-pounder () guns. Both were based on designs of the French arms company Hotchkiss. According to a 1902 Bureau of Ordnance publication, an armor-piercing round fired from a 6-pounder gun could penetrate of armor at a distance of .
Early career
USS Bennington (Gunboat No. 4) was commissioned at the New York Navy Yard on 20 June 1891 under the command of Commander Royal B. Bradford. As one of the first steel-hulled gunboats of the "New Navy", Bennington was assigned to the Squadron of Evolution, a unit made up entirely of "New Navy" ships that was established to test and perfect tactics and doctrine developed at the Naval War College. In addition to operating as the first tactical fleet of the U.S. Navy, the squadron performed the secondary mission of cruising to foreign ports to demonstrate to the world the types of modern ships the United States was capable of building. In that latter role, Bennington and the rest of the squadron departed New York on 19 November 1891 for the unit's cruise to Brazil.
On 5 May 1892, Bennington was transferred to the South Atlantic Squadron and cruised South American waters until 19 July. Setting out from Bahia, Brazil, the gunboat visited Spanish and Italian ports during the 400th anniversary celebration of Columbus' voyage to the western hemisphere. She concluded the European portion of those festivities on 18 February 1893 when she departed Cadiz, with a replica of Columbus's caravel Pinta in tow for Cuba. After stops in the Canary Islands, the Netherlands West Indies, and Havana, the gunboat arrived back in the United States at Hampton Roads, Virginia, on 26 March.
Following participation in the 1893 International Naval Review at Hampton Roads, Bennington moved north for operations along the coast of New England before beginning preparations for foreign service. To this end, she entered the New York Navy Yard on 24 May and remained there until 6 August. The ship departed New York on the 6th and arrived in Lisbon on the 18th. She cruised the Mediterranean, visiting various ports along its shores, for the next six months. In February 1894, orders arrived sending her to the Pacific. On the 18th, the gunboat transited the Strait of Gibraltar and headed back across the Atlantic. After steaming around Cape Horn and stopping at several Latin American ports, the warship finally arrived at the Mare Island Navy Yard on 30 April.
Pacific Duty
Bennington served in the Pacific for a little more than four years. For the most part, her duty consisted of cruising along the west coast protecting American interests in Latin America during the numerous political upheavals that occurred at that time in Central and South America. In addition, she made two extended cruises to the Hawaiian Islands. The first came after a group of pro-royalists attempted in January 1895 to stage a countercoup against the provisional government of the islands. Bennington departed Mare Island on 28 May, arrived at Honolulu on 5 June, and spent the next nine months protecting American interests in the islands. On 5 March 1896, she departed Honolulu, bound for San Francisco where she arrived on 16 March. The following day, the warship entered the Mare Island Navy Yard for five months of repairs.
On 8 August, she resumed cruises along the west coast. That employment lasted a year and a week. On 14 August 1897, Bennington headed back to Hawaii. She arrived in Lahaina Roads on 27 September and reached Honolulu on the 30th. Except for a six-day cruise back to Lahaina in March 1898, the gunboat remained at Honolulu for just over nine months.
At the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Bennington was in Hawaiian waters. After spending the first two months of the war in the Hawaiian Islands, she departed Honolulu on 16 June and steamed to the west coast of the United States. The warship arrived in San Francisco on 26 June and patrolled the California coast for the remainder of hostilities. On 18 September, Bennington stood out of San Francisco on her way ultimately to the Philippines. She arrived in Hawaii on 27 September and devoted a little over three months to operations in nearby waters. On 7 January 1899, she resumed her voyage west. Ten days out of Honolulu, she stopped at Wake Island. There Commander Edward D. Taussig, Benningtons commander, under direct orders from President William McKinley claimed the atoll for the United States, despite protests from Germany (which considered the island group a part of its claim of the Marshall Islands). Wake eventually became an important link in the Honolulu–Manila trans-Pacific cable. Bennington later made a stop at San Luis d'Apra, Guam, from 23 January to 15 February where Commander (later Rear Admiral) Taussig accepted the relinquishment of Guam from her Spanish colonial governor. Taussig briefly served as the first naval governor of Guam and established a native ruling council, before continuing on to Manila where Bennington arrived on 22 February.
Philippine–American War
For a little more than two years after her February 1899 arrival, Bennington served in the Philippine Islands in support of the Army's campaigns during the Philippine–American War. For the most part, her service in the islands consisted of patrol and escort duty – preventing rebel movement and stopping the importation of arms, as well as seeing American troops and supplies safely between the islands. Occasionally, Bennington did see action. On 10 September, she shelled a fort near Legaspi on the southeastern coast of Luzon. Two days later, she captured and destroyed the insurgent vessel Parao. Between 7 and 9 November, the warship supported an Army landing at San Fabian on the shores of Lingayen Gulf in northwestern Luzon. The gunboat began a four-month assignment as station ship at Cebu on 26 November and concluded that duty on 19 March 1900.
After visiting Cavite on Luzon, the gunboat headed for Japan on 3 April and underwent repairs there from 9 April to 19 May before heading back to the Philippines. The warship arrived at Cavite on 27 May and resumed patrols on 3 June. She spent another seven months conducting patrols in the Philippines and supporting the Army's operations in the island chain. On 3 January 1901, she departed Cavite and shaped a course for Hong Kong. The gunboat arrived in that British colony on the 6th and began over six months of repairs. At the completion of that work, she departed Hong Kong on 25 June. After a visit to Shanghai, the warship headed back to the United States in July and arrived at the Mare Island Navy Yard on 19 August. She was decommissioned there on 5 September 1901.
While she was out of commission at Mare Island, Bennington was refitted. A pilothouse that had been added on top of her bridge and a spotlight platform on her bow – both added in 1893–94 – were removed. Benningtons mainmast was also removed, leaving her as a two-mast rig. In addition, two tall ventilation cowls were added immediately behind the bridge. After 18 months of inactivity, Bennington was recommissioned on 2 March 1903 under the command of Commander Chauncey Thomas.
Over the next 27 months, Bennington cruised in the eastern Pacific along the coasts of North and South America. The warship visited Alaskan ports in the summer of 1903 and the coast of Central America the following fall and winter. In May 1904, she steamed to Hawaii and then proceeded to the Aleutians in June. The winter of 1904 and 1905 saw her voyage south for visits to Pacific ports in Central and South America. In February 1905, she departed San Francisco for a two-month cruise to the Hawaiian Islands, returning to San Diego on 19 July, after a difficult 17-day voyage.
Boiler explosion
On the morning of 21 July 1905, Benningtons crew was preparing her to sail to the aid of the monitor which had broken down and was in need of a tow. After her crew had finished the difficult task of coaling the ship that morning, most of them were belowdecks cleaning themselves from the dirty job. Unbeknownst to anyone on board, three problems with one of Benningtons boilers – oily feed water, an improperly closed steam valve, and a faulty steam gauge – were conspiring against them. At about 10:30, excessive steam pressure in the boiler resulted in a boiler explosion that rocked the ship, sending men and equipment flying into the air. The escaping steam sprayed through the living compartments and decks. The explosion opened Benningtons hull to the sea, and she began to list to starboard. Quick actions by the tug Santa Fe – taking Bennington under tow and beaching her – almost certainly saved the gunboat from sinking.
The combination of the explosion and the scalding steam killed a number of men outright and left others mortally wounded; the final death toll was one officer and sixty-five men, making it one of the U.S. Navy's worst peacetime disasters. Nearly all of the forty-six who survived had an injury of some sort; eleven of the survivors were awarded the Medal of Honor for "extraordinary heroism displayed at the time of the explosion". One of the survivors was John Henry Turpin, an African-American who had also survived the explosion of in Havana in February 1898 and was, reportedly, the only man to survive both explosions. The sheer number of casualties – the death toll exceeded the U.S. Navy's death toll for the entirety of the Spanish–American War – overwhelmed San Diego's medical facilities, and many burn victims had to be cared for in makeshift facilities tended by volunteers.
The number of dead also taxed the morticians in San Diego, who were hard-pressed to prepare all of the victims for burial. On 23 July, two days after the explosion, the majority of those killed were buried in the cemetery at Fort Rosecrans. The victims are commemorated by the USS Bennington Monument, a granite obelisk dedicated in the cemetery on 7 January 1908.
In spite of rumors of misconduct by Benningtons engineering crewmen, an official investigation concluded that the explosion was not due to negligence on the part of the crew.
List of Medal of Honor recipients from explosion
The eleven men who were awarded the Medal of Honor for "extraordinary heroism displayed at the time of the explosion" were:
Edward William Boers, Seaman
George F. Brock, Carpenter's Mate Second Class
Raymond E. Davis, Quartermaster Third Class
John J. Clausey, Chief Gunner's Mate
Willie Cronan, Boatswain's Mate (retired as Lieutenant Commander (O-4) during World War II)
Emil Fredericksen, Watertender
Rade Grbitch, Seaman
Frank E. Hill, Ship's Cook First Class
Oscar Frederick Nelson, Machinist's Mate First Class
Otto Diller Schmidt, Seaman
William Sidney Shacklette, Hospital Steward
Also aboard was John Henry Turpin, an African-American sailor who was aboard the USS Maine when she exploded in Havana harbor in 1898 and would go on to become one of the first African-American Chief Petty Officers in the U.S. Navy.
Disposition
After the explosion, Bennington was refloated and towed to the Mare Island Navy Yard. Because of the extent of the damages and the age of the ship, Bennington was not repaired but was instead decommissioned on 31 October 1905. After five years of inactivity, Bennington was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 10 September 1910 and sold for scrap on 14 November. Bennington was not scrapped but was purchased in 1913 by the Matson Line for use as a molasses barge. She was towed to Honolulu and remained in use there from 1913 until 1924, when she was scuttled off Oahu.
Campaigns
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
USS Bennington (includes photos)
Yorktown-class gunboats
Ships built by the Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works
Ships built in Philadelphia
1890 ships
Philippine–American War ships of the United States
Maritime incidents in 1905
United States Navy Vermont-related ships
Maritime boiler explosions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20British%20penny%20%281901%E2%80%931970%29
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History of the British penny (1901–1970)
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The British penny ( of a pound sterling), a large, pre-decimal coin which continued the series of pennies which began in about the year 700, was struck intermittently during the 20th century until its withdrawal from circulation after 1970. From 1901 to 1970, the obverse ("heads" side) of the bronze coin depicted the monarch who was reigning at the start of the year. The reverse, which featured an image of Britannia seated with shield, trident, and helm, was created by Leonard Charles Wyon based on an earlier design by his father, William Wyon. The coins were also used in British colonies and dominions that had not issued their own coins.
In 1895 the design on the reverse was modified by the Engraver of the Royal Mint George William de Saulles and, after Queen Victoria's death in 1901, de Saulles was called upon to create a design for the obverse which would feature Edward VII. This feature appeared on the version of the penny which went into circulation in 1902, and it remained in circulation until the year of Edward's death, 1910. An obverse version of the penny designed by Sir Bertram Mackennal and depicting George V went into circulation in 1911, and it remained in circulation with some modifications until the year of the king's death, 1936. No new pennies were produced for commerce in 1933, because a sufficient number were already in circulation, but at least seven were struck that year, mostly for placement beneath foundation stones and in museums; today they are valuable. Edward VIII's short reign is only represented by a single pattern coin, dated 1937. That year, a new obverse design by Humphrey Paget which depicted George VI went into use. From 1941 to 1943, during the Second World War, pennies were only struck for the colonies; these are all dated 1940 which was the most recent year of production in the United Kingdom. After the war, demand for the penny began to diminish. Most of the 1950 and 1951 pieces were sent to Bermuda, where many of them were retrieved from circulation and repatriated by British coin dealers because of their relative scarcity.
Although commerce did not require them in 1953, pennies which bore the likeness of Elizabeth II were minted in sets which were sold to the public, using an obverse design by Mary Gillick. One 1954 penny was struck, for internal Mint purposes. By 1961, new pennies were needed again for circulation, and they were produced in large numbers. The officials who planned to introduce decimalisation in the 1960s did not favour keeping the large bronze penny, the value of which had been eroded by inflation. The last pennies which went into circulation were dated 1967—a final proof set was dated 1970. The old pennies quickly went out of use after Decimal Day, 15 February 1971—there was no exact decimal equivalent of them, and the slogan "use your old pennies in sixpenny lots" explained that pennies and "threepenny bits" were only accepted in shops if their total value was six old pence (exactly new pence). The old penny was demonetised on 31 August of that year.
Edward VII (pennies struck 1902–1910)
Following the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901, officials at the Royal Mint planned for new coins, to bear the image of her son and successor, Edward VII. New coin designs had been introduced in the 1890s, and Mint officials believed the British people wanted as few changes to the coinage as possible. Thus, it was decided not to alter the reverses of the three bronze coins (the penny, halfpenny and farthing), as a new portrait of the Queen had been introduced in 1895. At that time, the Engraver of the Royal Mint, George William de Saulles, had modified Leonard Charles Wyon's depiction of Britannia on the reverse of the bronze coins—the lighthouse and sailing ship that had flanked her were removed. De Saulles was tasked with creating a depiction of Edward for the King's new coinage. The Mint continued to strike coins depicting Victoria, dated 1901, until the King's coinage was ready in May 1902.
The King sat for de Saulles twice, in February and June 1901, and the engraver also used a drawing of Edward by court painter Emil Fuchs. The unadorned bust of the King that resulted is in low relief, as de Saulles sought a coin that would be easy for the Royal Mint to strike. Even so, the relatively large size of the head caused metal flow problems for the penny once issued, resulting in "ghosting", a faint outline of the obverse design visible on the reverse. On 20 August 1901, the Mint received confirmation that the de Saulles bust of Edward would be used on all coins. The new bronze coins were made current by a proclamation dated 10 December 1901, effective 1 January 1902.
Edward's pennies were minted to the same standard as the final Victorian issues: 95 percent copper, 4 percent tin and 1 percent zinc, and, like all bronze pennies from 1860 until 1970, they weigh an average of and have a diameter of . The head faces right on the Edward VII coins, with the inscription EDWARDVS VII DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX FID DEF IND IMP. The reverse shows the seated Britannia surrounded by ONE PENNY, with the date at the bottom of the coin; this design remained largely unchanged until the coin's demise after 1970. Pennies were struck with Edward's bust from 1902 to 1910. There are two varieties of 1902-dated pennies, "high tide" and "low tide", due to a decision to raise the apparent water level around Britannia.
George V (struck 1911–1936)
The death of de Saulles in 1903 had led to the abolition of the post of Engraver, and coins for George V, who took the throne on Edward's death in 1910, were subject to a design competition won by Bertram Mackennal, who also prepared the medal for the Coronation. The King apparently liked his work, as he was appointed a Member of the Royal Victorian Order in 1911 and knighted in 1921. The inscription around the left-facing bust reads GEORGIVS V DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX FID DEF IND IMP, while no significant change was made to the reverse design. The new bronze coins were made current by proclamation dated 28 November 1910, effective 1 January 1911.
In addition to those struck at the Royal Mint, in 1912, 1918 and 1919 some pennies were produced at the Heaton Mint in Birmingham, and are identified by an "H" mint mark to the left of the date. In 1918 and 1919 some were produced at the Kings Norton Metal Co. Ltd, also in Birmingham, and have a "KN" there instead. Both firms also provided blanks to the Royal Mint for striking into pennies from 1912 to 1919. This was due to high demand for small change, initially caused by the 1911 implementation of the National Insurance Act by the Asquith government, and thereafter by the war years. Also feeding the demand for pennies were automatic slot machines, a trend noticed as early as 1898. To reduce the number of worn pieces in commerce, the Royal Mint had in 1908 agreed to accept the return of worn pre-1895 pennies and halfpennies through banks and post offices, and from 1922, pieces dated 1860 to 1894 would be redeemed in any condition, though they remained acceptable in circulation. The pre-1860 copper penny had been demonetised after 1869 in Britain (though accepted at full face value by the Mint until 1873) and in 1877 for the colonies.
King George's pennies were produced in the same alloy as before until 1922, but the following year the composition of bronze coins was set at 95.5 percent copper, 3 percent tin, and 1.5 percent zinc, although the weight remained at and the diameter . This alloy was slightly more malleable; the lessened force needed to strike pennies helped minimise ghosting. No pennies were struck for the years 1923, 1924 or 1925; this was due to lack of demand as the interwar years saw alternating gluts and shortages of pennies. In 1928, the King's portrait was reduced in size, effectively eliminating the ghosting problem. The inscription around the three variations of the left-facing head remained GEORGIVS V DEI GRA BRITT OMN REX FID DEF IND IMP, while Britannia remained on the reverse, as before, though that design was slightly modified in 1922.
By the end of George's reign, in 1936, the bronze penny, which had felt lighter in weight compared with older coppers when the alloy was first used for it in 1860, was regarded as weighty and cumbersome, the heaviest bronze coin in circulation in Europe. The weight when in bulk caused problems for business; the London Passenger Transport Board received 6,000 tonnes of pennies, halfpennies and farthings a year. A reduction of size for the penny was deemed impractical, given the time it would take to recoin the 3,000,000,000 pennies in circulation, and because many automatic machines that took pennies would have to be reconfigured. The major response would be the 1937 debut of the brass threepence coin. This twelve-sided piece was introduced since threepence worth of pennies or halfpennies was heavy and inconvenient, and the silver threepenny bit was deemed too small.
1933 rarity
There was no need for the Mint to produce any pennies in 1933 because there was no commercial demand, and it held plenty of stock. There was a custom at that time for the King to place a set of coins of the current year under the foundation stone of important new buildings, and the Mint struck three 1933 pennies for this purpose, also one each for its own museum and for the British Museum, and at least two others. The result was a rarity that people thought might turn up in their pocket change, and that is probably the best-known British rare coin.
The precise number struck was not recorded at the time; seven are known to exist. One of the 1933 pennies sold in 2016 for US$193,875 (£149,364 at the time). The known 1933 pennies are to be found in the Royal Mint Museum, the British Museum, under the Senate House of the University of London (placed there by King George in 1933), with three now in private collections, and one that was stolen, its whereabouts unknown. The missing coin was placed in 1933 under the foundation stone of Church of St Cross, Middleton, Leeds; it was stolen in August 1970 during the church's reconstruction, by thieves who managed to remove the set of coins from beneath the church. To prevent possible further theft, John Moorman, Bishop of Ripon, ordered that the 1933 penny placed under St Mary's Church, Hawksworth Wood, Kirkstall, Leeds, be unearthed and sold, which it was. As far as is known, the penny under Senate House is still in place. Two others in private hands were sold at auctions in 1969 and 2016 respectively.
Four pattern coins were also made, bearing similar designs to official coins but prepared by sculptor André Lavrillier at the Royal Mint's request. These were rejected by the Standing Committee on Coins, Medals and Decorations in December 1932. One sold at auction on 4 May 2016 for £72,000.
Edward VIII pattern (dated 1937)
No coins of King Edward VIII (1936) were officially issued, but a penny does exist, dated 1937. It is a pattern coin, one produced for royal approval which it would probably have been due to receive about the time that the King abdicated. The obverse, by Humphrey Paget, shows a left-facing portrait of the King, who considered this to be his best side, and wished to break the tradition of alternating with each change of reign the direction in which the monarch faces on coins. The inscription on the obverse is EDWARDVS VIII D G BR OMN REX F D IND IMP.
When the Royal Mint's Advisory Committee were considering the question of new designs for King Edward's coinage, they did not favour a new look for the penny. Rather, they sought the return of the lighthouse and ship, seen in the distance on either side of Britannia on pre-1895 pennies, but with the sailing ship seen on Victorian pennies replaced with a modern warship. Officials felt this too aggressive at a delicate international time, and the ship was not restored, but the lighthouse was placed on Edward's patterns, and would be kept on the penny until its abolition after 1970.
George VI (struck 1937–1952)
King George VI's new coins were made current by a proclamation dated 18 March 1937, which went into force immediately. Although the customary Britannia motif was retained for the penny, the halfpenny and farthing were given their own designs.
George's pennies (1937–1952) have a left-facing bust of him, also by Paget, with the inscription (to 1948) GEORGIVS VI D G BR OMN REX F D IND IMP, and (from 1949) GEORGIVS VI D G BR OMN REX FIDEI DEF, removing the Latin abbreviation for "Emperor of India" after that nation had gained independence. Pennies were produced for circulation dated 1937–1940, and 1944–1951, although when necessary pennies were produced for the colonies in 1941–1943 using the 1940 dies. These went principally to Gibraltar and the British West Indies.
Although the 2000 edition of the Coincraft catalogue of British coins says the wartime pause was due to a surplus of pennies, numismatist Kerry Rodgers, in his 2016 article on the currency emergency in Fiji during the Second World War, cited a colonial legislative record to the effect that it was to conserve copper for munitions. Beginning with the 1942 production of 1940-dated pennies, the composition was altered, as tin was a critical war material, rare because most of it came from Malaya, so pennies from then until later in 1945 are 97 percent copper, 0.5 percent tin, and 2.5 percent zinc. Such coins tarnish to a colour different than the prewar coins, and they were treated with sodium thiosulphate to give them a darker tone. That substance, dubbed "hypo", had been used to darken all 1934 pennies before issue and most of the 1935 mintage, "Hypo" would be used again in 1946, discolouring the coins to discourage the hoarding of new pennies. Although the prewar alloy was restored in 1945, the Mint reversed itself in 1959, made pennies out of that wartime composition for the remainder of the coin's pre-decimal history without chemical treatment, and continued its use for the new decimal bronze pieces.
By the late 1940s, demand for pennies was falling in Britain, likely due to the popularity of the lighter, more convenient, brass threepence coin, which weighed less than a quarter of the same value in bronze coins. The immediate aftermath of the war had seen a strong demand for pennies until January 1949, when it dropped off and, in May of that year, the Royal Mint stopped the coin's production. Officials concluded that the fall in demand was permanent due to inflation; its purchasing power was minimal, and many automatic machines no longer took it. The Royal Mint redeemed surplus coppers from the banks for melting beginning in 1951, and by the end of the decade, some £1.2 million worth had been removed from circulation.
The 1950 and 1951 circulation pennies were produced only for the colonies as none were needed in Britain. During 1956, the entire 1950 mintage (still held in stock in Britain) and three-quarters of the 1951 production were sent to Bermuda. Both mintages were low compared with earlier George VI pennies, and London dealers descended on the islands, offering a pound a coin. Collecting coins by date (especially the penny) became popular in the early 1960s; after many bold claims about the investment potential of the 1951 penny were made, the coin acquired something of a cult status. One 1952 penny believed to be unique was struck by the Royal Mint.
Elizabeth II and end of series (1953–1970)
The series of pennies worth of a pound concludes with the pre-decimalisation issues for Queen Elizabeth II. No major change was made to the reverse designs of the penny or other bronze coins with the new reign, and her coins were made current by a proclamation of 25 November 1952, effective 1 January 1953. No pennies were struck for circulation in 1953, the only extant denomination between the farthing and half crown not to see a circulation issue. This was because of the large number of pennies in circulation. Specimen sets, including the penny, were issued for the Queen's Coronation that year, with the obverse of each coin inscribed ELIZABETH II DEI GRA BRITT OMN REGINA F D around the right-facing bust of the Queen by Mary Gillick. These were not issued for circulation, but as the specimen sets were sold for only a slight advance on face value, many were later broken open and spent. In all subsequent mintings of the penny, the inscription was ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F D. The deletion of the Latin for "Queen of all the Britains" in favour of designating her simply as "Queen" was due to the changing nature of the British Commonwealth, which by then included some republics.
One 1954 penny is known, struck for die-testing purposes at the Royal Mint, and intended for melting, but recovered from circulation. By the end of the 1950s, the price of metal ensured that every bronze coin was struck at a loss; the Mint hoped for a reduction in size, and the demonetisation of the farthing at the end of 1960 helped clear the way for such a scheme. It was not until 1961 that there was a need for more pennies to be minted, and production continued each year in very large numbers until the final pre-decimal pennies for circulation, dated 1967, were coined.
The old bronze penny was slated for elimination as decimal currency was planned in the 1960s. It continued to be struck after 1967, still bearing that date. The 97 percent copper, 0.5 percent tin, 2.5 percent zinc alloy was used again for the 1960s pennies. Finally, there was an issue of proof quality coins dated 1970 for collectors, to bid farewell to a denomination which had served the country well for 1200 years. The longstanding depiction of Britannia on the penny was translated by sculptor Christopher Ironside to the post-decimal fifty-pence coin.
The Decimal Currency Board had anticipated the need for a transition of up to 18 months after Decimal Day, 15 February 1971, but the "old penny" quickly vanished from circulation and it ceased to be legal tender after 31 August 1971. It had been the last survivor of the three bronze coins, as the halfpenny had been withdrawn in 1969. With decimalisation the new penny carried a value of 1/100 of a pound, 2.4 times the value of its predecessor.
Mintages
Total struck by date and mint mark appearing on coin. H is for Heaton Mint; KN for King's Norton.
1901 ~ 22,205,568
1902 ~ 26,976,768
1903 ~ 21,415,296
1904 ~ 12,913,152
1905 ~ 17,783,808
1906 ~ 37,989,504
1907 ~ 47,322,240
1908 ~ 31,506,048
1909 ~ 19,617,024
1910 ~ 29,549,184
1911 ~ 23,079,168
1912 ~ 48,306,048
1912H ~ 16,800,000
1913 ~ 65,497,872
1914 ~ 50,820,997
1915 ~ 47,310,807
1916 ~ 86,411,165
1917 ~ 107,905,436
1918 ~ 84,227,372
1918H/1918KN ~ 3,580,800
1919 ~ 113,761,090
1919H/1919KN ~ 5,290,600
1920 ~ 124,693,485
1921 ~ 129,717,693
1922 ~ 22,205,568
1926 ~ 4,498,519
1927 ~ 60,989,561
1928 ~ 50,178,000
1929 ~ 49,132,800
1930 ~ 29,097,600
1931 ~ 19,843,200
1932 ~ 8,277,600
1933 ~ 7 known
1934 ~ 13,965,600
1935 ~ 56,070,000
1936 ~ 154,296,000
1937 ~ 109,032,000 (plus 26,402 proof coins)
1938 ~ 121,560,000
1939 ~ 55,560,000
1940 ~ 42,284,400
1944 ~ 42,600,000
1945 ~ 79,531,200
1946 ~ 66,855,600
1947 ~ 52,220,400
1948 ~ 63,961,200
1949 ~ 14,324,400
1950 ~ 240,000 (plus 17,513 proof coins)
1951 ~ 120,000 (plus 20,000 proof coins)
1952 ~ 1 known
1953 ~ 1,308,400 (plus 40,000 proof coins)
1954 ~ 1 known
1961 ~ 48,313,400
1962 ~ 157,588,600
1963 ~ 119,733,600
1964 ~ 153,294,000
1965 ~ 121,310,400
1966 ~ 165,739,200
1967 ~ 654,564,000
1970 ~ 750,000 (souvenir sets only)
Notes
Citations
References
External links
Coins of the UK – History and Values of UK coins
British Coins – Free information about British coins
Royal Mint History of British Coins – History of British Coins
Collection of copper and bronze pennies – Collection of copper and bronze pennies of Great Britain
Penny
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208537
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Mall%2C%20London
|
The Mall, London
|
The Mall () is a road in the City of Westminster, central London, between Buckingham Palace at its western end and Trafalgar Square via Admiralty Arch to the east. Near the east end at Trafalgar Square and Whitehall it is met by Horse Guards Road and Spring Gardens where the Metropolitan Board of Works and London County Council were once based. It is closed to traffic on Saturdays, Sundays, public holidays and on ceremonial occasions.
History
The Mall began as a field for playing pall-mall. In the 17th and 18th centuries it was a fashionable promenade, bordered by trees. It was envisioned as a ceremonial route in the early 20th century, matching the creation of similar ceremonial routes in other cities such as Berlin, Mexico City, Oslo, Paris, Saint Petersburg, Vienna and Washington, D.C. These routes were intended to be used for major national ceremonies. As part of the development – designed by Aston Webb – a new façade was constructed for Buckingham Palace, and the Victoria Memorial was erected.
The Victoria Memorial is immediately before the gates of the Palace, whilst Admiralty Arch at the far end leads into Trafalgar Square. The length of The Mall from where it joins Constitution Hill at the Victoria Memorial end to Admiralty Arch is exactly . St. James's Park is on the south side of The Mall, opposite Green Park and St James's Palace, on the north side. Running off The Mall at its eastern end is Horse Guards Parade, where the Trooping the Colour ceremony is held.
The surface of The Mall is coloured red to give the effect of a giant red carpet leading up to Buckingham Palace. This colour was obtained using synthetic iron oxide pigment from Deanshanger Oxide Works (Deanox), which was created using the Deanox Process devised by chemist Ernest Lovell. It was David Eccles's decision, as Minister of Works from 1951 to 1954, to make The Mall red.
On Victory in Europe Day (8 May 1945), the Palace was the centre of British celebrations, with the King, Queen and Princess Elizabeth (the future queen) and Princess Margaret appearing on the balcony, with the Palace's blacked-out windows behind them, to the cheers from a vast crowd on The Mall.
During state visits, the monarch and the visiting head of state are escorted in a state carriage up The Mall and the street is decorated with Union Flags and the flags of the visiting head of state's country. During the Golden Jubilee celebrations of Queen Elizabeth II in 2002, over one million people packed The Mall to watch the public displays and the appearance of the Royal Family on the palace balcony.
Scheduled buses are not allowed to use the Mall and go past Buckingham Palace except by permission of the monarch. This has only happened twice in history; in 1927 and in 1950.
Sporting events
The annual London Marathon finishes on The Mall. It was also the start and finish line for the marathon course, the road race, and the race walks of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. The women's marathon took place on 5 August and the men's Olympic marathon on 12 August. The men's 20 km walk took place on 4 August, with the men's 50 km walk and women's 20 km walk took place on 11 August. The Paralympic marathons were held on 9 September. In recent years the Mall has also been repeatedly used as the finishing line for UK cycling events, including the 2012 Olympics Road Races, the Ride London Prudential Classic in 2013, and stage 3 of the 2014 Tour de France. The opening ceremony for the 2019 Cricket World Cup was held on The Mall.
Potential assassination attempt
In 1981, Marcus Sarjeant fired six blank shots from a starting pistol at Queen Elizabeth II as she and her entourage were making their way down the road on horseback for Trooping the Colour. Marcus was immediately apprehended and arrested.
References
External links
Mall
St James's
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie%20Laveau
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Marie Laveau
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Marie Catherine Laveau (September 10, 1801 – June 15, 1881) was a Louisiana Creole practitioner of Voodoo, herbalist and midwife who was renowned in New Orleans. Her daughter, Marie Laveau II, (1827–c. 1862) also practiced rootwork, conjure, Native American and African spiritualism as well as Louisiana Voodoo. An alternate spelling of her name, Laveaux, is considered by historians to be from the original French spelling.
Early life
Historical records state that Marie Laveau was born a free woman of color in colonial New Orleans (today's French Quarter), Louisiana (New France), Thursday, September 10, 1801. She was the biological daughter of Charles Laveau, and her mother was Marguerite D'Arcantel.
On August 4, 1819, she married Jacques Paris (also known as Jacques Santiago in Spanish records), a Quadroon free man of color who had fled as a refugee from the Haitian Revolution in the former French colony Saint-Domingue. Their marriage certificate is preserved in the St. Louis Cathedral in New Orleans. The wedding mass was performed by Father Antonio de Sedella, the Capuchin priest known as Pere Antoine. Jacques was part of large White and Creoles of Color immigration of refugees to New Orleans in 1809, after the Haitian Revolution of 1791–1804. They had two daughters, Felicite in 1817 and Angele in 1820. Both disappear from the records in the 1820s. Jacques Santiago Paris worked as a carpenter. The death of Jacques Paris was recorded in 1820.
Personal life
Following the reported death of her husband Jacques Paris, she entered a domestic partnership with Christophe Dominick Duminy de Glapion, a nobleman of French descent, with whom she lived until his death in 1855. They were reported to have had 15 children (it is unclear if that includes children and grandchildren). They had seven children according to birth and baptismal records: François-Auguste Glapion, Marie-Louise "Caroline" Glapion, Marie-Angelie Paris, Celestin Albert Glapion, Arcange Glapion, Felicite Paris, Marie-Philomene Glapion, and Marie-Heloise Eucharist Glapion. The only two children to survive into adulthood were daughters: the elder named Marie Eucharist Eloise Laveau (1827–1862) and the younger named Marie Philomene Glapion (1836–1897).
Marie Laveau is confirmed to have owned at least seven slaves during her lifetime.
During her life Marie Laveau was known to have attended to prisoners who were sentenced to death. Rumors circulated that some prisoners would receive poisons or other substances before going to the gallows, but this was never proven. A reporter from the New Orleans Republican detailed one such visit in an article published on May 14, 1871, in which he describes Marie Laveau as a “devout and acceptable member of the Catholic communion." Following her death, her daughter Philomène, confirmed during an interview with a reporter from the Picayune that only Catholic traditions would take place during these visits, and that her mother would also prepare the men's last meal and pray with them. Marie Laveau also sought pardons or commutations of sentences for those she favored and was often successful in her efforts.
Career
Marie Laveau was a dedicated practitioner of Voodoo, as well as a healer and herbalist. "Laveau was said to have traveled the streets like she owned them" said one New Orleans boy who attended an event at St. John's. Her daughter, Marie Laveau II displayed more theatrical rubrics by holding public events (including inviting attendees to St. John's Eve rituals on Bayou St. John). It is not known which (if either) had done more to establish the voodoo queen reputation.
Marie Laveau took short time to dominate voodoo culture and society in the New Orleans area, before becoming locally accepted as the Queen of Voodoo. During her decades as queen, customers often appealed to her for help with family disputes, health, finances, and more. Laveau performed her services in three main places: her own home on St. Ann Street, within Go Square, and at Lake Pontchartrain. She was the third female leader of Voodoo in New Orleans (the first was Sanité Dédé, who ruled for a few years before being usurped by Marie Salopé). Marie Laveau maintained her authority throughout her leadership, although there was an attempt to challenge her in 1850. Due to her strong influence, New Orleans Voodoo lost a large number of adherents after her death.
Marie Laveau I started a beauty parlor where she was a hair-dresser for the wealthier families of New Orleans. Of Laveau's magical career, there is little that can be substantiated, including whether or not she had a snake she named Zombi after an African god, whether the occult part of her magic mixed Roman Catholic saints with African spirits and Native American Spiritualism, or whether her divinations were supported by a network of informants she developed while working as a hairdresser in prominent white households. She excelled at obtaining inside information on her wealthy patrons by instilling fear in their servants whom she either paid or cured of mysterious ailments.
Laveau was also known as a female religious leader and community activist. Her community activities included visiting prisoners, providing lessons to women of the community, and doing rituals for those in need.
Death
Marie Catherine Laveau Paris Glapion died on June 15, 1881, aged 79. The different spellings of her surname result from many different women with the same name in New Orleans at the time, and her age at death from conflicting accounts of her birth date.
On June 17, 1881, it was announced in the Daily Picayune that Marie Laveau had died peacefully in her home. According to the Louisiana Writer's Project, her funeral was lavish and attended by a diverse audience including members of the white elite. Oral tradition states that she was seen by some people in town after her supposed demise. News of her death was featured in a number of newspapers, including the "Staunton Spectator" in Virginia, the "Omaha Daily Bee" in Nebraska, as well as several newspapers published in Minnesota.
At least two of her daughters were named Marie, following the French Catholic tradition to have the first names of daughters be Marie, and boys Joseph, then each use middle name as the common name. One of her daughters named Marie possibly assumed her position, with her name, and carried on her magical practice, taking over as the queen soon before or after the first Marie's death.
Legacy
Laveau's name and her history have been surrounded by legend and lore. She is generally believed to have been buried in plot 347, the Glapion family crypt in Saint Louis Cemetery No. 1, New Orleans, but this has been disputed by Robert Tallant, a journalist who used her as a character in historical novels. Tourists continue to visit and some draw X marks in accordance with a decades-old tradition that if people wanted Laveau to grant them a wish, they had to draw an X on the tomb, turn around three times, knock on the tomb, yell out their wish, and if it was granted, come back, circle their X, and leave Laveau an offering.
In 1982, New Jersey-based punk rock group The Misfits were arrested and accused of attempting to exhume Laveau from her grave after a local concert. The arrest took place in nearby Cemetery No. 2 and there are conflicting accounts of the incident.
The tomb in Saint Louis Cemetery No. 1 was vandalized by an unknown person on December 17, 2013, by being painted over with pink latex paint. The paint was removed because the structure is made of old plaster and the latex paint would seal in the moisture that would destroy the plaster. Some historical preservation experts criticized the decision by officials of the Archdiocese of New Orleans, who maintain the cemetery, for their decision to use pressure washing rather than paint stripper to remove it.
As of March 1, 2015, there is no longer public access to St. Louis Cemetery No. 1. Entry with a tour guide is required because of continued vandalism and the destruction of tombs. This change was made by the Archdiocese of New Orleans to protect the tombs of the Laveau family as well as those of the many other dead interred there.
Although some references to Marie Laveau in popular culture refer to her as a "witch," she has also been called a "Voudou Priestess", and she is frequently described as a 'Voodoo queen'. At the time of her death, The New York Times, The New Orleans Daily Picayune, the Daily States and other news sources describe her as "woman of great beauty, intellect, and charisma who was also pious, charitable, and a skilled herbal healer."
Artistic legacy and popular culture
Because of her prominence within the history of Voodoo in New Orleans, Laveau has inspired a number of artistic renditions. In visual art, the African American artist Renee Stout often uses Laveau as a visual motif.
Numerous songs about Marie Laveau have been recorded, including "Marie La Veau" by Papa Celestin; "Marie Laveau" written by Shel Silverstein and Baxter Taylor and recorded by Dr. Hook & the Medicine Show (1972), and Bobby Bare (1974); "The Witch Queen of New Orleans" (1971) by Redbone; "Dixie Drug Store" by Grant Lee Buffalo; "X Marks the Spot (Marie Laveau)" by Joe Sample; "Marie Laveau" by Dr. John; "Marie Laveau" (2013) by Tao Of Sound; "Voodoo Queen Marie" to the minstrel tune "Colored Aristocracy" by The Holy Modal Rounders; "The Witch Queen of New Orleans" by Total Toly; and "The Widow Paris" by The Get Up Kids; "Marie Laveau" by the Danish metal band Volbeat. Marie Laveau is mentioned in the song "I Will Play for Gumbo" (1999) by Jimmy Buffett and "Clare" by Fairground Attraction. Two of Laveau's nephews, banjo player Raymond Glapion and bassist Alcide "Slow Drag" Pavageau, became prominent New Orleans jazz musicians. The Los Angeles blues band Canned Heat featured a five-minute instrumental called "Marie Laveau" on their second album Boogie With Canned Heat (1968), written by and featuring their lead guitarist Henry Vestine.
A musical from 1999, Marie Christine, is also based on the life of Laveau.
Laveau has offered inspiration for a number of fictional characters as well. She is the protagonist of such novels as Robert Tallant's The Voodoo Queen (1956); Francine Prose's eponymous Marie Laveau (1977); and Jewell Parker Rhodes' Voodoo Dreams: A Novel of Marie Laveau (1993). Laveau appears as a supporting character in the Night Huntress novels by Jeaniene Frost as a powerful ghoul still living in New Orleans in the 21st century. She also appears as a background character in Barbara Hambly's Benjamin January mystery series, set in New Orleans. Marie Laveau appears in Neil Gaiman's novel American Gods, under her married name, Marie Paris. Marie Laveau's tomb is the site of a secret, fictional underground Voodoo workshop in the Caster Chronicles novel Beautiful Chaos by Kami Garcia and Margaret Stohl. Laveau's gravesite is the setting of a pivotal scene in Robert J. Randisi's short story, "Cold As The Gun," from Foreshadows The Ghosts of Zero. The mother of Hazel Levesque, one of the characters from Rick Riordan's The Heroes of Olympus book series, was known as "Queen Marie," a famous fortune-teller who lived in New Orleans. In Charlaine Harris's True Blood (Sookie Stackhouse novels) book series, the character Hadley is lured to her death at the site of Marie Laveau's tomb.
A character named Marie Laveau, based loosely on the real Marie Laveau appears in Marvel Comics. She first appeared in Dracula Lives #2 in 1973. She is depicted as a powerful sorceress and Voodoo priestess with great magical powers and knowledge of arcane lore, including the creation of a potion made from vampire's blood that keeps her eternally youthful and beautiful. A character named Marie Laveau also appears in the Italian comic book Zagor.
In television, a heavily fictionalized Marie Laveau (portrayed by Angela Bassett) appears as a character in American Horror Story: Coven and American Horror Story: Apocalypse. She also appears in the Canadian television series Lost Girl (portrayed by Marci T. House) in episode 11 of season 4, Young Sheldon (portrayed by Sharon Ferguson) in episode 7 of season 1, and Legends of Tomorrow (portrayed by Joyce Guy) in episode 7 of season 4.
In Gothic Harvest, Marie Laveau curses a French family after their youngest daughter has an affair with her fiancé, and becomes pregnant.
Marie Laveau is mentioned in the youth novel Voodoo Moon by Wendy Corsi Staub, when the Halliwells visit New Orleans and check out a voodoo museum.
She also is mentioned in the game Gabriel Knight - Sins of the Fathers (1993). The Protagonist has the option to ask about her in conversations with NPCs to learn about her influence on Voodoo in New Orleans and her tomb is an important site where the Protagonist can find secret messages in form of red markings on the building.
Biographies
Long, Carolyn Morrow. A New Orleans Voudou Priestess: The Legend and Reality of Marie Laveau, Gainesville: University Press of Florida (2006), ().
Tallant, Robert. "Voodoo in New Orleans", The MacMillan Co. (1946), ()
Ward, Martha. Voodoo Queen: The Spirited Lives of Marie Laveau, Oxford: University of Mississippi Press (2004) ().
Long, Carolyn Morrow "The Tomb of Marie Laveau" Left Hand Press (2016) ()
Bloody Mary "Hauntings Horrors and Dancing with the Dead. True Stories from the Voodoo Queen of New Orleans" Weiser publishing (2016) (),
See also
Mary Oneida Toups
Notes
References
External links
Clickable map of Tombs at St. Louis No. 1(Click on Tomb No. 347 on map.)
NY Times archived article from 1881 regarding Marie Laveau's death
1801 births
1881 deaths
People from New Orleans
African-American Catholics
American Voodoo practitioners
Black slave owners in the United States
Religious leaders from Louisiana
American folklore
Louisiana folklore
American occultists
American slave owners
Folk saints
Louisiana Creole people
Louisiana Voodoo
Folklore of the Southern United States
Supernatural legends
People in 19th-century Louisiana
Catholics from Louisiana
19th-century occultists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Bennington%20%28CV-20%29
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USS Bennington (CV-20)
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USS Bennington (CV/CVA/CVS-20) was an in service with the United States Navy from 1944 to 1946 and from 1952 to 1970. She was sold for scrap in 1994.
History
Construction and commissioning
USS Bennington was named for a battle in 1777 near Bennington, Vermont during the American Revolution, in which American victory contributed to the ultimate defeat of General Burgoyne at Saratoga.
The carrier was laid down on 15 December 1942 by the New York Naval Shipyard and launched on 26 February 1944, sponsored by the wife of Congressman Melvin Maas of Minnesota. She was commissioned on 6 August 1944, Captain James B. Sykes in command.
World War II
Bennington completed trials, shakedown training, and post-shakedown availability by 14 December when she departed New York and headed for the Pacific theater. She transited the Panama Canal on 21 December and moored at San Diego on the 29th. On New Year's Day 1945, the carrier stood out of San Diego to continue her voyage west. She arrived in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on 7 January. For the remainder of the month, she conducted air and gunnery training in the Hawaiian operating area. On 1 February, Bennington exited Pearl Harbor in company with the aircraft carriers , , , and the large cruiser to join Task Force 58 at Ulithi Atoll in the Caroline Islands.
She arrived in Ulithi lagoon on 8 February and became a unit of Task Group (TG) 58.1. The aircraft carrier remained at Ulithi only two days, departing the atoll with TG 58.1 on the 10th to make air attacks on the Japanese home islands in support of the landings on Iwo Jima. Task Force 58 steamed first to the vicinity of the Marianas to conduct rehearsals over Tinian before heading north. After the air groups carried out the training sorties on 12 February, the ships fueled at sea on the 14th and then headed toward the launching point some 200 km southeast of Tokyo. On the 16th, TF 58 launched its air strikes on Japan proper. Bennington aviators went after targets both at Tokyo and at Yokosuka, site of the large Japanese naval base. While their colleagues pounded Japan, pilots in Benningtons Combat Air Patrol (CAP) helped to protect TG 58.1 from air raids and shot down three intruders. On the negative side, her air group lost one plane to antiaircraft fire over Japan.
The aircraft carrier retired from the vicinity of Honshu on 18 February, fueled the next day, and then steamed toward Iwo Jima to provide close support. She continued that duty from 20 to 22 February before retiring for a fueling rendezvous on the 23rd. The following day, she and her sister carriers set a course back toward Japan. On the 25th, her air group participated in another series of attacks on the Tokyo region of Japan. Retiring on the 26th, Bennington launched aircraft against airfields on Okinawa in the Ryukyu Islands on 1 March. TF 58 headed back to Ulithi on the 3rd and reentered that anchorage the following day for eight days of rest and relaxation.
On 14 March, she returned to sea. After several days of training exercises, Bennington and the other carriers of TF 58 steamed toward Kyushu, southernmost of the major Japanese home islands, to hit airfields and naval bases there in preparation for the projected invasion of Okinawa. Those attacks went forward on 18 March; and, the following day, Bennington aircraft struck the Kure Naval Arsenal and the area of Hiroshima. On the 20th, the aircraft of Benningtons Carrier Air Group 82 (CVG-82) again attacked airfields on Kyushu. That same day, Bennington and the other units of TF 58 began their retirement from Japanese waters and toward Okinawa to begin direct support for the landings. On 23 March, she began launching raids against Okinawa and the surrounding islands, concentrating primarily on Kerama Retto, a small group of islands located due west of the southern portion of Okinawa and which constituted the first objective of the invading force. That small group of islands, needed as a fleet anchorage and forward repair base, fell late the following day, and the fast carriers shifted their attention to softening up the main objective.
That phase of the operation lasted until early on the morning of the initial landings on 1 April. After the assault force went ashore, Bennington and the other fast carriers began dividing their time between strikes on Okinawa and the surrounding islands in direct support of the occupying troops and raids on the Japanese home islands, primarily Kyushu, in distant support of the operation. On 7 April, Bennington aircraft helped stifle the last major action of the Imperial Japanese Navy. The battleship , escorted by light cruiser and eight destroyers, came out of Japan in a desperate attempt to break up the landings at Okinawa. That force, lacking any air cover, was spotted on the 6th by American submarines; and, on the 7th, by American patrol planes. When TF 58 attack groups found the force on the 7th, Yamato, Yahagi, and four of the destroyers were sunk. The four destroyers that escaped also suffered damage but managed to reach the Sasebo Naval Arsenal. Bennington aviators claimed at least two torpedo hits on the battleship at the cost of a single plane from her air group.
The aircraft carrier continued to give support to the Okinawa operation, to provide combat air patrol to intercept enemy air raids, and to attack the airfields that were the points of origin for those raids. On 28 April, Bennington and the rest of TG 58.1 left the vicinity of Okinawa for rest and relaxation at Ulithi. She remained at the fleet anchorage from 30 April to 9 May. On the latter day, she stood out of Ulithi and, after exercises in the area, headed back to Okinawa on the 10th. The aircraft carrier resumed support duty for the Okinawa campaign on 12 May. Again, she divided her time between direct support for the troops fighting on the island and sweeps against the Kyushu airfields. Early in June, Bennington suffered a damaged flight deck when TF 38 (on 27 May the fleet, task forces, and task groups changed designation) steamed through Typhoon Connie. On 9 June, she set a course for Leyte Gulf and repairs. The ship arrived at her destination on the 11th and underwent repairs until the 27th. She cleared the base at San Pedro Bay (Philippines) on 1 July in company with the rest of TF 38.
For the remainder of the war, she and the other fast carriers concentrated exclusively upon the Japanese home islands and surrounding waters. Her planes ranged the length of the island chain from Hokkaido in the north to Kyushu in the south, making frequent attacks on Honshu. Targets included industrial complexes, military and naval installations, and shipping. She was still conducting air strikes off Honshu on 15 August when news broke of the Japanese capitulation.
After hostilities ended, Bennington continued operations in the Japanese home islands in support of occupation forces. Her aviators conducted routine patrols as well as searches for camps containing Allied prisoners of war. That duty lasted until 10 September at which time she entered Tokyo Bay. The aircraft carrier remained in the Far East until mid-October when she set course back to the United States. Along the way, she stopped at Saipan, where she disembarked her air group, and at Pearl Harbor before entering San Francisco Bay on 7 November. She remained there until the first week in January 1946 when she returned to sea, bound for Hawaii transporting a load of planes and a draft of men. After conducting some training operations in the Hawaiian Islands, the carrier headed back to San Francisco where she arrived on 30 March. Early in April, the warship set out on a voyage to the east coast with CVG-19 embarked. She transited the Panama Canal at mid-month and arrived at Norfolk Naval Base, Virginia, on 22 April. She remained there until 8 November at which time she was decommissioned and berthed with the Atlantic Reserve Fleet.
Cold War
Bennington remained in reserve for almost four years. On 29 October 1950, she moved to the New York Naval Shipyard to receive her SCB-27A modernization. Over the next two years, she underwent a transformation that increased her displacement, length, and beam. Her flight deck was strengthened and widened to accommodate jet aircraft, her island was replaced. She also received many modifications to other equipment, such as catapults and elevators, to accomplish the same purpose. In October 1952, while completing those alterations, she was re-designated an attack aircraft carrier (CVA-20). On 13 November, Captain David. B. Young took command of Bennington in a ceremony attended by more than 1,400, including the Secretary of the Navy Dan A. Kimball and Rear Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter.
Marine Air Group 14, under the command of Colonel W.R. Campbell, USMC reported for duty on Bennington on 13 February 1953, and Bennington set off for the waters off Florida to conduct carrier qualifications. The first arrested landing was made on Bennington since her recommissioning by Lieutenant Colonel T.W. Furlow in his AD Skyraider. Furlow was the commanding officer of Marine Attack Squadron 211. The first jet aircraft to land on Bennington occurred on 18 February by Major Carl E. Schmitt in a F9F-5 Cougar. When the qualifications were over, Bennington headed for Guantanamo Bay Naval Base where she underwent 11 weeks of shakedown training with CVG-7 aboard.
During the training cruise, an explosion occurred in her number 1 fireroom on 27 April. 11 men were killed. She put into Guantánamo Bay on the 29th, completed repairs in a week, and returned to sea to continue her shakedown training. On 7 May, she concluded training operations and set a course back to New York. After a stop at Norfolk to disembark her air group, the carrier reentered the New York Naval Shipyard on 25 May to begin post-shakedown availability.
That summer, she began normal operations with the United States Atlantic Fleet out of her home port, Naval Air Station Quonset Point, Rhode Island. That duty lasted until mid-September at which time she put to sea to participate in a large-scale NATO exercise, "Operation Mariner". That operation ended on 4 October, and Bennington steamed through the Strait of Gibraltar to begin her first deployment with the United States Sixth Fleet in the Mediterranean Sea, still with CVG-7 on board. That assignment lasted until 16 February 1954 when she embarked upon her homeward voyage. Bennington arrived at Quonset Point on the 21st to disembark her air group. On 1 March, she moved to New York for a shipyard availability and a post-deployment standdown period.
Early in April, she returned to sea to conduct carrier qualifications off Mayport, Florida. She completed that mission and returned to Quonset Point on the 29th. Late in May, she moved south to Norfolk where she embarked Air Task Group 181 (ATG-181) on 22 May and put to sea for carrier qualifications in the Narragansett Bay area. At 0600 on the 26th, she began launching aircraft for the qualifications. Eleven minutes later, a series of explosions rocked the ship when the port side catapult accumulator burst and released vaporized lubricating oil which was detonated by some unknown heat source. Though severely damaged internally, the warship managed to launch the entire air group and send it into Quonset Point, Rhode Island. She also maintained way on and headed back to Quonset Point while damage control, fire, and rescue parties worked feverishly to control fires, to rescue the injured, and to recover the dead. The explosion cost her 103 officers and men dead and over 200 others injured, most of them severely burned. The most severely injured men were carried to Quonset Point in a helicopter lift, and Bennington dropped the remainder off there before heading to New York for extensive repairs. She arrived in the New York Naval Shipyard on 12 June. In addition to repairing the damaged area, the shipyard made major modifications originally scheduled for a later date. She received the SCB-125 modernization. The two most notable changes were the addition of an enclosed hurricane bow to lessen the potential for damage in heavy weather and of an angled flight deck to improve the efficiency of air operations. A memorial to the sailors who died in the explosion was erected in 2004 at Fort Adams State Park in Newport, Rhode Island.
She completed repairs and alterations by 11 March 1955. On 22 April 1955, the Secretary of the Navy came aboard and presented medals and letters of commendation to 178 of her crew in recognition of their actions on 26 May 1954. As of 1 August 1955, she was part of Carrier Division 2, along with . The carrier returned to sea on 25 April to conduct carrier qualifications off Naval Station Mayport and post-overhaul shakedown training out of Guantánamo Bay. For the next four months, she conducted normal operations along the east coast and in the West Indies with ATG-201 aboard. On 8 September, the carrier embarked upon a voyage to a new home port and a new fleet. Steaming around Cape Horn, she arrived Naval Base San Diego, California, on 20 October. There, the warship joined the United States Pacific Fleet.
Pacific Fleet
Over the next nine years, the period preceding the United States' full entrance into the conflict in Vietnam, Bennington divided her time between deployments to the United States Seventh Fleet in Far Eastern waters and normal evolutions along the California coast. During that time, she made five deployments to the Western Pacific. The first two, made during the winter of 1955 and 1956 and the winter of 1957 and 1958, proved to be of routine nature, combining training evolutions and goodwill visits to various Asian ports. ATG-201 was embarked for the first cruise, ATG-181 for the second.
Incident in Sydney
On 7 May 1957, while docked in Sydney for Coral Sea Day celebrations, ten University of Sydney students dressed as pirates boarded the aircraft carrier in the early morning hours undetected. While some began soliciting donations from the Navy crew for a local charity, others entered the bridge. The public address system was turned on. "Now hear this!" announced Paul Lennon, a medical student. "The USS Bennington has been captured by Sydney University pirates!" Alarms for general quarters, atomic and chemical attacks were sounded, rousing the crew from their bunks. Marines escorted the students off the ship. No charges were filed.
The third deployment of the period, from August 1958 to January 1959 with ATG-4 aboard, came as an emergency assignment occasioned by Chinese threat to the Taiwanese offshore islands, Quemoy and Matsu Islands. The carrier's service during the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis earned her the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal.
Anti-submarine carrier
Following her return to normal west coast duty in January 1959, the U.S. Navy decided to use the carrier exclusively for antisubmarine warfare. On 30 June 1959, she became an antisubmarine warfare support aircraft carrier (CVS-20). Carrier Anti-Submarine Air Group 59 (CVSG-59) was assigned to Bennington until her decommissioning. During her fourth tour of duty in the Far East, carried out between October 1960 and May 1961, the Laotian crisis erupted. Again, she earned the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal. The final deployment of that period was characterized by a return to more normal duty, training and port calls.
1964 Flood of Humboldt and Del Norte
The Bennington was dispatched to Eureka, in Humboldt County, California, during the Christmas flood of 1964 to provide disaster relief from severe flooding with water levels that exceeded thirty feet. The Bennington remained offshore in heavy seas and the twenty Marine helicopters she carried were invaluable in providing assistance and supplies to the stricken residents.
Vietnam War
Bennington'''s final seven years of active service, which included four more assignments with the 7th Fleet, coincided with the period of direct involvement of United States armed forces in the Vietnam War. The first deployment of this phase of her career started peacefully enough early in 1964, but the Tonkin Gulf incident in August extended her Far Eastern tour and brought duty in Vietnamese waters in October and November. Her next 7th Fleet tour of duty, during the summer and fall of 1965, brought more duty off the coast of Vietnam, but the service was not nearly so extensive as the she would perform during her final two deployments.
On 18 May 1966, while cruising off of San Diego, California, Bennington hosted the experimental LTV XC-142 aircraft as it executed 44 short takeoffs and landings and six vertical takeoffs and landings, the ship steaming at various speeds to generate different velocities of wind-over-the-deck.
She was the prime recovery vessel for the unmanned Apollo 4 mission and on 9 November 1967 recovered the spacecraft which had splashed down from the ship.
On 4 November 1966, Bennington embarked upon her next to last 7th Fleet assignment. Throughout that tour of duty, she served with the larger carriers on Yankee Station in the Gulf of Tonkin. In addition to providing antisubmarine protection to Task Force 77, she also had the responsibility for tracking and identifying all ships operating in the vicinity of the task force and for providing search and rescue services for downed aviators. The deployment ended on 21 April, and Bennington headed for Australia to participate in the celebration commemorating the 25th anniversary of the Allied victory in the Battle of the Coral Sea. The carrier departed Sydney, Australia, on 8 May and, after a stop at Pearl Harbor on the 18th, arrived in San Diego on 23 May 1967.
After almost a year of normal operations along the west coast, she stood out of Long Beach, California, for the final deployment on 30 April 1968. She made a stop at Pearl Harbor from 15 to 20 May and arrived in United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka on 29 May. Her last deployment brought more of the same duty that she had seen on the previous one, antisubmarine protection for TF 77, ship identification work, and search and rescue services. She concluded that tour of duty on 28 October when she departed Yokosuka to return to the United States. Bennington arrived in Long Beach on 9 November and, on the 14th, entered the Long Beach Naval Shipyard for a five-month yard overhaul. The aircraft carrier resumed active service on 30 April 1969 and conducted normal operations along the California coast for the remainder of the year and into January 1970.
Decommissioning and fate
On 15 January 1970, Bennington was placed out of commission with the Pacific Reserve Fleet at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington, and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 20 September 1989. The carrier was finally sold for scrap on 12 January 1994, being subsequently towed across the Pacific for scrapping in India.
AwardsBennington'' earned three battle stars for World War II service and five battle stars during the Vietnam conflict.
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation (2)
China Service Medal (Extended)
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal (3 battle stars)
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Service Medal (with Asia and Europe clasps)
National Defense Service Medal (2)
Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal (2)
Vietnam Service Medal (4 battle stars)
Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation (Gallantry Cross Medal with Palm)
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
Gallery
References
External links
USS Bennington at NavSource Online: Aircraft Carrier Photo Archive
USS Bennington, her history and her crew
Newsreel footage of the 1954 fire aftermath from British Pathe
USS Bennington from the U.S. Naval History Center
Essex-class aircraft carriers
Ships built in Brooklyn
1944 ships
World War II aircraft carriers of the United States
Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States
Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States
Maritime incidents in 1954
Aircraft carrier fires
United States Navy Vermont-related ships
Space capsule recovery ships
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry%20Bostwick
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Barry Bostwick
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Barry Knapp Bostwick (born February 24, 1945) is an American actor and singer. He is best known for portraying Brad Majors in the musical comedy horror film The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1975) and Mayor Randall Winston in the sitcom Spin City (1996–2002). Bostwick has also had considerable success in musical theater, winning a Tony Award for his role in The Robber Bridegroom.
Early life
Bostwick was born February 24, 1945 in San Mateo, California. He is the son of Elizabeth "Betty" (née Defendorf), a housewife, and Henry "Bud" Bostwick, a city planner and actor. His only sibling, older brother Henry "Pete" Bostwick, died at the age of 32 in a car accident on July 20, 1973. Bostwick attended San Diego's United States International University in 1967, majoring in acting, got his start on the Hillbarn Theatre stage now located in Foster City, and worked for a time as a circus performer. He also attended NYU's Graduate Acting Program, graduating in 1968.
Career
Bostwick was a member of First National Nothing, who released one album, 1970's "If You Sit Real Still and Hold My Hand, You Will Hear Absolutely Nothing." They are described on the album as "A rock-theater commune made up of musicians, actors, dancers, singers, designers, writers composers and friends that started a long, long time ago as a lost tribe in California and has ended up as a theatrical performing group in New York City."
In 1970, Bostwick was a member of a pop group called The Klowns, assembled and promoted by Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, whose members performed wearing stylized clown makeup and costumes. Their sole album, released in 1970, was produced by Jeff Barry, and generated a minor Billboard hit single, "Lady Love."
Bostwick replaced C.C. Courtney in the musical Salvation. His next stage appearance was in the 1971 rock opera Soon, which closed after three performances. In 1972, Bostwick originated the role of bad boy Danny Zuko in the stage production of Grease, earning a Tony Award nomination for his performance. This was followed by a voice role as Terr in the English-dubbed version of Fantastic Planet in 1973. He later starred with Tim Curry and Susan Sarandon in The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1975) portraying the character of Brad Majors. He also won a Tony Award for his performance in the 1977 musical The Robber Bridegroom. In 1981, Bostwick starred in the TV series adaptation of the 1978 movie Foul Play, with his role modeled after Chevy Chase's and co-star Deborah Raffin in Goldie Hawn's part. The following year, he starred in Megaforce. Bostwick starred, along with Carl Weintraub, as Rick Armstrong in the short-lived ABC sitcom Dads during the 1986–87 season. From 1996 to 2002, Bostwick portrayed Randall Winston, the mayor of New York City in the sitcom Spin City opposite Michael J. Fox and his successor, Charlie Sheen. In 2006, Bostwick replaced Peter Scolari as Mr. Tyler, the father of Amanda Bynes's and Jennie Garth's lead characters, on What I Like About You.
Bostwick had a recurring role between 2004 and 2007 on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. He has also had leading roles in various mini-series, including George Washington, its sequel George Washington II: The Forging of a Nation, Scruples, A Woman of Substance, War and Remembrance, and Till We Meet Again.
Bostwick served as host of the nationally televised annual Capitol Fourth celebration on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. for eight years. Bostwick was also seen in a Pepsi Twist commercial. In the Cold Case episode "Creatures of the Night," in which he is the main suspect, the theme of the episode revolves around The Rocky Horror Picture Show, which is among his best-known performances to date.
In 2003, Bostwick appeared on Scrubs as a patient diagnosed with prostate cancer, a disease Bostwick had in real life. In 2008, he appeared in an episode of TV series Ugly Betty as an attorney to the Meade family. In 2007, Bostwick gained a recurring role, as Grandpa Clyde Flynn on the animated television series, Phineas and Ferb. Bostwick is also the spokesperson for Optimum Voice. In June 2009, he played Father Jimmy, the ineffective exorcist in the independent horror comedy The Selling, written by Gabriel Diani and directed by Emily Lou.
Other television credits include guest appearances in Charlie's Angels, Hawaii Five-O, The Golden Palace, Grace Under Fire, and Las Vegas.
Bostwick was supposed to appear on the third season of Private Practice as "the Captain," a father of the Addison Montgomery character, but had to resign due to a scheduling conflict. In 2011, Bostwick portrayed a small-town sheriff in the John Landis-produced thriller Some Guy Who Kills People
In October 2010, Bostwick briefly appeared in the Rocky Horror-themed Glee episode.
Since 2009, Bostwick has had a recurring role as Roger Frank on the sitcom Cougar Town which stars Courteney Cox. In season three of the show, we learn that Bostwick's character has become mayor of the town the comedy is set in, Gulf Haven. In 2015, he starred in Darren Lynn Bousman's segment of the anthology film Tales of Halloween, which was his second time acting under Bousman after The Devil's Carnival, and appeared in the comedy horror film Helen Keller vs. Nightwolves. In 2015, he portrayed Collin Winthrop, father of the Gig Harbor Killer, in the season-ending CSI: Crime Scene Investigation episode "The End Game." He has also had a return to cult musical horror films in the form of Terrance Zdunich's Alleluia! The Devil's Carnival, which is a sequel to the 2012 short film The Devil's Carnival, of which he was not previously a cast member, being a newcomer to the franchise.
In 2020, Bostwick executive produced and starred in the short film Molly Robber as Ron Baker, which won an Audience Award at the 2020 Austin Film Festival and was an official selection at the 2021 Tribeca Film Festival.
Personal life
Bostwick married Stacey Nelkin in 1987, and they were divorced in 1991. He married his second wife Sherri Ellen Jensen in 1993; they have two children, a son and a daughter.
In 1997, Bostwick was diagnosed with prostate cancer, and had his prostate removed in July 1997. In 2004, he won the Gilda Radner Courage Award from Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center.
Select filmography
Film
Television
Stage productions
Video games
Web
Awards and nominations
References
Further reading
Evans, David and Michaels, Scott. Rocky Horror: Concept to Cult. London: Sanctuary, 2002.
Lipton, Michael A. and Matsumoto, Nancy. “Serial Dad: Michael J. Fox Looks Up to 6’4” Actor”. People March 10, 1997: 99.
Uhry, Alfred. "The Trail of the Robber B". The Robber Bridegroom CD Liner Notes 1998: 2.
Hunt, Paula. "Bostwick Tells Story of Survival". Express-News, March 6, 2006.
External links
1945 births
Living people
Male actors from the San Francisco Bay Area
American male film actors
American male musical theatre actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe (television) winners
People from San Mateo, California
Tony Award winners
United States International University alumni
Tisch School of the Arts alumni
Audiobook narrators
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] |
208549
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One%20Step%20from%20Earth
|
One Step from Earth
|
One Step from Earth is a collection of science fiction stories by American writer Harry Harrison, published in 1970. The stories in the collection are tied together by the central theme of teleportation, or matter transmission as the author phrases it.
Content
The collection includes the following short stories:
"One Step from Earth"
"Pressure"
"No War, or Battle's Sound"
"Wife to the Lord"
"Waiting Place"
"The Life Preservers"
"From Fanaticism, or for Reward"
"Heavy Duty"
"A Tale of the Ending"
External links
Page at International Speculative Fiction Database
1970 short story collections
Short story collections by Harry Harrison
Macmillan Publishers books
|
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208551
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard%20Cornwell
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Bernard Cornwell
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Bernard Cornwell, (born 23 February 1944) is an English author of historical novels and a history of the Waterloo Campaign. He is best known for his novels about Napoleonic Wars rifleman Richard Sharpe. He has also written the Saxon / Last Kingdom stories about King Alfred and the making of England.
He has written historical novels primarily based on English history, in five series, and one series of contemporary thriller novels. A feature of his historical novels is an end note on how they match or differ from history, and what one might see at the modern sites of the battles described. He wrote a nonfiction book on the battle of Waterloo, in addition to the fictional story of the famous battle in the Sharpe series. Two of the historical novel series have been adapted for television: the Sharpe television series by ITV and The Last Kingdom by BBC. He lives in the US with his wife, alternating between Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and Charleston, South Carolina.
Biography
Cornwell was born in London in 1944. His father was Canadian airman William Oughtred and his mother was Englishwoman Dorothy Cornwell, a member of the Women's Auxiliary Air Force. He was adopted and brought up in Thundersley, Essex by the Wiggins family; they were members of the Peculiar People, a strict sect of pacifists who banned frivolity of all kinds, and even medicine up to 1930. Reacting to being raised by Christian Fundamentalists, he grew up rejecting all religions and became an atheist.
After his adoptive father died, he changed his last name by deed poll from Wiggins to Cornwell, his birth mother's maiden name. Prior to that, he used Bernard Cornwell as a pen name. He met his father for the first time when he was 58, after telling a journalist on a book tour, "what I wanted to see in Vancouver was my real father." There he met his half-siblings, with whom he shares many traits, and learned his genealogy.
He is a descendant of Uhtred the Bold whom he based the Last Kingdom book series on.
Cornwell was sent to Monkton Combe School in Somerset. He read history at University College London between 1963 and 1966 and worked as a teacher after graduating. He attempted to enlist in the British armed services at least three times, but was rejected on the grounds of myopia.
Following his work as a teacher, Cornwell joined the BBC's Nationwide and was later promoted to head of current affairs at BBC Northern Ireland. He then joined Thames Television as editor of Thames News. His first marriage ended in divorce in 1970s. He met his second wife, Judy, in 1978 in Edinburgh while he worked for BBC Northern Ireland; she was a travel agent from the US and the mother of three children from a previous marriage. He relocated to the United States in 1979 after marrying her. He was unable to get a United States Permanent Resident Card (green card), so he started writing novels, as this did not require a work permit. He later became a United States citizen.
Career
As a child, Cornwell loved the novels of C. S. Forester chronicling the adventures of fictional British naval officer Horatio Hornblower during the Napoleonic Wars. He was surprised to find that there were no such novels following Lord Wellington's campaign on land, so he wrote that series himself—further motivated by the need to support himself through writing. He created his chief protagonist as a rifleman involved in most of the major battles of the Peninsular War, taking the character's name from rugby player Richard Sharp.
Cornwell wanted to start the series with the Siege of Badajoz but decided instead to start with a couple of "warm-up" novels. These were Sharpe's Eagle and Sharpe's Gold, both published in 1981. He went on to tell the story of Badajoz in Sharpe's Company published in 1982. He had a seven-book deal with his publisher.
Cornwell and wife Judy co-wrote a series of novels published under the pseudonym "Susannah Kells": A Crowning Mercy published in 1983, Fallen Angels in 1984, and Coat of Arms (aka The Aristocrats) in 1986. Cornwell's strict Protestant upbringing forms the background of A Crowning Mercy, which takes place during the English Civil War. He also published Redcoat in 1987, an American Revolutionary War novel set in Philadelphia during its 1777 occupation by the British.
Cornwell was approached by a production company interested in making television adaptations of the first eight books of his Sharpe series. They asked him to write a background novel to give them a starting point to the series, and they also requested that the story feature a large role for Spanish characters in order to secure co-funding from Spain. The result was Sharpe's Rifles, published in 1987 and set when the English retreated at A Coruña until Wellesley arrived in Spain. It also resulted in a series of Sharpe television films starring Sean Bean.
This was followed by a series of modern thrillers with sailing as a background and common themes: Wildtrack published in 1988, Sea Lord (or Killer's Wake) in 1989, Crackdown in 1990, Stormchild in 1991, and the political thriller Scoundrel in 1992.
Cornwell wrote two books a year for a long time, slowing to one book per year in his sixties. He views historical fiction as presenting a big story in the historical events and a little story in the fictional plot. Patrick O'Brian wrote the Aubrey-Maturin series of historical adventures set in the Napoleonic era, and he said that there was "too much plot, not enough lifestyle" in both Cornwell's novels and those of C. S. Forester. Cornwell took that as a compliment and an accurate appraisal of the difference between their styles, while appreciating the favorable comparison to Forester.
With the success of the Sharpe series, Cornwell began to write about other time periods and historical events of English and American history, both in series and in single novels. Agincourt was released in the UK in October 2008. The protagonist is an archer who participates in the Battle of Agincourt, a devastating defeat suffered by the French during the Hundred Years' War. In 2004, he released The Last Kingdom, beginning the Saxon Stories centered on protagonist Uhtred of Bebbanburg and telling how the nation of England began under Alfred the Great. The twelfth novel in the series was published in 2019 as Sword of Kings. He realized that few in England knew how England began, unlike Americans who have a clear date for their nation's beginning—so this became his big story. His own ancestral roots gave him the little story in the protagonist Uhtred.
The Fort is another of Cornwell's standalone novels, published in 2010. It tells of the Penobscot Expedition of 1779 during the American Revolutionary War. He has been successful overall in his writing career, selling 30 million books by 2015 throughout the various series and individual novels, and he continues to write new novels.
Honours
In June 2006, Cornwell was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the Queen's 80th Birthday Honours List.
Novel series
Sharpe stories
Cornwell's first series of historical novels features the adventures of Richard Sharpe, an English soldier during the Napoleonic Wars, in particular the Peninsular Wars once Arthur Wellesley was sent to lead the campaign against Napoleon's forces on the Iberian Peninsula. The first 11 books of the Sharpe series began with Sharpe's Rifles and ended with Sharpe's Waterloo, published in the US as Waterloo. These detail Sharpe's adventures in various Peninsular War campaigns over the course of seven years. Subsequently, Cornwell wrote Sharpe's Tiger, Sharpe's Triumph, Sharpe's Fortress, Sharpe's Trafalgar, and Sharpe's Prey, depicting Sharpe's earlier adventures under Wellington's command in India, including his hard-won promotion to the officer corps, his return to Britain, and his arrival in the 95th Rifles; he also wrote the sequel Sharpe's Devil, set six years after the end of the wars. Sharpe's Battle takes place during the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro. Since 2003, he has written further "missing adventures" set during the Peninsular War era, based on major battles of that long campaign, for a total of 24 novels in this series.
Cornwell mentions in notes at the end of the Sharpe series that he was initially dubious about the casting of Sean Bean for the television adaptations, but that the doubts did not last and he was subsequently so delighted that he dedicated Sharpe's Battle to him. He has admitted that he subtly changed the writing of the character to align with Bean's portrayal as now he "could not imagine Sharpe as anyone else". One of Cornwell's initial misgivings about Bean was that he did not physically resemble the black-haired Sharpe whom he described in the early books, but he thought that Bean understood and acted the part perfectly, and he subsequently refrained from mentioning Sharpe's hair color.
Warlord Chronicles
A trilogy depicting Cornwell's historical re-creation of Arthurian Britain. The series posits that post-Roman Britain was a difficult time for the native Britons, being threatened by invasion from the Anglo-Saxons in the East and raids from the Irish in the West. At the same time, they suffered internal power struggles between their petty kingdoms and friction between the old Druidic religion and newly arrived Christianity. The author has often said that these are his own favourite stories, "I have to confess that of all the books I have written these three are my favourites."
Grail Quest novels
This series deals with a mid-14th century search for the Holy Grail during the Hundred Years' War. English archer Thomas of Hookton becomes drawn into the quest by the actions of a mercenary soldier called "The Harlequin" who murders Thomas' family in his obsessive search for the Grail. Cornwell was planning at one point to write more books about Thomas of Hookton and said that, shortly after finishing Heretic, he had "started another Thomas of Hookton book, then stopped it—mainly because I felt that his story ended in Heretic and I was just trying to get too much from him. Which doesn't mean I won't pick the idea up again sometime in the future." He returned to the character in 1356 published in 2012.
Saxon Stories/The Last Kingdom
Cornwell's latest series focuses on the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, England during the 9th-century reign of Alfred the Great, his fierce opposition to the Danes and his determination to unite England as one country. The series idea took shape in his mind after meeting his real father in Canada in his fifties, learning his own ancestry back to that era, to Uhtred of Bebbanburg who became Uhtred, the protagonist of the series. Cornwell realised that most English people are unaware of how England came to be, rather than say, Dane-land, in that era of multiple peoples on the island of Great Britain. The first novel was published in 2004. The series continues after the death of Alfred, as his heirs consolidate the nation. The 13th book is titled War Lord, and it is the final novel in the series.
The Last Kingdom and The Pale Horseman were the basis for the first series of the television series, The Last Kingdom, while The Lords of the North and Sword Song were the basis for the second series. A third series, based on The Burning Land and Death of Kings, was released in November 2018, and a fourth series was released in April 2020. A fifth series was confirmed on 7 July 2020.
Starbuck Chronicles
Four novels set during the American Civil War follow the adventures of Boston-born Nathaniel Starbuck during his service in the Confederate Army. The series is notable for an appearance by Richard Sharpe's son as a supporting character.
Thriller series
Cornwell's thriller series are modern mysteries, all with sailing themes. He is a traditional sailor and enjoys sailing his Cornish Crabber christened Royalist. According to Cornwell's website, there may be no additions to the series: "I enjoyed writing the thrillers, but suspect I am happier writing historical novels. I'm always delighted when people want more of the sailing books, but I'm not planning on writing any more, at least not now – but who knows? Perhaps when I retire".
Nonfiction
In addition to his many novels, including a fictional account (Sharpe's Waterloo) of the battle of Waterloo, Cornwell published a nonfiction book, Waterloo: The History of Four Days, Three Armies and Three Battles, released in September 2014, in time for the 200th anniversary of that battle.
Works
See also
Faulconer County
References
External links
Author's official site
Bernard Cornwell Interview on Medieval Archives Podcast
Bernard Cornwell interview on BookBanter
Christopher Seufert interviews Bernard Cornwell
Interview, chapter excerpts and Cornwell essay Stonehenge (Official publisher web page)
"Line of Battle" interviews Bernard Cornwell
Audio interview with Bernard Cornwell at National Review Online
Profile interview with Bernard Cornwell: 'On Writing Historical Fiction'
1944 births
20th-century English novelists
21st-century English novelists
21st-century British writers
Alumni of University College London
English people of Canadian descent
English emigrants to the United States
English historical novelists
Living people
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People educated at Monkton Combe School
People from Chatham, Massachusetts
People from Thundersley
People with acquired American citizenship
Writers from London
Writers of historical fiction set in the modern age
Writers of historical fiction set in the Middle Ages
Writers of historical mysteries
Writers of modern Arthurian fiction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private%20member%27s%20bill
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Private member's bill
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A private member's bill in a bill (proposed law) introduced into a legislature by a legislator who is not acting on behalf of the executive branch. The designation "private member's bill" is used in most Westminster system jurisdictions, in which a "private member" is any member of parliament (MP) who is not a member of the cabinet (executive). Other labels may be used for the concept in other parliamentary systems; for example, the label member's bill is used in the Scottish Parliament and the New Zealand Parliament, and the term private senator's bill is used in the Australian Senate. In legislatures where the executive does not have the right of initiative, such as the United States Congress, the concept does not arise since bills are always introduced by legislators (or sometimes by popular initiative).
In the Westminster system, most bills are "government bills" introduced by the executive, with private members' bills the exception; however, some time is set aside in the schedule for reading such bills. They may be introduced by non-ministerial MPs from government-supporting parties (backbenchers), by members of opposition parties (frontbencher or backbencher), or by independents or crossbenchers. The United Kingdom parliament has a long history of enacting private members' bills. In contrast, the Oireachtas (parliament) of the Republic of Ireland rarely passes private members' bills, with the overwhelming number of bills being passed being introduced by members of the cabinet.
A private member's bill is not to be confused with a private bill, which is a bill that only affects an individual citizen or group.
Private member's bill by country
Australia
In Australia, a draft bill is prepared by Parliamentary Counsel, acting under instructions from the private member. After community consultation, the member introduces the bill into the Parliament.
Only 30 private members' bills or private senators' bills introduced into the Australian Parliament since 1901 have been passed into law. Of these, thirteen have been initiated by senators, ten by members and seven by the Speaker and Senate President. A larger number have passed one house but not the other. An even larger number did not pass the house in which they were introduced and thus lapsed.
Among the most notable of the successful bills was the Commonwealth Electoral Bill 1924, which introduced compulsory voting for federal elections. This was introduced by Senator for Tasmania Herbert Payne of the Nationalist Party on 16 July 1924, passed by the Senate on 23 July, passed by the House of Representatives on 24 July – both times with little debate – and given Royal Assent on 31 July. Despite much public debate ever since on the issue of compulsory voting, the legislation has never been repealed.
Another very notable private member's bill was the Euthanasia Laws Bill 1996, which deprived the Northern Territory, Australian Capital Territory and Norfolk Island legislatures of the power to make laws permitting euthanasia. This was introduced by Kevin Andrews, Member for Menzies, after the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly had passed such a law, the Rights of the Terminally Ill Act 1995. Although Andrews was a member of the Liberal Party, members and senators were allowed a conscience vote on the issue, and each side of the debate was supported by members and senators from all political parties.
A private member's bill, the Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Act 2017, legalised same-sex marriage throughout Australia on 9 December 2017. It was introduced by Dean Smith, Senator for Western Australia.
Notable also was the private member's bill introduced by Alan Corbett in the New South Wales Legislative Council to amend the Crimes Act of 1900. The first successfully enacted (or indeed introduced) bill in over 100 years to address the protection of children from abuse and excessive physical chastisement. It received very wide support from New South Wales organisations related to child health and welfare and was backed by several prominent members of the medical profession, particularly in the paediatric field, notably Dr. John Yu, CEO of Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children, Sydney (who had been honoured by the Australian Government with the prestigious Australian of the Year award in 1996). Its initial aims were to limit physical chastisement by banning the use of implements (belts, sticks, hairbrushes, etc.), ban the use of force above the shoulders (thus preventing neck, head, brain and facial injuries), and require that any physical force applied leave only trivial and short-lived signs such as redness (that is, no bruising, swelling, welts, cuts, grazes, internal injuries, emotional trauma, etc.); with the exception of the clause banning the use of implements (which was dropped to gain essential support from the state Labor Government for the bill), it was passed intact and became law in 2001.
Canada
In Canada, a private member's bill () is a bill introduced in the House of Commons by a member of parliament who is neither a cabinet minister nor a parliamentary secretary. A private member's bill follows the same legislative process as a government bill, but the time allocated for its consideration is restricted. Private members' bills may be considered only during one of the daily Private Members' Hours. Under rules established in 1986, 20 items of private members' business are selected at random to receive priority in debate. Six of these items are chosen by a committee to be votable and must come to a vote in the House. Prior to the 1986 rules, private members' bills and motions could be "talked out", meaning that all the time allocated to private members' bills could be used up introducing or debating bills without them ever being voted on, as each bill must be voted on after the second hour of debate. (The ramifications of the 1986 rules were discussed in the Canadian Parliamentary Review, 1988, Vol 11, No. 3.) Even under the new rules, very few private member's bills become law. But passage is more likely in minority government situations. The vast majority of private members' bills that actually do become law are for the purpose of changing the name of the riding represented by the MP introducing the bill.
When an election is called, all bills that have not been passed die on the order paper (that is, they are removed from the agenda of Parliament, and must be re-introduced in the new session of Parliament after an election). In the House of Commons (but not in the Senate), private members' bills remain on the order paper when Parliament is prorogued.
Notable private members bills have been the following:
Passed
In the 98 years from 4 May 1910 to 7 September 2008, 229 private member's bills passed.
Before the 1986 rules
One of the bills passed under the old (pre-1986) rules was a 1964 private member's bill to rename "Trans-Canada Airlines" to "Air Canada", introduced by then-rookie MP Jean Chrétien. Chrétien got his bill voted on by convincing the other MPs scheduled to speak during Private Member's Hour to skip their speech and instead request an immediate vote on the bill.
After the 1986 rules
The new rules took effect in 1986. In the 24 years between 5 November 1984 and 7 September 2008, 81 private member's bills passed. Passage was (and is) more likely during the periods of minority governments in Canada. The ramifications of the 1986 rules and new probability of success of private members bills were discussed in the Canadian Parliamentary Review, 1988, Vol 11, No. 3.
NDP MP Lynn McDonald succeeded in getting her private member's bill, the "Non-smokers' Health Act" (aka Bill C-204), passed in 1986, (given Royal Assent on 28 June 1988) restricting smoking in federally regulated workplaces and on airplanes, trains and ships. The bill was passed in a free vote of the House of Commons despite being voted against by all members of the federal cabinet, including the Minister of Health.
India
Of the 300 or so private members' bills introduced in the 14th Lok Sabha, barely 4% were discussed; 96% lapsed without even a single debate in the House. To date, Parliament has passed a total of 14 private members' bills.
Following are the 14 Private Members' Bills which were passed:-
The Muslim Wakfs Bill introduced by Syed Md. Ahmed Kasmi in Lok Sabha
The Code of Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Bill introduced by Raghunath Singh in Lok Sabha
The Indian Registration (Amendment) Bill introduced by SC Samanta in Lok Sabha
The Proceedings of Legislature (Protection of Publication) Bill introduced by Feroze Gandhi in Lok Sabha
The Women's and Children's Institutions (Licensing) Bill introduced by Rajmata Kamlendu in Lok Sabha
Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Declaration of National Importance) Bill introduced by Raghubir Sinh in Rajya Sabha
The Hindu Marriage (Amendment) Bill introduced by Seeta Parmanand in Rajya Sabha
The Code of Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Bill introduced by Subhadra Joshi in Lok Sabha
The Orphanages and other Charitable Homes (Supervision and Control) Bill introduced by Kailash Bihari Lal in Rajya Sabha
The Marine Insurance Bill introduced by MP Bhargava in Rajya Sabha
The Hindu Marriage (Amendment) Bill introduced by Diwan Chand Sharma in Lok Sabha
The Salaries and Allowances of MP (Amendment) Bill introduced by Raghunath Singh in Lok Sabha
Indian Penal Code (Amendment) Bill introduced by Diwan Chand Lal in Rajya Sabha
The SC (enlargement of Criminal Appellate Jurisdiction) Bill introduced by Anand Narain in Lok Sabha
Five of these were passed in 1956 alone and after 47 years of passing the last bill, the Supreme Court (Enlargement of Criminal Appellate Jurisdiction) Bill, 1968 that became an Act on 9 August 1970; Rajya Sabha has passed the Rights of Transgender Persons Bill, 2014 on April 24, 2015, which was introduced in the lower house, Lok Sabha on 26 February 2016.
Israel
In Israel, a private member's bill () is a bill introduced in the Knesset by an MK who is neither a cabinet minister nor a deputy minister. The number of private member's bills an individual MK can submit is restricted, and their introduction requires approval by the Knesset Presidium (composed of the Speaker of the Knesset and their deputies), who are allowed to reject bills which are racist in their essence or reject the Jewish character of the state.
Unlike government bills, which can be withdrawn at any point before their third reading, a private member's bill cannot be withdrawn after its committee stage, which occurs between first and second readings. In addition, private member's bills must undergo a preliminary reading, while government bills go to first reading directly when they are introduced.
Compared to other Westminster system parliaments, the number of private member's bills introduced in the Knesset is very large: Between 2000 and 2016, the number of private members' bills introduced before the Knesset was 22,949, a world record.
However, this is a relatively recent phenomenon – while only 6% of laws passed by the Third Knesset where introduced as private members' bills, the equivalent share for the Fifteenth Knesset is 53%, a slight majority.
Malaysia
As of September 2021, there hasn't been a single record where a private member's bill was passed in the Malaysian parliament.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, a member's bill is one that is introduced by a member of Parliament who is not a minister. There can be a maximum of eight members' bills on the Order Paper awaiting their first reading at any one time. When a slot opens up, a ballot is held to select a new members' bill for introduction; each MP can submit only one member's bill at a time to the ballot. Every second Wednesday is reserved for debating members' bills, although this rule is overridden when certain government business is before the House, such as the Budget. Even when a Wednesday is devoted to members' bills, any private or local bills on the Order Paper are considered first.
The ballot to select new member's bills is conducted by drawing numbered counters out of a biscuit tin, purchased in the 1980s from now-defunct department store chain DEKA. As a result, the member's bill process is nicknamed "biscuit tin democracy".
Starting with the 53rd Parliament (2020–23), a member's bill can be introduced directly if it has the support of at least 61 non-executive members of Parliament. This will allows member's bills with broad support to avoid the ballot process, while excluding executive members prevents the member's bill process being an alternative way of progressing Government business.
Notable legislation passed as a result of a member's bill includes:
Adult Adoption Information Act 1985 – allowed adult adoptees to access information about their birth parents
Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986 – decriminalised homosexual acts between men
Prostitution Reform Act 2003 – decriminalised prostitution
Crimes (Substituted Section 59) Amendment Act 2007 – removed "reasonable force" legal defence for assault of children by parents
Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Act 2013 – legalised same-sex marriage
End of Life Choice Act 2019 – provided for a binding referendum to give people with a terminal illness the option of requesting assisted dying
Norway
In the Parliament of Norway, any member may submit a private member's bill, called a representative's bill (). The other method of initiating legislation is by a "Proposition to the Storting" from the Government.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom House of Commons, there are several routes to introducing private members' bills. In each session, twenty backbench MPs are selected by ballot to introduce a bill. These bills are given priority for debate and generally offer the best chance of success. Additional bills may be introduced via the Ten Minute Rule, although this is usually used just to raise an issue rather than legislate on it, or through presentation without debate under Standing Order 57. Neither Ten Minute Rule or presentation bills are likely to get time to be debated, so only non-controversial bills have any chance of success. Private members' bills from the Lords may also be adopted by an MP to complete their journey through Parliament.
Private member's bills can sometimes become the cause for much anxiety and shenanigans, as outside individuals or organisations seek to influence members who have been selected in the ballot.
There are two principal routes for influencing UK law:
Lobbying a government department or minister.
Lobbying a member of parliament who has a private member's bill coming up.
Only a small proportion of private members' bills are enacted. This is generally because of lack of time – a controversial private member's bill can be "talked out". In some cases, measures that a government does not want to take responsibility for may be introduced by backbenchers, with the government secretly or openly backing the measure and ensuring its passage. They are sometimes known as "handouts" or "whips' bills". The Abortion Act 1967 was enacted in the United Kingdom through this means: with the Bill itself being introduced by a Liberal Party Member of Parliament, David Steel; through the support from Labour Home Secretary Roy Jenkins the Bill was given enough government time to allow a full debate.
Other private member's bills to have been enacted include the Adoption Act 1964, the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965, the Charter Trustees Act 1985, the Law Reform (Year and a Day Rule) Act 1996, the Knives Act 1997, the British Nationality (Hong Kong) Act 1997, the Mental Health (Discrimination) Act 2003 the Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003, the Gangmasters (Licensing) Act 2004, the Sustainable Communities Act 2007.
Current legislation in progress as a result of a member's bill includes:
Hong Kong Bill 2019-21 -place requirements on relating to the Sino-British Joint Declaration 1984 and human rights in Hong Kong.
House of Commons procedure
In principle, private members' bills follow much the same parliamentary stages as any other bill. In practice, the procedural barriers to passage are much greater.
Time is allocated for private members' bills on 13 Fridays a year in the House of Commons. Five hours of time are available each day, and several private members' bills are scheduled for each session.
Unlike Government bills, debates are not timetabled and there is no guarantee that the debate will finish within the time available. MPs opposed to a private member's bill, including Government ministers and whips, will routinely attempt to talk out the bill, stopping further progress by preventing a vote. The bill's proponent can force a vote only with the support of at least a hundred members (and a majority of those voting). As many MPs return to their constituencies on Thursday night, this has the practical effect of blocking all private members' bills without solid support.
It is quite possible for the first bill to take up all five hours, preventing any other bill on the agenda from being debated. Any bill not debated may receive second reading without debate at the end of the session, but a single shout of "object!" will delay consideration to a future date; Government and opposition whips routinely block contentious private members' bills in this way. Another date for second reading will also be set for bills which have been talked out. This is a formality; the bill will be put to the bottom of the order paper, will likely be objected to on each future occasion and has no practical chance of success.
Even if second reading is passed, a bill is likely to need the support of the government to become law. The bill will be referred to public bill committee, which may make amendments. The amended version of the bill will then return to the Commons. To become law, it must also successfully negotiate report stage and third reading, as well as the House of Lords. Contentious bills are likely to run out of parliamentary time unless the government allocates some; any pending private members' bills lapse at the end of each parliamentary session.
Private members' bills may also originate in the House of Lords. To become law, these bills must be adopted by an MP and passed in the same way as a Commons originated bill.
See also
Bill (proposed law)
Private bill
Right of initiative (legislative)
Motion (parliamentary procedure)
Table (parliamentary procedure), which has a different meaning in the US compared to the other countries mentioned in this article.
References
External links
UK Parliament website: Bill Procedure
UK Parliament website: The result of the Private Members' Bill ballot for the current session
House of Commons Factsheet: Private Members' Bills Procedure
House of Commons Factsheet: Success of Private Members' Bills
Westminster system
Proposed laws of the United Kingdom
Parliament of India
Parliament of Canada
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] |
208557
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20with%20the%20Robots
|
War with the Robots
|
War with the Robots (pub: 1962) is a collection of science fiction stories, written by Harry Harrison in 1956–1961. The collection is tied together by a central theme of robots being able to do things better than humans.
The collection includes the short stories:
"Simulated Trainer"
"The Velvet Glove"
"Arm of the Law"
"The Robot Who Wanted to Know"
"I See You"
"The Repairman"
"Survival Planet"
"War with the Robots"
References
1962 short story collections
Short story collections by Harry Harrison
Science fiction
Science fiction books
|
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208558
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20David%20Wyss
|
Johann David Wyss
|
Johann David Wyss (; 28 May 1743 – 11 January 1818) was a Swiss author, best remembered for his book The Swiss Family Robinson (Der schweizerische Robinson) (1812). He was born and died in Bern. It is said that he was inspired by Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, but wanted to write a story from which his own children would learn, as the father in the story taught important lessons to his children. The Swiss Family Robinson was first published in German in 1812 and translated into English two years later. It has since become one of the most popular books of all time. The book was edited by his son, Johann Rudolf Wyss, a scholar who wrote the Swiss national anthem. Another son, Johann Emmanuel Wyss, illustrated the book. Unlike his son Johann Rudolf, who died at the age of 48, Johann David Wyss lived up to the age of 74, dying in 1818.
Wyss has been described as an author whose style was "firmly Christian and moral in tone".There are also many underlying tones of Christianity throughout the book and in the case of many of the characters and their morals.
Influence
Jules Verne declared that The Swiss Family Robinson was one of his favorite books. He liked it so much that he wrote a sequel titled The Castaways of the Flag, published in 1900, many years after Wyss' death.
Notes
External links
1743 births
1818 deaths
Swiss male novelists
Swiss children's writers
People from Bern
19th-century Swiss novelists
Swiss Christians
19th-century male writers
Johann David
Maritime writers
|
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208559
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backbencher
|
Backbencher
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In Westminster parliamentary systems, a backbencher is a member of parliament (MP) or a legislator who occupies no governmental office and is not a frontbench spokesperson in the Opposition, being instead simply a member of the "rank and file".
Overview
The term dates from 1855. The term derives from the fact that they sit physically behind the frontbench in the House of Commons. A backbencher may be a new parliamentary member yet to receive high office, a senior figure dropped from government, someone who for whatever reason is not chosen to sit in the government or an opposition spokesperson (such as a shadow cabinet if one exists), or someone who prefers to be a background influence, not in the spotlight. By extension, those who are not reliable supporters of all of their party's goals and policies and have resigned or been forced to resign may be relegated to the back benches. For example, in recent British political events, Clive Lewis became a backbencher after resigning from Jeremy Corbyn's shadow cabinet over Brexit, and Boris Johnson became a backbencher again, after resigning as Foreign Secretary in Theresa May's cabinet, also over Brexit. May herself returned to the backbenches after her resignation from the premiership, to be succeeded by Johnson.
In most parliamentary systems, individual backbenchers have little power to affect government policy. However, they play a greater role in the work of the legislature itself; for example, sitting on parliamentary committees, where legislation is considered and parliamentary work is done in more detail than there is time for on the floor of the House. In addition, since backbenchers generally form the vast majority of government MPs – and even their totality in dualistic parliamentary systems, where Ministers cannot serve as MPs simultaneously, collectively they can sometimes exercise considerable power especially in cases where the policies of the government are unpopular or when a governing party or coalition is internally split. Backbenchers carry considerable influence when the government majority is small; for example, Ariel Sharon's second government's plan of Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip was frequently obstructed by backbenchers from both junior partners in the right-wing coalition (such as the Mafdal and National Union) and dissenters in Sharon's own Likud party. Although the internal dissenters within the Likud eventually ejected Sharon and his supporters out of the party in late 2005, the Sharon-led Kadima party that resulted from the splinter remained in control of the government and went on to win the 2006 elections.
In some legislative assemblies, sitting at the back of the chamber is not necessarily associated with having a minor role. In Switzerland, senior figures sit in the back rows in order to have a better overview and be closer to the doors for discussions outside the plenary. In Germany, the party leaders sit in the front row, but there are no designated places for other senior figures. The term backbenchers ("Hinterbänkler") therefore refers to largely unknown MPs without much influence, regardless of where they sit. Originally, the importance of the front rows for the leaders had also to do with the fact that acoustics were often unsatisfactory before microphones were introduced. Prominent or iconic political figures can also play a backbench role, as the case of Aung San Suu Kyi illustrates: the leader of Myanmar's opposition to military rule was first elected MP in 2012, but proved only marginally involved in legislative business.
The term "backbencher" has also been adopted outside parliamentary systems, such as the United States Congress. While legislative branches in presidential systems do not share the firm front bench/back bench dichotomy of the Westminster system, the term has been used to denote junior legislators, or legislators who are not part of party leadership within a legislative body. When Democrat Tim Ryan of Ohio challenged Nancy Pelosi of California for House Minority Leader in 2016, The Washington Post reported that he "emerged from the backbench — he literally sits on the last bench in the chamber".
Powers and roles of backbenchers in Westminster
The most important backbench role many would argue is that of a constituency representative. Constituents rely heavily on their MPs to represent them in parliament and make sure their concerns are heard and welfare is looked after, whether or not they voted for the MP representing them. Constituents may email and meet their MPs, raising the issues and concerns they want the government to hear. Without this link many people would find it extremely hard for their voices to be heard fairly by the government. Backbenchers have an important opportunity to raise their constituents concerns directly to the prime minister in Prime Minister's Questions. Performing well in this constituency role is vital for backbenchers, as if they aren't prominent names in their party, their performance in their constituency could be a big factor on whether they will be re-elected to their seat in the next election.
Backbenchers also have an unofficial agenda-setting power, with Opposition Day debates, private member's bills, and Prime Minister's Questions available to place items on the parliamentary agenda which are awkward for the government. The Wright Committee reforms introduced in the UK provided backbenchers with much more power in committees, giving Parliament greater control of its agenda, increasing backbench membership in committees vastly.
Additionally, the Commons Backbench Business Committee was created in 2010 with has cross-party support. It debates matters unlikely to be debated in government time, with each decision voted upon formally. By the end of the 2010 coalition government it had undergone 300 debates, ranging from prisoner voting rights to the Hillsborough disaster. Furthermore, they have influence as discussed above when they are a member of a committee, these committees provide a perfect opportunity for backbenchers to have their voices heard in the legislative process. It usually proves difficult for backbenchers to be involved and have direct input in the legislative process when they are not involved in these activities.
There has been much speculation on the influence backbenchers actually hold in Parliament. Many believe backbenchers hold little to no influence, however, there has been much research to suggest they have a significant background influence. For example, Meg Russell analysed UK government bills and found that successful amendments were due to parliamentary pressure, 60 per cent of these being substantive, proving the majority of legislation undergoes unofficial parliamentary pressure. Russell also analysed the impact of the Wright Committee Reforms and whether it strengthened backbench power and influence. She found that the Wright Committee led to a significant reduction in governmental and whips' hold over the Commons agenda. Finding that backbenchers have more independence and power because of these reforms, and giving them far more opportunity to set agendas and have their voices heard in Parliament. Furthermore, Louise Thompson found that introducing oral evidence into committees scrutinising government bills had a significant impact on backbench influence. Acting as a vehicle for the formulation of significant changes to government bills, additional opposition scrutiny, and a debating tool. Oral evidence was most identified in undertakings given by ministers to committee members. Whereas, the number of amendments formally accepted by the government at committee stages is low. It found that oral evidence had a direct impact on bills 89 per cent of the time. This again suggests that backbenchers exert influence in the background of the Westminster legislation process. Therefore, it can be seen that although backbenchers have little official legislation powers in Parliament, they often exert significant background influence on the legislative process.
See also
Baby of the House
Crossbencher
Frontbencher
House of Commons
Parliamentary Committees
The Wright Committee
Westminster system
References
External links
The BBC's definition of 'backbencher'
Article/definition of 'backbencher'
Legislatures
Parliament of the United Kingdom
Organizational structure of political parties
Westminster system
|
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208561
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow%20cabinet
|
Shadow cabinet
|
The shadow cabinet or shadow ministry is a feature of the Westminster system of government. It consists of a senior group of opposition spokespeople who, under the leadership of the Leader of the Opposition, form an alternative cabinet to that of the government, and whose members shadow or mirror the positions of each individual member of the Cabinet. Their areas of responsibility, in parallel with the ruling party's ministries, may be referred to as a shadow portfolio. Members of a shadow cabinet have no executive power. It is the shadow cabinet's responsibility to scrutinise the policies and actions of the government, as well as to offer alternative policies. The shadow cabinet makes up the majority of the Official Opposition frontbench, as part of frontbenchers to the parliament.
In most countries, a member of the shadow cabinet is referred to as a shadow minister. In the United Kingdom's House of Lords and in New Zealand, the term spokesperson is used instead of shadow. In Canada, the term opposition critic is also used.
Description and functions
The shadow ministers' duties may give them considerable prominence in the party caucus hierarchy especially if it is a high-profile portfolio. Although the salary and benefits paid from the public treasury to shadow ministers remain the same as for a backbencher—they have no executive responsibilities, unlike cabinet ministers—some opposition parties provide an additional stipend in addition to the salary they receive as legislators while many at least reimburse shadow ministers for any additional expenses incurred that are not otherwise eligible for reimbursement out of public funds. Moreover, in most Westminster-style legislative bodies all recognised parliamentary parties are granted a block of public funding to help their elected members carry out their duties, often in addition to the budgets individual legislators receive to pay for constituency offices and other such expenses. There is typically a stipulation that such funds must be used for official parliamentary business; however, within that restriction, parties can usually distribute the funds among their elected lawmakers as they see fit and thereby provide the money needed to staff and support shadow ministries.
Members of a shadow cabinet may not necessarily be appointed to the corresponding Cabinet post if and when their party forms a government, assuming that they retain their seats which by convention is usually considered a prerequisite to serve in the cabinet. However, the consistency with which parties assuming power appoint shadow ministers into the actual roles in government varies widely depending on such things as jurisdiction, the traditions and practices of the party assuming government, the exact circumstances surrounding their assumption of power and even the importance of the cabinet post in question.
As well as being potential future ministers, some shadow ministers have held ministerial posts in the past.
As a mark of discipline, shadow ministers are expected to speak within and not outside their portfolio areas.
Cultural applications
In the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia, the major opposition party and specifically its shadow cabinet is called His or Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition. The adjective loyal is used because, while the role of the opposition is to oppose Her Majesty's Government, it does not dispute the sovereign's right to the throne and therefore the legitimacy of the government. However, in other countries that use the Westminster system, the opposition is known simply as the parliamentary opposition.
Some parliamentary parties, notably the Australian Labor Party, elect all the members of their shadow cabinets in a party room ballot, with the Leader of the Opposition then allocating portfolios to the shadow ministers. In other parliamentary parties, the membership and composition of the Shadow Cabinet is generally determined solely by the Leader of the Opposition.
A related term is the shadow budget, which is often prepared by shadow cabinets (and, when released, usually presented by the shadow finance minister or equivalent) as an alternative to the real budget presented by the government. When prepared and released in an election year, an opposition party's shadow budget will typically form a key part of the party's manifesto, and will be largely if not wholly implemented if the opposition party subsequently forms a government (especially if it wins an outright majority).
Third parties
In many jurisdictions, third parties (who are neither participant in the government nor in the official opposition) may also form their own parliamentary front benches of spokespersons; however, parliamentary standing orders on the right of parties to speak often dictate that it can only be granted to a party or group if a minimum number of members can be recorded by the party. In Ireland, for example, technical groups are often formed by third parties and independent TDs in the Dáil Éireann in order to increase the members' right to speak against larger parties which can afford the right to speak as front benches in government or opposition.
Opposition parliamentary parties which are sufficiently small that they are about the same size as the government cabinet will often appoint all of their elected members to their shadow cabinet or equivalent, with third parties more likely compared to official opposition parties to use this sort of arrangement. If the parliamentary party is only slightly larger than the government's cabinet, its leadership potentially faces the awkward position of embarrassing a small minority of legislators by singling them out for exclusion from the shadow cabinet. On the other hand, incoming governments in the Westminster system often change the number and/or composition of ministries upon assuming office. Therefore, one solution to such an aforementioned issue when it occurs is to create nominal shadow "ministries" that correspond to currently nonexistent cabinet posts the party actually intends to create once in government. An opposition party can also employ this process in reverse by "merging" its shadow ministries to correspond to actual cabinet posts the opposition party wants to merge or otherwise eliminate.
Use outside English-speaking countries
While the practice of parliamentary shadow cabinets or frontbenches is not widespread in Germany, party leaders have often formed boards of experts and advisors ("teams of experts", or Kompetenzteam, in CDU/CSU and SPD parlance; alternate "top team", or Spitzenteam, in Bündnis '90/Die Grünen parlance).
In France, although the formation of a Shadow Cabinet is not compulsory and not common, several Shadow Cabinets have been formed.
By country
Australia
Shadow cabinet of Australia (Australian Labor Party, Anthony Albanese)
List of state and territory shadow cabinets
New South Wales
New South Wales Shadow Cabinet (Australian Labor Party, Chris Minns)
The Bahamas
Shadow Cabinet (Progressive Liberal Party, Philip "Brave" Davis)
Canada
Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet of the 44th Parliament of Canada (Conservative Party of Canada, Candice Bergen)
Ontario
Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet of the 42nd Legislative Assembly of Ontario (New Democratic Party of Ontario, Andrea Horwath)
France
Shadow Cabinet of France
Iran
Shadow Cabinet (Saeed Jalili)
Ireland
Opposition Front Bench (Sinn Féin, Mary Lou McDonald)
Italy
Shadow Cabinet of Italy (Governo ombra) (Walter Veltroni)
Jamaica
Shadow Cabinet of Jamaica (People's National Party)
Japan
Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan (Kenta Izumi)
Lithuania
Shadow Cabinet of Lithuania (Šešėlinis kabinetas) (Andrius Kubilius)''.
Malaysia
Shadow Cabinet of Malaysia (Alliance of Hope, Anwar Ibrahim)
New Zealand
Shadow Cabinet of Christopher Luxon (New Zealand National Party, Christopher Luxon)
Poland
Shadow Cabinet (Civic Platform led by Grzegorz Schetyna)
Serbia
Shadow Cabinet ()
Solomon Islands
Shadow Cabinet (Democratic Party and allies)
South Africa
Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet (Democratic Alliance, John Steenhuisen)
Sudan
Sudanese Shadow Government, (Official Website, Wael Omer Abdin)
Thailand
Shadow Cabinet (Democrat Party, Abhisit Vejjajiva)
Ukraine
Shadow Government (Bloc of Yulia Tymoshenko, Arseniy Yatsenyuk)
United Kingdom
Official Opposition frontbench/Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet (Labour, Keir Starmer)
Scotland
Shadow Cabinet (Scottish Conservatives, Douglas Ross )
Wales
Shadow Cabinet (Welsh Conservatives, Andrew R. T. Davies )
See also
Minority leader
References
Westminster system
|
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208564
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leader%20of%20the%20Opposition
|
Leader of the Opposition
|
The leader of the opposition is a title traditionally held by the leader of the largest party not in government in a parliamentary democracy. The leader of the opposition is seen as the alternative prime minister, premier, first minister, or chief minister to the incumbent; in the Westminster system, they head a rival alternative government known as the Shadow Cabinet or Opposition Front Bench. The same term is applied to the leader of the largest political group who are not part of the administration in local and regional councils and assemblies.
In many Commonwealth realms, the full title is Leader of Her Majesty's most Loyal opposition.
Current leaders of the opposition
Parliamentary systems
Leader of the Opposition (Albania) (unofficial position)
Leader of the Opposition (Cambodia)
Leader of the Opposition (Croatia) (unofficial position)
Leader of the Opposition (Denmark)
Leader of the opposition (Germany) (unofficial position)
Leader of the Opposition (Greece)
Leader of the Opposition (Hungary) (unofficial position)
Leader of the Opposition (Montenegro) (unofficial position)
Leader of the Opposition (Norway) (unofficial position)
Leader of the Opposition (Portugal) (unofficial position)
Leader of the Opposition (Serbia) (unofficial position)
Leader of the Opposition (Spain) (unofficial position)
Leader of the Opposition (Sweden) (unofficial position)
Westminster system
Leader of the Opposition (Antigua and Barbuda)
Leader of the Opposition (Australia)
Leader of the Opposition in the Senate (Australia)
Leader of the Opposition (Australian Capital Territory)
Leader of the Opposition (New South Wales)
Leader of the Opposition (Northern Territory)
Leader of the Opposition (Queensland)
Leader of the Opposition (South Australia)
Leader of the Opposition (Tasmania)
Leader of the Opposition (Victoria)
Leader of the Opposition (Western Australia)
Leader of the Opposition (Bahamas)
Leader of the Opposition (Bangladesh)
Leader of the Opposition (Barbados)
Leader of the Opposition (Belize)
Leader of the Official Opposition (Canada)
Leader of the Opposition in the Senate (Canada)
Leader of the Opposition (Alberta)
Leader of the Opposition (British Columbia)
Leader of the Opposition (Manitoba)
Leader of the Opposition (New Brunswick)
Leader of the Opposition (Newfoundland and Labrador)
Leader of the Opposition (Nova Scotia)
Leader of the Opposition (Ontario)
Leader of the Opposition (Prince Edward Island)
Leader of the Opposition (Quebec)
Leader of the Opposition (Saskatchewan)
Leader of the Opposition (Yukon)
Leader of the Opposition (Dominica)
Leader of the Opposition (Fiji)
Leader of the Opposition (Grenada)
Leader of the Opposition (India)
Federal opposition leaders
Leader of the Opposition in Rajya Sabha
Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha
State level opposition leaders
Leader of the Opposition (Gujarat)
Leader of the Opposition (Jharkhand)
Leader of the Opposition (Kerala)
Leader of the Opposition (Punjab)
Leader of the Opposition (Telangana)
Leader of the Opposition (Uttar Pradesh)
Leader of the Opposition (Uttarakhand)
Leader of the Opposition (Ireland)
Leader of the Opposition (Israel)
Leader of the Opposition (Jamaica)
Leader of the Opposition (Japan) (unofficial position)
Leader of the Opposition (Kuwait)
Leader of the Opposition (Malaysia)
Leader of the Opposition (Malaysian State Legislative Assemblies)
Leader of the Opposition (Malta)
Leader of the Opposition (Mauritius)
Leader of the Opposition (Myanmar)
Leader of the Opposition (Nepal)
Leader of the Opposition (New Zealand)
Leader of the Opposition (Cook Islands)
Leader of the Opposition (Pakistan)
Leader of the Opposition of Punjab (Pakistan)
Leader of the Opposition (Papua New Guinea)
Leader of the Opposition (Saint Kitts and Nevis)
Leader of the Opposition (Saint Lucia)
Leader of the Opposition (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
Leader of the Opposition (Singapore)
Leader of the Opposition (Solomon Islands)
Leader of the Opposition (South Africa)
Leader of the Opposition (Thailand)
Leader of the Opposition (Trinidad and Tobago)
Leader of the Opposition (Tuvalu)
Leader of the Opposition (United Kingdom)
Leader of the Opposition (Scotland) (unofficial position)
Leader of the Opposition (Wales)
British Overseas Territories
Leader of the Opposition (Anguilla)
Leader of the Opposition (Bermuda)
Leader of the Opposition (British Virgin Islands)
Leader of the Opposition (Cayman Islands)
Leader of the Opposition (Gibraltar)
Leader of the Opposition (Montserrat)
Leader of the Opposition (Turks and Caicos Islands)
Leader of the Opposition (Vanuatu)
Semi-presidential systems
Leader of the Opposition in the French Senate
Leader of the Opposition (Sri Lanka)
Presidential systems
Leader of the Opposition (Peru)
Leader of the Main Opposition (Turkey)
Leader of Opposition (Uganda)
Other
Leader of the Opposition (Guyana)
Historical leader of the opposition positions
Leader of the Opposition (Northern Ireland)
Leader of the Opposition (Rhodesia)
See also
Minority leader, for a similar role in countries utilizing the presidential system
Parliamentary opposition
Westminster system
Opposition leaders
Political titles
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc%20Quinn
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Marc Quinn
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Marc Quinn (born 8 January 1964) is a British contemporary visual artist whose work includes sculpture, installation, and painting. Quinn explores "what it is to be human in the world today" through subjects including the body, genetics, identity, environment, and the media. His work has used materials that vary widely, from blood, bread and flowers, to marble and stainless steel. Quinn has been the subject of solo exhibitions at Sir John Soane's Museum, the Tate Gallery, National Portrait Gallery, Fondation Beyeler, Fondazione Prada and South London Gallery. The artist was a notable member of the Young British Artists movement.
Quinn is internationally celebrated and was awarded the commission for the first edition of the Fourth Plinth in Trafalgar Square in 2004, for which he exhibited Alison Lapper Pregnant. Quinn's notorious frozen self-portrait series made of his own blood, Self (1991–present) was subject to a retrospective at Fondation Beyeler in 2009.
Quinn lives and works in London.
Life and career
Quinn was born in London on 8 January 1964 to a French mother and a British father. He spent his early years in Paris, where his father was a physicist working at the BIPM (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures). Quinn recalls an early fascination with the scientific instruments in his father's laboratory, in particular atomic clocks. He attended Millfield (a private boarding-school in Somerset) and studied history and history of art at Robinson College, Cambridge.
In the early 1990s, Quinn was the first artist to be represented by gallerist Jay Jopling. The artist had his first exhibition with Jopling in 1991, exhibiting Self (1991), a frozen self-portrait made out of nine pints of the artist's blood.
During the 1990s, Quinn and several peers were identified for their radical approach to the making and experiencing of art. In 1992, the loosely affiliated group was called the 'Young British Artists' by writer Michael Corris in Artforum, and included Cornelia Parker, Sarah Lucas, Damien Hirst, Rachel Whiteread, and Tracey Emin.
In 1995, Quinn was given a solo exhibition at Tate Britain where new sculptures were shown as part of the Art Now series. In 1997 Quinn's work Self (1991), was exhibited at the Royal Academy, London for the exhibition Sensation. Quinn's Self, along with works by Sarah Lucas and Damien Hirst, were already well known to the British public. The exhibition received widespread media attention and had a record number of visitors for a contemporary art exhibition. The exhibition then travelled to the Hamburger Bahnhof, Berlin, and to the Brooklyn Museum, New York.
In 1998, he was given a solo exhibition at the South London Gallery, and in 1999, he had a solo exhibition at Kunstverein Hannover. The Groninger Museum presented a solo exhibition of Quinn's work in 2000. The artist was then invited to present a solo exhibition at the Fondazione Prada in Milan in 2000, where he presented an ambitious new work Garden. In 2002, he was given a solo exhibition at Tate Liverpool which included new works and photography, and coincided with the Liverpool Biennial, where Quinn presented 1+1=3. In 2001, the National Portrait Gallery gave Quinn a solo exhibition for his genomic portrait of Sir John Sulston.
In 2004 Quinn was awarded the first ever commission for the Fourth Plinth in London's Trafalgar Square, for which he produced a marble sculpture of pregnant disabled artist, Alison Lapper.
In 2006, Museo d'Arte Contemporanea Rome presented Marc Quinn's works in a solo exhibition focused on his recent figurative sculpture, and in 2009, the Fondation Beyeler presented a solo exhibition of Marc Quinn's ongoing series Self, including all sculptures from 1991 to 2006.
In 2012, Quinn was commissioned to produce a monumental work for the opening ceremony of the Paralympic Games at the London Olympics 2012, for which he produced Breath, a monumental sculpture of Alison Lapper held up by air.
In 2013, Quinn presented a solo exhibition on the occasion of the 55th Venice Biennale for art, at Fondazione Giorgio Cini, Venice, curated by Germano Celant.
Quinn's first monograph Memory Box by Germano Celant was published in 2013. A feature-length documentary about Quinn's life and work, Making Waves, was released in 2014, produced and directed by Gerry Fox. London's Somerset House presented a solo exhibition of Quinn in 2015, focusing on recent sculptures.
In 2017, Marc Quinn staged a major exhibition at the Sir John Soane's Museum in London. The exhibition was the first in a new series of collaborations with contemporary artists, designers and architects, which, inspired by the spirit of Sir John Soane, sought to bring the collection to life in innovative ways.
Works
Quinn's early work was concerned with issues of corporeality, decay, and preservation. He experimented with organic and degradable materials including bread, blood, lead, flowers and DNA producing sculpture and installation, including Bread Sculptures (1988), Self (1991), Emotional Detox (1995), Garden (2000), and DNA Portrait of John Sulston (2001). In the 2000s, he began to focus on the use of marble, bronze, and concrete. The artist explored the body and its extremes through the lens of classical and urban materials; works included The Complete Marbles (1999–2005), Alison Lapper Pregnant (2004), Evolution (2005–2009) and Planet (2008). Since 2010 he has worked with metals including stainless steel, aluminium, graffiti paints, seaside detritus, tapestry and painting, as seen in The History Paintings (2009–present) and The Toxic Sublime (2014–present).
Early works: 1991–2000
Self, 1991 – present
The first work of Quinn's to gain international fame was Self, which was exhibited in 1991, when he was 27. Self (1991) is a self-portrait formed by a frozen cast of 10 pints of the artist's blood. It is an ongoing work, where the artist portrays himself every five years through a new cast with new blood.
The artworks are placed in transparent plexiglass-glass boxes, on top of freezing cabinets. This highlights a theme of the works, which is dependency.
Self (2006) is owned by the National Portrait Gallery, London.
Emotional Detox, 1995
In 1995 Quinn stopped drinking. Emotional Detox, a series of seven sculptures made of lead and cast from the artist's own body, were created at this time. Inspired by traditional iconography of the seven deadly sins, in each sculpture Quinn's body is being torn apart and reconfigured, reflecting detoxification as both a physical and psychological battle.
Emotional Detox has been exhibited at Tate Britain, London (1995), Groninger Museum, The Netherlands (2000), and Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam (2015).
Garden (2000)
In 2000, Quinn was given a solo exhibition at the Fondazione Prada, Milan, which included his most ambitious works, involving organic matter. Garden is a 12-metre-long, 3-metre-high sculpture in which thousands of flowers are frozen in silicone oil. The flowers in the sculpture can never bloom in the same time of year or in the same parts of the world.. The work now belongs to the Fondazione Prada collection)
Notable works: 2000–2010
Portrait of John E. Sulston (2001)
Quinn's portrait of John E. Sulston, who won the Nobel prize in physiology or medicine in 2002 for sequencing the human genome on the Human Genome Project, is in the National Portrait Gallery. It consists of bacteria containing Sulston's DNA in agar jelly. "The portrait was made by our standard methods for DNA cloning", writes Sulston. "My DNA was broken randomly into segments, and treated so that they could be replicated in bacteria. The bacteria containing the DNA segments were spread out on agar jelly in the plate you see in the portrait."
Alison Lapper, The Fourth Plinth (2005–2007)
Quinn has made a series of marble sculptures of people either born with limbs missing or who have had them amputated. This culminated in his 15-ton marble statue of Alison Lapper, a fellow artist born with no arms and severely shortened legs, which was displayed on the fourth plinth in Trafalgar Square, London from September 2005 until October 2007. (The Fourth Plinth is used for rotating displays of sculpture.) In Disability Studies Quarterly, Ann Millett writes, "The work has been highly criticized for capitalizing on the shock value of disability, as well as lauded for its progressive social values. Alison Lapper Pregnant and the controversy surrounding it showcase disability issues at the forefront of current debates in contemporary art".
A large reproduction of the sculpture was used as a central element of the 2012 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony.
Siren (2008)
Since 2006, Marc Quinn has made numerous studies of the supermodel Kate Moss. In April 2006, Sphinx, a sculpture of Kate Moss by Quinn, was revealed. The sculpture shows Moss in a yoga position with her ankles and arms wrapped behind her ears. This body of work culminated in an exhibition at the Mary Boone Gallery in New York in May 2007. The sculpture is on permanent display in Folketeatret in Oslo, Norway.
In August 2008, Quinn unveiled another sculpture of Moss in solid 18-carat gold called Siren, which was exhibited at the British Museum in London. The life-size sculpture was promoted as "the largest gold statue since ancient Egypt".
History Paintings (2009– present)
In 2009 Quinn began his "History Paintings" series which has continued to evolve. The initial group of work in this effort were of enlarged press photos of conflicts around the world rendered into oil on canvas paintings or silk or wool jacquard tapestries.
Notable works: 2010 – present
In May 2010, Quinn revealed a series of new sculptures at London's White Cube gallery including The Ecstatic Autogenesis of Pamela based on film actress Pamela Anderson and Chelsea Charms based on pornography model Chelsea Charms.
Quinn's models have included "Catman" Dennis Avner (who has been tattooed to look like a cat) and transsexual people such as Thomas Beatie, Buck Angel, and Allanah Starr. Quinn's portrait sculpture "Buck & Allanah" depicts the two nude, standing hand in hand, in a pose reminiscent of Adam and Eve. The sculpture of Thomas Beatie depicts him at full-term pregnancy, bowing his head and cradling his abdomen with two hands.
The exhibition also included a new series of flower paintings executed in reversed colour and two large-scale orchid sculptures in white painted bronze, installed in Hoxton Square, opposite the gallery.
The Toxic Sublime (2015)
In 2015 Marc Quinn opened an exhibition of new work at White Cube Bermondsey, entitled The Toxic Sublime. It featured new bodies of work that explore the ecological impact of man on nature. ‘The Toxic Sublimes’ are distorted, three dimensional seascapes. Alongside these paintings, a new series of sculptures, cast in stainless steel, including one measuring over 7.5 meters long, form part of a body of work titled Frozen Waves. The sculptures originate from the core of shells, eroded by the endless action of waves.
All About Love (2016–2017)
In 2017, Quinn was given a solo exhibition at Sir John Soane's Museum in London. A display of 12 life-cast sculptures, the All About Love series explore the notion of love through the expression of classical fragmented sculpture. Created in collaboration with his partner at the time, the sculptures, which depict the two embracing one another, are works that echo sculptures of many periods from the Renaissance to Auguste Rodin.
A Surge of Power (Jen Reid) 2020
The sculpture A Surge of Power (Jen Reid) 2020 was erected secretly in Bristol in the early morning of 15 July 2020; it is Quinn's statue of Black Lives Matter protester, Jen Reid. The statue was mounted on the plinth which formerly held a 19th-century statue of Edward Colston, a Bristol merchant, philanthropist, and Tory Member of Parliament (MP) who had been involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Just over 24 hours after the statue was installed, the Bristol City Council had it taken down as it did not have permission to be installed. The Mayor of Bristol, Marvin Rees, invited Quinn to make a contribution towards the cost to the council of having his statue removed.
Viral Paintings (2020)
This currently ongoing series of paintings by Quinn are of paint splattered over blown up screen shots of photos and news stories of current events taken on his cell phone and created during and in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. These new works are considered a continuation of his History Painting series begun in 2009.
Collections
Tate Modern, London
National Portrait Gallery, London
Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris
Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam
Astrup Fearnley Museum of Modern Art, Oslo
Berardo Collection Museum, Lisbon
Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal
Museum of Modern Art, New York
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Charity auctions
Quinn has participated in a number of charity auctions since 2010. His work was auctioned for the UK's homelessness charity, Crisis, in collaboration with Vogue at Christie's in 2010. In 2013, he donated work to the Mimi Foundation charity for cancer auction at Sotheby's. He donated work to the charity auction for Peace One Day at Bonhams, curated by Jake Chapman, in 2014 and 2015.
In 2013 Quinn was commissioned to make a work for RHS Chelsea Flower Show, marking the first time an artist collaborated with the flower show in its 100-year history. The Rush of Nature (2013) was auctioned at Sotheby’s to help raise money for RHS Chelsea Centenary Appeal.
Work by Quinn was auctioned at the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation annual St. Tropez Gala in 2016, supporting environmental protection.
References
External links
Official website
1964 births
Living people
20th-century British sculptors
21st-century British sculptors
20th-century British painters
21st-century British painters
Alumni of Robinson College, Cambridge
British contemporary artists
British male sculptors
21st-century sculptors
BioArtists
People educated at Millfield
|
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208567
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed%20V%20of%20Morocco
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Mohammed V of Morocco
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Mohammed al-Khamis bin Yusef bin Hassan al-Alawi (), also known as Sidi Mohammed bin Yusef () or Mohammed V () (10 August 1909 – 26 February 1961), was Sultan of Morocco from 1927 to 1953; he was recognized as Sultan again upon his return from exile in 1955, and as King from 1957 to 1961. Upon his father Moulay Yusef's death he succeeded to the throne. He was a member of the 'Alawi dynasty.
Biography
Beginning of his reign (1927–1939)
Mohammed V was one of the sons of Sultan Moulay Yusef, who was enthroned by the French in September 1912 and his wife Lalla Yaqut. On 18 November 1927, a "young and timid" 17-year-old Muhammad bin Yusef was enthroned after the death of his father and the departure of Hubert Lyautey.
He married Lalla Hanila bint Mamoun in 1925 and in 1928, he married Lalla Abla bint Tahar, the latter gave birth to Hassan II in 1929.
During World War II (1939–1945)
At the time of Mohammed's enthronement, the French colonial authorities were "pushing for a more assertive 'native policy.'" On 16 May 1930, Sultan Muhammad V signed the Berber Dahir, which changed the legal system in parts of Morocco where Amazigh languages were primarily spoken (Bled es-Siba), while the legal system in the rest of the country (Bled el-Makhzen) remained the way it had been before the French invasion. Although the sultan was under no duress, he was only 20 years old. This dhahir "electrified the nation"; it was sharply criticized by Moroccan nationalists and catalyzed the .
Sultan Muhammad V participated in the Anfa Conference hosted in Casablanca during World War II. On 22 January 1943, he met privately with the US president Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. and the Prime Minister of the UK Winston Churchill. At this dinner, Roosevelt assured the sultan that "the post-war scene and the pre-war scene would ... sharply differ, especially as they related to the colonial question." The sultan's 14-year-old son and future king of Morocco, Hassan II, also attended and later stated that Roosevelt said, "Ten years from now your country will be independent."
"There are competing accounts of exactly what Mohammed V did or did not do for the Moroccan Jewish community" during the Holocaust. However, "though a subject of debate, most scholars stress the benevolence of Mohammed V toward the Jews" during the Vichy era. Mohammed reportedly refused to sign off on efforts by Vichy officials to impose anti-Jewish legislation upon Morocco and deport the country's 250,000 Jews to their deaths in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps in Europe. The sultan's stand was "based as much on the insult the Vichy diktats posed to his claim of sovereignty over all his subjects, including the Jews, as on his humanitarian instincts." Partial Nazi race measures were enacted in Morocco over Mohammed's objection, and Mohammed did sign, under the instructions of Vichy officials, two decrees that barred Jews from certain schools and positions.
Nevertheless, Mohammed is highly esteemed by Moroccan Jews who credit him for protecting their community from the Nazi and Vichy French government, and Mohammed V has been honored by Jewish organizations for his role in protecting his Jewish subjects during the Holocaust. Some historians maintain that Mohammed's anti-Nazi role has been exaggerated; historian Michel Abitol writes that while Mohammed V was compelled by Vichy officials to sign the anti-Jewish dahirs, "he was more passive than Moncef Bay (ruler of Tunisia during the Second World War) in that he did not take any side and did not engage in any public act that could be interpreted as a rejection of Vichy's policy."
Struggle for Independence (1945–1953)
Sultan Muhammad V was a central figure in the independence movement in Morocco, or as it is also called: the Revolution of the King and the People (). This grew from protests regarding the Berber Dahir of 16 May 1930. He was critical of early movements for reform in French colonial administration in Morocco before becoming a supporter of independence later on.
His central position in the Proclamation of Independence of Morocco further boosted his image as a national symbol. On 9 and 10 April 1947, he delivered two momentous speeches respectively at the Mendoubia and Grand Mosque of Tangier, together known as the Tangier Speech, appealing for the independence of Morocco without calling out specific colonial powers.
In 1947, the rapid progress of the nationalist movement prompted Sidi Mohammed to demand independence for the first time during the Tangier speech, where he also called for the union of the Arabs and Morocco's membership of the Arab League which was founded in 1945, in which he praised, emphasized the close ties between Morocco and the rest of the Arab world. This rapprochement between the monarchy and the nationalist movement, whose projects differ, can be explained, according to historian Bernard Cubertafond, by the fact that "each side needs the other: the national movement sees the growing popularity of the king and his prudent but gradual emancipation from a protector who, in fact, left the treaty of 1912 to come to direct administration; the king cannot, except to discredit himself, cut himself off from a nationalist movement bringing together the living forces of his country and the elite of his youth, and he needs this power of protest to impose changes on France”.
From then on, relations became strained with the French authorities, in particular with the new Resident General, General Alphonse Juin who applied severe measures and pressured the sultan to disavow the Istiqlal and distance himself from nationalist claims. The break with France was consummated in 1951 and Sidi Mohammed concluded with the nationalists the pact of Tangier to fight for independence. The appointment of a new Resident General, General Augustin Guillaume , accentuated the dissension between Mohammed V and France. Further demonstrations turn into riots in Morocco in 1952, notably in Casablanca, while Sidi Mohammed gives the Moroccan cause an international audience at the UN with the support of the United States.
Deposition and Exile (1953–1955)
On 20 August 1953 (the eve of Eid al-Adha), the French colonial authorities forced Mohammed V, an important national symbol in the growing Moroccan independence movement, into exile in Corsica along with his family. His first cousin once removed, Mohammed Ben Aarafa, called the "French sultan," was made a puppet monarch and placed on the throne. In response, Muhammad Zarqtuni bombed Casablanca's Central Market on Christmas Eve of that year.
Mohammed V and his family were then transferred to Madagascar in January 1954. Mohammed V returned from exile on 16 November 1955, and was again recognized as Sultan after active opposition to the French protectorate. The situation became so tense that in 1955, the Moroccan nationalists, who enjoyed support in Libya, Algeria (with the FLN) and Egypt forced the French government to negotiate and recall the sultan. In February 1956 he successfully negotiated with France and Spain for the independence of Morocco.
After Independence (1956–1961)
As Mohammed V returned to the throne, he suppressed many insurgencies, especially in the south and in the Rif. In 1957, he took the title of King of Morocco, to symbolise the unity of the country despite the divisions between Arabs and Berbers. In terms of domestic policy, upon his return he allowed the first congress of the Istiqlal, which formed various governments under his reign. He authorized the creation of trade unions, but the unrest and the strikes lead him to take full power in the last years of his reign.
During his reign, the Moroccan Liberation Army waged war against Spain and France, and successfully captured most of Ifni as well as Cape Juby and parts of Spanish Sahara. With the treaty of Angra de Cintra, Morocco annexed Cape Juby and the surroundings of Ifni, while the rest of the remaining colony was ceded by Spain in 1969.
Death
He died at 51 years old 26 February 1961 following complications of a minor operation he had undergone.
Legacy
The Mohammed V International Airport and Stade Mohamed V of Casablanca are named after him, as well as numerous universities and various public spaces across Morocco. There is an Avenue Mohammed V in nearly every Moroccan city and a major one in Tunis, Tunisia, and in Algiers, Algeria.
In December 2007, The Jewish Daily Forward reported on a secret diplomatic initiative by the Moroccan government to have Mohammed V admitted to the Righteous Among the Nations.
Personal life
His first wife was Lalla Hanila bint Mamoun. They married in 1925. She was the mother of his first daughter Lalla Fatima Zohra.
His second wife was his first cousin Lalla Abla bint Tahar. She was the daughter of Moulay Mohammed Tahar bin Hassan, son of Hassan I of Morocco. She married Mohammed V in 1928 and died in Rabat on 1 March 1992. She gave birth to five children: the future King Hassan II, Lalla Aicha, Lalla Malika, Moulay Abdallah and Lalla Nuzha.
His third wife was Lalla Bahia bint Antar, mother of his last daughter Lalla Amina.
Honours
Order of Blood of the Tunisian Republic
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour of the French Republic-1927
Collar of the Order of Charles III of the Kingdom of Spain-1929
Companion of the Order of Liberation of the French Republic-1945
Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit of the United States-1945
Grand Collar of the Imperial Order of the Yoke and Arrows of Francoist Spain-3 April 1956
Grand Collar of the Order of Idris I of the Kingdom of Libya-1956
Collar of the Order of the Hashemites of the Kingdom of Iraq-1956
Grand Cordon of the Order of Umayyad of Syria-1960
Grand Cordon of the Order of Merit of Lebanon, special class-1960
Collar of the Order of the Nile of the Republic of Egypt-1960
Collar of the Order of Al-Hussein bin Ali of Jordan-1960
Grand Cordon of the King Abdulaziz Decoration of Saudi Arabia-1960
See also
History of Morocco
List of Kings of Morocco
References
Bibliography
David Bensoussan, Il était une fois le Maroc : témoignages du passé judéo-marocain, éd. du Lys, www.editionsdulys.ca, Montréal, 2010 (); Second edition: www.iuniverse.com, Bloomington, IN, 2012, , 620p. (ebook);
External links
History of Morocco
1909 births
1961 deaths
Alaouite dynasty
Sultans of Morocco
Kings of Morocco
World War II political leaders
People from Fez, Morocco
People from Rabat
Moroccan people of Arab descent
20th-century Arabs
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
Companions of the Liberation
Chief Commanders of the Legion of Merit
Extraordinary Grades of the Order of Merit (Lebanon)
Moroccan exiles in Madagascar
Moroccan independence activists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo%21%20Inc.%20%281995%E2%80%932017%29
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Yahoo! Inc. (1995–2017)
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The original incarnation of Yahoo! Inc. was an American multinational technology company headquartered in Sunnyvale, California. Yahoo was founded by Jerry Yang and David Filo in January 1994 and was incorporated on March 2, 1995. Yahoo was one of the pioneers of the early internet era in the 1990s. Marissa Mayer, a former Google executive, served as CEO and President of Yahoo until June 2017.
It was globally known for its Web portal, search engine Yahoo! Search, and related services, including Yahoo! Directory, Yahoo! Mail, Yahoo! News, Yahoo! Finance, Yahoo! Groups, Yahoo! Answers, advertising, online mapping, video sharing, fantasy sports, and its social media website. At its height it was one of the most popular sites in the United States. According to third-party web analytics providers, Alexa and SimilarWeb, Yahoo! was the highest-read news and media website, with over 7 billion views per month, being the sixth most visited website globally in 2016 According to news sources, roughly 700 million people visited Yahoo websites every month. Yahoo itself claimed it attracted "more than half a billion consumers every month in more than 30 languages".
Once the most popular website in the U.S., Yahoo slowly started to decline since the late 2000s, and on February 21, 2017, Verizon Communications announced its intent to acquire old Yahoo's internet business (excluding its stakes in Alibaba Group and Yahoo! Japan) for $4.48 billion—the company was once valued at over $100 billion. Before the transaction was completed, the company expected to change its name to Altaba Inc. Verizon completed its acquisition of the old iteration of Yahoo! Inc's internet business on June 13, 2017. Verizon announced that the old Yahoo! Inc's internet assets would be combined under a new subsidiary, Oath, which later known as Verizon Media in 2019 and eventually renamed to the current iteration of Yahoo! Inc. in 2021.
History
Founding
In January 1994, Yang and Filo were electrical engineering graduate students at Stanford University, when they created a website named "Jerry and David's guide to the World Wide Web". The site was a directory of other websites, organized in a hierarchy, as opposed to a searchable index of pages. In March 1994, "Jerry and David's Guide to the World Wide Web" was renamed "Yahoo!", the human-edited Yahoo! Directory, provided for users to surf through the internet, being their first product and original purpose. The "yahoo.com" domain was created on January 18, 1995.
The word "yahoo" is a backronym for "Yet Another Hierarchically Organized Oracle" or "Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle". The term "hierarchical" described how the Yahoo database was arranged in layers of subcategories. The term "oracle" was intended to mean "source of truth and wisdom", and the term "officious", rather than being related to the word's normal meaning, described the many office workers who would use the Yahoo database while surfing from work. However, Filo and Yang insist they mainly selected the name because they liked the slang definition of a "yahoo" (used by college students in David Filo's native Louisiana in the late 1980s and early 1990s to refer to an unsophisticated, rural Southerner): "rude, unsophisticated, uncouth." This meaning derives from the Yahoo race of fictional beings from Gulliver's Travels.
Expansion
Yahoo grew rapidly throughout the 1990s. Like many search engines and web directories, Yahoo added a web portal. By 1998, Yahoo was the most popular starting point for web users and the human-edited Yahoo Directory the most popular search engine. It also made many high-profile acquisitions. Its stock price skyrocketed during the dot-com bubble, Yahoo stocks closing at an all-time high of $118.75 a share on January 3, 2000. However, after the dot-com bubble burst, it reached a post-bubble low of $8.11 on September 26, 2001.
Yahoo began using Google for search in 2000. Over the next four years, it developed its own search technologies, which it began using in 2004. In response to Google's Gmail, Yahoo began to offer unlimited email storage in 2007. The company struggled through 2008, with several large layoffs.
In February 2008, Microsoft Corporation made an unsolicited bid to acquire Yahoo for $44.6 billion. Yahoo formally rejected the bid, claiming that it "substantially undervalues" the company and was not in the interest of its shareholders. Three years later Yahoo had a market capitalization of $22.24 billion. Carol Bartz replaced Yang as CEO in January 2009. In September 2011 she was removed from her position at Yahoo by the company's chairman Roy Bostock, and CFO Tim Morse was named as Interim CEO of the company.
In early 2012, after the appointment of Scott Thompson as CEO, rumors began to spread about looming layoffs. Several key executives, such as Chief Product Officer Blake Irving, left. On April 4, 2012, Yahoo announced a cut of 2,000 jobs or about 14 percent of its 14,100 workers. The cut was expected to save around $375 million annually after the layoffs were completed at end of 2012. In an email sent to employees in April 2012, Thompson reiterated his view that customers should come first at Yahoo. He also completely reorganized the company.
On May 13, 2012, Yahoo issued a press release stating that Thompson was no longer with the company, and would immediately be replaced on an interim basis by Ross Levinsohn, recently appointed head of Yahoo's new Media group. Thompson's total compensation for his 130-day tenure with Yahoo was at least $7.3 million.
On July 16, 2012, Marissa Mayer was appointed president and CEO of Yahoo, effective the following day.
On May 19, 2013, the Yahoo board approved a $1.1 billion purchase of blogging site Tumblr. Tumblr's CEO and founder David Karp would remain a large shareholder. The announcement reportedly signified a changing trend in the technology industry, as large corporations like Yahoo, Facebook, and Google acquired start-up Internet companies that generated low amounts of revenue as a way in which to connect with sizeable, fast-growing online communities. The Wall Street Journal stated that the purchase of Tumblr would satisfy Yahoo's need for "a thriving social-networking and communications hub." On May 20, the company announced the acquisition of Tumblr officially. The company also announced plans to open a San Francisco office in July 2013.
On August 2, 2013, Yahoo acquired Rockmelt; its staff was retained, but all of its existing products were terminated.
Data collated by comScore during July 2013, revealed that more people in the U.S. visited Yahoo websites during the month in comparison to Google; the occasion was the first time that Yahoo outperformed Google since 2011. The data did not count mobile usage, nor Tumblr.
In November 2014, Yahoo! announced that it would acquire the video advertising provider BrightRoll for $640 million.
On November 21, 2014, it was announced that Yahoo had acquired Cooliris.
Decline, security breaches, Verizon purchase
By the fourth quarter of 2013, the company's share price had more than doubled since Marissa Mayer took over as president in July 2012; however, the share price peaked at about $35 in November 2013. It did go up to $36.04 in the mid afternoon of December 2, 2015, perhaps on news that the board of directors was meeting to decide on the future of Mayer, whether to sell the struggling internet business, and whether to continue with the spinoff of its stake in China's Alibaba e-commerce site. Not all had gone well during Mayer's tenure, including the $1.1 billion acquisition of Tumblr that had yet to prove beneficial and the forays into original video content that led to a $42 million write-down. Sydney Finkelstein, a professor at Dartmouth College's Tuck School of Business, told The Washington Post that sometimes, "the single best thing you can do ... is sell the company." The closing price of Yahoo! Inc. on December 7, 2015, was $34.68.
The Wall Street Journals Douglas MacMillan reported on February 2, 2016, that Yahoo's CEO Marissa Mayer was expected to cut 15% of its workforce.
On July 25, 2016, Verizon Communications announced that it had agreed to purchase Yahoo's core internet business for $4.83 billion. Following the conclusion of the purchase, these assets will be merged with AOL to form a new entity known as Oath; Yahoo, AOL, and Huffington Post will continue to operate under their own names, under the Oath umbrella. The deal excludes Yahoo's 15% stake in Alibaba Group and 35.5% stake in Yahoo! Japan; following the completion of the acquisition, these assets will be retained under the name Altaba, with a new executive team.
On September 22, 2016, Yahoo disclosed a data breach that occurred in late 2014, in which information associated with at least 500 million user accounts, one of the largest breaches reported to date. The United States have indicted four men, including two employees of Russia's Federal Security Service (FSB), for their involvement in the hack. On December 14, 2016, the company revealed that another separate data breach had occurred in 2014, with hackers obtaining sensitive account information, including security questions, to at least one billion accounts. The company stated that hackers had utilized stolen internal software to "forge" cookies.
In response to these breaches, Bloomberg News reported that Verizon was attempting to re-negotiate the deal to reduce the purchase price by $250 million, causing a 2% increase in Yahoo stock prices. On February 21, 2017, Verizon agreed to lower its purchase price for Yahoo! by $350 million, and share liabilities regarding the investigation into the data breaches.
On June 8, 2017, Yahoo shareholders approved the company's sale of some of its Internet assets to Verizon for $4.48 billion. The deal officially closed on June 13, 2017.
Products and services
Yahoo operated a portal that provides the latest news, entertainment, and sports information. The portal also gave users access to other Yahoo services like Yahoo! Search, Yahoo Mail, Yahoo Maps, Yahoo Finance, Yahoo Groups and Yahoo Messenger.
Communication
Yahoo provided Internet communication services such as Yahoo Messenger and Yahoo Mail. As of May 2007, its e-mail service would offer unlimited storage.
Yahoo provided social networking services and user-generated content, including products such as My Web, Yahoo Personals, Yahoo 360°, Delicious, Flickr, and Yahoo Buzz. Yahoo closed Yahoo Buzz, MyBlogLog, and numerous other products on April 21, 2011.
Yahoo Photos was closed on September 20, 2007, in favor of Flickr. On October 16, 2007, Yahoo announced that it would discontinue Yahoo 360°, including bug repairs; the company explained that in 2008 it would instead establish a "universal profile" similar to the Yahoo Mash experimental system.
Content
Yahoo partners with numerous content providers in products such as Yahoo Sports, Yahoo Finance, Yahoo Music, Yahoo Movies, Yahoo Weather, Yahoo News, Yahoo! Answers and Yahoo Games to provide news and related content. Yahoo provides a personalization service, My Yahoo, which enables users to combine their favorite Yahoo features, content feeds and information onto a single page.
On March 31, 2008, Yahoo launched Shine, a site tailored for women seeking online information and advice between the ages of 25 and 54.
Co-branded Internet services
Yahoo developed partnerships with broadband providers such as AT&T Inc. (via Prodigy, BellSouth & SBC), Verizon Communications, Rogers Communications, and British Telecom, offering a range of free and premium Yahoo content and services to subscribers.
Mobile services
Yahoo Mobile offers services for email, instant messaging, and mobile blogging, as well as information services, searches and alerts. Services for the camera phone include entertainment and ring tones.
Yahoo introduced its Internet search system, called OneSearch, for mobile phones on March 20, 2007. The results include news headlines, images from Flickr, business listings, local weather and links to other sites. Instead of showing only, for example, popular movies or some critical reviews, OneSearch lists local theaters that at the moment are playing the movie, along with user ratings and news headlines regarding the movie. A zip code or city name is required for OneSearch to start delivering local search results.
The results of a Web search are listed on a single page and are prioritized into categories.
As of 2012, Yahoo used Novarra's mobile content transcoding service for OneSearch.
On October 8, 2010, Yahoo announced plans to bring video chat to mobile phones via Yahoo Messenger.
Commerce
Yahoo offers shopping services such as Yahoo! Shopping, Yahoo Autos, Yahoo Real Estate and Yahoo Travel, which enables users to gather relevant information and make commercial transactions and purchases online. Yahoo Auctions were discontinued in 2007 except for Asia. Yahoo Shopping is a price comparison service which uses the Kelkoo price comparison service it acquired in April 2004.
Small business
Yahoo provides business services such as Yahoo DomainKeys, Yahoo Web Hosting, Yahoo Merchant Solutions, Yahoo Business Email and Yahoo Store to small business owners and professionals allowing them to build their own online stores using Yahoo's tools.
Advertising
Yahoo Search Marketing provides services such as Sponsored Search, Local Advertising and Product/Travel/Directory Submit that let different businesses advertise their products and services on the Yahoo network.
Following the closure of a "beta" version on April 30, 2010, the Yahoo Publisher Network was relaunched as an advertising tool that allows online publishers to monetize their websites through the use of site-relevant advertisements.
Yahoo launched its new Internet advertisement sales system on February 5, 2007, called Panama. It allows advertisers to bid for search terms to trigger their ads on search results pages. The system considers bids, ad quality, clickthrough rates and other factors in ranking ads. Through Panama, Yahoo aims to provide more relevant search results to users, a better overall experience, and to increase monetization.
On April 7, 2008, Yahoo announced APT from Yahoo, which was originally called AMP from Yahoo, an online advertising management platform. The platform simplifies advertising sales by unifying buyer and seller markets. The service was launched in September 2008.
In September 2011, Yahoo formed an ad selling strategic partnership with 2 of its top competitors, AOL and Microsoft. But by 2013 this was found to be underperforming in market share and revenue, as Microsoft simply skimmed off four percent of the search market from Yahoo, without growing their combined share.
GeoPlanet
Yahoo offers cartographic and geographic services via GeoPlanet.
Yahoo Next
Yahoo Next is an incubation ground for future Yahoo technologies currently undergoing testing. It contains forums for Yahoo users to give feedback to assist in the development of these future Yahoo technologies.
Yahoo BOSS
Yahoo Search BOSS is a service that allows developers to build search applications based on Yahoo's search technology. Early Partners in the program include Hakia, Me.dium, Delver, Daylife and Yebol.
In early 2011, the program switched to a paid model using a cost-per-query model from $0.40 to $0.75 CPM (cost per 1000 BOSS queries). The price, as Yahoo explained, depends on whether the query is of web, image, news or other information.
Yahoo Meme
Yahoo Meme is a beta social service, similar to the popular social networking sites Twitter and Jaiku.
Y!Connect
Y!Connect enables individuals to leave comments in online publication boards by using their Yahoo ID, instead of having to register with individual publications. The Wall Street Journal reported that Yahoo plans to mimic this strategy used by rival Facebook Inc. to help drive traffic to its site.
Yahoo Accessibility
Yahoo has invested resources to increase and improve access to the Internet for the disabled community through the Yahoo Accessibility Lab.
Yahoo Axis
Yahoo Axis is a desktop web browser extension and mobile browser for iOS devices created and developed by Yahoo. The browser made its public debut on May 23, 2012. A copy of the private key used to sign official Yahoo browser extensions for Google Chrome was accidentally leaked in the first public release of the Chrome extension.
Yahoo SearchMonkey
Yahoo SearchMonkey (often misspelled Search Monkey) was a Yahoo service which allowed developers and site owners to use structured data to make Yahoo Search results more useful and visually appealing, and drive more relevant traffic to their sites. The service was shut down in October 2010 along with other Yahoo services as part of the Microsoft and Yahoo search deal. The name SearchMonkey is an homage to Greasemonkey. Officially the product name has no space and two capital letters.
Yahoo SearchMonkey was selected as one of the top 10 Semantic Web Products of 2008.
Defunct services
Geocities was a popular web hosting service founded in 1995 and was one of the first services to offer web pages to the public. At one point it was the third-most-browsed site on the World Wide Web. Yahoo purchased GeoCities in 1999 and ten years later the web host was closed, deleting some seven million web pages. A great deal of information was lost but many of those sites and pages were mirrored at the Internet Archive, OOcities.com, and other such databases.
Yahoo Go, a Java-based phone application with access to most of Yahoo services, was closed on January 12, 2010.
Yahoo 360° was a blogging/social networking beta service launched in March 2005 by Yahoo and closed on July 13, 2009. Yahoo Mash beta was another social service closed after one year of operation prior to leaving beta status.
Yahoo Photos was shut down on September 20, 2007, in favor of integration with Flickr. Yahoo Tech was a website that provided product information and setup advice to users. Yahoo launched the website in May 2006. On March 11, 2010, Yahoo closed down the service and redirected users to Yahoo's technology news section. Other discontinued services include Farechase, My Web, Audio Search, Pets, Live, Kickstart, Briefcase, and Yahoo for Teachers.
Hotjobs was acquired by and merged with Monster.com.
Yahoo Koprol was an Indonesian geo-tagging website that allowed users to share information about locations without the use of a GPS device. Koprol was acquired by Yahoo a year following its inception and, in 2011, 1.5 million people were utilizing the website, with users also based in Singapore, the Philippines and Vietnam. However, eighty percent of users were Indonesian. Yahoo officially discontinued Koprol on August 28, 2012, because it did "not meaningfully drive revenue or engagement".
Yahoo Mail Classic was announced as to be shut down in April 2013. Yahoo made a notice that, starting in June 2013, Mail Classic and other old versions of Yahoo Mail will be shut down. All users of Mail Classic are expected to switch to the new Yahoo Mail, use IMAP, or switch to another email service. In addition, April 2013 brought the closure of Upcoming, Yahoo Deals, Yahoo SMS Alerts, Yahoo Kids, Yahoo Mail and Messenger feature phone (J2ME).
In early July 2013 Yahoo announced the scheduled closure of the task management service Astrid. Yahoo had acquired the company in May 2013 and was to discontinue the service on August 5, 2013. The team at Astrid has supplied its customers with a data export tool and recommended former competitors such as Wunderlist and Sandglaz.
Twitter slide leak on changes to Yahoo
On December 15, 2010, one day after Yahoo announced layoffs of 4% of its workers across their portfolio, MyBlogLog founder Eric Marcoullier posted a slide from a Yahoo employee on Twitter. The slide was visible during an employee-only strategy webcast indicating changes in Yahoo's offerings.
The following services were in a column under "Sunset": Yahoo Picks, AltaVista, MyM, AlltheWeb, Yahoo Bookmarks, Yahoo Buzz, del.icio.us, and MyBlogLog. Under the "Merge" column were: Upcoming, FoxyTunes, Yahoo Events, Yahoo People Search, Sideline, and FireEagle.
11 other properties were listed that Yahoo was interested in developing into feature sites within the portal to take the place of the "Sunset" and "Merge" vacancies, including the prior feature services (before the new Yahoo Mail was launched), were Yahoo Address Book, Calendar, and Notepad. Despite Notepad being listed as a feature service instead of sunset or merge in 2010, Yahoo has since taken steps to de-emphasize Notepad. For example, in January 2013, Notepad was no longer linked within the new Yahoo mail service, although it continued to be linked in the older Classic version. Also, starting in mid- to late January 2013, Notepad was no longer searchable.
The blog on the del.icio.us website released a post by Chris Yeh after the slide was leaked in which Yeh stated that "Sunset" doesn't necessarily mean that Yahoo is closing down the site. Yeh further explained that other possibilities—including del.icio.us leaving Yahoo (through sale or spinoff)—were still being considered: "We can only imagine how upsetting the news coverage over the past 24 hours has been to many of you. Speaking for our team, we were very disappointed by the way that this appeared in the press." On April 27, 2011, Yahoo's sale of del.icio.us to Avos was announced.
Yahoo Buzz was closed down on April 21, 2011, without an official announcement from Yahoo. MyBlogLog was then discontinued by Yahoo on May 24, 2011.
Privacy
In September 2013, Yahoo's transparency report said the company received 29 thousand requests for information about users from governments in the first six months of 2013. Over 12 thousand of the requests came from the United States.
In October 2013, The Washington Post reported that the U.S. National Security Agency intercepted communications between Yahoo's data centers, as part of a program named Muscular.
In late January 2014, Yahoo announced on its company blog that it had detected a "coordinated effort" to hack into possibly millions of Yahoo Mail accounts. The company prompted users to reset their passwords, but did not elaborate on the scope of the possible breach, citing an ongoing federal investigation.
Storing personal information and tracking usage
Working with comScore, The New York Times found that Yahoo was able to collect far more data about users than its competitors from its Web sites and advertising network. By one measure, on average Yahoo had the potential in December 2007 to build a profile of 2,500 records per month about each of its visitors. Yahoo retains search requests for a period of 13 months. However, in response to European regulators, Yahoo obfuscates the IP address of users after three months by deleting its last eight bits.
On March 29, 2012, Yahoo announced that it would introduce a "Do Not Track" feature that summer, allowing users to opt out of Web-visit tracking and customized advertisements. However, on April 30, 2014, Yahoo announced that it would no longer support the "Do Not Track" browser setting.
According to a 2008 article in Computerworld, Yahoo has a 2-petabyte, specially built data warehouse that it uses to analyze the behavior of its half-billion Web visitors per month, processing 24 billion daily events. In contrast, the United States Internal Revenue Service (IRS) database of all United States taxpayers weighs in at only 150 terabytes.
In September 2016, it was reported that data from at least 500 million Yahoo accounts was stolen in 2014.
In October 2016, Reuters reported that in 2015, Yahoo! created a software to search their customers e-mail at the request of NSA or FBI.
Criticism
In 2000, Yahoo was taken to court in France by parties seeking to prevent French citizens from purchasing memorabilia relating to the Nazi Party. In March 2004, Yahoo launched a paid inclusion program whereby commercial websites were guaranteed listings on the Yahoo search engine. Yahoo discontinued the program at the end of 2009. Yahoo was criticized for providing ads via the Yahoo ad network to companies who display them through spyware and adware.
Yahoo, as well as other search engines, cooperated with the Chinese government in censoring search results. In April 2005, dissident Shi Tao was sentenced to 10 years in prison for "providing state secrets to foreign entities" as a result of being identified by IP address by Yahoo. Human rights organizations and the company's general counsel disputed the extent of Yahoo's foreknowledge of Shi's fate. Human rights groups also accuse Yahoo of aiding authorities in the arrest of dissidents Li Zhi and Jiang Lijun. In April 2017, Yahoo was sued for failing to uphold settlement agreements in this case. Yahoo pledged to give support to the families of those arrested and create a relief fund for those persecuted for expressing their views online with Yahoo Human Rights Trust. Of the $17.3 million allotted to this fund, $13 million had been used for a townhouse in Washington, DC and other purchases.
In September 2003, dissident Wang Xiaoning was convicted of charges of "incitement to subvert state power" and was sentenced to ten years in prison. Yahoo Hong Kong connected Wang's group to a specific Yahoo e-mail address. Both Xiaoning's wife and the World Organization for Human Rights sued Yahoo under human rights laws on behalf of Wang and Shi.
As a result of media scrutiny relating to Internet child predators and a lack of significant ad revenues, Yahoo's "user created" chatrooms were closed down in June 2005. On May 25, 2006, Yahoo's image search was criticized for bringing up sexually explicit images even when SafeSearch was active. Yahoo was a 40% (24% in September 2013) owner of Alibaba Group, which was a subject of controversy for allowing the sale of shark-derived products. The company banned the sale of shark fin products on all its e-commerce platforms effective January 1, 2009. On November 30, 2009, Yahoo was criticized by the Electronic Frontier Foundation for sending a DMCA notice to whistle-blower website "Cryptome" for publicly posting details, prices, and procedures on obtaining private information pertaining to Yahoo's subscribers.
After some concerns over censorship of private emails regarding a website affiliated with Occupy Wall Street protests were raised, Yahoo responded with an apology and explained it as an accident.
Allegations of sexism against men
Scott Ard, a prominent editorial director, fired from Yahoo in 2015 has filed a lawsuit accusing Mayer of leading a sexist campaign to purge male employees. Ard, a male employee, stated "Mayer encouraged and fostered the use of (an employee performance-rating system) to accommodate management's subjective biases and personal opinions, to the detriment of Yahoo's male employees". In the suit Ard claimed prior to his firing, he had received "fully satisfactory" performance reviews since starting at the company in 2011 as head of editorial programming for Yahoo's home page, however, he was relieved of his role that was given to a woman who had been recently hired by Megan Lieberman, the editor-in-chief of Yahoo News.
The lawsuit states:
"Liberman stated that she was terminating (Ard) because she had not received a requested breakdown of (his) duties. (Ard) had already provided that very information as requested, however, and reminded Liberman that he had done so. Liberman's excuse for terminating (Ard) was a pretext."
A second sexual discrimination lawsuit was filed separately by Gregory Anderson, who was fired in 2014, alleging the company's performance management system was arbitrary and unfair, making it the second sexism lawsuit Yahoo and Meyer has faced in 2016.
Management
Board of Directors
David Filo (2014) Co-founder, Chief Yahoo and Director, Yahoo Inc.!
Sue James (2010) Retired Partner, Ernst & Young LLP
Max Levchin (2012) Chairman and CEO, HVF, LLC
Marissa Mayer (2012) – CEO, Yahoo! Inc.
Thomas J. McInerney (2012) – Former Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer, IAC/InterActiveCorp
Charles R. Schwab (2014) Chairman The Charles Schwab Corporation.
H. Lee Scott, Jr. (2014) Retired President and chief executive officer Wal-Mart Stores
Jane E. Shaw (2014) Retired Chairman of the Board Intel Corporation
Maynard Webb (2012) – chairman, Yahoo, founder, Webb Investment Network and chairman and former CEO of LiveOps
Chief Executive Officers
Marissa Mayer (2012–2017)
Ross Levinsohn Interim (2012)
Scott Thompson (2012)
Tim Morse Interim (2011–2012)
Carol Bartz (2009–2011)
Jerry Yang (2007–2009)
Terry Semel (2001–2007)
Timothy Koogle (1995–2001)
Former chief operating officer Henrique de Castro departed from the company in January 2014 after Mayer, who initially hired him after her appointment as CEO, dismissed him. De Castro, who previously worked for Google and McKinsey & Company, was employed to revive Yahoo's advertising business.
Yahoo International
Yahoo offers a multi-lingual interface. The site is available in over 20 languages. The company's international sites are wholly owned by Yahoo, with the exception of its Japan and China sites.
Yahoo holds a 34.75% minority stake in Yahoo Japan, while SoftBank holds 35.45%, YahooXtra in New Zealand, which Yahoo!7 have 51% of and 49% belongs to Telecom New Zealand, and Yahoo!7 in Australia, which is a 50–50 agreement between Yahoo and the Seven Network. Historically, Yahoo entered into joint venture agreements with SoftBank for the major European sites (UK, France and Germany) and well as South Korea and Japan. In November 2005, Yahoo purchased the minority interests that SoftBank owned in Europe and Korea.
Yahoo used to hold a 40% stake in Alibaba, which manages a web portal in China using the Yahoo brand name. Yahoo in the USA does not have direct control over Alibaba, which operates as a completely independent company. On September 18, 2012, following years of negotiations, Yahoo agreed to sell a 20% stake back to Alibaba for $7.6 billion.
On March 8, 2011, Yahoo launched its Romania local service after years of delay due to the financial crisis.
Yahoo officially entered the MENA region when it acquired Maktoob, a pan-regional, Arabic-language hosting and social services online portal, on August 25, 2009. Since the service is pan-regional, Yahoo officially became Yahoo Maktoob in the region.
On December 31, 2012, Yahoo Korea shut down all its services and left the country, with its previous domain saying in Korean, "Starting from December 31, 2012, Yahoo! Korea has ended. You can go to the original Yahoo! for more Yahoo's information." Sooner did that message also disappear, leaving with just an abandoned, empty search bar powered by Bing.
On September 2, 2013, Yahoo China shut down and was redirected to taobao.com, and has been being redirected to Yahoo Singapore's search page.
Logos and themes
The first logo appeared when the company was founded in 1994—it was red with three icons on each side. The logo used on the Yahoo home page formerly consisted of the color red with a black outline and shadow; however, in May 2009, together with a theme redesign, the logo was changed to purple without an outline or shadow. This change also applied to several international Yahoo home pages. In some countries, most notably Yahoo!7 (of Australia), the logo remained red until 2014. On occasion the logo is abbreviated: "Y!"
On August 7, 2013, at around midnight EDT, Yahoo announced that the final version of the new logo would be revealed on September 5, 2013, at 4:00 a.m. UTC. In the period leading up to the unveiling of the new logo, the "30 Days of Change" campaign was introduced, whereby a variation of the logo was published every day for the 30 days following the announcement. The new logo was eventually launched with an accompanying video that showed its digital construction, and Mayer published a personalized description of the design process on her Tumblr page. Mayer explains:
So, one weekend this summer, I rolled up my sleeves and dove into the trenches with our logo design team ... We spent the majority of Saturday and Sunday designing the logo from start to finish, and we had a ton of fun weighing every minute detail. We knew we wanted a logo that reflected Yahoo – whimsical, yet sophisticated. Modern and fresh, with a nod to our history. Having a human touch, personal. Proud.
On September 19, 2013, Yahoo launched a new version of the "My Yahoo" personalized homepage. The redesign allows users to tailor a homepage with widgets that access features such as email accounts, calendars, Flickr and other Yahoo content, and Internet content. Users can also select "theme packs" that represent artists such as Polly Apfelbaum and Alec Monopoly, and bands such as Empire of the Sun. Mayer then explained at a conference in late September 2013 that the logo change was the result of feedback from both external parties and employees.
See also
List of search engines
List of web analytics software
Yahoo! litigation
Yahoo! Messenger Protocol
References
External links
Internet search engines
Alibaba Group
American websites
Companies based in Sunnyvale, California
Companies in the PRISM network
Internet properties established in 1994
Multinational companies headquartered in the United States
Software companies based in California
Technology companies based in the San Francisco Bay Area
Technology companies established in 1994
Telecommunications companies established in 1994
1994 establishments in California
2017 disestablishments in California
Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq
Web portals
Web service providers
World Wide Web
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208572
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical%20window
|
Optical window
|
The optical window is a range of wavelengths that are not blocked by the earth's atmosphere. The window runs from around 300 nanometers (ultraviolet-B) up into the range the human eye can detect, roughly 400–700 nm and continues up to approximately 2 μm. Sunlight mostly reaches the ground through the optical atmospheric window; the sun is particularly active in most of this range (44% of the radiation emitted by the sun falls within the visible spectrum and 49% falls within the infrared spectrum).
Definition
The earth's atmosphere is not totally transparent and is in fact 100% opaque to many wavelengths (see plot of Earth's opacity); the wavelength ranges to which it is transparent are called atmospheric windows.
Disambiguation of the term 'optical spectrum'
Although the word optical, deriving from Ancient Greek ὀπτῐκός (optikós, “of or for sight”), generally refers to something visible or visual, the term optical spectrum is used to describe the sum of the visible, the ultraviolet and the infrared spectra (at least in this context).
The optical atmospheric window
The optical atmospheric window is the optical portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that passes through the earth's atmosphere, excluding the infrared window; although, as mentioned before, the optical spectrum also includes the IR spectrum and thus the optical window should include the infrared window (8 – 14 μm), the latter is considered separate by convention, since the visible spectrum is not contained in it.
Historical importance for observational astronomy
Up until the Second World War, astronomers could only use the visible and near infrared portions of the optical window for their observations. The first great astronomical discoveries such as the ones made by the famous Italian polymath Galileo Galilei were made using optical telescopes that received light reaching the ground through the optical window. After the 1940s, the development of radio telescopes gave rise to the even more successful field of radio astronomy that utilized the radio window.
See also
Infrared (atmospheric) window
Optical window in biological tissue
Radio window
References
Electromagnetic spectrum
Observational astronomy
|
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] |
208574
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Road%20Baptist%20Church
|
Thomas Road Baptist Church
|
Thomas Road Baptist Church (TRBC) is a Baptist megachurch in Lynchburg, Virginia, located on the campus of Liberty University- which it founded and is closely affiliated with. In 2016, a church spokesperson stated they had an average weekly attendance of 9,000 .The pastor is Jonathan Falwell, the son of previous Senior Pastor Jerry Falwell, Sr. and brother of former Liberty University President, Jerry Falwell, Jr. In addition to a second campus, Dan River Church, Thomas Road also hosts a Spanish congregation on its main campus. It is affiliated with the Baptist Bible Fellowship International and the Southern Baptist Convention.
History
Begun in 1956 by a group of thirty-five, including Jerry Falwell, Thomas Road now claims more than 24,200 members. In 1971, the church founded Lynchburg Baptist College, now known as Liberty University, as well as Liberty Christian Academy (known as Lynchburg Christian Academy until it moved and was renamed in 2005). Until 2004, the church was the location for a nationally syndicated religious broadcast known as The Old-Time Gospel Hour. This program now airs only locally in Lynchburg. Selected sermons from the pulpit of the Thomas Road Baptist Church are now featured nationally on a syndicated program from Liberty University known as Live from Liberty.
The church occupied a new multimillion-dollar facility on July 2, 2006. The new building is connected to an over facility formerly owned and operated by the Ericsson electronics manufacturer. The existing building has been renovated to house offices, university classes, the new Liberty University School of Law, and the Liberty Christian Academy. The Church offers a variety of events and speakers, such as a creationist conference by Answers in Genesis.
Founding pastor Falwell served as its senior pastor until his death in 2007. In a special business meeting called by the board of deacons on June 3, 2007, Jonathan Falwell was unanimously elected by the congregation to assume his father's duties as senior pastor of the church. Jonathan Falwell had previously served as the church's executive pastor since 1994.
Jerry Falwell started Lynchburg Baptist College by selling bonds to a small group of private investors. However, in 1972, the Securities and Exchange Commission investigated the bonds alleging Falwell's church committed "fraud and deceit" in the issuance of $6.5 million in unsecured church bonds. The church won a 1973 federal court case prosecuted at the behest of the SEC, in which the Court exonerated the church and ruled that there had been no intentional wrongdoing.
Affiliation
Thomas Road Baptist Church was initially affiliated with the Baptist Bible Fellowship International. However, since 1998, it has a dual affiliation with the Baptist Bible Fellowship and the Southern Baptist Convention, having entered the convention by way of the Southern Baptist Conservatives of Virginia.
See also
Jerry Falwell Sr.
References
External links
Southern Baptist Convention churches
Baptist churches in Virginia
Churches in Lynchburg, Virginia
Christian organizations established in 1956
Evangelical megachurches in the United States
Megachurches in Virginia
1956 establishments in Virginia
Jerry Falwell Sr.
|
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208576
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20play%20%28sporting%20term%29
|
Power play (sporting term)
|
"Power play" is a sporting term used to describe a period of play where one team has a numerical advantage in players, usually due to a rule violation by the opposing team.
Temporary numerical advantage in players during a team sport
In several team sports, situations arise where following a rules infraction, one team is penalized by having the number of players on the field of play temporarily reduced. The term power play is commonly applied to the state of advantage the unpenalized team enjoys during this time. Specialized tactics and strategies can apply while a team is on the power play.
Ice hockey
In ice hockey, a team is said to be on a power play when at least one opposing player is serving a penalty, and the team has a numerical advantage on the ice (whenever both teams have the same number of players on the ice, there is no power play). Up to two players per side may serve in the penalty box without substitutions being permitted, giving a team up to a possible 5-on-3 power play.
There are three types of penalties that can result in a power play for the non-offending team: minor (two minutes), double-minor (four minutes), and major (five minutes). For such penalties, the offending player is ruled off the ice and no substitute for the penalized player is permitted. If a goaltender commits either a minor, a double-minor, or a major penalty, another player who was on the ice at the time of the penalty would serve the penalty instead. A power play resulting from a minor penalty ends if the team with more players on the ice scores. A double-minor penalty is treated as if the player has committed two minor penalties back to back: a goal scored by the team with advantage in the first two minutes only ends the first minor penalty (and the second will start after the game restarts); a goal by the team with advantage in the last two minutes of the penalty will end the power play even if a goal was scored during the first part of the double-minor penalty. If a player is given a major penalty, a power play occurs, but the power play does not terminate even if the team on the power play scores (except in overtime as this ends the game); a major penalty only ends when five minutes have elapsed or the game has ended. A match penalty results in the offending player being ejected from the game (and the player is subject to possible further suspensions), but is otherwise treated the same as a major penalty.
If a team is still on a power play at the end of a regulation period, or at the end of a playoff overtime period, the power play will continue into the following period. "Misconduct" penalties (10 minutes in duration), and "game misconduct" penalties (offending player is ejected for the balance of the game) allow for substitution of the offending player, so do not result in power plays. However, in practice misconduct and game misconduct penalties are often assessed in addition to a major or minor penalty.
Special rules govern situations where three or more players on the same team must serve penalties simultaneously. They are designed to ensure a team can always have at least three skaters on the ice whilst also ensuring all penalties are fully "served" (assuming the game does not end first). In the simplest example, if Andy is assessed a minor penalty, followed by Barry, and both are still in the penalty box when Charlie also receives a minor penalty:
Charlie may be substituted prior to play resuming;
The two minutes Charlie must serve do not commence until Andy's penalty expires or team on the power play scores, whichever comes first;
If the team on the power play scores prior to Andy's penalty expiring but before Barry's, Andy's penalty ends and he may leave the penalty box, but his team must still play two men short until Barry's penalty expires;
If the team on the power play does not score prior to Andy's penalty expiring, Andy must remain in the penalty box until Barry's penalty expires or there is a stoppage in play, whichever comes first;
Provided there is no stoppage in play, Andy will leave the penalty box when Barry's penalty expires, Barry will leave the penalty box when Charlie's penalty expires (putting their team back at full strength) and Charlie will remain in the penalty box until the next stoppage in play.
A goal scored by the short-handed team during a power play is called a short-handed goal; However, a short-handed goal does not affect the power play, the short-handed team must still serve the duration of the minor penalty. If a power play ends without a goal against the shorthanded team, it is said to have killed the penalty. If a team scores on the power play, it is said to have converted the power play (that is, converted the opportunity into a goal).
During a power play, the shorthanded team may launch the puck to the opposite end of the rink, and play will continue; icing is not called.
In leagues that conduct overtime with fewer than five skaters per side, the concept of the power play still exists, but its application is slightly modified. For example, the NHL uses a 3-on-3 format for overtime in the regular season, with three skaters plus the goaltender. If regulation play ends with a team on the power play, the advantaged team starts overtime with more than three skaters (almost always four, very rarely five). Similarly, if a player is penalized during overtime, the non-penalized team is allowed to play with an extra skater for the duration of the penalty, with two extra skaters if two players on the same team are serving penalties.
Lacrosse
In box lacrosse, a power play is very similar to ice hockey, with two-minute minor penalties and five-minute majors. In field lacrosse, a similar type of penalty situation exists, though the duration of the penalty is only 30 seconds for technical fouls, one minute or more for personal fouls, and up to three minutes for use of an illegal stick, unsportsmanlike conduct and certain violent contact fouls such as targeting. Depending on the infraction, the penalty may "release" early if a goal is scored by the other team, or may be "non-releasable", meaning the full duration must be served. The term "power play" is not used in field lacrosse, but called "extra man offense" (EMO) or "man up" for the team fouled and "man down" for the offending team.
Muggle Quidditch
In quidditch, a power play occurs when a member of the opposing team is given a blue, yellow, or red card. A player serving time for a blue card or yellow card must remain in the penalty box for one minute or until the other team scores. If a player is assessed a red card, that player is ejected from the game and a substitute must remain in the penalty box for two minutes. This two minutes must be served in full, regardless of how many times the opposing team scores during the penalty. A player receiving a second yellow card in the same game is automatically assessed a red card. Blue cards do not stack; a player may be assessed any number of blue cards without being automatically assessed a more severe card.
A team can never have a keeper in the penalty box. If the keeper is sent to the penalty box, the penalized keeper must immediately switch positions with a chaser teammate. If all chasers are already in the penalty box, the penalized keeper must switch with a beater or seeker teammate. If the keeper's penalty results in that team having all of its players in play serving time in the penalty box, that team forfeits the game.
Analogous concepts not generally referred to as a "power play"
In water polo, a shorter version of the ice hockey or lacrosse penalty situation exists as well. It is referred to as "man up" or "man down".
In futsal, there exists a situation which is essentially a power play. When a player is shown a red card and is thus ejected from the game, the penalized team must play short-handed for two minutes, similar to ice hockey. If a goal is scored, the team returns to full strength.
In other forms of indoor soccer, usually played in the United States, there also exists a power play situation similar to ice hockey.
In indoor American football, the 1988 proposed World Indoor Football League had intended to establish a perpetual power play, in which the offense would always have one man more on the field than the defense. Fan Controlled Football added the power play (explicitly identified as such) as one of its power-ups, a special one-play rule change that each team can exercise each half.
In rugby union, a player who is shown a yellow card is ruled off the field of play for a period of ten minutes (two minutes in the seven-a-side variation). The player may not be replaced, their team must play one player short while they are off the field. The temporary sending-off is usually called a "sin binning".
In association football, a player who is shown a red card (whether or not it is a straight red or a second yellow) is ejected and may not be replaced to the remainder of the game; the team must play with one fewer player.
Other uses of "power play"
Netball
Several variant formats of netball introduce the concept of a power play, a designated quarter where all goals scored by a team are worth twice as normal:
In the original fastnet format, when a team uses it in a quarter, all goals scored by that team are worth twice as normal. This means that if a shooter (Goal Shooter or Goal Attack) scores a goal outside the goal circle, the goal is worth 4 goals instead of 2. It is also possible for both teams to use their power play in the same quarter.
In the current fast5 format, when a team uses it in a quarter, all goals scored by that team are worth twice as normal. A shooter that scores a goal within 3.5 meters from the goal post scores two points instead of one. Four points (instead of two) if the goal was scored at least 3.5 meters away from the goal post but within the goal circle. If the goal was scored from outside of the goal circle (known as a super goal), six points is scored instead of three. The winner of the coin toss chooses which quarter to have this power play and the other team must choose a different quarter for their power play. This prevents both teams from having their power plays in the same quarter.
Cricket
A powerplay is a feature introduced into One Day International (ODI) cricket in 1991 (and subsequently into Twenty20 and 100-ball cricket) concerning fielding restrictions. In a powerplay, restrictions are applied on the fielding team, with only two fielders allowed outside the 30-yard circle for a set number of overs. It is intended to add to the excitement by encouraging more aggressive batting. Prior to 2015, the batting team could declare a powerplay at a time of their choice during the innings, but as of 2015, the powerplay now occurs at set times, with an ODI innings now comprising three powerplays with varying levels of restrictions.
Power Snooker
In Power Snooker, this arises when a player pots the power ball. This triggers a period of time whereby all points scored are doubled.
Roller Derby
Commonly known as a "power jam", a power play occurs in roller derby when a team's designated scoring skater (jammer) is serving a penalty.
Curling
In the mixed doubles version of curling, a rule called a power play was introduced in the 2016–17 season. Each team can exercise the power play in one end per game, only when they have the hammer (throwing the last rock in an end). Instead of positioning the rock in the house on the center line, it is placed to a position straddling the edge of the eight-foot circle, with the back edge of the stone touching the tee line. The opponent's guard stone is placed in line with the stone in the house and the hack. The power play cannot be used in an extra end.
See also
Shorthanded (another sports term)
References
Ice hockey terminology
Cricket terminology
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth-century%20Athens
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Fifth-century Athens
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Fifth-century Athens is the Greek city-state of Athens in the time from 480 to 404 BC. Formerly known as the Golden Age of Athens, the later part being the Age of Pericles, it was buoyed by political hegemony, economic growth and cultural flourishing. The period began in 478 BC, after the defeat of the Persian invasion, when an Athenian-led coalition of city-states, known as the Delian League, confronted the Persians to keep the liberated Asian Greek cities free.
After peace was made with Persia in the mid-5th century BC, what started as an alliance of independent city-states became an Athenian empire after Athens abandoned the pretense of parity among its allies and relocated the Delian League treasury from Delos to Athens, where it funded the building of the Athenian Acropolis, put half its population on the public payroll, and maintained its position as the dominant naval power in the Greek world.
With the empire's funds, military dominance and its political fortunes guided by statesman and orator Pericles, Athens produced some of the most influential and enduring cultural artifacts of the Western tradition. The playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides all lived and worked in 5th-century BC Athens, as did the historians Herodotus and Thucydides, the physician Hippocrates and the philosophers Plato and Socrates. Athens's patron goddess was Athena, from whom it derived the name.
Overview
During the golden age, Athenian military and external affairs were mostly entrusted to the ten generals who were elected each year by the ten tribes of citizens, who could be relied on rather than the variable-quality magistrates chosen by lot under the democracy. These strategoi were given duties which included planning military expeditions, receiving envoys of other states and directing diplomatic affairs. During the time of the ascendancy of Ephialtes as leader of the democratic faction, Pericles was his deputy. When Ephialtes was assassinated for overthrowing the elitist Council of the Aeropagus, Pericles stepped in and was elected in 445 BC, a post he held continuously until his death in 429 BC, always by election of the Athenian Assembly.
Pericles was a great speaker; this quality brought him tremendous success in the Assembly, presenting his vision of politics. One of his most popular reforms was to allow thetes (Athenians without wealth) to occupy public office. Another success of his administration was the creation of the misthophoria (, which literally means paid function), a special salary for the citizens that attended the courts as jurors. This way, these citizens were able to dedicate themselves to public service without facing financial hardship. With this system, Pericles succeeded in keeping the courts full of jurors (Ath. Pol. 27.3), and in giving the people experience in public life. As Athens' ruler, he made the city the first and most important polis of the Greek world, acquiring a resplendent culture and democratic institutions.
The sovereign people governed themselves, without intermediaries, deciding matters of state in the Assembly. Athenian citizens were free and only owed obedience to their laws and respect to their gods. They achieved equality of speech in the Assembly: the word of a poor person had the same worth as that of a rich person. The censorial classes did not disappear, but their power was more limited; they shared the fiscal and military offices but they did not have the power of distributing privileges.
The principle of equality granted to all citizens had dangers since many citizens were incapable of exercising political rights due to their extreme poverty or ignorance. To avoid this, Athenian democracy applied itself to the task of helping the poorest in this manner:
Concession of salaries to public functionaries.
To seek and supply work to the poor.
To grant lands to dispossessed villagers.
Public assistance for war widows, invalids, orphans and indigents.
Other social help.
Most importantly, and in order to emphasize the concept of equality and discourage corruption and patronage, practically all public offices that did not require a particular expertise were appointed by lot and not by election. Among those selected by lot to a political body, specific office was always rotated so that every single member served in all capacities in turn. This was meant to ensure that political functions were instituted in such a way as to run smoothly, regardless of each official's individual capacity.
These measures appear to have been carried out in great measure since the testimony has come to us from, (among others, the Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460–400 BC), who comments: "Everyone who is capable of serving the city meets no impediment, neither poverty, nor civic condition..."
Institutions
The magistrates
The magistrates were people who occupied a public post and formed the administration of the Athenian state. They were submitted to rigorous public control. The magistrates were chosen by lot, using fava beans. Black and white beans were put in a box and depending on which color the person drew out they obtained the post or not. This was a way of eliminating the personal influence of rich people and possible intrigues and use of favors. There were only two categories of posts not chosen by lot, but by election in the Popular Assembly. These were strategoi, or general, and magistrate of finance. It was generally supposed that significant qualities were needed to exercise each of those two offices. A magistrate's post did not last more than a year, including that of the strategos and in this sense the continued selection of Pericles year after year was an exception. At the end of every year, a magistrate would have to give an account of his administration and use of public finances.
The most honored posts were the ancient archontes, or archons in English. In previous ages they had been the heads of the Athenian state, but in the Age of Pericles they lost their influence and power, although they still presided over tribunals.
Every year the citizens elected ten "strategoi" (singular "strategos"), or generals, who served as both military officers and diplomats. It was through this position that Pericles shaped 5th-century BC Athens.
There were also more than forty public administration officers and more than sixty to police the streets, the markets, to check weights and measures and to carry out arrests and executions.
The Assembly of the People
The Assembly (in Greek, , that is to say, an assembly by summons), was the first organ of the democracy. In theory it brought together in assembly all the citizens of Athens, however the maximum number which came to congregate is estimated at 6,000 participants. The gathering place was a space on the hill called Pnyx, in front of the Acropolis. The sessions sometimes lasted from dawn to dusk. The ecclesia occurred forty times a year.
The Assembly decided on laws and decrees which were proposed. Decisions relied on ancient laws that had long been in force. Bills were voted on in two stages: first the Assembly itself decided and afterwards the Council or βουλή gave definitive approval.
The Council or Boule
The Council or Boule () consisted of 500 members, fifty from each tribe, functioning as an extension of the Assembly. These were chosen by chance, using the system described earlier, from which they were familiarly known as "councillors of the bean"; officially they were known as prytaneis (, meaning "chief" or "teacher").
The council members examined and studied legal projects, supervised the magistrates and saw that daily administrative details were on the right path. They oversaw the city state's external affairs. They also met at Pnyx hill, in a place expressly prepared for the event. The fifty prytaneis in power were located on grandstands carved into the rock. They had stone platforms which they reached by means of a small staircase of three steps. On the first platform were the secretaries and scribes; the orator would climb up to the second.
Finances
The economic resources of the Athenian State would not have been possible without the treasury of the Delian League. The treasury was originally held on the island of Delos, but Pericles moved it to Athens under the pretext that Delos wasn't safe enough. This resulted in internal friction within the league and the rebellion of some city-states that were members. Athens retaliated quickly and some scholars believe this to be the period wherein it would be more appropriate to discuss an Athenian Empire instead of a league.
Other small incomes came from customs fees and fines. In times of war, a special tax was levied on rich citizens. These citizens were also charged permanently with other taxes for the good of the city. This was called the system of liturgy. The taxes were used to maintain the triremes which gave Athens great naval power and to pay and maintain a chorus for large religious festivals. It is believed that rich Athenian men saw it as an honor to sponsor the triremes (probably because they became leaders of it for the period they supported it) or the festivals and they often engaged in competitive donating.
Athens also benefited from a proximity to the trading port of Piraeus. The state of Athens collected a duty on cargo passing through the port. At Piraeus (the main port of Athens), this tax was set at 1% or higher on goods.
Athens in the Age of Pericles
The Athenian elite lived modestly and without great luxuries, compared to the elites of other ancient states. There were very few great fortunes and land ownership was not concentrated: 71–73% of the citizen population owned 60–65% of the land, whereas the Gini coefficient for citizen population has been calculated as 0.708. The economy was based on maritime commerce and manufacturing, according to Amemiya's estimates, 56% of Athens' GDP was derived from manufacturing. Agriculture was also important, but it did not produce enough to feed the populace, so most food had to be imported (it is estimated that the carrying capacity of Attica's soil was between 84,000 and 150,000, while the population was 300,000 to 350,000 in 431 BC).
The state oversaw all the major religious festivals. The most important one was the Panathenaia in honor of the goddess Athena, a ritual procession carried out once a year in May and once every four years in July, in which the town presented a new veil (peplos) to the old wooden statue of Athena Poliada. Phidias immortalized this procession in the frieze of the Parthenon, which is currently at the British Museum. In the July Panathenaia (Great Panathenaia), large competitions were organized which included gymnastics and horseback riding, the winners of which received amphoras full of sacred olive oil as a prize. The other important festival was the dramatic Dionysia in honour of Dionysus where tragedies and comedies were performed.
Education
The education of boys began in their own home up until the age of seven when they had to attend school. There, they had several teachers who taught them to read and write, as well as subjects such as mathematics and music. Boys also had to take part in physical education classes where they were prepared for future military service with activities such as wrestling, racing, jumping and gymnastics. At eighteen they served in the army and were instructed on how to bear arms. Physical education was very intense and many of the boys ended up becoming true athletes. In addition to these compulsory lessons, the students had the chance to discuss and learn from the great philosophers, grammarians and orators of the time. Some poor people had to stay at home and help their parents. However, Aristophanes and Socrates, though they were poor, became famous and successful.
Women
The primary role of free women in classical Athens was to marry and bear children. The emphasis on marriage as a way to perpetuate the family through childbearing had changed from archaic Athens, when (at least amongst the powerful) marriages were as much about making beneficial connections as they were about perpetuating the family. Married women were responsible for the day-to-day running of the household. At marriage, they assumed responsibility for the prosperity of their husband's household and the health of its members. Their primary responsibilities were bearing, raising and caring for children, weaving cloth and making clothes. They would also have been responsible for caring for ill household members, supervising slaves, and ensuring that the household had sufficient food. In classical Athenian marriages, husband or wife could legally initiate a divorce. The woman's closest male relative (who would be her kyrios if she were not married) could also do so, apparently even against the couple's wishes. After divorce, the husband was required to return the dowry or pay 18 percent interest annually so the woman's livelihood would continue and she could remarry. If there were children at the time of the divorce, they remained in their father's house and he remained responsible for their upbringing.
In some cases, Athenian women had the same rights and responsibilities as Athenian men. However, Athenian women did have some significant disabilities at law compared to their male counterparts. Like slaves and metics, they were denied political freedom, citizenship and voting rights, being excluded from the law courts and the Assembly. Women ideally remained apart from men. However it was recognised that an ideology of separation could not be practiced by many Athenians. In Politics, Aristotle asked: "How is it possible to prevent the wives of the poor from going out of doors?" In practice, only wealthy families would have been able to implement this ideology. Women's responsibilities would have forced them to leave the house frequently – to fetch water from the well or wash clothing, for example. Although wealthy families may have had slaves to enable free women to remain in the house, most would not have had enough slaves to prevent free women from leaving at all.
The cult of Athena Polias (the city's eponymous goddess) was central to Athenian society, reinforcing morality and maintaining societal structure. Women played a key role in the cult; the priestesshood of Athena was a position of great importance, and the priestess could use her influence to support political positions. According to Herodotus, before the Battle of Salamis the priestess of Athena encouraged the evacuation of Athens by telling the Athenians that the snake sacred to Athena (which lived on the Acropolis) had already left.
Arts and literature
Historians consider the Athenian 5th and 6th centuries BC as the Golden Age of sculpture and architecture. In this period the ornamental elements and the technique employed did not vary from the previous period. What characterizes this period is the quantity of works and the refinement and perfection of the works. Most were religious in nature, mainly sanctuaries and temples. Some examples from this period are:
The reconstruction of the Temple of Olympian Zeus.
The reconstruction of the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, which was destroyed by an earthquake.
The reconstruction of the Acropolis of Athens, the marble city for the glory of the gods. The site had suffered from a fire started by the Persians and lay in ruins for more than 30 years. Pericles initiated its reconstruction with white marble brought from the nearby quarry of Pentelicon. The best architects, sculptors and workers were gathered to complete the Acropolis. The construction lasted 20 years. Financing came from the Delian League.
Sculpture
Phidias is considered the greatest sculptor of this era. He created colossal gold-plated ivory statues ("chryselephantine statues"), generally face and hands, which were highly celebrated and admired in his own time: Athena, situated in the interior of the Parthenon, whose splendor reached the faithful through the open doors, and Zeus in the Sanctuary of Olympia, considered in its age and in later ages to be one of the marvels of the world.
According to Pliny the Elder's Natural History, in order to conserve the marble of these sculptures, oil receptacles were placed in the temples so that the ivory would not crack.
The other great sculptors of this century were Myron and Polycletus.
Pottery
During this age, the production of ceramic pieces was abundant. Amphorae were produced in mass quantity due to the heavy trading with other cities all around the Mediterranean. Large evidence of amphorae from this era can be found around every major ancient port as well as in the Aegean sea. During this period is also seen an abundance of white background ceramics which are much more delicate than the previously popular yellow and black background ceramics. These ceramics were often used to keep perfume or for mortuary rites, including decorations on graves.
It is also known that there were many great painters, but their works are lost, both frescos and free-standing paintings.
Theatre
The theatre reached its greatest height in the 5th century BC. Pericles promoted and favored the theatre with a series of practical and economic measures. The wealthiest families were obligated to care for and to sustain the choruses and actors. By this means, Pericles maintained the tradition according to which theatrical performances served the moral and intellectual education of the people. Plays were made by men and usually for men, and this platform was often used to reinforce the patriarchy.
Athens became the great city of Greek theatre. Theatrical performances lasted eight consecutive hours and were performed as part of a competition in which a jury proclaimed a winner. While the decor of the provisional theatres was very simple, the permanent theatrical venues of ancient Athens eventually became more sumptuous and elaborate. No matter the performance venue, plays were performed by, at most, three actors, who wore masks to identify them with the characters they portrayed; they were accompanied by a chorus who sang and danced.
The dramatic poets from this era whose plays have survived are:
Aeschylus
Sophocles
Euripides
Aristophanes
Philosophy
The Golden Age featured some of the most renowned Western philosophers of all time. Chief among these were Socrates, whose ideas exist primarily in a series of dialogues by his student Plato, who mixed them with his own; Plato; and Plato's student, Aristotle.
Other notable philosophers of the Golden Age included Anaxagoras; Democritus (who first inquired as to what substance lies within all matter, the earliest known proposal of what is now called the atom or its sub-units); Empedocles; Hippias; Isocrates; Parmenides; Heraclitus; and Protagoras.
In the second half of the 5th century BC the name of sophist (from the Greek sophistês, expert, teacher, man of wisdom) was given to the teachers that gave instruction on diverse branches of science and knowledge in exchange for a fee.
In this age, Athens was the "school of Greece." Pericles and his mistress Aspasia had the opportunity to associate with not only the great Athenians thinkers of their day but also other Greek and foreign scholars. Among them were the philosopher Anaxagoras, the architect Hippodamus of Miletus, who reconstructed Peiraeus, as well as the historians Herodotus (484–425), Thucydides (460–395), and Xenophon (427–335).
Athens was also the capital of eloquence. Since the late 5th century BC, eloquence had been elevated to an art form. There were the logographers () who wrote courses and created a new literary form characterized by the clarity and purity of the language. It became a lucrative profession. It is known that the logographer Lysias (460–380 BC) made a great fortune thanks to his profession. Later, in the 4th century BC, the orators Isocrates and Demosthenes also became famous.
End of the Age of Pericles
From 461 until his death in 429 BC Pericles was active in the government of Athens, an era of splendour and a standard of living higher than any previously experienced. All was well within the internal government, however discontent within the Delian League was ever increasing. The foreign affairs policies adopted by Athens did not produce the best results; members of the Delian League were increasingly dissatisfied. Athens was the city-state that dominated and subjugated the rest of Greece and these oppressed citizens wanted their independence.
Previously, in 550 BC, a similar league between the cities of the Peloponnessus—directed and dominated by Sparta—had been founded. Taking advantage of the general dissent of the Greek city-states, this Peloponnesian League began to confront Athens. After a long lasting series of poorly managed, hawkish policies, (c. 431 BC) and the ensuing Peloponnesian War the city of Athens finally lost its independence in 338 BC, when Philip II of Macedonia conquered the rest of Greece.
See also
Greece in the 5th century BC
References
That article, in turn, cites:
Maurice: Egypte, Orient, Grèce. Bordas, s/l, 1963.
Charles: Historia Universal Oriente y Grecia. Daniel Jorro, Madrid, 1930.
Ancient Greece
History of Classical Athens
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priscilla%20Presley
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Priscilla Presley
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Priscilla Ann Presley (née Wagner, changed by adoption to Beaulieu; born May 24, 1945) is an American businesswoman and actress. She is the ex-wife of Elvis Presley as well as the co-founder and former chairwoman of Elvis Presley Enterprises (EPE), the company that turned Graceland into one of the top tourist attractions in the United States. In her acting career, Presley co-starred with Leslie Nielsen in the three successful Naked Gun films, and played the role of Jenna Wade on the long-running television series Dallas.
Early life
Priscilla Ann Wagner was born at Brooklyn Naval Hospital in Brooklyn on May 24, 1945. Her maternal grandfather, Albert Henry Iversen, was born in Egersund, Norway. He immigrated to the United States, where he married Lorraine, who was of Scots-Irish and English descent. Their only daughter was Anna Lillian Iversen. Later she was called (or her name was changed to) Ann. She gave birth to Priscilla at the age of 19.
Priscilla's biological father was US Navy pilot James Wagner, son of Kathryn and Harold Wagner. On August 10, 1944, at the age of 23, he married Priscilla's mother; they had been dating for more than three years. He was killed in a plane crash while returning home on leave when Priscilla was six months old.
In 1948, Ann Wagner had met a United States Air Force officer named Paul Beaulieu, from Quebec, Canada. The couple were married within a year and he took over raising Priscilla. She took his surname, and over the next few years, helped care for the growing family as his Air Force career moved them from Connecticut to New Mexico to Maine. She described herself during this period as "a shy, pretty, little girl, unhappily accustomed to moving from base to base every two or three years." Priscilla later recalled how uneasy she felt having to move so often, never knowing if she could ever make friends for life, or if she would fit in with the people she would meet at the next place.
In 1956, the Beaulieus settled in Del Valle, Texas, but soon her stepfather was transferred to Wiesbaden, Germany. Priscilla was "crushed" by this news, as just after junior high, her fear of having to leave friends behind and make new ones was once again justified.
Life in Germany
When the Beaulieus arrived in Germany, they stayed at the Helene Hotel, but, after three months, living there became too expensive, and they looked for a place to rent. The family settled into a large apartment in a "vintage building constructed long before World War I." Soon after moving in, the Beaulieus realized it was a brothel, but, given the scarcity of housing, they had little choice but to remain.
Life with Elvis
Germany
On September 13, 1959, during Elvis Presley's Army career, he met Priscilla at a party at his home in Bad Nauheim, Germany. At the time, she was only 14 years old and he was 24, but Priscilla married Elvis eight years later when she was 21 years old. Some allege Elvis regressed to acting like an "awkward, embarrassed" boy-next-door figure in front of her, but by the end of the evening, however, he managed to compose himself.
Priscilla's parents were upset by her late return home the night of that first meeting and insisted that she never see Elvis again. But when Elvis, eager for another rendezvous, promised never to bring her home late again they relented. Thereafter, he and Priscilla were frequently together until his departure from West Germany, in March 1960. After Elvis left, Priscilla was inundated with requests for interviews from media outlets around the world. She received fan mail from Elvis fans, some positive and some negative, as well as mail from "lonesome G.I.s". With gossip-magazine rumors swirling about his relationship with Nancy Sinatra, Priscilla became convinced that her romance with Elvis was over and she would never see him again.
Move to Graceland
After Elvis' return to the US, she managed to stay in touch with him by phone, though they would not see each other again until the summer of 1962, when Priscilla's parents agreed to let her visit for two weeks. They allowed her to go on the condition Elvis pay for a first-class round trip and arrange for her to be chaperoned at all times, and that she write home every day. Elvis agreed to all these demands, and Priscilla flew to Los Angeles. Elvis told her they were going to Las Vegas, and to throw her parents off the scent, he had Priscilla write a postcard for every day they would be away – to be mailed from Los Angeles by a member of his staff.
It was during this visit, while on a trip to Las Vegas, that Priscilla first took amphetamines and sleeping pills to keep up with Elvis' lifestyle. After another visit at Christmas, Priscilla's parents finally let her move to Memphis for good in March 1963. Part of the agreement was that she would attend an all-girls Catholic school, the Immaculate Conception High School in Memphis, Tennessee, and live with Elvis' father and his stepmother in a separate house a few streets away from the Graceland mansion at 3650 Hermitage Drive, until she graduated from high school in June 1963. Part of the agreement also, was they would eventually marry. However, according to her 1985 autobiography, Elvis and Me, she "spent entire nights with Grandma at Graceland and gradually moved her belongings there." It is believed she had her permanent residence at Graceland as early as May 1963. Her parents eventually agreed to her living there if Elvis promised to marry her. Priscilla later said, "The move was natural. ... I was there all the time anyway."
Priscilla was keen to go to Hollywood with Elvis, but he kept telling her he was too busy and had her stay in Memphis. During the filming of Viva Las Vegas, Elvis began an affair with his co-star Ann-Margret. When Priscilla read of these reports in the press, she confronted Elvis. He told her they were simply rumors to promote the film and that she should not believe everything she read in the press. For the next few years, Elvis had intimate relationships with many of his leading ladies and co-stars, all the while denying their existence to Priscilla. Eventually she was allowed to visit him in Hollywood, but her visits were kept short.
Marriage and pregnancy
Shortly before Christmas 1966, Elvis proposed to Priscilla. Accounts suggest that Priscilla threatened to take her story to the press if Elvis refused to marry her, and that her father threatened to have Elvis charged under the Mann Act; "taking a minor across state lines for sexual purposes". Colonel Parker, Elvis' manager, also encouraged him to marry by reminding him about his RCA "morals clause" within his record contract. Priscilla suggested in a 1973 interview with Ladies' Home Journal that she and Elvis were quite happy to just live together, but "at that time it wasn't nice for people to [just] live together". Accounts by Elvis' cook, Alberta, claim that he was so upset about the wedding that she caught him crying about it one day. When she asked why he didn't just cancel the wedding if it upset him so much, he replied "I don't have a choice." Marty Lacker, a close friend to Elvis, has also spoken about Elvis' reluctance to marry, while others such as Joe Esposito have asserted that Elvis was excited to marry Priscilla.
In her book, Elvis and Me, Priscilla describes Presley as a very passionate man who was not overtly sexual towards her. According to her account, the singer told her that they had to wait until they were married before having intercourse. He said, "I'm not saying we can't do other things. It's just the actual encounter. I want to save it." Priscilla says in her autobiography that she was a virgin and she and Elvis did not have sex until their wedding night. However, this claim is questioned by biographer Suzanne Finstad.
The couple married on May 1, 1967, at the Aladdin Hotel in Las Vegas. The wedding, arranged by Parker to maximize publicity, featured very few guests and was over in only eight minutes. It was followed by a quick press conference and a $10,000 breakfast reception, attended by friends, family, and business associates from MGM, RCA, and the William Morris Agency. The wedding caused rifts between Elvis and several of his closest friends who were not invited to the actual wedding ceremony. Red West, especially, was furious about the situation. He and his wife had been personally invited by Elvis to Las Vegas for the wedding, had dressed for the occasion, and at the last minute were told that they would not be present. For Red, who had been with Elvis since the beginning of his rise to fame and had given Elvis the role of best man at his own wedding, this was enough of an insult that he decided to quit his job working for Elvis. Many other friends of Elvis were also disappointed and held resentment towards him for many years to follow, although they mainly blamed Parker for their exclusion rather than Elvis himself.
Following the reception, Elvis and Priscilla boarded a private jet and enjoyed a short honeymoon in Palm Springs. On May 4, they flew back to Memphis and retreated to their private ranch, just over the Mississippi state line, for a three-week break. Many of Elvis' inner circle joined them, although for the most part the couple were left alone and were able to enjoy each other's company without the intrusion of the Memphis Mafia. Priscilla reveled in her chance to be a proper wife (according to the values of the time); cooking, cleaning, and washing for her husband. "I loved playing house," she later remarked; adding, "Here was an opportunity to take care of him myself. No maids or housekeepers to pamper us." In an attempt to heal rifts, Elvis and Priscilla held another reception at Graceland on May 29 for the friends and family who were unable to attend the original ceremonies.
Soon after, Priscilla found out that she was pregnant. She was upset at such an early pregnancy, certain that it would destroy the closeness she had finally found with Elvis. She had asked him earlier if she could take birth control pills, but Elvis had insisted they weren't perfected yet. She considered abortion, and even discussed it with Elvis at one point, but both decided they could not live with themselves if they had gone through with it. Their only child, Lisa Marie, was born exactly nine months after their wedding, on February 1, 1968.
Priscilla wrote in Elvis and Me that, around the time Elvis was filming Live a Little, Love a Little (1968), she began taking private dance lessons. She found herself deeply attracted to the instructor, known simply as Mark in the book, and she confesses to having a short affair. She implies regret, however, saying, "I came out of it realizing I needed much more out of my relationship with Elvis."
Despite Priscilla's affair and Elvis' on-and-off relationships with his co-stars and leading ladies, the first few years they were married seemed a happy time for the couple. However, when Elvis' career took off again after his 1968 television special, he was constantly touring and playing in Las Vegas. Elvis had also been seeing other women on and off, often leaving Priscilla at home with Lisa Marie. Because Elvis was away so often, the marriage soured.
Separation and divorce
Elvis was a keen karate student and persuaded Priscilla to take it up. Priscilla thought it was a good idea, as it would pass the time she spent alone if she had a hobby on which to concentrate, and she was also keen to share in Elvis' interests. Following disruptions from Elvis, Priscilla began taking lessons from Mike Stone, a karate instructor she had met in 1972 backstage at one of Elvis' concerts. She soon began an affair with him. Priscilla states in her book, "My relationship with Mike had now developed into an affair. I still loved Elvis greatly, but over the next few months I knew I would have to make a crucial decision regarding my destiny." She later states, "Elvis must have perceived my new restlessness." A couple of months later, she said that Elvis had requested to see her in his hotel suite. It was then that she writes in her book that Elvis "forcefully made love to me...[as he said] 'This is how a real man makes love to his woman.'"
She later stated in an interview that she regretted her choice of words in describing the incident, and said it had been an overstatement. She went on to say following the incident, "what really hurt was that he was not sensitive to me as a woman and his attempt at reconciliation had come too late," suggesting that his actions were a deliberate attempt at reconciliation or compensation for his lack of sexual interest in Priscilla which had been a source of hurt and discontent for her for years. Priscilla states in her book: "He had mentioned to me before we were married that he had never been able to make love to a woman who had a child" and she later expressed the personal repercussions of their sexual dysfunction: "I am beginning to doubt my own sexuality as a woman. My physical and emotional needs were unfulfilled." After this incident, Priscilla summarized: "this was not the gentle, understanding man I grew to love."
Elvis and Priscilla separated on February 23, 1972, and filed for legal separation on July 26. To avoid Priscilla having to make her home address available on the public records and therefore risking the security of both her and Lisa Marie, Elvis filed for divorce on his 38th birthday, January 8, 1973. Later that month, Elvis reportedly became paranoid about Stone and said: "There's too much pain in me... Stone [must] die." His outbursts continued with such intensity that a physician was unable to calm him, even with large doses of medication. After another two days of raging, Elvis' friend and bodyguard, Red West, made inquiries to arrange a contract killing of Stone, but was relieved when Elvis said, "Aw hell, let's just leave it for now. Maybe it's a bit heavy." The divorce was finalized on October 9, 1973.
The couple agreed to share custody of their daughter and Priscilla was awarded an outright cash payment of $725,000 as well as spousal support, child support, 5% of Elvis' new publishing companies and half the income from the sale of their Beverly Hills home. Originally the couple had agreed upon a much smaller settlement; a $100,000 lump payment, $1,000 a month spousal support, and $500 a month child support. Priscilla was keen to make it on her own and prove that her marriage to Elvis was not about money. Soon afterwards, however, her new lawyers persuaded her to increase her demands, pointing out that a star of Elvis' stature could easily afford more for his former wife and child.
Priscilla and Elvis remained close, leaving the courthouse on the day of their divorce hand in hand.
Business
In 1973, after her split from Elvis, Presley set up a clothing boutique in Los Angeles called Bis & Beau with her friend and stylist Olivia Bis. Elvis was supportive of Priscilla's venture, and even contacted several friends in public relations to help with promotion for the launch. In a 1973 interview to promote the opening of the store, Priscilla said, "After the separation, I had to make up my mind about what I wanted to do, and since I had worked with Olivia for such a long time on my own clothes, I decided to try it professionally. We both do the designing for the shop, and have people who sew for us." The shop was a successful venture, with celebrity clients including Cher, Liza Minnelli, Lana Turner, Barbra Streisand, and Natalie Wood shopping there regularly. The shop closed in 1976.
After Elvis's death from polypharmacy in 1977, his father Vernon was one of the executors of his estate, which was held in trust for his daughter Lisa Marie. Vernon named Priscilla to be his successor upon his death. She assumed the role following Vernon's 1979 death. Graceland itself cost $500,000 a year in upkeep, and expenses had dwindled Lisa Marie's inheritance to only $1 million. Taxes due on the property and other expenses due came to over $500,000. Faced with having to sell Graceland, Priscilla examined other famous homes/museums. She hired a CEO, Jack Soden, to turn Graceland into a tourist attraction. Graceland was opened to the public on June 7, 1982. Presley's gamble paid off; only four weeks after opening Graceland's doors, the estate made back all the money it had invested. Priscilla became the chairwoman and president of Elvis Presley Enterprises (EPE), stating she would remain in the position until Lisa Marie reached 21 years of age. Under Presley's guidance, the enterprise's fortunes soared and eventually the trust grew to be worth over $100 million.
In 1988, Presley launched her own range of fragrances, and followed this up with a range of linen. She has also helped produce a couple of films, including Breakfast with Einstein and Finding Graceland. In September 2000, Presley was elected to the board of directors at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Always supportive, in 2015 Priscilla became the executive producer of a 14-track album titled If I Can Dream: Elvis Presley With the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. She states "If Elvis were here, he would be evolving and taking risks, seemingly like everybody else today." Also in that year the U.S. Postmaster General, Megan Brennan, and Priscilla Presley dedicated an Elvis "forever" stamp which featured a 1955 black and white shot by photographer William Speer. It was her second dedication of a USPS stamp. The first Elvis stamp, issued in 1993, was the most popular edition of stamps in the Postal Service history. Elvis became the first musical artist to be featured in two different collections of stamps.
On August 16, 2019, it was announced that she, in conjunction with John Eddie, as well as Sony Pictures, would create and produce "Agent King" a Netflix adult animated fictional series focussing on her former husband's nightly incursions as a spy for the US Government, while remaining a musician during the day.
Acting career
Hal B. Wallis, a Hollywood producer who had financed many of Elvis' earlier films, had shown an interest in signing Priscilla to a contract. Elvis, however, had no intentions of allowing his wife to have a career of any kind; in his opinion, albeit a very common one at the time, "a woman's place was in the home looking after her man". Priscilla had shown an interest in dancing and modeling, but her knowledge of Elvis' stance meant that she kept them as hobbies instead of pursuing them as careers. She did get the opportunity to model for a local store once, but when Elvis heard about it, he asked her to give it up.
Presley had originally been offered a role as one of the angels on Charlie's Angels. She turned down the role because she disliked the show. Priscilla made her television debut as co-host of Those Amazing Animals in 1980. In 1983, she got her first chance to act professionally on a season 2 episode of The Fall Guy titled "Manhunter". She then found a role in a television film titled Love is Forever, starring alongside Michael Landon. Although she was treated well by most of the cast and crew, and her acting was praised by several of her co-stars, she found Landon difficult to work with on set. After the television film aired, Presley landed the role of Jenna Wade in the soap opera Dallas. She was actually the third actress to play the role of Jenna, but played it for the longest. Presley left the show in 1988 after five years.
In 1988, Presley starred opposite Leslie Nielsen in The Naked Gun: From the Files of Police Squad! as Jane Spencer. Presley would go on to act in the next two movies in the series: The Naked Gun : The Smell of Fear (1991) and Naked Gun : The Final Insult (1994). In the late 1990s, she made guest appearances on a number of television series, including Melrose Place, Touched by an Angel, and Spin City.
Presley made her pantomime debut in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs at the New Wimbledon Theatre, Wimbledon, London, during Christmas of 2012, starring opposite Warwick Davis.
Charity work and activism
Since 2003, Presley has been the Ambassador of the Dream Foundation, a Santa Barbara-based wish-granting organization for terminally ill adults and their families.
Reports in the media in October 2017 that Presley had left the Church of Scientology were immediately denied by her. It was later further reported she distanced herself from the church, at the same time as Lisa, but did not leave the religion.
In 2013, Presley spoke out against the Tennessee Ag-Gag Bill in a letter to Tennessee Governor Bill Haslam. Presley cited her and Elvis' love of horses and expressed her concern that the bill would hinder animal cruelty investigations and reduce protections for horses and other farm animals.
Personal life
Presley has had a number of romantic relationships since her divorce from Elvis. Immediately afterwards, she lived with karate instructor Mike Stone, but the relationship dissolved by 1975. She then dated photographer Terry O'Neill, lawyer Robert Kardashian, hairdresser Elie Ezerzer and financier Kirk Kerkorian.
Beginning in 1978, Presley had a six-year intermittent live-in relationship with male model Michael Edwards, until he began developing feelings for the teenage Lisa Marie. Lisa Marie was aged 10 to 16 during his relationship with her mother. Edwards recounts the tale of their relationship in his book Priscilla, Elvis, and Me (1988), which discloses her liaisons with Julio Iglesias and Richard Gere in the early 1980s.
Presley's longest relationship has been with Brazilian screenwriter -turned-computer-programmer Marco Antonio Garcia (a.k.a. Marco Garibaldi), with whom she lived for 22 years. The two were introduced by a mutual friend in 1984 after he wrote a script that she read, hoping to produce. Their son, Navarone Garibaldi, was born on March 1, 1987. (Presley was starring in the primetime soap opera Dallas at the time and her pregnancy was written into the storyline.) In 2006, they ended their relationship. At the beginning of their romance, Presley ensured Garibaldi sign a promissory agreement that if they should break up, he would not write a book about her.
Between 2006 and 2009, Presley dated British TV executive Nigel Lythgoe. In the early 2010s she was linked to restaurateur Richie Palmer, ex-husband of Raquel Welch, as well as Australian entertainer Barry Crocker and disc jockey Toby Anstis.
In 2017 it was suspected by various news outlets that Presley was in a relationship with longtime friend, Welsh singer Tom Jones, who had become a widower the year before. In 2021, Jones commented on these rumors, stating that they have known each other since the 1960s and that they merely have a close friendship.
Filmography
Bibliography
Presley, Priscilla (1985). Elvis and Me. .
Presley, Priscilla; Presley, Lisa Marie (2005). Elvis by the Presleys. .
References
Notes
Clayton, Rose / Dick Heard (2003). Elvis: By Those Who Knew Him Best. Virgin Publishing Limited. .
Clutton, Helen (2004). Everything Elvis. .
Edwards, Michael (1988). Priscilla, Elvis and Me. .
Finstad, Suzanne (1997). Child Bride: The Untold Story of Priscilla Beaulieu Presley.
Goldman, Albert (1981). Elvis. .
Guralnick, Peter (1999). Careless Love. The Unmaking of Elvis Presley. Back Bay Books. .
Guralnick, Peter; Jorgensen, Ernst (1999). Elvis: Day by Day. .
Presley, Priscilla (1985). Elvis and Me. .
External links
Official Website
1945 births
20th-century American actresses
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American writers
21st-century American women writers
21st-century American writers
Actresses from New York City
American adoptees
American autobiographers
American expatriates in Germany
American film actresses
American people of English descent
American people of Norwegian descent
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American Scientologists
American soap opera actresses
American television actresses
Television personalities from New York City
American women television personalities
American women in business
Living people
People from Brooklyn
Television producers from New York City
Women autobiographers
American women television producers
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] |
208583
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa
|
Stoa
|
A stoa (; plural, stoas, stoai, or stoae ), in ancient Greek architecture, is a covered walkway or portico, commonly for public use. Early stoas were open at the entrance with columns, usually of the Doric order, lining the side of the building; they created a safe, enveloping, protective atmosphere.
Later examples were built as two stories, and incorporated inner colonnades usually in the Ionic style, where shops or sometimes offices were located. These buildings were open to the public; merchants could sell their goods, artists could display their artwork, and religious gatherings could take place. Stoas usually surrounded the marketplaces or agora of large cities and were used as a framing device.
Other examples were designed to create safe, protective atmospheres which combined useful inside and outside space. The name of the Stoic school of philosophy derives from "stoa".
Famous stoas
Stoa Poikile, "Painted Porch", from which the philosophy Stoicism takes its name
Stoa of Attalos
Stoa Basileios (Royal Stoa)
Stoa of Zeus at Athens
Stoa Amphiaraion
Stoa of the Athenians
Royal Stoa of Herod's Temple
See also
Arcade (architecture)
References
External links
YASOU
Ancient Greek buildings and structures
Colonnades
|
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208586
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie%20Corelli
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Marie Corelli
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Mary Mackay (1 May 185521 April 1924), known by her pseudonym Marie Corelli (, also , ), was an English novelist.
From the appearance of her first novel A Romance of Two Worlds in 1886, she became the bestselling fiction-writer in England, her works largely concerned with Christianity, reincarnation, astral projection and mysticism. Yet despite her many distinguished patrons, she was often ridiculed by critics. Corelli lived her later years in Stratford-upon-Avon, whose historic buildings she fought hard to preserve.
Life and writings
Early life
Mary Mackay was born in London to Elizabeth Mills, a servant of the Scottish poet and songwriter Dr Charles Mackay, her biological father. In 1866, eleven-year-old Mary was sent to a Parisian convent to further her education. She returned to Britain four years later in 1870.
Career
Mackay began her career as a musician, giving piano recitals and adopting the name Marie Corelli for her billing. Eventually she turned to writing and published her first novel, A Romance of Two Worlds, in 1886. In her time, she was the most widely read author of fiction. Her works were collected by Winston Churchill, Randolph Churchill, and members of the British Royal Family, among others. Yet although sales of Corelli's novels exceeded the combined sales of popular contemporaries, including Arthur Conan Doyle, H. G. Wells, and Rudyard Kipling, critics often derided her work as "the favourite of the common multitude".
She faced criticism from the literary elite for her allegedly melodramatic writing. In The Spectator, Grant Allen called her "a woman of deplorable talent who imagined that she was a genius, and was accepted as a genius by a public to whose commonplace sentimentalities and prejudices she gave a glamorous setting." James Agate represented her as combining "the imagination of a Poe with the style of an Ouida and the mentality of a nursemaid."
A recurring theme in Corelli's books is her attempt to reconcile Christianity with reincarnation, astral projection, and other mystical ideas. She was associated at some point with the Fraternitas Rosae Crucis; a Rosicrucian and mystical organization, and her books were a part of the foundation of today's corpus of esoteric philosophy. Her portrait was painted by Helen Donald-Smith.
Corelli famously had little time for the press. In 1902 she wrote to the editor of The Gentlewoman to complain that her name had been left out of a list of the guests in the Royal Enclosure at the Braemar Highland Gathering, saying she suspected this had been done intentionally. The editor replied that her name had indeed been left out intentionally, because of her own stated contempt for the press and for the snobbery of those wishing to appear in "news puffs" of society events. Both letters were published in full in the next issue.
The writer also gained some fame after her letter on the curse of the Pharaohs to New York World was published. Corelli claimed that she had warned George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon (one of the finders of the tomb of Tutankhamun) about the "dire punishment" likely to occur to those who rifle Egyptian tombs, claiming to cite an ancient book that indicated that poisons had been left after burials.
Personal life
Corelli spent her final years in Stratford-upon-Avon. There she fought hard for the preservation of Stratford's 17th-century buildings, and donated money to help their owners remove the plaster or brickwork that often covered their original timber-framed façades. Novelist Barbara Comyns Carr mentions Corelli's guest appearance at an exhibition of Anglo-Saxon items found at Bidford-on-Avon in 1923. Corelli's eccentricity became well known. She would boat on the Avon in a gondola, complete with a gondolier, whom she had brought over from Venice. In his autobiography, Mark Twain, who had a deep dislike of Corelli, describes visiting her in Stratford and how the meeting changed his perception.
For over forty years, Corelli lived with her companion, Bertha Vyver, to whom she left everything when she died. She did not identify herself as a lesbian, but several biographers and critics have noted the frequent erotic descriptions of female beauty that appear in her novels, although they are expressed by men.
Corelli was known to have expressed a genuine passion for the artist Arthur Severn, to whom she wrote daily letters from 1906 to 1917. Severn was the son of Joseph Severn and close friend of John Ruskin. In 1910, she and Severn collaborated on The Devil's Motor, with Severn providing illustrations for Corelli's story. Her love for the long-married painter, her only known romantic attachment to a man, remained unrequited; in fact Severn often belittled Corelli's success.
During the First World War, Corelli's personal reputation suffered when she was convicted of food hoarding.
She died in Stratford and is buried there in the Evesham Road cemetery. Later Bertha van der Vyver was buried alongside her.
Public image
Corelli was known to fabricate or exaggerate many details of her life. For example, she consistently claimed (in public and in private) that she had been seventeen years old when her first novel, A Romance of Two Worlds, was published in 1886, putting her year of birth at 1868 or 1869. This was repeated in contemporary biographies, though it is now believed that she was born in 1855. When she assumed the name "Marie Corelli" at the beginning of her career, she also took on a false backstory, writing to her first publisher, George Bentley, "I am Venetian and can trace myself back to the famous musician Arcangelo Corelli", and on other occasions claimed to descend from the Doges of Venice.
Corelli avoided being seen in public, and according to biographer Brian Masters, was possessed of a "positive terror of being photographed". She finally allowed a photograph of herself to be published as the frontispiece of her 1906 novel Treasure of Heaven, though it was apparently airbrushed to depict her as "a sweet young lady in her early twenties". Around the same time, Mark Twain wrote the following description of Corelli's appearance in his diary during a visit to Stratford:
She is about fifty years old but has no grey hairs; she is fat and shapeless; she has a gross animal face; she dresses for sixteen, and awkwardly and unsuccessfully and pathetically imitates the innocent graces and witcheries of that dearest and sweetest of all ages...
Legacy
Corelli is generally accepted to have been the inspiration for at least two of E. F. Benson's characters in his Lucia series of six novels and a short story. The main character, Emmeline "Lucia" Lucas, is a vain and snobbish woman of the upper middle class with an obsessive desire to be the leading light of her community, to associate with the nobility, and to see her name reported in the social columns, coupled with a comical pretension to education and musical talent, neither of which she possesses. She also pretends to be able to speak Italian, something Corelli was known to have done. Miss Susan Leg is a highly successful writer of pulp romances under the pseudonym Rudolph da Vinci. In E.F. Benson's "Secret Lives" a famous novelist Susan Leg, writes a book in which the heroine is another writer - Serena Lomond. This character is meant to be very similar to Susan herself, but in fact Serena Lomond is the spit of Mavis Clare in Marie Corelli's "The Sorrows of Satan". The character makes her appearance in Benson's work a few years after Marie Corelli's death in 1924.
A modern critic has written that Corelli was probably also the inspiration for "Rita's" (Eliza Humphreys's) main character in Diana of the Ephesians, which was published a year before E. F. Benson's first Lucia novel, and had been rejected by Hutchinson, which later published the "Lucia" Lucas novels.
In Chapter III of Bruce Marshall's The World, the Flesh and Father Smith, the protagonist – a Catholic priest – is in hospital, recovering from a wound. A nurse gives him a copy of Marie Corelli's Temporal Power, with the hope that the book would convert him to Protestantism. However, Father Smith finds the book "stupid and flamboyant", puts it aside and prays for Corelli, since "she really ought to have known better".
In 2007, the British film Angel, based on a book by Elizabeth Taylor, was released as a thinly-veiled biography of Corelli. The film starred Romola Garai in the Corelli role and also starred Sam Neill and Charlotte Rampling. It was directed by François Ozon, who stated, "The character of Angel was inspired by Marie Corelli, a contemporary of Oscar Wilde and Queen Victoria's favourite writer. Corelli was one of the first writers to become a star, writing bestsellers for an adoring public. Today she has been largely forgotten, even in England."
Works
Novels
References
Notes
Sources
Carr, Barbara Comyns, Sisters by a River (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1947; new edition by Virago Press 1985)
Coates, T. F. G. and R. S. Warren Bell. Marie Corelli: the Writer and the Woman. George W. Jacobs & Co.: Philadelphia, 1903. Reprinted 1969 by Health Research, Mokelume Hill, CA.
Lyons, Martyn. 2011. Books: a living history. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
Ransom, Teresa, The Mysterious Miss Marie Corelli: Queen of Victorian Bestsellers (2013)
Scott, William Stuart, Marie Corelli: the story of a friendship (London: Hutchinson, 1955)
Bibliography
Bigland, Eileen Marie Corelli, the woman and the legend: a biography, Jarrolds, London 1953
Coates, T. F. G. and R. S. Warren Bell. Marie Corelli: the Writer and the Woman, George W. Jacobs & Co.: Philadelphia, 1903. Reprinted 1969 by Health Research, Mokelume Hill, CA.
Federico, Annette R. Idol of Suburbia: Marie Corelli and Late-Victorian Literary Culture, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville, 2000
Masters, Brian Now Barabbas was a rotter: the extraordinary life of Marie Corelli, H. Hamilton, London, 1978
Ransom, Teresa The Mysterious Miss Marie Corelli: Queen of Victorian Bestsellers, Sutton, 1999
Scott, William Stuart, Marie Corelli: the story of a friendship, London: Hutchinson, 1955
Vyver, Bertha Memoirs of Marie Corelli, A. Rivers Ltd, 1930
Ayres, Brenda; Maier, Sarah E. (Ed.): Reinventing Marie Corelli for the twenty-first century, London, UK ; New York, NY : Anthem Press, 2019,
External links
Marie Corelli Collection at Yale University Music Library
Jessica Amanda Salmonson, Marie Corelli & her Occult Tales, 1998 (archived)
Marie Corelli Collection. General Collection. Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
Online editions
1855 births
1924 deaths
19th-century British novelists
19th-century British short story writers
19th-century English women writers
19th-century English writers
19th-century British women writers
20th-century English women writers
20th-century English novelists
20th-century British women writers
British women short story writers
English fantasy writers
English women novelists
Victorian novelists
Victorian women writers
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
Writers from London
People from Warwickshire
|
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208588
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Geschke
|
Charles Geschke
|
Charles Matthew "Chuck" Geschke (September 11, 1939 – April 16, 2021) was an American businessman and computer scientist best known for founding the graphics and publishing software company Adobe Inc. with John Warnock in 1982, and co-creating the PDF document format with John Warnock.
Early life and education
Charles Matthew Geschke was born in Cleveland, Ohio, on September 11, 1939. He attended Saint Ignatius High School.
Geschke earned an AB in classics in 1962 and an MS in mathematics in 1963, both from Xavier University. He taught mathematics at John Carroll University from 1963 to 1968. In 1972, he completed his PhD studies in computer science at Carnegie Mellon University under the advice of William Wulf. He was a co-author of Wulf's 1975 book The Design of an Optimizing Compiler.
Career
Geschke started working at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in October 1972. His first project was to build a mainframe computer. Afterward, he worked on programming languages and developed tools that were used to build the Xerox Star workstation.
In 1978, Geschke started the Imaging Sciences Laboratory at PARC, and conducted research in the areas of graphics, optics, and image processing. He hired John Warnock, and together they developed Interpress, a page description language (PDL) that could describe forms as complex as typefaces. Unable to convince Xerox management of the commercial value of Interpress, the two left Xerox to start their own company.
Adobe
Geschke and Warnock founded Adobe in Warnock's garage in 1982, naming the company after the Adobe Creek that ran behind Warnock's home. Interpress eventually evolved into PostScript. Its use on Apple computers resulted in one of the first desktop publishing (DTP) systems which allowed users to compose documents on a personal computer and see them on screen exactly as they would appear in print, a process known as WYSIWYG, an acronym for What You See Is What You Get. Previously, graphic designers had been forced to view their work in text-only format while they worked, until they printed, or hit "print preview". Because of the high quality and speed at which printing and composing could be done in WYSIWYG, the innovation "spawned an entire industry" in modern printing and publishing.
From December 1986 until July 1994 Geschke was Adobe's Chief Operating Officer, and from April 1989 until April 2000 he was the company's president. Geschke retired as president of Adobe in 2000, shortly before his partner Warnock left as CEO. Geschke had also served as Co-Chairman of the Board of Adobe from September 1997 to 2017.
Adobe was mentioned in Forbes 400 Best Big Companies in 2009, and was ranked 1,069th on the Forbes Global 2000 list in 2010.
1992 kidnapping
On the morning of May 26, 1992, as Geschke was arriving for work in Mountain View, California, he was kidnapped at gunpoint from the Adobe parking lot by two men, Mouhannad Albukhari, 26, of San Jose, and Jack Sayeh, 25, of Campbell. A spokesperson for the FBI reported that the agency had monitored phone calls that the kidnappers had made to Geschke's wife, demanding a ransom. The spokesperson added that Albukhari had been arrested after he had picked up the $650,000 ransom that Geschke's daughter had left at a drop-off point. An FBI agent explained that, "[a]fter a gentlemanly discussion", Albukhari had brought them to a bungalow in Hollister, where Sayeh had been holding Geschke hostage. Geschke was released unhurt after being held for four days, although he stated that he had been chained. The two kidnappers were eventually sentenced to life terms in state prison.
Awards
In 1999, Geschke was inducted as a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM).
In 2002, he was made a fellow of the Computer History Museum for "his accomplishments in the commercialization of desktop publishing with John Warnock and for innovations in scalable type, computer graphics and printing."
In October 2006, Geschke, along with co-founder John Warnock received the annual AeA Medal of Achievement, making them the first software executives to receive this award. In 2008 he received the Computer Entrepreneur Award from the IEEE Computer Society. He also won the 2008 National Medal of Technology and Innovation, awarded by President Barack Obama. On October 15, 2010, the Marconi Society co-awarded Geschke and Warnock the Marconi Prize.
On Sunday, May 20, 2012, Geschke delivered the commencement speech at John Carroll University in University Heights, Ohio, where he had been a mathematics professor early in his career and was awarded an honorary doctorate of Humane Letters.
Affiliations
Geschke served on the boards of the San Francisco Symphony, the National Leadership Roundtable on Church Management, the Commonwealth Club of California, Tableau Software, the Egan Maritime Foundation, and the Nantucket Boys and Girls Club. He was also a member of the computer science advisory board at Carnegie Mellon University.
In 1995, he was elected to the National Academy of Engineering. In 2008, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2010, he completed his term as Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the University of San Francisco. In 2012, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.
Personal life
Geschke was a Catholic and met his wife Nancy "Nan" McDonough at a religious conference on social action in the spring of 1961. They married in 1964. Both were graduates of Catholic institutions. In 2012 they received the St. Elizabeth Ann Seton Award from the National Catholic Educational Association (NCEA) for their contributions to Catholic education.
Geschke's mother was a bankruptcy court paralegal. Both Geschke's father and paternal grandfather worked as letterpress photo engravers. Geschke's father helped during the early days of Adobe by checking color separation work with his engraver's loupe. Geschke described his father's acknowledgment of the high quality of the halftone patterns as "a wonderful moment".
Death
Geschke, a longtime resident of Los Altos, died on April 16, 2021, at the age of 81. The cause of death was cancer.
He is survived by his wife, three children and seven grandchildren.
References
External links
Biography at Computer History Museum
Biography on Adobe Web site
Los Altos Town Crier: A dramatic kidnapping revisited (part 1/4)
Los Altos Town Crier: Two days of terror, uncertainty (part 2/4)
Los Altos Town Crier: Chuck's dramatic rescue (part 3/4)
Los Altos Town Crier: Aftermath of a kidnapping (part 4/4)
Driving Adobe: Co-founder Charles Geschke on Challenges, Change and Values interview of Charles Geschke's roles in Adobe
Image of Charles Geschke
Online Copy of Geschke's PhD Thesis
Publications on DBLP
Profile at the ACM Digital Library
The Legacy Of Chuck Geschke, Co-Founder Of Adobe April 26, 2021 Obituary on All Things Considered
American technology company founders
Engineers from California
1939 births
2021 deaths
Adobe Inc. people
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
National Medal of Technology recipients
Carnegie Mellon University alumni
Saint Ignatius High School (Cleveland) alumni
Xavier University alumni
Businesspeople from Cleveland
Scientists from Cleveland
People from Los Altos, California
Scientists at PARC (company)
Catholics from California
Members of the American Philosophical Society
|
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208589
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor%20of%20India
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Emperor of India
|
Emperor or Empress of India was a title used by British monarchs from 1 May 1876 (with the Royal Titles Act 1876) to 22 June 1948, that was used to signify their rule over British India, as its imperial head of state. The image of the emperor or empress was used to signify British authority—his or her profile, for instance, appearing on currency, in government buildings, railway stations, courts, on statues etc. "God Save the King" (or, alternatively, "God Save the Queen") was the former national anthem of British India. Oaths of allegiance were made to the emperor or empress and the lawful successors by the governors-general, princes, governors, commissioners in India in events such as imperial durbars.
The title was abolished on 22 June 1948, when, under the Indian Independence Act 1947, George VI made a royal proclamation that the words Emperor of India were to be omitted from his style and titles. This was almost a year after he had become king of the new dominions of India and Pakistan in 1947. The monarchies were abolished on the establishment of the Republic of India in 1950 and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan in 1956.
Role
The emperor or empress took little direct part in government. The exercise of sovereign powers was delegated from the emperor or empress, either by statute or by convention, to the viceroy and governor-general of India who were appointed by the emperor or empress, or to offices such as the secretary of state for India. The appointed Viceroy and Governor-General was also the ex-officio head of the Imperial Legislative Council, and its two houses, the Central Legislative Assembly and the Council of State as the delegation on behalf of the emperor or empress, along with the governors of provinces. They performed these duties with the advice and consent of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and the Government of India.
Executive power was exercised by His/Her Imperial Majesty's Government in the presidencies and provinces (via the viceroy and governor-general) and the princely states via suzerainty. They had the support of the Armed Forces in India, such as the British Indian Army and Royal Indian Navy, the Indian Civil Service and other Crown Servants Secret Services (as the emperor or empress received certain foreign intelligence reports before the viceroy did).
Judicial power was vested in the various Crown Courts in India, which by statute had judicial independence from the Government.
Powers independent of government were legally granted to other public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council or a Royal Commission.
History
After the nominal Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was deposed at the conclusion of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (10 May 1857 – 1 November 1858), the government of the United Kingdom decided to transfer control of British India and its princely states from the mercantile East India Company (EIC) to the Crown, thus marking the beginning of the British Raj. The EIC was officially dissolved on 1 June 1874, and the British prime minister, Benjamin Disraeli, decided to offer Queen Victoria the title "empress of India" shortly afterwards. Victoria accepted this style on 1 May 1876. The first Delhi Durbar (which served as an imperial coronation) was held in her honour eight months later on 1 January 1877.
The idea of having Queen Victoria proclaimed empress of India was not particularly new, as Lord Ellenborough had already suggested it in 1843 upon becoming the governor-general of India. By 1874, Major-General Sir Henry Ponsonby, the Queen's private secretary, had ordered English charters to be scrutinised for imperial titles, with Edgar and Stephen mentioned as sound precedents. The Queen, possibly irritated by the sallies of the republicans, the tendency to democracy, and the realisation that her influence was manifestly on the decline, was urging the move. Another factor may have been that the Queen's first child, Victoria, was married to Frederick, the heir apparent to the German Empire. Upon becoming empress, she would outrank her mother. By January 1876, the Queen's insistence was so great that Benjamin Disraeli felt that he could procrastinate no longer. Initially, Victoria had considered the style "Empress of Great Britain, Ireland, and India", but Disraeli had persuaded the Queen to limit the title to India in order to avoid controversy. Hence, the title Kaisar-i-Hind was coined in 1876 by the orientalist G.W. Leitner as the official imperial title for the British monarch in India. The term Kaisar-i-Hind means emperor of India in the vernacular of the Hindi and Urdu languages. The word kaisar, meaning 'emperor', is a derivative of the Roman imperial title caesar (via Persian, Turkish – see Kaiser-i-Rum), and is cognate with the German title Kaiser, which was borrowed from the Latin at an earlier date.
Many in the United Kingdom, however, regarded the assumption of the title as an obvious development from the Government of India Act 1858, which resulted in the founding of British India, ruled directly by the Crown. The public were of the opinion that the title of "queen" was no longer adequate for the ceremonial ruler of what was often referred to informally as the Indian Empire. The new styling underlined the fact that the native states were no longer a mere agglomeration but a collective entity.
When Edward VII ascended to the throne on 22 January 1901, he continued the imperial tradition laid down by his mother, Queen Victoria, by adopting the title Emperor of India. Three subsequent British monarchs followed in his footsteps, and the title continued to be used after India and Pakistan had become independent on 15 August 1947. It was not until 22 June 1948 that the style was officially abolished during the reign of George VI.
The first emperor to visit India was George V. For his imperial coronation ceremony at the Delhi Durbar, the Imperial Crown of India was created. The Crown weighs and is set with 6,170 diamonds, 9 emeralds, 4 rubies, and 4 sapphires. At the front is a very fine emerald weighing . The king wrote in his diary that it was heavy and uncomfortable to wear: "Rather tired after wearing my crown for hours; it hurt my head, as it is pretty heavy."
When signing off Indian business, the British king-emperors or queen-empress used the initials R I (Rex/Regina Imperator/Imperatrix) or the abbreviation Ind. Imp. (Indiae Imperator/Imperatrix) after their name (while Victoria used the initials R I, empresses consort simply used R). When a male monarch held the title, his wife used the style queen-empress, in right of her husband.
The title "Emperor of India" did not disappear when British India became the Dominion of India (1947–1950) and Dominion of Pakistan (1947–1952) after independence in 1947. George VI retained the title until 22 June 1948, the date of a Royal Proclamation made in accordance with Section 7 (2) of the Indian Independence Act 1947, reading: "The assent of the Parliament of the United Kingdom is hereby given to the omission from the Royal Style and Titles of the words "Indiae Imperator" and the words "Emperor of India" and to the issue by His Majesty for that purpose of His Royal Proclamation under the Great Seal of the Realm."
Thereafter George VI remained monarch of Pakistan until his death in 1952 and of India until it became the Republic of India in 1950.
British coins, as well as those of the Empire and the Commonwealth, had routinely included the abbreviated title Ind. Imp. Coins in India, on the other hand, had the word "empress", and later "king-emperor" in English. The title appeared on coinage in the United Kingdom throughout 1948.
List of emperors and empresses
Notes
Citations
British monarchy
Heads of state of India
History of Pakistan
India and the Commonwealth of Nations
Pakistan and the Commonwealth of Nations
United Kingdom and the Commonwealth of Nations
Imperial titles
Commonwealth royal styles
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] |
208590
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Jackson%20%28disambiguation%29
|
Michael Jackson (disambiguation)
|
Michael Jackson (1958–2009) was an American singer, songwriter and dancer known as the "King of Pop".
Michael Jackson, Mike Jackson, or Mick Jackson may also refer to:
People
Entertainment industry
Michael Jackson (radio commentator) (1934–2022), American radio talk show host, KABC and KGIL, Los Angeles
Michael Jackson (writer) (1942–2007), Beer Hunter show host, beer and whisky expert
Mick Jackson (director) (born 1943), British film and TV director, known for The Bodyguard
Michael J. Jackson (born 1948), English actor from Liverpool, best known for his role in Brookside
Michael Jackson (television executive) (born 1958), British television executive
Mick Jackson (author) (born 1960), British writer, known for The Underground Man
Mike Jackson (photographer) (born 1966), British abstract and landscape photographer, known for Poppit Sands images
Michael Jackson (actor) (born 1970), Canadian actor
Mike Jackson (film producer) (born 1972), American film producer and talent manager
Michael R. Jackson, American playwright, composer, and lyricist
Musicians
Mike Jackson (musician) (1888–1945), American jazz pianist and composer
Mike Jackson (Australian entertainer) (born 1946), Australian multi-instrumentalist, songwriter and children's entertainer
Mick Jackson (singer) (born 1947), English singer-songwriter
Michael Gregory (jazz guitarist) (born 1953), American jazz guitarist, born Michael Gregory Jackson
Mike and Michelle Jackson, Australian multi-instrumental duo
Michael Jackson (English singer) (born 1964), British singer with the heavy metal band Satan/Pariah
Oh No (musician) or Michael Jackson (born 1978), American rapper
Michael Lee Jackson, guitarist
Military and militants
Michael Jackson (American soldier) (1734–1801), soldier from Massachusetts, wounded at Bunker Hill
Mike Jackson (British Army officer) (born 1944), former head of the British Army
Salman Raduyev or Michael Jackson (1967–2002), Chechen warlord
Politicians and officials
Mike Jackson (Texas politician) (born 1953), Republican member of the Texas Senate
Michael P. Jackson (born 1954), U.S. Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security, 2005–2007
Michael W. Jackson (born 1963), Alabama District Attorney
Michael A. Jackson (politician) (born 1964), from Prince George's County, Maryland
Mike Jackson (Oklahoma politician) (born 1978), member of the Oklahoma House of Representatives
Sportspeople
Mike Jackson (footballer, born 1939), Scottish footballer and manager
Mike Jackson (left-handed pitcher) (born 1946), American baseball player
Mike Jackson (basketball) (born 1949), American ABA pro basketball player (1972–1976)
Michael Jackson (linebacker) (born 1957), American NFL linebacker (1979–1986)
Michael Jackson (footballer, born 1963), Brazilian association footballer
Michael Jackson (basketball) (born 1964), American NBA pro basketball player, Sacramento Kings (1987–1990)
Mike Jackson (right-handed pitcher) (born 1964), American baseball player
Michael Jackson (wide receiver) (1969–2017), American politician and NFL wide receiver
Michael Jackson (rugby league) (born 1969), rugby league footballer for Great Britain, Wakefield Trinity, Halifax
Mike Jackson (footballer, born 1973), English association football player
Michael Jackson (footballer, born 1980), English footballer
Mike Jackson Sr. (born 1997), American football cornerback
Mike Jackson (wrestler) (born 1949), American professional wrestler
Other people
Michael James Jackson (1925–1995), priest and Canon in the Church of England; see St George's Minster, Doncaster
Michael A. Jackson (computer scientist) (born 1936), developer of software development methods
Michael Jackson (anthropologist) (born 1940), New Zealand, professor of social anthropology and writer
Mike Jackson (automotive) (born 1949), former CEO of Mercedes-Benz USA and CEO of AutoNation
Mike Jackson (systems scientist) (born 1951), British organizational theorist and consultant
Michael Jackson (murderer) (born 1954), American convicted murderer
Mike Jackson (retailing) (born 1954), former president and COO of Supervalu
Michael Jackson (bishop) (born 1956), Church of Ireland Archbishop of Dublin, Ireland, since 2011
Michael Jackson (journalist), Niuean journalist and former politician
Michael Jackson, American criminal with Tiffany Cole
Characters
Mike Jackson (character), a character in the Psmith books by P. G. Wodehouse
Songs
"Michael Jackson", a song by Cash Cash from The Beat Goes On
"Michael Jackson", a song by Das Racist from Relax
"Michael Jackson", a song by Fatboy Slim, B-side of "Going Out of My Head"
"Michael Jackson", a song by The Mitchell Brothers
"Michael Jackson", a song by Negativland from Escape from Noise
See also
Michael L. Jackson (disambiguation)
Jackson (disambiguation)
Jackson (name)
Michael (disambiguation)
Mitchell Jackson (disambiguation)
Jackson, Michael
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire
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Ibrahim of the Ottoman Empire
|
Ibrahim (; ; ; 5 November 1615 – 18 August 1648) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1640 until 1648. He was born in İstanbul, the son of Ahmed I by Valide Kösem Sultan, an ethnic Greek originally named Anastasia.
He was called "Deli Ibrahim" ("Ibrahim the Mad") due to his mental condition and behavior. However Scott Rank notes that his opponents spread rumors of the sultan's insanity, and some historians suggest he was more incompetent than mad.
Early life
Ibrahim was born on 5 November 1615, the son of Sultan Ahmed I and his favorite concubine who later became his legal wife, Kösem Sultan. When Ibrahim was 2, his father suddenly died, and Ibrahim's uncle Mustafa I became the new sultan. By that time, Kosem Sultan and her children, including young Ibrahim had been sent to the Old Palace. After the succession of his brother Murad IV, Ibrahim was confined in the Kafes, which affected his health. Ibrahim's other brothers Şehzade Bayezid, Şehzade Suleiman and Şehzade Kasım had been executed by the order of Sultan Murad IV, and because of that Ibrahim feared that he was next in the line. However, after his brother's death, Ibrahim became the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
Reign
Accession
One of the most notorious Ottoman Sultans, Ibrahim spent all of his early life in the close confinement of the Kafes before succeeding his brother Murad IV (1623–40) in 1640. Two of their brothers had been executed by Murad, and Ibrahim lived in terror of being the next to die. His life was saved only by the intercession of Kösem Sultan, mother of Ibrahim and Murad.
After Murad's death, Ibrahim was left the sole surviving prince of the dynasty. Upon being asked by Grand Vizier Kemankeş Kara Mustafa Pasha to assume the Sultanate, Ibrahim suspected Murad was still alive and plotting to trap him. It took the combined persuasion of Kösem and the Grand Vizier, and personal examination of his brother's dead body, to make Ibrahim accept the throne.
Early years as the Sultan
During the early years of Ibrahim's reign, he retreated from politics and turned increasingly to his harem for comfort and pleasure. During his sultanate, the harem achieved new levels of luxury in perfumes, textiles and jewellery. His love of women and furs led him to have a room entirely lined with lynx and sable. Because of his infatuation with furs, the French dubbed him "Le Fou de' Fourrures." Kösem Sultan kept her son in check by supplying him with virgins she personally purchased from the slave market, as well as overweight women, for whom he craved. In one instance, when Ibrahim allegedly tried to rape a concubine, the concubine spurned him and threatened to stab him with a dagger if he persisted. Their struggle was overheard by Kösem Sultan, who reprimanded Ibrahim and allowed the woman to escape the harem.
Kara Mustafa Pasha remained as Grand Vizier during the first four years of Ibrahim's reign, keeping the Empire stable. With the treaty of Szön (15 March 1642) he renewed peace with Austria and during the same year recovered Azov from the Cossacks. Kara Mustafa also stabilized the currency with coinage reform, sought to stabilize the economy with a new land-survey, reduced the number of Janissaries, removed non-contributing members from the state payrolls, and curbed the power of disobedient provincial governors. During these years, Ibrahim showed concern with properly ruling the empire, as shown in his handwritten communications with the Grand Vizier. Kara Mustafa in turn wrote a memo on public affairs to coach his inexperienced master. Ibrahim's replies to Kara Mustafa's reports show he had actually received a good education. Ibrahim often traveled in disguise, inspecting the markets of Istanbul and ordering the Grand Vizier to correct any problems he observed.
Decadence and crisis
Ibrahim was often distracted by recurring headaches and attacks of physical weakness, perhaps caused by the trauma of his early years. Since he was the only surviving male member of the Ottoman dynasty, Ibrahim was encouraged by his mother Kösem Sultan to distract himself with harem girls and soon fathered three future sultans: Mehmed IV, Suleiman II and Aḥmed II. The distractions of the harem allowed Kösem Sultan to gain power and rule in his name, yet even she fell victim to the Sultan's disfavor and left the Imperial Palace.
Ibrahim came under the influence of various unsuitable people such as mistress of the imperial harem Şekerpare Hatun and the charlatan Cinci Hoca, who pretended to cure the Sultan's physical ailments. The latter, along with his allies Silahdar Yusuf Agha and Sultanzade Mehmed Pasha, enriched themselves with bribes and eventually usurped enough power to secure the execution of Grand Vizier Ḳara Muṣṭafā. Cinci Hoca became Kadiasker (High Judge) of Anatolia, Yusuf Agha was made Kapudan Pasha (Grand Admiral) and Sultanzade Mehmed became Grand Vizier.
In 1644, Maltese corsairs seized a ship carrying high-status pilgrims to Mecca. Since the pirates had docked in Crete, Kapudan Yusuf Pasha encouraged Ibrahim to invade the island. This began a long war with Venice that lasted 24 years—Crete would not completely fall under Ottoman domination until 1669. In spite of the decline of La Serenissima, Venetian ships won victories throughout the Aegean, capturing Tenedos (1646) and blockading the Dardanelles. Kapudan Yusuf enjoyed temporary success in conquering Canea, starting a jealous rivalry with the Grand Vizier that led to his execution (January 1646) and the Grand Vizier's deposition (December 1645).
With his cronies in power, Ibrahim's extravagant tendencies went unchecked. He raised eight concubines to the favored position of haseki (royal consort), granting each riches and land. After legally marrying the concubine Telli Haseki, he ordered the palace of Ibrahim Pasha to be carpeted in sable furs and given to her.
Deposition and execution
Mass discontent was caused by the Venetian blockade of the Dardanelles—which created scarcities in the capital—and the imposition of heavy taxes during a war economy to pay for Ibrahim's whims. In 1647 the Grand Vizier Salih Pasha, Kösem Sultan, and the şeyhülislam Abdürrahim Efendi unsuccessfully plotted to depose the sultan and replace him with one of his sons. Salih Pasha was executed and Kösem Sultan was exiled from the harem.
The next year the Janissaries and members of the ulema revolted. On 8 August 1648, corrupt Grand Vizier Aḥmed Pasha was strangled and torn to shreds by an angry mob, gaining the posthumous nickname "Hezarpare" ("thousand pieces"). On the same day, Ibrahim was seized and imprisoned in Topkapı Palace. Kösem gave consent to her son's fall, saying "In the end he will leave neither you nor me alive. We will lose control of the government. The whole society is in ruins. Have him removed from the throne immediately."
Ibrahim's six-year-old son Meḥmed was made sultan. The new grand vizier, Ṣofu Meḥmed Pasha, petitioned the sheikh ul-Islam for a fatwā sanctioning Ibrahim's execution. It was granted, with the message "if there are two caliphs, kill one of them." Kösem also gave her consent. Two executioners were sent for; one being the chief executioner who served under Ibrahim. As the executioners drew closer, it was reported that Ibrahim's last words were: "Is there no one among those who have eaten my bread who will take pity on me and protect me? These cruel men have come to kill me. Mercy! Mercy!" As his mother, Kösem Sultan, and officials watched from a palace window, Ibrahim was strangled on 18 August 1648. His death was the second regicide in the history of the Ottoman Empire.
Personal life
Ibrahim, according to some sources, was obsessed with larger women, and he would direct his officers to find the fattest women in his empire so that he could add them to his large harem as concubines.
Ibrahim (in some sources) is said to have drowned 280 concubines of his harem in the Bosphorus. At least one of his concubines, Turhan Sultan, a Rus' girl (from the area around modern Ukraine) who came into the Ottoman Empire as a slave sold by Nogai slavers, survived his reign.
Consorts
All of Ibrahim's Hasekis received 1,000 aspers a day except for Aşub Sultan who received 1,300 aspers a day. Ibrahim gifted the incomes of Bolu, Hamid, Nicopolis Sanjaks, and Syria Eyalet to Aşub, Mahienver, Saçbağı, and Şivekar Sultans respectively. He also lavished the treasury of Egypt upon Saçbağı and Hümaşah Sultans, and presented the Ibrahim Pasha Palace to Hümaşah. His consorts were:
Turhan Sultan, first Haseki, and the mother of Mehmed IV;
Muazzez Sultan, second Haseki, and the mother of Ahmed II;
Saliha Dilaşub Sultan, third Haseki, and the mother of Suleiman II;
Ayşe Sultan, the fourth Haseki;
Mahienver Sultan, fifth Haseki;
Saçbağı Sultan, sixth Haseki;
Şivekar Sultan, seventh Haseki;
Hümaşah Sultan, eighth Haseki, also known as Telli Haseki, Ibrahim's only legal wife, married in 1647;
Sons
Mehmed IV (2 January 1642 – 6 January 1693) – with Turhan Sultan;
Suleiman II (15 April 1642 – 22/23 June 1691) – with Aşub Sultan;
Ahmed II (25 February 1643 – 6 February 1695) – with Muazzez Sultan;
Şehzade Murad (22 March 1643 – 16 January 1645);
Şehzade Selim (19 March 1644 – October 1669);
Şehzade Osman (August 1644 – 1646);
Şehzade Bayezid (1 May 1646 – August 1647);
Şehzade Cihangir (14 December 1646 – 1 December 1648);
Şehzade Orhan (October 1648 – January 1650) – with Hümaşah Sultan.
Daughters
Ibrahim had several daughters, including the following :
Fatma Sultan (1642–1657), married firstly, January 1645, Musahip Silahdar Yusuf Pasha (executed 22 January 1646), Admiral of the Fleet and Vizier, married secondly, 23 February 1646, Fazlı Pasha (died 1657), Admiral of the Fleet;
Gevherhan Sultan (1642, Constantinople – 21 September 1694, Edirne, buried in Şehzade Mosque), married firstly, 23 November 1646, Cafer Pasha, married secondly, Çavușzade Mehmed Pasha (died 1681), Admiral of the Fleet and Vizier, married thirdly on 13 January 1692, Helvacı Yusuf Pasha (died 1714);
Beyhan Sultan (1645 – 5 March 1701, Istanbul, buried in Süleyman I Mausoleum, Süleymaniye Mosque), married firstly, 1647, Hezarpare Ahmed Pasha (murdered 1648), Grand Vizier 1647–1648, married secondly, Uzun Ibrahim Pasha (died 1683), married thirdly on 13 March 1691, Bıyıklı Mustafa Pasha (died 1699);
Atike Sultan (Topkapı Palace, 1646 – 1686, Istanbul, buried in the mausoleum of Hagia Sophia )married firstly 1648, Sarı Kenan Pasha (executed 1659), married secondly 1659, Mostarlı Ismail Pasha (died 1666)
At one point Ibrahim took a great liking to the infant son of a slave woman, to the extent of preferring the unrelated child to his son Mehmed. Turhan, Mehmed's mother, grew extremely jealous and vented her anger to Ibrahim, who flew into a rage and grabbed Mehmed from Turhan's arms and threw him into a pool. Mehmed would have drowned if a servant had not rescued him. He was left with a permanent scar on his forehead.
In popular culture
The tragic play Ibrahim, the Thirteenth Emperor of the Turks, written by Mary Pix and first performed in 1699, purported to describe incidents in Ibrahim's life. The numbering is correct only if Mehmed the Conqueror is regarded as the First Emperor, and the disputed reign of his son Cem is counted as well.
In the Turkish series, Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem he is portrayed by actor Ridvan Aybars Duzey as a prince and by Tugay Mercan as a Sultan.
References
Further reading
Rank, Scott. History's 9 Most Insane Rulers (2020) ch 4.
External links
1615 births
1648 deaths
Turks of the Ottoman Empire
17th-century Ottoman sultans
Assassinated people of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman sultans born to Greek mothers
Royalty and nobility with disabilities
Ottoman dynasty
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed%20IV
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Mehmed IV
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Mehmed IV (; ; 2 January 1642 – 6 January 1693) also known as Mehmed the Hunter () was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1648 to 1687. He came to the throne at the age of six after his father was overthrown in a coup. Mehmed went on to become the second longest reigning sultan in Ottoman history after Suleiman the Magnificent. While the initial and final years of his reign were characterized by military defeat and political instability, during his middle years he oversaw the revival of the empire's fortunes associated with the Köprülü era. Mehmed IV was known by contemporaries as a particularly pious ruler, and was referred to as gazi, or "holy warrior" for his role in the many conquests carried out during his long reign.
Under Mehmed IV's reign the empire reached the height of its territorial expansion in Europe. From a young age he developed a keen interest in hunting, for which he is known as avcı (translated as "the Hunter"). In 1687, Mehmed was overthrown by soldiers disenchanted by the course of the ongoing War of the Holy League. He subsequently retired to Edirne, where he resided until his natural death in 1693.
Early life
Born at Topkapı Palace, Constantinople, in 1642, Mehmed was the son of Sultan Ibrahim (r. 1640–48) by Turhan Sultan, a concubine of Ukrainian origin, and the grandson of Kösem Sultan of Greek origin. Soon after his birth, his father and mother quarreled, and Ibrahim was so enraged that he tore Mehmed from his mother's arms and flung the infant into a cistern. Mehmed was rescued by the harem servants. However, this left Mehmed with a lifelong scar on his head.
Reign
Accession
Mehmed ascended to the throne in 1648 at the age of six, during a very volatile time for the Ottoman dynasty. On 21 October 1649, Mehmed along with his brothers Suleiman and Ahmed were circumcised. The empire faced palace intrigues as well as uprisings in Anatolia, the defeat of the Ottoman navy by the Venetians outside the Dardanelles, and food shortages leading to riots in Constantinople. It was under these circumstances that Mehmed's mother granted Köprülü Mehmed Pasha full executive powers as Grand Vizier. Köprülü took office on 14 September 1656. Mehmed IV presided over the Köprülü era, an exceptionally stable period of Ottoman history. Mehmed is known as Avcı, "the Hunter", as this outdoor exercise took up much of his time.
Wars
Mehmed's reign is notable for a revival of Ottoman fortunes led by the Grand Vizier Köprülü Mehmed and his son Fazıl Ahmed. They regained the Aegean islands from Venice, and Crete, during the Cretan War (1645–1669). They also fought successful campaigns against Transylvania (1660) and Poland (1670–1674). When Mehmed IV accepted the vassalage of Petro Doroshenko, Ottoman rule extended into Podolia and Right-bank Ukraine. His next vizier, Köprülü Mehmed's adopted son Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa, led campaigns against Russia, conquering Chyhyryn in 1678. He next supported the 1683 Hungarian uprising of Imre Thököly against Austrian rule, marching a vast army through Hungary and besieged Vienna. At the Battle of Vienna on the Kahlenberg Heights, the Ottomans suffered a catastrophic rout by Polish-Lithuanian forces famously led by King John III Sobieski (1674–96), and his allies, notably the Imperial army.
In 1672 and 1673, the sultan, who embarked on two Polish-Lithuanian campaigns with serdar-ı ekrem and Grand Vizier Fazıl Ahmed Pasha, and the acquisition of the Kamaniçi Castle, returned to Edirne after the signing of the Bucaş Treaty.
Fire of 1660
The fire of 4–5 July 1660 was the worst conflagration the Ottoman city had experienced to that date. It started in Eminönü and spread to most of the historic peninsula, burning much of the city. Even the minarets of Suleiman I's mosque burned. Two-thirds of Istanbul was turned to ash in the conflagration, as many as forty thousand people were killed. Thousands died in the famine and plague which followed the fire. Following the fire, the dynasty expelled Jews from a wide swath of Istanbul, confiscated their synagogues and homes so that in their place the Yeni Cami (New Mosque) and the Spice Bazaar (Egyptian Market) could be built.
Great Turkish War
On 12 September 1683, the Austrians and their Polish-Lithuanian allies under King John III Sobieski won the Battle of Vienna with a devastating flank attack led by Sobieski's Polish cavalry. The Turks retreated into Hungary, however this was only the beginning of the Great Turkish War, as the armies of the Holy League began their successful campaign to push the Ottomans back to the Balkans.
Later life and death
In May 1675, Mehmed IV's sons Mustafa II and Ahmed III were circumcised and his daughter Hatice Sultan was married. The empire celebrated it with Famous Edirne Festival to mark the occasion. Silahdar Findikli Mehmed Aga described Mehmed as a medium-sized, stocky, white-skinned, sun-burnt face, with a sparse beard, leaning forward from the waist up because he rides a lot.
1680 witnessed the only known stoning to death of a woman convicted for adultery in Ottoman Istanbul. The unnamed woman was stoned to death on Istanbul's Hippodrome after allegedly being caught alone with a Jewish man, violating Ottoman law which forbade sexual relations between Christian or Jewish men and Muslim women. Mehmed IV witnessed the double execution: he offered the man conversion to Islam so as to avoid being stoned to death (he was beheaded instead).
After the second Battle of Mohács (1687), the Ottoman Empire fell into deep crisis. There was a mutiny among the Ottoman troops. The commander and Grand Vizier, Sarı Süleyman Pasha, became frightened that he would be killed by his own troops and fled from his command, first to Belgrade and then to Istanbul. When the news of the defeat and the mutiny arrived in Istanbul in early September, Abaza Siyavuş Pasha was appointed as the commander and soon afterward as the Grand Vizier. However, before he could take over his command, the whole Ottoman Army had disintegrated and the Ottoman household troops (Janissaries and sipahis) started to return to their base in Istanbul under their own lower-rank officers. Sarı Suleiman Pasha was executed, and Sultan Mehmed IV appointed the commander of Istanbul Straits, Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Pasha, as the Grand Vizier's regent in Istanbul. Fazıl Mustafa made consultations with the leaders of the army that existed and the other leading Ottoman statesmen.
After these, on 8 November 1687, it was decided to depose Sultan Mehmed IV and to enthrone his brother Suleiman II as the new Sultan. Mehmed was deposed by the combined forces of Yeğen Osman and the Janissaries. Mehmed was then imprisoned in Topkapı Palace. However, he was permitted to leave the Palace from time to time, as he died in Edirne Palace in 1693. He was buried in Turhan Sultan's tomb, near his mother's mosque in Constantinople. In 1691, a couple of years before his death, a plot was discovered in which the senior clerics of the empire planned to reinstate Mehmed on the throne in response to the ill health and imminent death of his successor, Suleiman II.
Mehmed's favourite harem girl was Gülnuş Sultan, a slave girl and later his wife. She was taken prisoner at Rethymno (Turkish Resmo) on the island of Crete. Their two sons, Mustafa II and Ahmed III, became Ottoman Sultans during 1695–1703 and 1703–1730 respectively.
Family
Consorts
Mehmed had two consorts:
Gülnuş Sultan
Afife Kadın
Sons
Mustafa II (6 February 1664 – 30 December 1703) – son with Gülnuş Sultan
Ahmed III (30 December 1673 – 1 July 1736) – son with Gülnuş Sultan
Şehzade Bayezid (15 December 1678 – 18 December 1678, buried in Sultan Mustafa I Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia)
Daughters
Hatice Sultan (1668 – Edirne, 5 July 1743, buried in New Mosque, Istanbul), daughter with Gülnuş Sultan, married first on 9 July 1675 to Musahip Mustafa Pasha, married for a second time on 13 March 1691 to Moralı Hasan Pasha
Fatma Sultan (1672 – Edirne Palace, 5 December 1700, buried in New Mosque, Istanbul), daughter with Gülnuş Sultan, married first on 9 July 1675 to Kara Mustafa Pasha, married for a second time on 19 January 1696 to Tırnakçı Çerkes Ibrahim Pasha, married for a third time to Vezir Mısırlı Mehmed Pasha
Ümmi Sultan (died of smallpox, 21 December 1700, buried in New Mosque, Istanbul), married on 13 January 1694 in the Edirne Palace to Silahdar Çerkes Osman Pasha
See also
Transformation of the Ottoman Empire
Köprülü era
Great Turkish War
Kösem Sultan
Çınar incident
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
[aged 51]
1642 births
1693 deaths
Modern child rulers
Ottoman people of the Great Turkish War
People of the Ottoman Empire of Ukrainian descent
17th-century Ottoman sultans
Turks of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman dynasty
|
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208593
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double%20florin
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Double florin
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The double florin, or four-shilling piece, was a British coin produced by the Royal Mint between 1887 and 1890. One of the shortest-lived of all British coin denominations, it was struck in only four years. Its obverse, designed by Joseph Boehm and engraved by Leonard Charles Wyon, depicts Queen Victoria, whilst the reverse, featuring national symbols of the United Kingdom, was designed by Wyon based on the coinage of Charles II.
The double florin was introduced as part of a coinage redesign that took place in 1887, the year of Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. One purpose of the redesign was to replace portraits of the queen which had changed little since her youth, and which no longer resembled the monarch, who was nearing her seventieth birthday. Mint officials and politicians also sought to reduce dependence on the half sovereign, a gold coin worth ten shillings which was expensive to strike, by the issuance of the double florin (four shillings) and the re-introduction of the crown (five shillings) coin. They may also have intended a further decimalisation of the coinage after the introduction of the florin (two shillings, or one-tenth of a pound) in 1849.
When issued in June 1887, the Jubilee coinage provoked an outcry. The small royal crown Boehm had placed on Victoria's head caused widespread mockery. The double florin in particular was criticised as it was close in size to the five-shilling crown, leading to confusion, especially since neither coin was inscribed with its denomination. The confusion was said to be particularly acute in public houses, where barmaids accepted it believing it to be a crown, giving it the nickname of "Barmaid's Ruin" or "Barmaid's Grief". The coin was abolished after 1890, though it remained in circulation. Upon decimalisation in 1971, the double florin was not demonetised, and remains legal tender for 20p (£0.20).
Background
During the 19th century, Britain continued its longtime monetary system, under which 12 pence constituted a shilling, and 20 shillings a pound. There was interest in decimalisation of this system, and in 1849, the florin, equal to two shillings or one tenth of a pound, was issued as a first step. It was intended to replace the half crown, worth two shillings and sixpence, and production of the half crown was discontinued in 1850, but resumed in 1874, and both coins were struck until decimalisation in the 1970s. The crown, or five-shilling piece, was not struck for circulation between 1847 and 1887; the 1847 coinage was struck in limited numbers and possibly intended as keepsakes. When in 1874, a double florin was proposed by a director of the Bank of England, the Deputy Master of the Royal Mint, Charles Fremantle, opposed it.
The next largest coin in denomination was the gold half sovereign, equal to ten shillings. This was a small coin, equal in size to the silver sixpence (plating sixpences and passing them for half sovereigns was a continuing abuse). The government discouraged the use of half sovereigns—unlike silver coins, the sovereign and half sovereign were to contain their full value in precious metal, to an exacting standard set by the Coinage Act of 1870. These limits were so tight that 45 percent of newly-struck half sovereigns were rejected by the automatic scales at the Royal Mint, requiring their recoinage. The government profited through seignorage on silver coins at about 20 percent, depending on the price of silver. Thus, the half sovereign was expensive in terms of both the value of its metal and its production costs, especially in comparison with the silver coinage. Such problems were less acute with the sovereign, for which demand continued high as a world-wide trade coin, whereas the half sovereign tended to remain in Britain. In 1884, the Gladstone government proposed to reduce the amount of gold in the half sovereign by a tenth, rendering it a token coin, but the change was abandoned. British gold coins were accepted in any amount, but silver coins were only legal tender to forty shillings.
Inception
In September 1886, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lord Randolph Churchill, replied sympathetically to a proposal in the House of Commons to abolish the half sovereign and replace it with silver coins. Although Churchill was noncommittal, his son and biographer Winston wrote that he "harboured a deadly design against the half-sovereign—'that profligate
little coin'—which he believed was an expensive and unnecessary feature of British currency". Lord Randolph came to favour withdrawal of the half sovereign, with its place taken by large silver coins, and the redemption of outstanding half sovereigns to be paid for in part with silver coins and in part with one-pound bank notes, with some portion to be replaced with sovereigns. Since this would mean the largest denomination coin with which change could be given from a pound would be the half crown, James Currie, governor of the Bank of England, suggested a double florin to aid in change giving. Before these matters could be decided, Lord Randolph resigned as chancellor in late December 1886. His successor, George Goschen, was slow to decide whether to discontinue the half sovereign, and eventually decided against it. Nevertheless, Goschen was no supporter of the half sovereign, and none were struck at the Royal Mint's facility at Tower Hill between June 1887 and February 1890.
Among those pressing for the issuance of large silver coins were the supporters of bimetallism, making both gold and silver legal tender. A four-shilling piece had been common in proposals for a fully bimetallic coinage since at least 1868. Increasing the amount of silver used for coinage would be a step towards bimetallism. The issue of bimetallism was especially acute in Britain in the mid-1880s because of the problems in British India, where the government received revenue in silver but then had to make payments to Britain in gold, at a time when the value of silver relative to gold was decreasing. Increased seignorage from large silver coins might allow Britain to grant India financial relief.
No document has been found that clearly explains the decision to issue a double florin. The numismatist, G. P. Dyer, in his article on the influences that brought about the double florin, wrote:
Sir John Clapham, in his 1944 history of the Bank of England, described the double florin as "a half-hearted concession to admirers of the decimal system". Issuance of the double florin was also justified in the hope that, as a large silver "dollar"-sized coin, it would compete with the Mexican "dollar" as a trade coin in the Far East, and Fremantle was encouraged when £1,000 of the new coins were distributed to a bank connected with the Eastern trade in 1887. Nevertheless, the intrinsic value of the double florin was about sixpence less than the Mexican coin, and less than five percent of double florins were sent abroad.
Design
Obverse
By 1887, Queen Victoria had been on the throne for half a century, and was nearly 70 years old. Nevertheless, the coins of the United Kingdom still depicted her as a young woman, as they had since the first issuance of coins depicting her in 1838. Her Golden Jubilee in 1887 gave an opportunity to place new designs on the coinage, and all the circulation coins but the bronze pieces saw a new portrait of her that year.
In 1879, Joseph Boehm had been chosen, apparently by Queen Victoria herself, to execute a portrait of the queen that could be used as a model for coinage designs. Boehm prepared a likeness, that was used for a medal marking the queen's jubilee, and which was adapted for the coinage in lower relief by Leonard Charles Wyon, who made small changes.
The obverse of the Jubilee coinage, first issued in 1887, including the double florin, features that likeness. It quickly became controversial, although it was a portrait from life, as the queen had sat for Boehm. The obverse of the 1887 coins, according to the numismatic author, Howard Linecar, "produced a storm of disapproval, directed particularly against the effigy of the queen. How this obverse design was passed by the queen herself is a small mystery." In their article on Boehm's role in the Jubilee coinage, Dyer and Mark Stocker (a biographer of Boehm) agree: "even though the queen's artistic judgment was admittedly a hit and miss affair, it still seems curious that neither she nor those most closely involved had any inkling of the likely public response". The historian Sir Charles Oman deemed the Jubilee coinage, "the greatest disappointment of the century."
Victoria wears a small crown, which she had bought so as not to have to wear a heavier one. It was the crown that she preferred to wear at that time, and appears on other contemporary effigies of her. According to Linecar, "Place your finger over the crown, and there is nothing odd about the portrait: it is just that of a widowed lady in mourning. The disapprobation therefore turns upon the ridiculously small crown ... When she (and the public) saw herself as others saw her, did she, as many of us do, suddenly become aware that she was wearing a 'hat' that did not suit her?"
Simon Heffer, in his history of Britain in the decades before the First World War, stated that the engraving on the Jubilee coinage was "honest and lifelike", but that Victoria "looked sour, chinless and porcine, her over-sized head made all the more glaring by a crown several sizes too small being perched upon it, above a bizarre flowing head-dress". The art critic George Moore stated of the Jubilee coinage, "the melting-pot will put that right one of these days". The numismatist, Lawrence W. Cobb, writing in 1985, took a more nuanced view of the portrait, "Wyon seems to have tried to soften the Queen's look of age, tension and strain [on the medal], but in so doing he lost some of the strength and vigor of the Queen's indomitable spirit. Nonetheless, even with its faults, Wyon's portrait preserves the majesty of the Queen's presence."
In addition to bearing the crown, Victoria's head has a widow's veil. Following the death of Albert, Prince Consort in 1861, she had remained in mourning, and the veil would have been black in colour. The veil descends from a widow's cap worn under the crown. The queen has a pearl necklace and there is an earring in her visible ear. She wears the Ribbon and Star of the Order of the Garter and the badge of the Order of the Crown of India; the artist's initials may be found on the truncation of her bust.
Reverse and inscriptions
The reverse has four cruciform shields, with sceptres in the angles between them. This was based on the designs of John Roettier for the gold coinage of Charles II. The reverse designs for the florin and double florin (which are nearly identical) were described in the proclamation making them current as "contained in Four Shields arranged crosswise, each shield crowned, and between the Shields Four Sceptres surmounted by Orbs, a Thistle and a Harp, and a Star of the Garter in the Centre". These constituted the arms of the United Kingdom. The shields at top and bottom are the arms of England, the one on the right that of Scotland, and on the left that of Ireland. Gertrude Rawlings wrote in 1898 that the design for the double florin is "radiating kitchen pokers and tea trays".
Around the rim of the double florin are abbreviated versions of some of the queen's titles, with the date on the reverse. The obverse legend reads (Victoria by the Grace of God) and continuing on the reverse, (Queen of the Britains, Defender of the Faith). The "Britains" in the legend is meant to include the colonies and other territories. Not present is , Empress of India. The act which permitted Victoria to adopt that title had forbidden her to use it within the United Kingdom, and the double florin reflects that decision. The queen wanted that title to appear on British coinage, and would get her way on the next issue, appearing beginning in 1893, after the abolition of the double florin.
Like the other designs initially issued in June 1887, that for the double florin contains no indication of the coin's value. By 1889, even the individual depicted on the Jubilee coinage had turned against it, writing in a note, "the Queen dislikes the new coinage very much, and wishes the old one could still be used and the new one gradually disused, and then a new one struck." In 1891, the Mint set up a committee to judge entries in a fresh competition. The winner, a design by Thomas Brock, was placed on the coinage beginning between 1893 and 1895, with new reverses for the surviving silver coins between the sixpence and half crown; and on them is a statement of the value.
Production
Release and controversy
In December 1886, Boehm succeeded in making a model of the obverse design that he was satisfied with. It was not until February 1887 that coinage dies were made, engraved by Wyon, from which pattern coins could be struck. On 24 March 1887, Fremantle submitted the obverses of at least some of the denominations for approval by Goschen and then Victoria. Although it is not clear if an obverse for the double florin was submitted at this time, there is a uniface piece showing only the reverse of the double florin in the Royal Mint's collection that may date from this time. Victoria's approval of Boehm's design was accompanied by a wish that the new coins show some wording to indicate they were struck in the Jubilee year. Fremantle was unwilling to countenance something that would delay the new coinage, but Victoria was so reluctant to yield that Goschen asked Fremantle to reconsider, but he declined to do so.
On 12 May 1887, Fremantle officially announced that there would be changes to the gold and silver coinage, including the introduction of a double florin, and an Order in Council to that effect was printed in The London Gazette on 17 May. Later that month, the Annual Report of the Deputy Master of the Mint contained engravings of the new issue; Fremantle wrote in it of the double florin, "it remains to be seen whether this handsome coin will be generally popular". Fremantle authored an article for the June number of Murray's Magazine entitled "Our New Coins and Their Pedigree" in which he said of the double florin, "I am not without hope that these attempts to substitute silver coins of artistic design for the somewhat commonplace currency to which we have been accustomed during the last fifty years may be favourably viewed by the public; and it is possible that the introduction of a larger piece than those which we have hitherto been in the habit of using, in the shape of the double florin, may in many ways be found useful."
The Times, discussing the new double florin, could see no reason why the coin was necessary, describing it as "very heavy, very large, and very inconvenient". The Standard wrote on 19 May that "there is no particular need for a four-shilling piece ... And, now that the double florin will form the middle denomination between the two shillings and the half-sovereign, probably a fresh attempt will be made to withdraw it [the half-crown] from circulation". The Belfast News Letter, writing on 23 May, stated, "It is difficult to imagine what purpose the double florin will be calculated to serve; for the inconvenience of large and heavy silver coins is too great to be overlooked". The Pall Mall Gazette wrote the same day that the double florin "in all probability will have very little currency in the United Kingdom. The meaning of the coin is that it should not be a double florin, but a dollar, and as such pass current in the East, in Canada, and other countries such as the United States where dollars are used". The crown was struck for circulation for the first time in at least 40 years, but would fare little better than the double florin, though it would last a bit longer, continuing to be struck in decreasing numbers until 1902.
The Jubilee coins, including the double florin and the crown, were issued in June 1887, with the official release initially set for 21 June, the date on which the queen's Golden Jubilee was to be celebrated. Since this day had been proclaimed a bank holiday, the release date was changed to 20 June, on which date the coins were to be conveyed from the Royal Mint to the Bank of England and there used to fill orders from London banks. Provincial banks would not have the new coins until at least the 22nd, and the Dundee Courier reported that "it is expected that the demand for the double florin will soon exhaust the first supply". Once the new coins were released, there was a deeply negative reaction by public and press. According to Dyer and Stocker, "When the storm of condemnation erupted, Fremantle seemed genuinely taken aback at 'the sad turn affairs have taken, most unexpected to me'. It was some storm: questions in parliament, outspoken criticism from all sections of the press, derisive cartoons and doggerel in Fun and Punch, and even some unfriendly comment by John Evans in his presidential address to the Numismatic Society. The coinage was seen as the worst of all worlds; poorly executed, undignified on the obverse, and inefficient in not specifying values on the reverse." According to Heffer, as Victoria's "popularity had recovered considerably among her people by 1887, there was an outcry at this less than idealised representation". The double florin was particularly criticised.
This criticism entered the House of Commons, where Goschen answered questions about the new coinage on 23 and 28 June. The chancellor told MPs that just as the public did not confuse the florin and half crown, they would not confuse the double florin and crown. The double florin's obverse was nearly identical to that of the crown, but for the fact that the five shilling piece carried the royal legend on the obverse that the four shilling bore in part on either side. The two coins had different reverses. The only immediate effect of the outcry was that the sixpence, which lacked a statement of its denomination and was gilded to pass as a half sovereign, was given again its former reverse design, which stated its value.
Continued production and abolition
In December 1887, Fremantle wrote to Robert Hunt, deputy master of the Sydney branch of the Royal Mint, that the reasons for the double florin's issuance were very complicated, and that he doubted that it would "ever be in great demand". On 30 May 1888, the London correspondent of the Liverpool Mercury stated that "nearly £100,000 of the double florin was produced, and nearly the whole sum has disappeared ... the double florin has not become popular. Up to this date it has failed to obtain a general currency."
There was confusion between the double florin and the crown, which gave the four-shilling piece the nickname "Barmaid's Grief", as they were said to mistake double florins for the larger coin. With only 2 mm difference between the diameters of the double florin and the crown, there is anecdotal evidence that some at public houses lost their livelihood to the "Barmaid's Ruin". The Banker's Magazine wrote in 1890, "yet few persons, even few cashiers, however experienced they may be, will readily distinguish at a glance, a crown from a double florin. They would find it, we believe, a difficult thing to be perfectly sure which coin they were dealing with unless they examined the reverse and saw whether or not the knight and the dragon [the crown's design] was on it".
The year 1889 saw the largest number issued, both of the double florin and of the revived crown, with more than a million struck of each. This was because the government used the two large coins in pay packets for its employees, and because of an agreement it had made with the Bank of England to reimburse the bank for conveying silver coin to its branches and to provincial applicants. In March 1890, Goschen told the Commons that "there can hardly be said to be any similarity between the double florin and the crown" and was met with cries of "Oh!", indicating disbelief. On 5 May, upon being asked if there was any consideration being given to withdrawing either the crown or the double florin, he stated that the crown was growing in popularity, and, "as to the four shilling piece, it is premature to come to any decision. Time alone can show what is the real use of a coin." Nevertheless, minting of the double florin ceased forever in August 1890. According to Richard Lobel in the Coincraft Standard Catalogue of English and UK Coins, "this denomination, unpopular at the time of issue, lasted until 1890, when it had outlived its usefulness. The use of the Boehm portrait no doubt accelerated its demise." Sir John Craig, in his history of the Royal Mint, stated that "its closeness to the 5s. piece, its size and its novelty were fatal handicaps; it was dropped ... after an issue of 2 million specimens, and the flop was so flagrant that the Mint, contrary to all its practice, took the coins back at full face value on request".
Aftermath
Boehm died in December 1890, and according to the art critic, Marion Spielmann, who knew him well, "his gentle spirit bowed in silence beneath the torrent of scornful condemnation with which his work was received", leading to his illness and death. Wyon died the following August, and the numismatist, Leonard Forrer, wrote in his Biographical Dictionary of Medallists, that Wyon had wanted to design the Jubilee coinage's obverse: "towards the close of his career, he underwent deep disappointment at the Government accepting Sir J.E. Boehm's design for the obverse of the 1887 'Jubilee' coinage, and it is believed that this hastened his end."
In February 1891, Goschen appointed a Committee on the Design of Coins under the leadership of the Liberal MP, Sir John Lubbock. At its first meeting that month, the committee unanimously decided that the double florin should be discontinued. This was confirmed in a statement to the Commons by Goschen on 25 May. The committee issued its report in March 1892, and an amended version in May; both recommended that the double florin not be retained. Fremantle reiterated this in his annual report as Deputy Master of the Mint for 1892. In January 1893, The Daily Telegraph recalled that the double florin had been universally disliked, "blessing neither him who gave nor him who took". In 1895, Robert William Hanbury, the Financial Secretary to the Treasury, stated in response to a parliamentary question that he did not know why the double florin had been issued, and that some great distinction should have been made between it and the crown. The double florin's rival, the crown, continued to be issued, and considerable efforts were made to circulate it, in the hope it would displace some half sovereigns from trade, but by 1902, it was clear that the main use of the coin was to pay government wages at the dockyards, after which it immediately went back to the banks, and it was stopped.
By 1914, some 70 percent of the issued double florins had been withdrawn, but some remained in circulation. After silver ceased to be struck for circulating coins in 1946, specimens of the double florin showed up in the Royal Mint's silver recovery programmes in the early 1960s. Revival of the double florin was considered from time to time and may have reached the point of production of trial pieces in 1950.
The double florin was not demonetised when decimalisation of the pound occurred in 1971, and it remains legal tender for 20p (£0.20).
Collecting
The series of the double florin, with only four years to collect, has become popular among collectors seeking a complete set. There are a number of varieties in the set. The original obverse and reverse were flat; a second obverse and a second reverse, each with a number of slight differences and with a slightly concave field, were instituted for some 1887 issues and were used in subsequent years. The date was originally rendered as , with a Roman numeral I, but this was modified to an Arabic 1 even before the reverse was changed. On some 1888 and 1889 coins, the second I in is rendered as an upside-down Arabic number 1. The design of the reverse was slightly enlarged for the 1890 issue. Proof coins exist for 1887, some with the first obverse and first reverse (and a Roman I), and some with the second obverse and second reverse (and an Arabic 1).
The Numismatic Guaranty Company, a coin grading service, differentiates little between the circulation-issue varieties of the double florin, in all but the highest grades, rating each (in American dollars, and as of 2022) at $15.50 (the melt value), rising to between $400 and $750 in near-pristine condition. The 1887 proof coins carry a premium over that.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Double Florin, Coin Type from United Kingdom – Online Coin Club
Double Florin
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208594
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Warnock
|
John Warnock
|
John Edward Warnock (born October 6, 1940) is an American computer scientist and businessman best known for co-founding Adobe Systems Inc., the graphics and publishing software company, with Charles Geschke. Warnock was President of Adobe for his first two years and chairman and CEO for his remaining sixteen years at the company. Although he retired as CEO in 2000, he still co-chaired the board with Geschke. Warnock has pioneered the development of graphics, publishing, Web and electronic document technologies that have revolutionized the field of publishing and visual communications.
Early life and education
Warnock was born and raised in Salt Lake City, Utah. Although he failed mathematics in ninth grade while graduating from Olympus High School in 1958, Warnock went on to earn a Bachelor of Science degree in mathematics and philosophy, a Doctor of Philosophy degree in electrical engineering (computer science), and an honorary degree in science, all from the University of Utah. At the University of Utah he was a member of the Gamma Beta Chapter of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity. He also has an honorary degree from the American Film Institute. He currently lives in the San Francisco Bay Area with his wife Marva E. Warnock, an illustrator. They have three children.
Career
Warnock's earliest publication and subject of his master's thesis, was his 1964 proof of a theorem solving the Jacobson radical for row-finite matrices, which was originally posed by the American mathematician Nathan Jacobson in 1956.
In his 1969 doctoral thesis, Warnock invented the Warnock algorithm for hidden surface determination in computer graphics.
It works by recursive subdivision of a scene until areas are obtained that are trivial to compute. It solves the problem of rendering a complicated image by avoiding the problem. If the scene is simple enough to compute then it is rendered; otherwise it is divided into smaller parts and the process is repeated. Warnock notes that for this work he received "the dubious distinction of having written the shortest doctoral thesis in University of Utah history".
In 1976, while Warnock worked at Evans & Sutherland, a Salt Lake City-based computer graphics company, the concepts of the PostScript language were seeded. Prior to co-founding Adobe, with Geschke and Putman, Warnock worked with Geschke at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center (Xerox PARC), where he had started in 1978. Unable to convince Xerox management of the approach to commercialize the InterPress graphics language for controlling printing, he, together with Geschke and Putman, left Xerox to start Adobe in 1982. At their new company, they developed an equivalent technology, PostScript, from scratch, and brought it to market for Apple's LaserWriter in 1985.
In the spring of 1991, Warnock outlined a system called "Camelot", that evolved into the Portable Document Format (PDF) file-format. The goal of Camelot was to "effectively capture documents from any application, send electronic versions of these documents anywhere, and view and print these documents on any machines". Warnock's document contemplated:
One of Adobe's popular typefaces, Warnock, is named after him.
Adobe's PostScript technology made it easier to print text and images from a computer, revolutionizing media and publishing in the 1980s.
In 2003, Warnock and his wife donated 200,000 shares of Adobe Systems (valued at over $5.7 million) to the University of Utah as the main gift for a new engineering building. The John E. and Marva M. Warnock Engineering Building was completed in 2007 and houses the Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute and the Dean of the University of Utah College of Engineering.
Dr. Warnock holds seven patents. In addition to Adobe Systems, he serves or has served on the board of directors at ebrary, Knight-Ridder, MongoNet, Netscape Communications and Salon Media Group. Warnock is a past Chairman of the Tech Museum of Innovation in San Jose. He also serves on the Board of Trustees of the American Film Institute and the Sundance Institute.
His hobbies include photography, skiing, Web development, painting, hiking, curation of rare scientific books and historical Native American objects.
A strong supporter of higher education, Warnock and his wife, Marva, have supported three presidential endowed chairs in computer science, mathematics and fine arts at the University of Utah and also an endowed chair in medical research at Stanford University.
Recognition
The recipient of numerous scientific and technical awards, Warnock won the Software Systems Award from the Association for Computing Machinery in 1989.
In 1995 Warnock received the University of Utah Distinguished Alumnus Award and in 1999 he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.
Warnock was awarded the Edwin H. Land Medal from the Optical Society of America in 2000.
In 2002, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum for "his accomplishments in the commercialization of desktop publishing with Chuck Geschke and for innovations in scalable type, computer graphics and printing."
Oxford University's Bodleian Library bestowed the Bodley Medal on Warnock in November 2003.
In 2004, Warnock received the Lovelace Medal from the British Computer Society in London.
In October 2006, Warnock—along with Adobe co-founder Charles Geschke—received the American Electronics Association's Annual Medal of Achievement Award, being the first software executives to receive this award.
In 2008, Warnock and Geschke received the Computer Entrepreneur Award from the IEEE Computer Society "for inventing PostScript and PDF and helping to launch the desktop publishing revolution and change the way people engage with information and entertainment".
In September 2009, Warnock and Geschke were chosen to receive the National Medal of Technology and Innovation, one of the nation's highest honors bestowed on scientists, engineers and inventors.
In 2010, Warnock and Geschke received the Marconi Prize, considered the highest honor specifically for contributions to information science and communications.
Warnock is a member of the National Academy of Engineering, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society, the latter being America's oldest learned society.
He has received honorary degrees from the University of Utah, the American Film Institute, and The University of Nottingham in the UK.
See also
Warnock algorithm
References
External links
Interview in Knowledge@Wharton published January 20, 2010
Biography at Computer History Museum
Biography on Adobe Web site
Warnock's Utah Bed and Breakfast-The Blue Boar Inn
Warnock's Rare Book Room educational site which allows visitors to examine and read some of the great books of the world
Warnock's Splendid Heritage website which documents rare American Indian objects from private collections
1940 births
Adobe Inc. people
American computer programmers
Computer graphics professionals
Computer graphics researchers
Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Living people
University of Utah alumni
National Medal of Technology recipients
Businesspeople from Salt Lake City
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
American technology company founders
Scientists at PARC (company)
|
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208596
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman%20II%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire
|
Suleiman II of the Ottoman Empire
|
Suleiman II (15 April 1642 – 22 June 1691) ( Süleymān-i sānī) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1687 to 1691. After being brought to the throne by an armed mutiny, Suleiman and his grand vizier Fazıl Mustafa Pasha were successfully able to turn the tide of the War of the Holy League, reconquering Belgrade in 1690, as well as carrying out significant fiscal and military reforms.
Early life
Suleiman II was born on 15 April 1642 at Topkapı Palace in Constantinople, the son of Sultan Ibrahim and Aşub Sultan, a Serb woman originally named Katarina. Suleiman was only 3 months younger than his half-brother Mehmed IV, who was born on 2 January 1642. After the deposition and execution of his father in 1648, Suleiman's half-brother Mehmed came to the throne. On 21 October 1649, Suleiman along with his brothers Mehmed and Ahmed were circumcised.
In 1651, Suleiman was confined in kafes (cage), a kind of luxurious prison for princes of the blood within the Topkapı Palace (it was designed to ensure that none could organize a rebellion), and he stayed there for 36 years until he took the throne in 1687.
In 1656, Şeyhülislam Hocazade Mesud Efendi and other grand viziers tried to put Suleiman but failed and some were executed some were punished. After the defeat of Vienna in 1683, Suleiman and Ahmed were brought to Istanbul and the Şimşirlik Kasnna was closed.
Reign
Suleiman II went to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque on 3 December 1687, and a sword was besieged by Şeyhülislam Debbağzade Mehmed Efendi and the Janissary Ağa Mustafa Ağa. The next day, he went to the first Friday salute at the Hagia Sophia Mosque. The Suleymaniye Mosque preacher Aralızade Abdül Efendi, He was appointed every day by the sultan of the Süleymaniye Mosque. Recep Pasha who ran before Suleiman's accession was found in house at Çatalca and was executed in front of Bab-I-Humayun. In the first months of 1688, when the news of the Venetian invasion of the Peloponnese and the Attic burning, the Austrian border was also invaded.
Shortly before he assumed the throne, the Ottomans suffered a major defeat at the second Battle of Mohács in 1687. In 1688, Suleiman II urgently requested the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb for assistance against the rapidly advancing Austrians, during the Ottoman–Habsburg War, but most Mughal forces were engaged in the Deccan Wars and Aurangzeb ignored Suleiman's request to commit to any formal assistance to their desperate Ottoman allies.
In order to cover the treasury deficit, the trust of hamr (drink) started to operate again. It was the public budget deficit, it was banned but people publicly sold drinks in taverns, Istanbul and Galata, in taverns and even at home. While Suleiman managed to demolish the alcohol shops the owners starting bringing more alcohol. The tax on alcohol was 8 gold coins.
Suleiman II shrewdly appointed Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Pasha as his Grand Vizier on 25 October 1689, leading to the reconquest of Belgrade in 1690. Even so, when Russian Empire joined an alliance of European powers, the Ottomans lost the support of their Crimean vassals, who were forced to defend themselves from Russian invasion. Under Köprülü's leadership, the Ottomans halted an Austrian advance into Serbia and crushed an uprising in Macedonia and Bulgaria until Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Pasha was killed in the Battle of Slankamen by Austrian forces.
Death
Suleiman II was in a coma and was brought to Edirne on 8 June 1691. He died on 22 June 1691 and his body was put in an icebox. His brother Ahmed was enthroned and his body was buried in Suleiman the Magnificent's tomb at Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul.
Gallery
See also
Aurangzeb
Sources
Bibliography
External links
[aged 49]
1642 births
1691 deaths
People from Istanbul
Ottoman people of the Great Turkish War
17th-century Ottoman sultans
Turks of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman dynasty
|
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] |
208601
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Boxer%20%28LHD-4%29
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USS Boxer (LHD-4)
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USS Boxer (LHD-4) is a of the United States Navy. She is the sixth U.S. ship to bear the name of the original HMS Boxer, which was captured from the British during the War of 1812.
Construction and career
Boxer was constructed at Ingalls Shipbuilding, Pascagoula, Mississippi, launched 13 August 1993, and commissioned 11 February 1995. She immediately left for San Diego, California, via the Panama Canal. Although she had been designed to safely transit the canal, her bridge wing and other smaller components were sheared off in the transit.
After minor repairs and system checkout, Boxer deployed to the Western Pacific from 24 March 1997 to 24 September 1997, along with and , and visited many foreign ports of call. Boxer also participated in RIMPAC the following year, then on 5 December 1998 deployed again to the Western Pacific.
Boxer deployed again to the Western Pacific, Persian Gulf and Red Sea on 14 March 2001 in support of Operation Southern Watch. She visited Singapore, Thailand, Guam, Jebel Ali, Bahrain, and Jordan, returning to the United States on 14 September 2001, just days after the attacks of 11 September 2001.
In 2003, as a result of the impending war and the need for troops in Iraq, Boxer found herself deploying yet again, this time six months ahead of schedule. This was a six-month deployment in direct support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. She deployed with six other ships from San Diego on 17 January 2003: , , , , , and .
She returned to the United States on 26 July 2003. Also in 2003 she won the Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award for the Pacific Fleet.
In another early deployment, to become known as a surge deployment, Boxer steamed alone from San Diego on 14 January 2004 to support the ongoing rebuilding efforts in Iraq, dubbed Operation Iraqi Freedom II. She delivered equipment and supplies to Kuwaiti Naval Base in the northern Persian Gulf for the continuing support of the post-war rebuilding of Iraq. She returned home on 29 April 2004.
Boxer was deployed with the 15th MEU from her San Diego port on 13 September 2006. They arrived to Iraq in November and returned to dock in San Diego on 31 May 2007.
From 20 April 2008 to 26 June 2008, Boxer conducted a humanitarian mission in Central and South America.
Anti-Piracy Task Force
Boxer is designated as the flagship of Combined Task Force 151, the international anti-piracy task force pursuing pirates off the coast of Somalia.
On 10 April 2009, Boxer was en route to assist and in negotiating the release of Richard Phillips, captain of U.S. flagged container ship , who was held hostage by Somali pirates 300 miles off the Horn of Africa. On 12 April 2009, Captain Phillips was freed during a US Navy assault in which three of the Somali pirates were killed, and one was captured. Captain Phillips was transported to Boxer for medical examination and rest.
Around 1 May 2009, Boxer assisted some 200 members of the German special operations unit GSG-9 in getting close to the hijacked German container ship . During the last phase of the operation, James L. Jones, the U.S. National Security Advisor, withheld final approval for the operation out of concern for the safety of the 25 sailors on board the vessel. This led to the decision by the German department of defense and the German department of the interior to abort the planned attack on the freighter for the time being and the GSG-9 unit, which is under the command of the German secretary of the interior, returned to their base of operations at the airport of Mombasa, Kenya. It was reported that the German department of defense influence and contacts to James Jones led to the U.S. decision to withdraw from the scene.
The ship returned to San Diego on 1 August 2009. During her transit of the Pacific, 69 of the sailors and marines aboard the ship contracted swine flu, forcing the cancellation of a planned "Tiger Cruise" from Hawaii to meet the ships for several hundred relatives and friends.
2010–present
The ship, with the 13th Marine Expeditionary Unit, departed San Diego on 22 February 2011 for a seven-month deployment in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Accompanying the ship on the deployment were and .
On 6 May 2016, it was reported that the U.S. staged Boxer, supported by the destroyers and off the coast of Yemen with 2,000 to 4,500 U.S. Marines of the 13th MEU in the flotilla to provide support to coalition forces in Yemen fighting AQAP militants. On 16 June 2016, Boxer, supported by amphibious warfare ships and took part in Operation Inherent Resolve; AV-8BII Harriers of the 13th MEU flying off the ship began airstrikes against ISIL in Iraq and Syria, making it the first time the U.S. Navy used ship-based aircraft from both the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf at the same time during the Operation (aircraft from the aircraft carrier began airstrikes on ISIL targets from the Mediterranean on 3 June).
On 18 July 2019, President Donald Trump stated that the ship shot down and destroyed an Iranian drone over the Strait of Hormuz. According to a statement by the President, the drone was downed after "ignoring multiple stand down calls." Iranian officials rejected Trump's statement on downing an Iranian drone and the IRGC released a video and claimed it was monitoring the ship and some other American military vessels including USS Harpers Ferry, , and by the drone on the morning of 18 July.
On 15 March 2020, it was reported that a sailor aboard, two days prior, had tested presumptive positive for SARS-CoV-2, the virus at the heart of the COVID-19 pandemic, marking the first case of a coronavirus case aboard an American warship. The sailor subsequently quarantined at home. A second sailor tested positive on 17 March 2020 and also quarantined at home.
On 7 April 2020, it was reported that BAE systems had been awarded a contract from the US Navy to perform extensive modernisation and maintenance to the USS Boxer, with work scheduled to commence in June 2020, and complete in around 18 months' time in December 2021. Notably, as a part of this work, the USS Boxer will be updated to be able to operate with the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter.
Deployments
24 March 1997 – 24 September 1997 Maiden deployment
5 December 1998 – 5 June 1999 West Pac-Indian Ocean-Persian Gulf
13 March 2001 – 14 September 2001 West Pac-Indian Ocean-Persian Gulf
17 January 2003 – 26 July 2003 West Pac-Indian Ocean-Persian Gulf
14 January 2004 – 29 April 2004 West Pac-Indian Ocean-Persian Gulf
29 April 2005 – 14 September 2005 Western Pacific
13 September 2006 – 31 May 2007 West Pac-Indian Ocean-Persian Gulf
28 April 2008 – 26 June 2008 Eastern Pacific
9 January 2009 – 1 August 2009 West Pac-Indian Ocean-Persian Gulf
22 February 2011 – 30 September 2011 West Pac-Indian Ocean-Persian Gulf
23 August 2013 – 25 April 2014 West Pac-Indian Ocean-Persian Gulf
12 February 2016 – 12 September 2016 West Pac-Indian Ocean-Persian Gulf
1 May 2019 – 27 November 2019 West Pac-Indian Ocean-Persian Gulf
Awards
USS Boxer has been awarded the Navy Battle "E" numerous times;
1 January - 31 December 1995
1 January - 31 December 1998
1 January - 31 December 1999
1 January - 31 December 2001
1 January - 31 December 2003
1 January - 31 December 2007
1 January - 31 December 2011
1 January - 31 December 2012
1 January - 31 December 2013
1 January - 31 December 2014
1 January - 31 December 2015
1 January - 31 December 2016
1 January - 31 December 2017
2013 awards
Ship Safety (3rd)
Engineering/Survivability (6th)
Logistics Management (12th)
Maritime Warfare Excellence Awards (19th)
References
External links
Wasp-class amphibious assault ships
Amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Ships built in Pascagoula, Mississippi
1993 ships
Naval ships involved in the COVID-19 pandemic
|
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208602
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasp-class%20amphibious%20assault%20ship
|
Wasp-class amphibious assault ship
|
The Wasp class is a class of landing helicopter dock (LHD) amphibious assault ships operated by the United States Navy. Based on the , with modifications to operate more advanced aircraft and landing craft, the Wasp class is capable of transporting almost the full strength of a United States Marine Corps Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU), and landing them in hostile territory via landing craft or helicopters as well as providing air support via AV-8B Harrier II attack aircraft or F-35B Lightning II stealth strike-fighters. All Wasp-class ships were built by Ingalls Shipbuilding, at Pascagoula, Mississippi, with the lead ship, , commissioned on 29 July 1989. Eight Wasp-class ships were built, and , seven are in active service, as was seriously damaged by fire on 12 July 2020, and subsequently decommissioned in April 2021.
Design
The Wasp class is based on the preceding design. The design was modified to allow for the operation of AV-8B Harrier II aircraft and Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC) hovercraft, making the Wasp class the first ships specifically designed to operate these.
The main physical changes between the two designs are the lower placement of the ship's bridge in the Wasp class, the relocation of the command and control facilities to inside the hull, the removal of the Mk 45 naval guns and their sponsons on the forward edge of the flight deck, and a lengthening of to carry the LCACs.
Each Wasp-class ship has a displacement of at full load, is long, has a beam of , and a draft of . For propulsion, most of the ships are fitted with two steam boilers connected to geared turbines, which deliver to the two propeller shafts. This allows the LHDs to reach speeds of , with a range of at . The last ship of the class, , was instead fitted with two General Electric LM2500 geared gas turbines. The ship's company consists of 1,208 personnel.
Amphibious operations
The LHDs can support amphibious landings in two forms: by landing craft, or by helicopter. In the by high well deck, the LHDs can carry three Landing Craft Air Cushion, twelve Landing Craft Mechanised, or 40 Amphibious Assault Vehicles (AAVs), with another 21 AAVs on the vehicle deck. The flight deck has nine helicopter landing spots, and can operate helicopters and tiltrotors as large as the Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallion and MV-22B Osprey. The size of the air combat element varies depending on the operation: a standard air combat element consists of six Harriers or six F-35B Lightning IIs and four AH-1W /Z Super Cobra /Viper attack helicopters for attack and support, twelve Ospreys and four Super Stallions for transport, and three or four Bell UH-1Y Venom utility helicopters. For a full assault, the air group can be maxed out at 22 Ospreys, while a Wasp operating in the sea control or 'Harrier carrier' or 'Lightning carrier' configuration carries 20 Harriers or F-35Bs (though some ships of the class have operated as many as 24 Harriers), supported by six Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk helicopters for anti-submarine warfare. Two aircraft elevators move aircraft between the flight deck and the hangar; in order to transit the Panama Canal, these elevators need to be folded in.
Each ship is capable of hosting 1,894 personnel of the United States Marine Corps; almost the full strength of a Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU). A Wasp-class vessel can transport up to of cargo, and another is allocated for the MEU's vehicles, which typically consists of five M1 Abrams battle tanks, up to 25 AAVs, eight M198 howitzers, 68 trucks, and up to 12 other support vehicles. A 6 track internal monorail system as well as 6 internal elevators are used to shift cargo from the cargo holds to landing craft in the well deck.
Each Wasp-class ship has a hospital with 64 patient beds and six operating rooms. An additional 536 beds can be set up in an "Overflow Casualty Ward" as needed.
Armament and sensors
The armament of the first four Wasp class consists of two Mark 29 octuple launchers for RIM-7 Sea Sparrow missiles, two Mark 49 launchers for RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missiles, three 20 mm Phalanx CIWSs, four 25 mm Mark 38 chain guns, and four .50 caliber machine guns. The next four ships, , , , and , have a slightly reduced weapons outfit compared to their preceding sister ships, with one Phalanx and one Mark 38 gun removed.
Countermeasures fitted to the ships include four to six Mark 36 SRBOC chaff and decoy launchers, an AN/SLQ-25 torpedo decoy, AN/SLQ-49 chaff buoys, a Sea Gnat missile decoy, and an AN/SLQ-32 Electronic Warfare Suite.
The sensor suite fitted to each ship comprises an AN/SPS-48 or AN/SPS-52 air-search radar backed up by an AN/SPS-49 air-search radar, an SPS-67 surface search radar, an AN/URN-25 TACAN system, along with several additional radars for navigation and fire control.
Construction
All Wasp-class ships were built by Ingalls Shipbuilding, at Pascagoula, Mississippi. The first ship of the class, , was commissioned on 29 July 1989.
The fifth ship of the class, , was constructed through a process of modular assembly and prefitting out, which meant that the LHD was almost 75 percent complete when she was launched. Bataan was also the first LHD that was purpose built to house female crew members (as opposed to being modified after completion), with dedicated berths for up to 450 female sailors or Marines.
Japanese Defense Minister Itsunori Onodera in 2014 suggested that Japan purchase at least one Wasp-class ship to provide robust defensive amphibious capability for Japanese outer islands in the face of Chinese threats.
Ships
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Extensive information on GlobalSecurity.org
Seaforces.org
Wasp class amphibious assault ship
Amphibious warfare vessel classes
Wasp class amphibious assault ship
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaibatsu
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Zaibatsu
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is a Japanese term referring to industrial and financial vertically integrated business conglomerates in the Empire of Japan, whose influence and size allowed control over significant parts of the Japanese economy from the Meiji period until the end of World War II. A zaibatsu general structure included a family owned holding company on top, and a bank which financed the other, mostly industrial subsidiaries within them. Although the zaibatsu played an important role in the Japanese economy from the 1860s to 1945, they increased in number and importance following the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, World War I and Japan's subsequent attempt to conquer East Asia during the inter-war period and World War II. After World War II they were dissolved by the Allied occupation forces and succeeded by the keiretsu (groups of banks, manufacturers, suppliers, and distributors).
Terminology
The term "zaibatsu" was coined in 19th century Japan from the Sino-Japanese roots zai ("wealth", from Middle Chinese dzoi) and batsu ("clique", "group", from Middle Chinese bjot). Although zaibatsu themselves existed from the 19th century, the term was not in common use until after World War I. By definition, the zaibatsu were large family-controlled vertical monopolies consisting of a holding company on top, with a wholly owned banking subsidiary providing finance, and several industrial subsidiaries dominating specific sectors of a market, either solely, or through a number of subsidiary companies.
Significance
The zaibatsu were the heart of economic and industrial activity within the Empire of Japan, and held great influence over Japanese national and foreign policies. The Rikken Seiyūkai political party was regarded as an extension of the Mitsui group, which also had very strong connections with the Imperial Japanese Army. Likewise, the Rikken Minseitō was connected to the Mitsubishi group, as was the Imperial Japanese Navy. By the start of World War II, the Big Four zaibatsu (Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Yasuda and Mitsui) alone had direct control over more than 30% of Japan's mining, chemical, and metals industries and almost 50% control of the machinery and equipment market, a significant part of the foreign commercial merchant fleet and 70% of the commercial stock exchange.
The zaibatsu were viewed with suspicion by both the right and left of the political spectrum in the 1920s and 1930s. Although the world was in the throes of a worldwide economic depression, the zaibatsu were prospering through currency speculation, maintenance of low labour costs and on military procurement. Matters came to a head in the League of Blood Incident of March 1932, with the assassination of the managing director of Mitsui, after which the zaibatsu attempted to improve on their public image through increased charity work.
History and development
The zaibatsu were at the heart of economic and industrial activity within the Empire of Japan since Japanese industrialization accelerated during the Meiji Era. They held great influence over Japanese national and foreign policies which only increased following the Japanese victory over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 and Japan's victories over Germany during World War I. During the inter-war period the zaibatsu aided Japanese militarism and benefited from the conquest of East Asia by receiving lucrative contracts.
When Japan emerged from the self imposed, pre-Meiji era sakoku in 1867, Western countries already had very dominant and internationally significant companies. Standard Oil, Carnegie Steel Company, AT&T, General Electric, Western Union, Friedrich Krupp AG, Thyssen AG, Robert Bosch GmbH, Lloyd's of London, Reckitt and Sons, East India Company, and British Petroleum were very dominant and were the major players in international trade. The British Empire, under the leadership of the Baring family, the Rothschild family and the Guinness family, as well as Imperial Germany and other European countries were colonizing much of the undeveloped world, and Japanese companies realized that in order to remain sovereign, they needed to develop the same methodology and mindset of North American and European companies, and the zaibatsus emerged.
Big Four
The of, in chronological order of founding, Sumitomo, Mitsui, Mitsubishi, and Yasuda were the most significant zaibatsu groups. Two of them, Sumitomo and Mitsui, had roots in the Edo period while Mitsubishi and Yasuda traced their origins to the Meiji Restoration. Throughout Meiji to Shōwa, the government employed their financial powers and expertise for various endeavors, including tax collection, military procurement and foreign trade.
New zaibatsu
Beyond the Big Four, consensus is lacking as to which companies can be called zaibatsu, and which cannot. After the Russo-Japanese War, a number of so-called "second-tier" zaibatsu also emerged, mostly as the result of business conglomerations and/or the award of lucrative military contracts. Some more famous second-tier zaibatsu included the Okura, Furukawa, and Nakajima groups, among several others.
The early zaibatsu permitted some public shareholding of some subsidiary companies, but never of the top holding company or key subsidiaries.
The monopolistic business practices by the zaibatsu resulted in a closed circle of companies until Japanese industrial expansion on the Asian mainland (Manchukuo) began in the 1930s, which allowed for the rise of a number of new groups (shinko zaibatsu), including Nissan. These new zaibatsu differed from the traditional zaibatsu only in that they were not controlled by specific families, and not in terms of business practices.
Postwar dissolution
The zaibatsu had been viewed with some ambivalence by the Japanese military, which nationalized a significant portion of their production capability during World War II. Remaining assets were also highly damaged by the destruction during the war.
Under the Allied occupation after the surrender of Japan, a partially successful attempt was made to dissolve the zaibatsu. Many of the economic advisors accompanying the SCAP administration had experience with the New Deal and were highly suspicious of monopolies and restrictive business practices, which they felt to be both inefficient, and to be a form of corporatocracy (and thus inherently anti-democratic).
During the occupation of Japan, sixteen zaibatsu were targeted for complete dissolution, and twenty-six more for reorganization after dissolution. Among the zaibatsu that were targeted for dissolution in 1947 were Asano, Furukawa, Nakajima, Nissan, Nomura, and Okura. In addition, Yasuda dissolved itself in 1946. The controlling families' assets were seized, holding companies eliminated, and interlocking directorships, essential to the old system of inter-company coordination, were outlawed. The Matsushita Electric Industrial Company (which later took the name Panasonic), while not a zaibatsu, was originally also targeted for breakup, but was saved by a petition signed by 15,000 of its union workers and their families.
However, complete dissolution of the zaibatsu was never achieved, mostly because the U.S. government rescinded the orders in an effort to reindustrialize Japan as a bulwark against communism in Asia. Zaibatsu as a whole were widely considered to be beneficial to the Japanese economy and government, and the opinions of the Japanese public, of the zaibatsu workers and management, and of the entrenched bureaucracy regarding plans for zaibatsu dissolution ranged from unenthusiastic to disapproving. Additionally, the changing politics of the occupation during the reverse course served as a crippling, if not terminal, roadblock to zaibatsu elimination.
Modern-day influence
Today, the influence of the zaibatsu can still be seen in the form of financial groups, institutions, and larger companies whose origins reach back to the original zaibatsu, often sharing the same original family names (for example, Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation). However, some argue that the "old mechanisms of financial and administrative control" that zaibatsu once enjoyed have been destroyed. Despite the absence of an actual sweeping change to the existence of large industrial conglomerates in Japan, the zaibatsu's previous vertically integrated chain of command, ending with a single family, has now widely been displaced by the horizontal relationships of association and coordination characteristic of . Keiretsu, meaning "series" or "subsidiary", could be interpreted as being suggestive of this difference.
List of zaibatsu
The Big Four
Mitsubishi (三菱財閥)
Mitsui (三井財閥)
Sumitomo (住友財閥)
Yasuda (安田財閥)
Second-tier zaibatsu
Asano (浅野財閥)
Fujita (藤田財閥)
Furukawa (古河財閥)
Mori (森コンツェルン)
Kawasaki (川崎財閥)
Nakajima (中島飛行機)
Nichitsu (日窒コンツェルン)
Nissan (日産コンツェルン)
Nisso (日曹コンツェルン)
Nomura (野村財閥)
Okura (大倉財閥)
Riken (理研コンツェルン)
Shibusawa (渋沢財閥)
Bankrupt zaibatsu
Suzuki shoten (鈴木商店)
Popular culture
The term zaibatsu has been used often in books, comics, games, and films, referring to large and usually sinister Japanese corporations, who are often involved in shady dealings and/or have connections to the yakuza. Examples include the Mishima Zaibatsu, which is prominently featured in the Tekken series, the "Zaibatsu" criminal group in Grand Theft Auto 2, and various writings of pioneer cyberpunk author William Gibson. In other cases zaibatsu are used simply to provide the background for a character from an influential family, such as in the case of the F4 in Boys Before Flowers who are the sons and heirs of the four (fictional) biggest corporations in Japan.
In the Tom Clancy book Debt of Honor, a group of zaibatsu seize control of Japan and invade the US-held Mariana Islands.
The video game Grand Theft Auto 2 features a gang called the Zaibatsu that the player can take jobs from. It is the largest gang in the game, and the eventual final enemy.
Karin Kanzuki, a character from the Street Fighter series, is the heiress to the Kanzuki Zaibatsu.
The Itoshiki family from Sayonara Zetsubō Sensei owns a zaibatsu to accentuate their heavy economic and political background.
In the Tekken series, the Mishima Zaibatsu is the major organization behind the tournaments.
In the manga Tokyo Ghoul, Shuu Tsukiyama is the heir to the Tsukiyama Group, a powerful international business conglomerate that originated as a Zaibatsu.
In the tabletop role-playing game Shadowrun, several of the Big Ten mega-corporations are formed from the old Zaibatsu and still carry on their managerial styles in the Japanese Imperial State in the sixth world, prominent examples being Renraku and Mitsuhama Computer Technologies.
In the board game Nippon, players control Zaibatsu and try to grow their influence and power as they oversee the era of rapid industrialization of Japan.
In the manga and anime Urusei Yatsura, the character Shutaro Mendou is the heir to the Mendou zaibatsu, the wealthiest and most powerful zaibatsu with its own private army and even private air force. His rival Tobimaro Mizunokoji is the heir to the Mizunokoji zaibatsu, the second wealthiest and second most powerful zaibatsu which also has its own private military. Their sisters Ryoko Mendou and Asuka Mizunokoji are also important characters, with Ryoko Mendou commanding large numbers of kuroko and setting up elaborate, very expensive and destructive schemes, and Asuka Mizunokoji being terrified of all men except for her brother and also having such extreme superhuman strength due to an entire lifetime of military training that it makes the superhuman strength of Shinobu Miyake seem normal by comparison.
In the manga and anime Killing Bites, the plot revolves around 4 zaibatsu and the bloody to-the-death tournaments members of them participate in against other zaibastsu teams. Recently, through gene splicing or similar technology, all of the fighters have been turned into creatures called Therianthropes – people with abilities to make partial, and in some cases complete, transformations into animals, and take on many characteristics of these animals.
In the manga and anime Kaguya-sama: Love Is War, the female protagonist Kaguya Shinomiya is the daughter of the leader of the fictitious Shinomiya group, one of the big four zaibatsu of an alternate history.
See also
Big business
Chaebol
Concern
Conglomerate (company)
Four big families of Hong Kong
Four big families of the Republic of China
Konzern
The Hongs
Japanese post-war economic miracle
Thirteen Factories
References
Notes
Bibliography
Alletzhauser, Albert J. The House of Nomura. New York: Harper Perennial, 1991. .
Allinson, Gary D. Japan's Postwar History. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1997. .
Aoki, Masahiko & Hyung-Ki Kim. Corporate Governance in Transitional Economies: Insider Control and the Role of Banks. Retrieved online 28 June 2004. Print edition: Washington, D.C.: World Bank Office of the Publisher, 1995. .
Morck, Randall and Masao Nakamura. A Frog in a Well Knows Nothing of the Ocean: A History of Corporate Ownership in Japan.
Schenkein, Joshua (2014). Japan, the Great Power: Industrialization Through the Lens of Zaibatsu. .
External links
The Zaibatsu of Japan
Zaibatsu Dissolution, Reparations and Administrative Guidance.
Business families
Economic history of Japan
Empire of Japan
Japanese business terms
Strategic management
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208608
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingalls%20Shipbuilding
|
Ingalls Shipbuilding
|
Ingalls Shipbuilding is a shipyard located in Pascagoula, Mississippi, United States, originally established in 1938, and now part of Huntington Ingalls Industries. It is a leading producer of ships for the United States Navy, and at 12,500 employees, the second largest private employer in Mississippi.
History
In 1938, Ingalls Shipbuilding Corporation was founded by Robert Ingersoll Ingalls Sr. (1882–1951) of Birmingham, Alabama, on the East Bank of the Pascagoula River in Mississippi. Ingalls was located where the Pascagoula River runs into the Gulf of Mexico. It started out building commercial ships including , which took part in Liberty Fleet Day on 27 September 1941. In the 1950s Ingalls started bidding on Navy work, winning a contract in 1957 to build 12 nuclear-powered attack submarines.
Litton Industries acquired Ingalls in 1961, and in 1968 expanded its facilities to the other side of the river. Ingalls reached a high point of employment in 1977, with 27,280 workers. In April 2001, Litton was acquired by the Northrop Grumman Corporation.
On 29 August 2005, Ingalls facilities were damaged by Hurricane Katrina; most of the ships in dock and construction escaped serious harm. While shipbuilding was halted for a while due to the destruction of many buildings, most vehicles and the large overhead cranes are the same that the facility continues to operate today.
On 31 March 2011, Northrop Grumman spun off its shipbuilding sector (including Ingalls Shipbuilding) into a new corporation, Huntington Ingalls Industries.
In 2015, Ingalls Shipbuilding Company signed a contract with US Navy for new destroyers, littoral combat ships, and new landing craft. was one of the first new destroyers and was launched on 28 March. The company is also building the , and .
On 21 March 2015, the new ship was ceremonially christened. The vessel had been launched on 30 October and was commissioned in 2017.
On 27 March 2015, the shipyard received construction contracts for their next destroyers. Ingalls Shipbuilding Company was awarded a $604.3 million contract modification to build .
On 31 March 2015, the shipyard also received another contract with a $500 million fixed price to build the eighth National Security Cutter (NSC) for the US Coast Guard. Most of them will be under construction until 2019. The cutters are the most advanced ships ever built for the Coast Guard.
On 30 June 2016, Ingalls Shipbuilding signed a contract with US Navy to build the U.S. Navy's next large-deck amphibious assault warship. The contract included planning, advanced engineering, and procurement of long-lead material, is just over $272 million. If options are exercised, the cumulative value of the contract would be $3.1 billion
Products
Ingalls' primary product has been naval ships, and naval projects for Egypt, Israel, and Venezuela. In the 1950s, Ingalls attempted to enter the diesel locomotive market. They cataloged an extensive product line, but only one example, known as the model 4-S, was produced. It was sold to the Gulf, Mobile & Ohio Railroad. Ingalls also manufactured covered hopper railroad cars in the early 1980s, producing around 4,000 units, primarily for the lease market via North American Car.
Ships built
Ships built by Ingalls include:
Submarines
Barbel class:
Skipjack class:
Thresher/Permit class:
Sturgeon class:
Destroyers
Spruance class:
Kidd class:
Arleigh Burke class:
Cruisers
Ticonderoga class:
Cutters
Legend class:
Amphibious transport dock
San Antonio class:
Amphibious assault ship
Iwo Jima class:
Tarawa class:
Wasp class:
America class:
Attack transport
s
Corvette
Sa'ar 5 class:
INS Eilat (501)
INS Lahav (502)
INS Hanit (503)
Tankers
T5 tanker prototype, 615-foot vessel intended for possible conversion to atomic power, 1958
Cruise ships and ocean liners
for naval architect George G. Sharp, 1946
, an ocean liner for Moore-MacCormack and launched in 1957.
, also built for Moore-MacCormack and the last ocean liner to be fully completed in the United States as of 2015.
(partially built in Mississippi, then towed to Germany for outfitting)
Ships refitted
References
External links
Official website
Pascagoula, Mississippi
Defunct locomotive manufacturers of the United States
Northrop Grumman
Shipbuilding companies of the United States
Companies based in Mississippi
Buildings and structures in Jackson County, Mississippi
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1938
Defense companies of the United States
1938 establishments in Mississippi
American companies established in 1938
Manufacturing companies based in Mississippi
|
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208611
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.%20B.%20S.%20Pinchback
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P. B. S. Pinchback
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Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback (May 10, 1837 – December 21, 1921) was an American publisher, politician, and Union Army officer. Pinchback was the first African American to serve as governor of a U.S. state and the second African American (after Oscar Dunn) to serve as lieutenant governor of a U.S. state. A Republican, Pinchback served as acting governor of Louisiana from December 9, 1872, to January 13, 1873. He was one of the most prominent African-American officeholders during the Reconstruction Era.
Pinchback was born free in Macon, Georgia to Eliza Stewart and her enslaver, William Pinchback, a white planter. His father raised the younger Pinchback and his siblings as his own children on his large plantation in Mississippi. After the death of his father in 1848, his mother took Pinchback and siblings to the free state of Ohio to ensure their continued freedom. After the start of the American Civil War, Pinchback traveled to Union-occupied New Orleans. There he raised several companies for the 1st Louisiana Native Guard, and became one of the few African Americans commissioned as officers in the Union Army.
Pinchback remained in New Orleans after the Civil War, becoming active in Republican politics. He won election to the Louisiana State Senate in 1868 and became the president pro tempore of the state senate. He became the acting Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana following the death of Oscar Dunn in 1871 and briefly served as acting governor of Louisiana after Henry C. Warmoth was impeached. After the contested 1872 Louisiana gubernatorial election, Republican legislators elected Pinchback to the United States Senate. Due to the controversy over the 1872 elections in the state, which were challenged by white Democrats, Pinchback was never seated in Congress.
Pinchback served as a delegate to the 1879 Louisiana constitutional convention, where he helped gain support for the founding of Southern University. In a Republican federal appointment, he served as the surveyor of US customs of New Orleans from 1882 to 1885. Later he worked with other leading men of color to challenge the segregation of Louisiana's public transportation system, leading to the Supreme Court case of Plessy v. Ferguson. To escape increasing racial oppression, he moved with his family to Washington, D.C. in 1892, where they were among the elite people of color. He died there in 1921.
Early life
Pinckney Benton Stewart was born free in May 1837 in Macon, Bibb County, Georgia. His parents were Eliza Stewart, a former slave, and Major William Pinchback, a white planter and his mother's former master. William Pinchback, who also had a legal white family, freed Eliza and her two surviving children in 1836; she had borne six by that point and two had survived. She had four more children with Pinchback, all born into freedom under Georgia law because she was free.
Pinckney Stewart's parents were of diverse ethnic origins; Eliza Stewart was classified as mulatto and had African, Cherokee, Welsh, and German ancestry. William Pinchback was ethnic European-American, of Scots-Irish, Welsh, and German American ancestry. Shortly after Pinckney's birth, his father William purchased a much larger plantation in Mississippi, and he moved there with both his white and mixed-race families.
Pinckney Benton Stewart and his siblings were considered the "natural" (or illegitimate) children of their father, but they were brought up in relatively affluent surroundings. He treated them as his own, with privileges similar to the white children on his plantation. In 1846, Pinchback sent the 9-year-old Pinckney and his older brother Napoleon north for education at a private academy, Gilmore High School in Cincinnati, Ohio. In 1848, when Pinckney was eleven, his father died.
Fearful that the other Pinchback relatives might try to claim her children as slaves, Eliza Stewart fled with the children to Cincinnati in the free state of Ohio. Napoleon, at 18, helped to keep the family together but broke down under the responsibility. At 12, Pinckney left school and began to work as a cabin boy on river and canal boats to help his family. For a while he lived in Terre Haute, Indiana, where he worked as a hotel porter. During that time, he still identified as Pinckney B. Stewart. He did not take his father's surname of Pinchback until after the end of the Civil War.
Marriage and family
In 1860 at the age of 23, Stewart married Emily Hawthorne, a free woman of color. Like Stewart, she was "practically white" in appearance, meaning she had a high proportion of European ancestors. They had six children: Pinckney Napoleon in 1862, Bismarck in 1864, Nina in 1866, and Walter Alexander in 1868. Two others died young. Pinckney named one son Bismarck because of his admiration for statesman Otto von Bismarck of Germany, whom he considered to be one of the world's greatest men. Pinckney's mother Eliza Stewart lived with Pinckney and his family from 1867 until her death in 1884.
They had a fine house in New Orleans. Usually, in the summer, the whole family traveled to Saratoga Springs, New York, a resort town in upstate, where they would stay for several weeks. Pinchback liked to gamble on the horse racing held there during the summer season.
Military service and Civil War
The Civil War began the following year, and Stewart decided to fight on the side of the Union. In 1862, he made his way to New Orleans, which had just been captured by the Union Army. He raised several companies for the Union's all-black 1st Louisiana Native Guards Regiment, which was garrisoned in the city. A minority of the men were Louisiana free men of color, part of the educated class before the war who had participated in the state militia. Most of the Guards were former slaves, who had escaped to join the Union forces and gain freedom.
Commissioned a captain, Stewart was one of the Union Army's few commissioned officers of African-American ancestry. Like Stewart, the officers were mostly of mixed race. Most of them were drawn from the class of free people of color in New Orleans established before the war; unlike him, they were usually of colonial French and African descent. He became Company Commander of Company A, 2nd Louisiana Regiment Native Guard Infantry, made up mostly of refugee slaves. (It was later reformed as the 74th US Colored Infantry Regiment, of the United States Colored Troops.)
Passed over twice for promotion and tired of the prejudice he encountered from white officers, Stewart resigned his commission in 1863. In a letter of April 30, 1863, his married sister Adeline B. Saffold wrote to him from Sidney, Ohio, urging him to follow her example and enter the white world:
If I were you, Pink, I would not let my ambition die. I would seek to rise and not in that class either but I would take my position in the world as a white man as you are and let the other go for be assured of this as the other you will never get your rights. ...
After the war, Stewart and his wife moved to Alabama.
Political career
After the war in New Orleans, Stewart took his father's surname of Pinchback. He became active in the Republican Party. The exact moment Pinchback decided to enter politics is described by George Devol in his book Forty Years a Gambler on the Mississippi. In 1867, Pinchback organized the Fourth Ward Republican Club in New Orleans soon after Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts. That year, he was elected as a delegate to the constitutional convention.
In 1868 Pinchback was elected as a State Senator. He was elected as senate president pro tempore; seven of 36 seats in the Senate were held by men of color. The House had 42 representatives of African-American descent, comprising half the seats. (At the time, the populations of African Americans, including former free people of color, and whites in the state were nearly equal.)
As Senate president pro tempore, in 1871 Pinchback succeeded to the position as acting lieutenant governor upon the death of Oscar Dunn, the first elected African-American lieutenant governor of a US state.
Pinchback contributed further to the political discussion with the founding of the bi-weekly newspaper, the Louisianian in 1870. He worked as an editor there until 1872. Later, in 1874, he returned to be editor and in 1878 he became editor-in-chief, though he allowed students from Straight University (later part of Dillard University). The paper's motto was "Republican at all times, and under all circumstances." Publication of the paper ended in 1882.
He was appointed as director of the New Orleans public schools. Statewide public schools were established for the first time by the new state legislature during Reconstruction. Pinchback had a long-standing interest in education of blacks and was appointed to the Louisiana State Board of Education, where he served from March 18, 1871, until March, 1877.
In 1872, the legislature filed impeachment charges against the incumbent Republican governor, Henry Clay Warmoth, over disputes over certifying returns of the disputed gubernatorial election, in which both Democrat John McEnery and Republican William Kellogg claimed victory. Trying to support a centrist fusion government at a time of divisions among Republicans, Warmoth had supported his appointed return board, which certified McEnery as winner. Republicans opposed this outcome and appointed their own returns board, which certified Kellogg. The election had been marked by violence and fraud.
Pinchback rose to acting governor in Warmoth's stead by way of article 53 of the Louisiana Constitution of 1868, which held that the lieutenant governor would assume the duties of the governor "in case of impeachment of the Governor, his removal from office, death . . . resignation or absence from the state." Pinchback was sworn in as the first governor of African descent in the history of the United States. He took the oath as acting governor on December 9, 1872 and served for about six weeks, until the end of Warmoth's term. Warmoth was not convicted, and the charges were eventually dropped by the legislature.
Also in 1872, at a national convention of African-American politicians, Pinchback had a public disagreement with Jeremiah Haralson of Alabama. James T. Rapier, also of Alabama, submitted a motion that the convention condemn all Republicans who had opposed President Ulysses S. Grant in that year's election. Haralson supported the motion, but Pinchback opposed it because Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts would have been condemned for opposing Grant. Pinchback admired Sumner as a lifelong anti-slavery fighter.
1870s congressional elections
After his brief period in executive office, Pinchback remained active in politics and public service in Louisiana. From 1868, campaigns and elections in Louisiana were increasingly marked by Democratic violence. Historian George C. Rable described the White League, a paramilitary group started in 1874, as the "military arm of the Democratic Party." The paramilitary group used intimidation and violence to suppress black voting and run Republicans out of office.
As an outcome of the controversial 1872 election, four US seats from Louisiana were also contested, including Pinchback's seat in the at-large position. In early 1873, both the Republican William Kellogg-allied state legislators, who had a slight majority, and the Democrat John McEnery-allied legislators elected US Senators. Pinchback was elected by the Republicans and presented the Senate with his credentials. The Democratic candidate also presented credentials. As the 1872 gubernatorial contest had involved the national government, Congress was initially reluctant to assess these issues. The contested claim was not settled for years, at a time when Democrats controlled Congress.
Holding out for the Senate seat, Pinchback conceded the House seat to his Democratic opponent. The 45th Congress (1877–1879), which finally decided the issue, had a Democratic majority and voted against Pinchback. The Senate awarded him compensation of $16,000 for his salary and mileage after his protracted struggle to take his seat.
In his memoir of Reconstruction, former Louisiana governor Henry Clay Warmoth wrote that the federal government was reluctant to seat people representing the Kellogg-Pinchback faction. He had a personal interest, as he had been forced out of Louisiana after allying with white conservatives in the 1872 election certification. Historian John C. Rodrigue notes that the Committee on Elections was dealing with its own internal issues. It had accepted Pinchback's claim to the House seat, but he was holding out for the Senate seat. Complications arose after the Democrats took control of the next Congress and upheld election of his opponent.
Overall, the mid- to late 1870s marked an acceleration of the reversal of the political gains that African Americans in Louisiana had achieved since the end of the Civil War. In 1877, Democrats fully regained control of the state legislature after the withdrawal of federal troops, as a result of a national Democratic compromise marking the end of Reconstruction. Republican blacks continued to be elected to state and local offices, but elections were accompanied by violence and fraud. Most blacks were totally disfranchised by a new state constitution in 1898 and were effectively excluded from politics for decades.
Pinchback served as a delegate to the 1879 state constitutional convention; he and two other Republican African-American delegates, Theophile T. Allain, and Henry Demas, were credited with gaining support to establish Southern University, a historically black college in New Orleans, which was chartered in 1880. Pinchback was appointed as a member of Southern University's Board of Trustees (later redesignated the Board of Supervisors). The college relocated to the capital, Baton Rouge, in 1914. He was a delegate to the 1880 Republican National Convention.
In 1882, the national Republican administration appointed Pinchback as surveyor of customs in New Orleans, a politically significant position in which he served until 1885. It was his last political position.
Later life
In 1885, Pinchback studied law in New Orleans at Straight University, a historically black college later known as Dillard University. He was admitted to the Louisiana bar in 1886, but never practiced.
Continuing to be active in the African-American community, Pinchback had joined the Comité des Citoyens (Citizens' Committee), which set up the New Orleans civil rights challenge of Homer Plessy to state segregation in public transportation. Interstate trains were covered by federal legislation and supposed to be integrated. The case went to the Supreme Court of the United States as Plessy v. Ferguson. The Court ruled in 1896 that the state's providing "separate but equal" accommodations to African Americans was constitutional. This was a setback for African Americans; in practice, white-dominated legislatures and authorities generally underfunded black facilities, from train cars and waiting rooms to everything else.
Pinchback moved with his family to Washington, D.C., in 1892. Wealthy from his positions and settlement on the Senate seat, he had a large mansion built off Fourteenth Street near the Chinese embassy. At the time, his oldest son, Pinckney Pinchback, was established as a pharmacist in Philadelphia; the younger three ranged in age from 22 to 26 and were still living at home. The Pinchback family was part of the mixed-race elite in Washington; people in the group had generally been free before the war and often were educated and had acquired property. The Washington Post covered Pinchback's housewarming reception and his many high-ranking guests.
Later, Pinchback worked for a time in New York as a US Marshal.
By his death in 1921 in Washington, D.C., Pinchback was little known politically. His body was returned to New Orleans, where he was interred in Metairie Cemetery.
Legacy
Pinchback and his wife Nina were the maternal grandparents of Jean Toomer. Their daughter Nina Pinchback Toomer returned to live with her parents after her husband abandoned her when Jean was an infant. They helped raise him, and he started school in Washington, D.C.. After his mother remarried, they moved to New Rochelle, New York. He returned to his grandparents after his mother died in 1909, and went to high school at the academic M Street School. As an adult, Toomer became a poet and writer who was prominent as a modernist in New York during the Harlem Renaissance.
See also
List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction
List of African-American United States representatives
List of African-American United States senators
Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War
David Paterson
Deval Patrick
Douglas Wilder
References
Further reading
Dray, Philip. Capitol men: the epic story of Reconstruction through the lives of the first Black congressmen (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010).
Grosz, Agnes Smith, "The Political Career of Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback," Louisiana Historical Quarterly, XXVII (1944)
Haskins, James. Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback(New York: Macmillan, 1973)
Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback Papers, Manuscript Department, Moorland-Spingarm Research Center, Howard University, Washington, D.C., 3 includes "Here under the protecting care" speech quoted by Nicholas Lemann in Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War
Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising, by Rev. William J. Simmons, D. D., President of the State University, Louisville, Kentucky (1887)
Paterson, David "Black, Blind, & In Charge: A Story of Visionary Leadership and Overcoming Adversity."Skyhorse Publishing. New York, New York, 2020
External links
State of Louisiana – Biography
Cemetery Memorial by La-Cemeteries
|-
1837 births
1921 deaths
19th-century Methodists
African-American Methodists
African-American politicians during the Reconstruction Era
African-American state governors of the United States
African-American state legislators in Louisiana
African Americans in the American Civil War
American Methodists
American people of German descent
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American people of Welsh descent
Governors of Louisiana
Louisiana lawyers
Louisiana Republicans
Louisiana state senators
People from Macon, Georgia
People of Louisiana in the American Civil War
People of the African Methodist Episcopal church
Politicians from Cincinnati
Politicians from New Orleans
Republican Party state governors of the United States
Straight University alumni
United States Marshals
Union Army officers
|
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208612
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattan
|
Rattan
|
Rattan, also spelled ratan, is the name for roughly 600 species of Old World climbing palms belonging to subfamily Calamoideae. The greatest diversity of rattan palm species and genera are in the closed-canopy old-growth tropical forests of Southeast Asia, though they can also be found in other parts of tropical Asia and Africa. Most rattan palms are ecologically considered lianas due to their climbing habits, unlike other palm species. Though a few species also have tree-like or shrub-like habits.
Around 20% of rattan palm species are economically important and are traditionally used in Southeast Asia in producing wickerwork furniture, baskets, canes, woven mats, cordage, and other handicrafts. Rattan canes are one of the world's most valuable non-timber forest products. Some species of rattan also have edible scaly fruit and heart of palm. Despite increasing attempts in the last 30 years at commercial cultivation, almost all rattan products still come from wild-harvested plants. Rattan supplies are now rapidly threatened due to deforestation and overexploitation. Rattan were also historically known as Malacca cane or Manila cane, based on their trade origins, as well as numerous other trade names for individual species.
Etymology
The name "rattan" is first attested in English in the 1650s. It is derived from the Malay name rotan. Probably ultimately from rautan (from raut, "to trim" or "to pare").
Taxonomy
Calamoideae also includes tree palms such as Raphia (Raffia) and Metroxylon (Sago palm) and shrub palms such as Salacca (Salak) (Uhl & Dransfield 1987 Genera Palmarum). The climbing habit in palms is not restricted to Calamoideae, but has also evolved in three other evolutionary lines—tribes Cocoseae (Desmoncus with c. 7–10 species in the New World tropics) and Areceae (Dypsis scandens in Madagascar) in subfamily Arecoideae, and tribe Hyophorbeae (climbing species of the large genus Chamaedorea in Central America) in subfamily Ceroxyloideae. They do not have spinose stems and climb by means of their reflexed terminal leaflets. Of these only Desmoncus spp. furnish stems of sufficiently good quality to be used as rattan cane substitutes.
There are 13 different genera of rattans that include around 600 species. Some of the species in these "rattan genera" have a different habit and do not climb, they are shrubby palms of the forest undergrowth; nevertheless they are close relatives to species that are climbers and they are hence included in the same genera. The largest rattan genus is Calamus, distributed in Asia except for one species represented in Africa. From the remaining rattan genera, Ceratolobus, Korthalsia, Plectocomia, Plectocomiopsis, Myrialepis, Calospatha, Pogonotium and Retispatha, are centered in Southeast Asia with outliers eastwards and northwards; and three are endemic to Africa: Laccosperma (syn. Ancistrophyllum), Eremospatha and Oncocalamus.
The rattan genera and their distribution (Uhl & Dransfield 1987 Genera Palmarum, Dransfield 1992):
In Uhl & Dransfield (1987 Genera Palmarum, 2ºed. 2008), and also Dransfield & Manokaran (1993), a great deal of basic introductory information is available.
Available rattan floras and monographs by region (2002):
Uses by taxon.
The major commercial species of rattan canes as identified for Asia by Dransfield and Manokaran (1993) and for Africa, by Tuley (1995) and Sunderland (1999) (Desmoncus not treated here):
Utilized Calamus species canes:
Other traditional uses of rattans by species:
Ecology
Most rattan palms are classified ecologically as lianas, because most mature rattan palms have a vine-like habit, scrambling through and over other vegetation. But they differ from true woody lianas in several ways. Because rattans are palms, they do not branch and they rarely develop new root structures upon contact of the stem with soil. They are also monocots and thus do not exhibit secondary growth. This means, the diameter of the rattan stem is always constant. The width of juvenile rattan palms is the same as adult palms, usually around in diameter, with long internodes between the leaves. This also means juvenile rattan palms are rigid enough to remain free-standing, unlike true lianas which always need structural support, even when young. Many rattans also have spines which act as hooks to aid climbing over other plants, and to deter herbivores. The spines also give rattans the ability to climb wide-diamater trees, unlike other vines which use tendrils or twining which can only climb narrower supports. Rattans have been known to grow up to hundreds of metres long.
A few species of rattans are non-climbing. These range from free-standing tree-like species (like Retispatha dumetosa) to acaulescent shrub-like species with short subterranean stems (like Calamus pygmaeus).
Rattans can also be solitary (single-stemmed), clustering (clump-forming), or both. Solitary rattan species grow into a single stem. Clustering rattan, on the other hand, develop clumps of up to fifty stems via suckers, similar to bamboo and bananas. These clusters can produce new stems continually as individual stems die. The impact of harvesting is much greater in solitary species, since the whole plant dies when harvested. An example of a commercially important single-stemmed species is Calamus manan. Clustering species, on the other hand, have more potential to become sustainable if the rate of harvesting does not exceed the rate of stem replacement via vegetative reproduction.
Rattans also display two types of flowering: hapaxanthy and pleonanthy. All the species of the genera Korthalsia, Laccosperma, Plectocomia, Plectocomiopsis, and Myrialepis are hapaxanthic; as well as a few species of Daemonorops. This means they only flower and fruit once then die. All other rattan species are pleonanthic, being able to flower and fruit continually. Most commercially harvested species are pleonanthic, because hapaxanthic rattans tend to have soft piths making them unsuitable for bending.
Many rattan species also form mutualistic relationships with ant species. They provide ant shelters (myrmecodomatia) like hollow spines, funnel-shaped leaves, or leaf sheath extensions (ochreae). The rattans in turn, gain protection from herbivores.
Economic and environmental issues
In forests where rattan grows, its economic value can help protect forest land, by providing an alternative to loggers who forgo timber logging and harvest rattan canes instead. Rattan is much easier to harvest, requires simpler tools and is much easier to transport. It also grows much faster than most tropical wood. This makes it a potential tool in forest maintenance, since it provides a profitable crop that depends on rather than replaces trees. It remains to be seen whether rattan can be as profitable or useful as the alternatives.
Rattans are threatened with overexploitation, as harvesters are cutting stems too young and reducing their ability to resprout. Unsustainable harvesting of rattan can lead to forest degradation, affecting overall forest ecosystem services. Processing can also be polluting. The use of toxic chemicals and petrol in the processing of rattan affects soil, air and water resources, and also ultimately people's health. Meanwhile, the conventional method of rattan production is threatening the plant's long-term supply, and the income of workers.
Rattans also exhibit rapid population growths in disturbed forest edges due to higher light availability than in the closed-canopy old-growth tropical forests. Although this can mean increased rattan abundance for economic exploitation, it can also be problematic in long-term conservation efforts.
Rattan harvesting from the wild in most rattan-producing countries requires permits. These include the Philippines, Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia, Laos, Ghana, and Cameroon. In addition, the Philippines also imposes an annual allowable cut (AAC) in an effort to conserve rattan resources. Rattan cultivation (both monoculture and intercropping) is also being researched and pioneered in some countries, though it is still a young industry and only constitutes a minority of the rattan resources harvested annually.
Uses
Cleaned rattan stems with the leaf sheaths removed are superficially similar to bamboo. Unlike bamboo, rattan stems are not hollow. Most (70%) of the world's rattan population exist in Indonesia, distributed among the islands Borneo, Sulawesi, and Sumbawa. The rest of the world's supply comes from the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Bangladesh.
Rattan chair
Rattans are extensively used for making baskets and furniture. When cut into sections, rattan can be used as wood to make furniture. Rattan accepts paints and stains like many other kinds of wood, so it is available in many colours, and it can be worked into many styles. Moreover, the inner core can be separated and worked into wicker. A typical braiding pattern is called Wiener Geflecht, Viennese Braiding, as it was invented in 18th century Vienna and later most prominently used with the Thonet coffeehouse chair.
Generally, raw rattan is processed into several products to be used as materials in furniture making. From a strand of rattan, the skin is usually peeled off, to be used as rattan weaving material. The remaining "core" of the rattan can be used for various purposes in furniture making. Rattan is a very good material, mainly because it is lightweight, durable, and, to a certain extent, flexible and suitable for outdoor use.
Clothing
Traditionally, the women of the Wemale ethnic group of Seram Island, Indonesia wore rattan girdles around their waist.
Corporal punishment
Thin rattan canes were the standard implement for school corporal punishment in England and Wales, and are still used for this purpose in schools in Malaysia, Singapore, and several African countries. The usual maximum number of strokes was six, traditionally referred to as getting "Six of the best". Similar canes are used for military punishments in the Singapore Armed Forces. Heavier canes, also of rattan, are used for judicial corporal punishments in Aceh, Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore.
Food source
Some rattan fruits are edible, with a sour taste akin to citrus. The fruit of some rattans exudes a red resin called dragon's blood; this resin was thought to have medicinal properties in antiquity and was used as a dye for violins, among other things. The resin normally results in a wood with a light peach hue. In the Indian state of Assam, the shoot is also used as vegetable.
Medicinal potential
In early 2010, scientists in Italy announced that rattan wood would be used in a new "wood to bone" process for the production of artificial bone. The process takes small pieces of rattan and places it in a furnace. Calcium and carbon are added. The wood is then further heated under intense pressure in another oven-like machine, and a phosphate solution is introduced. This process produces almost an exact replica of bone material. The process takes about 10 days. At the time of the announcement the bone was being tested in sheep, and there had been no signs of rejection. Particles from the sheep's bodies have migrated to the "wood bone" and formed long, continuous bones. The new bone-from-wood programme is being funded by the European Union. Implants into humans were anticipated to start in 2015.
Wicks
Rattan is the preferred natural material used to wick essential oils in aroma reed diffusers (commonly used in aromatherapy, or merely to scent closets, passageways, and rooms), because each rattan reed contains 20 or more permeable channels that wick the oil from the container up the stem and release fragrance into the air, through an evaporation diffusion process. In contrast, reeds made from bamboo contain nodes that inhibit the passage of essential oils.
Handicraft and arts
Many of the properties of rattan that make it suitable for furniture also make it a popular choice for handicraft and art pieces. Uses include rattan baskets, plant containers, and other decorative works.
Due to its durability and resistance to splintering, sections of rattan can be used as canes, crooks for high-end umbrellas, or staves for martial arts. Rattan sticks long, called baston, are used in Filipino martial arts, especially Arnis/Eskrima/Kali and for the striking weapons in the Society for Creative Anachronism's full-contact "armoured combat".
Along with birch and bamboo, rattan is a common material used for the handles in percussion mallets, especially mallets for keyboard percussion, e.g., marimba, vibraphone, xylophone, etc.
Shelter material
Most natives or locals from the rattan rich countries employ the aid of this sturdy plant in their home building projects. It is heavily used as a housing material in rural areas. The skin of the plant or wood is primarily used for weaving.
Sports equipment
Rattan cane is also used traditionally to make polo mallets, though only a small portion of cane harvested (roughly 3%) is strong, flexible, and durable enough to be made into sticks for polo mallets, and popularity of rattan mallets is waning next the more modern variant, fibrecanes.
Weaponry
Fire-hardened rattan were commonly used as the shafts of Philippine spears collectively known as sibat. They were fitted with a variety of iron spearheads and ranged from short throwing versions to heavy thrusting weapons. They were used for hunting, fishing, or warfare (both land and naval warfare). The rattan shafts of war spears are usually elaborately ornamented with carvings and metal inlays. Arnis also makes prominent use of rattan as "arnis sticks", commonly called yantok or baston. Their durability and weight makes it ideal for training with complex execution of techniques as well as being a choice of weapon, even against bladed objects.
It sees also prominent use in battle re-enactments as stand-ins to potentially lethal weapons.
Rattan can also be used to build a functional sword that delivers a non-lethal but similar impact compared to steel counterparts.
See also
Amakan
Sennit
Caning
References
Further reading
Siebert, Stephen F. (2012). The Nature and Culture of Rattan: Reflections on Vanishing Life in the Forests of Southeast Asia''. University of Hawai'i Press. .
External links
Calamoideae
Fiber plants
Non-timber forest products
Arecaceae
Spanking
Wood
Palm trees in culture
|
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208619
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cataraqui%20River
|
Cataraqui River
|
The Cataraqui River ( ) forms the lower portion of the Rideau Canal and drains into Lake Ontario at Kingston, Ontario. The name is taken from the original name for Kingston, Ontario; its exact meaning, however, is undetermined. Early maps showed several name variations including the Great Cataraqui River and Grand River Cataraquay. The river was once called Riviere de Frontenac, or Frontenac River. The alternate spelling "Cadaraqui" also appears in some historic texts.
Prior to the Rideau Canal being built (1826 – 1832), the Cataraqui River had its headwaters in Dog and Loughborough lakes. It was a meandering creek, a 1795 map (by surveyor Lewis Grant) noted "a great number of rapids and Carrying Places on this creek." This changed with the building of the Rideau Canal. The Superintending Engineer of the project, Lt. Colonel John By, used a slackwater construction technique, building dams to drown rapids. In the area of the Cataraqui Creek from Upper Brewers to Kingston Mills he had the forests cut down to form a straight channel (this work is visible in the Burrowes paintings of Brewer's Lower Mill shown below). Then the area was flooded in late 1831/early 1832 with the completion of canal dams at Kingston Mills, Lower Brewers and Upper Brewers.
Today the watershed of the Cataraqui River includes lakes south of the watershed divide at Newboro, such as Sand, Opinicon, Clear and Newboro. However, in the pre-canal era, water from those lakes flowed into the White Fish River which drained to the Gananoque River rather than the Cataraqui River. The section between those two rivers was the Cranberry Flood Plain; the only water contribution from the White Fish River to the Cataraqui was in times of spring flood. This changed in the early 1800s with the building of a mill dam by Lemuel Haskins at White Fish Falls, near today's village of Morton. That dam retarded the outflow of the White Fish River to the Gananoque, backed it up over the Cranberry Flood Plain, sending water south to the Cataraqui River. To stop the escape of his mill water down Cataraqui Creek, Haskins built a second dam at the Round Tail (just north of Upper Brewers) which blocked the channel of the creek. These two dams made the Cataraqui Flood Plain navigable for the first time.
When the Rideau Canal was built, Haskins' dam at Morton was enlarged and a new dam was built at Upper Brewers. Those two dams (managed today by Parks Canada) created Whitefish Lake, Little Cranberry Lake and much expanded Cranberry and Dog lakes. Most of the flow from what was previously the White Fish River watershed now flows down the Cataraqui River.
The Cataraqui Region Conservation Authority administers water management concerns within the Cataraqui River watershed.
See also
List of Ontario rivers
La Salle Causeway
References
External links
Cataraqui Region Conservation Authority
Rivers of Frontenac County
Landforms of Kingston, Ontario
Tributaries of Lake Ontario
|
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] |
208621
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azov
|
Azov
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Azov (), previously known as Azak,
is a town in Rostov Oblast, Russia, situated on the Don River just from the Sea of Azov, which derives its name from the town. Population: 80,428 (2020),
History
Early settlements in the vicinity
The mouth of the Don River has always been an important commercial center. At the start of the 3rd century BCE, the Greeks from the Bosporan Kingdom founded a colony here, which they called Tanais (after the Greek name of the river). Several centuries later, in the last third of 1st century BCE, the settlement was burned down by king Polemon I of Pontus. The introduction of Greek colonists restored its prosperity, but the Goths practically annihilated it in the 3rd century. The site of ancient Tanais, now occupied by the khutor of Nedvigovka, has been excavated since the mid-19th century.
In the 5th century, the area was populated by Karadach's Akatziroi who came under the rule of Dengizich the Hun before Byzantium gave the land to the Hunugurs in the 460s to become known as Patria Onoguria under his brother Ernakh the Hun. The Kutrigur Hun inhabitants of Patria Onoguria became known as the Utigur Bulgars when it became part of the Western Turkic Kaghanate under Sandilch. Then in the 7th century Khan Kubrat ruler of the Unogundurs established Old Great Bolgary there before his heir Batbayan surrendered it to the Khazars.
In the 10th century, as the Khazar state disintegrated, the area passed under control of the Slavic princedom of Tmutarakan. The Kipchaks, seizing the area in 1067, renamed it Azaq (i.e., lowlands), from which appellation the modern name is derived. The Golden Horde claimed most of the coast in the 13th and 14th centuries, but the Venetian and Genoese merchants were granted permission to settle on the site of modern-day Azov and founded there a colony which they called .
Archaeological digs
In autumn 2000, Thor Heyerdahl wanted to further investigate his idea that Scandinavians may have migrated from the south via waterways. He was on the trail of Odin (Wotan), the Germanic and Nordic god of the mythologies of the early Norse Eddas and Sagas. According to Snorri Sturluson, the Icelandic author of an Edda and as least one Saga., who wrote in the 13th century, Odin was supposed to have migrated from the region of the Caucasus or the area just east of the Black Sea near the turn of the 1st century CE. Heyerdahl was particularly interested in Snorri's reference to the land of origin of the Æsir people. Heyerdahl wanted to test the veracity of Snorri's claims and as a result organized the Joint Archaeological Excavation in Azov in 2001. He had wanted to undertake a second excavation the following year, but it never happened due to his death in April 2002.
Fortress
In 1471, the Ottoman Empire gained control of the area and built the strong fortress of Azak (Azov). The fort blocked the Don Cossacks from raiding and trading into the Black Sea. The Cossacks had attacked Azov in 1574, 1593, 1620, and 1626. In April 1637, three thousand Don Cossacks and four thousand Zaporozhian Cossacks besieged Azov (the Turks had four thousand soldiers and two hundred cannons). The fort fell on June 21 and the Cossacks sent a request to the Tsar for re-enforcements and support. A commission recommended against this because of the danger of war with Turkey and poor state of the fortifications. In June 1641, Hussein Deli, Pasha of Silistria invested the fort with 70,000–80,000 men. In September, they had to withdraw because of disease and provisioning shortfalls. A second Russian commission reported that the siege had left very little of the walls. In March 1642, Sultan Ibrahim issued an ultimatum and Tsar Mikhail ordered the Cossacks to evacuate. The Turks reoccupied Azov in September 1642.
In 1693, the garrison of the fortress was 3,656 of whom 2,272 were Janissaries.
The fortress, however, had yet to pass through many vicissitudes. During the Azov campaigns of 1696, Peter the Great, who desired naval access to the Black Sea, managed to recover the fortress. Azov was granted town status in 1708, but the disastrous Pruth River Campaign constrained him to hand it back to the Turks in 1711. A humorous description of the events is featured in Voltaire's Candide. During the Great Russo-Turkish War, it was taken by the army under Count Rumyantsev and finally ceded to Russia under the terms of Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji (1774). For seven years Azov was a seat of its own governorate, but with the growth of neighboring Rostov-on-the-Don it gradually declined in importance. The Germans and Austrians occupied Azov in 1917–1918, during World War I. It was occupied by the Germans between July 1942 and February 1943 during World War II.
Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Azov serves as the administrative center of Azovsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as Azov Urban Okrug—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, this administrative unit also has urban okrug status.
Government
Sergey Bezdolny of the United Russia party was elected Mayor of Azov on April 3, 2005 and re-elected on October 11, 2009 by 72.9% of the voters.
The current head of administration (city-manager) Vladimir Rashchupkin holds office from December 2015.
Geography
Climate
Azov's climate is humid continental (Köppen climate classification Dfa), featuring hot summers, cold winters (though quite mild for Russia), and fairly low precipitation.
Attractions
There are many monuments and museums In Azov.
Built in 1799, the powder cellar in the town of Azov is the only example of the construction of
the fortress of Catherine's time for all of southern Russia (built fortresses Rostov, Taganrog and others completely destroyed), so it deserves to be considered an architectural monument of art of military engineering of the 18th century. Wooden cellar served a quarter century, in 1797 being in a dilapidated state, it was dismantled, and in its place they built a cellar made of stone. In 1799, in the bastion of St. Anne a new powder cellar was built. From the beginning of the 19th to the 20th century the cellar was used as a storage of ice. From 1961 to 1965 the cellar was renovated and handed over to the history museum.
In 1967, to celebrate the 900-year-old Azov, soviet officials opened the exposition diorama
"The Taking of Azov by the troops of Peter the Great in 1696". The Author of the Diorama is the Russian artist Arseny Chernyshov.
The Azov Fortress is a fortified complex overlooking the Don River and the Port of Azov to the north. It includes a rampart, watchtowers and gates.
Monument to Peter I is a bronze monument of Peter the Great in the center of Azov. It was designed by sculptors Oleg Komov and Andrey Kovalchuk. The opening ceremony took place on 19 July 1996 and was held in conjunction by the 300-year anniversary of the Russian Navy.
Monument to Aleksei Shein is a sculpture of Russian statesman, general, Boyar (from 1695), and the first Russian Generalissimo (1696) Aleksei Semenovich Shein. The monument was opened on June 12, 2009. The authors of the project were M. Lushnikov and V.P. Mokrousov.
Monument to the sailors of the Azov Flotilla is dedicated to the Flotilla, which heroically fought in Taganrog Bay and the Don Delta during the Great Patriotic war. The monument is considered to be an object of local cultural heritage.
The Azov Museum of History, Archaeology and Palaeontology is one of the biggest southern museums of Russia hosting the richest palaeontological collection in the south of Russia. The museum was established on 17 May 1917 by Michail Aronovich Makarovskiy.
Twin towns – sister cities
Azov is twinned with:
Aglandjia, Cyprus (1990)
Chillicothe, United States (1991)
Feodosia, Ukraine (2016)
Pylos-Nestor, Greece (2017)
Sečanj, Serbia (2018)
Courbevoie, France (2018)
Bijeljina, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2018)
See also
Azov campaigns (1695–96)
References
Notes
Sources
Khvalkov E. The colonies of Genoa in the Black Sea region: evolution and transformation. L., NY : Routledge, 2017
Khvalkov E. Due atti notarili rogati a Tana, colonia veneziana sul Mare di Azov, e alcune considerazioni sull'età dei veneziani che hanno visitato Tana // Studi veneziani. 2017. Vol. 73-74
Khvalkov E. A Regionalization or Long-Distance Trade? Transformations and Shifts in the Role of Tana in the Black Sea Trade in the First Half of the Fifteenth Century // European Review of History: Revue europeenne d’histoire. 2016. Vol. 23. No. 3. P. 508 -525. doi
Khvalkov E. ‘The society of the Venetian colony of Tana in the 1430s based on the notarial deeds of Niccolò di Varsis and Benedetto di Smeritis.’ In Studi storici 57 / 1 (2016): 93–110. // Studi Storici. 2016. Vol. 57. No. 1. P. 93–110.
Khvalkov E. Forms of Social Organization in the Venetian Trading Station in Tana, 1430s // Ricerche storiche. 2015. Vol. 45. No. 3. P. 381–392.
Khvalkov E. ‘Trading Diasporas in the Venetian and Genoese Trading Stations in Tana, 1430 – 1440.’, in: Union in Separation. Diasporic Groups and Identities in the Eastern Mediterranean (1100-1800). Heidelberg : Springer, 2015. P. 311–327.
Khvalkov E. Everyday Life and Material Culture in the Venetian and Genoese Trading Stations of Tana in the 1430s (Based on the Study of Notarial Documents) // Medium Aevum Quotidianum. 2012. Vol. 64. P. 84–93.
Khvalkov E. The Slave Trade in Tana: Marketing Manpower from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean in the 1430s // Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU. 2012. Vol. 18.
External links
Official website of Azov
Unofficial website of Azov
Directory of organizations in Azov
Cities and towns in Rostov Oblast
Crimean Khanate
History of the Don Cossacks
Don Host Oblast
Port cities and towns in Russia
Bosporan Kingdom
Coastal fortifications
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208623
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud%20I
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Mahmud I
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Mahmud I (, , 2 August 1696 13 December 1754), known as Mahmud the Hunchback, was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1730 to 1754. He took over the throne after the Patrona Halil rebellion and he kept good relations with Mughal and Safavid Empires.
Early life
He was born at Edirne Palace on 2 August 1696, the son of Mustafa II (1664–1703); his mother was Saliha Sabkati Valide Sultan. Mahmud I was the older brother of Osman III (1754–57). He developed a humped back.
His father Mustafa II mostly lived in Edirne. Mahmud passed his childhood in Edirne. On 18 May 1702 he started his education in Edirne. When his father deposed himself from the throne he was brought to Istanbul and locked up in Kafes where he spent 27 years of his life.
It is not known what kind of culture he acquired during this time, since he continued to play chess, write poetry, and deal with music. In addition for childhood and youth, there were dangers, especially for the Kafes life.
Reign
Accession
On 28 September 1730, Patrona Halil with a small group of fellow Janissaries aroused some of the citizens of Constantinople who opposed the reforms of Ahmed III. Sweeping up more soldiers Halil led the riot to the Topkapı Palace and demanded the death of the grand vizer, Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha and the abdication of Ahmed III. Ahmed III acceded to the demands, had İbrahim Pasha strangled, and agreed to his nephew, Mahmud, becoming sultan.
Mahmud's real reign began on 25 November 1730, after this incident. First of all, Istanbul was taken under strict control. Measures were taken. About two thousand suspicious people were captured, some were executed, some were exiled.
Mahmud’s rule
Mahmud I was recognized as sultan by the mutineers as well as by court officials but for some weeks after his accession the empire was in the hands of the insurgents. Halil rode with the new sultan to the Mosque of Eyüb where the ceremony of girding Mahmud I with the Sword of Osman was performed; many of the chief officers were deposed and successors to them appointed at the dictation of the bold rebel who had served in the ranks of the Janissaries and who appeared before the sultan bare-legged and in his old uniform of a common soldier. A Greek butcher, named Yanaki, had formerly given credit to Halil and had lent him money during the three days of the insurrection. Halil showed his gratitude by compelling the Divan to make Yanaki Hospodar of Moldavia. However, Yanaki never took charge of this office.
The Khan of the Crimea assisted the Grand Vizier, the Mufti and the Aga of the Janissaries in putting down the rebellion. On 24 November 1731, Halil was strangled by the sultan's order and in his presence, after a Divan in which Halil had dictated that war be declared against Russia. His Greek friend, Yanaki, and 7,000 of those who had supported him were also put to death. The jealousy which the officers of the Janissaries felt towards Halil, and their readiness to aid in his destruction, facilitated the exertions of Mahmud I's supporters in putting an end to the rebellion after it had lasted over a year.
The Austrian ambassador, who came to Istanbul in August 1740, was given a dinner in Davudpaşa. Çavuşbaşı took the ambassador and took him to his mansion prepared in Beyoğlu. On the day of the Ulufe Court, he presented his name to the Sultan. Various demonstrations were held in places where welcome and farewell ceremonies were held for the ambassador from Yeniköy Pier.
The rest of Mahmud I's reign was dominated by wars in Persia, with the collapsing Safavid dynasty and the ascendance of Nader Shah. Mahmud also faced a notable war in Europe—the Austro-Russian-Turkish War (1735-1739).
Mahmud I entrusted government to his viziers and spent much of his time composing poetry.
Fires of 1750
The fire that started at the Ayazma gate in January 1750 lasted for 19 hours. Numerous shops, houses, and mansions burned until Vefa. The sultan dismissed Boynueğri Abdullah Pasha and appointed Divitdar Mehmed Emin Pasha on 9 January 1750. In the second fire that broke out on 31 March 1750, Bitpazan, Abacılar, Yorgancılar, Yağlıkcılar, Haffaflar were completely burned. The fire spread to Fingerkapi and Tatlikuyu. The sultan, with the help of the treasury, repaired the burned down and Ağakapısı.
Architecture
Mahmud I started the construction of the Cağaloğlu Bath, called Yeni Hamam, in the spring of 1740 on the land of Cağaloğlu Palace, which covers a large area. Foundation houses were built on the remaining empty lands and a neighborhood was established. The benevolent sultan opened the one in the courtyard of the Hagia Sophia Mosque, the first of the three libraries it established in Istanbul, with a ceremony and made four thousand volumes. In the library, Sahih-i Buharf reading of ten inhabitants every day was one of the conditions of the foundation. Mahmud also came to the Rosary Gate of Hagia Sophia several times, sat in the library and listened to the commentary of tafsir. The famine, which appeared due to the heavy winter, became heavier and heavier at the end of spring.
Relations with the Mughal Empire
Nader Shah's devastating campaign against the Mughal Empire, created a void in the western frontiers of Persia, which was effectively exploited by the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud I, who initiated the Ottoman–Persian War (1743–46), in which the Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah closely cooperated with the Ottomans and their ambassador Haji Yusuf Agha, these relations between the two empires continued until Muhammad Shah's death in 1748.
Relations with Safavid Empire
In March 1741, the ambassador of Nadir Shah from Azerbaijani
government, Hacı Han, came to Istanbul with three thousand people and his guards unit to prolong the peace in between them. Among his gifts were fabrics embroidered with jewels, ten elephants, and valuable weapons. Hacı Han was given a banquet in Fener Bahçesin. It was also a problem to pass the elephants brought by hand to Istanbul, and wide shakes were laid on the barges, and wooden curtains were laid around them so that elephants could not be scared.
The relations of Afsharid Empire and Ottoman Empire became increasingly tense, reached a new dimension in February 1743, and Shah Safi, who was one of Shah Hussein's princes and held hostage on Chios Island, was condemned and Nader Shah's inability to complete. Sailor's head of the crest, including the personality crown, was put on destar. He was sent to the Afsharid border with the troops that joined him.
Family
His consorts were:
Hace Ayşe Alicenab Kadın; Senior Consort;
Ruhşah Kadın, Senior Consort;
Fehime Kadın, Second Consort;
Vuslat Kadın (died 1764, buried in Karacaahmet Cemetery, Istanbul), Third Consort;
Hatem Kadın (died 1770, buried in Ayazma Mosque, Istanbul), Fourth Consort;
Hace Verdinaz Kadın (died 16 December 1804, buried in Şehzade Mosque, Istanbul), Fifth Consort;
Rami Kadın, Sixth Consort;
Habibe Kadın;
Death
Mahmud I who was disturbed by fistula and during the harsh winter his health declined day by day. On Friday, 13 December 1754 he went for attending the Friday prayer. After attending the prayer he went back to his palace but in the journey he collapsed on his horse and died on the same day and was buried in his great-grandmother Turhan Sultan Mausoleum in New Mosque, at Eminönü, in Istanbul, Turkey.
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Incorporates text from History of Ottoman Turks (1878)
[aged 58]
1696 births
1754 deaths
People from Edirne
18th-century Ottoman sultans
Turks of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman dynasty
Royalty and nobility with disabilities
The Sultan of Two Lands and the Khan of Two Seas
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman%20III
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Osman III
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Osman III ( Osmān-i sālis; 2 January 1699 – 30 October 1757) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1754 to 1757.
Early life
Osman III was born on 2 January 1699 in the Edirne Palace. His father was Mustafa II and his mother was Şehsuvar Sultan. He was the younger half-brother of Mahmud I. When his father was deposed from the throne in 1703, he was taken back to Istanbul and imprisoned in the Kafes. Osman III lived in the Kafes for 51 years.
He was secretly circumcised on 17 April 1705 with the other princes here. He was among the princes in Ahmed's entourage. He also later made trips to the sultan inside and outside the city. Together with his elder brother Mahmud's embassy on 1 October 1730, he became the biggest prince waiting for the throne.
Reign
Osman III lived most of his life as a prisoner in the palace, and as a consequence, he had some behavioural peculiarities when he took the throne. Unlike previous sultans, he hated music, and banished all musicians from the palace. According to Baron de Tott, Osman III was an angry and modest type of ruler.
Osman III's first activity was to choose government officials to work with. During his reign, the changes he made in high-level government duties, especially Grand Vizier, can be considered as attempts to reduce the extremely weighted role of the charitable authority in the previous sultan's era.
In the severe storm of March 1756, an Egyptian galleon ran ashore in Kumkapı at dusk. Due to the storm, 600 passengers could not be evacuated. The sultan, who came to the shore, took all the passengers by bringing barges from the shipyard. He ordered the construction of the Ahırkapı Lighthouse in Istanbul to prevent such incidents.
The first procession of his enthronement was held on 14 December 1754. The historians of that time didn't write the events happening in the empire because of severe and freezing cold of January 1755. Osman was responsible for a firman in 1757 that preserved the Status Quo of various Holy Land sites for Christians, Muslims, and Jews.
In the second year of his reign, Osman lost his mother, Şehsuvar Sultan, who had been in contact with his religiousness. Afterward, the oldest prince, Mehmed, died of illness on 22 December 1756. According to various sources, the funeral of the prince, controlled by the quarry, grand vizier and sheikh al-Islam, was attended by 5,000 people. Some contemporary sources said that the prince was poisoned and killed on the initiative of Köse Mustafa Pasha, the next sultan of the third sultan, Köse Mustafa Pasha.
It is noted that, in this period, provisions were sent against banditry in Anatolia and Rumelia, and especially the movements of headless beams, and that the sultan was also interested in these issues. Some measures were taken against the tribes of Bozulus and Cihanbeyli, the Armenians due to the turmoil in Iran, the bandits around Erzurum and Sivas, and the famous leader Karaosmanoğlu Hacı Mustafa Ağa. The latter was captured and executed, and his head was brought to Istanbul on 5 December 1755.
Architecture
Osman is famous for building Nuruosmaniye Mosque, whose construction started during the reign of Mahmud I. Nuruosmaniye Complex, also known as Osmaniye for a while, consisted of three schools, madrasahs, a factory, a library, a mausoleum, a temporary room, a mesh house, a fountain, an inn, and shops. Osman built a new neighborhood in 1755-56 where Üsküdar Palace and Garden was located, along with houses and shops. He also built the Ihsaniye Mosque and its masjids, both of which stand today as İhsaniye.
Osman III built a fountain in his name in 1755–56; it was destroyed 122 years after its construction.
Death
Osman III died on the night of 30 October 1757. In the early morning, a ceremony was held and his cousin Mustafa III was placed on the throne. The new sultan ordered Osman to be buried in the New Mosque Mausoleum, not in Nuruosmaniye.
In popular culture
The Turkish metal band Pentagram wrote a song about him called Lions In A Cage.
References
Sources
External links
[aged 58]
1699 births
1757 deaths
People from Edirne
18th-century Ottoman sultans
Turks of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman dynasty
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa%20III
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Mustafa III
|
Mustafa III (; Muṣṭafā-yi sālis; 28 January 1717 – 21 January 1774) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. He was a son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30), and his consort Mihrişah Kadın. He was succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid I (1774–89).
Early life
Mustafa was born at the Edirne Palace on 28 January 1717. His father was Sultan Ahmed III, and his mother was Mihrişah Kadın. He had a full brother named, Şehzade Süleyman. In 1720, a large fifteen day circumcision ceremony took place for Mustafa, and his brothers, princes Süleyman, Mehmed, and Bayezid. In 1730, after the Patrona Halil revolt, led to the deposition of his father Sultan Ahmed III, and the succession of his cousin Sultan Mahmud I, Mustafa, his father, and brothers were all locked up in the Topkapı Palace. In 1756, after the death of his elder half-brother Mehmed, he became heir to the throne.
Reign
Accession
Mustafa ascended the throne on 30 October 1757, after the death of his cousin Osman III, the son of Sultan Mustafa II.
Character of Mustafa's rule
Soon after his accession to the throne, Mustafa demonstrated a special care for justice. He took a number of measures to increase prosperity in Istanbul. He regulated coinage, built large grain stores, maintained aqueducts, and established a strict fiscal policy. He traveled frequently and checked whether the laws he had enforced were followed.
Treaty with Prussia
Mustafa much admired Frederick the Great's generalship, and in 1761 established a peace treaty with Prussia. Frederick wanted an alliance against the Habsburgs, and Mustafa wanted to modernize his state and army. Mustafa preferred recruiting his officers in Berlin, rather than in Paris and London, to re-organize his army. In 1763, the two countries exchanged their diplomats for the first time.
Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
Koca Ragıp Pasha, who remained grand vizier until 1763, pursued a peace policy towards neighboring countries. But the increasing influence of Russia over the Caucasus and its intention to control Poland created tension between the Ottomans and Russia. Ragıp Pasha's successor Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha also preferred to remain at peace, and Mustafa's insistence on war ( "I will find some means of humbling those infidels" )with Russia led to his resignation in 1768. The Sultan expected to gain an easy victory over the Russians, but in fact the Ottomans were unprepared for a long war. During the war, military reforms were undertaken, with the assistance of French officer François Baron de Tott. They included the modernization of artillery corps and the foundation of the Naval Engineering School in 1773. The war was disastrous for the Ottoman Empire. The Russian armies occupied the Crimea, Romania and parts of Bulgaria.
Architecture
Many monumental buildings including the Fatih Mosque, which was built by Mehmed the Conqueror was rebuilt from the ground during his reign. In addition, he had built Laleli Mosque complex, and the shore along the Yenikapı filled to set up a new neighborhood. Apart from these, he undertook other construction projects after the earthquakes of 1766,
and 1767.
Personal life
Poetry
He was a poet, his poetry being written under the pseudonym of Cihangir.
(Ottoman Turkish)
"Yıkılupdur bu cihan sanma ki bizde düzele
Devleti çarh-ı deni verdi kamu müptezele
Şimdi erbab-ı saadette gezen hep hazele
İşimiz kaldı hemen merhamet-i lem yezele."
(Translation)
"This world has ruined, don't even think with us it recovers,
It was the lousy fate that has delivered the power to vulgars,
Now the perfidious ones have populated the Imperial Palace,
It's now the mercy of the everlasting God that runs our business.
Family
Consorts
Mustafa had married all of his consorts. He had made marriage of conscience because there were grounds for believing that the women in question had been born Muslims. In each case the sultan declared the girl to be free and repeated the marriage vow in her behalf before the Şeyhülislam, but did this without pomp. His six wives were:
Unnamed Senior Kadın, married on 19 July 1760 to Ali Bey, secretary to the Darüssade Agha;
Mihrişah Sultan (died 16 October 1805, buried in Mihrişah Sultan Mausoleum, Eyüp, Istanbul), Senior Kadın;
Mihrişah Kadın (died 1799, buried in Şah Sultan Mausoleum, Eyüp, Istanbul), Second Kadın;
Aynülhayat Kadın (died 21 July 1764, buried in Mustafa III Mausoleum, Laleli Mosque, Istanbul), Third Kadın;
Adilşah Kadın (died 19 December 1803, buried in Mustafa III Mausoleum, Laleli Mosque, Istanbul), Third Kadın;
Rif’at Kadın (died 25 December 1804, buried in Haydarpaşa Cemetery, Istanbul), Fourth Kadın;
Sons
Mustafa had two sons:
Selim III (24 December 1761 – 28 July 1808, buried in Mustafa III Mausoleum), with Mihrişah;
Şehzade Sultan Mehmed (10 January 1767 – 12 October 1772, buried in Mustafa III Mausoleum, Laleli Mosque Istanbul);
Daughters
Mustafa had seven daughters:
Hibetullah Sultan (14 March 1759 – 7 June 1762, buried in Mustafa III Mausoleum, Laleli Mosque, Istanbul), with Mihrişah, betrothed on 2 June 1759 to Mahir Hamza Pasha;
Şah Sultan (20 April 1761 – 11 March 1803, buried in Şah Sultan Mausoleum, Eyüp, Istanbul), with Mihrişah, married on 6 November 1778, Damad Seyyid Mustafa Pasha;
Mihrimah Sultan (May 1743/4 November 1762 – 16 March 1764, buried in Mustafa III Mausoleum, Laleli Mosque, Istanbul), with Aynülhayat;
Mihrişah Sultan (9 December 1762 – 21 February 1769, buried in Mustafa III Mausoleum, Laleli Mosque, Istanbul);
Beyhan Sultan (15 December 1765 – 7 November 1824, buried in Mihrişah Sultan Mausoleum, Eyüp, Istanbul), with Adilşah, married on 22 April 1784 to Damad Celik Mustafa Pasha;
Hatice Sultan (14 June 1768 – 17 July 1822, buried in Mihrişah Sultan Mausoleum, Eyüp, Istanbul), with Adilşah, married on 9 November 1786 to Damad Seyyid Ahmed Pasha;
Fatma Sultan (9 January 1770 – 26 May 1772, buried in Mustafa III Mausoleum, Laleli Mosque, Istanbul), with Mihrişah;
Death
Mustafa died of heart attack on Friday, 21 January 1774, at the Topkapı Palace, and was buried in his own mausoleum located at Laleli Mosque, Istanbul. He was succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid I. His death left the empire struggling with economic and administrative problems.
References
Bibliography
External links
[aged 56]
1717 births
1774 deaths
18th-century Ottoman sultans
Turks of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman dynasty
People of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981%20in%20sports
|
1981 in sports
|
1981 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup –
Men's overall season champion: Phil Mahre, USA
Women's overall season champion: Marie-Theres Nadig, Switzerland
American football
January 25 – Super Bowl XV: the Oakland Raiders (AFC) won 27−10 over the Philadelphia Eagles (NFC)
Location: Superdome
Attendance: 76,135
MVP: Jim Plunkett, QB (Oakland)
Sugar Bowl (1980 season):
The Georgia Bulldogs won 17-10 over the Notre Dame Fighting Irish to win the college football national championship
October 11 - LeRoy Irvin sets NFL record for most punt return yards in a game (207).
Artistic gymnastics
World Artistic Gymnastics Championships –
Men's all-around champion: Yuri Korolev, USSR
Women's all-around champion: Olga Bicherova, USSR
Men's team competition champion: USSR
Women's team competition champion: USSR
Association football
UEFA Champions League – Liverpool FC 1-0 Real Madrid
UEFA Cup – two leg final: 1st leg Ipswich Town F.C. 3-0 AZ '67 (Alkmaar); 2nd leg AZ '67 4-2 Ipswich Town. Ipswich Town win 5-4 on aggregate
Cup Winners' Cup – Dynamo Tbilisi 2-1 Carl Zeiss Jena
Copa Libertadores de América – Flamengo 2-0 Cobreloa
World Club Championship – Flamengo 3-0 Liverpool FC
Aston Villa win English League Championship
FA Cup – Tottenham Hotspur win 3-2 over Manchester City
Australian rules football
Victorian Football League
May 23 – A protest by Richmond against the eligibility of defender Doug Cox to play for St. Kilda led to the Saints temporarily losing the points for their first two wins. They were reinstated later due to changes in the relevant rules, but a fine of $5000 remained.
June 6 – ’s Kevin Bartlett became the first to play 350 VFL games.
Carlton win the 85th VFL Premiership, beating Collingwood 12.20 (92) to 10.12 (72)
Brownlow Medal awarded to Barry Round (South Melbourne) and Bernie Quinlan (Fitzroy)
At the end of the season, South Melbourne relocate to Sydney and are renamed the Sydney Swans.
Baseball
For a Venezuelans baseball player's strike the Caribbean World Series of this year is cancelled.
January 15 - In his first year of eligibility, former Cardinals pitcher Bob Gibson is the only player elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. Gibson won 20 games five times, struck out 3,117 batters, and captured the Cy Young Award and MVP in 1968 with a 1.12 ERA. Players falling short of the 301 votes needed for election include Don Drysdale (243), Gil Hodges (241), Harmon Killebrew (239), Hoyt Wilhelm (238), and Juan Marichal (233). All except Hodges would subsequently gain election.
April 18 - An International League game between the Pawtucket Red Sox and the visiting Rochester Red Wings set the record for the most innings ever played in a single professional baseball game, at 33 innings (24 extra innings). The game was suspended after 32 innings on the morning of April 19, and was concluded on June 23 with a 3-2 Pawtucket victory.
June 12 - Major League Baseball players begin a 49-day strike over the issue of free-agent compensation.
World Series – Los Angeles Dodgers win 4 games to 2 over the New York Yankees. The Series MVP is a tie between Ron Cey, Pedro Guerrero and Steve Yeager, Los Angeles
Basketball
NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship –
Indiana wins 63-50 over North Carolina
NBA Finals –
Boston Celtics won 4 games to 2 over the Houston Rockets
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Launceston Casino City defeated the Nunawading Spectres 75-54 in the final.
Boxing
April 11 – Larry Holmes defeats Trevor Berbick by a unanimous decision to retain the WBC heavyweight title.
August 21 – Salvador Sánchez defeats Wilfredo Gómez by knockout in round eight to retain boxing's WBC world Featherweight title.(see: The Battle of the Little Giants)
September 16 – Sugar Ray Leonard defeats Thomas Hearns by knockout in round 14 to unify boxing's world Welterweight title.
October 3 – Mike Weaver defeats James (Quick) Tillis by a unanimous decision to retain the WBA/World Boxing Association heavyweight title.
Canadian football
Grey Cup – Edmonton Eskimos win 26–23 over the Ottawa Rough Riders
Vanier Cup – Acadia Axemen win 18–12 over the Alberta Golden Bears
Cycling
Giro d'Italia won by Giovanni Battaglin of Italy
Tour de France - Bernard Hinault of France
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion –
Rick Swenson won with lead dogs: Andy & Slick
Field hockey
Men's World Cup held in Kuala Lumpur won by USSR
Men's Champions Trophy held in Karachi won by the Netherlands
Women's World Cup held in Buenos Aires won by West Germany
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Scott Hamilton, United States
Ladies' champion: Denise Biellmann, Switzerland
Pair skating champions: Irina Vorobeva & Igor Lisovski, Soviet Union
Ice dancing champions: Jayne Torvill & Christopher Dean, Great Britain
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Kilkenny
National Camogie League: Dublin
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Kerry 1-12 died Offaly 0-8
National Football League – Galway 1-11 died Roscommon 1-3
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Kerry 1-12 died Offaly 0-8
National Football League: Galway 1-11 died Roscommon 1-3
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Offaly 2-12 died Galway 0-15
National Hurling League – Cork 3-11 died Offaly 2-8
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament - Tom Watson
U.S. Open - David Graham
British Open - Bill Rogers
PGA Championship - Larry Nelson
PGA Tour money leader - Tom Kite - $375,699
Senior PGA Tour money leader - Miller Barber - $83,136
Ryder Cup - United States win 18½ to 9½ over Europe in team golf.
Men's amateur
British Amateur - Phillipe Ploujoux
U.S. Amateur - Nathaniel Crosby
Women's professional
LPGA Championship - Donna Caponi
U.S. Women's Open - Pat Bradley
Classique Peter Jackson Classic - Jan Stephenson
LPGA Tour money leader - Beth Daniel - $206,998
Harness racing
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace - Wildwood Jeb
Little Brown Jug - Fan Hanover (Filly)
Messenger Stakes - Seahawk Hanover
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian - Shiaway St. Pat
Yonkers Trot - Mo Bandy
Kentucky Futurity - Filet of Sole
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: San Simeon
Horse racing
August 30 – John Henry becomes the first horse to win a million dollar race, the inaugural Arlington Million, at Arlington Park in the Chicago suburb of Arlington Heights, Illinois.
November – inaugural running of the Japan Cup, the most prestigious horse race in Japan, at Tokyo Racecourse in Fuchu, Tokyo. Its distance is about 1½ miles on turf and it is the world's richest turf race.
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – Little Owl
Grand National – Aldaniti
Flat races
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Just A Dash
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Fiddle Dancer Boy
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Gold River
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Shergar
Japan – Japan Cup won by Mairzy Doates
English Triple Crown Races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – To-Agori-Mou
The Derby – Shergar
St. Leger Stakes – Cut Above
United States Triple Crown Races:
Kentucky Derby – Pleasant Colony
Preakness Stakes – Pleasant Colony
Belmont Stakes – Summing
Quarter Horse Racing
Triple Crown of Quarter Horse Racing
Special Effort
Ice hockey
May 10 - Cornwall Royals defeat the Kitchener Rangers to win the 1981 Memorial Cup
May 21 - New York Islanders defeat the Minnesota North Stars to win the 1981 Stanley Cup
Ice Hockey World Championships:
Men's champion: Soviet Union defeated Sweden
Junior Men's champion: Sweden defeated Finland
August 27 – death of Valeri Kharlamov (33), Russian player, in a car crash
Motorsport
Rugby league
1981 European Rugby League Championship
1981 New Zealand rugby league season
1981 NSWRFL season
1981 Craven Mild Cup
1981 Tooth Cup
1980–81 Rugby Football League season/1981–82 Rugby Football League season
1981 State of Origin game
Rugby union
87th Five Nations Championship series is won by France who complete the Grand Slam
The 1981 Springbok Tour causes major controversy and riots in New Zealand
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Steve Davis beats Doug Mountjoy 18-12
World rankings – Cliff Thorburn becomes world number one for 1981/82
Swimming
August 15 – USA's Robin Leamy of UCLA sets a world record time of 22.54 in the 50m freestyle (long course) at Brown Deer, Wisconsin, shaving 0.17 off the previous record (22.71) set by Joseph Bottom exactly one year ago in Honolulu, Hawaii
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open - Johan Kriek
French Open - Björn Borg
Wimbledon championships - John McEnroe
US Open - John McEnroe
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open - Martina Navratilova
French Open - Hana Mandlíková
Wimbledon championships - Chris Evert
US Open - Tracy Austin
Davis Cup – United States wins 3-1 over Argentina in world tennis.
Volleyball
Men and Women's European Volleyball Championships held in Bulgaria and won by USSR (men) and Bulgaria (women)
Water polo
1981 FINA Men's Water Polo World Cup in Long Beach, California won by USSR
1981 FINA Women's Water Polo World Cup in Brisbane, Australia won by Canada
Multi-sport events
First World Games held in Santa Clara, United States
Eleventh Summer Universiade held in Bucharest, Romania
Tenth Winter Universiade held in Jaca, Spain
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – John McEnroe, Tennis
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Tracy Austin, Tennis
References
Sports by year
|
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208631
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subhumans%20%28British%20band%29
|
Subhumans (British band)
|
Subhumans are an English punk rock band formed in the Warminster and Melksham areas of Wiltshire in 1980. Singer Dick Lucas had formerly been in another local band, the Mental, and other members had been in The Stupid Humans. The band's musical style is typically classified as hardcore punk or anarcho-punk.
History
The band was formed in 1980, guitarist Bruce and drummer Andy were accompanied by original bassist Grant, previously from the band Audio Torture. The band were initially known as Superhumans due to insistence from Bruce's mother, but changed their name to Subhumans when Dick joined the band later the same year. By the end of 1980, drummer Andy had left and was replaced by Trotsky.
The band released a demo in 1981. It was heard by members of the band Flux of Pink Indians, after being sent to them by Graham Burnett of the New Crimes fanzine, and the band were so impressed that they offered Subhumans a record release on their newly founded label Spiderleg Records. The group's debut EP, Demolition War, subsequently appeared on Spiderleg in December 1981.
Subhumans released two more EPs in 1982, Reasons for Existence and Religious Wars, as well as founding their own record label, Bluurg Records. Although initially focused on releasing cassette recordings, the label produced its first vinyl release with the "Wessex '82" EP, which featured one track each by the Subhumans ("No Thanks"), The Pagans, Organised Chaos and The A-Heads.
The band's first LP, The Day The Country Died was released in 1983 on Spiderleg Records. Generally considered a classic of the anarcho-punk era, it was followed shortly after by the Evolution EP, which was also the band's first record (bar the "Wessex '82" split) to be released on their own label. The band released Time Flies... But Aeroplanes Crash later that same year, a 12" EP consisting of both studio and live tracks - the live tracks taken from an aborted live album. Towards the end of the year, original bassist Grant left the band (shortly before the recording sessions for their second album) and was replaced by Phil of the Pagans. (Bruce Treasure, Andy Gale, Grant Jackson, Trotsky and Phil Bryant all attended Kingdown Comprehensive school in Warminster, England).
The following year, the band released their second album, From the Cradle to the Grave. The release demonstrated a notable musical development for the band, particularly with the title track - a progressive piece that took up the album's entire second side, and ran for almost 17 minutes. It was followed by one last EP, Rats, in January 1985, and the EP-LP release - a compilation album comprising the band's first four EPs.
Subhumans broke up at the end of 1985, after recording their third album Worlds Apart, with musical differences being cited as the main reason for the split. A final 12" record (1986's 29:29 Split Vision) was also recorded and released posthumously, and demonstrated just how far the band's musical leanings had altered from their initial hardcore punk stylings. Lucas subsequently joined Culture Shock in 1986 and then formed the political ska punk band Citizen Fish in 1990. A second Subhumans compilation album was released the same year (Time Flies + Rats), which comprised the two later EPs absent from the EP-LP release.
Subhumans had a brief reunion for a couple of shows in about 1991, and a more comprehensive return in 1998, which included UK and US concerts. This resulted in a semi-permanent return of the band as a touring entity, including at least two major tours of North America in the twenty-first century – the Live in a Dive recording released on Fat Wreck Chords being a product of the second tour recorded at the Showcase Theatre in Corona, CA. The band also recorded and released a new EP, Unfinished Business, in 1998, which consists of previously unreleased songs from the band's original incarnation.
Since then, Subhumans have recorded a new album, Internal Riot, and self-released it on Bluurg Records in September 2007. They toured in Europe throughout 2007, and a month-long U.S. tour began on 24 August that year. They have maintained a live presence ever since.
For nearly a decade, Subhumans continued to make multiple live performances across the UK and the US, and on 13 September 2019, Subhumans released a new album titled Crisis Point, which was the band's first album in 12 years. The album covered several modern-day issues while moving back into the anarcho-punk genre, with its messages and general punk tune in the song.
Discography
Studio albums
The Day the Country Died (1983)
From the Cradle to the Grave (1983)
Worlds Apart (1985)
29:29 Split Vision (1986)
Internal Riot (2007)
Crisis Point (2019)
Extended plays
Demolition War (1981)
Reasons for Existence (1982)
Religious Wars (1982)
Evolution (1983)
Time Flies... but Aeroplanes Crash (1983)
Rats (1984)
Unfinished Business (1998)
Compilation albums
EP-LP (1985)
Time Flies + Rats (1990)
Live albums
Live in a Dive (2004)
Miscellaneous
Wessex '82 (split with the Pagans, Organized Chaos and the A Heads, 1982)
Birmingham Foundry (video, live at Birmingham Foundry, Barn End, 1998)
Band members
Current
Dick Lucas – lead vocals, piano (1980–present)
Bruce Treasure – guitar, backing vocals (1980–present)
Phil Bryant – bass (1983–present)
Trotsky – drums (1980–present)
Former
Grant Jackson – bass (1981–1983)
Andy Gale – drums (1980)
Garry North
See also
Citizen Fish
Punk ideology
References
External links
Official website for Subhumans and Citizen Fish
Official Southern Forum for Bluurg/Subhumans/Citizen Fish
Scanner zine interview with Dick Lucas after the release of the 'Internal Riot' album
Fat Wreck Chords artists
Anarcho-punk groups
English punk rock groups
Musical groups established in 1980
People from Warminster
People from Melksham
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%20in%20sports
|
2001 in sports
|
2001 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.
Alpine skiing
Alpine Skiing World Cup
Men's overall season champion: Hermann Maier, Austria
Women's overall season champion: Janica Kostelić, Croatia
American football
Super Bowl XXXV – the Baltimore Ravens (AFC) won 34–7 over the New York Giants (NFC)
Location: Raymond James Stadium
Attendance: 71,921
MVP: Ray Lewis, LB (Baltimore)
XFL is founded by WWE Chairman Vince McMahon, but the league folded that same year, after the Los Angeles Xtreme won the league's only championship.
Orange Bowl (2000 season):
The Oklahoma Sooners won 13–2 over the Florida State Seminoles in the BCS National Championship Game
Memorial Stadium, former home of the Baltimore Colts and Baltimore Ravens is demolished
INVESCO Field at Mile High opens up on September 10, 2001 as the Denver Broncos defeated the New York Giants 31–20.
September 30 – New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady, a 6th round, 199th pick from the 2000 NFL Draft, makes his first professional start after 8-year quarterback Drew Bledsoe suffered a severe injury in a Week 2 game vs. the New York Jets. This would mark a turning point for both the franchise and the NFL, as Brady would lead the Patriots to their first Super Bowl title 5 months later and would lead them to 8 more appearances and 5 more titles in the next 17 years.
On December 16, 2001 bottlegate occurs
Association football
Confederations Cup – Held one year before the 2002 FIFA World Cup Korea/Japan, this tournament served as a prelude, for both South Korea & Japan and the participating nations. France defeated Japan to win the tournament.
Champions' League – Bayern Munich won 5–4 on penalties, in the final against Valencia, after a 1–1 draw at the end of the match. This was Bayern Munich's 4th European Cup title.
UEFA Cup – Liverpool won 5-4 after extra-time, in the final against Alavés, with an unfortunate own goal/golden goal by Delfi Gelí. This was Liverpool's third UEFA Cup title.
European Super Cup – Liverpool beat Bayern Munich 3–2, winning the cup for the second time.
Intercontinental Cup – Bayern Munich beat Boca Juniors 1–0, winning the cup for the second time.
Asian Champions Cup – Korean side Suwon Samsung Bluewings won their first Asian Champions Cup crown, defeating Júbilo Iwata 1–0. They also lifted the 2001 Asian Super Cup.
Athletics
May – Roman Šebrle breaks a 9.000 points barrier in decathlon event.
August – 2001 World Championships in Athletics held at Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Australian rules football
Australian Football League
Fremantle equals St. Kilda's 1910 record for the worst start by a team that did not suffer a winless season, beginning with seventeen losses before a huge comeback upset over third-placed Hawthorn. It was equalled by in 2013.
The Brisbane Lions win the 105th AFL premiership beating Essendon 15.18 (108) to 12.10 (82).
Brownlow Medal awarded to Jason Akermanis (Brisbane Lions)
Baseball
World Series – only 4 seasons old, the Arizona Diamondbacks became the youngest franchise to win a World Series by defeating the New York Yankees 4 games to 3. Series co-MVPs were Randy Johnson and Curt Schilling, both of Arizona.
The Seattle Mariners tied the 1906 Chicago Cubs’ record with 116 regular season wins.
Barry Bonds set the record for most home runs in a season with 73.
Season MVPs – National League: Barry Bonds, San Francisco Giants. American League: Ichiro Suzuki, Seattle Mariners.
Rookies of the Year – National League: Albert Pujols, St. Louis Cardinals. American League: Ichiro Suzuki, Seattle.
Cy Young Award – National League: Randy Johnson, Arizona. American League: Roger Clemens, New York.
Japan Series – The Yakult Swallows defeat the Osaka Kintetsu Buffaloes 4 games to 1. The Swallows' Atsuya Furuta is named Series MVP.
Basketball
NBA –
The Los Angeles Lakers defeat the Philadelphia 76ers, 4 games to 1 in the NBA Finals. The Lakers only loss in the postseason comes in Game 1 of the Finals, which the 76ers win in overtime.
October 30 – Michael Jordan returns to the National Basketball Association with the Washington Wizards after 3½ years (the Wizards lose 93–91 to the New York Knicks).
NCAA Men's Basketball Championship –
Duke wins 82–72 over Arizona
WNBA Finals –
Los Angeles Sparks win 2 games to 0 over the Charlotte Sting, earning the franchise's first championship
Euroleague Final:
In the first Euroleague to be operated by Euroleague Basketball (company), Kinder Bologna defeats TAU Cerámica 3–2 in the best-of-five series.
Suproleague Final:
In the only edition of the rival FIBA-sponsored competition, Maccabi Tel Aviv defeats Panathinaikos 81–67 in the one-off final.
Chinese Basketball Association finals:
Bayi Rockets defeat Shanghai Sharks, 3 games to 1
National Basketball League (Australia) Finals:
Wollongong Hawks defeated the Townsville Crocodiles 2–1 in the best-of-three final series.
After a season of conflict between ULEB and FIBA, the two bodies settle their feud, with the Suproleague merging into the Euroleague.
Boxing
March 3 – John Ruiz defeats Evander Holyfield in their second fight by a decision in 12 rounds, winning the WBA's World Heavyweight Championship, becoming the first Hispanic to win the world Heavyweight title.
June 3 to June 10 – World Amateur Boxing Championships held in Belfast, Northern Ireland
September 29 – in a gala event dedicated to the victims and rescuers of 9/11, Bernard Hopkins defeats Félix Trinidad by a knockout in round 12 to unify the World Middleweight Championship
Canadian football
November 25 – the Calgary Stampeders win the 89th Grey Cup game, defeating the Winnipeg Blue Bombers 27–19 at Olympic Stadium in Montreal.
November 29 – the UBC Thunderbirds win the Vanier Cup, defeating the Ottawa Gee-Gees 39–23.
Cricket
February 25 – death of Sir Donald Bradman, Australian Test cricketer who retains the highest Test match batting average of 99.94
The Ashes – Australia defeats England 4-1
V.V.S. Laxman becomes the first Indian to score 250 in a Test match as India fight back from following on to win the Second Test against Australia, ending the Australians' record 16 match winning streak. India goes on to win the series 2–1.
County Championship (England and Wales) – Yorkshire
ICC Trophy – Netherlands
Cycle racing
Road bicycle racing
Giro d'Italia won by Gilberto Simoni of Italy
Tour de France won by Lance Armstrong of USA (Rescinded)
UCI Road World Championships – Men's road race – Óscar Freire of Spain
Cyclo-cross
UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships in Tábor, Czech Republic (February 3–February 4)
Men's Competition won by Erwin Vervecken
Women's Competition won by Hanka Kupfernagel
Dogsled racing
Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race Champion
Doug Swingley with lead dogs: Stormy & Pepi
Field hockey
Men's Champions Trophy: Germany
Women's Champions Trophy: Argentina
Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships –
Men's champion: Evgeni Plushenko, Russia
Ladies' champion: Michelle Kwan, United States
Pairs' champions: Jamie Salé and David Pelletier, Canada
Ice dance champions: Barbara Fusar-Poli and Maurizio Margaglio
Gaelic Athletic Association
Camogie
All-Ireland Camogie Champion: Tipperary
National Camogie League: Cork
Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Championship – Galhiway 0-17 died Meath 0-8
National Football League – Mayo 0-13 died Galway 0-12
Ladies' Gaelic football
All-Ireland Senior Football Champion: Laois
National Football League: Clare
Hurling
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship – Tipperary 2-18 died Galway 2-15
National Hurling League –
Golf
Men's professional
Masters Tournament – Tiger Woods becomes the first golfer in history to hold all four major championship titles at the same time.
U.S. Open – Retief Goosen
British Open – David Duval
PGA Championship – David Toms
PGA Tour money leader – Tiger Woods – $5,687,777
PGA Tour Player of the Year – Tiger Woods
PGA Tour Rookie of the Year – Charles Howell III
Senior PGA Tour money leader – Allen Doyle – $2,553,582
Ryder Cup postponed until 2002.
Men's amateur
British Amateur – Michael Hoey
U.S. Amateur – Bubba Dickerson
European Amateur – Stephen Browne
Women's professional
Nabisco Championship – Annika Sörenstam
LPGA Championship – Karrie Webb
U.S. Women's Open – Karrie Webb
Women's British Open – Se Ri Pak
LPGA Tour money leader – Annika Sörenstam – $2,105,868
Handball
2001 World Men's Handball Championship – won by France
2001 World Women's Handball Championship – won by Russia
Harness racing
North America Cup – Bettor's Delight
United States Pacing Triple Crown races –
Cane Pace – Four Starzz Shark
Little Brown Jug – Bettor's Delight
Messenger Stakes – Bagel Beach Boy
United States Trotting Triple Crown races –
Hambletonian – Scarlet Knight
Yonkers Trot – Banker Hall
Kentucky Futurity – Chaising Tail
Australian Inter Dominion Harness Racing Championship –
Pacers: Yulestar
Trotters: Take A Moment
Horse racing
Steeplechases
Cheltenham Gold Cup – not held due to the 2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth crisis
Grand National – Red Marauder
Hurdle races
Champion Hurdle – not held due to the 2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth crisis
Flat races
September 1, 2001: Jockey Tim Moccasin won his 14th consecutive race, a North American record, at Marquis Downs in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
Australia – Melbourne Cup won by Ethereal
Canada – Queen's Plate won by Dancethruthedawn
Dubai – Dubai World Cup won by Captain Steve
France – Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe won by Sakhee
Ireland – Irish Derby Stakes won by Galileo
Japan – Japan Cup won by Jungle Pocket
English Triple Crown races:
2,000 Guineas Stakes – Golan
The Derby – Galileo
St. Leger Stakes – Milan
United States Triple Crown races:
Kentucky Derby – Monarchos
Preakness Stakes – Point Given
Belmont Stakes – Point Given
Breeders' Cup World Thoroughbred Championships:
Breeders' Cup Classic – Tiznow
Breeders' Cup Distaff – Unbridled Elaine
Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Turf – Banks Hill
Breeders' Cup Juvenile – Johannesburg
Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies – Tempera
Breeders' Cup Mile – Val Royal
Breeders' Cup Sprint – Squirtle Squirt
Breeders' Cup Turf – Fantastic Light
Ice hockey
Art Ross Trophy as the NHL's leading scorer during the regular season: Jaromir Jagr, Pittsburgh Penguins
Hart Memorial Trophy – for the NHL's Most Valuable Player:
Joe Sakic – Colorado Avalanche
Stanley Cup – Ray Bourque of the Colorado Avalanche won his only Stanley Cup when the Colorado Avalanche defeated the New Jersey Devils 4 games to 3.
World Hockey Championship
Men's champion: Czech Republic defeated Finland
Junior Men's champion: Czech Republic defeated Finland
Women's champion: Canada defeated the United States
Lacrosse
Major League Lacrosse begins play as a single-entity-ownership league.
Long Island Lizards win the first Steinfeld Cup over Baltimore Bayhawks, 15–11.
The Philadelphia Wings defeat the Toronto Rock 9–8, to win the Champion's Cup.
The 100th anniversaries of the donations of both the Mann Cup and the Minto Cup.
The Coquitlam Adanacs win the 100th Mann Cup.
The St. Catharines Athletics win the 100th Minto Cup.
The Wallaceburg Red Devils win the Founders Cup.
Mixed martial arts
The following is a list of major noteworthy MMA events during 2001 in chronological order.
|-
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Date
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Event
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Alternate Name/s
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Location
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Attendance
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|PPV Buyrate
|align=center style="border-style: none none solid solid; background: #e3e3e3"|Notes
|-align=center
|February 23
|UFC 30: Battle on the Boardwalk
|
| Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA
|
|
|
|-align=center
|March 25
|Pride 13 – Collision Course
|
| Saitama, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|May 4
|UFC 31: Locked and Loaded
|
| Atlantic City, New Jersey, USA
|
|
|
|-align=center
|May 27
|Pride 14 – Clash of the Titans
|
| Yokohama, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|June 29
|UFC 32: Showdown in the Meadowlands
|
| East Rutherford, New Jersey, USA
|12,500
|
|
|-align=center
|July 29
|Pride 15: Raging Rumble
|
| Saitama, Japan
|27,323
|
|
|-align=center
|September 24
|Pride 16: Beasts From the East
|
| Osaka, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|September 28
|UFC 33: Victory in Vegas
|
| Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
|9,500
|75,000
|
|-align=center
|November 2
|UFC 34: High Voltage
|
| Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
|9,000
|65,000
|
|-align=center
|November 3
|Pride 17: Championship Chaos
|
| Tokyo, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
|December 23
|Pride 18: Cold Fury 2
|
| Fukuoka, Japan
|
|
|
|-align=center
Motorsport
Orienteering
Orienteering included as an event for the first time in the World Games held 18–19 August in Akita, Japan.
Radiosport
Fourth High Speed Telegraphy World Championship held in Constanța, Romania.
Rugby league
January 26 at Bolton, England – 2001 World Club Challenge match is won by St. Helens 20–18 over the Brisbane Broncos at Reebok Stadium before 16,041.
July 1 at Brisbane, Queensland – 2001 State of Origin is won by Queensland in the third and deciding match of the series against New South Wales at ANZ Stadium before 49,441.
September 30 at Sydney, Australia – 2001 NRL season culminates in the Newcastle Knights' 30–24 win over the Parramatta Eels in the Grand Final at Stadium Australia before 90,414.
October 13 at Manchester, England – Super League VI culminates in the Bradford Bulls' 37–6 win against the Wigan Warriors in the Grand Final at Old Trafford before 60,164.
November 24 at Wigan, England – in the 2001 Kangaroo tour's last match, Australia defeat Great Britain 28–12 in the third and deciding test match in The Ashes series at JJB Stadium before 25,011.
Rugby union
107th Six Nations Championship series is won by England
Tri Nations – Australia
Heineken Cup – Leicester Tigers 34–30 Stade Français
Skydiving
The World FreeFall Convention was moved from Quincy, Illinois to Rantoul, Illinois.
Snooker
World Snooker Championship – Ronnie O'Sullivan beats John Higgins 18-14
World rankings – Mark Williams remains world number one for 2001/02
Swimming
Ninth World LC Championships, held in Fukuoka, Japan (July 22 – July 29)
United States wins the most medals (26), Australia the most gold medals (13)
Fifth European SC Championships, held in Antwerp, Belgium (December 13 – 16)
Germany wins the most medals (17), and the most gold medals (6)
January 28 – Mark Foster regains the world record in the men's 50m freestyle (short course) at a swimming meet in Paris, France, clocking 21.13
Taekwondo
World Championships held in Jeju, South Korea
Tennis
Grand Slam in tennis men's results:
Australian Open – Andre Agassi
French Open – Gustavo Kuerten
Wimbledon championships – Goran Ivanišević
US Open – Lleyton Hewitt
Grand Slam in tennis women's results:
Australian Open – Jennifer Capriati
French Open – Jennifer Capriati
Wimbledon championships – Venus Williams
US Open – Venus Williams
Davis Cup – France won 3–2 over Australia in world tennis.
Volleyball
Men's World League: Brazil
Men's European Championship: Yugoslavia
Women's World Grand Prix: USA
Women's European Championship: Russia
Water polo
Men's World Championship: Spain
Men's European Championship: Yugoslavia
Women's World Championship: Italy
Women's European Championship: Hungary
Multi-sport events
Third East Asian Games held in Osaka, Japan
Summer Goodwill Games held in Brisbane, Australia
Sixth World Games held in Akita, Japan
14th Mediterranean Games held in Tunis, Tunisia
21st Summer Universiade held in Beijing, China
20th Winter Universiade held in Zakopane, Poland
Awards
Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Barry Bonds, Major League Baseball
Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Jennifer Capriati, Tennis
References
Sports by year
|
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208633
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20sailing%20frigates%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Navy
|
List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy
|
This is a list of sailing frigates of the United States Navy. Frigates were the backbone of the early Navy, although the list shows that many suffered unfortunate fates.
The sailing frigates of the United States built from 1797 on were unique in that their framing was made of American live oak, a particularly hardy genus that made very resilient hulls; as a result of this, the ships were known to withstand damage that would have scuppered frigates of other nations. American frigates were also very heavily armed; the USN's 44s carried 24-pound cannon as opposed to the 18-pounders usual in frigates, and like most ships of the period carried more than their nominal rate, 56 guns or more. On the other hand, the USN classed ships with 20 to 26 guns as "third-class frigates", whereas the Royal Navy did not.
Continental Navy
Congress authorized 3 Frigates of 18, 13 Frigates of 12 ( 5 of 32, 5 of 28 and 3 of 24)
United States Navy
Ten additional ships of the Potomac class were appropriated, but never built.
See also
List of sloops of war of the United States Navy
Bibliography of early United States naval history
Continental Navy
Pages that link to this list
References
Chapelle, Howard Irving. The History of the American Sailing Navy; The Ships and Their Development. New York: Norton, 1949.
Retrieved from "List of sloops of war of the United States Navy"
Citations
Sailing frigates
United States sailing frigates
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkistan%20Islamic%20Party
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Turkistan Islamic Party
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The Turkistan Islamic Party (TIP) (; ; ; ) or the Turkistan Islamic Movement (TIM), formerly known as the East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM) and other names, is a Uyghur Islamic extremist organization founded in Western China. Its stated goals are to establish an independent state called East Turkestan replacing Xinjiang. The UN Security Council Al-Qaida Sanctions Committee has listed ETIM as a terrorist organization since 2002, though the United States removed it from its list of Terrorist Organizations in 2020.
Influenced by the success of the Afghan mujahideen against the Soviets in the Soviet–Afghan War, the TIP became prominent in 1990 during the Baren Township riot. The conflict took the form of a jihad which envisioned a similar result to the earlier creation of the First East Turkestan Republic (1933-1934). Their slogans contained anti-Communist rhetoric and calls for uniting Turks, indicating a movement akin to Islamic pan-Turkism historically congruent with southern Xinjiang rather than pure, radical Salafi jihadism or religious extremism. The revolt lasted several days and was put down by the Chinese government, which deployed significant forces to suppress the insurrection. The Chinese government viewed them as a jihadist movement akin to the mujahideen in Afghanistan across the border which gave birth to more radical movements such as the Party of Allah and the Islamic Movement of East Turkistan.
The Syrian branch of the TIP is active in the Syrian civil war and are largely grouped in Idlib.
History
Abdul Hameed, Abdul Azeez Makhdoom, and Abdul Hakeem Makhdoom launched the Islamic Party of Turkistan in 1940. After being set free from prison in 1979, Abdul Hakeem instructed Hasan Mahsum and other Uyghurs in fundamentalist Islam.
In 1989 Ziyauddin Yusuf (Zeydin Yusup) started the group which was originally called East Turkistan Islamic Party (ETIP). The name in Uyghur was Sherqiy Türkistan Islam Partiyisi (), and in Turkish it was called Doğu Türkistan İslam Partisi. The movement was reshuffled by Hasan Mahsum and Abudukadir Yapuquan in 1997 into its present incarnation. This group was referred to as "East Turkestan Islamic Movement" (ETIM) by the Chinese government but the group itself never used that name.
In 1998, Mahsum moved ETIM's headquarters to Kabul, taking shelter under Taliban-controlled Afghanistan. The group's infrastructure was crippled after the United States invaded Afghanistan and bombed Al Qaeda bases in the mountainous regions along the border with Pakistan. The leader, Hasan Mahsum, was killed by a Pakistani raid on a suspected Al-Qaeda camp in South Waziristan in 2003. However, ETIM resurged after the Iraq War inflamed mujaheddin sentiment. In 2006, ETIM circulated a video calling for a renewed jihad, and took advantage of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing to gain publicity for its attacks. The ETIM is said to be allied with the Pakistani Taliban (Tehreek i Taliban Pakistan), prompting China to urge Pakistan to take action against the militants.
The new organization called itself the Turkistan Islamic Party (TIP) to reflect its new domain and abandoned usage of the name ETIM, although China still calls it by the name ETIM and refuses to acknowledge it as TIP. The Turkistan Islamic Party was originally subordinated to the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) but then split off and declared its name as TIP and started making itself known by promoting itself with its Islamic Turkistan magazine and Voice of Islam media in Chinese, Arabic, Russian, and Turkish in order to reach out to global jihadists. Control over the Uyghur and Uzbek militants was transferred to the Pakistani Taliban from the Afghan Taliban after 2001, so violence against the militant's countries of origins can no longer restrained by the Afghan Taliban since the Pakistani Taliban does not have a stake in doing so.
In 2008, TIP's Ṣawt al-Islām (Voice of Islam) media arm was created and began releasing video messages. The full name of their media center is "Turkistan Islamic Party Voice of Islam Media Center" Uyghur: (تۈركىستان ئىسلام پارتىيىسى ئىسلام ئاۋازى تەشۋىقات مەركىزى; Türkistan Islam Partiyisi Islam Awazi Teshwiqat Merkizi).
In 2013, the group announced it was moving fighters to Syria, its profile in China and even Afghanistan and Pakistan has decisively waned since then, while in Syria it has risen.
Al-Qaeda links
The TIP are believed to have links to al-Qaeda and affiliated groups such as the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, and the Pakistani Taliban. The US has designated it as having received "training and financial assistance" from al-Qaeda.
University of Virginia associate professor Philip B. K. Potter writes that, despite the fact that "throughout the 1990s, Chinese authorities went to great lengths to publicly link organizations active in Xinjiang—particularly the ETIM—to al-Qaeda [...] the best information indicates that prior to 2001, the relationship included some training and funding but relatively little operational cooperation." Meanwhile, specific incidents were downplayed by Chinese authorities as isolated criminal acts. However, in 1998 the group's headquarters were moved to Kabul, in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan, while "China’s ongoing security crackdown in Xinjiang has forced the most militant Uyghur separatists into volatile neighboring countries, such as Pakistan," Potter writes, "where they are forging strategic alliances with, and even leading, jihadist factions affiliated with al-Qaeda and the Taliban." The East Turkestan Islamic Movement dropped "East" from its name as it increased its domain.
A number of members of al-Qaeda have expressed support for the TIP, Xinjiang independence, and/or jihad against China. They include Mustafa Setmariam Nasar, Abu Yahya al-Libi, and current al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri who has on multiple occasions issued statements naming Xinjiang (calling it "East Turkestan") as one of the "battlegrounds" of "jihad to liberate every span of land of the Muslims that has been usurped and violated." Additionally, the al-Qaeda aligned al-Fajr Media Center distributes TIP promotional material.
Andrew McGregor, writing for the Jamestown Foundation in 2010, noted that "though there is no question a small group of Uyghur militants fought alongside their Taliban hosts against the Northern Alliance [...] the scores of terrorists Beijing claimed that Bin Laden was sending to China in 2002 never materialized" and that "the TIP’s "strategy" of making loud and alarming threats (attacks on the Olympics, use of biological and chemical weapons, etc.) without any operational follow-up has been enormously effective in promoting China's efforts to characterize Uyghur separatists as terrorists."
TIP member Abdul Haq al Turkistani joined al-Qaeda's executive leadership council in 2005 and TIP member Abdul Shakoor Turkistani was appointed its military commander of its forces in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan. Abdul Haq was so apparently highly placed in al-Qaeda leadership that he served as a mediator between rival Taliban factions and played an integral role in military planning.
The Uyghurs East Turkestan independence movement was endorsed in the serial "Islamic Spring"'s 9th release by Ayman Al-Zawahiri, the chief of Al-Qaeda. Zawahiri confirmed that the Afghanistan war after 9/11 included the participation of Uighurs and that the jihadists like Zarwaqi, Bin Ladin and the Uighur Hasan Mahsum were provided with refuge together in Afghanistan under Taliban rule. As reported in this article as well.
In the mid-2010s, TIP's relationship to al-Qaeda was still contested but they became more closely aligned and TIP leader head Abdul Haq confirmed loyalty to al-Qaeda in May 2016.
Afghanistan and Waziristan
During the 2015 Battle of Kunduz in Afghanistan, there were reports that Islamist militants of Uyghur ethnicity joined the Taliban in their attack although these reports did not mention TIP.
In February 2018, airstrikes were conducted by American forces in Afghanistan’s Badakhshan province against training camps belonging to the Taliban and the Turkistan Islamic Party. Speaking with Pentagon reporters, U.S. Air Force Maj. Gen. James B. Hecker, commander of NATO Air Command Afghanistan was quoted "The destruction of these training facilities prevents terrorists from planning any acts near the border with China and Tajikistan. The strikes also destroyed stolen Afghan National Army vehicles in the process of being converted to vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices. ETIM enjoys support from the Taliban in the mountains of Badakhshan, so hitting these Taliban training facilities and squeezing the Taliban's support networks degrades ETIM capabilities."
After the 2021 Taliban takeover of Afghanistan, TIP was removed from Badakhshan, as the new Afghan government seeks aid from China.
Syria
TIP (ETIM) sent the "Turkistan Brigade" (Katibat Turkistani), also known as the Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria to take part in the Syrian Civil War as part of a network of al-Qaeda linked groups alongside al-Nusra, most notably in the 2015 Jisr al-Shughur offensive where they were part of the Army of Conquest coalition. They have been described as well organized, experienced and as having an important role in offensives against President Bashar al-Assad's forces in Syria's northern regions.
Ideology
The NEFA Foundation, an American terrorist analyst foundation, translated and released a jihad article from ETIM, whose membership it said consisted primarily of "Uyghur Muslims from Western China." The East Turkestan Islamic Movement's primary goal is the independence of East Turkestan. ETIM continues this theme of contrasting "Muslims" and "Chinese", in a six-minute video in 2008, where "Commander Seyfullah" warns Muslims not to bring their children to the 2008 Summer Olympics, and also saying "do not stay on the same bus, on the same train, on the same plane, in the same buildings, or any place the Chinese are".
Structure
In October 2008, the Chinese Ministry of Public Security released a list of eight terrorists linked to ETIM, including some of the leadership, with detailed charges. They are:
Guantanamo Bay detainees
The United States captured 22 Uyghur militants from combat zones in Afghanistan in 2006 on information that they were linked to Al-Qaeda. They were imprisoned without trial for five to seven years, where they testified that they were trained by ETIM leader Abdul Haq, at an ETIM training camp. After being found No Longer Enemy Combatant, i.e. never having been enemy combatants, a panel of judges ordered them released into the United States. Despite the alarm of politicians that the release of embittered former Guantanamo detainees into the United States was unsafe and illegal, the United States did not want to release them back to China as they were wanted on charges that included arson and illegal manufacture of explosives, though ABC News wrote that "It is believed that if the United States returned the men to China, they could be tortured."
Attacks
Between 1990-2001, Chinese government has attributed to ETIP over 200 acts of terrorism, which claimed 162 lives and over 440 injured. However, in many Chinese official statements "east Turkestan terrorist forces" are referred to rather than any specific group.
Between 1992 and 1998 , 4 Imams of different mosques in Xinjiang were assassinated by ETIM.
On 25 February 1997, there were three bus bombings in Urumqi, killing nine. Responsibility was claimed by the Kazakhstan-based Uyghur Liberation Party although this was later disputed. No links to TIP were reported.
In Beijing's Xidan, a bus bomb killed two people on 7 March 1997 and Kazakhstan-based Uyghur separatists claimed responsibility. The participation of Uyghurs in the bus bombing was dismissed by the Chinese government even while the Turkey-based "Organization for East Turkistan Freedom" boasted to committing the attack. No links to TIP were reported.
In 2007, ETIM militants in cars shot Chinese nationals in Pakistani Balochistan, which Pakistani authorities believed to be in retaliation for an execution of an ETIM official earlier that July. ETIM miliitants sent a videotape of the attack to Beijing.
ETIM also took credit for a spate of attacks before the 2008 Summer Olympics, including a series of bus bombings in Kunming, an attempted plane hijacking in Urumqi, and an attack on paramilitary troops in Kashgar that killed 17 officers.
Between July and September 2010, series of suicide bombings occurred throughout China in Factories, apartments and restaurants. Responsibility was claimed by the Turkistan Islamic Party
On 29 June 2010, a court in Dubai convicted two members of an ETIM cell for plotting to bomb a government-owned shopping mall that sold Chinese goods. This was the first ETIM plot outside of China or Central Asia. The key plotter was recruited during Hajj and was flown to Waziristan for training.
In July 2010, officials in Norway interrupted a terrorist bomb plot; one perpetrator was Uyghur, leading to speculation about TIP involvement. New York Times correspondent Edward Wong says that ETIM "give[s] them a raison d'être at a time when the Chinese government has... defused any chance of a widespread insurgency... in Xinjiang."
Several attacks in 2011 in Xinjiang were claimed by the Turkistan Islamic Party.
In October 2013, a suicide attack in Tiananmen Square caused 5 deaths and 38 injuries. Chinese police described it as the first terrorist attack in Beijing's recent history. Turkistan Islamic Party later claimed responsibility for the attack.
In March 2014, a knife-armed group attacked passengers at the Kunming's railway station, resulting in 31 civilians dead and +140 injured. No group claimed responsibility. Chinese authorities and state media stated that the attack had been linked to TIP, while other sources were skeptical of this claim.
Between July and December 2014, a series of riots, bombings, arson and knife attacks in Xinjiang which led to the deaths over 183 people (including civilians, attackers and security forces) and left dozens injured. Chinese authorities attributed attacks to "gangs" and "terrorists".
Assassination of Juma Tayir, an Imam in Id Kah mosque was attributed to TIP-insipired militants.
On 18 September 2015 in Aksu, a group of knife-wielding terrorists attacked sleeping workers at a coalmine and killed 50 of them. The Turkistan Islamic Party claimed responsibility for the attack.
On 30 August 2016, the Chinese Embassy in Kyrgyzstan was targeted in a suicide bombing which left Kyrgyz staffers injured; the attack was later attributed by Kyrgyzstan’s state security service to TIP.
On 14 February 2017, attackers killed 5 people in Pishan county before killed by police. Chinese authorities stated that the attackers were affiliated with TIP.
On 14 July 2021, an attack killed 13 people, including 9 Chinese engineers who were working on the Dasu Dam in Kohistan, Pakistan. Asia Times reported that a "joint China-Pakistan investigation" showed ETIM and TTP colluded in the attack, but Reuters and Al Jazeera reported that Pakistan blamed the TTP, with support from Afghan and Indian intelligence services, without mentioning ETIM. The claims were denied by both the Indian government and TTP.
Terrorist designation
Since the September 11 attacks, the group has been designated as a terrorist organization by China, the European Union, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Pakistan, Russia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United Nations.
The organization was also formerly classified as a terrorist organization under Title 8 of the United States Code Section 1189 by the United States since 2002. The United States Department of the Treasury has blocked the property and prohibited transactions with the organization according to Executive Order 13224 and the State Department has blocked its members for immigration purposes. The U.S. revoked that classification in October 2020 on the basis that "there has been no credible evidence that ETIM continues to exist." China accused the U.S. of double standards as it dropped ETIM from its terrorism list, while the U.S. contends that the label has been broadly misused to oppress Muslims including ethnic Uyghurs in Xinjiang.
Analysis
In 2009, Dru C. Gladney, an authority on Uyghurs, said that there was "a credibility gap" about the group since the majority of information on ETIM "was traced back to Chinese sources", and that some believe ETIM to be part of a US-China quid pro quo, where China supported the US-led War on Terror, and "support of the US for the condemnation of ETIM was connected to that support." The Uyghur American Association has publicly doubted the ETIM's existence.
On 16 June 2009, Representative Bill Delahunt convened hearings to examine how organizations were added to the US blacklist in general, and how the ETIM was added in particular. Uyghur expert Sean Roberts testified that the ETIM was new to him, that it wasn't until it was blacklisted that he heard of the group, and claimed that "it is perfectly reasonable to assume that the organization no longer exists at all." The Congressional Research Service reported that the first published mention of the group was in the year 2000, but that China attributed attacks to it that had occurred up to a decade earlier.
Stratfor has noted repeated unexplained attacks on Chinese buses in 2008 have followed a history of ETIM targeting Chinese infrastructure, and noted the group's splintering and subsequent reorganization following the death of Mahsum.
Intelligence analysts J. Todd Reed and Diana Raschke acknowledge that reporting in China presents obstacles not found in countries where information is not so tightly controlled. However, they found that ETIM's existence and activities could be confirmed independently of Chinese government sources, using information gleaned from ETIM's now-defunct website, reports from human rights groups and academics, and testimony from the Uyghur detainees at Guantanamo Bay. Reed & Raschke also question the information put out by Uyghur expatriates that deny ETIM's existence or impact, as the Uyghurs who leave Xinjiang are those who object most to government policy, are unable to provide first-hand analysis, and have an incentive to exaggerate repression and downplay militancy. They say that ETIM was "obscure but not unknown" before the September 11 attacks, citing "Western, Russian, and Chinese media sources" that have "documented the ETIM's existence for nearly 20 years".
Nick Holdstock, in a 2015 New York Times interview claimed that no organization is taking responsibility for attacks in Xinjiang, and that there is not enough proof to blame any organization for the attacks, that most "terrorism" there is "unsubstantiated", and that posting internet videos online is the only thing done by the "vague and shadowy" ETIM. Wall Street Journal claimed that Al-Qaeda was not connected to Uyghurs and claimed that no attacks were performed by ETIM (TIP). French journalist Ursula Gauthier claimed that the ETIM is currently not classified as terrorist by the USA approvingly cited people who called into question whether it is real, suggesting that they are wrongly being blamed by China for violent attacks and she claimed "probably" "abuse, injustice, expropriation" of Uighurs justified retribution in the form of mass slaughter at a coal mine. The "Doğu Türkistan Bülteni Haber Ajansı" which supports the TIP, cited a Reuters article which claimed that Uyghurs are viewed as terrorists in China. The "Doğu Türkistan Bülteni Haber Ajansı" praised a TIP member, Hamza (Muhammad Ali Told Rahim), who joined the Turkistan Islamic Party as one of the "mujahideen" fighting in Khorasan (Afghanistan) on 15 December 2006 and returned to Kashgar to participate in the 2011 Kashgar attacks in which he was killed, citing from a Human Rights Watch report which praised Hamza.
Lebanese American political scientist and Al Akhbar columnist As'ad AbuKhalil slammed and criticized western media for not reporting on the massive Turkistan Islamic Party inghimasi participation in the Aleppo offensive (June–August 2016) since it goes against their agenda. He criticized Charles Lister, Fabrice Balanche and New York Times reporter Roger Cohen for this. The Long War Journal confirmed that Al Qaeda affiliated Uyghur Turkistan Islamic Party Jihadists fought in Aleppo.
David Volodzko admitted that the Al-Qaeda allied Uyghur Turkistan Islamic Party was fighting in Syria, and refuted and disproved the claims that Uyghurs were not in Syria made by "The Sydney Morning Herald", the Daily Mail, and Bernstein's article in the New York Review of Books. Muhanad Hage Ali wrote an exposé on Uyghur Turkistan Islamic Party jihadists in Syria.
Andrew McGregor wrote about the Turkistan Islamic Party's presence in North Waziristan. The Uighur fighters were praised by Zawahiri, the leader of Al-Qaeda before a Turkistan Islamic Party performed the Bishkek bombing on 30 August. The Turkistan Islamic Party slammed and attacked Assad, Russia, NATO, the United States and other western countries in its propaganda outlets like the "Islamic Turkestan" magazine and its Telegram channel.
Uran Botobekov from ModernDiplomat has written about the East Turkistan Islamic Movement as well as other Central-Asian jihadist groups in a report titled "Think like Jihadist: Anatomy of Central Asian Salafi groups"
Raffaello Pantucci of Jamestown Foundation wrote about Uyghur convictions in Dubai for East Turkestan Islamic Movement Plot in 2010.
See also
Jihadism
Terrorism in China
Xinjiang raid
Turkistan Islamic Party in Syria
Notes
References
Further reading
Reed, J. Todd; Raschke, Diana (2010). The ETIM: China's Islamic Militants and the Global Terrorist Threat. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. .
1997 establishments in China
Islamism in China
Islamism in Pakistan
Jihadist groups in Afghanistan
Jihadist groups in Pakistan
Islamic organizations established in 1997
Terrorism in China
Terrorism in Pakistan
East Turkestan independence movement
Organizations designated as terrorist by Bahrain
Organizations designated as terrorist by Malaysia
Organizations designated as terrorist by Turkey
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selim%20III
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Selim III
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Selim III (; ; 24 December 1761 – 28 July 1808) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. Regarded as an enlightened ruler, the Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne as Mustafa IV. Selim was subsequently killed by a group of assassins.
Selim III was the son of Sultan Mustafa III and his wife Mihrişah Sultan. His mother Mihrişah Sultan originated in Georgia, and when she became the Valide Sultan, she participated in reforming the government schools and establishing political corporations. His father Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III was very well educated and believed in the necessity of reforms. Mustafa III attempted to create a powerful army during the peacetime with professional, well-educated soldiers. This was primarily motivated by his fear of a Russian invasion. During the Russo-Turkish War, he fell ill and died of a heart attack in 1774. Sultan Mustafa was aware of the fact that a military reform was necessary. He declared new military regulations and opened maritime and artillery academies.
Sultan Mustafa was very influenced by mysticism. Oracles predicted his son Selim would be a world-conqueror, so he organized a joyous feast lasting seven days. Selim was very well educated in the palace. Sultan Mustafa III bequeathed his son as his successor; however, Selim's uncle Abdul Hamid I ascended the throne after Mustafa's death. Sultan Abdul Hamid I took care of Selim and put great emphasis on his education.
After Abdul Hamid's death, Selim succeeded him on 7 April 1789, not yet 27 years old. Sultan Selim III was very fond of literature and calligraphy; many of his works were put on the walls of mosques and convents. He wrote many poems, especially about Crimea's occupation by Russia. He spoke Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Old Bulgarian fluently. Selim III showed great importance to patriotism and religion. He demonstrated his skills in poetry, music and was fond of fine arts and the army.
Reign
Plans of reforms
The talents and energy with which Selim III was endowed had endeared him to the people, and great hopes were founded on his accession. He had associated much with foreigners, and was thoroughly persuaded of the necessity of reforming his state.
However, Austria and Russia gave him no time for anything but defense, and it was not until the Peace of Iaşi (1792) that a breathing space was allowed him in Europe, while Napoleon's invasion of Egypt and Syria soon called for the empire's strongest efforts.
Ottoman provinces from Egypt to Syria began to implement French policies and began to differ away from Istanbul after Napoleon attack.
Selim III profited by the respite to abolish the military tenure of fiefs; he introduced salutary reforms into the administration, especially in the fiscal department, sought by well-considered plans to extend the spread of education, and engaged foreign officers as instructors, by whom a small corps of new troops called nizam-i-jedid were collected and drilled in 1797. This unit was composed of Turkish peasant youths from Anatolia and supplied with modern weaponry.
These troops were able to hold their own against rebellious Janissaries in the Balkan provinces such as the Sanjak of Smederevo against its appointed Vizier Hadži Mustafa Pasha, where disaffected governors made no scruple of attempting to make use of them against the reforming sultan.
Emboldened by this success, Selim III issued an order that in future picked men should be taken annually from the Janissaries to serve in the nizam-i-jedid. Selim III was unable to integrate the nizam-i jedid with the rest of the army which overall limited its role in the defense of the state.
Foreign relations
Selim III ascended the throne only to find that the Ottoman Empire of old had been considerably reduced due to conflicts outside the realm. From the north Russia had taken the Black Sea through the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774. Selim realized the importance of diplomatic relations with other nations, and pushed for permanent embassies in the courts of all the great nations of Europe, a hard task because of religious prejudice towards Muslims. Even with the religious obstacles, resident embassies were established in Britain, France, Prussia and Austria. Selim, a cultured poet and musician, carried on an extended correspondence with Louis XVI. Although distressed by the establishment of the republic in France, Ottoman government was soothed by French representatives in Constantinople who maintained the goodwill of various influential personages.
On 1 July 1798, however, French forces landed in Egypt, and Selim declared war on France. In alliance with Russia and Britain, the Turks were in periodic conflict with the French on both land and sea until March 1801. Peace came in June 1802, The following year brought trouble in the Balkans. For decades a sultan's word had had no power in outlying provinces, prompting Selim's reforms of the military in order to reimpose central control. This desire was not fulfilled. One rebellious leader was Austrian-backed Osman Pazvantoğlu, whose invasion of Wallachia in 1801 inspired Russian intervention, resulting in greater autonomy for the Dunubian provinces. Serbian conditions also deteriorated. They took a fateful turn with the return of the hated Janissaries, ousted 8 years before. These forces murdered Selim's enlightened governor, ending the best rule this province had had in the last 100 years. Neither arms nor diplomacy could restore Ottoman authority.
French influence with the Sublime Porte (the European diplomatic designation of the Ottoman state) did not revive but it then led the Sultan into defying both St. Petersburg and London, and Turkey joined Napoleon's Continental System. War was declared on Russia on 27 December and on Britain in March 1807.
Janissary revolt
The Sultan's most ambitious military project was the creation of an entirely new infantry corps fully trained and equipped according to the latest European standards. This unit, called the nizam-i jedid (the new order), was formed in 1797 and adopted a pattern of recruitment that was uncommon for the imperial forces; it was composed of Turkish peasant youths from Anatolia, a clear indication that the devshirme system was no longer functional. Officered and trained by Europeans, the nizam-i jedid was outfitted with modern weapons and French-style uniforms. By 1806 the new army numbered around 23,000 troops, including a modern artillery corps, and its units performed effectively in minor actions. But Selim III's inability to integrate the force with the regular army and his reluctance to deploy it against his domestic opponents limited its role in defending the state it was created to preserve.
From the start of Selim's reign, the Janissaries had viewed this entire program of military reform as a threat to their independence, and they refused to serve alongside the new army in the field. The powerful derebeys were alarmed by the way in which the sultan financed his new forces—he confiscated timars and directed the other revenue toward the nizam-i jedid. Further opposition came from the ulama and other members of the ruling elite who objected to the European models on which Selim based his military reforms.
Led by the rebellious Janissaries, these forces came together in 1806, deposed Selim III, and selected a successor, Mustafa IV, who pledged not to interfere with their privileges. The decree of deposition accused Selim III of failing to respect the religion of Islam and the tradition of the Ottomans. Over the course of the next year, the embassies in Europe were dismantled, the nizam-i jedid troops were dispersed, and the deposed sultan, whose cautious military reforms were intended to do no more than preserve the tradition of the Ottomans, was murdered.
Austro-Turkish War (1787–1791)
The Austro-Turkish War of 1787 was an inconclusive struggle between the Austrian and Ottoman Empires. It took place concomitantly with the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792 during the reign of the Ottoman Sultan Selim III.
Russo-Turkish war
The first major Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) began after Turkey demanded that Russia’s ruler, Catherine II the Great, abstain from interfering in Poland’s internal affairs. The Russians went on to win impressive victories over the Turks. They captured Azov, the Crimea, and Bessarabia, and under Field Marshal Pyotr Rumyantsev they overran Moldavia and also defeated the Turks in Bulgaria. The Turks were compelled to seek peace, which was concluded in the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. This treaty made the Crimean khanate independent of the Turkish sultan advanced the Russian frontier. Russia was now in a much stronger position to expand, and in 1783 Catherine annexed the Crimean Peninsula outright.
War broke out in 1787, with Austria again on the side of Russia. Under General Alexander Suvorov, the Russians won several victories that gave them control of the lower Dniester and Danube rivers, and further Russian successes compelled the Turks to sign the Treaty of Jassy on 9 January 1792. By this treaty Turkey ceded the entire western Ukrainian Black Sea coast to Russia. When Turkey deposed the Russophile governors of Moldavia and Walachia in 1806, war broke out again, though in a desultory fashion, since Russia was reluctant to concentrate large forces against Turkey while its relations with Napoleonic France were so uncertain. But in 1811, with the prospect of a war between France and Russia in sight, the latter sought a quick decision on its southern frontier. The Russian field marshal Mikhail Kutuzov’s victorious campaign of 1811–12 forced the Turks to sign the Treaty of Bucharest on 18 May 1812. Ending the war that had begun in 1806, this peace agreement established the Ottoman cession of Bessarabia to Russia.
The Russians also secured amnesty and a promise of autonomy for the Serbs, who had been rebelling against Turkish rule, but Turkish garrisons were given control of the Serbian fortresses. Implementation of the treaty was forestalled by a number of disputes, and Turkish troops invaded Serbia again the following year.
Relations with Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan was an independent ruler of the Sultanate of Mysore, with high regards of loyalty to the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. He had urgently requested Ottoman assistance during the Third Anglo-Mysore War, in which he had suffered an irreversible defeat. Tipu Sultan then began to consolidate his relations with France. In an attempt to junction with Tipu Sultan, Napoleon invaded Ottoman Egypt in the year 1798, causing a furor in Constantinople.
The British then appealed to Selim III to send a letter to Tipu Sultan requesting the Sultanate of Mysore to halt its state of war against the British East India Company. Selim III then wrote a letter to Tipu Sultan criticizing the French, and also informed Tipu Sultan that the Ottomans would act as intermediary between the Sultanate of Mysore and the British. Tipu Sultan wrote twice to Selim III, rejecting the advice of the Ottomans, unfortunately before most of his letters could arrive in Constantinople, the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War broke out and Tipu Sultan was killed during the Siege of Seringapatam (1799).
Alcohol prohibition
Many of the Ottoman sultans imposed alcohol bans (often with limited success). Despite Selim III's hardline stance on alcohol consumption, and threats to execute Christians and Jews caught selling wine or rakı to Muslims, it proved extremely difficult to curtail alcohol consumption in Istanbul, where wines were locally produced and the city had many established wine-houses serving its non-Muslim residents.
The 1806 Edirne Incident
The 1806 Edirne Incident was an armed confrontation between the New Order Troops (Nizam-i Djedit) of Ottoman Sultan Selim III and a coalition of Balkan magnates, ayans, and the region's Janissary garrisons that occurred in Thrace throughout the summer of 1806. The cause of the incident was Selim III's attempt to expand the New Order's permanent presence into Rumelia through the establishment of New Order barracks in the region's cities. The ultimate outcome of the confrontation was the retreat of imperial forces back to Istanbul and to Anatolia, constituting a deathblow to Selim III's ambitions of expanding his reformed army, as well as a major blow to his legitimacy. This deteriorated image would result in his deposition the following May.
Downfall and assassination
Selim III was, however, thoroughly under the influence of French ambassador to the Porte Horace Sébastiani, and the fleet was compelled to retire without effecting its purpose. But the anarchy, manifest or latent, existing throughout the provinces proved too great for Selim III to cope with. The Janissaries rose once more in revolt, induced the Sheikh ul-Islam to grant a fetva against the reforms, dethroned and imprisoned Selim III, and placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne, as Mustafa IV (1807–08), on 29 May 1807.
The ayan of Rustchuk, Alemdar Mustafa, a strong partisan of the reforms, collected an army of 40,000 men and marched on Constantinople with the purpose of reinstating Selim III, but he came too late. The ill-fated reforming Sultan had been stabbed in the seraglio by the Chief Black Eunuch and his men. Upon his arrival in the capital, Bairakdar's only resource was to wreak his vengeance on Mustafa IV and to place on the throne Mahmud II (1808–1839), the sole surviving member of the house of Osman.
Another version about his murder states that at the time of his deposition, Selim was staying at the Harem. The night of Thursday, 28 July 1808, he was with his favourite wife, Re'fet Kadın, and a lady-in-waiting Pakize Hanım in attendance. Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, a loyalist of Selim, was approaching the city with his army to reinstate Selim. Therefore, Mustafa IV gave orders to murder him and his brother Prince Mahmud.
The assassins were apparently a group of men, including the Master of the Wardrobe called Fettah the Georgian, the Treasury steward Ebe Selim, and black eunuch named Nezir Ağa. Selim apparently knew his end was coming when he saw their swords drawn. Pakize Hanım threw herself between them and her lord, she was cut in her hand. Re’fet Kadın started screaming in terror, another slave girl who rushed in fainted when she saw what was about to happen. A struggle ensued and the former sultan was cut down and murdered, his last words apparently being "Allahu Akbar" ("God is great").
Re'fet Kadın threw herself on the body but was dragged away. The body was quickly wrapped in a quilt. The assassins moved on to find Prince Mahmud and attempt to murder him too. He was more fortunate though and later ordered the assassins to be executed. Selim III would be the only Ottoman sultan to be killed by the sword. He was buried in Laleli Mosque near his father's tomb.
Interest in poetry and arts
A great lover of music, Sultan Selim III was a composer and performer of significant talent. He created fourteen makam-s (melodic types), three of which are in current use today. Sixty-four compositions by Selim III are known today, some of which are part of the regular repertory of Turkish classical music performerance. Aside from composing music, Selim III also performed on the ney (reed flute) and tanbur (long-necked, fretted lute).
Selim III's interest in music started in his days as a prince (shahzade) when he studied under Kırımlı Ahmet Kamil Efendi and Tanburi İzak Efendi. He was especially respectful of Tanburi İzak Efendi, and it is recounted that the Sultan rose in respect when Tanburi İzak Efendi entered the court.
As a patron of the arts, Selim III encouraged musicians of his day, including Dede Efendi and Baba Hamparsum. The Hamparsum notation system that Selim commissioned became the dominant notation for Turkish and Armenian music. His name is associated with a school in Classical Turkish Music due to the revival and rebirth of music at his court. Selim III was also interested in western music and in 1797 invited an opera troupe for the first opera performance in the Ottoman Empire.
Writing under the nom de plume ″İlhami″, Selim's poetry is collected in a divan. Among regular attendees of his court were Şeyh Galib, considered one of the four greatest Ottoman poets. Galib is now considered to have been not only an intimate friend of the Sultan, as they were both quite close in age, but through Galib's poetry you find an overwhelming support for his new military reforms
Selim III was a member of the Mevlevi Order of Sufi Whirling Dervishes, and entered into the order at the Galata Mevlevihanesi under the name ″Selim Dede". He was a renowned composer, creating many musical compositions, including a Mevlevi ayin, a long and complex liturgical form performed during the semâ (religious ceremonies) of the Mevlana (Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi) Tariqah of Sufi Whirling Mystics, in makam Suzidilara.
He extended his patronage to Antoine Ignace Melling, whom he appointed as the court architect in 1795. Melling constructed a number of palaces and other buildings for the Sultan and created engravings of contemporary Constantinople.
Family
Consorts
Selim had seven wives:
Safizar Kadın (died at Topkapı Palace, 30 May 1792, buried in Mustafa III Mausoleum, Laleli Mosque, Istanbul), Senior Consort;
Unnamed Senior Consort ( 1792 — 1858-59);
Zibifer Kadın (died at Beylerbeyi Palace, 30 January 1817, buried in Selimiye Mosque, Üsküdar, Istanbul), Second Consort;
Tabısafa Kadın (died at Fındıklı Palace, 15 March 1855, buried in Mustafa III Mausoleum, Laleli Mosque, Istanbul), Third Consort;
Refet Kadın (died at Beșiktaș Palace, 22 October 1867, buried in Mihrişah Sultan Mausoleum, Eyüp Cemetery, Istanbul), Fourth Consort;
Nuruşems Kadın (died at Kuruçeșme Palace, May 1826, buried in Mustafa III Mausoleum, Laleli Mosque, Istanbul), Fifth Consort;
Hüsnümah Kadın (died 1814, buried in Mustafa III Mausoleum, Laleli Mosque, Istanbul), Sixth Consort;
See also
Ottoman military reform efforts
Nizam-i Jedid
Kabakçı Mustafa
Kuguzade Suleyman Pasha
Ancestry
Notes
Bibliography
Basaran, Betul. Selim III, Social Control and Policing in Istanbul at the End of the Eighteenth Century: Between Crisis and Order (Leiden: Brill, 2014)
Sakul, Kahraman. "Innovation and Empire in Turkey: Sultan Selim III and the Modernisation of the Ottoman Navy." International Journal of Turkish Studies 19.1/2 (2013): 158.
Shaw, Stanford J. Between old and new: the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim III, 1789-1807 (Harvard University Press, 1971) online review
Shaw, Stanford J. "The origins of Ottoman military reform: the Nizam-i Cedid army of Sultan Selim III." Journal of Modern History 37.3 (1965): 291-306. online
Tuncay Zorlu, Sultan Selim III and the Modernisation of the Ottoman Navy (London, I.B. Tauris, 2011).
Yassin, Qasim, and Hamid Hajianpour. "The New Order of Sultan Selim III: The Turning Point of the Ottoman Empire's Tendency towards Modern Reforms (1789-1807)." The History of Islamic Culture and Civilization A Quarterly Research Journal 10.37 (2020): 87-98.
References
External links
1761 births
1808 deaths
Murder in 1808
18th-century Ottoman sultans
19th-century Ottoman sultans
Assassinated caliphs
19th-century murdered monarchs
Turkish classical composers
Turkish musicians
Executed people of the Ottoman Empire
19th-century executions by the Ottoman Empire
Composers of Ottoman classical music
Composers of Turkish makam music
Turks of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman dynasty
Assassinated royalty
Leaders ousted by a coup
The Sultan of Two Lands and the Khan of Two Seas
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmud%20II
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Mahmud II
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Mahmud II (, ; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839.
His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms he instituted, which culminated in the Decree of Tanzimat ("reorganization") that was carried out by his sons Abdulmejid I and Abdülaziz. Often described as "Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud's reforms included the 1826 abolition of the conservative Janissary corps, which removed a major obstacle to his and his successors' reforms in the Empire. The reforms he instituted were characterized by political and social changes, which would eventually lead to the birth of the modern Turkish Republic.
Notwithstanding his domestic reforms, Mahmud's reign was also marked by nationalist uprisings in Ottoman-ruled Serbia and Greece, leading to a loss of territory for the Empire following the emergence of an independent Greek state.
In the general structure of the Ottoman Empire, Mahmud's reign was characterized by showing major interest to Westernization; institutions, palace order, daily life, clothing, music and many other areas saw radical reform as the Ottoman Empire opened up to the modernisation.
Early life
Mahmud II was born on 20 July 1785, in the month of Ramadan. He was the son of Abdul Hamid I and his wife Nakşidil Sultan. He was the youngest son of his father, and the second child of his mother, he had an elder brother, Şehzade Seyfullah Murad, two years older than him, and a younger sister, Saliha Sultan, one year younger than him. According to tradition, he was confined in the Kafes after the death of his father.
Accession
His mother was Nakşidil Valide Sultan. In 1808, Mahmud II's predecessor, and half-brother, Mustafa IV ordered his execution along with his cousin, the deposed Sultan Selim III, in order to defuse the rebellion. Selim III was killed, but Mahmud was safely kept hidden by his mother and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa IV. The leader of this rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, later became Mahmud II's vizier. Western historians give Mahmud a poor reputation for simply being the Sultan during a time of deterioration of the Ottoman Empire.
There are many stories surrounding the circumstances of his attempted murder. A version by the 19th-century Ottoman historian Ahmed Cevdet Pasha gives the following account: one of his slaves, a Georgian girl named Cevri, gathered ashes when she heard the commotion in the palace surrounding the murder of Selim III. When the assassins approached the harem chambers where Mahmud was staying, she was able to keep them away for a while by throwing ashes into their faces, temporarily blinding them. This allowed Mahmud to escape through a window and climb onto the roof of the harem. He apparently ran to the roof of the Third Court where other pages saw him and helped him come down with pieces of clothes that were quickly tied together as a ladder. By this time one of the leaders of the rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha arrived with his armed men, and upon seeing the dead body of Selim III proclaimed Mahmud as padishah. The slave girl Cevri Kalfa was awarded for her bravery and loyalty and appointed haznedar usta, the chief treasurer of the Imperial Harem, which was the second most important position in the hierarchy. A plain stone staircase at the Altınyol (Golden Way) of the Harem is called Staircase of Cevri (Jevri) Kalfa, since the events apparently happened around there and are associated with her.
Reign overview
The vizier took the initiative in resuming reforms that had been terminated by the conservative coup of 1807 that had brought Mustafa IV to power. However, he was killed during a rebellion in 1808 and Mahmud II temporarily abandoned the reforms. Mahmud II's later reformation efforts would be much more successful.
Russo-Turkish War of 1806-12
After Mahmud II became sultan, Turkish border wars with the Russians continued. In 1810, the Russians surrounded the Silistre fortress for the second time. When Emperor Napoleon I of France declared war on Russia in 1811, Russian repression on the Ottoman border diminished, a relief to Mahmud. By this time, Napoleon was about to embark on his invasion of Russia. He also invited the Ottomans to join his march on Russia. However, Napoleon, who had invaded all of Europe except the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire, could not be trusted and accepted as an ally; Mahmud rejected the offer. The Bucharest Agreement was reached with the Russians on 28 May 1812. According to the Treaty of Bucharest (1812), the Ottoman Empire ceded the eastern half of Moldavia to Russia (which renamed the territory as Bessarabia), although it had committed to protecting that region. Russia became a new power in the lower Danube area, and had an economically, diplomatically, and militarily profitable frontier. In Transcaucasia, Turkey regained nearly all it had lost in the east: Poti, Anapa and Akhalkalali. Russia retained Sukhum-Kale on the Abkhazian coast. In return, the Sultan accepted the Russian annexation of the Kingdom of Imereti, in 1810. The treaty was approved by Emperor Alexander I of Russia on June 11, some 13 days before Napoleon's invasion began. The Russian commanders were able to get many of their soldiers in the Balkans back to the western areas of the empire before the expected attack of Napoleon.
War against the Saudi state
During the early years of Mahmud II's reign, his governor of Egypt Mehmet Ali Paşa successfully waged the Ottoman-Saudi War and reconquered the holy cities of Medina (1812) and Mecca (1813) from the First Saudi State.
Abdullah bin Saud and the First Saudi State had barred Muslims from the Ottoman Empire from entering the holy shrines of Mecca and Medina; his followers also desecrated the tombs of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Hassan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. Abdullah bin Saud and his two followers were publicly beheaded for their crimes against holy cities and mosques.
Greek War of Independence
His reign also marked the first breakaway from the Ottoman Empire, with Greece gaining its independence following a revolution that started in 1821. In the wake of continued unrest he had ecumenical patriarch Gregory V executed on Easter Sunday 1821 for his inability to stem the uprising. During the Battle of Erzurum (1821), part of the Ottoman-Persian War (1821-1823), Mahmud II's superior force was routed by Abbas Mirza, resulting in a Qajar Persian victory which got confirmed in the Treaties of Erzurum. Several years later, in 1827, the combined British, French and Russian navies defeated the Ottoman Navy at the Battle of Navarino; in the aftermath, the Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize Greece with the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832. This event, together with the French conquest of Algeria, an Ottoman province (see Ottoman Algeria) in 1830, marked the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire. Non-Turkish ethnic groups living in the empire's territories, especially in Europe, started their own independence movements.
The Auspicious Incident
One of Mahmud II's most notable acts during his reign was the destruction of the Janissary corps in June 1826. He accomplished this with careful calculation using his recently reformed wing of the military intended to replace the Janissaries. When the Janissaries mounted a demonstration against Mahmud II's proposed military reforms, he had their barracks fired upon effectively crushing the formerly elite Ottoman troops and burned the Belgrade forest outside Istanbul to incinerate any remnants. This permitted the establishment of a European-style conscript army, recruited mainly from Turkish speakers of Rumelia and Asia Minor. Mahmud was also responsible for the subjugation of the Iraqi Mamluks by Ali Ridha Pasha in 1831. He ordered the execution of the renowned Ali Pasha of Tepelena. He sent his Grand Vizier to execute the Bosniak hero Husein Gradaščević and dissolve the Bosnia Eyalet.
Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29
Another Russo-Turkish War (1828-29) broke out during Mahmud II's reign and was this time was fought without janissaries. Marshal Diebitsch was armed (in the words of Baron Moltke) "with the reputation of invincible success". He was to earn the name Sabalskanski (the crosser of the Balkans). Bypassing the Shumla fortress, he forcibly marched his troops over the Balkans, appearing before Adrianople. Sultan Mahmud II kept his head, unfurled the sacred banner of the prophet and declared his intention of taking command personally. Preparing to do so, he appeared, ill-advisedly, not on horseback but in a carriage. The Divan, British and French ambassadors urged him to sue for peace.
Tanzimat Reforms
In 1839, just prior to his death, he began preparations for the Tanzimat reform era which included introducing a Council of Ministers or the Meclis-i Vukela. The Tanzimat marked the beginning of modernization in Turkey and had immediate effects on social and legal aspects of life in the Empire, such as European style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization, and land reform.
He was also concerned for aspects of tradition. He made great efforts to revive the sport of archery. He ordered archery master Mustafa Kani to write a book about the history, construction, and use of Turkish bows, from which comes most of what is now known of Turkish archery.
Mahmud II died of tuberculosis, in 1839. His funeral was attended by crowds of people who came to bid the Sultan farewell. His son Abdulmejid I succeeded him and would continue to implement Tanzimat reform efforts.
Reforms
Legal reforms
Among his reforms are the edicts (or firmans), by which he closed the Court of Confiscations, and took away much of the power of the Pashas.
Previous to the first of the Firmans the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown; and a sordid motive for acts of cruelty was thus kept in perpetual operation, besides the encouragement of a host of vile delators.
The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to doom men to instant death by their will; the Paşas, the Ağas, and other officers, were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the Kadi, and regularly signed by the judge." Mahmud also created an appeal system by a criminal to one of the Kazasker (chief military judge) of Asia or Europe, and finally to the Sultan himself, if the criminal chose to persist in his appeal.
About the same time that Mahmud II ordained these changes, he personally set an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan, or state council, instead of secluding himself from the labors of state. The practice of the Sultan avoiding the Divan had been introduced as long ago as the reign of Suleiman I, and was considered one of the causes of the decline of the Empire by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud II's time.
Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses connected with the vakıfs, by placing their revenues under state administration. However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of the government. His modernizations included the relaxation of much of the restrictions on alcoholic beverages in the Empire, and the sultan himself was known to drink socially with his ministers. By the end of his reign, his reforms had mostly normalized drinking among the upper classes and political figures in the Empire.
In his time the financial situation of the Empire was troubling, and certain social classes had long been under the oppression of heavy taxes. In dealing with the complicated questions that therefore arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the best spirit of the best of the Köprülüs. A Firman of February 22, 1834, abolished the vexatious charges which public functionaries, when traversing the provinces, had long been accustomed to take from the inhabitants. By the same edict all collection of money, except for the two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as abuses. "No one is ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders."
The haraç, or capitation-tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through the insolence and misconduct of the government collectors. The Firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the Kadı, the Muslim governors, and the Ayans, or municipal chiefs of Rayas in each district. Many other financial improvements were affected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished. Sultan Mahmud II provided a valuable personal example of good sense, and economy, organising the imperial household, suppressing all titles without duties, and all salaried officials without functions.
Military reforms
Mahmud II dealt effectively with the military fiefs, the "Tımar"s, and the "Ziamet"s. These had been instituted to furnish the old effective military force, but had long ceased to serve this purpose. By attaching them to the public domains, Mahmud II materially strengthened the resources of the state, and put an end to a host of corruptions. One of the most resolute acts of his ruling was the suppression of the Dere Beys, the hereditary local chiefs (with power to nominate their successors in default of male heirs), which, in one of the worst abuses of the Ottoman feudal system, had made themselves petty princes in almost every province of the empire.
The reduction of these insubordinate feudatories was not affected at once, or without severe struggles and frequent rebellions. Mahmud II steadily persevered in this great measure and ultimately the island of Cyprus became the only part of the empire in which power that was not emanating from the Sultan was allowed to be retained by Dere Beys.
One of his most notable achievement was the abolition (through use of military force, execution and exile, and banning of the Bektashi order) of the Janissary Corps, event known as The Auspicious Incident, in 1826 and the establishment of a modern Ottoman Army, named the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye (meaning 'Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad' in Ottoman Turkish).
Following the loss of Greece after the Battle of Navarino against the combined British-French-Russian flotilla in 1827, Mahmud II gave top priority to rebuilding a strong Ottoman naval force. The first steamships of the Ottoman Navy were acquired in 1828. In 1829 the world's largest warship for many years, the 201 x 56 kadem (1 kadem = 37.887 cm) or ship of the line Mahmudiye, which had 128 cannons on 3 decks and carried 1,280 sailors on board, was built for the Ottoman Navy at the Imperial Naval Arsenal (Tersâne-i Âmire) on the Golden Horn in Constantinople (kadem, which translates as "foot", is often misinterpreted as equivalent in length to one imperial foot, hence the wrongly converted dimensions of "201 x 56 ft, or 62 x 17 m" in some sources.)
Other reforms
During his reign, Mahmud II also made sweeping reforms of the bureaucracy in order to reestablish royal authority and increase the administrative efficiency of his government. This was accomplished by abolishing old offices, introducing new lines of responsibility, and raised salaries in an attempt to end bribery. In 1838 he founded two institutions aimed towards training government officials. In 1831, Mahmud II also established an official gazette, Takvim-i Vekayi (Calendar of Events). This was the first newspaper to be published in the Ottoman-Turkish language and was required reading for all civil servants.
Clothing was also an essential aspect of Mahmud II's reforms. He began by officially adopting the fez for the military after the Janissary eradication in 1826, which signified a break from the old style of military dress. On top of this, he ordered civilian officials to also adopt a similar, but plain, fez to distinguish them from the military. He planned for the population to adopt this as well, as he desired a homogeneous look for Ottoman society with an 1829 regulatory law. Unlike past Sultanic clothing decrees and those of other societies, Mahmud II wanted all levels of government and civilians to look the same. He faced significant resistance to these measures specifically from religious groups, laborers, and military members because of traditional, religious, and practical reasons. Mahmud II's portraits also give a valuable insight into his clothing mentality, as he switched to a more European-style and fez after 1826.
On top of these reforms, Mahmud II was also critical in the establishment and flourishing of an Ottoman foreign affairs office. While he built upon Selim III's foundational elements of international diplomacy, Mahmud II was the first to create the title of Foreign Minister and Undersecretary in 1836. He placed enormous importance on this position and equated salary and rank with the highest military and civilian positions. Mahmud II also expanded the Language Office and Translation Office, and by 1833 it began to grow in both size and importance. After the reorganization of these offices, he also resumed Selim's efforts to create a system of permanent diplomatic representation in Europe. In 1834, permanent European embassies were established with the first in Paris. Despite the difficulties that came along with these actions, the expansion of diplomacy increased the transmission of ideas that would have a revolutionary effect on the development of bureaucracy and Ottoman society as a whole.
Family
Consorts
Mahmud had sixteen consorts:
Unnamed (died 20 April 1809), Senior Consort;
Dilseza Kadın (died at Beşiktaş Palace, Istanbul, May 1816, buried in Dolmabahçe Palace Mausoleum), Second Consort→Senior Consort;<ref>{{cite news|title=455 yıllık Kuran-ı Kerim restore ediliyor|url=https://www.milatgazetesi.com/haber/455-yillik-kuran-i-kerim-restore-edilmez-211904/|access-date=9 November 2020|work=miletgazetesi.com|date=20 July 2019}}</ref>
Kamerfer Kadın (died 1823, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum), Third Consort→Second Consort→Senior Consort;
Nevfidan Kadın (died at Nafiz Pasha Palace, Beylerbeyi, Istanbul, 11 November 1855, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum), Third Consort→Second Consort→Senior Consort;
Hoşyar Kadın (died Mecca, 1859, buried there), Fourth Consort→Third Consort→Second Consort;
Aşubcan Kadın (died at Maçka Palace, 10 June 1870, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum), Fifth Consort→Fourth Consort→Third Consort;
Mislinayab Kadın (died 22 May 1818, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum), Sixth Consort→Fifth Consort;
Nurtab Kadın (died 10 January 1886, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum), Fourth Consort;
Bezmiâlem Sultan (died at Beşiktaş Palace, Istanbul, 2 May 1853, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum, Divanyolu, Istanbul), Fifth Consort;
Ebrureftar Kadın (died 1825, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum), Sixth Consort;
Pervizifelek Kadın (died at Akıntıburnu Palace, 21 September 1863, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum), Seventh Consort→Sixth Consort;
Hüsnümelek Hanım (died at Beylerbeyi Palace, 1887, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum), Senior Fortunate;
Pertevniyal Sultan (died at Örtaköy Palace, Istanbul, 26 January 1884, buried in Pertevniyal Sultan Mausoleum), Second Fortunate;
Tiryal Hanım (died at Çamlıca Palace, Istanbul, 1882–3, buried in Imperial ladies Mausoleum), Third Fortunate;
Zernigar Hanım (died 1830, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum), Fourth Fortunate;
Lebrizifelek Hanım (died at Örtaköy Palace, Istanbul, 9 February 1865, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum), Fourth Fortunate;
Sons
Mahmud had fourteen sons, of which only two lived to adulthood:
Şehzade Murad (26 December 1811 – 5 July 1812, buried in Tomb of Abdul Hamid I, Fatih, Istanbul);
Şehzade Bayezid (26 March 1812 – 10 July 1812, buried in Abdul Hamid I Mausoleum, Fatih, Istanbul), with Dilseza Kadın;
Şehzade Abdul Hamid (6 March 1813 – 20 April 1825, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum, Fatih Mosque, Istanbul), with Mislinayab Kadın;
Şehzade Osman (Beşiktaş Palace, 17 June 1813 – 10 April 1814, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul), with Nevfidan Kadın;
Şehzade Ahmed (25 July 1814 – 16 July 1815, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul);
Şehzade Mehmed (Beşiktaş Palace, 25 August 1814 – 31 October 1814, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul), with Dilseza Kadın;
Şehzade Suleiman (29 August 1817 – 14 December 1819, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul);
Şehzade Ahmed (13 October 1819 – 24 December 1819, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul);
Şehzade Mehmed (18 February 1822 – 23 September 1822, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul);
Şehzade Ahmed (6 July 1822 – 9 April 1823, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul);
Sultan Abdulmejid I (25 April 1823 – 25 June 1861, buried in Yavuz Selim Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul), with Bezmiâlem Sultan;
Şehzade Abdul Hamid (18 February 1827 – 15 November 1828, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum, Fatih Mosque, Istanbul);
Sultan Abdulaziz (8 February 1830 – 4 June 1876, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum, Divanyolu, Istanbul), with Pertevniyal Sultan;
Şehzade Nizameddin (29 December 1833 – 28 February 1838, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum, Fatih Mosque, Istanbul), with Tiryal Hanım;
Daughters
Mahmud had seventeen daughters, of which only six lived to adulthood:
Fatma Sultan (4 February 1809 – 5 August 1809, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul), with unnamed Senior Consort;
Ayşe Sultan (5 July 1809 – February 1810, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul), with Kamerfer Kadın;
Fatma Sultan (20 April 1811 – April 1825, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum, Fatih Mosque, Istanbul), with Dilseza Kadın;
Saliha Sultan (16 June 1811 – 19 February 1843, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum, Divanyolu, Istanbul), with Aşubcan Kadın;
Şah Sultan (Beşiktaş Palace, 22 May 1812 – September 1814, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul), with Aşubcan Kadın;
Mihrimah Sultan (Beşiktaş Palace, 29 June 1812 – 31 August 1838, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum, Fatih Mosque, Istanbul), with Hoşyar Kadın;
Emine Sultan (July 1813 – July 1814, buried in Nurosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul), with Dilseza Kadın;
Şah Sultan (14 October 1814 – 13 April 1817, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul), with Hoşyar Kadın;
Emine Sultan (7 December 1815 – 24 September 1816, buried in Dolmabahçe Palace Mausoleum, Istanbul), with Dilseza Kadın;
Zeynep Sultan (18 April 1815 – 8 January 1816, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul), with Nevfidan Kadın;
Hamide Sultan (4 July 1818 – 15 February 1819, buried in Nuruosmaniye Mosque, Fatih, Istanbul);
Atiye Sultan (2 January 1824 – 11 August 1850, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum, Divanyolu, Istanbul), with Pervizifelek Kadın;
Münire Sultan (16 October 1824 – 22 May 1825, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum, Fatih Mosque, Istanbul);
Hatice Sultan (6 September 1825 – 19 December 1842, buried in Mahmud II Mausoleum, Divanyolu, Istanbul), with Pervizifelek Kadın;
Adile Sultan (23 May 1826 – 12 February 1899, buried in Adile Sultan Mausoleum, Eyüp, Istanbul), with Zernigar Hanım;
Fatma Sultan (20 July 1828 - 23 October 1830, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum, Fatih Mosque, Istanbul), with Pervizifelek Kadın;
Hayriye Sultan (22 January 1832 – 29 January 1833, buried in Nakşidil Sultan Mausoleum, Fatih Mosque, Istanbul);
In fiction
The 2006 historical detective novel The Janissary Tree, by Jason Goodwin, is set in 1836 Constantinople, with Mahmud II's modernising reforms (and conservative opposition to them) forming the background of the plot. The Sultan himself and his mother appear in several scenes.
The 1989 film Intimate Power, also known as The Favorite, is adapted from a historical fiction novel by Prince Michael of Greece. It portrays a legend about Aimée du Buc de Rivéry as a young captured French girl who, after spending years in an Ottoman harem, outlives two Sultans and protects Mahmud as his surrogate mother. Mahmud is a minor role in the film but is portrayed as both an adult and a child. The film concludes with a variation of his dramatic succession.
See also
Atçalı Kel Mehmet Efe
Sened-i İttifak
References
Incorporates text from Edward Shepherd Creasy, History of the Ottoman Turks; From the beginning of their empire to the present time (1878).
Bibliography
Further reading
Levy, Avigdor. "The Officer Corps in Sultan Mahmud II's New Ottoman Army, 1826–39." International Journal of Middle East Studies (1971) 2#1 pp: 21–39. online
Levy, Avigdor. "The Ottoman Ulema and the military reforms of Sultan Mahmud II." Asian and African Studies 7 (1971): 13–39.
Levy, Avigdor. "The Ottoman Corps in Sultan Mahmud II New Ottoman Army." International Journal of Middle East Studies 1 (1971): pp 39+
Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire'' (1992) ch 6
External links
1785 births
1839 deaths
People from Istanbul
Ottoman people of the Ottoman–Persian Wars
Ottoman people of the Wahhabi War
Ottoman people of the Greek War of Independence
Ottoman people of the Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)
Ottoman people of the Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841)
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Tuberculosis deaths in the Ottoman Empire
19th-century Ottoman sultans
Turks of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman dynasty
Tuberculosis deaths in Turkey
Leaders who took power by coup
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208641
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustafa%20IV
|
Mustafa IV
|
Mustafa IV (; Muṣṭafā-yi rābi‘; 8 September 1779 – 16 November 1808) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1807 to 1808.
Early life
Mustafa IV was born on 8 September 1779 in Constantinople. He was the son of Sultan Abdul Hamid I (1774–1789) and Sineperver Sultan.
Both he and his brother, Mahmud II, were the last remaining male members of the House of Osman after their cousin, the reformist Sultan Selim III (1789–1807). They alone were therefore eligible to inherit the throne from Selim, by whom they were treated favorably. Since Mustafa was the elder, he took precedence over his brother to the throne. During his short reign, Mustafa would both save his cousin's life, and order him murdered. Mustafa was Sultan Selim III's favourite crown prince, but he deceived his cousin and co-operated with the rebels to take his throne.
Reign
Mustafa ascended to the throne after the deposition of his cousin, Selim, on 29 May 1807. He came to the throne in the wake of the turbulent events that led to the fatwa against Selim for "introduce[ing] among the Moslems the manners of infidels and showing an intention to suppress the Janissaries." Selim fled to the palace, where he swore fealty to his cousin as the new sultan, and attempted to commit suicide. Mustafa spared his life by smashing the cup of poison that his cousin attempted to drink.
Mustafa's brief reign was turbulent. Immediately upon ascending to the throne, the Janissaries rioted throughout Constantinople, looting and murdering anyone who appeared to support Selim. More threatening, however, was a truce signed with the Russians, which freed Mustafa Bayrakdar, a pro-reformist commander stationed on the Danube to march his army back to Constantinople in an effort to restore Selim. With the aid of the Grand Vizier of Adrianople, the army marched on the capital and seized the palace.
Sarıbeyzade Aleko, the interpreter of Fenerli Divan-ı Hümayun, was executed on 11 September 1807 because he was involved in spying on government affairs that were not related to his job. It was written that he gave the betrayal and state secrets to the enemy in the label hanging around his neck. This execution tightened Ottoman-French relations. French envoy Sebastiani protested the execution of Aleko, who was under the patronage of the government by going to Babıali. After the cease-fire agreement signed in the Russian lada and the turmoil in the Silistra army, the Ottoman troops returned to Edirne, who had no army character left.
Meanwhile in Istanbul and Edirne, after a long winter, centre frosts were experienced, shortages and wood shortages were experienced. The situation of the troops and the cadre of Edirne was devastated. Soldiers were asked to dispatch soldiers from the provincial governors, until only a exquisite number of soldiers had come from a few places near Istanbul such as Izmit and Şile. The pro-Nizam-ı Cedid protestors in Anatolia and Çapanoğlu Süleyman Bey, in the first place, had cut all kinds of aid towards Istanbul.
Attempting to secure his position by positing himself as the only surviving heir of Osman, Mustafa ordered both Selim and his brother Mahmud murdered at Topkapı Palace, Constantinople. He then ordered his guards to show the rebels Selim's body, and they promptly tossed it into the inner courtyard of the palace. Mustafa then ascended his throne, assuming that Mahmud was also dead, but the prince had been hiding in the furnace of a bath. Just as the rebels demanded that Mustafa "yield his place to a worthier," Mahmud revealed himself, and Mustafa was deposed. The failure of his short reign prevented the efforts to undo the reforms, which continued under Mahmud.
Death
Mustafa was later killed on Mahmud's orders on 16 November 1808, and was buried in his father's mausoleum.
Family
Consorts
Şevkinur Kadın (died 1812, buried in Tomb of Abdul Hamid I, Istanbul), Senior Consort;
Seyyare Kadın (died 1818, buried in Tomb of Abdul Hamid I, Istanbul), Second Consort;
Unnamed Third Consort, who was pregnant in August 1808;
Unnamed Ikbal, who was pregnant in August 1808;
Daughter
Emine Sultan (10 May 1809 – August-September 1809, buried in Tomb of Abdul Hamid I);
Şehzade Ahmed (14 August 1809 - Unknown date, Algeria)
References
Sources
External links
http://www.uslanmam.com/turk-kulturu/651298-sultan-i-abdulhamid-turbesi-eminonu.html
1779 births
1808 deaths
People from Istanbul
19th-century Ottoman sultans
Turks of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman dynasty
Leaders who took power by coup
Leaders ousted by a coup
|
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208642
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyfriend%20%28fashion%29
|
Boyfriend (fashion)
|
In fashion design, primarily in ready-to-wear lines, boyfriend is any style of women's clothing that was modified from a corresponding men's garment. Examples include boyfriend jackets, boyfriend jeans, and boyfriend blazers, which are often more unisex or looser in appearance and fit most women. These include jackets or trousers, though these are still designed for the female form.
Background of women in menswear
In the 19th century, women in Western society mostly wore dresses, skirts, and corsets. Amelia Bloomer, a woman's rights activist in the 1850s, was one of the first to change the stereotype when she introduced the bloomer. Later, in the 1920s, the fashion legend Coco Chanel started a menswear line. Other popular fashion icons such as Katharine Hepburn and Marlene Dietrich had menswear style fashion, which made this style even more popular in the 1930s. During the war when women were free to wear more masculine clothes, however, when the war ended in the 1950s, they returned to more feminine forms of dressing. It was not until the 1960s and early 70s that menswear-inspired fashion was no longer considered a rebellious political statement. In the 1950s Marilyn Monroe wore boyfriend jeans, which started the popularity of the clothing item.
Women in menswear today
The origin of boyfriend fashion is borrowing and wearing a boyfriend's clothes. The trend expanded when many brands such as Gap, Forever 21, H&M, and Urban Outfitters began to create boyfriend fashion products or men's-inspired fashion.
Boyfriend blazer
The boyfriend blazer has been featured in many of the spring 2010 walks such as Charlotte Ronson, Cynthia Rowley, and Elie Tahari, and the trend continued into 2011. The boyfriend trend is all about wearing clothes that look a size too big for the wearer. It is recommended to go up only one size. It balances it out while implying that the sleeves would be too long for the wearer's arms. The boyfriend blazer comes in many shades, ranging from classic hues of black and gray to whites, pinks, and neon. They can be worn with a cocktail dress, a skirt and blouse, or even leggings.
Boyfriend jeans
From Marilyn Monroe to Kim Kardashian, the boyfriend jeans have been popular for many years. The boyfriend jean is loose-fitting, slouchy, and relaxed-looking pants that are heavily distressed. Some celebrities also wear boyfriend jeans from Kendall Jenner to Reese Witherspoon to Rihanna. The boyfriend jean has been reinvented to be many fits, from more baggy and authentic, to a tighter more dapper version.
Future of fashion
The "borrowed from the boys" look is nothing new however, the trend is currently in fashion, and will continue to go in and out of fashion. However, this style trend shows young girls and women that they can wear whatever they want. Fashion icon Jaden Smith wore a dress and a skirt in a Vogue, and people thought it was bold and revolutionary. Alicia Hardesty, a project runway competitor, has a line of clothing is called original tomboy, and is for both women and men interchangeably. She likes to describe her work as androgynistic, meaning that there is characteristics of both masculine and feminine. She believes that this is the future for fashion, and anybody should be able to wear these clothes. One day Hardesty hopes to see a store with no women's section or men's section, but clothes everyone can wear just in different sizes.
References
2000s fashion
2010s fashion
2020s fashion
Fashion aesthetics
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulmar
|
Fulmar
|
The fulmars are tubenosed seabirds of the family Procellariidae. The family consists of two extant species and two extinct fossil species from the Miocene.
Fulmars superficially resemble gulls, but are readily distinguished by their flight on stiff wings, and their tube noses. They breed on cliffs, laying one or rarely two eggs on a ledge of bare rock or on a grassy cliff. Outside the breeding season, they are pelagic, feeding on fish, squid and shrimp in the open ocean. They are long-lived for birds, living for up to 40 years.
Historically, the northern fulmar lived on the Isle of St Kilda, where it was extensively hunted. The species has expanded its breeding range southwards to the coasts of England and northern France.
Taxonomy
The genus Fulmarus was introduced in 1826 by the English naturalist James Stephens. The name comes from the Old Norse Fúlmár meaning "foul-mew" or "foul-gull" because of the birds' habit of ejecting a foul-smelling oil. The type species was designated by George Gray in 1855 as the northern fulmar .
As members of Procellaridae and then the order Procellariiformes, they share certain traits. First, they have nasal passages that attach to the upper bill called naricorns. The bills of Procellariiformes are unique in being split into between seven and nine horny plates. Finally, they produce a stomach oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides that is stored in the proventriculus. This can be sprayed out of their mouths as a defence against predators and as an energy rich food source for chicks and for the adults during their long flights. It will mat the plumage of avian predators, which can lead to their death. Fulmars have a salt gland that is situated above the nasal passage and helps desalinate their bodies, due to the high amount of ocean water that they imbibe. It excretes a strong saline solution from their nose.
Extant species
The genus contains the following two species.
Fossils
Two prehistoric species have been described from fossil bones found on the Pacific coast of California: Fulmarus miocaenus (Temblor Formation) and Fulmarus hammeri from the Miocene.
Description
The two fulmars are closely related seabirds occupying the same niche in different oceans. The northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) or just fulmar lives in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, whereas the southern fulmar, (Fulmarus glacialoides) is, as its name implies, a bird of the Southern Ocean. These birds look superficially like gulls, but are not closely related, and are in fact petrels. The northern species is grey and white with a yellow bill, in length with a wingspan. The southern form is a paler bird with dark wing tips, long, with a wingspan.
Behavior
Breeding
Both recent species breed on cliffs, laying a single white egg. Unlike many small to medium birds in the Procellariiformes, they are neither nocturnal breeders, nor do they use burrows; their eggs are laid on the bare rock or in shallow depressions lined with plant material.
In Britain, northern fulmars historically bred on St. Kilda (where their harvesting for oil, feathers and meat was central to the islands' economy). They spread into northern Scotland in the 19th century, and to the rest of the United Kingdom by 1930. The expansion has continued further south; the fulmar can now often be seen in the English Channel and in France along the northern and western coasts, with breeding pairs or small colonies in Nord, Picardy, Normandy and along the Atlantic coast in Brittany.
Feeding
Fulmars are highly pelagic outside the breeding season, like most tubenoses, feeding on fish, small squid, shrimp, crustaceans, marine worms, and carrion. The range of these species increased greatly in the 20th century due to the availability of fish offal from commercial fleets, but may contract because of less food from this source and climatic change. The population increase has been especially notable in the British Isles.
Like other petrels, their walking ability is limited, but they are strong fliers, with a stiff wing action quite unlike the gulls. They look bull-necked compared to gulls, and have short stubby bills. They are long-lived, the longest recorded lifespan for F. glacialis being 40 years, 10 months and 16 days.
Relationship with humans
Fulmars have for centuries been hunted for food. The engraver Thomas Bewick wrote in 1804 that "Pennant, speaking of those [birds] which breed on, or inhabit, the Isle of St Kilda, says—'No bird is of so much use to the islanders as this: the Fulmar supplies them with oil for their lamps, down for their beds, a delicacy for their tables, a balm for their wounds, and a medicine for their distempers. A photograph by George Washington Wilson taken about 1886 shows a "view of the men and women of St Kilda on the beach dividing up the catch of Fulmar". James Fisher, author of The Fulmar (1952) calculated that every person on St Kilda consumed over 100 fulmars each year; the meat was their staple food, and they caught around 12,000 birds annually. However, when the human population left St Kilda in 1930, the fulmar population did not suddenly increase.
Both the southern fulmar and the northern fulmar are listed as of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Gallery
References
Sources
See also more recent publication(s) with similar title.
Further reading
External links
Northern fulmar profile as part of BTO BirdFacts
Northern fulmar videos photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Southern fulmar videos photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Fulmarus
Seabirds
Taxa named by James Francis Stephens
|
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208645
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promulgation
|
Promulgation
|
Promulgation is the formal proclamation or the declaration that a new statutory or administrative law is enacted after its final approval. In some jurisdictions, this additional step is necessary before the law can take effect.
After a new law is approved, it is announced to the public through the publication of government gazettes and/or on official government websites. National laws of extraordinary importance to the public may be announced by the head of state on national broadcast. Local laws are usually announced in local newspapers and published in bulletins or compendia of municipal regulations.
Jurisdiction-specific details
Armenia
Bills are enacted by the President of Armenia and published in the Official Gazette of the Republic of Armenia.
Belgium
Statutes are promulgated by the King of the Belgians and published in the Belgian Official Journal. Decrees and Ordinances are promulgated by the different Regional and Community governments and published in the Belgian Official Journal.
Canada
Canadian federal Acts of Parliament, orders in council, proclamations, public notices, official appointments and proposed regulations from the Government of Canada are promulgated in the Canada Gazette (French: Gazette du Canada). The Canada Gazette consists of 3 parts that are published separately. Part 1 promulgates public notices, official appointments and proposed regulations; Part 2 promulgates regulations; and Part 3 promulgates Acts of Parliament. Each province and territory has their own publication in which their laws, regulations, and other statutory instruments are promulgated.
Canon law (Catholic Church)
A canonical law issued by the Pope (or with his consent in the case of laws issued by an ecumenical council or congregation) is promulgated when it is published in Acta Apostolicae Sedis, and by default has the force of law three months after promulgation. Laws issued by bishops and particular councils are promulgated in various ways but by default take effect one month after promulgation.
According to Canon 7 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, ("A law is instituted when it is promulgated"). This is an ancient provision in Latin-rite canon law, dating in its plural form to the Latin formulation of the great twelfth-century codifier of canon law, Gratian: ("Laws are instituted when they are promulgated").
France
The President of France promulgates law (he may ask Parliament to reconsider the law, but only once).
Germany
The President of Germany has the duty to duly promulgate and issue laws, unless the President deems them "evidently unconstitutional". The question to what degree they must be convinced of the constitutional violation to deny promulgation is hotly debated.
Hong Kong
Bills have to be signed and promulgated by the Chief Executive, and be announced by the government in the gazette.
Hungary
Legislative proposals adopted by the National Assembly obtain the force of law only after they are signed by the President of the Republic and published in the official gazette Magyar Közlöny.
India
If at any time the Indian Parliament is not in session, the President of India on the recommendation of the Union Cabinet may promulgate an ordinance, which will have the same effect as an Act of Parliament. However, such ordinance will be presented before the parliament for final approval. They can only be issued when Parliament is not in session. They enable the Indian government to take immediate legislative action. Ordinances cease to operate either if Parliament does not approve of them within six weeks of reassembly, or if disapproving resolutions are passed by both Houses. It is also compulsory for a session of Parliament to be held within six months.
Ireland, Republic of
All laws passed by the Oireachtas are promulgated by a notice in the Iris Oifigiúil published by the President of Ireland, as required by the Constitution of Ireland.
Isle of Man
By ancient custom an Act of Tynwald, the legislature of the island, did not come into force until it had been "promulgated" at an open-air sitting of Tynwald, usually held on Tynwald Hill at St John's on St John's Day (24 June) but since the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in 1753 on 5 July (or on the following Monday if 5 July is a Saturday or Sunday). Promulgation originally consisted of the reading of the Act in English and Manx, but after 1865 the reading of the title of the Act and a summary of each section were sufficient. This was reduced in 1895 to the titles and a memorandum of the object and purport of the Act, and since 1988 only the short title and a summary of the long title have been read. An emergency procedure enabling an Act to come into force on royal assent being announced at an ordinary sitting of Tynwald, subject to its being promulgated within 12 months, was introduced in 1916; since 1976 this has been the 'default' procedure, and since 1988 an Act ceases to have effect unless promulgated within 18 months after royal assent is announced in Tynwald.
Italy
The President of the Republic promulgates law. The President remands a law to the Chambers of Parliament, with an explanation, and asks for reconsideration—but must promulgate the law if it is re-approved without modification.
Japan
The Emperor of Japan promulgates laws passed by the Diet. The Emperor cannot refuse to promulgate a law.
Kenya
Promulgation is performed by the President.
Luxembourg
Article 34 of the constitution of Luxembourg requires the grand duke or duchess to promulgate a new law for it to take effect.
Macau
Bills have to approved by the Legislative Assembly, signed and promulgated by the Chief Executive. They must be published in the Official Gazette Boletim Oficial.
Malta
When a bill is approved by the House of Representatives of Malta, it is presented to the President of Malta for his assent. According to constitutional obligation he shall without delay signify that he assents and hence promulgate the said Bill into a Parliamentary Act. The Parliamentary Act is then published in the Malta Government Gazette, and thus comes into force.
Mexico
A law is approved by Congress, signed by the President, and published in the Official Diary of the Federation (), or DOF. Each law in its Transitional Articles (Transitorios) states when the Law takes effect (entra en vigor) and, when applicable, what law it cancels and replaces. Regulations are prepared by the Executive branch in order to establish the administration of the Law. They are signed by the President and published in the DOF.
Poland
Laws have to be promulgated by the President of the Republic in the Dziennik Ustaw journal. The President may refer to the Constitutional Tribunal; if he has not made reference, he may refer the bill to the Sejm (veto) for further reconsideration. The bill shall then be promulgated.
Portugal
The laws (statutes issued by the Parliament) and the decree-laws (statutes issued by the Government) have to be promulgated by the President of Portugal to take effect. The promulgation is the act by which the President solemnly testifies the existence of a rule of law and intimates its observation. The President may however decide not to promulgate the bill and to veto it with a political or legal justification. After the promulgation, the statutes are published in the Diário da República (official journal), with the laws needing a Government referenda before.
Romania
Bills have to be promulgated by the President and afterwards published in the official gazette, Monitorul Oficial.
Spain
Article 91 of the Spanish Constitution establishes that bills, upon being passed by the Cortes Generales, must be sanctioned (i.e., given royal assent) by the King of Spain within two weeks of their passing. The King will then promulgate and immediately publish them in the official gazette, the Boletín Oficial del Estado.
Sweden
Laws and secondary legislation are promulgated by the Government of Sweden and are published in the Swedish Code of Statutes ().
Turkey
Bills are promulgated by the President of the Republic and published in the official gazette, Resmi Gazete.
United Kingdom
Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom are promulgated when given royal assent by the Queen. The sovereign may appear personally in the House of Lords or may appoint Lords Commissioners, who announce that royal assent has been granted at a ceremony held at the Palace of Westminster for this purpose. However, royal assent is usually granted less ceremonially by letters patent.
United States
Acts of Congress are given the force of law, in one of the following ways: signed by the President of the United States; neither signed nor vetoed by the President within ten days from reception (excluding Sundays) while the Congress is in session; or, when both the Senate and the House of Representatives vote, by a two-thirds majority in each chamber, to override a presidential veto during its session. In United States administrative law, a federal regulation may be said to be formally promulgated when it appears in the Federal Register and after the public-comment period concludes.
Amendments to the United States Constitution attain force of law "when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress". When the requisite number of state ratifications has been reached (currently 38), it is the duty of the Archivist of the United States to issue a certificate proclaiming a particular amendment duly ratified and part of the Constitution.
References
Statutory law
Administrative law
|
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208648
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin%20Islands%20March
|
Virgin Islands March
|
The "Virgin Islands March" is the regional anthem of the United States Virgin Islands.
History
The song was composed by Sam Williams and U.S. Virgin Island native Alton Adams in the 1920s. It served as an unofficial regional anthem of the U.S. Virgin Islands until 1963, when it was officially recognized by Legislative Act. The song itself is a brisk martial march, consisting of an introductory instrumental section followed by a very cheerful melody. On most occasions the first verse followed by the last verse are sung.
Since the U.S. Virgin Islands is a U.S. insular territory, the national anthem is still the U.S. one, "The Star-Spangled Banner". During international sporting events, the "Virgin Islands March" is only played.
Reception
The Guardian reporter Alex Marshall compared it favorably to some national anthems, suggesting that it was reminiscent of the music of the Disney film Mary Poppins.
Lyrics
All hail the Virgin Islands.
Em'ralds of the sea,
Where beaches bright with coral sand
And trade winds bless our native land.
All hail the Virgin Islands,
Bathe in waters blue,
We give our loyalty,
Full to thee,
And pledge allegiance forever true.
To thee our Virgin Islands,
Loving voices raise
A song in praise of brotherhood,
Where right makes might to fight for good.
To thee our Virgin Islands,
Haven of the free,
We sing our love to thee,
Joyously,
Our own fair islands of liberty.
March on oh Virgin Islands,
In the joyful throng,
Uphold the right and right the wrong
Where only peace and love belong.
March on oh Virgin Islands,
Democratic land.
Together hand in hand,
Take your stand,
Forever soldiers in freedom's band.
God bless our Virgin Islands,
Humbly now we pray,
Where all mankind can join today
In friendly warmth of work and play.
God bless our Virgin Islands,
Beautiful and tall.
Beneath a sunny sky,
Hilltops high
Hold out a welcome for one and all.
References
External links
MIDI version
North American anthems
Anthems of insular areas of the United States
United States Virgin Islands culture
1920s songs
National anthems
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-bar%20theory
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X-bar theory
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In linguistics, X-bar theory is a theory of syntactic category formation that was first proposed by Chomsky (1970) and further developed by Jackendoff (1977), along the lines of the theory of generative grammar put forth in the 1950s by Noam Chomsky. It attempts to capture the structure of phrasal categories with a single uniform structure called the X-bar schema, basing itself on the assumption that any phrase in natural language is an XP (X phrase) that is headed by a given syntactic category X. It played a significant role in resolving issues that phrase structure rules had, representative of which is the proliferation of grammatical rules, which is against the thesis of generative grammar.
X-bar theory was incorporated into both transformational and nontransformational theories of syntax, including Government and binding theory (GB), Generalized phrase structure grammar (GPSG), Lexical-functional grammar (LFG), and Head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG). Although recent work in the Minimalist Program has largely abandoned X-bar schemata in favor of bare phrase structure approaches, the theory's central assumptions are still valid in different forms and terms in many theories of minimalist syntax.
Background
The X-bar theory was developed to resolve the issues that phrase structure rules (PSR) under the Standard Theory had.
The PSR approach has the following four main issues.
It assumes exocentric structures such as "S → NP Aux VP". This is against the fact that phrases have heads in all circumstances.
While the sentence John talked to the man, for example, involves the PSR of a verb phrase "VP → V (PP)", John talked to the man in person involves the PSR of "VP → V (PP) (PP)". This indicates that it is necessary to posit new PSRs every time when we find an undefined structure in E-language, which amounts to adding an indiscriminate number of grammatical rules to Universal Grammar. This poses serious issues from the perspectives of the Plato's problem and the poverty of the stimulus.
It wrongly rules in structures that are impossible in natural language such as "VP → NP A PP", because as in 1 and 2, the PSR countenances phrases that do not have endocentric structures.
It fails to capture sentence ambiguities because it assumes flat, nonhierarchical structures.
The X-bar theory is a theory that attempts to resolve these issues by assuming the mold or template phrasal structure of "XP".
X-bar Schema
Basic Principles
The "X" in the X-bar theory is equivalent to a variable in mathematics: It can be substituted by syntactic categories such as N, V, A, and P. Notice that these categories are lexemes and not phrases: The "X-bar" is a grammatical unit larger than X, thus than a lexeme, and the X-double-bar (=XP) outsizes the X(-single)-bar. X-double-bar categories are equal to phrasal categories such as NP, VP, AP, and PP.
The X-bar theory assumes that all phrasal categories have the structure in Figure 1. This structure is called the X-bar schema.
As in Figure 1, the phrasal category XP is notated by an X with a double overbar. For typewriting reasons, the bar symbol is often substituted by the prime ('), as in X'. The remainder of this article will also follow this notational convention.
The X-bar theory embodies two central principles.
Headedness Principle: Every phrase has a head.
Binarity Principle: Every node branches into two different nodes.
The headedness principle resolves the issues 1 and 3 above simultaneously. The binarity principle is important to projection and ambiguity, which will be explained below.
The X-bar schema consists of a head and its circumstantial components, in accordance with the headedness principle. The relevant components are as follows:
Specifier: [obligatory] The node that is in a sister relation with an X' node. This is a term that refers to the syntactic position itself, and there is no semantic definition for it.
Head: [obligatory] The core of a phrase, into which a lexeme fits. The head determines the form and characteristics of the phrase as a whole.
Complement: [obligatory] An argument required by the head.
Adjunct: [optional] A modifier for the phrase constituted by the head.
The specifier, head, and complement are obligatory; hence, a phrasal category XP must contain one specifier, one head, and one complement. On the other hand, the adjunct is optional; hence, a phrasal category contains zero or more adjuncts. Accordingly, when a phrasal category XP does not have an adjunct, it forms the structure in Figure 2.
For concrete illustration, let us consider the sentence John studies linguistics. The NP linguistics in it has the structure in Figure 3.
It is important that even if there are no candidates that can fit into the specifier and complement positions, those positions are syntactically present, and thus they are merely empty and unoccupied. (Notice that this is a natural consequence of the binarity principle.) This means that all phrasal categories have fundamentally uniform structures under the X-bar schema, which makes it unnecessary to assume that different phrases have different structures, unlike when we adopt the PSR. (Notice that this resolves the second issue above.) Note, however, that such empty positions are frequently representationally omitted, as illustrated in Figure 4.
In illustrating syntactic structures this way, attention needs to be paid to the fact that at least one X'-level node is present in any circumstance because the complement is obligatory.
Next, the X'' and X' inherit the characteristics of the head X. We call this trait inheritance projection.
Figure 5 suggests that syntactic structures are derived in a bottom-up fashion under the X-bar theory. More specifically, the structures are derived via the following processes.
A lexeme is fitted into the head. Note that heads are sometimes called zero-level projections because they are X-zero-bar-level categories, notated as X0.
The head and the complement are combined to form an X-single-bar (X, X') node, which constitutes a semi-phrasal category (a syntactic category not as big as a phrase). This category is called intermediate projection.
(An adjunct, if there is any, combines with an X' to form another X'. If there is more than one adjunct, this process is repeated.)
An intermediate projection combines with the specifier, forming a complete phrasal category XP (X-double-bar). This category is called maximal projection.
It is important that all the processes except for the third are obligatory. This means that one phrasal category necessarily includes X0, X, and XP (=X''). Moreover, nodes bigger than X0 (thus, X and XP nodes) are called constituents.
Directionality of Branching
Figures 1-5 are based on the word order of English, but the X-bar schema does not specify the directionality of branching because the binarity principle does not have a rule on it. To illustrate this, let us consider the sentence John read a long book of linguistics with a red cover, which involves two adjuncts. It may have either of the structures in Figure 6 or Figure 7. (We follow the convention of omitting the inner structures of certain phrasal categories with triangles.)
We obtain the structure in Figure 6 if we mean The book of linguistics with a red cover is long, and the one in Figure 7 if we mean The long book of linguistics is with a red cover (see also #Hierarchical Structure). What is important is the directionality of the nodes N'2 and N'3: One is left-branching, while the other is right-branching. Accordingly, the X-bar theory, more specifically the binarity principle, does not impose a restriction on how a node branches.
When it comes to the head and the complement, their relative order is determined based on the principles-and-parameters approach, more specifically by the head parameter (not by the X-bar schema itself). A principle is a shared, invariable rule of grammar across languages, whereas a parameter is a typologically variable aspect of the grammars. One can either set his or her parameter with the values of "+" or "-": In the case of the head parameter, for example, one configures the parameter of [±head first], depending on what language he or she primarily speaks. If this parameter is configured to be [+head first], we obtain head-initial languages such as English, and if it is configured to be [-head first], we obtain head-final languages such as Japanese. To illustrate, the English sentence John ate an apple and its corresponding Japanese sentence John-ga ringo-o tabe-ta (ジョンがリンゴを食べた; John-NOM apple-ACC eat-PAST) have the structures in Figure 8 and Figure 9, respectively.
Note finally that the directionality of the specifier node is in essence underspecified as well. However, this matter is subject to debate: Some argue that the relevant node is necessarily left-branching across languages, the idea of which is (partially) motivated by the fact that both English and Japanese have subjects on the left of a VP, whereas some, for example Saito and Fukui (1998), argue that the directionality of the node is not fixed and needs to be externally determined, for example by the head parameter.
Structure of Sentence
Structure of S
Under the PSR, the structure of S(entence) is illustrated as follows.
S → NP (Aux) VP
However, this structure violates the headedness principle because it has an exocentric, headless structure, and also violates the binarity principle if an Aux(iliary) occurs, because the S node will then be ternary-branching. Given these, Chomsky (1981) proposed that S is an InflP headed by the functional category Infl(ection), and later in Chomsky (1986a), this category was relabelled as I (hence constitutes an IP), following the notational convention that phrasal categories are represented in the form of XP, with two letters. The category I includes auxiliary verbs such as will and can, clitics such as -s of the third person singular present and -ed of the past tense. This is consistent with the headedness principle, which requires that a phrase have a head, because a sentence (or a clause) necessarily involves an element that determines the inflection of a verb.
Assuming that S constitutes an IP, the structure of the sentence John studies linguistics at the university, for example, can be illustrated as in Figure 10.
As is obvious, the IP hypothesis makes it possible to regard the grammatical unit of sentence as a phrasal category. It is also important that the configuration in Figure 10 is fully compatible with the central assumptions of the X-bar theory, namely the headedness principle and the binarity principle.
Structure of S'
Words that introduce subordinate or complement clauses are called complementizers, and representative of them are that, if, and for. Under the PSR, complement clauses were assumed to constitute the category S'.
S' → COMP S
Chomsky (1986a) proposed that this category is in fact CP headed by the functional category C. The sentence I think that John is honest, for example, then has the following structure.
Moreover, Chomsky (1986a) assumes that the landing site of wh-movement is the specifier position of CP (Spec-CP). Accordingly, the wh-question What did John eat?, for example, is derived as in Figure 12.
In this derivation, the I-to-C movement is an instance of subject-auxiliary inversion (SAI), or more generally, head movement.
Other Phrasal Structures
VP-Internal Subject Hypothesis: A hypothesis on the inner structure of VP proposed by researchers such as Fukui and Speas (1986) and Kitagawa (1986). It assumes that the sentential subject is base-generated in Spec-VP, not in Spec-IP.
DP Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Abney (1987), according to which noun phrases are not NPs but DPs headed by the functional category D.
VP shell: An analysis put forth by Larson (1988), which assumes two-layered structures of VP. Later in Chomsky (1995), the higher VP was replaced by vP headed by the functional category v (little/small v, traditionally written in italics).
PredP Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Bowers (1993, 2001), according to which small clauses are PredPs headed by the functional category Pred.
Bare Phrase Structure (BPS): A theory put forth by Chomsky (1995) as a replacement of the X-bar theory. It dispenses with a "template" structure like the X-bar schema, and yields syntactic structures by (iterative applications of) an operation called Merge, which serves to connect two syntactic objects such as words and phrases into one. Some radical versions of it even reject syntactic category labels such as V and A. See also Minimalist Program.
Hierarchical Structure
The PSR has the shortcoming of being incapable of capturing sentence ambiguities.
I saw a man with binoculars.
This sentence is ambiguous between the reading "I saw a man, using binoculars", in which with binoculars modifies the VP, and the reading "I saw a man who had binoculars", in which the PP modifies the NP. Under the PSR model, we would obtain the following two parsing rules.
S → NP VP
VP → V NP PP
The sentence's structure under these PSRs would be as in Figure 13.
It is obvious that this structure fails to capture the NP modification reading because [PP with binoculars] modifies the VP no matter what. The X-bar theory, however, successfully captures the ambiguity as demonstrated in the configurations in Figure 14 and 15, because it assumes hierarchical structures in accordance with the binarity principle.
Thus, the X-bar theory resolves the fourth issue mentioned in #Background as well. Note that there is always a unilateral relation from syntax to semantics (never from semantics to syntax) in any version of generative grammar because syntactic computation starts from the lexicon, then continues into the syntax, then into Logical Form (LF) at which meanings are computed. This is so under any of Standard Theory (Chomsky 1965), Extended Standard Theory (Chomsky 1972), and Revised Extended Standard Theory (Chomsky 1981).
Footnotes
References
Related Topics
Linguistics
Natural language
Syntax
Constituent (linguistics)
Parse tree
Head (linguistics)
Complement (linguistics)
Phrase
Syntactic category
Lexical category
Functional category
Part of speech
Node (linguistics)
Generative grammar
Universal Grammar
Plato's problem
Poverty of the stimulus
Transformational grammar
Phrase structure grammar
Phrase structure rule
Standard Theory
Extended Standard Theory
Revised Extended Standard Theory
Government and binding theory
C-command
Principles-and-parameters approach
Minimalist Program
Linguistics
Generative syntax
Grammar
Syntactic relationships
Syntactic categories
Phrases
Linguistic units
Linguistics terminology
Syntactic theories
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Balanchine
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George Balanchine
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George Balanchine (; born Georgiy Melitonovich Balanchivadze; ; January 22, 1904 (O. S. January 9) – April 30, 1983) was a Georgian-American ballet choreographer who was one of the most influential 20th-century choreographers. Styled as the father of American ballet, he co-founded the New York City Ballet and remained its Artistic Director for more than 35 years. His choreography is characterized by plotless ballets with minimal costume and décor, performed to classical and neoclassical music.
Born in St. Petersburg, Balanchine took the standards and technique from his time at the Imperial Ballet School and fused it with other schools of movement that he had adopted during his tenure on Broadway and in Hollywood, creating his signature "neoclassical style".
He was a choreographer known for his musicality; he expressed music with dance and worked extensively with leading composers of his time like Igor Stravinsky. Balanchine was invited to America in 1933 by a young arts patron named Lincoln Kirstein, and together they founded the School of American Ballet. Along with Kirstein, Balanchine also co-founded the New York City Ballet (NYCB).
Early life
Balanchine was born Georgiy Melitonovich Balanchivadze in Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire, son of Georgian opera singer and composer Meliton Balanchivadze, one of the founders of the Tbilisi Opera and Ballet Theatre and later the culture minister of the short-lived Democratic Republic of Georgia, which became independent in 1918 but was later subsumed into the Soviet Union.
The rest of the Georgian side of Balanchine's family consisted largely of artists and soldiers. Little is known of Balanchine's Russian, maternal side. His mother, Meliton's second wife, Maria Nikolayevna Vasilyeva, is said to be the daughter of Nikolai von Almedingen, a German, who later left Russia and abandoned his family, causing Maria to take her mother's name. She was fond of ballet and viewed it as a form of social advancement from the lower reaches of Saint Petersburg society. She was eleven years younger than Meliton and rumored to have been his former housekeeper, although "she had at least some culture in her background" as she could play piano well. The Balanchine mother also worked at a bank. Although she loved ballet, she wished for her son to join the military. This was a difficult topic to enforce in the family because not only was the mother artistic, George’s father was also very talented at playing the piano. Many believe that because his father was very invested in the arts, that is why his career of being a businessman failed. George Blanachine had three other siblings. One of them being Andrei Balanchivadze, who became a famous composer like his father. Artistry ran in the family as being proven by George and his brother.
Career
Early auditions and training
As a child, Balanchine was not particularly interested in ballet, but his mother insisted that he audition with his sister Tamara, who shared her mother's interest in the art. Balanchine's brother Andria Balanchivadze instead followed his father's love for music and became a composer in Soviet Georgia. Tamara's career, however, would be cut short by her death in unknown circumstances as she was trying to escape on a train from besieged Leningrad to Georgia.
Based on his audition, during 1913 (at age nine), Balanchine relocated from rural Finland to Saint Petersburg and was accepted into the Imperial Ballet School, principal school of the Imperial Ballet, where he was a student of Pavel Gerdt and Samuil Andrianov (Gerdt's son-in-law).
George spent the World War I years at the Mariinsky Theater until it closed down in 1917 due to a government decree. Attending ballet here could have been viewed as a convenience to the Balanchivadze family because this is where his father composed music. This theater was transferred to the People’s Enlightenment Commissariat and became property of the state. The Theater reopened in 1918, then two years later the theater was called the State Academic Theater of Opera and Ballet. He mounted some new and experimental ballets for the Mikhailovsky Theatre in Petrograd. Among them were Le Boeuf sur le toit(1920) by Jean Cocteau and Darius Milhaud and a scene for Caesar and Cleopatra by George Bernard Shaw.
After graduating in 1921, Balanchine enrolled in the Petrograd Conservatory while working in the corps de ballet at the State Academic Theater for Opera and Ballet (formerly the State Theater of Opera and Ballet and known as the Mariinsky Ballet). His studies at the conservatory included advanced piano, music theory, counterpoint, harmony, and composition. Balanchine graduated from the conservatory during 1923, and danced as a member of the corps until 1924. While still in his teens, Balanchine choreographed his first work, a pas de deux named La Nuit (1920, music by Anton Rubinstein). The school of directors did not approve or like this piece. George Balanchine went about his choreography in an experimental way during the evening time. He and his colleagues eventually performed this piece at the State School of Ballet. This was followed by another duet, Enigma, with the dancers in bare feet rather than ballet shoes. During 1923, with fellow dancers, Balanchine formed a small ensemble, the Young Ballet.
Ballets Russes
On a 1924 visit to Germany with the Soviet State Dancers, Balanchine, his wife, Tamara Geva, and dancers Alexandra Danilova and Nicholas Efimov fled to Paris, where there was a large Russian community. At this time, the impresario Sergei Diaghilev invited Balanchine to join the Ballets Russes as a choreographer.
After the manager of the Ballet Russes discovered Balanchine in Paris, France in 1925, he performed ten routines for the manager, Sergei Diaghilev. Balanchine was 21 at the time and became the main choreographer for the most famous ballet company. Sergei Diaghilev insisted that George at this time should change his name from his Russian birth name, Georgiy Melitonovich Balanchivadze, to George Balanchine.
Diaghilev soon promoted Balanchine to ballet master of the company and encouraged his choreography. Between 1924 and Diaghilev's death in 1929, Balanchine created nine ballets, as well as lesser works. During these years, he worked with composers such as Sergei Prokofiev, Igor Stravinsky, Erik Satie, and Maurice Ravel, and artists who designed sets and costumes, such as Pablo Picasso, Georges Rouault, and Henri Matisse, creating new works that combined all the arts.
Among his new works, during 1928 in Paris, Balanchine premiered Apollon musagète (Apollo and the muses) in a collaboration with Stravinsky; it was one of his most innovative ballets, combining classical ballet and classical Greek myth and images with jazz movement. He described it as "the turning point in my life". Apollo is regarded as the original neoclassical ballet. Apollo brought the male dancer to the forefront, giving him two solos within the ballet. Apollo is known for its minimalism, utilizing simple costumes and sets. This allowed the audience not to be distracted from the movement. Balanchine considered music to be the primary influence on choreography, as opposed to the narrative.
Suffering a serious knee injury, Balanchine had to limit his dancing, effectively ending his performance career.
After Diaghilev's death, the Ballets Russes went bankrupt. To earn money, Balanchine began to stage dances for Charles B. Cochran's revues and Sir Oswald Stoll's variety shows in London. He was retained by the Royal Danish Ballet in Copenhagen as a guest ballet master. Among his new works for the company were Danses Concertantes, a pure dance piece to music by Stravinsky, and Night Shadow, revived under the title La Sonnambula, the haunting tale of a poet who falls in love with a mysterious and alluring sleepwalker.
In 1931, with the help from financier Serge Denham, René Blum and Colonel Wassily de Basil formed the Ballets Russes de Monte-Carlo, a successor to Ballets Russes. The new company hired Leonide Massine and Balanchine as choreographers. Featured dancers included David Lichine and Tatiana Riabouchinska. In 1933, without consulting Blum, Col. de Basil dropped Balanchine after one year – ostensibly because he thought that audiences preferred the works choreographed by Massine. Librettist Boris Kochno was also let go, while dancer Tamara Toumanova (a strong admirer of Balanchine's) left the company when Balanchine was fired.
Balanchine and Kochno immediately founded Les Ballets 1933, with Kochno, Diaghilev's former secretary and companion, serving as artistic advisor. The company was financed by Edward James, a British poet and ballet patron. The company lasted only a couple of months during 1933, performing only in Paris and London, when the Great Depression made arts more difficult to fund. Balanchine created several new works, including collaborations with composers Kurt Weill, Darius Milhaud, Henri Sauguet and designer Pavel Tchelitchew.
United States
Balanchine insisted that his first project in the United States would be to establish a ballet school because he wanted to develop dancers who had strong technique along with his particular style. Compared to his classical training, he thought they could not dance well. With the assistance of Lincoln Kirstein and Edward M.M. Warburg, the School of American Ballet opened to students on January 2, 1934, less than three months after Balanchine arrived in the U.S. Later that year, Balanchine had his students perform in a recital, where they premiered his new work Serenade to music by Tchaikovsky at the Warburg summer estate. The school of American Ballet became and is now a home for dancers of New York City Ballet as well as companies from all over the world.
Between his ballet activities in the 1930s and 1940s, Balanchine choreographed Broadway musicals written by such notables as Richard Rodgers, Lorenz Hart and Vernon Duke. Among them, Balanchine choreographed Rodgers and Hart's On Your Toes in 1936, where his program billing specified "Choreography by George Balanchine" as opposed to the usual billing of "Dances staged by." This marked the first time in Broadway history that a dance-maker received choreography billing for a Broadway musical. On Your Toes featured two ballets: La Princesse Zenobia and Slaughter on Tenth Avenue, in which a tap dancer falls in love with a dance-hall girl. Balanchine's choreography in musicals was unique at the time because it furthered the plot of the story.
Relocation to West Coast
Balanchine relocated his company to Hollywood during 1938, where he rented a white two-story house with "Kolya", Nicholas Kopeikine, his "rehearsal pianist and lifelong colleague", on North Fairfax Avenue not far from Hollywood Boulevard. Balanchine created dances for five movies, all of which featured Vera Zorina, whom he met on the set of The Goldwyn Follies and who subsequently became his second wife. He reconvened the company as the American Ballet Caravan and toured with it throughout North and South America, but it folded after several years. From 1944 to 1946, during and after World War II, Balanchine served as resident choreographer for Blum & Massine's new iteration of Ballet Russe de Monte-Carlo.
Return to New York
Soon Balanchine formed a new dance company, Ballet Society, again with the generous help of Lincoln Kirstein. He continued to work with contemporary composers such as Paul Hindemith, from whom he commissioned a score in 1940 for The Four Temperaments. First performed on November 20, 1946, this modernist work was one of his early abstract and spare ballets, angular and very different in movement. After several successful performances, the most notable featuring the ballet Orpheus created in collaboration with Stravinsky and sculptor and designer Isamu Noguchi, the City of New York offered the company residency at the New York City Center.
In 1954, Balanchine created his version of The Nutcracker, in which he played the mime role of Drosselmeyer. The company has since performed the ballet every year in New York City during the Christmas season. His other famous ballets created for New York companies include Firebird, Allegro Brilliante, Agon, The Seven Deadly Sins, and Episodes.
In 1967, Balanchine's ballet Jewels displayed specific characteristics of Balanchine's choreography. The corps de ballet dancers execute rapid footwork and precise movements. The choreography is difficult to execute and all dancers must do their jobs in order to hold the integrity of the piece. Balanchine's use of musicality can also be seen in this work. His other famous works with New York City Ballet are popular today and are performed in the Lincoln Center by New York City Ballet: Mozartiana, Apollo, Orpheus, and A Midsummer Night's Dream.
Death
In his last years, Balanchine suffered from angina pectoris and underwent heart bypass surgery.
After years of illness, Balanchine died on April 30, 1983, aged 79, in Manhattan from Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, which was diagnosed only after his death. He first showed symptoms during 1978 when he began losing his balance while dancing. As the disease progressed, his equilibrium, eyesight, and hearing deteriorated. By 1982, he was incapacitated. The night of his death, the company went on with its scheduled performance, which included Divertimento No. 15 and Symphony in C at Lincoln Center.
Clement Crisp, one of the many writers who eulogized Balanchine, assessed his contribution: "It is hard to think of the ballet world without the colossal presence of George Balanchine ..." In his lifetime he created 465 works. Balanchine extended the traditions of classical ballet. His choreography remains the same to the present day and the School of American Ballet still uses his teaching technique. As one of the 20th century's best-known choreographers, his style and vision of ballet is interesting to many generations of choreographers.
He had a Russian Orthodox funeral, and was interred at the Oakland Cemetery at Sag Harbor, Suffolk County, New York at the same cemetery where Alexandra Danilova was later interred.
Personal life
In 1923, Balanchine married Tamara Geva, a sixteen-year-old dancer. After later parting ways with Geva, he became romantically involved with the ballerina Alexandra Danilova, from approximately 1924 to 1931. As The New York Times described their relationship in its obituary for Danilova: "She and Balanchine left the Soviet Union in 1924... Until 1931, she and Balanchine lived together as husband and wife, although they were never married. Balanchine was still officially married to another dancer, Tamara Geva, and he told Miss Danilova that because his marriage papers had been left behind in Russia, he feared it might be difficult to arrange a legal separation." He married and divorced three more times, all to women who were his dancers: Vera Zorina (1938–1946), Maria Tallchief (1946–1952), and Tanaquil LeClercq (1952–1969). He had no children by any of his marriages and no known offspring from any of his extramarital liaisons.
Biographer and intellectual historian Clive James has argued that Balanchine, despite his creative genius and brilliance as a ballet choreographer, had his darker side. In his Cultural Amnesia: Necessary Memories from History and the Arts (2007), James writes that:
Legacy and honors
With his School of American Ballet, New York City Ballet, and 400 choreographed works, Balanchine transformed American dance and created neoclassical ballet, developing a unique style with his dancers highlighted by brilliant speed and attack.
A monument at the Tbilisi Opera and Ballet Theatre in Georgia was dedicated in Balanchine's memory. A crater on Mercury was named in his honor.
George Balanchine Way is a segment of West 63rd Street (located between Columbus Avenue and Broadway) in New York City that was renamed in his honor in June 1990.
Awards
1975 French Légion d'honneur
1978 Kennedy Center Honors
1980 Austrian Decoration for Science and Art
1983 Presidential Medal of Freedom
1987 National Museum of Dance's Mr. & Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney Hall of Fame (posthumously)
1988 Induction into the American Theater Hall of Fame
Kisselgoff, Anna. "Balanchine 100: The Centennial Celebration"
Selected choreographed works
1928 Apollo
1929 The Prodigal Son
1935 Serenade
1936 Slaughter on Tenth Avenue
1936 Zenobia
1937 Jeu de cartes
1941 Concerto Barocco
1941 Tschaikovsky Piano Concerto No. 2
1942 Circus Polka
1946 La Sonnambula
1946 The Four Temperaments
1947 Symphonie Concertante
1947 Symphony in C
1947 Theme and Variations
1948 Orpheus
1949 Bourrée fantasque
1949 The Firebird
1951 La Valse
1951 Swan Lake (Act 2)
1952 Bayou
1952 Scotch Symphony
1954 Ivesiana
1954 Western Symphony
1956 Allegro Brillante
1956 Divertimento No. 15
1957 Agon
1957 Square Dance
1958 Gounod Symphony
1958 Stars and Stripes
1959 Episodes
1960 Donizetti Variations
1960 Liebeslieder Walzer
1960 Monumentum pro Gesualdo
1960 Ragtime (I)
1960 Tschaikovsky Pas de Deux
1961 Raymonda Variations
1962 A Midsummer Night's Dream
1963 Bugaku
1964 Tarantella
1965 Don Quixote
1965 Harlequinade
1966 Brahms–Schoenberg Quartet
1966 Variations
1967 Divertimento Brillante
1967 Jewels
Emeralds
Rubies
Diamonds
1967 Ragtime (II)
1968 Metastaseis and Pithoprakta
1968 Requiem Canticles
1968 La Source
1968 Slaughter on Tenth Avenue
1970 Tschaikovsky Suite No. 3
1970 Who Cares?
1972 Duo Concertant
1972 Pulcinella
1972 Scherzo à la Russe
1972 Stravinsky Violin Concerto
1972 Symphony in Three Movements
1973 Cortège Hongrois
1975 Le tombeau de Couperin
1975 The Steadfast Tin Soldier
1976 Chaconne
1976 Union Jack
1977 Vienna Waltzes
1978 Ballo della Regina
1978 Kammermusik No. 2
1979 Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme
1980 Robert Schumann’s Davidsbündlertänze
1980 Walpurgisnacht Ballet
1981 Garland Dance
1981 Mozartiana
1982 Élégie
1982 Noah and the Flood
Notable students
Over the decades Balanchine shared his artistic insights with several of his students including:
Francisco Moncion
Nicholas Magallanes
See also
Balanchine method
Contemporary ballet
List of Russian ballet dancers
List of Eastern Bloc defectors
:Category: Ballets by George Balanchine
References
Further reading
External links
Biography on the website of the George Balanchine Foundation
George Balanchine Catalog, including premiere date, cast, collaborators, and synopsis for all choreographic works
Timeline of Balanchine's life on the website of the George Balanchine Trust
A discussion about the Balanchine Technique with Balanchine dancer Suzanne Farrell at a July 08, 2006 PillowTalk at Jacob's Pillow Dance Festival
Firebird performed by Maria Tallchief and Michael Maule, Jacob's Pillow, 1951
Suzanne Farrell on Balanchine: More than Technique Jacob's Pillow, 2006
Archival footage of Nora Kaye and Hugh Laing performing in Balanchine's The Gods Go a-Begging in 1951 at Jacob’s Pillow Dance Festival.
George Balanchine: Master of the Dance American Masters, PBS, January 14, 2004
Guide to George Balanchine archive at Houghton Library, Harvard University
Articles
Anna Kisselgoff, The New York Times, June 30, 2003
"Keeper of the Jewels", Robert Gottlieb, The New York Review of Books, volume 55, number 15, October 9, 2008
obituary, Anna Kisselgoff, Sunday New York Times, May 1, 1983
1904 births
1983 deaths
American people of Georgian (country) descent
American people of Russian descent
American choreographers
Ballet choreographers
Male ballet dancers from Georgia (country)
Ballet masters
Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo choreographers
Ballet teachers
Ballets Russes choreographers
Choreographers of American Ballet Theatre
Choreographers of New York City Ballet
Deaths from Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
Neurological disease deaths in New York (state)
Infectious disease deaths in New York (state)
Kennedy Center honorees
New York City Ballet
People from Saint Petersburg
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Recipients of the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art
Russian male ballet dancers
Russian choreographers
Soviet defectors
White Russian emigrants to France
White Russian emigrants to the United States
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to France
Vaganova graduates
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-standard%20cosmology
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Non-standard cosmology
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A non-standard cosmology is any physical cosmological model of the universe that was, or still is, proposed as an alternative to the then-current standard model of cosmology. The term non-standard is applied to any theory that does not conform to the scientific consensus. Because the term depends on the prevailing consensus, the meaning of the term changes over time. For example, hot dark matter would not have been considered non-standard in 1990, but would be in 2010. Conversely, a non-zero cosmological constant resulting in an accelerating universe would have been considered non-standard in 1990, but is part of the standard cosmology in 2010.
Several major cosmological disputes have occurred throughout the history of cosmology. One of the earliest was the Copernican Revolution, which established the heliocentric model of the Solar System. More recent was the Great Debate of 1920, in the aftermath of which the Milky Way's status as but one of the Universe's many galaxies was established. From the 1940s to the 1960s, the astrophysical community was equally divided between supporters of the Big Bang theory and supporters of a rival steady state universe; this was eventually decided in favour of the Big Bang theory by advances in observational cosmology in the late 1960s. Nevertheless, there remained vocal detractors of the Big Bang theory including Fred Hoyle, Jayant Narlikar, Halton Arp, and Hannes Alfvén, whose cosmologies were relegated to the fringes of astronomical research. The few Big Bang opponents still active today often ignore well-established evidence from newer research, and as a consequence, today non-standard cosmologies that reject the Big Bang entirely are rarely published in peer-reviewed science journals but appear online in marginal journals and private websites.
The current standard model of cosmology is the Lambda-CDM model, wherein the Universe is governed by General Relativity, began with a Big Bang and today is a nearly-flat universe that consists of approximately 5% baryons, 27% cold dark matter, and 68% dark energy. Lambda-CDM has been an extremely successful model, but retains some weaknesses (such as the dwarf galaxy problem). Research on extensions or modifications to Lambda-CDM, as well as fundamentally different models, is ongoing. Topics investigated include quintessence, Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) and its relativistic generalization TeVeS, and warm dark matter.
History
Modern physical cosmology as it is currently studied first emerged as a scientific discipline in the period after the Shapley–Curtis debate and discoveries by Edwin Hubble of a cosmic distance ladder when astronomers and physicists had to come to terms with a universe that was of a much larger scale than the previously assumed galactic size. Theorists who successfully developed cosmologies applicable to the larger-scale universe are remembered today as the founders of modern cosmology. Among these scientists are Arthur Milne, Willem de Sitter, Alexander Friedman, Georges Lemaître, and Albert Einstein himself.
After confirmation of the Hubble's law by observation, the two most popular cosmological theories became the Steady State theory of Hoyle, Gold and Bondi, and the big bang theory of Ralph Alpher, George Gamow, and Robert Dicke with a small number of supporters of a smattering of alternatives. One of the major successes of the Big Bang theory compared to its competitor was its prediction for the abundance of light elements in the universe that corresponds with the observed abundances of light elements. Alternative theories do not have a means to explain these abundances.
Theories which assert that the universe has an infinite age with no beginning have trouble accounting for the abundance of deuterium in the cosmos, because deuterium easily undergoes nuclear fusion in stars and there are no known astrophysical processes other than the Big Bang itself that can produce it in large quantities. Hence the fact that deuterium is not an extremely rare component of the universe suggests both that the universe has a finite age and that there was a process that created deuterium in the past that no longer occurs.
Theories which assert that the universe has a finite life, but that the Big Bang did not happen, have problems with the abundance of helium-4. The observed amount of 4He is far larger than the amount that should have been created via stars or any other known process. By contrast, the abundance of 4He in Big Bang models is very insensitive to assumptions about baryon density, changing only a few percent as the baryon density changes by several orders of magnitude. The observed value of 4He is within the range calculated.
Still, it was not until the discovery of the Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in 1965, that most cosmologists finally concluded that observations were best explained by the big bang model. Steady State theorists and other non-standard cosmologies were then tasked with providing an explanation for the phenomenon if they were to remain plausible. This led to original approaches including integrated starlight and cosmic iron whiskers, which were meant to provide a source for a pervasive, all-sky microwave background that was not due to an early universe phase transition.
Scepticism about the non-standard cosmologies' ability to explain the CMB caused interest in the subject to wane since then, however, there have been two periods in which interest in non-standard cosmology has increased due to observational data which posed difficulties for the big bang. The first occurred was the late 1970s when there were a number of unsolved problems, such as the horizon problem, the flatness problem, and the lack of magnetic monopoles, which challenged the big bang model. These issues were eventually resolved by cosmic inflation in the 1980s. This idea subsequently became part of the understanding of the big bang, although alternatives have been proposed from time to time. The second occurred in the mid-1990s when observations of the ages of globular clusters and the primordial helium abundance, apparently disagreed with the big bang. However, by the late 1990s, most astronomers had concluded that these observations did not challenge the big bang and additional data from COBE and the WMAP, provided detailed quantitative measures which were consistent with standard cosmology.
Today, heterodox non-standard cosmologies are generally considered unworthy of consideration by cosmologists while many of the historically significant nonstandard cosmologies are considered to have been falsified. The essentials of the big bang theory have been confirmed by a wide range of complementary and detailed observations, and no non-standard cosmologies have reproduced the range of successes of the big bang model. Speculations about alternatives are not normally part of research or pedagogical discussions, except as object lessons or for their historical importance. An open letter started by some remaining advocates of non-standard cosmology has affirmed that: "today, virtually all financial and experimental resources in cosmology are devoted to big bang studies...."
In the 1990s, a dawning of a "golden age of cosmology" was accompanied by a startling discovery that the expansion of the universe was, in fact, accelerating. Previous to this, it had been assumed that matter either in its visible or invisible dark matter form was the dominant energy density in the universe. This "classical" big bang cosmology was overthrown when it was discovered that nearly 70% of the energy in the universe was attributable to the cosmological constant, often referred to as "dark energy". This has led to the development of a so-called concordance ΛCDM model which combines detailed data obtained with new telescopes and techniques in observational astrophysics with an expanding, density-changing universe. Today, it is more common to find in the scientific literature proposals for "non-standard cosmologies" that actually accept the basic tenets of the big bang cosmology, while modifying parts of the concordance model. Such theories include alternative models of dark energy, such as quintessence, phantom energy and some ideas in brane cosmology; alternative models of dark matter, such as modified Newtonian dynamics; alternatives or extensions to inflation such as chaotic inflation and the ekpyrotic model; and proposals to supplement the universe with a first cause, such as the Hartle–Hawking boundary condition, the cyclic model, and the string landscape. There is no consensus about these ideas amongst cosmologists, but they are nonetheless active fields of academic inquiry.
Alternatives to Big Bang cosmologies
Before observational evidence was gathered, theorists developed frameworks based on what they understood to be the most general features of physics and philosophical assumptions about the universe. When Albert Einstein developed his general theory of relativity in 1915, this was used as a mathematical starting point for most cosmological theories. In order to arrive at a cosmological model, however, theoreticians needed to make assumptions about the nature of the largest scales of the universe. The assumptions that the current standard model of cosmology relies upon are:
the universality of physical laws – that the laws of physics don't change from one place and time to another,
the cosmological principle – that the universe is roughly homogeneous and isotropic in space though not necessarily in time, and
the Copernican principle – that we are not observing the universe from a preferred locale.
These assumptions when combined with General Relativity result in a universe that is governed by the Friedmann–Robertson–Walker metric (FRW metric). The FRW metric allows for a universe that is either expanding or contracting (as well as stationary but unstable universes). When Hubble's Law was discovered, most astronomers interpreted the law as a sign the universe is expanding. This implies the universe was smaller in the past, and therefore led to the following conclusions:
the universe emerged from a hot, dense state at a finite time in the past,
because the universe heats up as it contracts and cools as it expands, in the first moments that time existed as we know it, the temperatures were high enough for Big Bang nucleosynthesis to occur, and
a cosmic microwave background pervading the entire universe should exist, which is a record of a phase transition that occurred when the atoms of the universe first formed.
These features were derived by numerous individuals over a period of years; indeed it was not until the middle of the twentieth century that accurate predictions of the last feature and observations confirming its existence were made. Non-standard theories developed either by starting from different assumptions or by contradicting the features predicted by the prevailing standard model of cosmology.
Today, the Big Bang is not seriously challenged.
Steady State theories
The Steady State theory extends the homogeneity assumption of the cosmological principle to reflect a homogeneity in time as well as in space. This "perfect cosmological principle" as it would come to be called asserted that the universe looks the same everywhere (on the large scale), the same as it always has and always will. This is in contrast to Lambda-CDM, in which the universe looked very different in the past and will look very different in the future. Steady State theory was proposed in 1948 by Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, Hermann Bondi and others. In order to maintain the perfect cosmological principle in an expanding universe, steady state cosmology had to posit a "matter-creation field" (the so-called C-field) that would insert matter into the universe in order to maintain a constant density.
The debate between the Big Bang and the Steady State models would happen for 15 years with camps roughly evenly divided until the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation. This radiation is a natural feature of the Big Bang model which demands a "time of last scattering" where photons decouple with baryonic matter. The Steady State model proposed that this radiation could be accounted for by so-called "integrated starlight" which was a background caused in part by Olbers' paradox in an infinite universe. In order to account for the uniformity of the background, steady state proponents posited a fog effect associated with microscopic iron particles that would scatter radio waves in such a manner as to produce an isotropic CMB. The proposed phenomena was whimsically named "cosmic iron whiskers" and served as the thermalization mechanism. The Steady State theory did not have the horizon problem of the Big Bang because it assumed an infinite amount of time was available for thermalizing the background.
As more cosmological data began to be collected, cosmologists began to realize that the Big Bang correctly predicted the abundance of light elements observed in the cosmos. What was a coincidental ratio of hydrogen to deuterium and helium in the steady state model was a feature of the Big Bang model. Additionally, detailed measurements of the CMB since the 1990s with the COBE, WMAP and Planck observations indicated that the spectrum of the background was closer to a blackbody than any other source in nature. The best integrated starlight models could predict was a thermalization to the level of 10% while the COBE satellite measured the deviation at one part in 105. After this dramatic discovery, the majority of cosmologists became convinced that the steady state theory could not explain the observed CMB properties.
Although the original steady state model is now considered to be contrary to observations (particularly the CMB) even by its one-time supporters, modifications of the steady state model have been proposed, including a model that envisions the universe as originating through many little bangs rather than one big bang (the so-called "quasi-steady state cosmology"). It supposes that the universe goes through periodic expansion and contraction phases, with a soft "rebound" in place of the Big Bang. Thus the Hubble Law is explained by the fact that the universe is currently in an expansion phase. Work continues on this model (most notably by Jayant V. Narlikar), although it has not gained widespread mainstream acceptance.
Proposals based on observational skepticism
As the observational cosmology began to develop, certain astronomers began to offer alternative speculations regarding the interpretation of various phenomena that occasionally became parts of non-standard cosmologies.
Tired light
Tired light theories challenge the common interpretation of Hubble's Law as a sign the universe is expanding. It was proposed by Fritz Zwicky in 1929. The basic proposal amounted to light losing energy ("getting tired") due to the distance it traveled rather than any metric expansion or physical recession of sources from observers. A traditional explanation of this effect was to attribute a dynamical friction to photons; the photons' gravitational interactions with stars and other material will progressively reduce their momentum, thus producing a redshift. Other proposals for explaining how photons could lose energy included the scattering of light by intervening material in a process similar to observed interstellar reddening. However, all these processes would also tend to blur images of distant objects, and no such blurring has been detected.
Traditional tired light has been found incompatible with the observed time dilation that is associated with the cosmological redshift. This idea is mostly remembered as a falsified alternative explanation for Hubble's law in most astronomy or cosmology discussions.
Redshift periodicity and intrinsic redshifts
Some astrophysicists were unconvinced that the cosmological redshifts are caused by universal cosmological expansion. Skepticism and alternative explanations began appearing in the scientific literature in the 1960s. In particular, Geoffrey Burbidge, William Tifft and Halton Arp were all observational astrophysicists who proposed that there were inconsistencies in the redshift observations of galaxies and quasars. The first two were famous for suggesting that there were periodicities in the redshift distributions of galaxies and quasars. Subsequent statistical analyses of redshift surveys, however, have not confirmed the existence of these periodicities.
During the quasar controversies of the 1970s, these same astronomers were also of the opinion that quasars exhibited high redshifts not due to their incredible distance but rather due to unexplained intrinsic redshift mechanisms that would cause the periodicities and cast doubt on the Big Bang. Arguments over how distant quasars were took the form of debates surrounding quasar energy production mechanisms, their light curves, and whether quasars exhibited any proper motion. Astronomers who believed quasars were not at cosmological distances argued that the Eddington luminosity set limits on how distant the quasars could be since the energy output required to explain the apparent brightness of cosmologically distant quasars was far too high to be explainable by nuclear fusion alone. This objection was made moot by the improved models of gravity-powered accretion disks which for sufficiently dense material (such as black holes) can be more efficient at energy production than nuclear reactions. The controversy was laid to rest by the 1990s when evidence became available that observed quasars were actually the ultra-luminous cores of distant active galactic nuclei and that the major components of their redshift were in fact due to the Hubble flow.
Throughout his career, Halton Arp maintained that there were anomalies in his observations of quasars and galaxies, and that those anomalies served as a refutation of the Big Bang. In particular, Arp pointed out examples of quasars that were close to the line of sight of (relatively) nearby active, mainly Seyfert galaxies. These objects are now classified under the term active galactic nuclei (AGN). Arp criticized using such term on the ground that it isn't empirical. He claimed that clusters of quasars were in alignment around cores of these galaxies and that quasars, rather than being the cores of distant AGN, were actually much closer and were starlike-objects ejected from the centers of nearby galaxies with high intrinsic redshifts. Arp also contended that they gradually lost their non-cosmological redshift component and eventually evolved into full-fledged galaxies. This stands in stark contradiction to the accepted models of galaxy formation.
The biggest problem with Arp's analysis is that today there are hundreds of thousands of quasars with known redshifts discovered by various sky surveys. The vast majority of these quasars are not correlated in any way with nearby AGN. Indeed, with improved observing techniques, a number of host galaxies have been observed around quasars which indicates that those quasars at least really are at cosmological distances and are not the kind of objects Arp proposes. Arp's analysis, according to most scientists, suffers from being based on small number statistics and hunting for peculiar coincidences and odd associations. Unbiased samples of sources, taken from numerous galaxy surveys of the sky show none of the proposed 'irregularities', nor that any statistically significant correlations exist.
In addition, it is not clear what mechanism would be responsible for intrinsic redshifts or their gradual dissipation over time. It is also unclear how nearby quasars would explain some features in the spectrum of quasars which the standard model easily explains. In the standard cosmology, clouds of neutral hydrogen between the quasar and the earth create Lyman alpha absorption lines having different redshifts up to that of the quasar itself; this feature is called the Lyman-alpha forest. Moreover, in extreme quasars one can observe the absorption of neutral hydrogen which has not yet been reionized in a feature known as the Gunn–Peterson trough. Most cosmologists see this missing theoretical work as sufficient reason to explain the observations as either chance or error.
Halton Arp has proposed an explanation for his observations by a Machian "variable mass hypothesis". The variable-mass theory invokes constant matter creation from active galactic nuclei, which puts it into the class of steady-state theories. With the passing of Halton Arp, this cosmology has been relegated to a dismissed theory.
Plasma cosmology
In 1965, Hannes Alfvén proposed a "plasma cosmology" theory of the universe based in part on scaling observations of space plasma physics and experiments on plasmas in terrestrial laboratories to cosmological scales orders of magnitude greater. Taking matter–antimatter symmetry as a starting point, Alfvén together with Oskar Klein proposed the Alfvén-Klein cosmology model, based on the fact that since most of the local universe was composed of matter and not antimatter there may be large bubbles of matter and antimatter that would globally balance to equality. The difficulties with this model were apparent almost immediately. Matter–antimatter annihilation results in the production of high energy photons which were not observed. While it was possible that the local "matter-dominated" cell was simply larger than the observable universe, this proposition did not lend itself to observational tests.
Like the steady state theory, plasma cosmology includes a Strong Cosmological Principle which assumes that the universe is isotropic in time as well as in space. Matter is explicitly assumed to have always existed, or at least that it formed at a time so far in the past as to be forever beyond humanity's empirical methods of investigation.
While plasma cosmology has never had the support of most astronomers or physicists, a small number of plasma researchers have continued to promote and develop the approach, and publish in the special issues of the IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science. A few papers regarding plasma cosmology were published in other mainstream journals until the 1990s. Additionally, in 1991, Eric J. Lerner, an independent researcher in plasma physics and nuclear fusion, wrote a popular-level book supporting plasma cosmology called The Big Bang Never Happened. At that time there was renewed interest in the subject among the cosmological community along with other non-standard cosmologies. This was due to anomalous results reported in 1987 by Andrew Lange and Paul Richardson of UC Berkeley and Toshio Matsumoto of Nagoya University that indicated the cosmic microwave background might not have a blackbody spectrum. However, the final announcement (in April 1992) of COBE satellite data corrected the earlier contradiction of the Big Bang; the popularity of plasma cosmology has since fallen.
Alternatives and extensions to Lambda-CDM
The standard model of cosmology today, the Lambda-CDM model, has been extremely successful at providing a theoretical framework for structure formation, the anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background, and the accelerating expansion of the universe. However, it is not without its problems. There are many proposals today that challenge various aspects of the Lambda-CDM model. These proposals typically modify some of the main features of Lambda-CDM, but do not reject the Big Bang.
Anisotropic universe
Isotropicity – the idea that the universe looks the same in all directions – is one of the core assumptions that enters into the Friedmann equations. In 2008 however, scientists working on Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe data claimed to have detected a 600–1000 km/s flow of clusters toward a 20-degree patch of sky between the constellations of Centaurus and Vela. They suggested that the motion may be a remnant of the influence of no-longer-visible regions of the universe prior to inflation. The detection is controversial, and other scientists have found that the universe is isotropic to a great degree.
Exotic dark matter
In Lambda-CDM, dark matter is an extremely inert form of matter that does not interact with both ordinary matter (baryons) and light, but still exerts gravitational effects. To produce the large-scale structure we see today, dark matter is "cold" (the 'C' in Lambda-CDM), i.e. non-relativistic. Dark matter has not been conclusively identified, and its exact nature is the subject of intense study. The leading dark matter candidates are weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) and axions. Both of these are new elementary particles not included in the Standard Model of Particle Physics. A major difference between the two is their mass: WIMPs generally have masses in the GeV range, while axions are much lighter, with masses in the meV range or lower.
WIMPs and axions are far from the only dark matter candidates, and there are a variety of other proposals, e.g.:
Self-interacting dark matter, wherein dark matter particles interact with themselves.
Warm dark matter, which are more relativistic than cold dark matter, but less relativistic than the observationally-excluded hot dark matter.
Fuzzy cold dark matter, which have particles much lighter than axions – in the 10−22 eV range.
Yet other theories attempt to explain dark matter and dark energy as different facets of the same underlying fluid (see dark fluid), or hypothesize that dark matter could decay into dark energy.
Exotic dark energy
In Lambda-CDM, dark energy is an unknown form of energy that tends to accelerate the expansion of the universe. It is less well-understood than dark matter, and similarly mysterious. The simplest explanation of dark energy is the cosmological constant (the 'Lambda' in Lambda-CDM). This is a simple constant added to the Einstein field equations to provide a repulsive force. Thus far observations are fully consistent with the cosmological constant, but leave room for a plethora of alternatives, e.g.:
Quintessence, which is a scalar field similar to the one that drove cosmic inflation shortly after the Big Bang. In quintessence, dark energy will usually vary over time (as opposed to the cosmological constant, which remains a constant).
Inhomogeneous cosmology. One of the fundamental assumptions of Lambda-CDM is that the universe is homogeneous – that is, it looks broadly the same regardless of where the observer is. In the inhomogeneous universe scenario, the observed dark energy is a measurement artefact caused by us being located at an emptier-than-average region of space.
Variable dark energy, which is similar to quintessence in that the properties of dark energy vary over time (see figure), but different in that dark energy is not due to a scalar field.
Alternatives to General Relativity
General relativity, upon which the FRW metric is based, is an extremely successful theory which has met every observational test so far. However, at a fundamental level it is incompatible with quantum mechanics, and by predicting singularities, it also predicts its own breakdown. Any alternative theory of gravity would imply immediately an alternative cosmological theory since current modeling is dependent on general relativity as a framework assumption. There are many different motivations to modify general relativity, such as to eliminate the need for dark matter or dark energy, or to avoid such paradoxes as the firewall.
Machian universe
Ernst Mach developed a kind of extension to general relativity which proposed that inertia was due to gravitational effects of the mass distribution of the universe. This led naturally to speculation about the cosmological implications for such a proposal. Carl Brans and Robert Dicke were able to successfully incorporate Mach's principle into general relativity which admitted for cosmological solutions that would imply a variable mass. The homogeneously distributed mass of the universe would result in a roughly scalar field that permeated the universe and would serve as a source for Newton's gravitational constant; creating a theory of quantum gravity.
MOND
Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) is a relatively modern proposal to explain the galaxy rotation problem based on a variation of Newton's Second Law of Dynamics at low accelerations. This would produce a large-scale variation of Newton's universal theory of gravity. A modification of Newton's theory would also imply a modification of general relativistic cosmology in as much as Newtonian cosmology is the limit of Friedman cosmology. While almost all astrophysicists today reject MOND in favor of dark matter, a small number of researchers continue to enhance it, recently incorporating Brans–Dicke theories into treatments that attempt to account for cosmological observations.
Tensor–vector–scalar gravity (TeVeS) is a proposed relativistic theory that is equivalent to Modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) in the non-relativistic limit, which purports to explain the galaxy rotation problem without invoking dark matter. Originated by Jacob Bekenstein in 2004, it incorporates various dynamical and non-dynamical tensor fields, vector fields and scalar fields.
The break-through of TeVeS over MOND is that it can explain the phenomenon of gravitational lensing, a cosmic optical illusion in which matter bends light, which has been confirmed many times. A recent preliminary finding is that it can explain structure formation without CDM, but requiring a ~2eV massive neutrino (they are also required to fit some Clusters of galaxies, including the Bullet Cluster). However, other authors (see Slosar, Melchiorri and Silk) argue that TeVeS can't explain cosmic microwave background anisotropies and structure formation at the same time, i.e. ruling out those models at high significance.
f(R) gravity
f(R) gravity is a family of theories that modify general relativity by defining a different function of the Ricci scalar. The simplest case is just the function being equal to the scalar; this is general relativity. As a consequence of introducing an arbitrary function, there may be freedom to explain the accelerated expansion and structure formation of the Universe without adding unknown forms of dark energy or dark matter. Some functional forms may be inspired by corrections arising from a quantum theory of gravity. f(R) gravity was first proposed in 1970 by Hans Adolph Buchdahl (although φ was used rather than f for the name of the arbitrary function). It has become an active field of research following work by Starobinsky on cosmic inflation. A wide range of phenomena can be produced from this theory by adopting different functions; however, many functional forms can now be ruled out on observational grounds, or because of pathological theoretical problems.
See also
Quantum cosmology
Notes
Bibliography
Arp, Halton, Seeing Red. Apeiron, Montreal. 1998.
Hannes, Alfvén D., Cosmic Plasma. Reidel Pub Co., 1981.
Hoyle, Fred; Geoffrey Burbidge, and Jayant V. Narlikar, A Different Approach to Cosmology: From a Static Universe through the Big Bang towards Reality. Cambridge University Press. 2000.
Lerner, Eric J., Big Bang Never Happened, Vintage Books, 1992.
Narlikar, Jayant Vishnu, Introduction to Cosmology. Jones & Bartlett Pub.
External links and references
Narlikar, Jayant V. and T. Padmanabhan, "Standard Cosmology and Alternatives: A Critical Appraisal". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Vol. 39, pp. 211–248 (2001).
Wright, Edward L. "Cosmological Fads and Fallacies:" Errors in some popular attacks on the Big Bang
Physical cosmology
Fringe physics
Astronomical controversies
Big Bang
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208658
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piaggio%20Aerospace
|
Piaggio Aerospace
|
Piaggio Aerospace, formerly Piaggio Aero Industries, is a multinational aerospace manufacturing company headquartered in Villanova d'Albenga, Italy. The company designs, develops, manufactures and maintains aircraft, aero-engines, aerospace components and aerostructures.
Established in 1884 as Rinaldo Piaggio S.p.A., it shares its ancestry with motor vehicle manufacturer Piaggio and is one of the world's oldest aircraft manufacturers, having produced its first aircraft during 1915. The company's facilities were rebuilt following the Second World War and several original designs, including the P.136 seaplane, the P.149 trainer aircraft, and the P.166 utility transport, were released during the first two decades of the postwar era. During the 1960s, Piaggio began manufacturing jet engines as well. During 1966, the business was separated into the aviation-focused Piaggio Aero and the motor scooter manufacturer Vespa.
During the 1980s, Piaggio developed a new generation business aircraft, the P.180 Avanti. During the late 1990s, Piaggio underwent drastic changes following its bankruptcy. The company was negatively impacted by the Great Recession and the downturn in the business aircraft market. During late 2018, the company entered into receivership after having declared itself insolvent. The firm owns a subsidiary in the United States, Piaggio America, located at West Palm Beach, Florida.
History
The Rinaldo Piaggio S.p.A. company was founded in Genoa, Italy in 1884. Originally, the company was involved in the outfitting of ocean liners and the manufacturing of rolling stock for the developing Italian railway infrastructure around the turn of the century. From the financial gains that it had garnered from these industries, Rinaldo Piaggio was able to construct a large factory based in Final Marina during 1906. In 1915, during the opening years of the First World War, the company produced its first Piaggio-branded aircraft.
The 1920s was a particularly turbulent and influential period in the company's history; Piaggio Aero brought on two new aeronautical engineers, Giovanni Pegna and Giuseppe Gabrielli, who both played a major role in developing Piaggio's aeronautical sector. Penga and Gabrielli worked together to create numerous technical solutions to aviation problems; to support their aerodynamic research, in 1928, Piaggio completed a new wind tunnel. The firm eventually helped to bring forth the design and construction of the world's first helicopter.
During 1938, Senator Rinaldo Piaggio died at 71 years old, thus ending the Rinaldo Piaggio era. That same year, the firm finished construction of the new Piaggio P.108 heavy bomber, its first four-engined aircraft. During the battles and widespread devastation of the Second World War, Piaggio's facilities were reduced to ruins. Rinaldo's sons Enrico, inventor of the Vespa motor scooter, and Armando, played key roles in the postwar rebuilding process.
In 1948, Piaggio launched the Piaggio P.136, a twin-engine seaplane that was operated by the Italian Air Force and various other operators, often in liaison/sea transport capacity. The company also benefited from an increased demand for basic aircraft training; during 1953, the German Air Force ordered 265 Piaggio P.149 trainers. By 1957, Piaggio had also developed the Piaggio P.166, a twin-engine light transport aircraft, which was marketed and produced for military customers and civilian personnel worldwide.
In 1960, Piaggio secured a production license for the Rolls Royce Viper turbojet engine; shortly thereafter, the firm began manufacturing jet engines. Four years later, it built its first jet-powered aircraft, the Piaggio PD.808 business aircraft. The 1960s was a decade of considerable expansion for Piaggio, moving beyond its core business focus. During 1966, the company formally separated into two separate entities, one being the aviation-focused Piaggio Aero and the other becoming Vespa, a specialist company in the production of motor scooters.
During the 1980s, Piaggio developed a new generation business aircraft, the P.180 Avanti; its unconventional appearance was reportedly designed to appeal to Fortune 500 clients. During 1990, the Avanti received type certification from multiple aviation authorities and entered service shortly thereafter.
During the late 1990s, Piaggio's ownership went through multiple drastic changes following the firm's bankruptcy. During November 1998, it was announced that Turkish holding company Tushav had taken control of Piaggio; it was rebranded as Piaggio Aero Industries shortly thereafter. In the years that followed, an increasingly large stake in the company was acquired by a group of entrepreneurs headed by the Di Mase and Ferrari families. During 2000, Tushav decided to surrendered its interest in Piaggio Aero Industries; the entity had once held a controlling 51% stake in the company, but this hold had reduced in favour of new Italian investors buying into Piaggio.
Starting in 2006, Piaggio was developing a new twin-engined jet, commonly referred to as the Piaggio P1XX; however, during August 2010, the company announced that it had decided to postpone the production phase. This did not represent an absolute termination; for years following the project being put on hold, Piaggio publicly speculated on the possible launch of the programme.
During 2006, the Mubadala Development Company acquired a 35% stake in Piaggio Aero Industries S.p.A.; Mubadala is a wholly owned investment vehicle of the Government of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, in the United Arab Emirates. Two years later, the Indian multinational conglomerate Tata Group acquired a one-third stake in Piaggio Aero Industries, becoming one of the primary shareholders alongside Piero Ferrari, the Di Mase family and the Mubadala Development Company. As part of the acquisition, Tata gained the right to appoint three of the nine seats on the board, and one of the three seats on the management committee.
The company was negatively impacted by the Great Recession, the event having caused a downturn in the market for business aircraft; reportedly, deliveries of its P.180 Avanti declined drastically from 30 aircraft during 2008 to only four per year by 2018. Instead of focusing on this declining market, Piaggio decided to orientate itself towards the special missions sector, developing the Piaggio-Selex P.1HH Hammerhead, an unmanned long-endurance intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance derivative of its P.180 Avanti. The platform was also adapted into a maritime patrol aircraft, as well as for additional special purposes, around this same timeframe. In parallel with these programmes, the company continued to make improvements to the base P.180 Avanti, introducing an extended-range model during 2013.
During 2013, Mubadala and Tata injecting an additional €190 million into Piaggio Aero Industries, increasing their combined stakes to 85.5%. During October 2014, Piaggio Aero changed its name to Piaggio Aerospace. During 2015, the Mubadla Development Company acquired 100% of the capital stock, assuming full control of Piaggio, after obtaining the final 1.95% of the stock from Piero Ferrari.
On 3 December 2018, Piaggio Aerospace was admitted into receivership after having declared itself insolvent. The company's restructuring plan had failed less than a year after its owner, Mubadala, had injected €255 million and repurchased its bank debt. During February 2020, it was announced that Piaggio Aerospace had been put up for sale.
Operations
Facilities
Piaggio Aero Industries has production facilities covering 120,000 square meters (1.3 million square feet) in the northwest Italian cities of Genoa Sestri and Finale Ligure, as well as a High Technology Center based in Pozzuoli, near Naples. The final aircraft assembly and flight testing of aircraft is located at main facility in Genoa, which includes the corporate headquarters. Also located here is the Company's new JAR 145 certified service center, which offers full service and support to Piaggio P.180 Avanti customers as well as other aircraft. Piaggio Aero also operates two additional service centers, one at Rome's Ciampino Airport and the other at the Pratica di Mare Air Base. These service centers provide support services to commercial, government and military customers.
Aircraft and engine component manufacturing operations, general engineering, and engine maintenance and overhaul are all undertaken at Finale Ligure. Operations include a maintenance center and two production areas, one for engines and sheet metal parts, another for major aircraft sub-assemblies and aero structures. The High Technology Center is located in the Campania region of Italy, near Naples, focuses on aero structure design and systems research. It includes the Piaggio High Technology (PHT) division, a corporate research facility which focuses on aeronautical technologies. The PHT division is a joint partnership between Piaggio Aero Industries, the Italian Aerospace Research Centre (CIRA), and other European research centers. The goal is to establish the PHT as a Center of Excellence for aeronautic research and development.
During the 2010s, Piaggio Aero constructed a new modern manufacturing facility in Villanova d'Albenga, about 70 kilometers west of Genoa. Designed around the principles of lean manufacturing technologies, this plant enabled increases in production efficiency via an optimised workflow, as well as production capacity.
Piaggio Aero worked on the production of aerostructures on behalf of other companies.
Aero engines
A major portion of Piaggio's work has been in the aero engines sector; the company has claimed to be the only aircraft manufacturer that also builds and maintains aero engines. It has been involved in component manufacture, as well as maintenance, repair and overhaul operations on jet, turboshaft and turboprop engines, from various international major manufacturers, including Rolls-Royce and Honeywell. Piaggio has also held Long Term Agreements with several Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), including Pratt & Whitney, Pratt & Whitney Canada and Micro Turbo, whose engines power a wide range of civil and military aircraft and helicopters.
In 2000, Piaggio Aero Industries signed a collaboration agreement with Rolls-Royce to join the RTM322 turboshaft engine program as a manufacturing partner. Accordingly, the company has been involved in the manufacture of a significant share of the RTM322 engine components. During 2003, the company was selected by Pratt & Whitney to supply the Low Pressure Turbine case and the bearing compartment housings for the F135 engine that powers the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II fighter aircraft.
In 2006, Piaggio Aero Industries signed an agreement with Pratt & Whitney Canada to acquire 25% of the share capital of P&WC Turbo Engines Corp., which is in charge of the production of the PW206 – PW207 helicopter engines which fits out many helicopter models such as the Agusta A109 Power', the Eurocopter EC135, the Bell 427, the MD Helicopters MD Explorer and the Kazan Ansat. Piaggio Aero has produced engine components and housed the final assembly line, as well as the maintenance and repair activities for the Pw206-207 engines.
Piaggio Aero Industries also has experience in the area of infrared suppression systems (IRS) for helicopters; the Agusta A129, part of the Italian Army fleet, is currently equipped with an IRS, designed, tested and manufactured by the company.
Aircraft models
Piaggio FN.305A two-seat training variant of the Nardi FN.305 fighter
Piaggio P.2 (single-engine low-wing single-seat monoplane fighter prototype)
Piaggio P.3 (four-engine biplane night bomber prototype)
Piaggio P.6 (reconnaissance floatplane)
Piaggio P.7 (high-wing racing monoplane for the 1929 Schneider Trophy seaplane race; unflown)
Piaggio P.8 (single-engine parasol wing single-seat reconnaissance floatplane)
Piaggio P.9 (single-engine high-wing two-seat monoplane)
Piaggio P.10 (single-engine three-seat biplane floatplane)
Piaggio P.11 (single-engine single-seat lightweight biplane fighter; licensed copy of the Blackburn Lincock)
Piaggio P.12 (twin-engine four-seat touring monoplane; licensed copy of the Blackburn Segrave)
Piaggio P.16 (three-engine heavy bomber)
Piaggio P.23M (four-engine commercial transport prototype)
Piaggio P.23R (three-engine commercial transport prototype)
Piaggio P.32 (twin-engine bomber)
Piaggio P.50 (four-engine heavy bomber)
Piaggio P.108 (four-engine heavy bomber)
Piaggio P.111 (high-altitude research aircraft)
Piaggio P.119 (single-engine single-seat fighter)
Piaggio P.136 (amphibian flying boat)
Piaggio P.148 (two-seat primary/aerobatic trainer)
Piaggio P.149 (four/five-seat utility/liaison or two-seat trainer, also known as Focke-Wulf FWP-149D)
Piaggio P.150 (two-seat trainer)
Piaggio P.166 (utility light transport)
Piaggio P.180 Avanti : business aircraft
Piaggio PD-808 (twin-jet light utility transport)
Piaggio P1XX (under development)
References
External links
Official website
Mubadala Development Companay
Aircraft manufacturers of Italy
Defence companies of Italy
Manufacturing companies based in Genoa
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1923
Italian companies established in 1923
Companies based in Genoa
Aircraft engine manufacturers of Italy
Engine manufacturers of Italy
Gas turbine manufacturers
|
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208660
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropicbird
|
Tropicbird
|
Tropicbirds are a family, Phaethontidae, of tropical pelagic seabirds. They are the sole living representatives of the order Phaethontiformes. For many years they were considered part of the Pelecaniformes, but genetics indicates they are most closely related to the Eurypygiformes. There are three species in one genus, Phaethon. The scientific names are derived from Ancient Greek phaethon, "sun". They have predominantly white plumage with elongated tail feathers and small feeble legs and feet.
Taxonomy, systematics and evolution
The genus Phaethon was introduced in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. The name is from Ancient Greek phaethōn meaning "sun". The type species was designated as the red-billed tropicbird (Phaethon aethereus) by George Robert Gray in 1840.
Tropicbirds were traditionally grouped in the order Pelecaniformes, which contained the pelicans, cormorants and shags, darters, gannets and boobies and frigatebirds; in the Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy, the Pelecaniformes were united with other groups into a large "Ciconiiformes". More recently this grouping has been found to be massively paraphyletic (missing closer relatives of its distantly related groups) and split again.
Microscopic analysis of eggshell structure by Konstantin Mikhailov in 1995 found that the eggshells of tropicbirds lacked the covering of thick microglobular material of other Pelecaniformes. Jarvis, et al.'s 2014 paper "Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds" aligns the tropicbirds most closely with the sunbittern and the kagu of the Eurypygiformes, with these two clades forming the sister group of the "core water birds", the Aequornithes, and the Metaves hypothesis abandoned.
Order Phaethontiformes
Family †Prophaethontidae Harrison & Walker 1976
Genus †Prophaethon Andrews 1899
†Prophaethon shrubsolei Andrews 1899
Genus †Lithoptila Bourdon, Bouya & Iarochène 2005
†Lithoptila abdounensis Bourdon, Bouya & Iarochène 2005
Family Phaethontidae Brandt 1840
Genus †Proplegadis Harrison & Walker 1971
†Proplegadis fisheri Harrison & Walker 1971
Genus †Phaethusavis Bourdon, Amaghzaz & Bouya 2008
†Phaethusavis pelagicus Bourdon, Amaghzaz & Bouya 2008
Genus †Heliadornis Olson 1985
†H. ashbyi Olson 1985
†H. minor Kessler 2009
†H. paratethydicus Mlíkovský 1997
Genus Phaethon Linnaeus, 1758
Red-billed tropicbird P. aethereus (tropical Atlantic, eastern Pacific, and Indian oceans)
Red-tailed tropicbird, P. rubricauda (Indian Ocean and the western and central tropical Pacific)
White-tailed tropicbird, P. lepturus (widespread in tropical waters, except in the eastern Pacific)
The red-billed tropicbird is basal within the genus. The split between the red-billed tropicbird and the other two tropicbirds is hypothesized to have taken place about six million years ago, with the split between the red-tailed and white-tailed tropicbird taking place about four million years ago.
Phaethusavis and Heliadornis are prehistoric genera of tropicbirds described from fossils.
Extant species
Description
Tropicbirds range in size from 76 cm to 102 cm in length and 94 cm to 112 cm in wingspan. Their plumage is predominantly white, with elongated central tail feathers. The three species have different combinations of black markings on the face, back, and wings. Their bills are large, powerful and slightly decurved. Their heads are large and their necks are short and thick. They have totipalmate feet (that is, all four toes are connected by a web). The legs of a tropicbird are located far back on their body, making walking impossible, so that they can only move on land by pushing themselves forward with their feet.
The tropicbirds' call is typically a loud, piercing, shrill, but grating whistle, or crackle. These are often given in a rapid series when they are in a display flight at the colony. In old literature they were referred to as boatswain (bo'sun'/bosun) birds due their loud whistling calls.
Behaviour and ecology
Tropicbirds frequently catch their prey by hovering and then plunge-diving, typically only into the surface-layer of the waters. They eat mostly fish, especially flying fish, and occasionally squid. Tropicbirds tend to avoid multi-species feeding flocks, unlike the frigatebirds, which have similar diets.
Tropicbirds are usually solitary or in pairs away from breeding colonies. There they engage in spectacular courtship displays. For several minutes, groups of 2–20 birds simultaneously and repeatedly fly around one another in large, vertical circles, while swinging the tail streamers from side to side. If the female likes the presentation, she will mate with the male in his prospective nest-site. Occasionally, disputes will occur between males trying to protect their mates and nesting areas.
Tropicbirds generally nest in holes or crevices on the bare ground. The female lays one white egg, spotted brown, and incubates for 40–46 days. The incubation is performed by both parents, but mostly the female, while the male brings food to feed the female. The chick hatches with grey down. It will stay alone in the nest while both parents search for food, and they will feed the chick twice every three days until fledging, about 12–13 weeks after hatching. The young are not able to fly initially; they will float on the ocean for several days to lose weight before flight.
Tropicbird chicks have slower growth than nearshore birds, and they tend to accumulate fat deposits while young. That, along with one-egg clutches, appears to be an adaptation to a pelagic lifestyle where food is often gathered in large amounts, but may be hard to find.
Notes
References
(HTML abstract)
Oiseaux.net (2006): Red-billed Tropicbird. Retrieved 4-SEP-2006.
(HTML abstract)
External links
Tropicbird Identification by Don Roberson
Tropicbird Photos by Brian Patteson
Tropicbird videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Seabirds
Extant Eocene first appearances
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208673
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed%20V
|
Mehmed V
|
Mehmed V Reşâd (; or ; 2 November 1844 – 3 July 1918) reigned as the 35th and penultimate Ottoman Sultan (). He was the son of Sultan Abdulmejid I. He succeeded his half-brother Abdul Hamid II after the 31 March Incident. He was succeeded by his half-brother Mehmed VI.
His nine-year reign was marked by the cession of the Empire's North African territories and the Dodecanese Islands, including Rhodes, in the Italo-Turkish War, the traumatic loss of almost all of the Empire's European territories west of Constantinople (now Istanbul) in the First Balkan War, and the entry of the Ottoman Empire into World War I in 1914, which would ultimately lead to the Empire's end.
Early life
Mehmed V was born on 2 November 1844 at the Çırağan Palace, Istanbul. His father was Sultan Abdulmejid I, and his mother was Gülcemal Kadın, an ethnic Bosnian. He had two elder sisters, Fatma Sultan, and Refia Sultan. After his mother's death in 1851, he and his sisters were entrusted in the care of his father's senior consort Servetseza Kadın. She had asked Abdulmejid to take the motherless children under her wing, and raise as her own, and carried out the duties of a mother who cares for her children with compassion and concern.
In 1856, aged twelve, he was ceremoniously circumcised together with his younger half-brothers, Şehzade Ahmed Kemaleddin, Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin, and Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin.
Mehmed was educated at the palace. Halid Ziya, the chief clerk of the Chamberlain's office between 1909 and 1912, described this as being a poor one. Thanks to his comparatively high intelligence, however, he made good use of the education he had and used it to go further. He studied Arabic and Persian, and spoke the latter very well. He took piano lessons from an Italian pianist and calligraphy lessons from a famous Ottoman calligrapher, Kazasker Mustafa Izzet Efendi (1801–1876), who designed the giant pendant medallions of the Hagia Sophia.
Reign
His reign began at the conclusion of the 31 March Incident on 27 April 1909, but he was largely a figurehead with no real political power, as a consequence of the demonstration of the CUP's power in the 31 March Incident and the Young Turk Revolution (which restored the Ottoman Constitution and Parliament). In 1913 the CUP undertook a coup d'état, which brought the dictatorial triumvirate of the Three Pashas to power. At the age of 64, Mehmed V was the oldest person to ascend the Ottoman throne.
In 1911, he embarked on an imperial tour of Selânik (today Thessaloniki) and Manastır (today Bitola), stopping by Florina on the way. He also visited Üsküp (Skopje) and Priştine (Pristina), where he attended Friday prayers at the Tomb of Sultan Murad. The visit was recorded on film and photographs by the Manaki brothers. It would soon prove to be the last visit of an Ottoman sultan to the Rumelian provinces before the catastrophe of the Balkan Wars the following year.
Under his rule, the Ottoman Empire lost all its remaining territory in North Africa (Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and Fezzan) to Italy in the Italo-Turkish War and nearly all its European territories (except for a small strip of land west of Constantinople) in the First Balkan War. The Ottomans made some small gains in the following war, recapturing the peninsula comprising East Thrace up to Edirne, but this was only partial consolation for the Turks: the bulk of Ottoman territories that they had fought to keep had been lost forever.
The sudden loss of these enormous swathes of land, which had been Ottoman territory for centuries and were ceded to its opponents within a span of only two years, was deeply shocking to the Ottoman Turks and resulted in massive popular backlash against the government, culminating in the 1913 Ottoman coup d'etat.
Despite his preference that the country stayed out of further conflict, Mehmed V's most significant political act was to formally declare jihad against the Entente Powers (Allies of World War I) on 14 November 1914, following the Ottoman government's decision to join the First World War on the side of the Central Powers. He was actually said to look with disfavour on the pro-German policy of Enver Pasha, but could do little to prevent war due to the sultanate's diminished influence since the overthrow of Abdülhamid II in 1909.
This was the last genuine proclamation of jihad in history by a Caliph, as the Caliphate was abolished in 1924. As a direct result of the declaration of war, the British annexed Cyprus and the Khedivate of Egypt outright; these provinces had at least been under nominal Turkish rule. The proclamation had no noticeable effect on the war, despite the fact that many Muslims lived in Ottoman territories. Some Arabs eventually joined the British forces against the Ottomans with the Arab Revolt in 1916.
Mehmed V hosted Kaiser Wilhelm II, his World War I ally, in Constantinople on 15 October 1917. He was made Generalfeldmarschall of the Kingdom of Prussia on 27 January 1916, and of the German Empire on 1 February 1916. He was also made Generalfeldmarschall of Austria-Hungary on 19 May 1918.
Death
Mehmed V died at Yıldız Palace on 3 July 1918 at the age of 73, only four months before the end of World War I. Thus, he did not live to see the downfall of the Ottoman Empire. He spent most of his life at the Dolmabahçe Palace and Yıldız Palace in Istanbul. His grave is in the Eyüp district of modern Istanbul.
Honours
Ottoman honours
Grand Master of the Order of the Crescent
Grand Master of the Order of Glory
Grand Master of the Order of the Medjidie
Grand Master of the Order of Osmanieh
Foreign honours
Grand Cross of St. Stephen, in Diamonds, 1914 (Austria-Hungary)
Knight of the Military Order of Max Joseph (Bavaria)
Grand Cross of the Star of Karađorđe (Yugoslavia)
Issue
See also
The Ottomans: Europe's Muslim Emperors
References
Sources
External links
20th-century Ottoman sultans
1844 births
1918 deaths
Turks of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman people of the Italo-Turkish War
Ottoman people of the Balkan Wars
Ottoman people of World War I
Dolmabahçe Palace
Knights of the Military Order of Max Joseph
Knights of the Order of the Crescent
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary
Ottoman dynasty
Burials at Eyüp Cemetery
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%20X-1
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Bell X-1
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The Bell X-1 (Bell Model 44) is a rocket engine–powered aircraft, designated originally as the XS-1, and was a joint National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics–U.S. Army Air Forces–U.S. Air Force supersonic research project built by Bell Aircraft. Conceived during 1944 and designed and built in 1945, it achieved a speed of nearly in 1948. A derivative of this same design, the Bell X-1A, having greater fuel capacity and hence longer rocket burning time, exceeded in 1954. The X-1, piloted by Chuck Yeager, was the first manned airplane to exceed the speed of sound in level flight and was the first of the X-planes, a series of American experimental rocket planes (and non-rocket planes) designed for testing new technologies.
Design and development
Parallel development
In 1942, the United Kingdom's Ministry of Aviation began a top secret project with Miles Aircraft to develop the world's first aircraft capable of breaking the sound barrier. The project resulted in the development of the prototype turbojet-powered Miles M.52, designed to reach (over twice the existing airspeed record) in level flight, and to climb to an altitude of 36,000 ft (11 km) in 1 min and 30 sec.
By 1944, design of the M.52 was 90% complete and Miles was told to go ahead with the construction of three prototypes. Later that year, the Air Ministry signed an agreement with the United States to exchange high-speed research and data. Miles' Chief Aerodynamicist Dennis Bancroft stated that Bell Aircraft personnel visited Miles later in 1944, and were given access to the drawings and research on the M.52, but the U.S. reneged on the agreement and no data was forthcoming in return. Unknown to Miles, Bell had already started construction of a rocket-powered supersonic design of their own, with a conventional horizontal tail. Bell was battling the problem of pitch control due to "blanking" the elevators. A variable-incidence tail appeared to be the most promising solution; and having already decided on it for the M.52, the Miles and RAE tests supported this.
Research studies
The XS-1 was first discussed in December 1944. Early specifications for the aircraft were for a piloted supersonic vehicle that could fly at at for two to five minutes. On 16 March 1945, the U.S. Army Air Forces Flight Test Division and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) contracted with the Bell Aircraft Company to build three XS-1 (for "Experimental, Supersonic", later X-1) aircraft to obtain flight data on conditions in the transonic speed range.
The aircraft's designers built a rocket plane after considering alternatives. Turbojets could not achieve the required performance at high altitude. An aircraft with both turbojet and rocket engines would be too large and complex. The X-1 was, in principle, a "bullet with wings", its shape closely resembling a Browning .50-caliber (12.7 mm) machine gun bullet, known to be stable in supersonic flight. The shape was followed to the extent of seating its pilot behind a sloped, framed window inside a confined cockpit in the nose, with no ejection seat.
Swept wings were not used because too little was known about them. As the design might lead to a fighter, the XS-1 was intended to take off from the ground, but the end of the war made the B-29 Superfortress available to carry it into the air. After the rocket plane experienced compressibility problems during 1947, it was modified with a variable-incidence tailplane following technology transfer with the United Kingdom.
Following conversion of the X-1's horizontal tail to all-moving (or "all-flying"), test pilot Chuck Yeager verified it experimentally, and all subsequent supersonic aircraft would either have an all-moving tailplane or be "tailless" delta winged types.
The rocket engine was a four-chamber design built by Reaction Motors Inc., one of the first companies to build liquid-propellant rocket engines in the U.S. After considering hydrogen peroxide monopropellant, aniline/nitric acid bipropellant, and nitromethane monopropellant as fuels, the rocket burned ethyl alcohol diluted with water with a liquid oxygen oxidizer. Its four chambers could be individually turned on and off, so thrust could be changed in increments. The fuel and oxygen tanks for the first two X-1 engines were pressurized with nitrogen, reducing flight time by about minutes and increasing landing weight by , but the rest used gas-driven turbopumps, increasing the chamber pressure and thrust while making the engine lighter.
Operational history
Bell Aircraft chief test pilot Jack Woolams became the first person to fly the XS-1. He made a glide-flight over Pinecastle Army Airfield, in Florida, on 19 January 1946. Woolams completed nine more glide-flights over Pinecastle, with the B-29 dropping the aircraft at and the XS-1 landing 12 minutes later at about . In March 1946 the #1 rocket plane was returned to Bell Aircraft in Buffalo, New York for modifications to prepare for the powered flight tests. Four more glide tests occurred at Muroc Army Air Field near Palmdale, California, which had been flooded during the Florida tests, before the first powered test on 9 December 1946. Two chambers were ignited, but the aircraft accelerated so quickly that one chamber was turned off until reignition at , reaching Mach 0.795. After the chambers were turned off the aircraft descended to , where all four chambers were briefly tested.
After Woolams' death in August 1946, Chalmers "Slick" Goodlin was assigned as the primary Bell Aircraft test pilot for the X-1. Goodlin made the first powered flight on 9 December 1946. Tex Johnston, Bell's chief test pilot and program supervisor, made a test flight on 22 May 1947, after complaints about the slow progress of flight tests. According to Johnston, "The contract with the Air Corps defined the tests by Bell as onboard systems verification, handling characteristics evaluation, stability and control, and performance testing to Mach 0.99." After Johnston's initial flight at 0.72 Mach, he thought the airplane was ready for supersonic flights, after the longitudinal trim system was fixed, and three more test flights.
The Army Air Force was unhappy with the cautious pace of flight envelope expansion and Bell Aircraft's flight test contract for airplane #46-062 was terminated. The test program was acquired by the Army Air Force Flight Test Division on 24 June after months of negotiation. Goodlin had demanded a US$150,000 bonus (equivalent to $ million in ) for exceeding the speed of sound. Flight tests of the X-1-2 (serial 46-063) would be conducted by NACA to provide design data for later production high-performance aircraft.
Mach 1 flight
The first manned supersonic flight occurred on 14 October 1947, less than a month after the U.S. Air Force had been created as a separate service. Captain Charles "Chuck" Yeager piloted USAF aircraft #46-062, nicknamed Glamorous Glennis for his wife. The airplane was drop launched from the bomb bay of a B-29 and reached Mach 1.06 (). Following burnout of the engine, the plane glided to a landing on the dry lake bed. This was XS-1 flight number 50.
The three main participants in the X-1 program won the National Aeronautics Association Collier Trophy in 1948 for their efforts. Honored at the White House by President Truman were Larry Bell for Bell Aircraft, Captain Yeager for piloting the flights, and John Stack for the contributions of the NACA.
The story of Yeager's 14 October flight was leaked to a reporter from the magazine Aviation Week, and the Los Angeles Times featured the story as headline news in their 22 December issue. The magazine story was released on 20 December. The Air Force threatened legal action against the journalists who revealed the story, but none ever occurred. The news of a straight-wing supersonic aircraft surprised many American experts, who like their German counterparts during the war believed that a swept-wing design was necessary to break the sound barrier. On 10 June 1948, Air Force Secretary Stuart Symington announced that the sound barrier had been repeatedly broken by two experimental airplanes.
On 5 January 1949, Yeager used Aircraft #46-062 to perform the only conventional (runway) launch of the X-1 program, attaining in 90 seconds.
Legacy
The research techniques used for the X-1 program became the pattern for all subsequent X-craft projects. The X-1 project assisted the postwar cooperative union between U.S. military needs, industrial capabilities, and research facilities. The flight data collected by the NACA from the X-1 tests then proved invaluable to further US fighter design throughout the latter half of the 20th century.
In 1997, the United States Postal Service issued a fiftieth anniversary commemorative stamp recognizing the Bell X1-6062 aircraft as the first aeronautical vehicle to fly at supersonic speed of approximately .
Variants
Later variants of the X-1 were built to test different aspects of supersonic flight; one of these, the X-1A, with Yeager at the controls, inadvertently demonstrated a very dangerous characteristic of fast (Mach 2 plus) supersonic flight: inertia coupling. Only Yeager's skills as an aviator prevented disaster; later Mel Apt would lose his life testing the Bell X-2 under similar circumstances.
X-1A
(Bell Model 58A)
Ordered by the Air Force on 2 April 1948, the X-1A (serial number 48-1384) was intended to investigate aerodynamic phenomena at speeds greater than Mach 2 (681 m/s, 2,451 km/h) and altitudes greater than 90,000 ft (27 km), specifically emphasizing dynamic stability and air loads. Longer and heavier than the original X-1, with a stepped canopy for better vision, the X-1A was powered by the same Reaction Motors XLR-11 rocket engine. The aircraft first flew, unpowered, on 14 February 1953 at Edwards AFB, with the first powered flight on 21 February. Both flights were piloted by Bell test pilot Jean "Skip" Ziegler.
After NACA started its high-speed testing with the Douglas Skyrocket, culminating in Scott Crossfield achieving Mach 2.005 on 20 November 1953, the Air Force started a series of tests with the X-1A, which the test pilot of the series, Chuck Yeager, named "Operation NACA Weep". These culminated on 12 December 1953, when Yeager achieved an altitude of and a new airspeed record of Mach 2.44 (equal to 1620 mph, 724.5 m/s, 2608 km/h at that altitude). Unlike Crossfield in the Skyrocket, Yeager achieved that in level flight. Soon afterwards, the aircraft spun out of control, due to the then not yet understood phenomenon of inertia coupling. The X-1A dropped from maximum altitude to , exposing the pilot to accelerations of as much as 8g, during which Yeager broke the canopy with his helmet before regaining control.
On 28 May 1954, Maj. Arthur W. Murray piloted the X-1A to a new record of .
The aircraft was transferred to NACA during September 1954, and subsequently modified. The X-1A was lost on 8 August 1955, when, while being prepared for launch from the RB-50 mothership, an explosion ruptured the plane's liquid oxygen tank. With the help of crewmembers on the RB-50, test pilot Joseph A. Walker successfully extricated himself from the plane, which was then jettisoned. Exploding on impact with the desert floor, the X-1A became the first of many early X-planes that would be lost to explosions.
X-1B
(Bell Model 58B)
The X-1B (serial 48-1385) was equipped with aerodynamic heating instrumentation for thermal research (more than 300 thermal probes were installed on its surface). It was similar to the X-1A except for having a slightly different wing. The X-1B was used for high-speed research by the U.S. Air Force starting from October 1954, prior to being transferred to the NACA during January 1955. NACA continued to fly the aircraft until January 1958, when cracks in the fuel tanks forced its grounding. The X-1B completed a total of 27 flights. A notable achievement was the installation of a system of small reaction rockets used for directional control, making the X-1B the first aircraft to fly with this sophisticated control system, later used in the North American X-15. The X-1B is now at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base at Dayton, Ohio, where it is displayed in the Museum's Maj. Gen. Albert Boyd and Maj. Gen. Fred Ascani Research and Development Gallery.
X-1C
(Bell Model 58C)
The X-1C (serial 48-1387) was intended to test armaments and munitions in the high transonic and supersonic flight regimes. It was canceled while still in the mockup stage, as the development of transonic and supersonic-capable aircraft like the North American F-86 Sabre and the North American F-100 Super Sabre eliminated the need for a dedicated experimental test vehicle.
X-1D
(Bell Model 58D)
The X-1D (serial 48-1386) was the first of the second generation of supersonic rocket planes. Flown from an EB-50A (s/n #46-006), it was to be used for heat transfer research. The X-1D was equipped with a new low-pressure fuel system and a slightly increased fuel capacity. There were also some minor changes of the avionics suite.
On 24 July 1951, with Bell test pilot Jean "Skip" Ziegler at the controls, the X-1D was launched over Rogers Dry Lake, on what was to become the only successful flight of its career. The unpowered glide was completed after a nine-minute descent, but upon landing, the nose landing gear failed and the aircraft slid ungracefully to a stop. Repairs took several weeks to complete and a second flight was scheduled for mid-August. On 22 August 1951, the X-1D was lost in a fuel explosion during preparations for the first powered flight. The aircraft was destroyed upon impact after it was jettisoned from its EB-50A mothership.
X-1E
(Bell Model 44)
The X-1E was the result of a reconstruction of the X-1-2 (serial 46-063), in order to pursue the goals originally set for the X-1D and X-1-3 (serial 46-064), both lost by explosions during 1951. The cause of the mysterious explosions was finally traced to the use of Ulmer leather gaskets impregnated with tricresyl phosphate (TCP), a leather treatment, which was used in the liquid oxygen plumbing. TCP becomes unstable and explosive in the presence of pure oxygen and mechanical shock. This mistake cost two lives, caused injuries and lost several aircraft.
The changes included:
A turbopump fuel feed system, which eliminated the high-pressure nitrogen fuel system used in '062 and '063. Concerns about metal fatigue in the nitrogen fuel system resulted in the grounding of the X-1-2 after its 54th flight in its original configuration.
A re-profiled super-thin wing (⅜ inches at the root), based on the X-3 Stiletto wing profile, enabling the X-1E to reach Mach 2.
A 'knife-edge' windscreen replaced the original greenhouse glazing, an upward-opening canopy replaced the fuselage side hatch and allowed the inclusion of an ejection seat.
The addition of 200 pressure ports for aerodynamic data, and 343 strain gauges to measure structural loads and aerodynamic heating along the wing and fuselage.
The X-1E first flew on 15 December 1955, a glide-flight controlled by USAF test pilot Joe Walker. Walker left the X-1E program during 1958, after 21 flights, attaining a maximum speed of Mach 2.21 (752 m/s, 2,704 km/h). NACA research pilot John B. McKay took his place during September 1958, completing five flights in pursuit of Mach 3 (1,021 m/s, 3,675 km/h) before the X-1E was permanently grounded after its 26th flight, during November 1958, due to the discovery of structural cracks in the fuel tank wall.
Aircraft on display
X-1-1, Air Force Serial Number 46-062, is currently displayed in the Milestones of Flight gallery of the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC, alongside the Spirit of St. Louis and SpaceShipOne. The aircraft was flown to Washington, D.C., beneath a B-29 and presented to what was then the American National Air Museum in 1950.
X-1B, AF Ser. No. 48-1385, is on display in the Research & Development Hangar at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.
X-1E, AF Ser. No. 46-063, is on display in front of the NASA Armstrong Flight Research Center headquarters building at Edwards Air Force Base, California. It is usually seen in episodes of the TV series I Dream of Jeannie, which was set at Cape Kennedy, Florida.
Specifications (Bell X-1 #1 and #2)
Notable appearances in media
See also
Air Force Test Center
References
Notes
Bibliography
"Breaking the Sound Barrier". Modern Marvels (TV program). 2003.
Hallion, Dr. Richard P. "Saga of the Rocket Ships". AirEnthusiast Five, November 1977 – February 1978. Bromley, Kent, UK: Pilot Press Ltd., 1977.
Miller, Jay. The X-Planes: X-1 to X-45. Hinckley, UK: Midland, 2001. .
Pisano, Dominick A., R. Robert van der Linden and Frank H. Winter. Chuck Yeager and the Bell X-1: Breaking the Sound Barrier. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (in association with Abrams, New York), 2006. .
Winchester, Jim. "Bell X-1". Concept Aircraft: Prototypes, X-Planes and Experimental Aircraft (The Aviation Factfile). Kent, UK: Grange Books plc, 2005. .
Wolfe. Tom. The Right Stuff. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1979. .
Yeager, Chuck, Bob Cardenas, Bob Hoover, Jack Russell and James Young. The Quest for Mach One: A First-Person Account of Breaking the Sound Barrier. New York: Penguin Studio, 1997. .
Yeager, Chuck and Leo Janos. Yeager: An Autobiography. New York: Bantam, 1986. .
External links
Bell X-1B – National Museum of the United States Air Force
X-1 fiftieth anniversary – NASA
Chalmers H. (Slick) Goodlin – NASA
American X-Vehicles – An Inventory—X-1 to X-50 – NASA
Bell X-1 – National Air and Space Museum
General Chuck Yeager | The Official Website
Modeller's Guide to Bell X-1 Experimental Aircraft Part one, Part two
X-1 is Carried Aloft; Cockpit of the Bell X-1 – Popular Science
NASA video collection
Edwards Air Force Base
Rocket-powered aircraft
X-1
X-1, Bell
American inventions
X-1
Articles containing video clips
1946 establishments in the United States
Aircraft first flown in 1946
Supersonic aircraft
|
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208676
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verb%20phrase
|
Verb phrase
|
In linguistics, a verb phrase (VP) is a syntactic unit composed of at least one verb and its dependentsobjects, complements and other modifiersbut not always including the subject. Thus in the sentence A fat man put the money quickly in the box, the words put the money quickly in the box are a verb phrase; it consists of the verb put and its dependents, but not the subject a fat man. A verb phrase is similar to what is considered a predicate in more traditional grammars.
Verb phrases generally are divided among two types: finite, of which the head of the phrase is a finite verb; and nonfinite, where the head is a nonfinite verb, such as an infinitive, participle or gerund. Phrase structure grammars acknowledge both types, but dependency grammars treat the subject as just another verbal dependent, and they do not recognize the finite verbal phrase constituent. Understanding verb phrase analysis depends on knowing which theory applies in context.
In phrase structure grammars
In phrase structure grammars such as generative grammar, the verb phrase is one headed by a verb. It may be composed of only a single verb, but typically it consists of combinations of main and auxiliary verbs, plus optional specifiers, complements (not including subject complements), and adjuncts. For example:
Yankee batters hit the ball well enough to win their first World Series since 2000.
Mary saw the man through the window.
David gave Mary a book.
The first example contains the long verb phrase hit the ball well enough to win their first World Series since 2000; the second is a verb phrase composed of the main verb saw, the complement phrase the man (a noun phrase), and the adjunct phrase through the window (an adverbial phrase and prepositional phrase). The third example presents three elements, the main verb gave, the noun Mary, and the noun phrase a book, all of which comprise the verb phrase. Note, the verb phrase described here corresponds to the predicate of traditional grammar.
Current views vary on whether all languages have a verb phrase; some schools of generative grammar (such as principles and parameters) hold that all languages have a verb phrase, while others (such as lexical functional grammar) take the view that at least some languages lack a verb phrase constituent, including those languages with a very free word order (the so-called non-configurational languages, such as Japanese, Hungarian, or Australian aboriginal languages), and some languages with a default VSO order (several Celtic and Oceanic languages).
Phrase structure grammars view both finite and nonfinite verb phrases as constituent phrases and, consequently, do not draw any key distinction between them. Dependency grammars (described below) are much different in this regard.
In dependency grammars
While phrase structure grammars (constituency grammars) acknowledge both finite and non-finite VPs as constituents (complete subtrees), dependency grammars reject the former. That is, dependency grammars acknowledge only non-finite VPs as constituents; finite VPs do not qualify as constituents in dependency grammars. For example:
John has finished the work. – Finite VP in bold
John has finished the work. – Non-finite VP in bold
Since has finished the work contains the finite verb has, it is a finite VP, and since finished the work contains the non-finite verb finished but lacks a finite verb, it is a non-finite VP. Similar examples:
They do not want to try that. – Finite VP in bold
They do not want to try that. – One non-finite VP in bold
They do not want to try that. – Another non-finite VP in bold
These examples illustrate well that many clauses can contain more than one non-finite VP, but they generally contain only one finite VP. Starting with Lucien Tesnière 1959, dependency grammars challenge the validity of the initial binary division of the clause into subject (NP) and predicate (VP), which means they reject the notion that the second half of this binary division, i.e. the finite VP, is a constituent. They do, however, readily acknowledge the existence of non-finite VPs as constituents. The two competing views of verb phrases are visible in the following trees:
The constituency tree on the left shows the finite VP has finished the work as a constituent, since it corresponds to a complete subtree. The dependency tree on the right, in contrast, does not acknowledge a finite VP constituent, since there is no complete subtree there that corresponds to has finished the work. Note that the analyses agree concerning the non-finite VP finished the work; both see it as a constituent (complete subtree).
Dependency grammars point to the results of many standard constituency tests to back up their stance. For instance, topicalization, pseudoclefting, and answer ellipsis suggest that non-finite VP does, but finite VP does not, exist as a constituent:
*...and has finished the work, John. – Topicalization
*What John has done is has finished the work. – Pseudoclefting
What has John done? – *Has finished the work. – Answer ellipsis
The * indicates that the sentence is bad. These data must be compared to the results for non-finite VP:
...and finished the work, John (certainly) has. – Topicalization
What John has done is finished the work. – Pseudoclefting
What has John done? – Finished the work. – Answer ellipsis
The strings in bold are the ones in focus. Attempts to in some sense isolate the finite VP fail, but the same attempts with the non-finite VP succeed.
Narrowly defined
Verb phrases are sometimes defined more narrowly in scope, in effect counting only those elements considered strictly verbal in verb phrases. That would limit the definition to only main and auxiliary verbs, plus infinitive or participle constructions. For example, in the following sentences only the words in bold form the verb phrase:
John has given Mary a book.
The picnickers were being eaten alive by mosquitos.
She kept screaming like a football maniac.
Thou shalt not kill.
This more narrow definition is often applied in functionalist frameworks and traditional European reference grammars. It is incompatible with the phrase structure model, because the strings in bold are not constituents under that analysis. It is, however, compatible with dependency grammars and other grammars that view the verb catena (verb chain) as the fundamental unit of syntactic structure, as opposed to the constituent. Furthermore, the verbal elements in bold are syntactic units consistent with the understanding of predicates in the tradition of predicate calculus.
See also
Auxiliary verb
Constituent
Dependency grammar
Finite verb
Non-configurational language
Non-finite verb
Phrase
Phrase structure grammar
Predicate (grammar)
Notes
References
Akmajian, A. and F. Heny. 1980. An introduction to the principle of transformational syntax. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Finch, G. 2000. Linguistic terms and concepts. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Klammer, T. and M. Schulz. 1996. Analyzing English grammar. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Kroeger, P. 2004. Analyzing syntax: A lexical-functional approach. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Matthews, P. 2007. Syntactic relations: A critical survey. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Miller, J. 2011. A critical introduction to syntax. London: continuum.
Osborne, T., M. Putnam, and T. Groß 2011. Bare phrase structure, label-less structures, and specifier-less syntax: Is Minimalism becoming a dependency grammar? The Linguistic Review 28: 315–364.
Sobin, N. 2011. Syntactic analysis: The basics. Malden, MA: Wiley–Blackwell.
Tesnière, Lucien 1959. Éleménts de syntaxe structurale. Paris: Klincksieck.
van Valin, R. 2001. An introduction to syntax. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Syntactic categories
|
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] |
208677
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AEW
|
AEW
|
AEW or aew may refer to:
Airborne early warning, airborne radar system for detecing aircraft
Aerosvit Airlines, an airline based in Kyiv, Ukraine (ICAO airline designator: AEW)
AEW UK, a property investment management company
Air Expeditionary Wing, a United States Air Force unit
All Elite Wrestling, an American professional wrestling promotion founded in 2019
Ambakich language (ISO 639-3 code: aew)
Association for the Education of Women, an organisation at the University of Oxford from 1878 to 1920
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille%20Corot
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Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot
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Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot ( , , ; July 16, 1796 – February 22, 1875) was a French landscape and portrait painter as well as a printmaker in etching. He is a pivotal figure in landscape painting and his vast output simultaneously referenced the Neo-Classical tradition and anticipated the plein-air innovations of Impressionism.
Biography
Early life and training
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot (Camille Corot for short) was born in Paris on July 16, 1796, in a house at 125 Rue du Bac, now demolished. His family were bourgeois people—his father was a wig maker and his mother a milliner—and unlike the experience of some of his artistic colleagues, throughout his life he never felt the want of money, as his parents made good investments and ran their businesses well. After his parents married, they bought the millinery shop where his mother had worked and his father gave up his career as a wigmaker to run the business side of the shop. The store was a famous destination for fashionable Parisians and earned the family an excellent income. Corot was the second of three children born to the family, who lived above their shop during those years.
Corot received a scholarship to study at the Lycée Pierre-Corneille in Rouen, but left after having scholastic difficulties and entered a boarding school. He "was not a brilliant student, and throughout his entire school career he did not get a single nomination for a prize, not even for the drawing classes." Unlike many masters who demonstrated early talent and inclinations toward art, before 1815 Corot showed no such interest. During those years he lived with the Sennegon family, whose patriarch was a friend of Corot's father and who spent much time with young Corot on nature walks. It was in this region that Corot made his first paintings after nature. At nineteen, Corot was a "big child, shy and awkward. He blushed when spoken to. Before the beautiful ladies who frequented his mother's salon, he was embarrassed and fled like a wild thing... Emotionally, he was an affectionate and well-behaved son, who adored his mother and trembled when his father spoke." When Corot's parents moved into a new residence in 1817, the 21-year-old Corot moved into the dormer-windowed room on the third floor, which became his first studio as well.
With his father's help Corot apprenticed to a draper, but he hated commercial life and despised what he called "business tricks", yet he faithfully remained in the trade until he was 26, when his father consented to him adopting the profession of art. Later Corot stated, "I told my father that business and I were simply incompatible, and that I was getting a divorce." The business experience proved beneficial, however, by helping him develop an aesthetic sense through his exposure to the colors and textures of the fabrics. Perhaps out of boredom, he turned to oil painting around 1821 and began immediately with landscapes. Starting in 1822 after the death of his sister, Corot began receiving a yearly allowance of 1500 francs which adequately financed his new career, studio, materials, and travel for the rest of his life. He immediately rented a studio on quai Voltaire.
During the period when Corot acquired the means to devote himself to art, landscape painting was on the upswing and generally divided into two camps: one―historical landscape by Neoclassicists in Southern Europe representing idealized views of real and fancied sites peopled with ancient, mythological, and biblical figures; and two―realistic landscape, more common in Northern Europe, which was largely faithful to actual topography, architecture, and flora, and which often showed figures of peasants. In both approaches, landscape artists would typically begin with outdoor sketching and preliminary painting, with finishing work done indoors. Highly influential upon French landscape artists in the early 19th century was the work of Englishmen John Constable and J. M. W. Turner, who reinforced the trend in favor of Realism and away from Neoclassicism.
For a short period between 1821 and 1822, Corot studied with Achille Etna Michallon, a landscape painter of Corot's age who was a protégé of the painter Jacques-Louis David and who was already a well-respected teacher. Michallon had a great influence on Corot's career. Corot's drawing lessons included tracing lithographs, copying three-dimensional forms, and making landscape sketches and paintings outdoors, especially in the forests of Fontainebleau, the seaports along Normandy, and the villages west of Paris such as Ville-d'Avray (where his parents had a country house). Michallon also exposed him to the principles of the French Neoclassic tradition, as espoused in the famous treatise of theorist Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes, and exemplified in the works of French Neoclassicists Claude Lorrain and Nicolas Poussin, whose major aim was the representation of ideal Beauty in nature, linked with events in ancient times.
Though this school was on the decline, it still held sway in the Salon, the foremost art exhibition in France attended by thousands at each event. Corot later stated, "I made my first landscape from nature...under the eye of this painter, whose only advice was to render with the greatest scrupulousness everything I saw before me. The lesson worked; since then I have always treasured precision." After Michallon's early death in 1822, Corot studied with Michallon's teacher, Jean-Victor Bertin, among the best known Neoclassic landscape painters in France, who had Corot draw copies of lithographs of botanical subjects to learn precise organic forms. Though holding Neoclassicists in the highest regard, Corot did not limit his training to their tradition of allegory set in imagined nature. His notebooks reveal precise renderings of tree trunks, rocks, and plants which show the influence of Northern realism. Throughout his career, Corot demonstrated an inclination to apply both traditions in his work, sometimes combining the two.
First trip to Italy
With his parents' support, Corot followed the well-established pattern of French painters who went to Italy to study the masters of the Italian Renaissance and to draw the crumbling monuments of Roman antiquity. A condition by his parents before leaving was that he paint a self-portrait for them, his first. Corot's stay in Italy from 1825 to 1828 was a highly formative and productive one, during which he completed over 200 drawings and 150 paintings. He worked and traveled with several young French painters also studying abroad who painted together and socialized at night in the cafes, critiquing each other and gossiping. Corot learned little from the Renaissance masters (though later he cited Leonardo da Vinci as his favorite painter) and spent most of his time around Rome and in the Italian countryside. The Farnese Gardens with its splendid views of the ancient ruins was a frequent destination, and he painted it at three different times of the day. The training was particularly valuable in gaining an understanding of the challenges of both the mid-range and panoramic perspective, and in effectively placing man-made structures in a natural setting. He also learned how to give buildings and rocks the effect of volume and solidity with proper light and shadow, while using a smooth and thin technique. Furthermore, placing suitable figures in a secular setting was a necessity of good landscape painting, to add human context and scale, and it was even more important in allegorical landscapes. To that end Corot worked on figure studies in native garb as well as nude. During winter, he spent time in a studio but returned to work outside as quickly as weather permitted. The intense light of Italy posed considerable challenges, "This sun gives off a light that makes me despair. It makes me feel the utter powerlessness of my palette." He learned to master the light and to paint the stones and sky in subtle and dramatic variation.
It was not only Italian architecture and light which captured Corot's attention. The late-blooming Corot was entranced with Italian females as well: "They still have the most beautiful women in the world that I have met....their eyes, their shoulders, their hands are spectacular. In that, they surpass our women, but on the other hand, they are not their equals in grace and kindness...Myself, as a painter I prefer the Italian woman, but I lean toward the French woman when it comes to emotion." In spite of his strong attraction to women, he wrote of his commitment to painting: "I have only one goal in life that I want to pursue faithfully: to make landscapes. This firm resolution keeps me from a serious attachment. That is to say, in marriage...but my independent nature and my great need for serious study make me take the matter lightly."
Striving for the Salon
During the six-year period following his first Italian visit and his second, Corot focused on preparing large landscapes for presentation at the Salon. Several of his salon paintings were adaptations of his Italian oil sketches reworked in the studio by adding imagined, formal elements consistent with Neoclassical principles. An example of this was his first Salon entry, View at Narni (1827), where he took his quick, natural study of a ruin of a Roman aqueduct in dusty bright sun and transformed it into a falsely idyllic pastoral setting with giant shade trees and green lawns, a conversion meant to appeal to the Neoclassical jurors. Many critics have valued highly his plein-air Italian paintings for their "germ of Impressionism", their faithfulness to natural light, and their avoidance of academic values, even though they were intended as studies. Several decades later, Impressionism revolutionized art by a taking a similar approach—quick, spontaneous painting done in the out-of-doors; however, where the Impressionists used rapidly applied, un-mixed colors to capture light and mood, Corot usually mixed and blended his colors to get his dreamy effects.
When out of the studio, Corot traveled throughout France, mirroring his Italian methods, and concentrated on rustic landscapes. He returned to the Normandy coast and to Rouen, the city he lived in as a youth. Corot also did some portraits of friends and relatives, and received his first commissions. His sensitive portrait of his niece, Laure Sennegon, dressed in powder blue, was one of his most successful and was later donated to the Louvre. He typically painted two copies of each family portrait, one for the subject and one for the family, and often made copies of his landscapes as well.
In the spring of 1829, Corot came to Barbizon to paint in the Forest of Fontainebleau; he had first painted in the forest at Chailly in 1822. He returned to Barbizon in the autumn of 1830 and in the summer of 1831, where he made drawings and oil studies, from which he made a painting intended for the Salon of 1830; his View of the Forest of Fontainebleau (now in the National Gallery in Washington) and, for the salon of 1831, another View of the Forest of Fontainebleau. While there he met the members of the Barbizon school; Théodore Rousseau, Paul Huet, Constant Troyon, Jean-François Millet, and the young Charles-François Daubigny. Corot exhibited one portrait and several landscapes at the Salon in 1831 and 1833. His reception by the critics at the Salon was cool and Corot decided to return to Italy, having failed to satisfy them with his Neoclassical themes.
Mid-career
During his two return trips to Italy, he visited Northern Italy, Venice, and again the Roman countryside. In 1835, Corot created a sensation at the Salon with his biblical painting Agar dans le desert (Hagar in the Wilderness), which depicted Hagar, Sarah's handmaiden, and the child Ishmael, dying of thirst in the desert until saved by an angel. The background was likely derived from an Italian study. This time, Corot's unanticipated bold, fresh statement of the Neoclassical ideal succeeded with the critics by demonstrating "the harmony between the setting and the passion or suffering that the painter chooses to depict in it." He followed that up with other biblical and mythological subjects, but those paintings did not succeed as well, as the Salon critics found him wanting in comparisons with Poussin. In 1837, he painted his earliest surviving nude, The Nymph of the Seine. Later, he advised his students "The study of the nude, you see, is the best lesson that a landscape painter can have. If someone knows how, without any tricks, to get down a figure, he is able to make a landscape; otherwise he can never do it."
Through the 1840s, Corot continued to have his troubles with the critics (many of his works were flatly rejected for Salon exhibition), nor were many works purchased by the public. While recognition and acceptance by the establishment came slowly, by 1845 Baudelaire led a charge pronouncing Corot the leader in the "modern school of landscape painting". While some critics found Corot's colors "pale" and his work having "naive awkwardness", Baudelaire astutely responded, "M. Corot is more a harmonist than a colorist, and his compositions, which are always entirely free of pedantry, are seductive just because of their simplicity of color." In 1846, the French government decorated him with the cross of the Légion d'honneur and in 1848 he was awarded a second-class medal at the Salon, but he received little state patronage as a result. His only commissioned work was a religious painting for a baptismal chapel painted in 1847, in the manner of the Renaissance masters. Though the establishment kept holding back, other painters acknowledged Corot's growing stature. In 1847, Delacroix noted in his journal, "Corot is a true artist. One has to see a painter in his own place to get an idea of his worth...Corot delves deeply into a subject: ideas come to him and he adds while working; it's the right approach." Upon Delacroix's recommendation, the painter Constant Dutilleux bought a Corot painting and began a long and rewarding relationship with the artist, bringing him friendship and patrons. Corot's public treatment dramatically improved after the Revolution of 1848, when he was admitted as a member of the Salon jury. He was promoted to an officer of the Salon in 1867.
Having forsaken any long-term relationships with women, Corot remained very close to his parents even in his fifties. A contemporary said of him, "Corot is a man of principle, unconsciously Christian; he surrenders all his freedom to his mother...he has to beg her repeatedly to get permission to go out...for dinner every other Friday." Apart from his frequent travels, Corot remained closely tethered to his family until his parents died, then at last he gained the freedom to go as he pleased. That freedom allowed him to take on students for informal sessions, including the Jewish artists Édouard Brandon and future Impressionist Camille Pissarro, who was briefly among them. Corot's vigor and perceptive advice impressed his students. Charles Daubigny stated, "He's a perfect Old Man Joy, this Father Corot. He is altogether a wonderful man, who mixes jokes in with his very good advice." Another student said of Corot, "the newspapers had so distorted Corot, putting Theocritus and Virgil in his hands, that I was quite surprised to find him knowing neither Greek nor Latin...His welcome is very open, very free, very amusing: he speaks or listens to you while hopping on one foot or on two; he sings snatches of opera in a very true voice", but he has a "shrewd, biting side carefully hidden behind his good nature."
By the mid-1850s, Corot's increasingly impressionistic style began to get the recognition that fixed his place in French art. "M. Corot excels...in reproducing vegetation in its fresh beginnings; he marvelously renders the firstlings of the new world." From the 1850s on, Corot painted many landscape souvenirs and paysages, dreamy imagined paintings of remembered locations from earlier visits painted with lightly and loosely dabbed strokes.
Later years
In the 1860s, Corot was still mixing peasant figures with mythological ones, mixing Neoclassicism with Realism, causing one critic to lament, "If M. Corot would kill, once and for all, the nymphs of his woods and replace them with peasants, I should like him beyond measure." In reality, in later life his human figures did increase and the nymphs did decrease, but even the human figures were often set in idyllic reveries.
In later life, Corot's studio was filled with students, models, friends, collectors, and dealers who came and went under the tolerant eye of the master, causing him to quip, "Why is it that there are ten of you around me, and not one of you thinks to relight my pipe." Dealers snapped up his works and his prices were often above 4,000 francs per painting. With his success secured, Corot gave generously of his money and time. He became an elder of the artists' community and would use his influence to gain commissions for other artists. In 1871 he gave £2000 for the poor of Paris, under siege by the Prussians. (see: Franco-Prussian War) During the actual Paris Commune, he was at Arras with Alfred Robaut. In 1872 he bought a house in Auvers as a gift for Honoré Daumier, who by then was blind, without resources, and homeless. In 1875, he donated 10,000 francs to the widow of Millet in support of her children. His charity was near proverbial. He also financially supported the upkeep of a day center for children on rue Vandrezanne in Paris. In later life, he remained a humble and modest man, apolitical and happy with his luck in life, and held close the belief that "men should not puff themselves up with pride, whether they are emperors adding this or that province to their empires or painter who gain a reputation."
Despite great success and appreciation among artists, collectors, and the more generous critics, his many friends considered, nevertheless, that he was officially neglected, and in 1874, a short time before his death, they presented him with a gold medal. He died in Paris of a stomach disorder aged 78 and was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery.
A number of followers called themselves Corot's pupils. The best known are Camille Pissarro, Eugène Boudin, Berthe Morisot, Stanislas Lépine, Antoine Chintreuil, François-Louis Français, Charles Le Roux, and Alexandre Defaux.
Art and technique
Corot is a pivotal figure in landscape painting. His work simultaneously references the Neo-Classical tradition and anticipates the plein-air innovations of Impressionism. Of him Claude Monet exclaimed in 1897, "There is only one master here—Corot. We are nothing compared to him, nothing." His contributions to figure painting are hardly less important; Degas preferred his figures to his landscapes, and the classical figures of Picasso pay overt homage to Corot's influence.
Historians have divided his work into periods, but the points of division are often vague, as he often completed a picture years after he began it. In his early period, he painted traditionally and "tight"—with minute exactness, clear outlines, thin brushwork, and with absolute definition of objects throughout, with a monochromatic underpainting or ébauche. After he reached his 50th year, his methods changed to focus on breadth of tone and an approach to poetic power conveyed with thicker application of paint; and about 20 years later, from about 1865 onwards, his manner of painting became more lyrical, affected with a more impressionistic touch. In part, this evolution in expression can be seen as marking the transition from the plein-air paintings of his youth, shot through with warm natural light, to the studio-created landscapes of his late maturity, enveloped in uniform tones of silver. In his final 10 years he became the "Père (Father) Corot" of Parisian artistic circles, where he was regarded with personal affection, and acknowledged as one of the five or six greatest landscape painters the world had seen, along with Meindert Hobbema, Claude Lorrain, J.M.W. Turner and John Constable. In his long and productive life, he painted over 3,000 paintings.
Though often credited as a precursor of Impressionist practice, Corot approached his landscapes more traditionally than is usually believed. Compared to the Impressionists who came later, Corot's palette is restrained, dominated with browns and blacks ("forbidden colors" among the Impressionists), along with dark and silvery green. Though appearing at times to be rapid and spontaneous, usually his strokes were controlled and careful, and his compositions well-thought out and generally rendered as simply and concisely as possible, heightening the poetic effect of the imagery. As he stated, "I noticed that everything that was done correctly on the first attempt was more true, and the forms more beautiful."
Corot's approach to his subjects was similarly traditional. Although he was a major proponent of plein-air studies, he was essentially a studio painter and few of his finished landscapes were completed before the motif. For most of his life, Corot would spend his summers travelling and collecting studies and sketches, and his winters finishing more polished, market-ready works. For example, the title of his Bathers of the Borromean Isles (1865–70) refers to Lake Maggiore in Italy, despite the fact that Corot had not been to Italy in 20 years. His emphasis on drawing images from the imagination and memory rather than direct observation was in line with the tastes of the Salon jurors, of which he was a member.
In the 1860s, Corot became interested in photography, taking photos himself and becoming acquainted with many early photographers, which had the effect of suppressing his painting palette even more in sympathy with the monochromic tones of photographs. This had the result of making his paintings even less dramatic but somewhat more poetic, a result which caused some critics to cite a monotony in his later work. Théophile Thoré wrote that Corot "has only a single octave, extremely limited and in a minor key; a musician would say. He knows scarcely more than a single time of day, the morning, and a single color, pale grey." Corot responded: What there is to see in painting, or rather what I am looking for, is the form, the whole, the value of the tones...That is why for me the color comes after, because I love more than anything else the overall effect, the harmony of the tones, while color gives you a kind of shock that I don’t like. Perhaps it is the excess of this principal that makes people say I have leaden tones.In his aversion to shocking color, Corot sharply diverged from the up-and-coming Impressionists, who embraced experimentation with vivid hues.
In addition to his landscapes (so popular was the late style that there exist numerous forgeries), Corot produced a number of prized figure pictures. While the subjects were sometimes placed in pastoral settings, these were mostly studio pieces, drawn from the live model with both specificity and subtlety. Like his landscapes, they are characterized by a contemplative lyricism, with his late paintings L’Algérienne (Algerian Woman) and La Jeune Grecque (The Greek Girl) being fine examples. Corot painted about fifty portraits, mostly of family and friends. He also painted thirteen reclining nudes, with his Les Repos (1860) strikingly similar in pose to Ingres famous Le Grande Odalisque (1814), but Corot's female is instead a rustic bacchante. In perhaps his last figure painting, Lady in Blue (1874), Corot achieves an effect reminiscent of Degas, soft yet expressive. In all cases of his figure painting, the color is restrained and is remarkable for its strength and purity. Corot also executed many etchings and pencil sketches. Some of the sketches used a system of visual symbols—circles representing areas of light and squares representing shadow. He also experimented with the cliché verre process—a hybrid of photography and engraving. Starting in the 1830s, Corot also painted decorative panels and walls in the homes of friends, aided by his students.
Corot summed up his approach to art around 1860: "I interpret with my art as much as with my eye."
The works of Corot are housed in museums in France and the Netherlands, Britain, North America and Russia.
Forgeries
The strong market for Corot's works and his relatively easy-to-imitate late painting style resulted in a huge production of Corot forgeries between 1870 and 1939. René Huyghe famously quipped that "Corot painted three thousand canvases, ten thousand of which have been sold in America". Although this is a humorous exaggeration, thousands of forgeries have been amassed, with the Jousseaume collection alone containing 2,414 such works. Adding to the problem was Corot's lax attitude which encouraged copying and forgery. He allowed his students to copy his works and to even borrow the works for later return, he would touch up and sign student and collector copies, and he would loan works to professional copiers and to rental agencies. According to Corot cataloguist Etienne Moreau-Nélaton, at one copying studio "The master's complacent brush authenticated these replicas with a few personal and decisive retouchings. When he was no longer there to finish his "doubles", they went on producing them without him." The cataloging of Corot's works in an attempt to separate the copies from the originals backfired when forgers used the publications as guides to expand and refine their bogus paintings.
In popular culture
Two of Corot's works are featured and play an important role in the plot of the 2008 French film L'Heure d'été (English title Summer Hour). The film was produced by the Musée d'Orsay, and the two works were lent by the museum for the making of the film.
There is a street named Rue Corot on Île des Sœurs, Quebec, named for the artist.
In Arthur Conan Doyle’s 1890 novel The Sign of the Four Thaddeus Sholto has an unknown work of Corot on display.
Selected works
The Bridge at Narni (1826), Musée du Louvre
Venise, La Piazetta (1835), Musée du Louvre
Le Baptême du Christ (1845–1847), Paris, Eglise Saint-Nicolas-du-Chardonnet
Une Matinée, la Danse des Nymphes (1850), Musée d'Orsay
Le concert champêtre (1857), Musée Condé, Chantilly
Macbeth and the Witches (1859), Wallace Collection
Baigneuses au Bord d'un Lac (1861), private collection
Orpheus Leading Eurydice from the Underworld (1861), The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
Meadow by the Swamp, National Museum of Serbia
Vist of Castel Sant'Angelo, National Museum of Decorative Arts, Buenos Aires
Souvenir de Mortefontaine (1864), Musée du Louvre
L'Arbre brisé (1865)
Ville d'Avray (1867), National Gallery of Art
Femme Lisant (1869), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Nymphes et Faunes (before 1870), Birmingham Museum of Art, Alabama
L'Albanese (1872)
Pastorale—Souvenir d'Italie (1873), Glasgow Art Gallery
Biblis (1875)
Stream with a White Horse, Toledo Museum of Art
Landscape (unknown), Bass-Dwyer Collection
Gallery
See also
Effets de soir
History of painting
List of Orientalist artists
Orientalism
Western painting
Notes and references
Notes
References
External links
jean-baptiste-camille-corot.org – More than 600 works by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot at Artcyclopedia
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot at the WebMuseum.
The Lyrical Landscape Rehs Galleries' exhibition of works by Jean B.C. Corot.
1796 births
1875 deaths
Painters from Paris
19th-century French painters
French male painters
French printmakers
French Realist painters
Landscape artists
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Orientalist painters
Lycée Pierre-Corneille alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoRoT
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CoRoT
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CoRoT (French: ; English: Convection, Rotation and planetary Transits) was a space telescope mission which operated from 2006 to 2013. The mission's two objectives were to search for extrasolar planets with short orbital periods, particularly those of large terrestrial size, and to perform asteroseismology by measuring solar-like oscillations in stars. The mission was led by the French Space Agency (CNES) in conjunction with the European Space Agency (ESA) and other international partners.
Among the notable discoveries was CoRoT-7b, discovered in 2009 which became the first exoplanet shown to have a rock or metal-dominated composition.
CoRoT was launched at 14:28:00 UTC on 27 December 2006, atop a Soyuz 2.1b rocket, reporting first light on 18 January 2007. Subsequently, the probe started to collect science data on 2 February 2007. CoRoT was the first spacecraft dedicated to the detection of transiting extrasolar planets, opening the way for more advanced probes such as Kepler and TESS. It detected its first extrasolar planet, CoRoT-1b, in May 2007, just 3 months after the start of the observations. Mission flight operations were originally scheduled to end 2.5 years from launch but operations were extended to 2013. On 2 November 2012, CoRoT suffered a computer failure that made it impossible to retrieve any data from its telescope. Repair attempts were unsuccessful, so on 24 June 2013 it was announced that CoRoT has been retired and would be decommissioned; lowered in orbit to allow it to burn up in the atmosphere.
Overview
Spacecraft design
The CoRoT optical design minimized stray light coming from the Earth and provided a field of view of 2.7° by 3.05°. The CoRoT optical path consisted of a diameter off-axis afocal telescope housed in a two-stage opaque baffle specifically designed to block sunlight reflected by the Earth and a camera consisting of a dioptric objective and a focal box. Inside the focal box was an array of four CCD detectors protected against radiation by aluminum shielding 10mm thick. The asteroseismology CCDs are defocused by 760μm toward the dioptric objective to avoid saturation of the brightest stars. A prism in front of the planet detection CCDs gives a small spectrum designed to disperse more strongly in the blue wavelengths.
The four CCD detectors are model 4280 CCDs provided by E2V Technologies. These CCDs are frame-transfer, thinned, back-illuminated designs in a 2,048 by 2,048 pixel array. Each pixel is in size which corresponds to an angular pixel size of 2.32 arcsec. The CCDs are cooled to . These detectors are arranged in a square pattern with two each dedicated to the planetary detection and asteroseismology. The data output stream from the CCDs are connected in two chains. Each chain has one planetary detection CCD and one asteroseismology CCD. The field of view for planetary detection is 3.5°.
The satellite, built in the Cannes Mandelieu Space Center, had a launch mass of 630 kg, was 4.10 m long, 1.984 m in diameter and was powered by two solar panels.
Mission design
The satellite observed perpendicular to its orbital plane, meaning there were no Earth occultations, allowing up to 150 days of continuous observation. These observation sessions, called "Long Runs", allowed detection of smaller and long-period planets. During the remaining 30 days between the two main observation periods, CoRoT observed other patches of sky for a few weeks long "Short Runs", in order to analyze a larger number of stars for the asteroseismic program. After the loss of half the field of view due to failure of Data Processing Unit No. 1 in March 2009, the observation strategy changed to 3 months observing runs, in order to optimize the number of observed stars and detection efficiency.
In order to avoid the Sun entering in its field of view, during the northern summer CoRoT observed in an area around Serpens Cauda, toward the galactic center, and during the winter it observed in Monoceros, in the Galactic anticenter. Both these "eyes" of CoRoT have been studied in preliminary observations carried out between 1998 and 2005, allowing the creation of a database, called CoRoTsky, with data about the stars located in these two patches of sky. This allowed selecting the best fields for observation: the exoplanet research program requires a large number of dwarf stars to be monitored, and to avoid giant stars, for which planetary transits are too shallow to be detectable. The asteroseismic program required stars brighter than magnitude 9, and to cover as many different types of stars as possible. In addition, in order to optimize the observations, the fields shouldn't be too sparse – fewer targets observed – or too crowded – too many stars overlapping.
Several fields have been observed during the mission:
IRa01, from 18 January 2007 to 3 April 2007 – 9,879 stars observed;
SRc01, from 3 April 2007 to 9 May 2007 – 6,975 stars observed;
LRc01, from 9 May 2007 to 15 October 2007 – 11,408 stars observed;
LRa01, from 15 October 2007 to 3 March 2008 – 11,408 stars observed;
SRa01, from 3 March 2008 to 31 March 2008 – 8,150 stars observed;
LRc02, from 31 March 2008 to 8 September 2008 – 11,408 stars observed;
SRc02, from 8 September 2008 to 6 October 2008 – 11,408 stars observed;
SRa02, from 6 October 2008 to 12 November 2008 – 10,265 stars observed;
LRa02, from 12 November 2008 to 30 March 2009 – 11,408 stars observed;
LRc03, from 30 March 2009 to 2 July 2009 – 5,661 stars observed;
LRc04, from 2 July 2009 to 30 September 2009 – 5,716 stars observed;
LRa03, from 30 September 2009 to 1 March 2010 – 5,289 stars observed;
SRa03, from 1 March 2010 to 2 April 2010;
LRc05, from 2 April 2010 to 5 July 2010;
LRc06, from 5 July 2010 to 27 September 2010;
LRa04, from 27 September 2010 to 16 December 2010;
LRa05, from 16 December 2010 to 5 April 2011;
LRc07, from 5 April 2011 to 30 June 2011;
SRc03, from 1 July 2011 to 5 July 2011 – a run made to reobserve the transit of CoRoT-9b;
LRc08, from 6 July 2011 to 30 September 2011;
SRa04, from 30 September 2011 to 28 November 2011;
SRa05, from 29 November 2011 to 9 January 2012;
LRa06, from 10 January 2012 to 29 March 2012 – a run dedicated to reobservation of CoRoT-7b;
LRc09, from 10 April 2012 to 5 July 2012;
LRc10, from 6 July 2012 to 1 November 2012 - interrupted by the fatal failure which ended the mission.
The spacecraft monitored the brightness of stars over time, searching for the slight dimming that happens in regular intervals when planets transit their host star. In every field, CoRoT recorded the brightness of thousands stars in the V-magnitude range from 11 to 16 for the extrasolar planet study. In fact, stellar targets brighter than 11 saturated the exoplanets CCD detectors, yielding inaccurate data, whilst stars dimmer than 16 don't deliver enough photons to allow planetary detections. CoRoT was sensitive enough to detect rocky planets with a radius two times larger than Earth, orbiting stars brighter than 14; it is also expected to discover new gas giants in the whole magnitude range.
CoRoT also studied asteroseismology. It can detect luminosity variations associated with acoustic pulsations of stars. This phenomenon allows calculation of a star's precise mass, age and chemical composition and will aid in comparisons between the sun and other stars. For this program, in each field of view there was one main target star for asteroseismology as well as up to nine other targets. The number of observed targets have dropped to half after the loss of Data Processing Unit No. 1.
The mission began on 27 December 2006 when a Russian Soyuz 2-1b rocket lifted the satellite into a circular polar orbit with an altitude of 827 km . The first scientific observation campaign started on 3 February 2007.
Until March 2013, the mission's cost will amount to , of which 75% is paid by the French space agency CNES and 25% is contributed by Austria, Belgium, Germany, Spain, Brazil and the European Space Agency ESA.
Development
The primary contractor for the construction of the CoRoT vehicle was CNES, to which individual components were delivered for vehicle assembly. The CoRoT equipment bay, which houses the data acquisition and pre-processing electronics, was constructed by the LESIA Laboratory at the Paris Observatory and took 60 person-years to complete. The design and building of the instruments were done by the Laboratoire d'études spatiales et d'instrumentation en astrophysique (LESIA) de l'Observatoire de Paris, the Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Marseille, the Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS) from Orsay, the Centre spatial de Liège (CSL) in Belgium, the IWF in Austria, the DLR (Berlin) in Germany and the ESA Research and Science Support Department. The 30 cm afocal telescope Corotel has been realized by Alcatel Alenia Space in the Centre spatial de Cannes Mandelieu.
Potential
Before the beginning of the mission, the team stated with caution that CoRoT would only be able to detect planets few times larger than Earth or greater, and that it was not specifically designed to detect habitable planets. According to the press release announcing the first results, CoRoT's instruments are performing with higher precision than had been predicted, and may be able to find planets down to the size of Earth with short orbits around small stars.
The transit method requires the detection of at least two transits, hence the planets detected will mostly have an orbital period under 75-day. Candidates that show only one transit have been found, but uncertainty remains about their exact orbital period.
CoRoT should be assumed to detect a small percentage of planets within the observed star fields, due to the low percentage of exoplanets that would transit from the angle of observation of the Solar System. The chances of seeing a planet transiting its host star is inversely proportional to the diameter of the planet's orbit, thus close in planets detections will outnumber outer planets ones. The transit method is also biased toward large planets, since their very depth transits are more easily detected than the shallows eclipses induced by terrestrial planets.
Failure of Data Processing Unit No. 1
On 8 March 2009 the satellite suffered a loss of communication with Data Processing Unit No. 1, processing data from one of the two photo-detector chains on the spacecraft. Science operations resumed early April with Data Processing Unit No. 1 offline while Data Processing Unit No. 2 operating normally. The loss of photo-detector chain number 1 results in the loss of one CCD dedicated to asteroseismology and one CCD dedicated to planet detection. The field of view of the satellite is thus reduced by 50%, but without any degradation of the quality of the observations. The loss of channel 1 appears to be permanent.
Follow-up program
The rate of discoveries of transiting planets is dictated by the need of ground-based, follow-up observations, needed to verify the planetary nature of the transit candidates. Candidate detections have been obtained for about 2.3% of all CoRoT targets, but finding periodic transit events isn't enough to claim a planet discovery, since several configurations could mimic a transiting planet, such as stellar binaries, or an eclipsing fainter star very close to the target star, whose light, blended in the light curve, can reproduce transit-like events. A first screening is executed on the light curves, searching hints of secondary eclipses or a rather V-shaped transit, indicative of a stellar nature of the transits. For the brighter targets, the prism in front of the exoplanets CCDs provides photometry in 3 different colors, enabling to reject planet candidates that have different transit depths in the three channels, a behaviour typical of binary stars. These tests allow to discard 83% of the candidate detections, whilst the remaining 17% are screened with photometric and radial velocity follow-up from a network of telescopes around the world. Photometric observations, required to rule out a possible contamination by a diluted eclipsing binary in close vicinity of the target, is performed on several 1 m-class instruments, but also employs the 2 m Tautenburg telescope in Germany and the 3,6 m CFHT/Megacam in Hawaii. The radial velocity follow-up allows to discard binaries or even multiple star system and, given enough observations, provide the mass of the exoplanets found. Radial velocity follow-up is performed with high-precision spectrographs, namely SOPHIE, HARPS and HIRES. Once the planetary nature of the candidate is established, high-resolution spectroscopy is performed on the host star, in order to accurately determine the stellar parameters, from which further exoplanet characteristics can be derived. Such work is done with large aperture telescopes, as the UVES spectrograph or HIRES.
Interesting transiting planets could be further followed-up with the infrared Spitzer Space Telescope, to give an independent confirmation at a different wavelength and possibly detect reflected light from the planet or the atmospheric compositions. CoRoT-7b and CoRoT-9b have already been observed by Spitzer.
Papers presenting the results of follow-up operations of planetary candidates in the IRa01, LRc01, LRa01, SRc01 fields have been published.
In April 2019, a summary of the exoplanet search results have been published, with 37 planets and brown dwarves confirmed, and a further one hundred planet candidates still to be verified.
Sometimes the faintness of the target star or its characteristics, such as a high rotational velocity or strong stellar activity, do not allow to determine unambiguously the nature or the mass of the planetary candidate.
Discoveries
Asteroseismology and stellar physics
Stars vibrate according to many different pulsation modes in much the same way that musical instruments emit a variety of sounds. Listening to an air on the guitar does not leave any doubt as to the nature of the instrument, and an experienced musician can even deduce the cords' material and tension. Similarly, stellar pulsation modes are characteristic of global stellar properties and of the internal physical conditions. Analyzing these modes is thus a way of probing stellar interiors to infer stellar chemical composition, rotation profiles and internal physical properties such as temperatures and densities. Asteroseismology is the science which studies the vibration modes of a star. Each of these modes can be mathematically represented by a spherical harmonic of degree l and azimuthal order m. Some examples are presented here below with a color scheme in which blue (red) indicates contracting (expanding) material. The pulsation amplitudes are highly exaggerated.
When applied to the Sun, this science is called helioseismology and has been ongoing for a few decades by now. The solar surface helium abundance was derived very accurately for the first time, which has definitely shown the importance of microscopic diffusion in the solar structure. Helioseismology analyses have also unveiled the solar internal rotational profile, the precise extent of the convective envelope and the location of the helium ionization zone. Despite enormous technical challenges, it was thus tempting to apply similar analyses to stars. From the ground this was only possible for stars close to the Sun such as α Centauri, Procyon, β Virginis... The goal is to detect extremely small light variations (down to 1 ppm) and to extract the frequencies responsible for these brightness fluctuations. This produces a frequency spectrum typical of the star under scrutiny. Oscillation periods vary from a few minutes to several hours depending on the type of star and its evolutionary state. To reach such performances, long observing times devoid of day/night alternations are required. Space is thus the ideal asteroseismic laboratory. By revealing their microvariability, measuring their oscillations at the ppm level, CoRoT has provided a new vision of stars, never reached before by any ground-based observation.
At the beginning of the mission, two out of four CCDs were assigned to asteroseismic observations of bright stars (apparent magnitude 6 to 9) in the so-called seismo field while the other CCDs were reserved for exoplanet hunting in the so-called exo field. Albeit with a lower signal to noise ratio, interesting science on stars was also obtained from the exoplanets channel data, where the probe records several thousands of light curves from every observed field. Stellar activity, rotation periods, star spot evolution, star–planet interactions, multiple star systems are nice extras in addition to the main asteroseismic program. This exo field also turned out to be of incalculable richness in asteroseismic discoveries. During the first six years of its mission, CoRoT has observed about 150 bright stars in the seismo field and more than 150 000 weak stars in the exo field. The figure shows where most of them are located in the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram together with some others observed from the ground.
Discoveries were numerous. Let us cite the first detection of solar-like oscillations in stars other than the Sun, the first detection of non-radial oscillations in red giant stars, the detection of solar-like oscillations in massive stars, the discovery of hundreds of frequencies in δ Scuti stars, the spectacular time evolution of the frequency spectrum of a Be (emission lines B) star during an outburst, the first detection of a deviation from a constant period spacing in gravity modes in an SPB (Slowly Pulsating B) star. Interpreting those results opened new horizons in our vision of stars and galaxies. In October 2009 the CoRoT mission was the subject of a special issue of Astronomy and Astrophysics, dedicated to the early results of the probe. Below are some examples of breakthrough contributions to stellar astrophysics, based on CoRoT's data:
Extension of the chemically mixed zone in main sequence stars
Above the convective core where mixing of chemicals is instantaneous and efficient, some layers can be affected by partial or total mixing during the main sequence phase of evolution. The extent of this extra mixed zone as well as the mixing efficiency are, however, difficult to assess. This additional mixing has very important consequences since it involves longer time scales for nuclear burning phases and may in particular affect the value of the stellar mass at the transition between those stars which end up their life as white dwarfs and those which face a final supernova explosion. The impact on the chemical evolution of the galaxy is obvious. Physical reasons for this extra-mixing are various, either a mixing induced by internal rotation or a mixing resulting from convective bubbles crossing the convective core boundary to enter the radiative zone where they finally lose their identity (overshooting), or even some other poorly known processes.
Solar-like stars: The solar-like star HD 49933 is illustrative of this extra-mixing problem. Its convective envelope is responsible for the presence of solar-like oscillations. Comparing the observed frequency spectrum with that obtained from theoretical models of 1.19 Mʘ computed with and without additional mixing clearly excludes a model without extra mixing.
Sub-giant stars: Such an additional mixing also affects the structure of more evolved sub-giant stars since the mass extension of the helium core formed during core hydrogen burning is increased. The sub-giant star HD 49385 of 1.3 Mʘ was submitted to CoRoT scrutiny and although not fully conclusive, new constraints were brought to the modeling of such stars.
SPB stars: More massive SPB (Slowly Pulsating B) stars show a frequency spectrum dominated by high order gravity modes excited by the κ mechanism at work in layers where ionizations of iron group elements produces an opacity peak. In such stars, the convective core is surrounded by a region of varying chemical composition, the so-called μ-gradient region, left by the progressive withdrawal of the convective core as hydrogen is transformed into helium. This region is rather thin and constitutes a sharp transition region, which induces a very subtle signature in the gravity modes frequency spectrum. Instead of a constant period spacing found in a homogeneous stellar model, periodic deviations from this constant value are expected in models affected by a sharp transition region. Moreover, the period of the deviations is directly related to the precise location of the sharp transition. This phenomenon has been detected in two hybrid B stars (showing at the same time acoustic β Cephei and gravity SPB modes): (1) HD 50230 where an extra-mixing with a somewhat smooth shape is clearly required in the modeling and (2) HD 43317.
Structure of the superficial stellar layers
Transition layers in stellar envelopes: Transition layers such as the helium ionization region or the lower boundary of the convective envelope in low mass and red giant stars also affect frequency spectra. In a structure devoid of such discontinuities, high order acoustic modes obey some regularities in their frequency distribution (large frequency separation, second difference...). Transition zones introduce periodic deviations with respect to these regularities and the periods of the deviations are directly related to the precise location of the transition zones. These deviations were predicted by theory and were first observed in the Sun. Thanks to CoRoT they were also detected in the solar-like star HD 49933 and also in the red giant star HD 181907. In both cases the location of the helium ionization zone could be accurately derived.
Amplitudes and line widths in solar-like oscillation spectra: One of the major successes of the CoRoT space mission has definitely been the detection of solar-like oscillations in stars slightly hotter than the Sun. As was previously done for the Sun, measurements of amplitudes and line widths in their frequency spectra resulted in new constraints in the modeling of stochastic excitations of acoustic modes by turbulent convection. The frequency spectrum of HD 49933 was confronted to the stochastic excitation model developed by Samadi et al. Except at high frequencies, a good agreement can be reached by adopting a metallicity ten times smaller than the solar metallicity. With the solar value on the contrary, disagreements in amplitudes can reach a factor 2 at low frequencies.
Granulation: The presence of granulation was detected in the frequency spectrum of HD 49933. Analyses have been done with 3D hydrodynamical model atmospheres computed at solar and ten times smaller than solar metallicities. Here again the model with the lowest metallicity shows up to be closer to the observations although significant disagreements still remain.
Red giants and chemical evolution of our galaxy
Following exhaustion of hydrogen in the core, the overall stellar structure drastically changes. Hydrogen burning now takes place in a narrow shell surrounding the newly processed helium core. While the helium core quickly contracts and heats up, the layers above the hydrogen-burning shell undergo important expansion and cooling. The star becomes a red giant whose radius and luminosity increase in time. These stars are now located on the so-called red giant branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram; they are commonly named RGB stars. Once their central temperature reaches 100 106 K, helium starts burning in the core. For stellar masses smaller than about 2 Mʘ, this new combustion takes place in a highly degenerate matter and proceeds through a helium flash. The readjustment following the flash brings the red giant to the so-called red clump (RC) in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram.
Whether RGB or RC, these stars all have an extended convective envelope favorable to the excitation of solar-like oscillations. A major success of CoRoT has been the discovery of radial and long-lived non-radial oscillations in thousands of red giants in the exo field. For each of them, the frequency at maximum power νmax in the frequency spectrum as well as the large frequency separation between consecutive modes Δν could be measured, defining a sort of individual seismic passport.
Red giant population in our galaxy: Introducing these seismic signatures, together with an estimation of the effective temperature, in the scaling laws relating them to the global stellar properties, gravities (seismic gravities), masses and radii can be estimated and luminosities and distances immediately follow for those thousands of red giants. Histograms could then be drawn and a totally unexpected and spectacular result came out when comparing these CoRoT histograms with theoretical ones obtained from theoretical synthetic populations of red giants in our galaxy. Such theoretical populations were computed from stellar evolution models, with adopting various hypotheses to describe the successive generations of stars along the time evolution of our galaxy. Andrea Miglio and collaborators noticed that both types of histograms were spitting images of one another, as can be seen in the histograms picture. Moreover, adding the knowledge of the distances of these thousands of stars to their galactic coordinates, a 3D map of our galaxy was drawn. This is illustrated in the figure where different colors relate to different CoRoT runs and to Kepler observations (green points).
Age-metallicity relation in our galaxy: The age of a red giant is closely related to its former main sequence lifetime, which is in turn determined by its mass and metallicity. Knowing the mass of a red giant amounts to knowing its age. If the metallicity is known the uncertainty in age does not exceed 15%! Observational missions such as APOGEE (Apache Point Observatoty Galactic Evolution Environment) whose goal is to measure metallicities for 100 000 red giants in our galaxy, GALAH (Galactic Archaeology with HERMES) and GAIA (Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics) could of course widely benefit from these seismic gravities with the ultimate output of establishing the age-metallicity relation in our galaxy. Asteroseismology has crossed the doorstep of the structure and chemical evolution of our galaxy.
Seismic signatures and extension of mixed zones during central hydrogen and helium burning: Increasing even further the scrutiny in analyzing the CoRoT and Kepler frequency spectra of red giants brought new important discoveries. Small and subtle differences in seismic signatures allow us to distinguish RGB from RC stars notwithstanding their similar luminosities. This is now theoretically confirmed thanks to elaborate red giant modeling. The period spacings of gravity-dominated modes are expected to be especially meaningful. Their detection for a large number of red giants could give us clues to establishing the extent of the extra-mixed region above the convective core during core hydrogen burning, but also the extent of the extra-mixed region during core helium burning, both mixing processes being a priori totally unrelated.
Massive stars
Massive variable main sequence stars have frequency spectra dominated by acoustic modes excited by the κ mechanism at work in layers where partial ionization of iron group elements produce a peak in opacity. In addition the most advanced of these stars present mixed modes i.e. modes with a g-character in deep layers and p-character in the envelope. Hydrogen burning takes place in a convective core surrounded by a region of varying chemical composition and an envelope mostly radiative except for tiny convective layers related to partial ionization of helium and/or iron group elements. As in lower mass stars the extent of the fully or partially mixed region located just above the convective core (extra-mixed zone) is one of the main uncertainties affecting theoretical modeling.
β Cephei stars: Seismic analyses of β Cephei stars show that it is not obvious to derive a one-to-one extent of this extra-mixed zone. A rather large extent seems to be required to model θ Ophiuchi while a much smaller one is favored for HD 129929, for β Canis Majoris, for δ Ceti, and for 12 Lacertae. This extra-mixed zone could even be absent in the structure of V1449 Aquilae (HD 180642) and ν Eridani. It would be extremely interesting to establish a relation between the extent of this zone and the rotation velocity and/or the magnetic field of the star. Seismic analysis of V2052 Ophiuchi shows that this star although rapidly rotating, which would favor extra-mixing, could be devoid of such a region. The magnetic field detected in this star could be the reason of this lack of extra-mixing.
Be stars: Late Be type stars HD 181231 and HD 175869 are very rapid rotators, about 20 times more rapid than the Sun. Their seismic analysis seems to require a centrally mixed zone about 20% larger than what is expected from convection only. Another Be star, HD 49330, had a very exciting surprise in store. Observed by CoRoT during an outburst of matter towards its circumstellar disk, which is typical of such stars, its frequency spectrum suffered drastic changes. Firstly dominated by acoustic modes the spectrum showed the appearance of gravity modes with amplitudes strictly in line with the outburst. Such a link between the nature of the excited modes and a dynamical phenomenon is of course a gold mine in our quest for the internal structure of Be stars.
O stars: A bunch of O stars have been observed by CoRoT. Among them HD 46150 and HD 46223 (members of the galactic cluster NGC 2264) and HD 46966 (member of the OB association Mon OB2) do not seem to pulsate, which is in agreement with stellar modeling of stars with similar global parameters. The frequency spectrum of the Plaskett's star HD 47129 on the contrary shows a peak with six harmonics in the frequency range expected from theoretical modeling.
Another unexpected CoRoT discovery was the presence of solar-like oscillations in massive stars. The small convective shell related to the opacity peak resulting from the ionization of iron group elements at about 200 000 K (iron opacity peak) could indeed be responsible for the stochastic excitation of acoustic modes like those observed in our Sun.
V1449 Aquilae (HD 180642): This CoRoT target is a β Cephei star whose frequency spectrum reveals high frequency and very small amplitude acoustic modes. A careful analysis has shown that they were solar-like oscillations excited by turbulent bubbles origination from this convective iron opacity peak zone or even from the convective core. This is indeed a major discovery since it was the first time that pulsations excited by the κ mechanism acting in the iron opacity peak zone were present side by side in the same star with pulsations stochastically excited by this very same zone. This is the reason why Kevin Belkacem, main discoverer of these solar-like oscillations in V1449 Aquilae, added a new baptismal certificate to this β Cephei star and named it Chimera. The figure illustrates the behavior of the frequency versus time for two modes in the frequency spectrum of Chimera, a solar-like mode (top) and a β Cephei mode (bottom). The stochastic nature of the solar-like mode reveals itself in the instability of its frequency as time goes on and in the spread in frequency on several μHz. The contrast with the stability in frequency and the narrow frequency range of the β Cephei mode is striking.
HD 46149: Later on solar-like oscillations were even discovered in a more massive O star member of the binary system HD 46149. Constraints coming from the binary nature of the system coupled with seismic constraints led to the determination of the orbital parameters of the system as well as to the global properties of its members.
The open cluster NGC 2264
During a 23-day observing run in March 2008, CoRoT observed 636 members of the young open cluster NGC 2264. The so-called Christmas tree cluster, is located in the constellation Monoceros relatively close to us at a distance of about 1800 light years. Its age is estimated to be between 3 and 8 million years. At such a young age, the cluster is an ideal target to investigate many different scientific questions connected to the formation of stars and early stellar evolution. The CoRoT data of stars in NGC 2264 allow us to study the interaction of recently formed stars with their surrounding matter, the rotation and activity of cluster members as well as their distribution, the interiors of young stars by using asteroseismology, and planetary and stellar eclipses.
The stellar births and the stars' childhoods remain mostly hidden from us in the optical light because the early stars are deeply embedded in the dense molecular cloud from which they are born. Observations in the infrared or X-ray enable us to look deeper into the cloud, and learn more about these earliest phases in stellar evolution.
Therefore, in December 2011 and January 2012, CoRoT was part of a large international observing campaign involving four space telescopes and several ground-based observatories. All instruments observed about 4000 stars in the young cluster NGC 2264 simultaneously for about one month at different wavelengths. The Canadian space mission MOST targeted the brightest stars in the cluster in the optical light, while CoRoT observed the fainter members. MOST and CoRoT observed NGC 2264 continuously for 39 days. The NASA satellites Spitzer and Chandra measured at the same time the stars in the infrared (for 30 days) and the X-ray domains (for 300 kiloseconds). Ground-based observations were taken also at the same time, for example, with the ESO Very Large Telescope in Chile, the Canadian-French-Hawaiian Telescope in Hawaii, the McDonald Observatory in Texas, or the Calar Alto Observatory in Spain.
The CoRoT observations led to the discovery of about a dozen pulsating pre-main sequence (PMS) δ Scuti stars and the confirmation of the existence of γ Doradus pulsations in PMS stars. Also the presence of hybrid δ Scuti/γ Doradus pulsations was confirmed in members of NGC 2264. The CoRoT observations included also the well known pre-main sequence pulsators, V 588 Mon and V 589 Mon, which were the first discovered members of this group of stars. The precision attained in the CoRoT light curves also revealed the important role of granulation in pre-main sequence stars.
The investigation of T Tauri stars and their interaction with their circumstellar matter using CoRoT data revealed the existence of a new class, the AA Tauri type objects. Previously to the CoRoT observations, T Tauri stars were known to either show sinusoidal light variations that are caused by spots on the stellar surface, or completely irregular variability that is caused by the gas and dust disks surrounding the young stars. AA Tauri type objects show periodically occurring minima that are different in depth and width, hence are semi-regular variables. With the CoRoT observations this class of objects could be established. Exciting insights into the earliest phases of stellar evolution also come from the comparison of the variability present in the optical light to that in the infrared and the X-ray regime.
Binary systems
A large number of binary systems with non-radially pulsating members were observed by CoRoT. Some of them, which were eclipsing binaries with members of γ Doradus type, were discovered during CoRoT runs. The eclipse phenomenon plays a key role since global parameters can immediately follow, bringing invaluable constraints, in addition to the seismic ones, to stellar modeling.
AU Monocerotis: This semi-detached binary system contains a Be star interacting with its G star companion. Its observation by CoRoT provided an extremely high quality lightcurve. Global parameters could then be improved and new ephemeris for the orbital motion as well as for another long term variation were derived. This long period variation seems to originate from a periodic light attenuation by circumstellar dust.
HD 174884: Tidally induced pulsations have been detected in the high eccentricity (e=0.29) and short period binary system HD 174884 consisting of two B stars. The upper panel of the figure shows the full light curve of the system. In the second panel tiny secondary eclipses are seen with a depth of about 1% of the depth of the primary eclipse. Actually the system is formed of stars of similar mass, size and temperature. Were the orbit circular, the eclipses would be similar in depth. However the orbit is highly eccentric and its orientation in space with respect to us is such that the secondary eclipse occurs when the stars are at a larger distance than at primary eclipse. The third panel of the figure shows the projection on the plane of the sky (i.e. the system as we see it) at different orbital phases.
CoRoT 102918586 (alias CoRoT Sol 1): The relatively bright eclipsing system CoRoT 102918586 is a double-lined spectroscopic binary, observed by CoRoT, which revealed clear evidence of γ Doradus type pulsations. In addition to CoRoT photometry, a spectroscopic follow-up was performed which yielded the radial velocity curves, the component effective temperatures, the metallicity, and the line-of-sight projected rotational velocities. The eclipsing binary light curve analysis, combined with the spectroscopic results, provided system physical parameters with 1–2% accuracy while the comparison with evolutionary models led to constraints on the age of the system. After subtracting the best–fitting eclipsing binary model, the residuals were analyzed to determine the pulsation properties. The primary star pulsates with typical γ Dor frequencies and shows a period spacing consistent with high order g-modes of degree l=1.
HR 6902: The binary system ζ Aurigae HR 6902 containing a red giant and a B star was observed by CoRoT during two runs, which allowed us to fully cover the primary as well as the secondary eclipses. This system is presently being analyzed with the ultimate goal of bringing new constraints on the internal structure of the red giant in particular.
A low mass binary: One of the binary system observed by CoRoT is of particular interest since the less massive component is a late M star of 0.23 M⊙ with an estimated effective temperature of about 3000 K. The primary component is a 1.5 M⊙ star MS star.
A beaming effect in a binary: A binary system observed by CoRoT showed out of eclipses variations which were interpreted as a beaming effect (also called Doppler boosting). This effect results from the variation in brightness of source approaching or moving away from the observer, with an amplitude proportional to the radial velocity divided by the speed of light. The periodic variation in the velocity of an orbiting star will thus produce a periodic beaming variation in the light curve. Such an effect can confirm the binary nature of a system even without any detectable eclipses nor transits. One of the main advantages of the beaming effect is the possibility to determine the radial velocity directly from the light curve but very different luminosities of the binary components are required and a single radial velocity curve can only be obtained as in an SB1 binary system. The out of eclipse variations were modeled with the BEER (Beaming Ellipsoidal Reflection) algorithm.
Exoplanets
To find extra solar planets, CoRoT uses the method of transits detection. The primary transit is the occultation of a fraction of the light from a star when a celestial object, such as a planet, passes between the star and the observer. Its detection is made possible by the sensitivity of CCD to very small changes in light flux. Corot is capable of detecting changes in brightness of about 1/10,000. Scientists can thus hope finding planets with a size of approximately 2 times that of the Earth with this method, a class of planet called Super-Earth; detection of Corot-7b, whose radius is 1.7 times that of the Earth has shown that these predictions were correct. CoRoT takes an exposure of 32 seconds duration, each 32 seconds, but the image is not fully transmitted to Earth because the data flow would be too large. The onboard computer performs an important work of data reduction: the field around each target star, previously selected by the exoplanets team, is defined on a certain number of pixels described by a particular mask, the sum all pixels within the mask is then performed and several exposures are added (usually 16, which amounts to an integration time of about 8 minutes) before sending this information to the ground. For some stars, considered particularly of interest, data of each exposure is transmitted every 32 seconds. Such a sampling of 32s or 512s is well suited to the detection of a planetary transit that lasts from a little less than an hour to several hours.
A feature of this method is that it requires to detect at least three successive transits separated by two equal time intervals before one can consider a target as a serious candidate. A planet of orbital period T should at least be observed for a time interval between 2T and 3T to have a chance to detect three transits. The distance of the planet to the star ( which is characterized by a the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit ) is linked to its orbital period by the second law of Kepler / Newton a3 = T2 Mstar, using respectively as units for a, M and T: the distance from the Earth to the Sun (150 million km), the mass of the Sun, the orbital period of the Earth (1 year); this implies that if the observing time is less a year, for example, the orbits of the detectable planets will be significantly smaller than that of the Earth.
So, for CoRoT, due to the maximum duration of 6 months of observation for each star field, only planets closer to their stars than 0.3 Astronomic Units (less than the distance between the Sun and Mercury) can be detected, therefore generally not in the so-called habitable zone. The Kepler mission (NASA) has continuously observed the same field for many years and thus had the ability to detect Earth sized planets located farther from their stars.
The moderate number of exoplanets discovered by CoRoT (34 during the 6 years of operation), is explained by the fact that a confirmation should absolutely be provided by ground-based telescopes, before any announcement is made. Indeed, in the vast majority of cases, the detection of several transits does not mean the detection of a planet, but rather that of a binary star system, either one that corresponds to a grazing occultation of a star by the other, or that the system is close enough to a bright star (the CoRoT target) and the effect of transit is diluted by the light of this star; in both cases the decrease in brightness is low enough to be compatible with that of a planet passing in front of the stellar disk. To eliminate these cases, one performs observations from the ground using two methods: radial velocity spectroscopy and imaging photometry with a CCD camera. In the first case, the mass of the binary stars is immediately detected and in the second case one can expect to identify in the field the binary system near the target star responsible for the alert: the relative decline of brightness will be greater than the one seen by CoRoT which adds all the light in the mask defining the field of measurement. In consequence, the CoRoT exoplanet science team has decided to publish confirmed and fully characterized planets only and not simple candidate lists. This strategy, different from the one pursued by the Kepler mission, where the candidates are regularly updated and made available to the public, is quite lengthy. On the other hand, the approach also increases the scientific return of the mission, as the set of published CoRoT discoveries constitute some of the best exoplanetary studies carried out so far.
Timeline of planetary discoveries
CoRoT discovered its first two planets in 2007: the hot Jupiters CoRoT-1b and CoRoT-2b. Results on asteroseismology were published in the same year.
In May 2008, two new exoplanets of Jupiter size, CoRoT-4b and CoRoT-5b, as well as an unknown massive celestial object, CoRoT-3b, were announced by ESA.
In February 2009, during the First CoRoT Symposium, the super-earth CoRoT-7b was announced, which at the time was the smallest exoplanet to have its diameter confirmed, at 1.58 Earth diameters. The discoveries of a second non-transiting planet in the same system, CoRoT-7c, and of a new Hot Jupiter, CoRoT-6b, were also announced at the Symposium.
In March 2010 CoRoT-9b was announced. It's a long period planet (95.3 days) in an orbit close to that of Mercury.
In June 2010 the CoRoT team announced six new planets, CoRoT-8b, CoRoT-10b, CoRoT-11b, CoRoT-12b, CoRoT-13b, CoRoT-14b, and a brown dwarf, CoRoT-15b. All the planets announced are Jupiter sized, except CoRoT-8b, which appears to be somewhat between Saturn and Neptune. The probe was also able to tentatively detect the reflected light at optical wavelengths of HD46375 b, a non-transiting planet.
In June 2011, during the Second CoRoT Symposium, the probe added ten new objects to the Exoplanet catalogue: CoRoT-16b, CoRoT-17b, CoRoT-18b, CoRoT-19b, CoRoT-20b, CoRoT-21b, CoRoT-22b, CoRoT-23b, CoRoT-24b, CoRoT-24c.
As of November 2011, around 600 additional candidate exoplanets are being screened for confirmation.
Main results
Among the exoplanets CoRoT detected, one can highlight a subset with the most original features :
CoRot-1b, the first planet detected by CoRoT is a hot Jupiter. By further analysis, CoRoT-1b became the first exoplanets to have its secondary eclipse detected in the optical, thanks to the high precision lightcurve delivered by CoRoT.
CoRoT-3b, with a mass of 22 MJup, it appears to be "something between a brown dwarf and a planet." According to the definition of planet proposed by the owners of the exoplanet.eu database three years later, CoRoT-3b, being less massive than 25 Jupiter masses, is classified as an exoplanet. In an August 2010 paper, CoRoT detected the ellipsoidal and the relativistic beaming effects in the CoRoT-3 lightcurve.
CoRot-7b, with a radius of 1.7 REarth and a mass of 7.3 MEarth, was the first confirmed rocky planet, with a density and composition which are close to those of the Earth. Its orbital period (i.e. its local year) is very short since it lasts just 20.5 h; because the planet is very close to its star (an almost solar type star), its orbit is a mere 6 stellar radii. As the planet must be in synchronous rotation with its orbital motion because of the huge tidal forces it undergoes, it always presents the same hemisphere to the star: as a consequence, the two hemispheres, the enlightened and the dark, exhibit an extreme contrast in temperature (2200K vs 50K) and a huge ocean of lava must occupy a large part of the hot side. A continent of water and nitrogen dioxide ices is probably occupying the dark side. CoRoT-7b was also the first case of a system discovered by CoRoT, with two super-Earths, one in transit the other not; radial velocity measurements have indeed led to the discovery of CoRoT-7c, a planet of 8.4 MEarth and a period of 3.79 days. A third planet is even suspected.
CoRoT-8b, a planet of the same class as Neptune, with a mass of 0.22 MJup;
CoRoT-9b, the first planet that has earned the epithet of a temperate planet. With 80% of Jupiter mass, and an orbit similar to the Mercury one, this is the first transiting temperate planet found known to be similar to those within the Solar System. At the time of the discovery, it was the second longest period exoplanet found in transit, after HD80606 b.
CoRoT-11b and CoRoT-2b, two inflated planets, with radius 1.4 and 1.5 RJup respectively: the theory does not yet provide a consistent model for such objects;
CoRoT-15b, a bona fide brown dwarf in orbit;
CoRoT-10b, CoRoT-16b, CoRoT-20b, CoRoT-23b, four hot Jupiters which are on an eccentric orbits, despite circularization is theoretically predicted for such small orbits: this is a clear constraint on Qp, the parameter that quantifies the energy dissipation by tidal forces;
CoRoT-22b, is notable for its small size, having less than half the mass of Saturn.
CoRoT-24b and c the second planetary system discovered by CoRoT, with two small planets of 0.10 and 0.17 MJup. The two planets are of Neptune size, and orbit the same star and represented the first multiple transiting system detected by CoRoT.
List of planets discovered
The following transiting planets have been announced by the mission.
Light green rows indicate that the planet orbits one of the stars in a binary star system.
Other discoveries
The following table illustrates brown dwarf detected by CoRoT as well as non-transiting planets detected in the follow-up program:
Global properties of the exoplanets discovered by CoRoT
All CoRoT planets were detected during long runs i.e. of at least 70 days. The detection team found on average between 200 and 300 cases of periodic events for each run, corresponding to 2–3% of the stars monitored. Of these, only 530 in total were selected as candidate planets (223 in the direction of the galactic anti-center and 307 towards the center ). Only 30 of them were finally found to be true planets, i.e. about 6%, other cases being eclipsing binaries ( 46%) or unresolved cases (48%).
The detection capabilities of Corot are illustrated by the figure D showing the depth of the transits measured for all candidates, depending on the period and the brightness of the star: there is indeed a better ability to detect small planets (up to 1.5 R Earth ) for short periods (less than 5 days) and bright stars.
The CoRoT planets cover the wide range of properties and features found in the disparate family of exoplanets: for instance, the masses of CoRoT planets cover a range of almost four orders of magnitude, as shown on Figure.
Tracing the mass of the planet versus the mass of the star (Figure), one finds that the CoRoT data set, with its lower scatter than other experiments, indicates a clear trend that massive planets tend to orbit massive stars, which is consistent with the most commonly accepted models of planetary formation.
See also
References
External links
CoRoT on the CNES site
CoRoT N2 Public archive
Satellites orbiting Earth
CNES
European Space Agency satellites
Exoplanet search projects
Optical telescopes
Satellites of France
Space telescopes
Spacecraft launched by Soyuz-2 rockets
Spacecraft launched in 2006
Derelict space probes
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20credit
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Social credit
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Social credit is a distributive philosophy of political economy developed by C. H. Douglas. Douglas attributed economic downturns to discrepancies between the cost of goods and the compensation of the workers who made them. To combat what he saw as a chronic deficiency of purchasing power in the economy, Douglas prescribed government intervention in the form of the issuance of debt free money directly to consumers or producers (if they sold their product below cost to consumers) in order to combat such discrepancy.
In defence of his ideas, Douglas wrote that "Systems were made for men, and not men for systems, and the interest of man which is self-development, is above all systems, whether theological, political or economic." Douglas said that Social Crediters want to build a new civilization based upon "absolute economic security" for the individual, where "they shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree; and none shall make them afraid." In his words, "what we really demand of existence is not that we shall be put into somebody else's Utopia, but we shall be put in a position to construct a Utopia of our own."
The idea of social credit attracted considerable interest in the interwar period, with the Alberta Social Credit Party briefly distributing "prosperity certificates" to the Albertan populace. However, Douglas opposed the distribution of prosperity certificates which were based upon the theories of Silvio Gesell. Douglas' theory of social credit has been disputed and rejected by most economists and bankers. Prominent economist John Maynard Keynes references Douglas' ideas in his book The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, but instead poses the principle of effective demand to explain differences in output and consumption.
Economic theory
Factors of production and value
Douglas disagreed with classical economists who recognised only three factors of production: land, labour and capital. While Douglas did not deny the role of these factors in production, he considered the "cultural inheritance of society" as the primary factor. He defined cultural inheritance as the knowledge, techniques and processes that have accrued to us incrementally from the origins of civilization (i.e. progress). Consequently, mankind does not have to keep "reinventing the wheel". "We are merely the administrators of that cultural inheritance, and to that extent the cultural inheritance is the property of all of us, without exception." Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Marx claimed that labour creates all value. While Douglas did not deny that all costs ultimately relate to labour charges of some sort (past or present), he denied that the present labour of the world creates all wealth. Douglas carefully distinguished between value, costs and prices. He claimed that one of the factors resulting in a misdirection of thought in terms of the nature and function of money was economists' near-obsession about values and their relation to prices and incomes. While Douglas recognized "value in use" as a legitimate theory of values, he also considered values as subjective and not capable of being measured in an objective manner. Thus he rejected the idea of the role of money as a standard, or measure, of value. Douglas believed that money should act as a medium of communication by which consumers direct the distribution of production.
Economic sabotage
Closely associated with the concept of cultural inheritance as a factor of production is the social credit theory of economic sabotage. While Douglas believed the cultural heritage factor of production is primary in increasing wealth, he also believed that economic sabotage is the primary factor decreasing it. The word wealth derives from the Old English word , or "well-being", and Douglas believed that all production should increase personal well-being. Therefore, production that does not directly increase personal well-being is waste, or economic sabotage.
The economic effect of charging all the waste in industry to the consumer so curtails his purchasing power that an increasing percentage of the product of industry must be exported. The effect of this on the worker is that he has to do many times the amount of work which should be necessary to keep him in the highest standard of living, as a result of an artificial inducement to produce things he does not want, which he cannot buy, and which are of no use to the attainment of his internal standard of well-being.
By modern methods of accounting, the consumer is forced to pay for all the costs of production, including waste. The economic effect of charging the consumer with all waste in industry is that the consumer is forced to do much more work than is necessary. Douglas believed that wasted effort could be directly linked to confusion in regard to the purpose of the economic system, and the belief that the economic system exists to provide employment in order to distribute goods and services.
But it may be advisable to glance at some of the proximate causes operating to reduce the return for effort; and to realise the origin of most of the specific instances, it must be borne in mind that the existing economic system distributes goods and services through the same agency which induces goods and services, i.e., payment for work in progress. In other words, if production stops, distribution stops, and, as a consequence, a clear incentive exists to produce useless or superfluous articles in order that useful commodities already existing may be distributed. This perfectly simple reason is the explanation of the increasing necessity of what has come to be called economic sabotage; the colossal waste of effort which goes on in every walk of life quite unobserved by the majority of people because they are so familiar with it; a waste which yet so over-taxed the ingenuity of society to extend it that the climax of war only occurred in the moment when a culminating exhibition of organised sabotage was necessary to preserve the system from spontaneous combustion.
Purpose of an economy
Douglas claimed there were three possible policy alternatives with respect to the economic system:
1. The first of these is that it is a disguised Government, of which the primary, though admittedly not the only, object is to impose upon the world a system of thought and action.
2. The second alternative has a certain similarity to the first, but is simpler. It assumes that the primary objective of the industrial system is the provision of employment.
3. And the third, which is essentially simpler still, in fact, so simple that it appears entirely unintelligible to the majority, is that the object of the industrial system is merely to provide goods and services.
Douglas believed that it was the third policy alternative upon which an economic system should be based, but confusion of thought has allowed the industrial system to be governed by the first two objectives. If the purpose of our economic system is to deliver the maximum amount of goods and services with the least amount of effort, then the ability to deliver goods and services with the least amount of employment is actually desirable. Douglas proposed that unemployment is a logical consequence of machines replacing labour in the productive process, and any attempt to reverse this process through policies designed to attain full employment directly sabotages our cultural inheritance. Douglas also believed that the people displaced from the industrial system through the process of mechanization should still have the ability to consume the fruits of the system, because he suggested that we are all inheritors of the cultural inheritance, and his proposal for a national dividend is directly related to this belief.
The creditary nature of money
Douglas criticized classical economics because many of the theories are based upon a barter economy, whereas the modern economy is a monetary one. Initially, money originated from the productive system, when cattle owners punched leather discs which represented a head of cattle. These discs could then be exchanged for corn, and the corn producers could then exchange the disc for a head of cattle at a later date. The word "pecuniary" comes from the Latin , originally and literally meaning "cattle" (related to , meaning "beast"). Today, the productive system and the monetary system are two separate entities. Douglas demonstrated that loans create deposits, and presented mathematical proof in his book Social Credit. Bank credit comprises the vast majority of money, and is created every time a bank makes a loan. Douglas was also one of the first to understand the creditary nature of money. The word credit derives from the Latin , meaning "to believe". "The essential quality of money, therefore, is that a man shall believe that he can get what he wants by the aid of it."
According to economists, money is a medium of exchange. Douglas argued that this may have once been the case when the majority of wealth was produced by individuals who subsequently exchanged it with each other. But in modern economies, division of labour splits production into multiple processes, and wealth is produced by people working in association with each other. For instance, an automobile worker does not produce any wealth (i.e., the automobile) by himself, but only in conjunction with other auto workers, the producers of roads, gasoline, insurance, etc.
In this opinion, wealth is a pool upon which people can draw, and money becomes a ticketing system. The efficiency gained by individuals cooperating in the productive process was named by Douglas as the "unearned increment of association" – historic accumulations of which constitute what Douglas called the cultural heritage. The means of drawing upon this pool is money distributed by the banking system.
Douglas believed that money should not be regarded as a commodity but rather as a ticket, a means of distribution of production. "There are two sides to this question of a ticket representing something that we can call, if we like, a value. There is the ticket itself – the money which forms the thing we call 'effective demand' – and there is something we call a price opposite to it." Money is effective demand, and the means of reclaiming that money are prices and taxes. As real capital replaces labour in the process of modernization, money should become increasingly an instrument of distribution. The idea that money is a medium of exchange is related to the belief that all wealth is created by the current labour of the world, and Douglas clearly rejected this belief, stating that the cultural inheritance of society is the primary factor in the creation of wealth, which makes money a distribution mechanism, not a medium of exchange.
Douglas also claimed the problem of production, or scarcity, had long been solved. The new problem was one of distribution. However, so long as orthodox economics makes scarcity a value, banks will continue to believe that they are creating value for the money they produce by making it scarce. Douglas criticized the banking system on two counts:
for being a form of government which has been centralizing its power for centuries, and
for claiming ownership of the money they create.
The former Douglas identified as being anti-social in policy. The latter he claimed was equivalent to claiming ownership of the nation. According to Douglas, money is merely an abstract representation of the real credit of the community, which is the ability of the community to deliver goods and services, when and where they are required.
The A + B theorem
In January 1919, "A Mechanical View of Economics" by C. H. Douglas was the first article to be published in the magazine New Age, edited by Alfred Richard Orage, critiquing the methods by which economic activity is typically measured:
It is not the purpose of this short article to depreciate the services of accountants; in fact, under the existing conditions probably no body of men has done more to crystallise the data on which we carry on the business of the world; but the utter confusion of thought which has undoubtedly arisen from the calm assumption of the book-keeper and the accountant that he and he alone was in a position to assign positive or negative values to the quantities represented by his figures is one of the outstanding curiosities of the industrial system; and the attempt to mould the activities of a great empire on such a basis is surely the final condemnation of an out-worn method.
In 1920, Douglas presented the A + B theorem in his book, Credit-Power and Democracy, in critique of accounting methodology pertinent to income and prices. In the fourth, Australian Edition of 1933, Douglas states:
A factory or other productive organization has, besides its economic function as a producer of goods, a financial aspect – it may be regarded on the one hand as a device for the distribution of purchasing-power to individuals through the media of wages, salaries, and dividends; and on the other hand as a manufactory of prices – financial values. From this standpoint, its payments may be divided into two groups:
Group A: All payments made to individuals (wages, salaries, and dividends).
Group B: All payments made to other organizations (raw materials, bank charges, and other external costs).
Now the rate of flow of purchasing-power to individuals is represented by A, but since all payments go into prices, the rate of flow of prices cannot be less than A+B. The product of any factory may be considered as something which the public ought to be able to buy, although in many cases it is an intermediate product of no use to individuals but only to a subsequent manufacture; but since A will not purchase A+B; a proportion of the product at least equivalent to B must be distributed by a form of purchasing-power which is not comprised in the description grouped under A. It will be necessary at a later stage to show that this additional purchasing power is provided by loan credit (bank overdrafts) or export credit.
Beyond empirical evidence, Douglas claims this deductive theorem demonstrates that total prices increase faster than total incomes when regarded as a flow.
In his pamphlet entitled "The New and the Old Economics", Douglas describes the cause of "B" payments:
I think that a little consideration will make it clear that in this sense an overhead charge is any charge in respect of which the actual distributed purchasing power does not still exist, and that practically this means any charge created at a further distance in the past than the period of cyclic rate of circulation of money. There is no fundamental difference between tools and intermediate products, and the latter may therefore be included.
In 1932, Douglas estimated the cyclic rate of circulation of money to be approximately three weeks. The cyclic rate of circulation of money measures the amount of time required for a loan to pass through the productive system and return to the bank. This can be calculated by determining the amount of clearings through the bank in a year divided by the average amount of deposits held at the banks (which varies very little). The result is the number of times money must turnover in order to produce these clearing house figures. In a testimony before the Alberta Agricultural Committee of the Alberta Legislature in 1934, Douglas said:
Now we know there are an increasing number of charges which originated from a period much anterior to three weeks, and included in those charges, as a matter of fact, are most of the charges made in, respect of purchases from one organization to another, but all such charges as capital charges (for instance, on a railway which was constructed a year, two years, three years, five or ten years ago, where charges are still extant), cannot be liquidated by a stream of purchasing power which does not increase in volume and which has a period of three weeks. The consequence is, you have a piling up of debt, you have in many cases a diminution of purchasing power being equivalent to the price of the goods for sale.
According to Douglas, the major consequence of the problem he identified in his A+B theorem is exponentially increasing debt. Further, he believed that society is forced to produce goods that consumers either do not want or cannot afford to purchase. The latter represents a favorable balance of trade, meaning a country exports more than it imports. But not every country can pursue this objective at the same time, as one country must import more than it exports when another country exports more than it imports. Douglas proposed that the long-term consequence of this policy is a trade war, typically resulting in real war – hence, the social credit admonition, "He who calls for Full-Employment calls for War!", expressed by the Social Credit Party of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, led by John Hargrave. The former represents excessive capital production and/or military build-up. Military buildup necessitates either the violent use of weapons or a superfluous accumulation of them. Douglas believed that excessive capital production is only a temporary correction, because the cost of the capital appears in the cost of consumer goods, or taxes, which will further exacerbate future gaps between income and prices.
In the first place, these capital goods have to be sold to someone. They form a reservoir of forced exports. They must, as intermediate products, enter somehow into the price of subsequent ultimate products and they produce a position of most unstable equilibrium, since the life of capital goods is in general longer than that of consumable goods, or ultimate products, and yet in order to meet the requirements for money to buy the consumable goods, the rate of production of capital goods must be continuously increased.
The A + B theorem and a cost accounting view of inflation
The replacement of labour by capital in the productive process implies that overhead charges (B) increase in relation to income (A), because "'B' is the financial representation of the lever of capital". As Douglas stated in his first article, "The Delusion of Superproduction":
The factory cost – not the selling price – of any article under our present industrial and financial system is made up of three main divisions-direct labor cost, material cost and overhead charges, the ratio of which varies widely, with the "modernity" of the method of production. For instance, a sculptor producing a work of art with the aid of simple tools and a block of marble has next to no overhead charges, but a very low rate of production, while a modern screw-making plant using automatic machines may have very high overhead charges and very low direct labour cost, or high rates of production.
Since increased industrial output per individual depends mainly on tools and method, it may almost be stated as a law that intensified production means a progressively higher ratio of overhead charges to direct labour cost, and, apart from artificial reasons, this is simply an indication of the extent to which machinery replaces manual labour, as it should.
If overhead charges are constantly increasing relative to income, any attempt to stabilize or increase income results in increasing prices. If income is constant or increasing, and overhead charges are continuously increasing due to technological advancement, then prices, which equal income plus overhead charges, must also increase. Further, any attempt to stabilize or decrease prices must be met by decreasing incomes according to this analysis. As the Phillips Curve demonstrates, inflation and unemployment are trade-offs, unless prices are reduced from monies derived from outside the productive system. According to Douglas's A+B theorem, the systemic problem of increasing prices, or inflation, is not "too much money chasing too few goods", but is the increasing rate of overhead charges in production due to the replacement of labour by capital in industry combined with a policy of full employment. Douglas did not suggest that inflation cannot be caused by too much money chasing too few consumer goods, but according to his analysis this is not the only cause of inflation, and inflation is systemic according to the rules of cost accountancy given overhead charges are constantly increasing relative to income. In other words, inflation can exist even if consumers have insufficient purchasing power to buy back all of production. Douglas claimed that there were two limits which governed prices, a lower limit governed by the cost of production, and an upper limit governed by what an article will fetch on the open market. Douglas suggested that this is the reason why deflation is regarded as a problem in orthodox economics because bankers and businessmen were very apt to forget the lower limit of prices.
Compensated price and national dividend
Douglas proposed to eliminate the gap between purchasing power and prices by increasing consumer purchasing power with credits which do not appear in prices in the form of a price rebate and a dividend. Formally called a "Compensated Price" and a "National (or Consumer) Dividend", a National Credit Office would be charged with the task of calculating the size of the rebate and dividend by determining a national balance sheet, and calculating aggregate production and consumption statistics.
The price rebate is based upon the observation that the real cost of production is the mean rate of consumption over the mean rate of production for an equivalent period of time.
where
M = money distributed for a given programme of production,
C = consumption,
P = production.
The physical cost of producing something is the materials and capital that were consumed in its production, plus that amount of consumer goods labour consumed during its production. This total consumption represents the physical, or real, cost of production.
where
Consumption = cost of consumer goods,
Depreciation = depreciation of real capital,
Credit = Credit Created,
Production = cost of total production
Since fewer inputs are consumed to produce a unit of output with every improvement in process, the real cost of production falls over time. As a result, prices should also decrease with the progression of time. "As society's capacity to deliver goods and services is increased by the use of plant and still more by scientific progress, and decreased by the production, maintenance, or depreciation of it, we can issue credit, in costs, at a greater rate than the rate at which we take it back through prices of ultimate products, if capacity to supply individuals exceeds desire."
Based on his conclusion that the real cost of production is less than the financial cost of production, the Douglas price rebate (Compensated Price) is determined by the ratio of consumption to production. Since consumption over a period of time is typically less than production over the same period of time in any industrial society, the real cost of goods should be less than the financial cost.
For example, if the money cost of a good is $100, and the ratio of consumption to production is 3/4, then the real cost of the good is $100(3/4) = $75. As a result, if a consumer spent $100 for a good, the National Credit Authority would rebate the consumer $25. The good costs the consumer $75, the retailer receives $100, and the consumer receives the difference of $25 via new credits created by the National Credit Authority.
The National Dividend is justified by the displacement of labour in the productive process due to technological increases in productivity. As human labour is increasingly replaced by machines in the productive process, Douglas believed people should be free to consume while enjoying increasing amounts of leisure, and that the Dividend would provide this freedom.
Critics of the A + B theorem and rebuttal
Critics of the theorem, such as J. M. Pullen, Hawtrey and J. M. Keynes argue there is no difference between A and B payments. Other critics, such as Gary North, argue that social credit policies are inflationary. "The A + B theorem has met with almost universal rejection from academic economists on the grounds that, although B payments may be made initially to "other organizations," they will not necessarily be lost to the flow of available purchasing power. A and B payments overlap through time. Even if the B payments are received and spent before the finished product is available for purchase, current purchasing power will be boosted by B payments received in the current production of goods that will be available for purchase in the future."
A. W. Joseph replied to this specific criticism in a paper given to the Birmingham Actuarial Society, "Banking and Industry":
Let A1+B1 be the costs in a period to time of articles produced by factories making consumable goods divided up into A1 costs which refer to money paid to individuals by means of salaries, wages, dividends, etc., and B1 costs which refer to money paid to other institutions. Let A2, B2 be the corresponding costs of factories producing capital equipment. The money distributed to individuals is A1+A2 and the cost of the final consumable goods is A1+B1. If money in the hands of the public is to be equal to the costs of consumable articles produced then A1+A2 = A1+B1 and therefore A2=B1. Now modern science has brought us to the stage where machines are more and more taking the place of human labour in producing goods, i.e. A1 is becoming less important relatively to B1 and A2 less important relatively to B2.
In symbols if B1/A1 = k1 and B2/A2 = k2 both k1 and k2 are increasing.
Since A2=B1 this means that (A2+B2)/(A1+B1)= (1+k2)*A2/(1+1/k1)*B1 = (1+k2)/(1+1/k1) which is increasing.
Thus in order that the economic system should keep working it is essential that capital goods should be produced in ever increasing quantity relatively to consumable goods. As soon as the ratio of capital goods to consumable goods slackens, costs exceed money distributed, i.e. the consumer is unable to purchase the consumable goods coming on the market."
And in a reply to Dr. Hobson, Douglas restated his central thesis: "To reiterate categorically, the theorem criticised by Mr. Hobson: the wages, salaries and dividends distributed during a given period do not, and cannot, buy the production of that period; that production can only be bought, i.e., distributed, under present conditions by a draft, and an increasing draft, on the purchasing power distributed in respect of future production, and this latter is mainly and increasingly derived from financial credit created by the banks."
Incomes are paid to workers during a multi-stage program of production. According to the convention of accepted orthodox rules of accountancy, those incomes are part of the financial cost and price of the final product. For the product to be purchased with incomes earned in respect of its manufacture, all of these incomes would have to be saved until the product's completion. Douglas argued that incomes are typically spent on past production to meet the present needs of living, and will not be available to purchase goods completed in the future – goods which must include the sum of incomes paid out during their period of manufacture in their price. Consequently, this does not liquidate the financial cost of production inasmuch as it merely passes charges of one accountancy period on as mounting charges against future periods. In other words, according to Douglas, supply does not create enough demand to liquidate all the costs of production. Douglas denied the validity of Say's Law in economics.
While John Maynard Keynes referred to Douglas as a "private, perhaps, but not a major in the brave army of heretics", he did state that Douglas "is entitled to claim, as against some of his orthodox adversaries, that he at least has not been wholly oblivious of the outstanding problem of our economic system". While Keynes said that Douglas's A+B theorem "includes much mere mystification", he reaches a similar conclusion to Douglas when he states:
Thus the problem of providing that new capital-investment shall always outrun capital-disinvestment sufficiently to fill the gap between net income and consumption, presents a problem which is increasingly difficult as capital increases. New capital-investment can only take place in excess of current capital-disinvestment if future expenditure on consumption is expected to increase. Each time we secure to-day's equilibrium by increased investment we are aggravating the difficulty of securing equilibrium to-morrow.
The criticism that social credit policies are inflationary is based upon what economists call the quantity theory of money, which states that the quantity of money multiplied by its velocity of circulation equals total purchasing power. Douglas was quite critical of this theory stating, "The velocity of the circulation of money in the ordinary sense of the phrase, is – if I may put it that way – a complete myth. No additional purchasing power at all is created by the velocity of the circulation of money. The rate of transfer from hand-to-hand, as you might say, of goods is increased, of course, by the rate of spending, but no more costs can be canceled by one unit of purchasing power than one unit of cost. Every time a unit of purchasing power passes through the costing system it creates a cost, and when it comes back again to the same costing system by the buying and transfer of the unit of production to the consuming system it may be cancelled, but that process is quite irrespective of what is called the velocity of money, so the categorical answer is that I do not take any account of the velocity of money in that sense." The Alberta Social Credit government published in a committee report what was perceived as an error in regards to this theory: "The fallacy in the theory lies in the incorrect assumption that money 'circulates', whereas it is issued against production, and withdrawn as purchasing power as the goods are bought for consumption."
Other critics argue that if the gap between income and prices exists as Douglas claimed, the economy would have collapsed in short order. They also argue that there are periods of time in which purchasing power is in excess of the price of consumer goods for sale.
Douglas replied to these criticisms in his testimony before the Alberta Agricultural Committee:
What people who say that forget is that we were piling up debt at that time at the rate of ten millions sterling a day and if it can be shown, and it can be shown, that we are increasing debt continuously by normal operation of the banking system and the financial system at the present time, then that is proof that we are not distributing purchasing power sufficient to buy the goods for sale at that time; otherwise we should not be increasing debt, and that is the situation.
Political theory
C.H. Douglas defined democracy as the "will of the people", not rule by the majority, suggesting that social credit could be implemented by any political party supported by effective public demand. Once implemented to achieve a realistic integration of means and ends, party politics would cease to exist. Traditional ballot box democracy is incompatible with Social Credit, which assumes the right of individuals to choose freely one choice at a time, and to contract out of unsatisfactory associations. Douglas advocated what he called the "responsible vote", where anonymity in the voting process would no longer exist. "The individual voter must be made individually responsible, not collectively taxable, for his vote." Douglas believed that party politics should be replaced by a "union of electors" in which the only role of an elected official would be to implement the popular will. Douglas believed that the implementation of such a system was necessary as otherwise the government would be controlled by international financiers. Douglas also opposed the secret ballot arguing that it resulted in electoral irresponsibility, calling it a "Jewish" technique used to ensure Barabbas was freed leaving Christ to be crucified.
Douglas considered the constitution an organism, not an organization. In this view, establishing the supremacy of common law is essential to ensure protection of individual rights from an all-powerful parliament. Douglas also believed the effectiveness of British government is determined structurally by application of a Christian concept known as Trinitarianism: "In some form or other, sovereignty in the British Isles for the last two thousand years has been Trinitarian. Whether we look on this Trinitarianism under the names of King, Lords and Commons or as Policy, Sanctions and Administration, the Trinity-in-Unity has existed, and our national success has been greatest when the balance (never perfect) has been approached."
Opposing the formation of Social Credit parties, C.H. Douglas believed a group of elected amateurs should never direct a group of competent experts in technical matters. While experts are ultimately responsible for achieving results, the goal of politicians should be to pressure those experts to deliver policy results desired by the populace. According to Douglas, "the proper function of Parliament is to force all activities of a public nature to be carried on so that the individuals who comprise the public may derive the maximum benefit from them. Once the idea is grasped, the criminal absurdity of the party system becomes evident."
History
C. H. Douglas was a civil engineer who pursued his higher education at Cambridge University. His early writings appeared most notably in the British intellectual journal The New Age. The editor of that publication, Alfred Orage, devoted the magazines The New Age and later The New English Weekly to the promulgation of Douglas's ideas until his death on the eve of his BBC speech on social credit, 5 November 1934, in the Poverty in Plenty Series.
Douglas's first book, Economic Democracy, was published in 1920, soon after his article The Delusion of Super-Production appeared in 1918 in the English Review. Among Douglas's other early works were The Control and Distribution of Production, Credit-Power and Democracy, Warning Democracy and The Monopoly of Credit. Of considerable interest is the evidence he presented to the Canadian House of Commons Select Committee on Banking and Commerce in 1923, to the British Parliamentary Macmillan Committee on Finance and Industry in 1930, which included exchanges with economist John Maynard Keynes, and to the Agricultural Committee of the Alberta Legislature in 1934 during the term of the United Farmers of Alberta Government in that Canadian province.
The writings of C. H. Douglas spawned a worldwide movement, most prominent in the British Commonwealth, with a presence in Europe and activities in the United States where Orage, during his sojourn there, promoted Douglas's ideas. In the United States, the New Democracy group was directed by the American author Gorham Munson who contributed a major book on social credit titled Aladdin’s Lamp: The Wealth of the American People. While Canada and New Zealand had electoral successes with "social credit" political parties, the efforts in England and Australia were devoted primarily to pressuring existing parties to implement social credit. This function was performed especially by Douglas's social credit secretariat in England and the Commonwealth Leagues of Rights in Australia. Douglas continued writing and contributing to the secretariat's journals, initially Social Credit and soon thereafter The Social Crediter (which continues to be published by the Secretariat) for the remainder of his lifetime, concentrating more on political and philosophical issues during his later years.
Origins
It was while he was reorganising the work at Farnborough, during World War I, that Douglas noticed that the weekly total costs of goods produced was greater than the sums paid to individuals for wages, salaries and dividends. This seemed to contradict the theory of classic Ricardian economics, that all costs are distributed simultaneously as purchasing power. Troubled by the seeming difference between the way money flowed and the objectives of industry ("delivery of goods and services", in his opinion), Douglas decided to apply engineering methods to the economic system.
Douglas collected data from more than a hundred large British businesses and found that in nearly every case, except that of companies becoming bankrupt, the sums paid out in salaries, wages and dividends were always less than the total costs of goods and services produced each week: consumers did not have enough income to buy back what they had made. He published his observations and conclusions in an article in the magazine The English Review, where he suggested: "That we are living under a system of accountancy which renders the delivery of the nation's goods and services to itself a technical impossibility." He later formalized this observation in his A+B theorem. Douglas proposed to eliminate this difference between total prices and total incomes by augmenting consumers' purchasing power through a National Dividend and a Compensated Price Mechanism.
According to Douglas, the true purpose of production is consumption, and production must serve the genuine, freely expressed interests of consumers. In order to accomplish this objective, he believed that each citizen should have a beneficial, not direct, inheritance in the communal capital conferred by complete access to consumer goods assured by the National Dividend and Compensated Price. Douglas thought that consumers, fully provided with adequate purchasing power, will establish the policy of production through exercise of their monetary vote. In this view, the term economic democracy does not mean worker control of industry, but democratic control of credit. Removing the policy of production from banking institutions, government, and industry, social credit envisages an "aristocracy of producers, serving and accredited by a democracy of consumers".
Political history
During early years of the philosophy, the management of the British Labour Party resisted pressure from some trade unionists to implement social credit, as hierarchical views of Fabian socialism, economic growth and full employment, were incompatible with the National Dividend and abolition of wage slavery suggested by Douglas. In an effort to discredit the social credit movement, one leading Fabian, Sidney Webb, is said to have declared that he did not care whether Douglas was technically correct or not – he simply did not like his policy.
Aberhart administration
In 1935, the world's first Social Credit government was elected in Alberta, Canada led by William Aberhart. A book by Maurice Colbourne, entitled The Meaning of Social Credit, had convinced Aberhart that the theories of Major Douglas would facilitate for Alberta's recovery from the Great Depression. Aberhart added a heavy dose of fundamentalist Christianity to Douglas' theories, and the Canadian social credit movement, which was largely nurtured in Alberta, thus acquired a strong social conservative influence. However, some historians believe that neither Aberhart nor his supported understood the works of Douglas, and simply rallied around Aberhart's charisma.
Douglas was consulted by the 1921–1935 United Farmers of Alberta provincial government in Alberta, but the UFA saw only difficulties in trying to bring in Social Credit. Douglas became an advisor to Aberhart, but withdrew after a short time and never visited Alberta after 1935 due to strategic differences. Aberhart sought orthodox counsel with respect to the Province's finances, and the correspondence between them was published by Douglas in his book, The Alberta Experiment.
While Aberhart, the Premier, wanted to balance the provincial budget, Douglas argued the concept of a "balanced budget" was inconsistent with Social Credit principles. Douglas stated that, under existing rules of financial cost accountancy, balancing all budgets within an economy simultaneously is an arithmetic impossibility. In a letter to Aberhart, Douglas stated:
This seems to be a suitable occasion on which to emphasise the proposition that a Balanced Budget is quite inconsistent with the use of Social Credit (i.e., Real Credit – the ability to deliver goods and services 'as, when and where required') in the modern world, and is simply a statement in accounting figures that the progress of the country is stationary, i.e., that it consumes exactly what it produces, including capital assets. The result of the acceptance of this proposition is that all capital appreciation becomes quite automatically the property of those who create and issue of money [i.e., the banking system] and the necessary unbalancing of the Budget is covered by Debts.
Douglas sent two social credit technical advisors from the United Kingdom, L. Denis Byrne and George F. Powell, to Alberta. But early attempts to pass social credit legislation were ruled by the Supreme Court of Canada and/or the Privy Council in London. Drawing on the monetary theories of Silvio Gesell, William Aberhart issued a currency substitute known as prosperity certificates. These scrips intentionally depreciated in value the longer they were held, and Douglas openly criticized the idea:
Gesell's theory was that the trouble with the world was that people saved money so that what you had to do was to make them spend it faster. Disappearing money is the heaviest form of continuous taxation ever devised. The theory behind this idea of Gesell's was that what is required is to stimulate trade – that you have to get people frantically buying goods – a perfectly sound idea so long as the objective of life is merely trading.
They did provide spending power to many impoverished Albertans in the time they were in circulation.
Aberhart did bring in a measure of social credit, with the establishment of a government-owned banking system, the Alberta Treasury Branches, still in operation today and now among the very few government-owned banks in North America that serve the public. (See for comparison the Bank of North Dakota.)
In 1938, Aberhart's Alberta Social Credit Party had 41,000 paid members, forming a broad coalition ranging from those who believed in Douglas' monetary policies to moderate socialists. The latter group helped influence the party to form alliances with the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation and various communist groups in various local and provincial elections. However, as it became apparent that the party was failing to deliver on its promises to control prices and distribute social dividends, the party's membership fell rapidly, totaling just 3,500 by 1942.
Later activities
Under Ernest Manning, who succeeded Aberhart after his death in 1943, the Alberta Social Credit Party saw a major revival, with a post-war economic boom and high oil revenues helping the party retain power for a quarter of a century. However, the party soon departed from its origins and became popularly identified as a right wing populist party, focusing much of its efforts on combatting Alberta's unions, and implementing a red scare. In the Secretariat's journal, An Act for the Better Management of the Credit of Alberta, Douglas published a critical analysis of the Social Credit movement in Alberta, in which he said, "The Manning administration is no more a Social Credit administration than the British government is Labour". Manning accused Douglas and his followers of anti-Semitism, and purged "Douglasites" from the Alberta government. The British Columbia Social Credit Party won power in 1952 in the province to Alberta's west, but had little in common with Social Credit bank reform, Major Douglas or his theories.
Social credit parties also enjoyed some electoral success at the federal level in Canada. The Social Credit Party of Canada was initiated mostly by Albertans, and eventually created another base of support in Quebec. Social Credit also did well nationally in New Zealand, where it was the country's third party for almost 30 years.
Philosophy
Douglas described Social Credit as "the policy of a philosophy", and warned against considering it solely as a scheme for monetary reform. He called this philosophy "practical Christianity" and stated that its central issue is the Incarnation. Douglas believed that there was a Canon which permeated the universe, and Jesus Christ was the Incarnation of this Canon. However, he also believed that Christianity remained ineffective so long as it remained transcendental. Religion, which derives from the Latin word (to "bind back"), was intended to be a binding back to reality. Social Credit is concerned with the incarnation of Christian principles in our organic affairs. Specifically, it is concerned with the principles of association and how to maximize the increments of association which redound to satisfaction of the individual in society – while minimizing any decrements of association.
The goal of Social Credit is to maximize immanent sovereignty. Social credit is consonant with the Christian doctrine of salvation through unearned grace, and is therefore incompatible with any variant of the doctrine of salvation through works. Works need not be of Purity in intent or of desirable consequence and in themselves alone are as "filthy rags". For instance, the present system makes destructive, obscenely wasteful wars a virtual certainty – which provides much "work" for everyone. Social credit has been called the Third Alternative to the futile Left-Right Duality.
Although Douglas defined social credit as a philosophy with Christian origins, he did not envision a Christian theocracy. Douglas did not believe that religion should be mandated by law or external compulsion. Practical Christian society is Trinitarian in structure, based upon a constitution where the constitution is an organism changing in relation to our knowledge of the nature of the universe. "The progress of human society is best measured by the extent of its creative ability. Imbued with a number of natural gifts, notably reason, memory, understanding and free will, man has learned gradually to master the secrets of nature, and to build for himself a world wherein lie the potentialities of peace, security, liberty and abundance." Douglas said that social crediters want to build a new civilization based upon absolute economic security for the individual – where "they shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig tree; and none shall make them afraid." In keeping with this goal, Douglas was opposed to all forms of taxation on real property. This set social credit at variance from the land-taxing recommendations of Henry George.
Social credit society recognizes the fact that the relationship between man and God is unique. In this view, it is essential to allow man the greatest possible freedom in order to pursue this relationship. Douglas defined freedom as the ability to choose and refuse one choice at a time, and to contract out of unsatisfactory associations. Douglas believed that if people were given the economic security and leisure achievable in the context of a social credit dispensation, most would end their service to Mammon and use their free time to pursue spiritual, intellectual or cultural goals resulting in self-development. Douglas opposed what he termed "the pyramid of power". Totalitarianism represents this pyramid and is the antithesis of social credit. It turns the government into an end instead of a means, and the individual into a means instead of an end – – "the Devil is God upside down." Social credit is designed to give the individual the maximum freedom allowable given the need for association in economic, political and social matters. Social Credit elevates the importance of the individual and holds that all institutions exist to serve the individual – that the State exists to serve its citizens, not that individuals exist to serve the State.
Douglas emphasized that all policy derives from its respective philosophy and that "Society is primarily metaphysical, and must have regard to the organic relationships of its prototype." Social credit rejects dialectical materialistic philosophy. "The tendency to argue from the particular to the general is a special case of the sequence from materialism to collectivism. If the universe is reduced to molecules, ultimately we can dispense with a catalogue and a dictionary; all things are the same thing, and all words are just sounds – molecules in motion."
Douglas divided philosophy into two schools of thought that he termed the "classical school" and the "modern school", which are broadly represented by philosophies of Aristotle and Francis Bacon respectively. Douglas was critical of both schools of thought, but believed that "the truth lies in appreciation of the fact that neither conception is useful without the other".
Criticism for antisemitism
Social crediters and Douglas have been criticized for spreading antisemitism. Douglas was critical of "international Jewry", especially in his later writings. He asserted that such Jews controlled many of the major banks and were involved in an international conspiracy to centralize the power of finance. Some people have claimed that Douglas was antisemitic because he was quite critical of pre-Christian philosophy. In his book Social Credit, he wrote that, "It is not too much to say that one of the root ideas through which Christianity comes into conflict with the conceptions of the Old Testament and the ideals of the pre-Christians' era is in respect of this dethronement of abstractionism."
Douglas was opposed to abstractionist philosophies because he believed that these philosophies inevitably resulted in the elevation of abstractions, such as the state, and legal fictions, such as corporate personhood, over the individual. He also believed that what Jews considered as abstractionist thought tended to encourage them to endorse communist ideals and an emphasis on collectives over individuals. Historian John L. Finlay, in his book Social Credit: The English Origins, wrote, "Anti-Semitism of the Douglas kind, if it can be called anti-Semitism at all, may be fantastic, may be dangerous even, in that it may be twisted into a dreadful form, but it is not itself vicious nor evil." In his 1972 book, Social Credit: The English Origins, Finlay argues that, "It must also be noted that while Douglas was critical of some aspects of Jewish thought, Douglas did not seek to discriminate against Jews as a people or race. It was never suggested that the National Dividend be withheld from them."
In her book 2000 Social Discredit: Anti-Semitism, Social Credit and the Jewish Response, historian Janine Stingel writes that "Douglas' economic and political doctrines were wholly dependent on an anti-Semitic conspiracy theory."
Groups influenced by social credit
Australia
Australian League of Rights
Douglas Credit Party
Canada
Federal political parties
Social Credit Party of Canada/Canadian social credit movement
Ralliement créditiste
Abolitionist Party of Canada/Christian Credit Party
Canadian Action Party
Global Party of Canada
Canada Party
New Democracy
Provincial political parties
Alberta Social Credit Party
Pro-Life Alberta Political Association (active)
British Columbia Social Credit Party
Manitoba Social Credit Party
Social Credit Party of New Brunswick
Social Credit Party of Ontario
Pauper Party of Ontario (active)
Ralliement créditiste du Québec
Les Démocrates
Parti crédit social uni
Social Credit Party of Saskatchewan
Organizations
Pilgrims of Saint Michael
Committee on Monetary and Economic Reform
See also: Prosperity Certificate
Ireland
Irish Monetary Reform Association
Social Credit Party (Ireland)
New Zealand
Country Party
Democratic Labour Party
New Zealand Democratic Party for Social Credit (active)
New Democratic Party (New Zealand)
Real Democracy Movement
Social Credit Party (New Zealand)
New Zealand Social Credit Association (Inc)
Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands Social Credit Party (active)
United Kingdom
Douglas Social Credit Secretariat
Social Credit Party of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Populist Alliance (active)
Literary figures
As lack of finance has been a constant impediment to the development of the arts and literature, the concept of economic democracy through social credit had immediate appeal in literary circles. Names associated with social credit include C. M. Grieve, Charlie Chaplin, William Carlos Williams, Ezra Pound, JRR Tolkien, CS Lewis, T. S. Eliot, Flannery O'Connor, Fulton Sheen, Dorothy Day, Thomas Merton, Herbert Read, George Orwell, Aldous Huxley, Ray Bradbury, Denis Ireland, Storm Jameson, Eimar O'Duffy, Sybil Thorndike, Bonamy Dobrée, Eric de Maré and the American publisher James Laughlin. Hilaire Belloc and G. K. Chesterton espoused similar ideas. In 1933 Eimar O'Duffy published Asses in Clover, a science fiction fantasy exploration of social credit themes. His social credit economics book Life and Money: Being a Critical Examination of the Principles and Practice of Orthodox Economics with A Practical Scheme to End the Muddle it has made of our Civilisation, was endorsed by Douglas.
Robert A. Heinlein described a social credit economy in his 2003 posthumously published first novel written in 1938, For Us, The Living: A Comedy of Customs, and his 1942 novel Beyond This Horizon describes a similar system in less detail. In Heinlein's future society, government is not funded by taxation. Instead, government controls the currency and prevents inflation by providing a price rebate to participating business and a guaranteed income to every citizen.
In his novel The Trick Top Hat, part of his 1979 Schrödinger's Cat Trilogy, Robert Anton Wilson described the implementation by the President of an alternate future United States of an altered form of social credit, in which the government issues a National Dividend to all citizens in the form of "trade aids", which can be spent like money but which cannot be lent at interest (in order to mollify the banking industry) and which eventually expire (to prevent inflation and hoarding).
Frances Hutchinson, Chairperson of the Social Credit Secretariat, has co-authored, with Brian Burkitt, a book entitled The Political Economy of Social Credit and Guild Socialism.
See also
Basic income
Citizen's dividend
Distributism
Monetary reform
Social democracy
Social dividend
Stock and flow
Surplus value
Welfare state
Notes
Further reading
Economic Democracy, by C. H. Douglas (1920) new edition: December 1974; Bloomfield Books;
Major Douglas: The Policy of Philosophy, by John W. Hughes, Edmonton, Brightest Pebble Publishing Company, 2004; first published in Great Britain by Wedderspoon Associates, 2002
Major Douglas and Alberta Social Credit, by Bob Hesketh,
Fiction and poetry
For Us, The Living: A Comedy of Customs, by Robert A. Heinlein
Beyond This Horizon, by Robert A. Heinlein
The Cantos, by Ezra Pound
External links
C.H. Douglas's book Economic Democracy at American Libraries
C.H. Douglas's book Credit-Power and Democracy at American Libraries
C.H. Douglas's book The Control and Distribution of Production at American Libraries
C.H. Douglas's book "The Monopoly of Credit"
C.H. Douglas's work "The Douglas Theory, A Reply to Mr. J.A. Hobson" at American Libraries
C.H. Douglas's work, "These Present Discontents" at American Libraries
Hilderic Cousens, "A New Policy for Labour; an essay on the relevance of credit control" at American Libraries
Bryan Monahan, "Introduction to Social Credit"
M. Gordon-Cumming, "Money in Industry"
Australian League of Rights – online library
The Green Shirt Movement for Social Credit Social Credit Party of Great Britain archives
Social Credit School of Studies
Social Credit Secretariat
Social Credit Website
Clifford Hugh Douglas Institute
Catalogue of the social credit publications collection, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick
Schools of economic thought
Monetary economics
Political philosophy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Astronomical%20Journal
|
The Astronomical Journal
|
The Astronomical Journal (often abbreviated AJ in scientific papers and references) is a peer-reviewed monthly scientific journal owned by the American Astronomical Society (AAS) and currently published by IOP Publishing. It is one of the premier journals for astronomy in the world.
Until 2008, the journal was published by the University of Chicago Press on behalf of the AAS. The reasons for the change to the IOP were given by the society as the desire of the University of Chicago Press to revise its financial arrangement and their plans to change from the particular software that had been developed in-house. The other two publications of the society, the Astrophysical Journal and its supplement series, followed in January 2009.
The journal was established in 1849 by Benjamin A. Gould. It ceased publication in 1861 due to the American Civil War, but resumed in 1885. Between 1909 and 1941 the journal was edited in Albany, New York. In 1941, editor Benjamin Boss arranged to transfer responsibility for the journal to the AAS.
The first electronic edition of The Astronomical Journal was published in January, 1998. With the July, 2006 issue, The Astronomical Journal began e-first publication, an electronic version of the journal released independently of the hardcopy issues.
As of 2016 all of the scientific AAS journals were placed under a single editor-in-chief. On January 1, 2022, the AAS Journals, including AJ, transitioned to Gold open access model, with all new papers released under a Creative Commons Attribution license and access restrictions and subscription charges removed from previously-published papers.
Editors
2016–present Ethan Vishniac
2005–2015 John Gallagher III
1984–2004 Paul W. Hodge
1980–1983 N. H. Baker
1975–1979 N. H. Baker and L. B. Lucy
1967–1974 Lodewijk Woltjer (with Baker and Lucy for later volumes)
1966–1967 Gerald Maurice Clemence
1965–1966 Dirk Brouwer and Gerald Maurice Clemence
1963–1965 Dirk Brouwer
1959–1963 Dirk Brouwer and Harlan James Smith
1941–1959 Dirk Brouwer
1912–1941 Benjamin Boss
1909–1912 Lewis Boss
1896–1909 Seth Carlo Chandler
1885–1896 Benjamin A. Gould, Jr.
1849–1861 Benjamin A. Gould, Jr.
See also
The Astronomical Almanac
The Astrophysical Journal
References
External links
Official website
Dudley Observatory, The Astronomical Journal
Scanned issues (1849-1997) from ADS
Astronomy journals
Publications established in 1849
Monthly journals
English-language journals
IOP Publishing academic journals
American Astronomical Society academic journals
1849 establishments in the United States
Delayed open access journals
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] |
208711
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed%20V
|
Mohamed V
|
Mohamed V may refer to:
Muhammed V of Granada (1338–1391), Sultan of Granada
Mehmed V (1848–1918), 39th Sultan of Ottoman Empire
Mohammed V of Morocco (1909–1961), king of Morocco
Mohamed V Dam, located in Morocco and named after the above
Mohammed V University, located in Rabat
Muhammad V of Delhi (died 1557)
Muhammad V of Kelantan (born 1969), Sultan of Kelantan and 15th King of Malaysia
Baba Mohammed ben-Osman also known as Mohammed V (1710-1791), Dey of Algiers
|
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208716
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flax%20in%20New%20Zealand
|
Flax in New Zealand
|
New Zealand flax describes the common New Zealand perennial plants Phormium tenax and Phormium colensoi, known by the Māori names harakeke and wharariki respectively. Although given the common name 'flax' they are quite distinct from the Northern Hemisphere plant known as flax (Linum usitatissimum)
P. tenax occurs naturally in New Zealand and Norfolk Island, while P. colensoi is endemic to New Zealand. They have played an important part in the cultural and economic history of New Zealand for both the Māori people and the later European settlers.
Both species and their cultivars have now been widely distributed to temperate regions of the world as ornamental garden plants – and to lesser extent for fibre production.
Traditional Māori uses
Textiles
Although the Māori made textiles from a number of other plants, including tī kōuka, tōī, pingao, kiekie, toetoe and the paper mulberry, the use of harakeke and wharariki was predominant, due to its wide availability, long strands and the ability to create a range of strip widths from the plants. Captain Cook wrote: “Of the leaves of these plants, with very little preparation, they (the Māori) make all their common apparel; and of these they make also their strings, lines and cordage …”. They also made baskets, mats and fishing nets from undressed flax. Māori practised advanced weft twining in phormium fibre cloaks.
Plaiting and weaving (raranga) the flax fibres into baskets were but only two of the great variety of uses made of flax by Māori who recognised nearly 60 varieties, and who carefully propagated their own flax nurseries and plantations throughout the land. Leaves were cut near the base of the plant using a sharp mussel shell or specially shaped rocks, more often than not greenstone (jade, or pounamu). The green fleshy substance of the leaf was stripped off (the waterproof para), again using a mussel shell, right through to the fibre which went through several processes of washing, bleaching, fixing, softening, dyeing and drying. The flax fibre, called muka, is laboriously washed, pounded and hand wrung to make soft for the skin. It is difficult to dye fibres made from harakeke, however paru (an iron-rich mud) can be used to dye the fabric black. The cords (muka whenu) form the base cloth for intricate cloaks or garments (kākahu) such as the highly prized traditional feather cloak (kahu huruhuru). Different type of cloaks, such as kahu kiwi and kahu kākā, were produced by adorning them with colourful feathers from different native birds, such as kiwi, kaka (parrot), tui, huia and kereru (woodpigeon).
Fibres of various strengths were used to fashion eel traps (hinaki), surprisingly large fishing nets (kupenga) and lines, bird snares, cordage for ropes, baskets (kete), bags, mats, clothing, sandals (paraerae), buckets, food baskets (rourou), and cooking utensils etc. The handmade flax cording and ropes had such great tensile strength that they were used to successfully bind together sections of hollowed out logs to create huge ocean-going canoes (waka). With the help of wakas, pre-European Māori deployed seine nets which could be over one thousand metres long. The nets were woven from green flax, with stone weights and light wood or gourd floats, and could require hundreds of men to haul. It was also used to make rigging, sails and lengthy anchor warps, and roofs for housing. Frayed ends of flax leaves were fashioned into torches and lights for use at night. The dried flower stalks, which are extremely light, were bound together with flax twine to make river rafts called mokihi.
Medical
For centuries, Māori have used nectar from the flowers for medicinal purposes and as a general sweetener. Boiled and crushed harakeke roots were applied externally as a poultice for boils, tumours and abscesses, as well as to varicose ulcers. Juice from pounded roots was used as a disinfectant, and taken internally to relieve constipation or expel worms. The pulp of pounded leaves was applied as dressings to bullet, bayonet or other wounds. The gum-like sap produced by harakeke contains enzymes that give it blood clotting and antiseptic qualities to help healing processes. It is a mild anaesthetic, and Māori traditionally applied the sap to boils and various wounds, to aching teeth, to rheumatic and associated pains, ringworm and various skin irritations, and scalds and burns. Splints were fashioned from korari (flower stalks) and leaves, and fine cords of muka fibre utilise the styptic properties of the gel before being used to stitch wounds. Harakeke is used as bandages and can secure broken bones much as plaster is used today.
Chemical analysis shows the antifungal, anti-inflammatory drug, musizin, and laxative anthraquinones are in common and mountain flaxes.
Defence
During the early Musket Wars and later New Zealand Wars, Māori used large, thickly woven flax mats to cover entrances and lookout holes in their "gunfighter's pā" fortifications. Some warriors wore coats of heavily plaited Phormium tenax, which gave defense characteristics similar to a medieval gambeson, slowing musket balls to be wounding rather than deadly.
Later uses
In winter 1823 Captain John Rodolphus Kent went to Foveaux Strait, filled 14 large casks with flax, bought of dressed flax, and took 25 flax plants. That trip was by way of an experiment to confirm the value of flax, but he continued trading until 1836 and several other traders followed his example.
Thus, by the early 19th century, the quality of rope materials made from New Zealand flax was known internationally, as was the quality of New Zealand trees which were used for spars and masts. The Royal Navy was one of the largest customers. The flax trade burgeoned, especially after male Māori recognised the advantages of trade and adapted to helping in the harvesting and dressing of flax which had previously been done exclusively by females. Driven by the desperate need for muskets and ammunition, many Māori moved to unhealthy swamplands where flax could be grown, and there devoted insufficient labour to the production of food, until any survivors were fully equipped, first with musket and ammunition, and then with iron tools. "The taking of slaves increased – slaves who could be put to work dressing flax...". A burgeoning flax industry developed with the fibres being used for rope, twine, matting, carpet under felt, and wool packs. Initially wild stands of flax were harvested but plantations were established with three in existence by 1851.
A Parliamentary Commission in 1870 reported on all aspects of the flax industry. It listed up to 24 varieties, with many regional variations in names.
Several times the possibility of commercial papermaking from the fibre from Phormium tenax has been investigated, but currently it is used only by artists and craftsmen producing handmade papers.
Flax mills
From about the 1860s there was an active industry harvesting and processing flax for export, peaking at 32,000 tons in 1916, but the general depression of the 1930s brought the virtual collapse of this trade. In 1963 there were still 14 flax mills producing a total of almost 5,000 tons of fibre per year, but the last of them closed in 1985.
In 1860 Purchas and Ninnis got the country's first patent for a flax machine. It took a ton of leaves a day and produced about of fibre. A large mill at Halswell had six of their patent strippers by 1868. Johnstone Dougall (1822–1892), a carpenter, also invented a flax-stripper about 1868, which he put in his first mill at Waiuku. Dougall was an exception in declining to patent his stripper. Many others patented variations, but the basic design was that leaves were fed between rollers, then hit by iron beaters, revolving faster than the feeder, thus stripping the epidermis from the fibre. Patents included Ritchie in 1862, Gibbons and Nelson in 1870, and Williams in 1893.
In boom times flax was profitable. An 1870 news item said an acre, with 2 crops a year, could produce 2 tons of fibre, equating to £40 a year, or a net profit of £27 0s 3d, the cost being estimated at £12 19s 9d. For 4 tons the cost was calculated as depreciation 12s, 8 men's wages @ 25s a week, £10; an engineman £1 15; 12 lads @ 12s, £7 4s; 24 tons of green flax @ 15s £18; packing, baling, etc. £4; 2 tons 8cwt. of coal, £2 8s and freight etc., £5. Machinery was estimated at £500 – 8 hp engine with Cornish boiler £200; 4 strippers @ £22, £88; scutching hooks, £15; a screw press £12; building £185.
[[File:Waipapakauri flaxmill 8 NOVEMBER 1906 Auckland Weekly News page 16.jpg|thumb|Waipapakauri steam-powered flax mill in 1906 AWNS-19061108-16-1]
So the inventions were quickly taken up, flax mills increasing from 15 in 1867, to 110 in 1874, though another source says there were 161 mills by 1870, employing 1,766. A & G Price built almost 100 flax machines in 1868 and, by August 1869, had sold 166. The fibre was coarser than hand-stripped flax, but by 1868 machines could produce about per day, compared to about by hand stripping. Improvements by 1910 increased that to 1.27 tonnes a day.
Flax leaves were cut, bundled, taken to the mill and fed through a stripping machine. The slimy fibre was bunched, washed and the muka hung to dry. About ten days later the muka was scutched and baled for export, though some mills had ropewalks for local production. Production peaked between 1901 and 1918, but rust, depression and pasture replacing flax swamps, resulted in almost all mills closing by the 1930s.
Mills were driven by water wheels, small stationary steam engines, or portable engines.
With extensive burning of bush, few fire brigades, and little piped water, fire was a hazard for most buildings and flax was no exception. In 1890 a report on a fire in a large quantity of growing flax said, "These fires in most cases arise from gross carelessness, which might easily be avoided. Already in the past the quantity of green flax destroyed by this agency is very great." Mills were burnt too.
By 1890 3,198 people were employed, but average pay was only £73 a year, among the lowest of average wage rates at the time. There were also frequent cases of workers caught in machines. Initially unions were resisted, as in the report of an 1891 strike, which said, "Mr Hall intends to proceed to Auckland for the purpose of procuring fresh men to work the mill." The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1894 and growth of unions improved the low pay and conditions. By 1913 a commentator wrote, "A few years ago flax milling was largely done by boys who received a few shillings per day, now in these more enlightened (?) days a boy gets a man’s wage. For instance the minimum wage paid this season at Mr Rutherford's Te Aoterei mill has been 11s 3d for a ten-hour day."
See also
Agriculture in New Zealand
Environment of New Zealand
References
External links
"Harakeke / New Zealand flax" at Department of Conservation (New Zealand)
"Flax Cultivars" at Manaaki Whenua: Landcare Research
"Flax and flax working" at Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand
"Harakere" at Naturatomica: The Encyclopedia of Alternative & Natural Medicine
Crops originating from New Zealand
History of Oceanian clothing
Fiber plants
|
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] |
208721
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaceguard
|
Spaceguard
|
The term Spaceguard loosely refers to a number of efforts to discover, catalogue, and study near-Earth objects (NEO), especially those that may impact Earth (potentially hazardous objects).
Asteroids are discovered by telescopes which repeatedly survey large areas of sky. Efforts which concentrate on discovering NEOs are considered part of the "Spaceguard Survey," regardless of which organization they are affiliated with.
A number of organizations have also raised related discussions and proposals on asteroid-impact avoidance.
The United Kingdom hosts the self-styled The SpaceGuard Centre which conducts astrometric research (MPC code J26) and is open to the general public daily, but it is not affiliated with or supported by any public body.
History
Arthur C. Clarke coined the term in his novel Rendezvous with Rama (1973) where "Project Spaceguard" was the name of an early warning system created following a fictional catastrophic asteroid impact. This name was later adopted by a number of real life efforts to discover and study near-Earth objects. The name was used for the Survey "with the permission and encouragement of Clarke."
A 1992 US Congressional study produced a "Spaceguard Survey Report" which led to a mandate that NASA locate 90% of near-Earth asteroids larger than 1 km within 10 years. This is often referred to as the "Spaceguard Goal." A number of efforts which receive money through NASA are all considered to be working on the "Spaceguard Project."
The effect of the impact of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 to Jupiter in July 1994 created a greater perception of importance to the detection of near Earth objects. As David Levy stated in an interview "The giggle factor disappeared after Shoemaker-Levy 9." He was referring to the contemporary attitude that extinction level events were so improbable that those advocating for research for detection and possible deflection methods were only paranoid alarmists. The impact of one of its fragments created a giant dark spot on Jupiter over 12,000 km across, and was estimated to have released an energy equivalent to 6,000,000 megatons of TNT (600 times the world's nuclear arsenal). After the impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, asteroid detection programs all over the world received greater funding.
The Working Group on Near-Earth Objects (WGNEO) of the International Astronomical Union held a workshop in 1995 entitled Beginning the Spaceguard Survey which led to an international organization called the Spaceguard Foundation. Subsequently, there have been Spaceguard associations or foundations formed in countries around the world to support the ideas of discovering and studying near-Earth objects. Generally, the Spaceguard organizations formed within individual countries are associated with the international foundation or with the NASA efforts only by name, common interests, and similar goals.
The initial Spaceguard Goal was achieved, although in slightly longer than 10 years. An extension to the project gave NASA the mandate of reducing the minimum size at which more than 90% of near-Earth asteroids are known to 140 m.
Observations
The 2002 Eastern Mediterranean event, the 2002 Vitim event (Russia) and the Chelyabinsk meteor (Russia, February 2013) were not detected in advance by any Spaceguard effort. On October 6, 2008, the 4-meter 2008 TC3 meteoroid was detected by the Catalina Sky Survey (CSS) 1.5 meter telescope at Mount Lemmon, and monitored until it hit the Earth the next day.
New survey projects, such as the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) program operated by the University of Hawaii, aim to greatly increase the number of small (down to approximately 10 m) impactors that are discovered before atmospheric entry—typically with days to weeks of warning, enabling evacuations of the affected areas and damage mitigation planning. This is in contrast to other surveys which focus on finding much larger (greater than 100 m) objects years to decades before any potential impacts, at times when they could potentially still be deflected away from Earth.
Another short-term warning system is the NASA Scout program that came into operation in 2016.
On October 19, 2017, one of the Survey telescopes, Pan-STARRS 1, discovered the first interstellar asteroid, 'Oumuamua.
Issues
According to Dr. Michael F. A'Hearn, a typical mission would take too long from approval to launch if there was an emergency:
Lack of a master plan and dangers of false alarms have been pointed out by Stefan Lövgren.
See also
Spaceguard Foundation
Bisei Spaceguard Center
Japan Spaceguard Association
Asteroid-impact avoidance (includes list of survey projects)
B612 Foundation
NEOShield
Planetary Defense Coordination Office
Impact event
Tunguska event, 1908
List of meteor air bursts
Chelyabinsk meteor, Russia, February 2013
References
Further reading
Air Force 2025. Planetary Defense: Social, Economic, and Political Implications, United States Air Force, Air Force 2025 Final Report webpage, December 11, 1996.
Daugherty, Laura and Emily Van Yuga. What Damage Have Impacts Done to Humans in Recorded History? (Geol 117: Meteorite Impacts in Space and Time), Oberlin College Geology Department, Oberlin College, May 11, 2001.
Halliday, I., A.T. Blackwell, and A.A. Griffin. "Meteorite Impacts on Humans and Buildings", Nature, pp. 318–317. [bib. of Yau et al.]
Lapaz, L. "Effects of Meteorites on the Earth", Advances in Geophysics, Vol. 4, pp. 217–350. [bib. of Yau et al.]
Lewis, J.S. Rain of Iron and Ice: The Very Real Threat of Comet and Asteroid Bombardment, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1996; Basic Books, 1997, . [OBIS]
Nield, Ted. Don't wrong the meteorite: Ted Nield thinks it's time to reassess our attitude to cosmic impacts. Meteorites are our friends, Geoscientist Online, The Geological Society, October 2008.
Norton, O.R. "Rocks from Space". Missoula Montana: Mountain Press Publishing Company, 1998. [course textbook].
Paine, M.P. Bigger Telescopes Seek Killer Asteroids Archive from Space.com April 2000.
Reimold, W. U. and R. L. Gibson, Anton Pelser, Mauritz Naudé, Kevin Balkwill. Meteorite impact!: the danger from space and South Africa's mega-impact the Vredefort structure, Chris van Rensburg, 2005, .
"Special Report: Death and Property Damage Due to Meteor Destruction", UFO Research: Cincinnati!, November, 1998.
Swindel, G.W. Jr., and W.B. Jones. Meteoritics, Vol. 1, pp. 125–132. [bib. of Lapaz 1958].
Webb, S.K. A Novel Measure of Meteorite Flux", [meteorite-list] How Many Meteorites Fall?, November 30, 2000.
Worthey, G. Meteor Near Misses and Strikes, St. Ambrose University Astronomy, 11 October 1999.
Yau, K., Weissman, P., & Yeomans, D. Meteorite Falls In China And Some Related Human Casualty Events, Meteoritics, 1994, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp. 864–871, , bibliographic code: 1994Metic..29..864Y.
External links
Spaceguard Central Node
NASA's Near-Earth Office Program
NEO News: Spaceguard Survey of Near Earth Asteroids David Morrison Tuesday, August 1, 2000 (Discovery statistics by 2000)
Progress in the Spaceguard Survey Saturday, February 9, 2002 (Status report by 2002)
UK Spaceguard Centre
Planetary Defense Foundation
Australian Spaceguard news and links
Priority List
Astronomical surveys
Planetary defense organizations
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208722
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gudea
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Gudea
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Gudea (Sumerian: , Gu3-de2-a) was a ruler (ensi) of the state of Lagash in Southern Mesopotamia, who ruled circa 2080–2060 BC (short chronology) or 2144-2124 BC (middle chronology). He probably did not come from the city, but had married Ninalla, daughter of the ruler Ur-Baba (2164–2144 BC) of Lagash, thus gaining entrance to the royal house of Lagash. He was succeeded by his son Ur-Ningirsu. Gudea ruled at a time when the center of Sumer was ruled by the Gutian dynasty, and when Ishtup-Ilum ruled to the north in Mari. Under Gudea, Lagash had a golden age, and seemed to enjoy a high level of independence from the Gutians.
Inscriptions
Gudea chose the title of énsi (town-king or governor), not the more exalted lugal (Akkadian šarrum). Gudea did not style himself "god of Lagash" as he was not deified during his own lifetime, this title must have been given to him posthumously as in accordance with Mesopotamian traditions for all rulers except Naram-Sin of Akkad and some of the Ur III kings.
The 20 years of his reign are all known by name; the main military exploit seems to have occurred in his Year 6, called the "Year when Anshan was smitten with weapons".
Although Gudea claimed to have conquered Elam and Anshan, most of his inscriptions emphasize the building of irrigation channels and temples, and the creation of precious gifts to the gods.
Inscriptions mention temples built by Gudea in Ur, Nippur, Adab, Uruk and Bad-Tibira. This indicates the growing influence of Gudea in Sumer. His predecessor, Urbaba, had already made his daughter Enanepada high priestess of Nanna at Ur, which indicates a great deal of political power as well.
Materials for his buildings and statues were brought from all parts of western Asia: cedar wood from the Amanus mountains, quarried stones from Lebanon, copper from northern Arabia, gold and precious stones from the desert between Canaan and Egypt, diorite from Magan (Oman), and timber from Dilmun (Bahrain).
Statues of Gudea
Twenty-six statues of Gudea have been found so far during excavations of Telloh (ancient Girsu) with most of the rest coming from the art trade. The early statues were made of limestone, steatite and alabaster; later, when wide-ranging trade-connections had been established, the more costly exotic diorite was used. Diorite had already been used by old Sumerian rulers (Statue of Entemena). These statues include inscriptions describing trade, rulership and religion. These were one of many types of Neo-Sumerian art forms.
Religion
The pleas to the gods under Gudea and his successors appear more creative and honest: whereas the Akkadian kings followed a rote pattern of cursing the progeny and tearing out the foundations of those that vandalize a stele, the Lagašite kings send various messages. Times were violent after the Akkadian empire lost power over southern Mesopotamia, and the god receiving the most attention from Gudea was Ningirsu—a god of battle. Though there is only one mention of martial success on the part of Gudea, the many trappings of war which he builds for Ningirsu indicate a violent era. Southern Mesopotamian cities defined themselves through their worship, and the decision on Gudea's part for Lagaš to fashion regalia of war for its gods is indicative of the temperament of the times.
Though obviously the foundation and progeny curse was not the only religious invocation by the political powers during the Akkadian empire, it demonstrates a certain standardization, and with it, stagnation, of the position of the gods that likely did not sit well with the people of Lagaš. Ur-Ningirsu I, with whom the Gudean dynasty of Lagaš begins, leaves little in the way of inscriptions, and though some mention of various gods seems to indicate a more central role, it is not until Gudea that there can be a side-by-side comparison with the old curse of Sargon of Akkad. The inscription on a statue of Gudea as architect of the House of Ningirsu, warns the reader of doom if the words are altered, but there is a startling difference between the warnings of Sargon or his line and the warnings of Gudea. The one is length; Gudea's curse lasts nearly a quarter of the inscription's considerable length, and another is creativity. The gods will not merely reduce the offender's progeny to ash and destroy his foundations, no, they will, "let him sit down in the dust instead of on the seat they set up for him". He will be "slaughtered like a bull… seized like an aurochs by his fierce horn".
But these differences, though demonstrating a Lagašite respect of religious figures simply in the amount of time and energy they required, are not as telling as the language Gudea uses to justify any punishment. Whereas Sargon or Naram-Sin simply demand punishment to any who change their words, based on their power, Gudea defends his words through tradition, “since the earliest days, since the seed sprouted forth, no one was (ever) supposed to alter the utterance of a ruler of Lagaš who, after building the Eninnu for my lord Ningirsu, made things function as they should”. Changing the words of Naram-Sin, the living god, is treason, because he is the king. But changing the words of Gudea, simple governor of Lagaš, is unjust, because he made things work right.
Reforms
The social reforms instituted during Gudea's rulership, which included the cancellation of debts and allowing women to own family land, may have been honest reform or a return to old Lagašite custom.
His era was especially one of artistic development. But it was Ningirsu who received the majority of Gudea's attention. Ningirsu the war god, for whom Gudea built maces, spears, and axes, all appropriately named for the destructive power of Ningirsu—enormous and gilt. However, the devotion for Ningirsu was especially inspired by the fact that this was Gudea's personal god and that Ningirsu was since ancient times the main god of the Lagashite region (together with his spouse Ba'u or Baba).
In matters of trade, Lagash under Gudea had extensive commercial communications with distant realms. According to his own records, Gudea brought cedars from the Amanus and Lebanon mountains in Syria, diorite from eastern Arabia, copper and gold from central and southern Arabia and from Sinai, while his armies were engaged in battles in Elam on the east.
The Gudea cylinders, written after the life of Gudea, paints an attractive picture of southern Mesopotamia during the Lagaš supremacy. In it, “The Elamites came to him from Elam… loaded with wood on their shoulders… in order to build Ningirsu’s House” (p. 78), the general tone being one of brotherly love in an area that has known only regional conflict.
Gudea built more than the House of Ningirsu, he restored tradition to Lagaš. His use of the title ensi, when he obviously held enough political influence, both in Lagaš and in the region, to justify lugal, demonstrates the same political tact as his emphasis on the power of the divine.
Ur-Ningirsu II, the next ruler of Lagaš, took as his title, "Ur-Ningirsu, ruler of Lagaš, son of Gudea, ruler of Lagaš, who had built Ningirsu’s house" (p. 183).
International relations
In an inscription, Gudea referred to the Meluhhans who came to Sumer to sell gold dust, carnelian etc... In another inscription, he mentioned his victory over the territories of Magan, Meluhha, Elam and Amurru.
In the Gudea cylinders, Gudea mentions that "I will spread in the world respect for my Temple, under my name the whole universe will gather in it, and Magan and Meluhha will come down from their mountains to attend" (cylinder A, IX). In cylinder B, XIV, he mentions his procurement of "blocks of lapis lazuli and bright carnelian from Meluhha."
The first known reference to Goa in India possibly appears as Gubi in the records of Gudea. At the time, Sumerians had established trade contacts with India.
Later influence
Gudea's appearance is recognizable today because he had numerous statues or idols, depicting him with unprecedented, lifelike realism, placed in temples throughout Sumer. Gudea took advantage of artistic development because he evidently wanted posterity to know what he looked like. And in that he has succeeded—a feat available to him as royalty, but not to the common people who could not afford to have statues engraved of themselves.
Gudea, following Sargon, was one of the first rulers to claim divinity for himself, or have it claimed for him after his death. Some of his exploits were later added to the Gilgamesh Epic (N. K. Sandars, 1972, The Epic of Gilgamesh).
Following Gudea, the influence of Lagaš declined, until it suffered a military defeat by Ur-Nammu, whose Third Dynasty of Ur then became the reigning power in Southern Mesopotamia.
Important artifacts
References
Sources
F. Johansen, "Statues of Gudea, ancient and modern". Mesopotamia 6, 1978.
A. Parrot, Tello, vingt campagnes des fouilles (1877-1933). (Paris 1948).
N.K. Sandars, "Introduction" page 16, The Epic of Gilgamesh, Penguin, 1972.
H. Steible, "Versuch einer Chronologie der Statuen des Gudea von Lagas". Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft 126 (1994), 81–104.
External links
The true face of Gudea. A realistic statue of Gudea shows us how he may have looked in real life.
22nd-century BC Sumerian kings
Kings of Lagash
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208732
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly%20composite%20number
|
Highly composite number
|
A highly composite number (sometimes called anti-prime) is a positive integer with more divisors than any smaller positive integer has. The related concept of largely composite number refers to a positive integer which has at least as many divisors as any smaller positive integer. The name can be somewhat misleading, as two highly composite numbers (1 and 2) are not actually composite numbers.
The late mathematician Jean-Pierre Kahane has suggested that Plato must have known about highly composite numbers as he deliberately chose 5040 as the ideal number of citizens in a city as 5040 has more divisors than any numbers less than it. Ramanujan wrote and titled his paper on the subject in 1915.
Examples
The initial or smallest 38 highly composite numbers are listed in the table below . The number of divisors is given in the column labeled d(n). Asterisks indicate superior highly composite numbers.
The divisors of the first 15 highly composite numbers are shown below.
The table below shows all 72 divisors of 10080 by writing it as a product of two numbers in 36 different ways.
The 15,000th highly composite number can be found on Achim Flammenkamp's website. It is the product of 230 primes:
where is the sequence of successive prime numbers, and all omitted terms (a22 to a228) are factors with exponent equal to one (i.e. the number is ). More concisely, it is the product of seven distinct primorials:
where is the primorial .
Prime factorization
Roughly speaking, for a number to be highly composite it has to have prime factors as small as possible, but not too many of the same. By the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, every positive integer n has a unique prime factorization:
where are prime, and the exponents are positive integers.
Any factor of n must have the same or lesser multiplicity in each prime:
So the number of divisors of n is:
Hence, for a highly composite number n,
the k given prime numbers pi must be precisely the first k prime numbers (2, 3, 5, ...); if not, we could replace one of the given primes by a smaller prime, and thus obtain a smaller number than n with the same number of divisors (for instance 10 = 2 × 5 may be replaced with 6 = 2 × 3; both have four divisors);
the sequence of exponents must be non-increasing, that is ; otherwise, by exchanging two exponents we would again get a smaller number than n with the same number of divisors (for instance 18 = 21 × 32 may be replaced with 12 = 22 × 31; both have six divisors).
Also, except in two special cases n = 4 and n = 36, the last exponent ck must equal 1. It means that 1, 4, and 36 are the only square highly composite numbers. Saying that the sequence of exponents is non-increasing is equivalent to saying that a highly composite number is a product of primorials or, alternatively, the smallest number for its prime signature.
Note that although the above described conditions are necessary, they are not sufficient for a number to be highly composite. For example, 96 = 25 × 3 satisfies the above conditions and has 12 divisors but is not highly composite since there is a smaller number 60 which has the same number of divisors.
Asymptotic growth and density
If Q(x) denotes the number of highly composite numbers less than or equal to x, then there are two constants a and b, both greater than 1, such that
The first part of the inequality was proved by Paul Erdős in 1944 and the second part by Jean-Louis Nicolas in 1988. We have
and
Related sequences
Highly composite numbers higher than 6 are also abundant numbers. One need only look at the three largest proper divisors of a particular highly composite number to ascertain this fact. It is false that all highly composite numbers are also Harshad numbers in base 10. The first HCN that is not a Harshad number is 245,044,800, which has a digit sum of 27, but 27 does not divide evenly into 245,044,800.
10 of the first 38 highly composite numbers are superior highly composite numbers.
The sequence of highly composite numbers is a subset of the sequence of smallest numbers k with exactly n divisors .
Highly composite numbers whose number of divisors is also a highly composite number are for n = 1, 2, 6, 12, 60, 360, 1260, 2520, 5040, 55440, 277200, 720720, 3603600, 61261200, 2205403200, 293318625600, 6746328388800, 195643523275200 . It is extremely likely that this sequence is complete.
A positive integer n is a largely composite number if d(n) ≥ d(m) for all m ≤ n. The counting function QL(x) of largely composite numbers satisfies
for positive c,d with .
Because the prime factorization of a highly composite number uses all of the first k primes, every highly composite number must be a practical number. Due to their ease of use in calculations involving fractions, many of these numbers are used in traditional systems of measurement and engineering designs.
See also
Superior highly composite number
Highly totient number
Table of divisors
Euler's totient function
Round number
Smooth number
Notes
References
Annotated and with a foreword by Jean-Louis Nicolas and Guy Robin.
External links
Algorithm for computing Highly Composite Numbers
First 10000 Highly Composite Numbers as factors
Achim Flammenkamp, First 779674 HCN with sigma,tau,factors
Online Highly Composite Numbers Calculator
5040 and other Anti-Prime Numbers - Dr. James Grime by Dr. James Grime for Numberphile
Integer sequences
|
[
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0.3394373059272766,
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208734
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stella%20Rimington
|
Stella Rimington
|
Dame Stella Rimington (born 13 May 1935) is a British author and former Director General of MI5, a position she held from 1992 to 1996. She was the first female DG of MI5, and the first DG whose name was publicised on appointment. In 1993, Rimington became the first DG of MI5 to pose openly for cameras at the launch of a brochure outlining the organisation's activities.
Early life
Rimington was born Stella Whitehouse in South London, England; her family moved from South Norwood to Essex in 1939, due to the danger of living in London during World War II. Her father got a job as chief draughtsman at a steel works in Barrow-in-Furness in Cumbria, and the family moved there and she was educated at Croslands Convent School after spending some time in Wallasey. When her father got a job in Ilkeston, Derbyshire, the family moved to the Midlands, where Stella attended Nottingham High School for Girls. She spent her last summer of secondary school working as an au pair in Paris, before enrolling at the University of Edinburgh in 1954 to study English. By chance, she met her future husband, John Rimington, whom she had known from Nottingham.
Completing her degree in 1958, she studied archive administration at the University of Liverpool, before beginning work as an archivist at the County Record Office in Worcester in 1959. In 1963, she married John Rimington and moved to London, where she successfully applied for a position at the India Office Library.
In 1965, her husband was offered an overseas posting as First Secretary (Economic) for the British High Commission in New Delhi, India, and the couple sailed to India in September.
India and MI5
In 1967, after two years in India, Rimington was asked to assist one of the First Secretaries at the High Commission with his office work. She agreed, and when she began, discovered that he was the representative in India of the British Security Service (MI5). Gaining her security clearance, Rimington worked in the MI5 office for nearly two years, until she and her husband returned to London in 1969, where she decided to apply for a permanent position at MI5.
Between 1969 and 1990, Rimington worked in all three branches of the Security Service: counter espionage, counter subversion, and counter terrorism.
Following the 1979 Department of Health and Social Security computer operators strike, Rimington became an assistant director of the revived Inter-departmental Group on Subversion in Public Life to identify and limit the actions of subversives in the civil service.
In 1989, she gave evidence in court against the Czechoslovak spy Václav Jelínek (prosecuted under his alias of "Erwin van Haarlem"), using the alias "Miss J". In 1990, she was promoted to one of the Service's two Deputy Director General positions, where she oversaw MI5's move to Thames House. In December 1991, she made a visit to Moscow to make the first friendly contact between the British intelligence services and their old enemies the KGB. On her return from Russia she was told she had been promoted to Director General.
Director General
In her first months as Director General, Rimington was subject to a determined campaign by the British press to identify her. The New Statesman and The Independent had obtained and published covert photographs of her, despite which Rimington oversaw a public relations campaign to improve the openness of the Service and increase public transparency. On 16 July 1993, MI5 (with the reluctant approval of the British Government) published a 36-page booklet titled The Security Service, which revealed publicly, for the first time, details of MI5's activities, operations and duties, as well as the identity and even photographs of Rimington as Director General.
Rimington retired from MI5 in 1996. She was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the Bath (DCB) in the 1996 New Year Honours.
Her role in the service was considered a model for Dame Judi Dench's portrayal of "M" in the James Bond Series starting in "Goldeneye."
Post-MI5
Rimington's work after leaving MI5 has been as a non-executive director for companies such as Marks & Spencer and BG Group.
Rimington published her memoirs, entitled Open Secret, in 2001. In July 2004, her first novel, At Risk, about a female intelligence officer, Liz Carlyle, was published. Her other novels are Secret Asset (August 2006), Illegal Action (August 2007), Dead Line (October 2008), Present Danger (September 2009), Rip Tide (July 2011), The Geneva Trap (July 2012) and Close Call (2014).
In 2004, she continued her interest in archives, fostered by her early career, through involvement with the Archives Task Force, where she visited a number of archives through the country and contributed to the report for the future strategy of archives in the UK.
In November 2005 she spoke out against national ID cards. She has also described the US response to the 9/11 attacks as a "huge overreaction." In remarks reported in 2009, Rimington expressed concerns that the Brown administration was not "recognizing that there are risks, rather than frightening people in order to be able to pass laws which restrict civil liberties, precisely one of the objects of terrorism: that we live in fear and under a police state."
On 5 October 2009 the BBC broadcast a statement from Rimington who claimed that certain MI5 files collected by her predecessors had been destroyed, but without clarifying whether this took place during her appointment as Director General, or as part of her later involvement with the Archives Task Force.
In 2009, Rimington received an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Social Science from Nottingham Trent University in recognition of her support for openness about the work of the secret service.
She was chair of the judges for the 2011 Man Booker Prize. She and her fellow judges were widely criticised for focusing on "readability" rather than literary quality. Rimington responded during her speech at the Booker ceremony with a "diatribe" in which she compared British literary critics to the KGB.
Personal life
In 1963 she married John Rimington, whom she knew from school. In 1984 they separated, with Stella retaining custody of their two daughters. They have never divorced.
Bibliography
At Risk
Rimington's first novel, At Risk, brings her knowledge of spy operations to the thriller genre. Her heroine, 34-year-old Liz Carlyle, an MI5 intelligence officer, receives information that a terrorist threat is imminent, and that it will be assisted by an "invisible" young British woman who can easily blend into the background and cross borders easily. Liz must not only deal with the impending crisis, but she must put up with the patronising sexist attitude from her MI6 partner. Danger lurks constantly for both Liz and the "invisible" woman as their paths come closer to each other. At Risk has received positive reviews with The Telegraph saying, "At Risk is breezily told, seldom pompous, and the plot, though every bit as hokey as you'd expect, winds its threads together very entertainingly."
Autobiography
Liz Carlyle Novels
See also
Rimington
References
External links
ABC.Net.au, Stella Rimington talks about her life and writing spy fiction.
BBC.co.uk, 1993: Secret Service goes public.
TrashOtron.com, Stella Rimington Interview at The Agony Column Podcast with Rick Kleffel on 25 July 2008
1935 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of the University of Liverpool
Dames Commander of the Order of the Bath
Directors General of MI5
English spy fiction writers
People educated at Nottingham Girls' High School
People from Barrow-in-Furness
English archivists
English autobiographers
20th-century English novelists
20th-century British women writers
21st-century English novelists
21st-century British women writers
Women autobiographers
|
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208740
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracimexomys
|
Paracimexomys
|
{{Automatic taxobox
| taxon = Paracimexomys
| fossil_range = Late Cretaceous,
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
†P. magister
†P. magnus
†P. priscus
'†'P. propriscus (Hunter et al., 2010)
}}Paracimexomys is a genus of extinct mammals in the also extinct Multituberculata order. Paracimexomys lived during the Cretaceous period. The few fossils remains come from North America. Some Romanian fossils were also tentatively assigned to this genus, though that classification now seems doubtful.
The genus Paracimexomys ("beside Cimexomys") was named by Archibald J.D. in 1982. Paracimexomys fossils were originally referred as Cimexomys, until it was realized they were different enough to justify a genus of their own.
Species
Paracimexomys magister also known as Cimexomys magister- Remains were found in the Upper Santonian (Upper Cretaceous) of Utah, USA. The animal probably weighed about 100g when it was alive.
Paracimexomys magnus also known as Cimexomys magnus- Found in the Campanian (Upper Cretaceous) strata of the Judith River Formation in Montana, USA.
Paracimexomys priscus- Fossil remains were found in the Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) of Hell Creek, Montana. Remains were first found in 1966. The holotype is in the collection of the University of Alberta, where the name Cimexomys is favoured. Weight is estimated to have been 60g.
Misassigned species
Paracimexomys crossi- Remains have been found in the Middle Cretaceous (Upper Aptian to lower Albian) Antlers Formation of Oklahoma, USA. Based on a tiny tooth, this was the first reported Oklahoma Mesozoic mammal. It's also the oldest known member of the informal Paracimexomys group. The species name honours the prison officer Bobby Cross, who has found this and other fossils.
Paracimexomys perplexus- Found in the late Albian to early Cenomanian (Upper Cretaceous) in the Cedar Mountain Formation of Utah.
Paracimexomys robisoni- Found in the Middle Cretaceous strata of the Cedar Mountain Formation of Utah. This type of fossil can be found in the Oklahoma Museum of Natural History. This mouse-sized animal weighed about 25g.
Paracimexomys bestia is now the type species of Cedaromys.
References
Further reading
Archibald (1982), "A study of Mammalia across the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in Garfield County, Montana". Univ. of Calif Publ Geol Sci'' 122 xvi, p. 1-286.
Cimolodonts
Cretaceous mammals of North America
Hell Creek fauna
Milk River Formation
Fossil taxa described in 1982
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Riding%20of%20Yorkshire
|
West Riding of Yorkshire
|
The West Riding of Yorkshire is one of three historic subdivisions of Yorkshire, England. From 1889 to 1974 the administrative county, County of York, West Riding (abbreviated: County of York (WR)) (the area under the control of West Riding County Council), was based closely on the historic boundaries. The lieutenancy at that time included the City of York and as such was named West Riding of the County of York and the County of the City of York.
Its boundaries roughly correspond to the present ceremonial counties of West Yorkshire, South Yorkshire and the Craven, Harrogate and Selby districts of North Yorkshire, along with smaller parts in Lancashire (for example, the parishes of Barnoldswick, Bracewell, Brogden and Salterforth became part of the Pendle district of Lancashire and the parishes of Great Mitton, Newsholme and Bowland Forest Low became part of the Ribble Valley district also in Lancashire), Cumbria, Greater Manchester and, since 1996, the unitary East Riding of Yorkshire.
Geography
The West Riding encompasses 1,771,562 acres (7,169 km2) from Sheffield in the south to Sedbergh in the north and from Dunsop Bridge in the west to Adlingfleet in the east.
The southern industrial district, considered in the broadest application of the term, extended northward from Sheffield to Skipton and eastward from Sheffield to Doncaster, covering less than one-half of the riding. Within this district were Barnsley, Batley, Bradford, Brighouse, Dewsbury, Doncaster, Halifax, Huddersfield, Keighley, Leeds, Morley, Ossett, Pontefract, Pudsey, Rotherham, Sheffield, Todmorden (partly in Lancashire until 1888, when fully incorporated into Yorkshire) and Wakefield. Major centres elsewhere in the riding included Harrogate and Ripon.
Within the industrial region, other urban districts included Bingley, Bolton on Dearne, Castleford, Cleckheaton, Elland, Featherstone, Handsworth, Hoyland Nether, Liversedge, Mexborough, Mirfield, Normanton, Rawmarsh, Rothwell, Saddleworth, Shipley, Skipton, Sowerby Bridge, Stanley, Swinton, Thornhill, Wath-upon-Dearne, Wombwell and Worsborough. Outside the industrial region were Goole, Ilkley, Knaresborough and Selby. The West Riding also contained a large rural area to the north including part of the Yorkshire Dales National Park (the remainder of the park being in the North Riding).
History
The subdivision of Yorkshire into three ridings or "thirds" () is of Scandinavian origin. The West Riding was first recorded (in the form West Treding) in the Domesday Book of 1086.
Unlike most English counties, Yorkshire, being so large, was divided first into the three ridings (East, North and West) and, later, the city of York (which lay within the city walls and was not part of any riding). Each riding was then divided into wapentakes, a division comparable to the hundreds of Southern England and the wards of England's four northernmost historic counties.
Wapentakes
Within the West Riding of Yorkshire there were ten wapentakes in total, four of which were split into two divisions; those were: Claro (Upper and Lower), Skyrack (Upper and Lower), Strafforth and Tickhill (Upper and Lower) and Staincliffe (East and West). The wapentake of Agbrigg and Morley was created with two divisions but was later split into two wapentakes. A wapentake known as the Ainsty to the west of York was until the 15th century a wapentake of the West Riding, but since then has come under the administration of the City of York.
Administrative county
The administrative county was formed in 1889 by the Local Government Act 1888, and covered the historic West Riding except for the larger urban areas, which were county boroughs with the powers of both a municipal borough and a county council. Initially there were five in number: Bradford, Leeds, Huddersfield, Halifax, and Sheffield. The City of York (also a county borough) was included in the county for census and lieutenancy purposes. The number of county boroughs increased over the years; Rotherham gained this status in 1902, Barnsley and Dewsbury in 1913, Wakefield in 1915 and Doncaster in 1927. The boundaries of existing county boroughs were also widened.
Beginning in 1898, the West Riding County Council was based at the County Hall in Wakefield, which was inherited by the West Yorkshire County Council in 1974.
The Local Government Act 1888 included the entirety of Todmorden with the West Riding administrative county, and also in its lieutenancy area ("county"). Other boundary changes in the county included the expansion of the county borough of Sheffield southward in areas historically in Derbyshire such as Dore.
Fingerposts erected in the West Riding until the mid-1960s had a distinctive style. At the top of the post was a roundel in the form of a hollow circle with a horizontal line across the middle, displaying "Yorks W.R.", the name of the fingerpost's location, and a grid reference. Other counties, apart from Dorset, did not display a grid reference and did not have a horizontal bar through the roundel. From 1964, many fingerposts were replaced by ones in the modern style, but some of the old style still survive within the West Riding boundaries.
By 1971 1,924,853 people (or 50.85% of the West Riding's population) lived in the administrative county, against 1,860,435 (or 49.15%) in the ten county boroughs.
Current usage
The term West Riding is still used in the names of the following clubs, and organisations:
Foot, First Yorkshire West Riding Regiment, 33rd a re-enactment group based in Halifax who depict this Regiment during the Napoleonic Wars
49 (West Riding) Signal Squadron (Volunteers), a squadron of 34 (Northern) Signal Regiment (Volunteers) based at Carlton Barracks in Leeds
51st (2nd Yorkshire, West Riding) Light Infantry, a re-enactment group based in the West Midlands who depict this Regiment during the Napoleonic Wars
106 (West Riding) Field Squadron, a squadron of 72 Engineer Regiment (Volunteers) based in Greenhill, Sheffield and Manningham Lane, Bradford
269 (West Riding) Battery Royal Artillery, a Surveillance and Target Acquisition battery of 101 (Northumbrian) Regiment Royal Artillery (Volunteers) based at Carlton Barracks in Leeds
609 (West Riding) Squadron RAuxAF, a Royal Auxiliary Air Force squadron based at RAF Leeming
Duke of Wellington's Regiment (West Riding) Regimental Museum
West Riding Cat Rescue
Leeds – West Riding Cricket League
Provincial Grand Lodge of Yorkshire, West Riding, a province in Freemasonry
West Riding County Football Association, the governing body for football in the former riding, exclusive of the area covered by the Sheffield and Hallamshire Football Association, which antedated the formation of County FAs.
West Riding Girls Football League
West Riding Opera
West Riding Organics, manufacturers of Soil Association certified peat free organic composts and fertilisers
West Riding Ramblers Association
West Riding Sailing Club
See also
List of Lord Lieutenants of the West Riding
Custos Rotulorum of the West Riding of Yorkshire – List of Keepers of the Rolls
References
External links
Map of the West Riding of Yorkshire on Wikishire
Information on the West Riding of Yorkshire on I'm From Yorkshire
History of local government in Yorkshire
History of Yorkshire
Yorkshire, West Riding
|
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208742
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimas%20%28moon%29
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Mimas (moon)
|
Mimas , also designated Saturn I, is a moon of Saturn which was discovered in 1789 by William Herschel. It is named after Mimas, a son of Gaia in Greek mythology.
With a diameter of , it is the smallest astronomical body that is known to still be rounded in shape because of self-gravitation. However, Mimas is not actually in hydrostatic equilibrium for its current rotation.
Discovery
Mimas was discovered by the astronomer William Herschel on 17 September 1789. He recorded his discovery as follows: "I continued my observations constantly, whenever the weather would permit; and the great light of the forty-feet speculum was now of so much use, that I also, on the 17th of September, detected the seventh satellite, when it was at its greatest preceding elongation."
The 40-foot telescope was a metal mirror reflecting telescope built by Herschel, with a aperture. The 40 feet refers to the length of the focus, not the aperture diameter as more common with modern telescopes.
Name
Mimas is named after one of the Giants in Greek mythology, Mimas. The names of all seven then-known satellites of Saturn, including Mimas, were suggested by William Herschel's son John in his 1847 publication Results of Astronomical Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope. Saturn (the Roman equivalent of Cronus in Greek mythology) was the leader of the Titans, the generation before the Gods, and ruler of the world for some time. The Giants were the subsequent generation, and each group fought a great struggle against the Gods.
The customary English pronunciation of the name is , though some people attempt a more 'authentic' pronunciation, .
The Greek and Latin root of the name is Mimant-, and so the English adjectival form is Mimantean or Mimantian, either spelling pronounced ~ .
Physical characteristics
The surface area of Mimas is slightly less than the land area of Spain. The low density of Mimas, 1.15 g/cm3, indicates that it is composed mostly of water ice with only a small amount of rock. Due to the tidal forces acting on it, Mimas is noticeably prolate; its longest axis is about 10% longer than the shortest. The ellipsoidal shape of Mimas is especially noticeable in some recent images from the Cassini probe.
Mimas is even smaller and less massive than Neptune's moon Proteus.
Mimas's most distinctive feature is a giant impact crater across, named Herschel after the discoverer of Mimas. Herschel's diameter is almost a third of Mimas's own diameter; its walls are approximately high, parts of its floor measure deep, and its central peak rises above the crater floor. If there were a crater of an equivalent scale on Earth (in relative size) it would be over in diameter, wider than Australia. The impact that made this crater must have nearly shattered Mimas: the surface antipodal to (opposite through the globe) Herschel is highly disrupted, indicating that the shock waves created by the Herschel impact propagated through the whole moon.
The Mimantean surface is saturated with smaller impact craters, but no others are anywhere near the size of Herschel. Although Mimas is heavily cratered, the cratering is not uniform. Most of the surface is covered with craters larger than in diameter, but in the south polar region, there are generally no craters larger than in diameter.
Three types of geological features are officially recognized on Mimas: craters, chasmata (chasms) and catenae (crater chains).
Orbital resonances
A number of features in Saturn's rings are related to resonances with Mimas. Mimas is responsible for clearing the material from the Cassini Division, the gap between Saturn's two widest rings, the A Ring and B Ring. Particles in the Huygens Gap at the inner edge of the Cassini division are in a 2:1 orbital resonance with Mimas. They orbit twice for each orbit of Mimas. The repeated pulls by Mimas on the Cassini division particles, always in the same direction in space, force them into new orbits outside the gap. The boundary between the C and B rings is in a 3:1 resonance with Mimas. Recently, the G Ring was found to be in a 7:6 co-rotation eccentricity resonance with Mimas; the ring's inner edge is about inside Mimas's orbit.
Mimas is also in a 2:1 mean-motion resonance with the larger moon Tethys, and in a 2:3 resonance with the outer F Ring shepherd moonlet, Pandora. A moon co-orbital with Mimas was reported by Stephen P. Synnott and Richard J. Terrile in 1982, but was never confirmed.
Anomalous libration
In 2014, researchers noted that the librational motion of Mimas has a component that cannot be explained by its orbit alone, and concluded that it was due to either an interior that is not in hydrostatic equilibrium (an elongated core) or an internal ocean. However, in 2017 it was concluded that the presence of an ocean in Mimas' interior would have led to surface tidal stresses comparable to or greater than those on tectonically active Europa. Thus, the lack of evidence for surface cracking or other tectonic activity on Mimas argues against the presence of such an ocean; as the formation of a core would have also produced an ocean and thus the nonexistent tidal stresses, that possibility is also unlikely. The presence of an asymmetric mass anomaly associated with the crater Herschel was considered to be a more likely explanation for the libration.
In 2022, scientists at the Southwest Research Institute identified a tidal heating model for Mimas that produced an internal ocean without any surface cracking or visible tidal stresses. The presence of an internal ocean concealed by a stable icy shell between 24 to 31 km in thickness was found to match the visual and librational characteristics of Mimas as observed by Cassini. Continued measurements of Mimas' surface heat flux will be needed in order to confirm this hypothesis.
Exploration
Pioneer 11 flew by Saturn in 1979, and its closest approach to Mimas was 104,263 km on September 1, 1979. Voyager 1 flew by in 1980, and Voyager 2 in 1981.
Mimas was imaged several times by the Cassini orbiter, which entered into orbit around Saturn in 2004. A close flyby occurred on February 13, 2010, when Cassini passed by Mimas at .
In popular culture
When seen from certain angles, Mimas resembles the Death Star, a fictional space station and superweapon known from the 1977 film Star Wars. Herschel resembles the concave disc of the Death Star's "superlaser". This is coincidental, as the film was made nearly three years before Mimas was resolved well enough to see the crater.
In 2010, NASA revealed a temperature map of Mimas, using images obtained by Cassini. The warmest regions, which are along one edge of Mimas, create a shape similar to the video game character Pac-Man, with Herschel Crater assuming the role of an "edible dot" or "power pellet" known from Pac-Man gameplay.
Gallery
See also
List of natural satellites
Mimas in fiction
References
External links
Cassini mission page – Mimas
Mimas Profile at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
The Planetary Society: Mimas
Google Mimas 3D, interactive map of the moon
Mimas page at The Nine Planets
Views of the Solar System – Mimas
Cassini images of Mimas
Images of Mimas at JPL's Planetary Photojournal
3D shape model of Mimas (requires WebGL)
Paul Schenk's Mimas blog entry and movie of Mimas's rotation on YouTube
Mimas global and polar basemaps (June 2012) from Cassini images
Mimas atlas (July 2010) from Cassini images
Mimas nomenclature and Mimas map with feature names from the USGS planetary nomenclature page
Figure "J" is Mimas transiting Saturn in 1979, imaged by Pioneer 11 from here
17890917
Discoveries by William Herschel
|
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] |
208744
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcsec
|
Arcsec
|
Arcsec, ArcSec, ARCSEC, or arcsec may refer to:
Arcsecond, a unit of angular measurement
Arcsecant, an inverse trigonometric function
See also
sec−1 (disambiguation)
asec (disambiguation)
|
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208745
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryceomys
|
Bryceomys
|
Bryceomys is an extinct mammal that lived during the late Cretaceous period (between 100 and 66 million years ago) and thus shared the world with dinosaurs. It was a member of the also extinct order of Multituberculata. It was within the suborder of Cimolodonta, and a member of the Paracimexomys group.
The genus Bryceomys ("Bryce mouse", after Bryce Canyon National Park) was named by Eaton J.G. in 1995.
Species
The species Bryceomys fumosus (Eaton 1995) is known from fossils found in strata dating to the Turonian (Upper Cretaceous) in the Straight Cliffs Formation of Utah, US. They probably weighed about 12g, about half the weight of a house mouse. About a hundred teeth are held at the Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, including the holotype.
Species: Bryceomys hadrosus Eaton J.G. 1995
Place: Straight Cliffs Formation of Utah
Age: Turonian (Upper Cretaceous)
Also in the Oklahoma collection. Suggested bodyweight is around 90 g.
Species: Bryceomys intermedius Eaton JG & Cifelli RL, 2001
Place: Cedar Mountain Formation, Utah
Age: Albian (late) - Cenomanian (early) (Upper Cretaceous)
References
Eaton (1995), "Cenomanian and Turonian (Early Late Cretaceous) multituberculate mammals from southwestern Utah". Journal of Vert Paleo 15(4), p. 761-784.
Eaton and Cifelli (2001), "Multituberculate mammals from near the Early-Late Cretaceous boundary, Cedar Mountain Formation, Utah". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 46(4), p. 453-518
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Cimolodonts
Late Cretaceous mammals of North America
Fossil taxa described in 1995
Prehistoric mammal genera
|
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208746
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Glaisher
|
James Glaisher
|
James Glaisher FRS (7 April 1809 – 7 February 1903) was an English meteorologist, aeronaut and astronomer.
Biography
Born in Rotherhithe, the son of a London watchmaker, Glaisher was a junior assistant at the Cambridge Observatory from 1833 to 1835 before moving to the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, where he served as Superintendent of the Department of Meteorology and Magnetism at Greenwich for 34 years.
In 1845, Glaisher published his dew point tables for the measurement of humidity. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1849.
He was a founding member of the Meteorological Society (1850) and the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain (1866). He was president of the Royal Meteorological Society from 1867 to 1868. Glaisher was elected a member of The Photographic Society, later the Royal Photographic Society, in 1854 and served as the society's president for 1869–1874 and 1875–1892. He remained a member until his death.
He was also President of the Royal Microscopical Society.
He is most famous as a pioneering balloonist. Between 1862 and 1866, usually with Henry Tracey Coxwell as his co-pilot, Glaisher made numerous ascents to measure the temperature and humidity of the atmosphere at its highest levels.
Their ascent on 5 September 1862 broke the world record for altitude but he passed out around 8,800 metres (28,900 feet) before a reading could be taken. One of the pigeons making the trip with him died. Estimates suggest that he rose to more than 9,500 metres (31,200 feet) and as much as 10,900 metres (35,800 feet) above sea level. Glaisher lost consciousness during the ascent and Coxwell lost all sensation in his hands. The valve-line had become entangled so he was unable to release the mechanism; with great effort, he climbed onto the rigging and was finally able to release the vent before losing consciousness. This allowed the balloon to descend to a lower altitude.
Glaisher lived at 20 Dartmouth Hill, Blackheath, London, where there is a blue plaque in his memory.
The two made additional flights. According to the Smithsonian Institution, Glaisher "brought along delicate instruments to measure the temperature, barometric pressure and chemical composition of the air. He even recorded his own pulse at various altitudes".
In 1871, Glaisher arranged for the publication of his book about the balloon flights, Travels in the Air, a collection of reports from his experiments. To ensure that numerous members of the general public would learn from his experiences, he included "detailed drawings and maps, colorful accounts of his adventures and vivid descriptions of his precise observations", according to one report.
He died in Croydon, Surrey in 1903, aged 93.
Family
In 1843 he married Cecilia Louisa Belville, a daughter of Henry Belville, Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. James and Cecilia had two sons: Ernest Glaisher and the mathematician James Whitbread Lee Glaisher (1848–1928), and one daughter: Cecilia Appelina (1845–1932).
Recognition
A lunar crater is named after him. The name was approved by the IAU in 1935.
In popular culture
The Aeronauts, released in 2019, includes a fictionalised account of the 5 September 1862 flight. The film depicts fictional pilot Amelia Rennes (played by Felicity Jones), joining Glaisher (played by Eddie Redmayne) in an epic fight for survival while attempting to make discoveries in a gas balloon. The film omits Henry Coxwell entirely with Rennes becoming the pilot.
A report in The Daily Telegraph quotes Keith Moore, Head of Library at the Royal Society as saying: "It’s a great shame that Henry isn’t portrayed because he performed very well and saved the life of a leading scientist".
Notes
References
Extract.
External links
Royal Society citation.
Newspaper cutting from New York Times, 1909.
Details of 1862 balloon flight.
The Victorians who flew as high as jumbo jets.
NOAA photo library – Illus. from Glaisher's 1871 "Travels in the Air"; see #634–641.
.
1809 births
1903 deaths
English aerospace engineers
English balloonists
English meteorologists
English science writers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Presidents of the Royal Meteorological Society
English male non-fiction writers
Flight altitude record holders
Balloon flight record holders
British aviation record holders
James
People from Rotherhithe
|
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208750
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubeway%20Army
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Tubeway Army
|
Tubeway Army were a London-based new wave band led by lead singer Gary Numan. Formed at the height of punk rock in 1977 the band gradually changed to an electronic sound. They were the first band of the electronic era to have a synthesiser-based number-one hit, with their single "Are 'Friends' Electric?" and its parent album Replicas both topping the UK charts in mid-1979. After its release, Numan opted to drop the Tubeway Army name and release music under his own name as he was the sole songwriter, producer and public face of the band, but he retained the musicians from Tubeway Army as his backing band.
History
Early years
Aged 18 years, Gary Webb had fronted London band Mean Street in 1976 (their song "Bunch of Stiffs" appeared on the Live at the Vortex compilation, and was the B-side of the Vortex 7"). After leaving this band, he auditioned as lead guitarist for another band called The Lasers, where he met bass-player Paul Gardiner. The Lasers soon became Tubeway Army, and were eventually reformed with Webb's uncle Jess Lidyard on drums. Webb rechristened himself "Valerian", Gardiner "Scarlett" and Lidyard "Rael".
Webb was a prolific songwriter. The band began playing gigs on the punk scene in London and via demo recordings (later released as The Plan) managed to secure a record deal with the independent Beggars Banquet label. They released two guitar-heavy, punk-style singles in the first half of 1978 ("That's Too Bad"/"Oh! Didn't I Say", and "Bombers"/"Blue Eyes"/"OD Receiver"). These failed to chart.
During this time the band went through some line-up changes, changing drummers and briefly adding a second guitarist, but due to musical differences Webb and Gardiner split with them as they wanted to move away from punk rock.
By this time Tubeway Army had decided to abandon live shows – Numan was unhappy with pub-venue gigs on the often violent London punk scene. Their last gig in July 1978 (sharing the bill with The Skids) was abandoned halfway through the set because of violence and Numan decided that Tubeway Army would be a studio-only band. (The're are only 2 known recordings of Tubeway Army concerts – Live at The Roxy in 1977 and a London show from February 1978 – this was released as a bootleg album in the early 1980s. It was later officially included under the title Living Ornaments '78 as bonus tracks on the 1998 CD re-release of the Tubeway Army album).
Debut album
Soon afterwards, the Tubeway Army album was quickly recorded by the original line-up. At this point Webb adopted the name "Gary Numan", taking his new pseudonym from a local Yellow Pages where a plumber called "Arthur Neumann" was listed, the singer abandoning the German spelling, to become Numan. Whilst still largely guitar/bass/drums-based, the album saw his first tentative use of the Minimoog synthesizer, which he had come across by accident in the recording studio during the album sessions. Lyrically the record touched on dystopian and sci-fi themes similar to those employed by authors J. G. Ballard and Philip K. Dick, of whom Numan was a fan (the opening lines of the song "Listen to the Sirens" are a direct lift from the title of Dick's book Flow My Tears, The Policeman Said).
At this point Numan was keen to distance his music from punk rock and wanted to drop the Tubeway Army group name and release the album under his own stage name, but the idea was rejected by Beggars Banquet and the album was released with the title Tubeway Army on blue vinyl in November 1978. Whilst the album's modest initial pressing of 5000 copies sold out, it did not enter the album charts at that time, and no singles were lifted from it.
Replicas and commercial success
Following swiftly on, Numan took Tubeway Army back into the studio to record their follow-up album, Replicas and also a session for John Peel in early 1979. The result was more synth and science fiction oriented than the last album. The first single from the album, the bleak, slow-paced keyboard-driven song "Down in the Park", failed to chart, although it would prove an enduring cult track in the years to come, covered by Marilyn Manson, Foo Fighters and Flight.
The next single, "Are 'Friends' Electric?" was very successful, reaching the No. 1 spot. By the end of 1979 it had become the fourth highest selling single in the UK that year. The underlying context of this song was also a reference to another Philip K. Dick novel, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? A special picture-disc helped boost sales but what particularly grabbed the British public's imagination was Tubeway Army's appearance on the BBC show The Old Grey Whistle Test, followed soon after by a slot on Top of the Pops on 24 May 1979. The band, now including Ultravox keyboardist Billy Currie, Chris Payne, Paul Gardiner and drummer Cedric Sharpley, appeared all dressed in black and near-motionless, Numan in particular giving a performance often referred to as being "like an android" (a style that was later reported to have been a means of covering stage nerves but which then became his trademark). The single remained at number one in the UK charts for four weeks, with Replicas following suit in the album charts. With Tubeway Army still avoiding live shows, Numan recruited some additional musicians to make these television appearances (see above).
At the peak of success, a John Peel session in June 1979 was credited as Gary Numan, and the Tubeway Army group name was dropped. Numan would however keep the same musicians as his backing band on his subsequent solo releases and tours.
Personnel
Members
Gary Numan (a.k.a. "Valeriun") – guitar, lead vocals, synthesizers (1977-1979)
Paul Gardiner (a.k.a. "Scarlett") – bass, backing vocals (1977–1979; died 1984)
Jess Lidyard (a.k.a. "Rael") – drums (1977, 1978–1979)
Bob Simmonds – drums (1977–1978)
Barry Benn – drums (1978)
Sean Burke – guitar (1978)
Billy Currie – synthesizers (1979)
Trevor Grant – guitar (1979)
Chris Payne – synthesizers (1979)
Cedric Sharpley – drums (1979; died 2012)
Lineups
Discography
Studio albums
† The album Tubeway Army did not chart upon its first release in 1978, but following the success of Replicas, it charted in August 1979 and reached No. 14.
Compilations
1 The demos were recorded in 1977 and 1978 but not released until 1984. Beggars Banquet have re-released and re-mastered these recordings numerous times. Current CD editions supplement the original album tracks with all single A- and B-sides, 12" bonus tracks, studio out-takes, and recovered bootleg live material.
Singles
* Charted in 1983.
References
Further reading
Goodwin, Paul (2004) Electric Pioneer: An Armchair Guide To Gary Numan
English new wave musical groups
English punk rock groups
Musical groups established in 1976
Musical groups disestablished in 1979
Musical groups from London
British synth-pop new wave groups
English post-punk music groups
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208751
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waldo%20Semon
|
Waldo Semon
|
Waldo Lonsbury Semon (September 10, 1898 – May 26, 1999) was an American inventor born in Demopolis, Alabama. He is credited with inventing methods for making polyvinyl chloride useful.
Biography
He was born on September 10, 1898.
Semon is best known for inventing vinyl, the world's second most used plastic. He found the formula for vinyl by mixing a few synthetic polymers, and the result was a substance that was elastic, but wasn't adhesive. Semon worked on methods of improving rubber, and eventually developed a synthetic substitute. On December 11, 1935, he created Koroseal from salt, coke and limestone, a polymer that could be made in any consistency. Semon made more than 5,000 other synthetic rubber compounds, achieving success with Ameripol (AMERican POLymer) in 1940 for the B.F. Goodrich company. In all, Semon held 116 patents, and was inducted into the Invention Hall of Fame in 1995 at age 97.
While at B.F. Goodrich, Semon reported to Harry L. Fisher and later supervised Benjamin S. Garvey, both of whom also received the Charles Goodyear Medal.
Semon is sometimes credited with inventing bubble gum, but this is inaccurate. He did invent an indigestible synthetic rubber substance that could be used as a bubble gum (and produced exceptionally large bubbles), but the product remained a curiosity and was never sold. Semon graduated from the University of Washington earning a BS in chemistry and a PhD in chemical engineering.
He was awarded the Charles Goodyear Medal in 1944, the Elliott Cresson Medal in 1964, and the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1965. After retiring from B.F. Goodrich, he served as a research professor at Kent State University in Kent, Ohio. He died in Hudson, Ohio, on May 26, 1999, at the age of 100.
Legacy
Waldo Semon Woods Conservation Area, is named in honor of the inventor, for his donation of land to Metro Parks, serving Summit County, Ohio. It is over 100 acres, with a pond where herons, turtles and amphibians are often seen.
References
External links
Audio interview with Waldo Semon.
Map of Waldo Semon woods.
External links
UW Alumni Magazine Profile
Metro Parks, Serving Summit County
Biography at Bouncing-Balls.com
1898 births
1999 deaths
American centenarians
Men centenarians
20th-century American chemists
American chemical engineers
People from Demopolis, Alabama
Polymer scientists and engineers
University of Washington College of Arts and Sciences alumni
University of Washington College of Engineering alumni
20th-century American engineers
20th-century American inventors
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] |
208753
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20computers%20running%20CP/M
|
List of computers running CP/M
|
Many microcomputer makes and models could run some version or derivation of the CP/M disk operating system. Eight-bit computers running CP/M 80 were built around an Intel 8080/8085, Zilog Z80, or compatible CPU. CP/M 86 ran on the Intel 8086 and 8088. Some computers were suitable for CP/M as delivered. Others needed hardware modifications such as a memory expansion or modification, new boot ROMs, or the addition of a floppy disk drive. A few very popular home computers using processors not supported by CP/M had plug-in Z80 or compatible processors, allowing them to use CP/M and retaining the base machine's keyboard, peripherals, and sometimes video display and memory.
The following is an alphabetical list of some computers running CP/M.
A
Ai Electronics ABC-24 / ABC-26 (Japan, running Dosket, CP/M & M/PM)
Action Computer Enterprises ACE-1000
Action Computer Enterprises Discovery D-500 (CP/M-80 on each of up to 4 user processors, DPC/OS on service processor)
Action Computer Enterprises Discovery D-1600 (CP/M-80 on each of up to 15 user processors, DPC/OS on service processor)
Actrix Computer Corp. Actrix (Access Matrix)
Advanced Digital Corporation Super Six
Allen Bradley Advisor - Industrial Programmable controller graphical user interface (development mode only), fl. ca. 1985
Alspa
MITS Altair 8800
Altos 580
Amada Aries 222/245 CNC turret punch press
Amstrad CPC 464 (w/DDI-1 disk drive interface), 664, 6128, 6128Plus
Amstrad PCW 8256/8512/9512/9256/10
Amust Executive 816
Apple II (with a Z-80 card like the Microsoft SoftCard; on some clones a SoftCard equivalent was built into the mainboard)
Apple III (with a Z-80 card like the Apple SoftCard III)
Applied Technology MicroBee (56KB+ RAM models)
Aster CT-80
Atari 800 and XL/XE (with ATR8000 module, LDW Super 2000, CA-2001 or Indus GT disk drives expanded to 64k)
Atari ST - runs GEMDOS, which was DRI's more advanced replacement for CP/M for use with their GEM GUI
ATM-turbo - Soviet/Russian clone of ZX-Spectrum with extension graphic and 512/1024Kb RAM: CP/M 2.2 in ROM
AT&T 6300 with CPU 3 upgrade
AT&T 6300 PLUS
B
Basis 108
BBC Micro (with external Z80 module)
Beehive Topper II
Bigboard
BMC if-800
Bondwell II,12, 14
BT Merlin M2215 series based on ICL PC-2 (CP/M) (also ran MP/M II+)
BT Merlin M4000 series based on Logica Kennett (Concurrent CP/M-86)
C
Camputers Lynx (96k/128k models)
Casio FP1000 FL
CASU Super-C - Z80 based with a 21 slot S100 bus (Networkable with MP/M) - UK manufactured
CASU Mini-C - Z80 based with a 7 slot S100 bus and twin 8" floppy disk drives (Networkable with MP/M) - UK manufactured
Challenger III - Ohio Scientific OSI-CP/M
Cifer Systems 2684, 2887, 1887 - Melksham, England.
CIP04 - Romanian computer
CoBra - Romanian computer
Coleco Adam (with a CP/M digital data pack)
Comart Communicator (CP/M-80), C-Frame, K-Frame, Workstation and Quad (Concurrent CP/M-86)
Commodore 64 (with Z80 plug-in cartridge)
Commodore 128 (using its internal Z80 processor--along with its 8502--ran CP/M+ which supported memory paging)
Compaq Portable - was available with CP/M as a factory installed option.
Compis
Compupro
Cromemco
C't180 HD64180 ECB-System (CP/M2.2 & 3.x)
Cub-Z - Romanian made computer
D
Datamax UV-1R
Data Soft PCS 80 and VDP 80 (France, 1977)
Data Technology Industries "Associate" (USA, 1982)
DEC Rainbow 100/100+ (could run both CP/M and CP/M-86)
DEC VT180 (aka Personal Computing Option, aka 'Robin')
Digital Group DG1
E
Eagle Computer Eagle I, II, III, IV, V
ELWRO 800 Junior Polish clone of Sinclair ZX spectrum—running CP/J, a CP/M derivative with simple networking abilities
ENER 1000
Enterprise 128 (with EXDOS/IS-DOS extensions)
Epic Episode
Epson PX-4, PX-8 (Geneva), QX-10, QX-16
Eracom ERA-50 & ERA-60 with encrypted disks (Eracom Corporation, Australia)
Exidy Sorcerer
F
Ferguson Big Board
FK-1 - Czech microcomputer
Franklin ACE 1000 (with Microsoft Z-80 SoftCard)
Franklin ACE 1200 (includes a PCPI Applicard clone)
Fujitsu Micro 7 (with Z-80 plug-in card)
G
General Processor GPS5 (Italy, running CP/M 86 - Concurrent CP/M 86)
General Processor Model T (Italy, 1980 running CP/M 80)
Grundy NewBrain
Genie II, IIs, III, IIIs
Goupil G3
G.Z.E. UNIMOR Bosman 8 (Poland, 1987 running CPM/R, CP/M 2.2 compatible)
Gemini 801 and Gemini Galaxy (UK, 1981-1983 running CP/M 2.2 and MP/M)
H
HBN Computer (Le) Guépard
HC-88
HC-2000
Heath/Zenith Heathkit H90|H90 and Heathkit H89/Zenith Z-89
Hewlett-Packard HP-85 / HP-87 (with addition of CP/M Module containing Z80)
Hewlett-Packard HP-125 and HP-120, one Z80 each for CP/M and the inherent HP terminal
Hobbit
Holborn 6100
Holborn 9100 (Netherlands, 1981)
Husky Computers Ltd Hunter (1 and 2, 16), Hawk
I
Ibex 7150 and other models
ICL PC-1 (CP/M) (also ran MP/M)
ICL PC-2 (CP/M) (also ran MP/M II+)
ICL PC-16 (Concurrent CP/M-86)
ICL PC Quattro (Concurrent CP/M-86)
ICL DRS8801 (CP/M-86)
ICL DRS300 (Concurrent CP/M-86)
ICL DRS20 (CP/M or Concurrent CP/M-86)
IBM Displaywriter
IBM PC (CP/M-86 only; CP/M-80 with the Baby Blue Z-80 card)
IMSAI 8080
IMSAI VDP-80 (8085 3 MHz)
Intel MDS-80
Intertec Superbrain
Iotec
Iskra Delta Partner
Itautec I-7000, I-7000G, I-7000 Jr. (SIM/M)
ITT 3030
Ivel Ultra
J
JET-80 (Swedish Made Computer)
Juku (microcomputer)|Juku E5101–E5104 came with an adaptation of CP/M called EKDOS
JUNIOR Romanian Computer
K
Kaypro
KC 85/2-4
Kontron PSI98 (KOS & CP/M2.2)
Korvet (Корвет) — Soviet PC
L
Labtam
LNW-80
LOBO Max-80
Logica VTS 2200 (CP/M-86)
Logica VTS Kennet (Concurrent CP/M-86)
LOS 25 (10 MB harddisc)
Luxor ABC 802, ABC 806 (Sweden, 1981)
M
MCP (128K, Z80, S-100 bus)
MC CP/M Computer (Z80 ECB-System, CP/M2.2)
Megatel Quark
Memotech MTX
MicroBee
Micro Craft Dimension 68000 (CP/M-68K, and CP/M-80 with optional Z80 card)
Micromation M/System, Mariner and MiSystem (MP/M and MP/M II)
Micromint SB180 (Hitachi HD64180 CPU)
Mikromeri Spectra Z (Finland)
Morrow Designs (MD2, MD3, MD11)
MSX (some MSX-standard machines ran the CP/M-like MSX-DOS)
Mycron 3
M 18 Romanian Computer
M 118 Romanian Computer
MK 45 Polish computer based on MCY7880
N
N8VEM
N8VEM ZetaSBC
Nabu Network PC
Nascom 1, 2
NCR Decision Mate V
NEC APC
NEC PC-8001 Mk II
NEC PC-8801
Nelma Persona
NorthStar Advantage (all in one computer)
NorthStar Horizon (S-100)
Nokia MikroMikko 1
NYLAC Computers NYLAC (S-100)
O
OKI IF-800 (Z80 5 MHz) Second Z80 on video controller
Olivetti ETV300
Olivetti M20 (CP/M-8000)
Osborne 1
Osborne Executive
Osborne Vixen
Otrona Attaché
Otrona Attaché 8:16
P
P112
Philips P2000T
Philips 3003/3004
Piccolo RC-700|Piccolo
Piccoline RC-759
Pied Piper
Polymorphic Systems 8813
The Portable Computer Co (AU) PortaPak
Profi - Soviet/Russian clone of ZX-Spectrum with extension grafic and 1024Kb RAM: CP/M plus in ROM
Processor Technology Sol-20 (optional)
Pulsars Little Big Board
Q
Quasar Data Products QDP-300
R
RAIR "Black Box" (also ran MP/M)
Regnecentralen Piccolo RC-700
Regnecentralen Piccoline RC-759
Research Machines 380Z and LINK 480Z
Rex Computer Company REX 1
Robotron A 5120
Robotron KC 85, KC 87
Robotron PC 1715
Royal Business Machines 7000 "Friday"
S
SAGE II / IV CP/M-68K
SAM Coupé - (Pro-Dos = CP/M 2.2)
Samsung SPC-1000
Sanyo MBC families (i.e. MBC-1150)
SBS 8000
Scandis
Seequa Chameleon
Sharp MZ series
Sharp X1 series
Sirius 1 (sold in the U.S. as the Victor 9000)
Software Publisher's ATR8000
Sony SMC-70
Sord M5 has CP/M as an option, CP/M-68K standard for the M68/M68MX
Spectravideo SV-318/328
Sperry Univac UTS 40 CP/M 2.2 - Zilog 80
Stride 400 series CP/M-68K was one of many operating systems on these
ZX Spectrum family (built by Amstrad)
T
Tatung Einstein TC-01 (runs Xtal/DOS which is CP/M compatible)
Tandy TRS-80
Technical Design Labs (TDL) XITAN
TeleData (Z80 Laptop)
Telenova Compis (CP/M-86)
Teleputer III
Televideo TS-80x Series
Televideo TS-160x Series
Texas Instruments TI-99/4A (with the MorningStar CP/M card or the Foundation CP/M card)
Tiki-100 (runs KP/M, or later renamed TIKO. A CP/M 2.2 Clone.)
TIM-011
TIM-S Plus
Timex FDD3000 (on Z80 CPU) with ZX Spectrum as terminal.
Toshiba T100
Toshiba T200
Toshiba T200 C-5
Toshiba T200 C-20
Toshiba T250
Transtec BC2
Triumph-Adler AlphaTronic P1/P2
Triumph-Adler AlphaTronic P3/P4
Triumph-Adler AlphaTronic P30/P40
Triumph-Adler AlphaTronic PC (CPU was a Hitachi Z80 clone)
Tycom Microframe
U
Unitron 8000, a dual processor machine built São Paulo in the early 1980s. The Unitron could boot either as an Apple II clone (using a clone 6502 processor) or in CP/M (using the Z80).
V
Vector-06C (Intel 8080, 16 color graphics, made in USSR)
Vector Graphic Vector Graphic Corporation Vector Model 1,2 (Internal Model),3, Model 4 (Z80 & 8088 CP/M, CP/M-86 & PCDOS), Model 10 (Multiuser)
Victor 9000 (sold as the Sirius 1 in Europe)
Video Technology Laser 500/700
Visual Technology (Lowell, Ma) Visual 1050, 1100 (Not Released)
W
Wave Mate Bullet
Welect 80.2 (France, 1982)
West PC-800
X
Xerox 820
Xerox Sunrise 1800 / 1805
Y
Yodobashi Formula-1
Z
Zenith Data Systems Z-89 (aka Heathkit H89)
Zenith Data Systems Z-100 (CP/M-85)
Zorba
References
External links
Intel iPDS-100 Using CP/M-Video
CP M
|
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208758
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20Finland%20Province
|
Western Finland Province
|
Western Finland (, ) was a province of Finland from 1997 to 2009. It bordered the provinces of Oulu, Eastern Finland and Southern Finland. It also bordered the Gulf of Bothnia towards Åland. Tampere was the largest city of the province.
History
On September 1, 1997 the Province of Turku and Pori, the Province of Vaasa, the Province of Central Finland, the northern parts of the Province of Häme and the western parts of the Mikkeli Province were joined to form the then new Province of Western Finland.
All the provinces of Finland were abolished on January 1, 2010.
Administration
The State Provincial Office was a joint regional administrative authority of seven ministries. The State Provincial Office served at five localities; the main office was placed in Turku, and regional service offices were located in Jyväskylä, Tampere, Vaasa, and Pori. Approximately 350 persons worked at the State Provincial Office. The agency was divided into eight departments.
Regions
Western Finland was divided into seven regions:
Southern Ostrobothnia (Etelä-Pohjanmaa / Södra Österbotten)
Ostrobothnia (Pohjanmaa / Österbotten)
Pirkanmaa (Pirkanmaa / Birkaland)
Satakunta (Satakunta / Satakunda)
Central Ostrobothnia (Keski-Pohjanmaa / Mellersta Österbotten)
Central Finland (Keski-Suomi / Mellersta Finland)
Finland Proper (Varsinais-Suomi / Egentliga Finland)
Municipalities in 2009 (cities in bold)
Western Finland was divided into 142 municipalities in 2009.
Akaa
Alajärvi
Alavus
Aura
Eura
Eurajoki
Evijärvi
Halsua
Hankasalmi
Harjavalta
Himanka
Honkajoki
Huittinen
Hämeenkyrö
Ikaalinen
Ilmajoki
Isojoki
Isokyrö
Jakobstad
Jalasjärvi
Joutsa
Juupajoki
Jyväskylä
Jämijärvi
Jämsä
Kaarina
Kangasala
Kankaanpää
Kannonkoski
Kannus
Karijoki
Karstula
Karvia
Kaskinen
Kauhajoki
Kauhava
Kaustinen
Keuruu
Kihniö
Kiikoinen
Kimitoön
Kinnula
Kivijärvi
Kokemäki
Kokkola
Konnevesi
Korsholm
Korsnäs
Koski Tl
Kristinestad
Kronoby
Kuhmalahti
Kuhmoinen
Kuortane
Kurikka
Kustavi
Kylmäkoski
Kyyjärvi
Köyliö
Laihia
Laitila
Lappajärvi
Lapua
Larsmo
Laukaa
Lavia
Lempäälä
Lestijärvi
Lieto
Loimaa
Luhanka
Luvia
Malax
Marttila
Masku
Merikarvia
Multia
Muurame
Mynämäki
Mänttä-Vilppula
Naantali
Nakkila
Nokia
Noormarkku
Nousiainen
Nykarleby
Närpes
Oravais
Oripää
Orivesi
Paimio
Parkano
Pedersöre
Perho
Petäjävesi
Pihtipudas
Pirkkala
Pomarkku
Pori
Punkalaidun
Pyhäranta
Pälkäne
Pöytyä
Raisio
Rauma
Ruovesi
Rusko
Saarijärvi
Salo
Sastamala
Sauvo
Seinäjoki
Siikainen
Soini
Somero
Säkylä
Taivassalo
Tampere
Tarvasjoki
Teuva
Toholampi
Toivakka
Turku
Töysä
Ulvila
Urjala
Uurainen
Uusikaupunki
Vaasa
Valkeakoski
Vehmaa
Vesilahti
Veteli
Viitasaari
Vimpeli
Virrat
Vähäkyrö
Väståboland
Vörå-Maxmo
Ylöjärvi
Ähtäri
Äänekoski
Former municipalities (disestablished before 2009)
Alahärmä
Alastaro
Askainen
Dragsfjärd
Halikko
Houtskär
Iniö
Jurva
Jyväskylän mlk
Jämsänkoski
Karinainen
Kiikala
Kimito
Kisko
Kiukainen
Kodisjoki
Korpilahti
Korpo
Kortesjärvi
Kullaa
Kuorevesi
Kuru
Kuusjoki
Kälviä
Lappi
Lehtimäki
Leivonmäki
Lemu
Lohtaja
Loimaan kunta
Luopioinen
Längelmäki
Maxmo
Mellilä
Merimasku
Mietoinen
Mouhijärvi
Muurla
Mänttä
Nagu
Nurmo
Pargas
Perniö
Pertteli
Peräseinäjoki
Piikkiö
Pylkönmäki
Rymättylä
Sahalahti
Sumiainen
Suodenniemi
Suolahti
Suomusjärvi
Särkisalo
Toijala
Ullava
Vahto
Vammala
Vampula
Velkua
Viiala
Viljakkala
Vilppula
Västanfjärd
Vörå
Ylihärmä
Ylistaro
Yläne
Äetsä
Governors
Heikki Koski 1997-2003
Rauno Saari 2003-2009
Heraldry
The coat of arms of Western Finland was composed of the arms of Finland Proper, Satakunta and Ostrobothnia.
Notes
External links
Western Finland State Provincial Office - Official site
Provinces of Finland (1997–2009)
|
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208759
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lovedean
|
Lovedean
|
Lovedean is a village in the East Hampshire district of Hampshire, England. It is 1.4 miles (2.2 km) west of Horndean.
The nearest railway station is Rowlands Castle, 2.8 miles (4.6 km) southeast of the village. Although this is the nearest it is not readily accessible by public transport, for public transport the best is Cosham
The village of Lovedean is situated around the main road Lovedean Lane, situated at the bottom of the valley after which it is named. Dean is from the old English word Denu, meaning valley. [The name Lovedean derives from a marriage in 1594 when Isabel Norton married Thomas Loveden , and included in the dowry was part of the Manor of Catherington plus an area known as the Manor of Lovedean]
Lovedean Village Hall is well used, there were two pubs, The Green Dragon which closed December 2011, and became a Tesco Express March 2012, and The Bird in Hand The Bird in Hand is owned by the same company that runs the Hurdles, a similar pub in Droxford as well as a few shops. The FA Cup trophy was hidden at The Bird in Hand during the Second World War, having been won by Portsmouth a few months before the outbreak of the war in 1939. Lovedean is home to Woodcroft Primary School and has a sizeable 400 kV electrical substation.
Lovedean is described as a "manor of Catherington" on the British History Online website here
References
External links
Villages in Hampshire
|
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208760
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern%20Finland%20Province
|
Southern Finland Province
|
Southern Finland (, ) was a province of Finland from 1997 to 2009. It bordered the provinces of Western Finland and Eastern Finland. It also bordered the Gulf of Finland and Russia.
History
On September 1, 1997 the Uusimaa Province, the Kymi Province and the southern parts of the Häme Province were joined to form the new Southern Finland Province.
All the provinces of Finland were abolished on January 1, 2010.
Administration
The State Provincial Office was a joint regional authority of seven different ministries. It promoted national and regional objectives of the State central administration. The State Provincial Office of Southern Finland employed about 380 persons. Its service offices were located in the cities of Hämeenlinna, Helsinki, and Kouvola. The administrative seat was placed at Hämeenlinna.
Regions
Southern Finland was divided into six regions:
South Karelia (Etelä-Karjala / Södra Karelen)
Päijänne Tavastia (Päijät-Häme / Päijänne Tavastland)
Tavastia Proper (Kanta-Häme / Egentliga Tavastland)
Uusimaa (Uusimaa / Nyland)
Eastern Uusimaa (Itä-Uusimaa / Östra Nyland)
Kymenlaakso (Kymenlaakso / Kymmenedalen)
Municipalities in 2009 (cities in bold)
Southern Finland was divided into 72 municipalities in 2009.
Artjärvi
Asikkala
Askola
Espoo
Forssa
Hamina
Hanko
Hartola
Hattula
Hausjärvi
Heinola
Helsinki
Hollola
Humppila
Hyvinkää
Hämeenkoski
Hämeenlinna
Iitti
Imatra
Ingå
Janakkala
Jokioinen
Järvenpää
Karjalohja
Karkkila
Kauniainen
Kerava
Kirkkonummi
Kotka
Kouvola
Kärkölä
Lahti
Lapinjärvi
Lappeenranta
Lemi
Liljendal
Lohja
Loppi
Loviisa
Luumäki
Miehikkälä
Myrskylä
Mäntsälä
Nastola
Nummi-Pusula
Nurmijärvi
Orimattila
Padasjoki
Parikkala
Pernå
Pornainen
Porvoo
Pukkila
Pyhtää
Raseborg
Rautjärvi
Riihimäki
Ruokolahti
Ruotsinpyhtää
Savitaipale
Sipoo
Siuntio
Suomenniemi
Sysmä
Taipalsaari
Tammela
Tuusula
Vantaa
Vihti
Virolahti
Ylämaa
Ypäjä
Former municipalities (disestablished before 2009)
Anjalankoski
Ekenäs
Elimäki
Hauho
Jaala
Joutseno
Kalvola
Karis
Kuusankoski
Lammi
Pohja
Renko
Saari
Sammatti
Tuulos
Uukuniemi
Valkeala
Vehkalahti
Governors
Tuula Linnainmaa 1997-2003
Anneli Taina 2003-2009
Heraldry
The coat of arms of Southern Finland was composed of the arms of Tavastia, Karelia and Uusimaa.
Notes
External links
Southern Finland State Provincial Office - Official site
Provinces of Finland (1997–2009)
|
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208761
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20Finland%20Province
|
Eastern Finland Province
|
Eastern Finland (, ) was a province of Finland from 1997 to 2009. It bordered the provinces of Oulu, Western Finland and Southern Finland. It also bordered Russia to the east.
History
On September 1, 1997, the Mikkeli Province, the Kuopio Province and Northern Karelia Province were joined to form the new Eastern Finland Province.
All the provinces of Finland were abolished on January 1, 2010.
Administration
The State Provincial Office was a joint regional authority of seven different ministries. It promoted national and regional objectives of the State central administration. Eastern Finland State Provincial Office had branch offices in Mikkeli, Joensuu, and Kuopio.
Regions
Eastern Finland was divided into three regions:
North Karelia (Pohjois-Karjala / Norra Karelen)
Northern Savonia (Pohjois-Savo / Norra Savolax)
Southern Savonia (Etelä-Savo / Södra Savolax)
Municipalities in 2009 (cities in bold)
Eastern Finland was divided into 54 municipalities in 2009.
Enonkoski
Heinävesi
Hirvensalmi
Iisalmi
Ilomantsi
Joensuu
Joroinen
Juankoski
Juuka
Juva
Kaavi
Kangasniemi
Karttula
Keitele
Kerimäki
Kesälahti
Kitee
Kiuruvesi
Kontiolahti
Kuopio
Lapinlahti
Leppävirta
Lieksa
Liperi
Maaninka
Mikkeli
Mäntyharju
Nilsiä
Nurmes
Outokumpu
Pertunmaa
Pieksämäki
Pielavesi
Polvijärvi
Punkaharju
Puumala
Rantasalmi
Rautalampi
Rautavaara
Ristiina
Rääkkylä
Savonlinna
Siilinjärvi
Sonkajärvi
Sulkava
Suonenjoki
Tervo
Tohmajärvi
Tuusniemi
Valtimo
Varkaus
Varpaisjärvi
Vesanto
Vieremä
Former municipalities (disestablished before 2009)
Anttola
Eno
Haukivuori
Jäppilä
Kangaslampi
Kiihtelysvaara
Mikkelin mlk
Pieksämäen mlk
Pieksänmaa
Pyhäselkä
Savonranta
Tuupovaara
Vehmersalmi
Virtasalmi
Värtsilä
Governors
Pirjo Ala-Kapee 1997–2009
Heraldry
The coat of arms of Eastern Finland was composed of the arms of Savonia and Karelia.
References
External links
Eastern Finland State Provincial Office - Official site
Video about travelling in Koli area
Pielis.ru — По Восточной Финляндии и дальше ...
Provinces of Finland (1997–2009)
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shotokan
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Shotokan
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is a style of karate, developed from various martial arts by Gichin Funakoshi (1868–1957) and his son Gigo (Yoshitaka) Funakoshi (1906–1945). Gichin Funakoshi was born in Okinawa and is widely credited with popularizing "karate do" through a series of public demonstrations, and by promoting the development of university karate clubs, including those at Keio, Waseda, Hitotsubashi (Shodai), Takushoku, Chuo, Gakushuin, and Hosei.
Funakoshi had many students at the university clubs and outside dojos, who continued to teach karate after his death in 1957. However, internal disagreements (in particular the notion that competition is contrary to the essence of karate) led to the creation of different organisations—including an initial split between the Japan Karate Association (headed by Masatoshi Nakayama) and the Shotokai (headed by Motonobu Hironishi and Shigeru Egami), followed by many others—so that today there is no single "Shotokan school", although they all bear Funakoshi's influence.
As the most widely practiced style, Shotokan is considered a traditional and influential form of karate do.
Etymology
Shotokan was the name of the first official dojo built by Gichin Funakoshi, in 1936 at Mejiro, and destroyed in 1945 as a result of an allied bombing. , meaning "pine-waves" (the movement of pine needles when the wind blows through them), was Funakoshi's pen-name, which he used in his poetic and philosophical writings and messages to his students. The Japanese means "house" or "hall". In honour of their sensei, Funakoshi's students created a sign reading shōtō-kan, which they placed above the entrance of the hall where Funakoshi taught. Gichin Funakoshi never gave his system a name, just calling it karate.
Characteristics
Shotokan training is usually divided into three parts: kihon (basics), kata (forms or patterns of moves), and kumite (sparring). Techniques in kihon and kata are characterised by deep, long stances that provide stability, enable powerful movements, and strengthen the legs. Shotokan is regarded as a dynamic martial art as it develops anaerobic, powerful techniques as well as developing speed. Initially strength and power are demonstrated instead of slower, more flowing motions. Those who progress to brown and black belt level develop a much more fluid style that incorporates grappling, throwing and some standing joint locking techniques, which can be found even in basic kata. Kumite (fighting) techniques are practiced in the kihon and kata and developed from basic to advanced levels with an opponent.
Philosophy
Gichin Funakoshi laid out the Twenty Precepts of Karate (or Niju kun), which form the foundations of the art, before some of his students established the Japan Karate Association (JKA). Within these twenty principles, based heavily on bushido and Zen, lies the philosophy of Shotokan. The principles allude to notions of humility, respect, compassion, patience, and both an inward and outward calmness. It was Funakoshi's belief that through karate practice and observation of these 20 principles, the karateka would improve their person.
The dōjō kun lists five philosophical rules for training in the dojo: seek perfection of character, be faithful, endeavor to excel, respect others, and refrain from violent behaviour. These rules are called the Five Maxims of Karate. The dōjō kun is usually posted on a wall in the dojo, and some shotokan clubs recite the dōjō kun at the beginning and/or end of each class to provide motivation and a context for further training.
Funakoshi also wrote: "The ultimate aim of Karate lies not in victory or defeat, but in the perfection of the character of the participant."
Common terms
Many terms used in karate stem from Japanese culture. While many are names (e.g. Heian, Gankaku), others are exclusive to martial arts (e.g. kata, kumite). Many terms are seldom used in daily life, such as zenkutsu dachi, while others appear routinely, such as rei. The Japanese form is often retained in schools outside Japan to preserve the Okinawan culture and Funakoshi's philosophies.
However, many schools of JKA (Japan Karate Association) affiliated Shotokan Karate used the full terminology on a daily basis, providing translations also. For example, the KUI (Karate Union of Ireland), utilises the full and proper Japanese name for each move and kata in training, grading and competition.
Ranks
Rank is used in karate to indicate experience, expertise, and to a lesser degree, seniority. As with many martial arts, Shotokan uses a system of coloured belts to indicate rank. Most Shotokan schools use the kyū / dan system but have added other belt colours. The order of colours varies widely from school to school, but kyu belts are denoted with colours that in some schools become darker as a student approaches shodan. Dan level belts are invariably black, with some schools using stripes to denote various ranks of black belt. Gichin Funakoshi himself never awarded a rank higher than Godan (5th dan black belt).
Kihon
Kihon basics is the practice of basic techniques in Shotokan Karate. It includes stances, blocks, punches, kicks, various displacements and their combinations, as well as the practice of Kihon Kata like: Taikyoku Shodan, which was developed by Yoshitaka Funakoshi, the son of Gichin Funakoshi, as a basic introduction to karate kata. (Yoshitaka also developed Taikyoku Nidan and Sandan.) This first kata consists of successive restatements following the theme of gedan barai—oi tsuki, and performing three oi tsuki by following the known "H" pattern or Embusen.
Kata
Kata is often described as a set sequence of karate moves organised into a pre-arranged fight against imaginary opponents. The kata consists of kicks, punches, sweeps, strikes and blocks. Body movement in various kata includes stepping, twisting, turning, dropping to the ground, and jumping. In Shotokan, kata is a performance or a demonstration, with every technique potentially a killing blow (ikken hisatsu)—while paying particular attention to form and timing (rhythm). As the karateka grows older, more emphasis is placed on the health benefits of practicing kata, promoting fitness while keeping the body soft, supple, and agile.
Several Shotokan groups have introduced "kata" (form) from other styles into their training. The original Shotokan kata syllabus is introduced in Funakoshi's book Karate-do Kyohan, which is the master text of Shotokan karate. Japan Shotokai's kata syllabus is the same as established in "Karate-do Kyohan" with the addition of Gigo Funakoshi's staff kata Matsukaze No Kon. When the JKA was formed, Nakayama laid down 27 kata (26 mainly practised throughout most organisations) as the kata syllabus for this organisation. The standard JKA kata are: Taikyoku shodan (sometimes termed Kata Kihon or Kihon Kata, the name has been discontinued in some Shotokan dojos) (太極初段), Heian shodan (平安初段), Heian nidan (平安二段), Heian sandan (平安三段), Heian yondan (平安四段), Heian godan (平安五段), Bassai dai (披塞大), Jion (慈恩), Enpi (燕飛), Kanku dai (観空大), Hangetsu (半月), Jitte (十手), Gankaku (岩鶴), Tekki shodan (鉄騎初段), Tekki nidan (鉄騎二段), Tekki sandan (鉄騎三段), Nijūshiho (二十四步), Chinte (珍手), Sōchin (壯鎭), Meikyō/Rōhai (明鏡), Unsu (雲手), Bassai shō (披塞小), Kankū shō (観空小), Wankan (王冠), Gojūshiho shō (五十四歩小), Gojūshiho dai (五十四歩大), and Ji'in (慈陰).
Kumite
Kumite, or sparring (lit. Meeting of hands), is the practical application of kihon and kata to real opponents. The formalities of kumite in Shotokan karate were first instituted by Masatoshi Nakayama wherein basic, intermediate, and advanced sparring techniques and rules were formalised.
Shotokan practitioners first learn how to apply the techniques taught in kata to hypothetical opponents by way of kata bunkai. Kata bunkai then matures into controlled kumite.
Kumite is the third part of the Shotokan triumvirate of kihon, kata and kumite. Kumite is taught in ever increasing complexity from beginner through low grade blackbelt (1st – 2nd) to intermediate (3rd – 4th) and advanced (5th onwards) level practitioners.
Beginners first learn kumite through basic drills, of one, three or five attacks to the head (jodan) or body (chudan) with the defender stepping backwards whilst blocking and only countering on the last defence. These drills use basic (kihon) techniques and develop a sense of timing and distance in defence against a known attack.
At around purple belt level karateka learn one-step sparring (ippon kumite). Though there is only one step involved, rather than three or five, this exercise is more advanced because it involves a greater variety of attacks and blocks usually the defenders own choice. It also requires the defender to execute a counter-attack faster than in the earlier types of sparring. Counter-attacks may be almost anything, including strikes, grapples, and take-down manoeuvres.
Some schools prescribe the defences, most notably the Kase-ha Shotokan-ryū, which uses an eight step, three directional blocking and attacking pattern, which develops from yellow belt level through to advanced level.
The next level of kumite is freestyle one-step sparring (jiyu ippon kumite). This type of kumite, and its successor—free sparring, have been documented extensively by Nakayama and are expanded upon by the JKA instructor trainee program, for those clubs under the JKA. Freestyle one-step sparring is similar to one-step sparring but requires the karateka to be in motion. Practicing one-step sparring improves free sparring (jiyu kumite) skills, and also provides an opportunity for practicing major counter-attacks (as opposed to minor counter-attacks). Tsutomu Ohshima states that freestyle one-step sparring is the most realistic practice in Shotokan Karate, and that it is more realistic than free sparring.
Free sparring (or free style) (jiyu kumite) is the last element of sparring learned. In this exercise, two training partners are free to use any karate technique or combination of attacks, and the defender at any given moment is free to avoid, block, counter, or attack with any karate technique. Training partners are encouraged to make controlled and focused contact with their opponent, but to withdraw their attack as soon as surface contact has been made. This allows attacking a full range of target areas (including punches and kicks to the face, head, throat, and body) with no padding or protective gloves, but maintains a degree of safety for the participants. Throwing one's partner and performing takedowns are permitted in free sparring, but it is unusual for competition matches to involve extended grappling or ground-wrestling, as Shotokan karateka are encouraged to end an encounter with a single attack (ippon), avoiding extended periods of conflict, or unnecessary contact in situations where there may be more than one attacker.
Kaishu ippon kumite is an additional sparring exercise that is usually introduced for higher grades. This starts in a similar manner to freestyle one-step sparring; the attacker names the attack he/she will execute, attacks with that technique, and the defender blocks and counters the attack. Unlike freestyle one-step sparring, however, the attacker may then be required to block the defender's counter-attack and strike back. This exercise is often considered more difficult than either freestyle one-step sparring or free sparring, as the defender typically cannot escape to a safe distance in time to avoid the counter to the counter-attack.
Kumite within the dojo often differs from competition kumite. In dojo kumite any and all techniques, within reason, are valid; punches, knife hand strikes, headbutt, locks, takedowns, kicks, etc. In competition certain regulations apply, certain techniques are valid, and certain target areas, such as the joints or throat, are forbidden. The purpose of competition is to score points through the application of kumite principles while creating an exciting and competitive atmosphere, whereas the purpose of training kumite in the dojo is to be prepared to kill or cripple an opponent in a realistic situation.
History
Gichin Funakoshi had trained in both of the popular styles of Okinawan karate of the time: Shōrei-ryū and Shōrin-ryū. After years of study in both styles, Funakoshi created a simpler system that combined the ideals of the two. He never named this system, however, always referring to it simply as "karate." Funakoshi's karate reflects the changes made in the art by Ankō Itosu, including the Heian/Pinan kata series. Funakoshi changed the names of some of the kata in an effort to make the Okinawan kata names easier to pronounce in the Japanese Honshū dialect.
In 1924, Funakoshi adopted the Kyū / Dan rank system and the uniform (keikogi) developed by Kano Jigoro, the founder of judo. This system uses colored belts (obi) to indicate rank. Originally, karate had only three belt colors: white, brown, and black (with ranks within each). The original belt system, still used by many Shotokan schools, is:
8th rising to 4th kyū: white
3rd rising to 1st kyū: brown
1st and higher dan: black
Funakoshi awarded the first 1st dan (初段; shodan) Shotokan karate ranks to Tokuda, Hironori Ōtsuka (Otsuka), Akiba, Shimizu, Hirose, Makoto Gima, and Shinyō Kasuya on 10 April 1924.
Notable practitioners
André Bertel
Andy Sherry
Anne-Marie
Bear Grylls
Benny Urquidez
Gabriel Varga
Jason David Frank
David Tate (Professional Football Player
Geoff Thompson (writer)
Harry Cook
Hideaki Yamazaki
Hidetaka Nishiyama
Hwang Kee
James delos Santos
Jean-Claude Van Damme
John Saxon
Kyoji Horiguchi
Lyoto Machida
Mas Oyama
Michael Jai White
Raymond Daniels (martial artist)
Sean Kanan
Wesley Snipes
Won Kuk Lee
Robert Queen
Howard Stern
T.J. Stiles
See also
U.S. intercollegiate shotokan karate champions
List of major Shotokan Karate organizations
List of shotokan techniques
Notes
Footnotes
Bibliography
Shojiro Sugiyama. (2005).11 Innovations in Karate, . Chicago, IL.
Bruce Clayton. Shotokan's Secret: The Hidden Truth Behind Karate's Fighting Origins,
Harry Cook. Shotokan Karate: A Precise History.
Gichin Funakoshi. Karate-do Kyohan: The Master Text,
Gichin Funakoshi. Karate-do Nyumon: The Master Introductory Text.
John Sells. Unante: The Secrets of Karate (Panchita S. Hawley, 2nd ed. 2000), .
Marius Podeanu. Best Embusen: Shotokan.
Masatoshi Nakayama. Dynamic Karate,
Randall G. Hassell. Shotokan Karate: Its History and Evolution (Damashi, 1984). .
Randall G. Hassell and Edmond Otis. "The Complete Idiot's Guide to Karate". (Penguin Group (USA), 2000),
Rob Redmond. Kata: The Folk Dances of Shotokan.
Teruyuki Okazaki. Perfection of Character: Guiding Principles for the Martial arts & Everyday Life,
Willy J. Ortiz. "Funakoshi, Father of Modern Karate"
External links
Learning Shotokan Kata – Empi
All of this is... Shotokan Karate at YouTube
The Katas Of Shotokan Karate-Do
Grades, belts and training syllabus of Shotokan Karate
Japanese martial arts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Values%20Survey
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World Values Survey
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The World Values Survey (WVS) is a global research project that explores people's values and beliefs, how they change over time, and what social and political impact they have. Since 1981 a worldwide network of social scientists have conducted representative national surveys as part of WVS in almost 100 countries.
The WVS measures, monitors and analyzes: support for democracy, tolerance of foreigners and ethnic minorities, support for gender equality, the role of religion and changing levels of religiosity, the impact of globalization, attitudes toward the environment, work, family, politics, national identity, culture, diversity, insecurity, and subjective well-being.
The findings provide information for policy makers seeking to build civil society and democratic institutions in developing countries. The work is also frequently used by governments around the world, scholars, students, journalists and international organizations and institutions such as the World Bank and the United Nations (UNDP and UN-Habitat). Data from the World Values Survey have (for example) been used to better understand the motivations behind events such as the Arab Spring, the 2005 French civil unrest, the Rwandan genocide in 1994 and the Yugoslav wars and political upheaval in the 1990s.
Romano Prodi, former Prime Minister of Italy and the tenth President of the European Commission, said about WVS work:
The growing globalization of the world makes it increasingly important to understand ... diversity. People with varying beliefs and values can live together and work together productively, but for this to happen it is crucial to understand and appreciate their distinctive worldviews.
Insights
The WVS has over the years demonstrated that people's beliefs play a key role in economic development, the emergence and flourishing of democratic institutions, the rise of gender equality, and the extent to which societies have effective government.
Inglehart–Welzel cultural map
Analysis of WVS data made by political scientists Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel asserts that there are two major dimensions of cross cultural variation in the world:
Traditional values versus secular-rational values and
Survival values versus self-expression values.
The global cultural map shows how scores of societies are located on these two dimensions. Moving upward on this map reflects the shift from Traditional values to Secular-rational and moving rightward reflects the shift from Survival values to Self-expression values.
Traditional values emphasize the importance of religion, parent-child ties, deference to authority and traditional family values. People who embrace these values also reject divorce, abortion, euthanasia and suicide. These societies have high levels of national pride and a nationalistic outlook.
Secular-rational values have the opposite preferences to the traditional values. These societies place less emphasis on religion, traditional family values and authority. Divorce, abortion, euthanasia and suicide are seen as relatively acceptable.
Survival values place emphasis on economic and physical security. It is linked with a relatively ethnocentric outlook and low levels of trust and tolerance.
Self-expression values give high priority to environmental protection, growing tolerance of foreigners, gays and lesbians and gender equality, and rising demands for participation in decision-making in economic and political life.
Christian Welzel introduced the concepts of emancipative values and secular values. He provided measurements for those values using World Values Survey data. Emancipative values are an updated version of self-expression values. Secular values are an updated version of traditional versus secular rational values. The survival versus self-expression values and the traditional versus secular rational values were factors extracted with an orthogonal technique of factor analysis, which forbids the two scales from correlating with each other. The emancipative and secular values are measured in such a way as to represent the data as faithfully as possible even if this results in a correlation between the scales. The secular and emancipative values indices are positively correlated with each other.
Culture variations
A somewhat simplified analysis is that following an increase in standards of living, and a transit from development country via industrialization to post-industrial knowledge society, a country tends to move diagonally in the direction from lower-left corner (poor) to upper-right corner (rich), indicating a transit in both dimensions.
However, the attitudes among the population are also highly correlated with the philosophical, political and religious ideas that have been dominating in the country. Secular-rational values and materialism were formulated by philosophers and the left-wing politics side in the French revolution, and can consequently be observed especially in countries with a long history of social democratic or socialistic policy, and in countries where a large portion of the population have studied philosophy and science at universities. Survival values are characteristic for eastern-world countries and self-expression values for western-world countries. In a liberal post-industrial economy, an increasing share of the population has grown up taking survival and freedom of thought for granted, resulting in that self-expression is highly valued.
Examples
Societies that have high scores in Traditional and Survival values: Zimbabwe, Morocco, Jordan, Bangladesh.
Societies with high scores in Traditional and Self-expression values: the U.S., most of Latin America, Ireland.
Societies with high scores in Secular-rational and Survival values: Russia, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Estonia.
Societies with high scores in Secular-rational and Self-expression values: Japan, Nordic countries, Benelux, Germany, Switzerland, Czechia, Slovenia, France.
Gender values
Findings from the WVS indicate that support for gender equality is not just a consequence of democratization. It is part of a broader cultural change that is transforming industrialized societies with mass demands for increasingly democratic institutions. Although a majority of the world's population still believes that men make better political leaders than women, this view is fading in advanced industrialized societies, and also among young people in less prosperous countries.
World Values Survey data is used by the United Nation Development Programme in order to calculate the gender social norms index. The index measures attitudes toward gender equality worldwide and was introduced in the Human Development Report starting from 2019. The index has four components, measuring gender attitudes in politics, education and economy as well as social norms related to domestic violence.
Religion
The data from the World Values Survey cover several important aspects of people's religious orientation. One of them tracks how involved people are in religious services and how much importance they attach to their religious beliefs. In the data from 2000, 98% of the public in Indonesia said that religion was very important in their lives while in China only three percent considered religion very important. Another aspect concerns people's attitudes towards the relation between religion and politics and whether they approve of religious spokesmen who try to influence government decisions and people's voting preferences.
In a factor analysis of the latest wave (6) of World Values Survey data, Arno Tausch (Corvinus University Budapest) found that family values in the tradition of Joseph Schumpeter and religious values in the research tradition of Robert Barro can be an important positive asset for society. Negative phenomena, like the distrust in the state of law; the shadow economy; the distance from altruistic values; a growing fatigue of democracy; and the lack of entrepreneurial spirit are all correlated with the loss of religiosity. Tausch based his results on a factor analysis with promax rotation of 78 variables from 45 countries with complete data, and also calculated performance indices for the 45 countries with complete data and the nine main global religious denominations. On this account, Judaism and also Protestantism emerge as most closely combining religion and the traditions of the Enlightenment.
Happiness and life satisfaction
The WVS has shown that from 1981 to 2007 happiness rose in 45 of the 52 countries for which long-term data are available. Since 1981, economic development, democratization, and rising social tolerance have increased the extent to which people perceive that they have free choice, which in turn has led to higher levels of happiness around the world, which supports the human development theory.
Findings
Some of the survey's basic findings are:
Much of the variation in human values between societies boils down to two broad dimensions: a first dimension of “traditional vs. secular-rational values” and a second dimension of “survival vs. self-expression values.”
On the first dimension, traditional values emphasize religiosity, national pride, respect for authority, obedience and marriage. Secular-rational values emphasize the opposite on each of these accounts.
On the second dimension, survival values involve a priority of security over liberty, non-acceptance of homosexuality, abstinence from political action, distrust in outsiders and a weak sense of happiness. Self-expression values imply the opposite on all these accounts.
Following the 'revised theory of modernization,' values change in predictable ways with certain aspects of modernity. People's priorities shift from traditional to secular-rational values as their sense of existential security increases (or backwards from secular-rational values to traditional values as their sense of existential security decreases).
The largest increase in existential security occurs with the transition from agrarian to industrial societies. Consequently, the largest shift from traditional towards secular-rational values happens in this phase.
People's priorities shift from survival to self-expression values as their sense of individual agency increases (or backwards from self-expression values to survival as the sense of individual agency decreases).
The largest increase in individual agency occurs with the transition from industrial to knowledge societies. Consequently, the largest shift from survival to self-expression values happens in this phase.
The value differences between societies around the world show a pronounced culture zone pattern. The strongest emphasis on traditional values and survival values is found in the Islamic societies of the Middle East. By contrast, the strongest emphasis on secular-rational values and self-expression values is found in the Protestant societies of Northern Europe.
These culture zone differences reflect different historical pathways of how entire groups of societies entered modernity. These pathways account for people's different senses of existential security and individual agency, which in turn account for their different emphases on secular-rational values and self-expression values.
Values also differ within societies along such cleavage lines as gender, generation, ethnicity, religious denomination, education, income and so forth.
Generally speaking, groups whose living conditions provide people with a stronger sense of existential security and individual agency nurture a stronger emphasis on secular-rational values and self-expression values.
However, the within-societal differences in people's values are dwarfed by a factor five to ten by the between-societal differences. On a global scale, basic living conditions differ still much more between than within societies, and so do the experiences of existential security and individual agency that shape people's values.
A specific subset of self-expression values—emancipative values—combines an emphasis on freedom of choice and equality of opportunities. Emancipative values, thus, involve priorities for lifestyle liberty, gender equality, personal autonomy and the voice of the people.
Emancipative values constitute the key cultural component of a broader process of human empowerment. Once set in motion, this process empowers people to exercise freedoms in their course of actions.
If set in motion, human empowerment advances on three levels. On the socio-economic level, human empowerment advances as growing action resources increase people's capabilities to exercise freedoms. On the socio-cultural level, human empowerment advances as rising emancipative values increase people's aspirations to exercise freedoms. On the legal-institutional level, human empowerment advances as widened democratic rights increase people's entitlements to exercise freedoms.
Human empowerment is an entity of empowering capabilities, aspirations, and entitlements. As an entity, human empowerment tends to advance in virtuous spirals or to recede in vicious spirals on each of its three levels.
As the cultural component of human empowerment, emancipative values are highly consequential in manifold ways. For one, emancipative values establish a civic form of modern individualism that favours out-group trust and cosmopolitan orientations towards others.
Emancipative values encourage nonviolent protest, even against the risk of repression. Thus, emancipative values provide social capital that activates societies, makes publics more self-expressive, and vitalizes civil society. Emancipative values advance entire societies' civic agency.
If emancipative values grow strong in countries that are democratic, they help to prevent movements away from democracy.
If emancipative values grow strong in countries that are undemocratic, they help to trigger movements towards democracy.
Emancipative values exert these effects because they encourage mass actions that put power holders under pressures to sustain, substantiate or establish democracy, depending on what the current challenge for democracy is.
Objective factors that have been found to favour democracy (including economic prosperity, income equality, ethnic homogeneity, world market integration, global media exposure, closeness to democratic neighbours, a Protestant heritage, social capital and so forth) exert an influence on democracy mostly insofar as these factors favour emancipative values.
Emancipative values do not strengthen people's desire for democracy, for the desire for democracy is universal at this point in history. But emancipative values do change the nature of the desire for democracy. And they do so in a double way.
For one, emancipative values make people's understanding of democracy more liberal: people with stronger emancipative values emphasize the empowering features of democracy rather than bread-and-butter and law-and-order issues.
Next, emancipative values make people assess the level of their country's democracy more critically: people with stronger emancipative values rather underrate than overrate their country's democratic performance.
Together, then, emancipative values generate a critical-liberal desire for democracy. The critical-liberal desire for democracy is a formidable force of democratic reforms. And, it is the best available predictor of a country's effective level of democracy and of other indicators of good governance. Neither democratic traditions nor cognitive mobilization account for the strong positive impact of emancipative values on the critical-liberal desire for democracy.
Emancipative values constitute the single most important factor in advancing the empowerment of women. Economic, religious, and institutional factors that have been found to advance women's empowerment, do so for the most part because they nurture emancipative values.
Emancipative values change people's life strategy from an emphasis on securing a decent subsistence level to enhancing human agency. As the shift from subsistence to agency affects entire societies, the overall level of subjective well-being rises.
The emancipative consequences of the human empowerment process are not a culture-specific peculiarity of the 'West.' The same empowerment processes that advance emancipative values and a critical-liberal desire for democracy in the 'West,' do the same in the 'East' and in other culture zones.
The social dominance of Islam and individual identification as Muslim both weaken emancipative values. But among young Muslims with high education, and especially among young Muslim women with high education, the Muslim/Non-Muslim gap over emancipative values closes.
A 2013 analysis noted the number of people in various countries responding that they would prefer not to have neighbors of the different race ranged from below 5% in many countries to 51.4% in Jordan, with wide variation in Europe.
History
The World Values Surveys were designed to test the hypothesis that economic and technological changes are transforming the basic values and motivations of the publics of industrialized societies. The surveys build on the European Values Study (EVS) first carried out in 1981. The EVS was conducted under the aegis of Jan Kerkhofs and Ruud de Moor and continues to be based in the Netherlands at the Tilburg University. The 1981 study was largely limited to developed societies, but interest in this project spread so widely that surveys were carried out in more than twenty countries, located on all six inhabited continents. Ronald Inglehart of the University of Michigan played a leading role in extending these surveys to be carried out in countries around the world. Today the network includes hundreds of social scientist from more than 100 countries.
The surveys are repeated in waves with intervals of 5 to 10 years. The waves have been carried out in the years listed in this table:
Findings from the first wave of surveys pointed to the conclusion that intergenerational changes were taking place in basic values relating to politics, economic life, religion, gender roles, family norms and sexual norms. The values of younger generations differed consistently from those prevailing among older generations, particularly in societies that had experienced rapid economic growth. To examine whether changes were actually taking place in these values and to analyze the underlying causes, a second wave of WVS surveys was carried out in 1990–91. Because these changes seem to be linked with economic and technological development, it was important to include societies across the entire range of development, from low income societies to rich societies.
A third wave of surveys was carried out in 1995–97, this time in 55 societies and with increased attention being given to analysing the cultural conditions for democracy. A fourth wave of surveys was carried out in 1999–2001 in 65 societies. A key goal was to obtain better coverage of African and Islamic societies, which had been under-represented in previous surveys. A fifth wave was carried out in 2005–07 and a sixth wave was carried out during 2011–12.
Due to the European origin of the project, the early waves of the WVS were eurocentric in emphasis, with little representation in Africa and South-East Asia. To expand, the WVS adopted a decentralised structure, in which social scientists from countries throughout the world participated in the design, execution and analysis of the data, and in publication of findings. In return for providing the data from a survey in their own society, each group obtained immediate access to the data from all participating societies enabling them to analyse social change in a broader perspective.
The WVS network has produced over 300 publications in 20 languages and secondary users have produced several thousand additional publications. The database of the WVS has been published on the internet with free access.
The official archive of the World Values Survey is located in [ASEP/JDS] Madrid, Spain.
Methodology
The World Values Survey uses the sample survey as its mode of data collection, a systematic and standardized approach to collect information through interviewing representative national samples of individuals. The basic stages of a sample survey are Questionnaire design; Sampling; Data collection and Analysis.
Questionnaire design
For each wave, suggestions for questions are solicited by social scientists from all over the world and a final master questionnaire is developed in English. Since the start in 1981 each successive wave has covered a broader range of societies than the previous one. Analysis of the data from each wave has indicated that certain questions tapped interesting and important concepts while others were of little value. This has led to the more useful questions or themes being replicated in future waves while the less useful ones have been dropped making room for new questions.
The questionnaire is translated into the various national languages and in many cases independently translated back to English to check the accuracy of the translation. In most countries, the translated questionnaire is pre-tested to help identify questions for which the translation is problematic. In some cases certain problematic questions are omitted from the national questionnaire.
Sampling
Samples are drawn from the entire population of 18 years and older. The minimum sample is 1000. In most countries, no upper age limit is imposed and some form of stratified random sampling is used to obtain representative national samples. In the first stages, a random selection of sampling points is made based on the given society statistical regions, districts, census units, election sections, electoral registers or polling place and central population registers. In most countries the population size and/or degree of urbanization of these Primary Sampling Units are taken into account. In some countries, individuals are drawn from national registers.
Data collection and field work
Following the sampling, each country is left with a representative national sample of its public. These persons are then interviewed during a limited time frame decided by the executive committee of the World Values Survey using the uniformly structured questionnaires. The survey is carried out by professional organizations using face-to-face interviews or phone interviews for remote areas. Each country has a Principal Investigator (social scientists working in academic institutions) who is responsible for conducting the survey in accordance with the fixed rules and procedures. During the field work, the agency has to report in writing according to a specific check-list. Internal consistency checks are made between the sampling design and the outcome and rigorous data cleaning procedures are followed at the WVS data archive. No country is included in a wave before full documentation has been delivered. This means a data set with the completed methodological questionnaire. and a report of country-specific information (for example important political events during the fieldwork, problems particular to the country). Once all the surveys are completed, the Principal Investigator has access to all surveys and data.
Analysis
The World Values Survey group works with leading social scientists, recruited from each society studied. They represent a wide range of cultures and perspectives which makes it possible to draw on the insights of well-informed insiders in interpreting the findings. It also helps disseminate social science techniques to new countries.
Each research team, that has contributed to the survey, analyses the findings according to its hypotheses. Because all researchers obtain data from all of the participating societies, they are also able to compare the values and beliefs of the people of their own society with those from scores of other societies and to test alternative hypotheses. In addition, the participants are invited to international meetings at which they can compare findings and interpretations with other members of the WVS network. The findings are then disseminated through international conferences and joint publications.
Usage
The World Values Survey data has been downloaded by over 100,000 researchers, journalists, policy-makers and others. The data is available on the WVS website which contains tools developed for online analysis.
Governance and funding
The World Values Survey is organised as a network of social scientists coordinated by a central body - the World Values Survey Association. It is established as a non-profit organization seated in Stockholm, Sweden, with a constitution and mission statement. The project is guided by an executive committee representing all regions of the world. The committee is also supported by a Scientific Advisory Committee, a Secretariat and an Archive. The WVS Executive Committee provides leadership and strategic planning for the association. It is responsible for the recruitment of new members, the organization of meetings and workshops, data processing and distribution, capacity building and the promotion of publications and dissemination of results. The WVS Executive Committee also raises funds for central functions and assists member groups in their fundraising.
Each national team is responsible for its own expenses and most surveys are financed by local sources. However, central funding has been obtained in cases where local funding is not possible. Presently, the activities of the WVS Secretariat and WVS Executive Committee are funded by the Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation. Other funding has been obtained from the U.S. National Science Foundation, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA), the Volkswagen Foundation, the German Science Foundation (DFG) and the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science.
Media coverage
The World Values Survey data has been used in a large number of scholarly publications and the findings have been reported in media such as BBC News, Bloomberg Businessweek, China Daily, Chinadialogue.net, CNN, Der Spiegel, Der Standard, Rzeczpospolita, Gazeta Wyborcza, Le Monde, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Newsweek, Süddeutsche Zeitung, Time, The Economist, The Guardian, The New Yorker, The New York Times, The Sydney Morning Herald, The Washington Post, and the World Development Report.
World Values Paper Series: World Values Research
World Values Research (WVR), registered as , is the official online paper series of the World Values Survey Association. The series is edited by the executive committee of the Association. WVR publishes research papers of high scientific standards based on evidence from World Values Surveys data. Papers in WVR follow good academic practice and abide to ethical norms in line with the mission of the World Values Survey Association. Publication of submitted papers is pending on an internal review by the executive committee of the World Values Survey Association. WVR papers present original research based on data from the World Values Surveys, providing new evidence and novel insights of theoretical relevance to the theme of human values. An archive of published WVR papers is available on the project's website.
See also
Afrobarometer
Eurobarometer
Latin American Public Opinion Project
Broad measures of economic progress
Happiness economics
Post-materialism
World Social Capital Monitor
Notes
Bibliography
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see https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290349218_The_political_algebra_of_global_value_change_General_models_and_implications_for_the_Muslim_world
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External links
1981 establishments
Belief
Epistemology
Global ethics
Political science
Social statistics data
Statistical data sets
Surveys (human research)
Value (ethics)
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