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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Zone%20of%20Afghanistan
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North Zone of Afghanistan
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On March 27, 2003, deputy defense minister of Afghanistan general Abdul Rashid Dostum created an office for the North Zone of Afghanistan and appointed officials to it, defying interim president Hamid Karzai's orders that there be no zones in Afghanistan.
External links
https://publicintelligence.net/islamic-republic-of-afghanistan-detailed-governance-information/
Subdivisions of Afghanistan
2000s in Afghanistan
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perversion
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Perversion
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Perversion is a form of human behavior which deviates from what is considered to be orthodox or normal. Although the term perversion can refer to a variety of forms of deviation, it is most often used to describe sexual behaviors that are considered particularly abnormal, repulsive or obsessive. Perversion differs from deviant behavior, in that the latter covers areas of behavior (such as petty crime) for which perversion would be too strong a term. It is often considered derogatory, and, in psychological literature, the term paraphilia has been used as a replacement, though this term is controversial, and deviation is sometimes used in its place.
History of concept
One view is that the concept of perversion is subjective, and its application varies depending on the individual. Another view considers that perversion is a degradation of an objectively true morality. Originating in the 1660s, a pervert was originally defined as "one who has forsaken a doctrine or system regarded as true, apostate." The sense of a pervert as a sexual term was derived in 1896, and applied originally to variants of sexualities or sexual behavior believed harmful by the individual or group using the term.
Non-sexual usages
The verb pervert is less narrow in reference than the related nouns, and can be used without any sexual connotations. It is used in English law for the crime of perverting the course of justice which is a common law offence. There is a transition to the sexual in 'the technique of purposeful perversion' of conversational remarks: "Purposeful perversion of what a woman has said ... is a long step closer to a direct attempt at seduction or rape."
The noun sometimes occurs in abbreviated slang form as "perv" and used as a verb meaning "to act like a pervert", and the adjective "pervy" also occurs. All are often, but not exclusively, used non-seriously.
In economics the term "perverse incentive" means a policy that results in an effect contrary to the policymakers' intention.
Sexual usages
Freud on the role of perversion
Freud's didactic strategy in his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality was to construct a bridge between the "perversions" and "normal" sexuality. Clinically exploring "a richly diversified collection of erotic endowments and inclinations: hermaphroditism, pedophilia, sodomy, fetishism, exhibitionism, sadism, masochism, coprophilia, necrophilia" among them, Freud concluded that "all humans are innately perverse". He found the roots of such perversions in infantile sexuality—in 'the child's "polymorphously perverse" inclinations ... the "aptitude" for such perversity is innate'. The 'crucial irony of Freud's account in the Three Essays was that perversion in childhood was the norm'.
Refining his analysis a decade later, Freud stressed that while childhood sexuality involved a wide and unfocused range of perverse activities, by contrast with adult perversion there was 'an important difference between them. Perverse sexuality is as a rule excellently centred: all its activities are directed to an aim—usually a single one; one component instinct has gained the upper hand...In that respect there is no difference between perverse and normal sexuality other than the fact that their dominating component instincts and consequently their sexual aims are different. In both of them, one might say, a well-organized tyranny has been established, but in each of the two a different family has seized the reins of power'.
A few years later, in "A Child is Being Beaten" (1919), Freud laid greater stress on the fact that perversions "go through a process of development, that they represent an end-product and not an initial manifestation ... that the sexual aberrations of childhood, as well as those of mature life, are ramifications of the same complex"—the Oedipus complex. Otto Fenichel took up the point about the defensive function of perversions—of "experiences of sexual satisfactions which simultaneously gave a feeling of security by denying or contradicting some fear"; adding that while "some people think that perverts are enjoying some kind of more intense sexual pleasure than normal people. This is not true ... [though] neurotics, who have repressed perverse longings, may envy the perverts who express the perverse longings openly".
Arlene Richards on the role of perversion in women
Freud wrote extensively on perversion in men. However, he and his successors paid scant attention to perversion in women. In 2003, psychologist, psychoanalyst and feminist Arlene Richards published a seminal paper on female perversion, "A Fresh look at Perversion", in the Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association. In 2015, psychoanalyst Lynn Friedman, in a review of The Complete Works of Arlene Richards in the Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, noted prior to that time, "virtually no analysts were writing about female perversion. This pioneering work undoubtedly paved the way for others, including Louise Kaplan (1991), to explore this relatively uncharted territory."
The permissive society
With the sexual revolution of the later twentieth century, much that Freud had argued for became part of a new wide-ranging liberal consensus. At times this might lead to a kind of Panglossian world view where every fetishist has his "fetishera ... for every man who is hung up on shoes, there is a woman ready to cater for and groove with him, and for every man who gets his thrills from hair, there is a woman who gets hers from having her locks raped. Havelock Ellis has many cases of this meeting of the minds: the man who yearns to get pressed on by high heels sooner or later meets the woman who has daydreamed all her life of heel-pressing".
Where internal controversy did arise in the liberal consensus was about the exact relation of variations to normal development - some considering in the wake of Freud that "these different sexual orientations can best be explained and understood by comparison with normal development", and highlighting the fear of intimacy in perversion as "a kind of sex ... which is hedged about with special conditions...puts a vast distance between the partners". From such a standpoint, "whatever the deviant impulse or fantasy may be, that's where the real, true, loving sexuality is hidden"—a point of transition perhaps to some of the bleaker post-permissive visions of perversion.
Critical views
For some participants, "Liberation, at least in its sexual form, was a new kind of imposed morality, quite as restricting" as what had gone before—one that "took very little account of the complexity of human emotional connections". New, more sceptical currents of disenchantment with perversion emerged as a result (alongside more traditional condemnations) in both the French-speaking and English-speaking worlds.
Lacan had early highlighted "the ambivalence proper to the 'partial drives' of scoptophilia, sadomasochism ... the often very little 'realised' aspect of the apprehension of others in the practice of certain of these perversions". In his wake, others would stress how "there is always, in any perverse act, an aspect of rape, in the sense that the Other must find himself drawn into the experience despite himself ... a loss or abandonment of subjectivity."
Similarly, object relations theory would point to the way "in perversion there is the refusal, the terror of strangeness"; to the way "the 'pervert'...attacks imaginative elaboration through compulsive action with an accomplice; and this is done to mask psychic pain". Empirical studies would find "in the perverse relationships described...an absolute absence of any shared pleasures"; while at the theoretical level "perversions involve—the theory tells us—an attempted denial of the difference between the sexes and the generations", and include "the wish to damage and dehumanize ... the misery of the driven, damaging life".
See also
David Morgan (psychologist)
Fixed fantasy
Hentai
Kink (sexual)
Richard von Krafft-Ebing
Robert J. Stoller
Voyeurism
References
Further reading
Robert J. Stoller, Sweet Dreams, Erotic Plots (2009)
Morgan, David and Ruszczynski, Stan, Lectures on Violence, Perversion and Delinquency. The Portman Papers Series (2007)
External links
Joyce McDougall "Perversion"
Sexual Perversion and Treatment
da:Perversion
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th%20Infantry%20Division%20%28India%29
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4th Infantry Division (India)
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The 4th Indian Infantry Division, also known as the Red Eagle Division, is an infantry division of the Indian Army. This division of the British Indian Army was formed in Egypt in 1939 during the Second World War. During the Second World War, it took part in campaigns in East Africa (Eritrea and Sudan), Syria, North Africa and Italy. Post independence, the division is part of the I Corps and headquartered at Prayagraj.
History
North Africa
During the war, the 4th Indian Division was in the vanguard of nine campaigns in the Mediterranean theatre. Major-General The Hon. P. Gerald Scarlett appears to have been the division's first commander, from October 1939 to January 1940. The British 14th Infantry Brigade was attached to the division from 1 June to 20 July 1940; the British 16th Infantry Brigade was attached from 9 September 1940 to 14 December 1940. In the first of Archibald Wavell's operations in Egypt, as part of the Western Desert Force, it took part in Operation Compass in December 1940. The division was involved in the battles of that campaign in the camps around Sidi Barrani. Along with the 7th Royal Tank Regiment, the 11th Indian Infantry Brigade of the 4th Indian Infantry Division destroyed the Italian Maletti Group at the Nibiewa Camp.
East Africa
In December 1940, the division was rushed to the British Sudan to join with the 5th Indian Infantry Division in order to prevent the numerically vastly superior Italian forces (ten divisions in total) from threatening Red Sea supply routes to Egypt as well as Egypt itself and the Suez Canal from the south. The East African campaign culminated in March 1941 with the battles at Keren in Eritrea.
It was at Keren that Subadar Richhpal Ram of the 4/6th Rajputana Rifles, 5th Indian Infantry Brigade, 4th Division, was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross. In April 1941, Beresford-Peirse was promoted to command the Western Desert Force and Major General Frank Messervy assumed command.
North Africa and Syria
Having returned to Egypt, the 5th Indian Infantry Brigade was hurried across to Syria and participated in the advance on Damascus during the Syria-Lebanon campaign (June 1941). From 14 to 17 June 1941, the British 4th Armoured Brigade was attached to the division. The rest of the 4th Indian Division, having been rejoined by the 5th Brigade returning from Syria, was involved in the fighting, which ebbed and flowed past Tobruk from June 1941 into the autumn of 1941. For most of this period, the division was dispersed, with units temporarily attached to other formations, much to the disgust of Major General Francis Tuker, who had assumed command of the Division in December 1941. Notable at this time was the break-out at the end of January by 7 Brigade, having been cut off at Benghazi during the Axis counter-offensive from Agheila and moving 200 miles avoiding the enemy to rejoin the new Eighth Army.
Early in April 1942, the 4th Division was again dispersed, with the 7th Brigade going to Cyprus, the 5th Brigade to Syria, the 11th Brigade to the Suez Canal Zone for training and the Central India Horse to Iraq after a period of training. By May 1942, the 11th Brigade was back in the fighting at Tobruk (attached to the 5th Indian Infantry Division). The 11th Brigade was caught in the siege of Tobruk, which fell on 21 June, and disappeared from the order of battle for the next 18 months. The 5th Brigade was rushed to the desert in June 1942; after escaping from Mersa Matruh, the brigade held the vital Ruweisat Ridge during the First Battle of El Alamein in July–August 1942. The situation had become so confused that General Erwin Rommel, also known as the Desert Fox, lost his way and was forced to spend a night in the open. With the dawn came the realization that he was in the company of 4th Division. With a sigh of relief, he slipped away, undetected.
Shortly before the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942, the 4th Indian Division was reunited with the 7th Brigade returning from Cyprus and the 161st Indian Infantry Brigade was attached (until December 1942) to replace the lost 11th Brigade. The division had a relatively subsidiary role in the battle, holding in stiff fighting, as a diversionary tactic, the Ruweisat Ridge, which was at the centre of the Allied front, whilst the breakthrough was planned further north.
By December 1942, the division was dispersed again but strong representations by its General Officer Commanding (GOC), Major-General Tuker (including his asking to be relieved of command), resulted in the 4th Indian Division being brought together as a fighting entity in March 1943. It fought with distinction in the Tunisia Campaign, right through to the fall of Tunis in May 1943, gaining a particular reputation for its prowess in mountainous country. The division had the honour of capturing General Hans-Jürgen von Arnim in Tunisia, bringing an end to the war in North Africa. Its major battles in North Africa were Benghazi, Tobruk, Wadi Akarit, Enfidaville and Tunis.
Italy
The division then moved in January 1944 to Italy (joined by the re-constituted 11th Brigade), where it took part in the Italian Campaign. It fought in the second Battle of Monte Cassino and suffered many casualties (in Tuker's absence through illness it was commanded by Brigadier Harry Dimoline, the divisional Commander Royal Artillery). During the battle, the division was to attack in an arc towards the south and south-west, taking Point 593 and then moving south-east, up the heights towards the Abbey. The Indian Division would only advance on the Abbey once the 2nd New Zealand Division had attacked south and south-east, taking the town of Cassino. The main attack eventually commenced just after last light with the NZ Division's 28 (Maori) Battalion to cross the Rapido River and to seize the station south of Cassino town, establishing a bridgehead for the corps armour to move into the town and to the foot of the Cassino massif—the attack starting at 2:130. The 28th Battalion attack failed and so did the 4th Indian Division attack on Point 593.
The division also suffered many casualties during the third battle (in March 1944), when it was commanded by Major-General Alexander Galloway, who had been released from command of the British 1st Armoured Division.
Command of the division was assumed by Major-General Arthur Holworthy late in March 1944 and the division took part in the advance from Cassino after the fourth battle in May 1944 to the Trasimene Line in Central Italy and then the Gothic Line. As part of the attachments and detachments for the campaign, the British 9th Armoured Brigade was attached to the division from 8 July 1944 to 19 July 1944. In November 1944, the division was shipped to Greece to help stabilise the country after the Axis withdrawal. Holworthy was succeeded by Major-General Charles Hamilton Boucher in January 1945 who commanded the division until the end of hostilities.
Conclusion
According to author Chand Das, during the Second World War, the "division captured 150,000 prisoners and suffered 25,000 casualties, more than the strength of a whole division. It won over 1,000 honours and awards which included four Victoria Crosses and three George Crosses".
Field Marshal Lord Wavell wrote: "The fame of this Division will surely go down as one of the greatest fighting formations in military history, to be spoken of with such as The Legio X Equestris (Tenth Legion), The Light Division of the Peninsular War and Napoleon's Old Guard". Das wrote, "Even beyond its fighting reputation, it will be remembered for the spirit of mutual trust and fellowship maintained between all ranks coming from so many different races and creeds".
Formation during World War II
The unit listing is from a booklet issued to mark the inauguration of the Indian Divisions' Memorial 1939–1945 at RMA Sandhurst in June 1982.
General Officer Commanding:
Major-General The Hon. P. Gerald Scarlett (Oct 1939 – Jan 1940)
Major-General Philip Neame (Feb – Aug 1940)
Major-General Noel Beresford-Peirse (Aug 1940 – Apr 1941)
Major-General Frank Messervy (Apr – Dec 1941)
Major-General Francis Tuker (Dec 1941 – Feb 1944)
Brigadier Harry Dimoline (Feb – Mar 1944)
Major-General Alexander Galloway (Mar 1944)
Major-General Arthur Holworthy (Mar 1944 – Jan 1945)
Major-General Charles Boucher (Jan – Aug 1945)
Headquarters
Central India Horse (up to April 1942 and from July 1944) (Divisional Reconnaissance Regiment)
Royal Artillery
Commanders divisional artillery:
Brigadier Noel Beresford-Peirse
Brigadier P. Maxwell (Jun – Sep 1940)
Brigadier William H.B. Mirrless (Sep 1940 – Mar 1942)
Brigadier Harry Kenneth Dimoline (Mar 1942 – Feb 1944)
Brigadier John F. Adye (Feb 1944 – Mar 1944)
Brigadier Henry C.W. Eastman (Apr 1944 – )
HQ
3rd Regiment Royal Horse Artillery
1st, 4th, 11th, 25th, 31st and 32nd Field Regiments, RA
57th (King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry) Light A.A. Regiment, RA
35th and 149th Anti-Tank Regiments, RA
Indian Engineers: Sappers and Miners
4th Field Company, King George's Own Bengal Sappers and Miners
12th Field Company, Queen Victoria's Own Madras Sappers and Miners
18th and 21st Field Company, Royal Bombay Sappers and Miners
11th Field Park Company, Queen Victoria's Own Madras Sappers and Miners
4th Indian Division Signals
1st Battalion, Royal Northumberland Fusiliers (Machine Gun) (April–December 1940)
Machine Gun Battalion, 6th Rajputana Rifles (1942–1945)
5 Indian Infantry Brigade
HQ 5th Indian Infantry Brigade
1st Battalion, Royal Fusiliers (up to Sept 1941)
1st Battalion, Buffs (Royal East Kent Regiment) (from Sept 1941 to Dec 1941))
1st Battalion, Welch Regiment (from Dec 1941 up to April 1942)
1/4th Battalion, Essex Regiment (from April 1942)
1st Battalion, 1st Punjab Regiment (up to April 1942)
3rd Battalion, 1st Punjab Regiment
4th Battalion (Outram's), 6th Rajputana Rifles (with 11th Indian Infantry Brigade in Italy)
3rd Battalion (Queen Mary's Own), 10th Baluch Regiment (from April 1942)
1st Battalion, 9th Gurkha Rifles
7 Indian Infantry Brigade
HQ 7th Indian Infantry Brigade
1st Battalion, Royal Sussex Regiment
2nd (Royal) Battalion, 11th Sikh Regiment
4th Battalion, 11th Sikh Regiment (up to April 1942)
4th Battalion, 16th Punjab Regiment
1st Battalion, 2nd King Edward VII's Own Gurkha Rifles (The Sirmoor Rifles) (from April 1942)
11 Indian Infantry Brigade (1939–1942 and 1944–1945)
HQ 11th Indian Infantry Brigade
2nd Battalion, Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders
2nd Battalion, 5th Mahratta Light Infantry (up to June 1942)
1st Battalion (Wellesley's), 6th Rajputana Rifles (up to April 1942)(with 5th Indian Infantry Brigade in Italy)
4th Battalion, 7th Rajput Regiment (up to January 1942)
3rd (Royal) Battalion, 12th Frontier Force Regiment
3rd Battalion, 14th Punjab Regiment (from January 1942)
2nd Battalion, 7th Gurkha Rifles (from April 1942)
Lovat Scouts
Support units
Royal Indian Army Service Corps
4th Indian Division Troops Transport Company
5th, 7th and 11th Brigade Transport Companies
220th Indian DID
Medical Services
I.M.S-RAMC-I.M.D-I.H.C-I.A.M.C
14th, 17th, 19th, 26th and 32nd Indian Field Ambulances
4th Indian Division Provost Unit
Indian Army Ordnance Corps
4th Indian Division Ordnance Field Park
Indian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers
117th, 118th and 119th Infantry Workshop Companies
4th Indian Division Recovery Company
Assigned brigades
All these brigades were assigned or attached to the division at some time during World War II.
4th New Zealand Infantry Brigade
10th Indian Infantry Brigade
22nd British Infantry Brigade
23rd British Infantry Brigade
161st British Infantry Brigade
1st South African Infantry Brigade
161st Indian Infantry Brigade
201st Guards Motor Brigade
11th Canadian Infantry Brigade
Post war
The Division, known as Red Eagle due to its badge of a red eagle on a black background, is now a part of the Indian Army. Immediately after the war ended, it was in Greece, but returned to India later in 1945.
In 1947 the division became the nucleus of the Punjab Boundary Force under Major-General T.W. Rees. The Boundary Force was established on 17 July 1947, with its headquarters at Lahore. It became operational 1 August 1947, but was disbanded on 1 September because of its ineffectiveness in controlling the riots breaking out as a consequence of Partition. It had approximately 15 Indian and 10 Pakistani battalions, and comprised 5th Indian Infantry Brigade, 11th Indian Infantry Brigade, 14 Parachute Brigade, which became part of the Pakistan Army, 43 Lorry Brigade (ex 1 Armoured Division) and 114th Indian Infantry Brigade. Also attached were 50th Parachute Brigade and 77th Parachute Brigade (both formerly with 2nd Airborne Division), and 123rd Indian Infantry Brigade. After Rees handed over, Major-General K. S. Thimayya reportedly took over command of the Boundary Force. The Division moved to Jullunder after the Boundary Force was disbanded.
Sino-Indian War of 1962
Headquarters 4 Infantry Division, which was located in Ambala prior to the worsening Sino-Indian relations, was moved to the North East in 1959 and was located initially at Tezpur. During the war, it had its tactical headquarters at Zemithang and at Dirang Dzong in Kameng Frontier Division of North East Frontier Agency (NEFA). It was commanded by Major General Niranjan Prasad. Following the defeat at Namka Chu, he was replaced by Major General Anant Singh Pathania.
The constituent brigades of the division before the war were 5, 7, and 11 Infantry Brigades. 11 Brigade was detached for counter-insurgency operations in Nagaland.
During the war, the division consisted of -
7 Infantry Brigade (Brigadier John Parashuram Dalvi). It consisted of 9 Punjab and 1 Sikh, both at Tawang and 1/9 Gorkha Rifles – at Misamari. 2 Rajput, 4 Grenadiers, 5 Assam Rifles and a company of 6 Mahar also saw operations under the brigade.
5 Infantry Brigade (Brigadier Shiv Charan Singh) of the division was removed from operational control of 4 Division and was directly under Headquarters, 33 Corps. It arrived in the foothills of the sector only on 19 November 1962.
4 Artillery Brigade (Brigadier Kalyan Singh , replaced by Brigadier GS Gill). Artillery units which were part of the war include elements from 34 Heavy Mortar Battery (from 36 (Maratha) Heavy Mortar Regiment), 17 Parachute Field Regiment, 5 Field Regiment (95, 96 and 97 Field Batteries), 6 Field Regiment (86, 87 and 88 Field Batteries), 22 Mountain Regiment (7 (Bengal) and 2 (Derajat) Mountain Batteries) and 116 Heavy Mortar Battery (from 33 Medium Regiment).
Other brigades involved in the operations in this sector included -
62 Infantry Brigade (Brigadier N.K. Lal, replaced by Brigadier Hoshiar Singh) - Part of 20 Infantry Division (Ranchi) and was stationed at Ramgarh before the war; with 1 Sikh, 2 Sikh LI, 4 Sikh LI, 13 Dogra, 4 Garhwal Rifles, (2/8 Gorkha Rifles to 5 Infantry Brigade and 4 Sikh to 11 Infantry Brigade in Walong sector).
65 Infantry Brigade (Brigadier G.M. Saeed, replaced by Brigadier A.S. Cheema) - From Hyderabad; with 19 Maratha LI, 4 Rajput and a platoon of 7 Mahar machine-gunners.
48 Infantry Brigade (Brigadier Gurbux Singh) - From 17 Infantry Division at Ambala; with 5 Guards, 1 Sikh LI, 1 Madras, a platoon of 7 Mahar machine-gunners and two tanks from 7 Light Cavalry.
67 Infantry Brigade (Brigadier M.S. Chatterjee) - from Nagaland; with JAK LI, 6/8 Gorkha Rifles
The forces of the division were ill prepared for the warfare in the mountains and poorly equipped to weather out in the cold climate. Poor leadership and refusal to acknowledge feedback from the forces on the ground (including multiple requests by Brigadier Dalvi for a tactical withdrawal) led to the rout of the Indian forces. 7 Infantry Brigade was effectively destroyed at the Namka Chu ridge on 20 October 1962 during the war.
The tactical Headquarters of 4 Infantry Division withdrew from Zemithang on the morning of 21 October 1962. Tawang Garrison with two infantry Battalions and three artillery batteries was abandoned on 23 October 1962. The second phase of the Chinese attack commenced on 17 November 1962, after a lull of 23 days. The division faced further defeat and withdrew from Dirang Dzong in the forenoon of 18 November. The Chinese announced a unilateral cease-fire on 20 November, effective from the midnight of 21/22 November.
Prominent gallantry awards during the war include-
4 Garhwal Rifles - was awarded the Battle Honour Nuranang, the only battle honour awarded to any army unit in eastern sector during the 1962 war.
Param Vir Chakra
Subedar Joginder Singh, 1 Sikh
Maha Vir Chakra
Lieutenant Colonel Bejoy Mohan Bhattacharjea, 4 Garhwal Rifles
Major Gurdial Singh, 2 Rajput
Major Mahander Singh Chaudhary, Punjab
Major Sher Pratap Singh Shrikent, 1/9 Gorkha Rifles
Captain Mahabir Prasad, (Sikh Regiment) attached to Gorkha Rifles
Second Lieutenant Bhagwan Dutt Dogra, 1/9 Gorkha Rifles
Second Lieutenant Gopalkrishna Venkatesa Prasanna Rao, 4 Grenadiers
Naik Chain Singh, 9 Punjab
Sepoy Kanshi Ram, 9 Punjab
Rifleman Jaswant Singh Rawat, 4 Garhwal Rifles
Sepoy Kewal Singh, (Sikh Regiment) attached to Gorkha Rifles
It was converted to a mountain division in 1963.
Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
The Red Eagles, less 33 Mountain Brigade were part of the XI Corps tasked to defend Punjab. Being a mountain division, it was inadequately equipped for warfare in the plains. The divisional plan was as under -
62 Mountain Brigade - advance on Khemkaran-Kasur Road and capture Rohi Nallah area, cover Khemkaran, secure the Bambawali-Ravi-Bedian Canal (Ichogil Canal) between Ballanwala and Ganda Singh Wala
7 Mountain Brigade - to secure the East bank of Ichogil Canal between Bedian and Ballanwala
The order of battle of the division was as follows -
4 Mountain Division (Major General Gurbaksh Singh)
9 Horse (Deccan Horse)
37 Battalion Punjab Armed Police
7 Mountain Brigade (Brigadier DS Sidhu)
1/9 Gorkha Rifles
4 Grenadiers
7 Grenadiers
4 Sikh (after 12 September)
2 Mahar (after 12 September)
62 Mountain Brigade (Brigadier HC Gahlaut)
13 Dogra
9 JAK LI
18 Rajputana Rifles
4 Mountain Artillery Brigade (Brigadier Jhanda Singh Sandhu)
1 Field Regiment (Self Propelled) (from 2 Independent Armoured Brigade)
40 Medium Regiment (from 21 Independent Artillery Brigade)
91 Mountain Composite (Towed) Regiment
84 Light Regiment
B Troop, 72 Composite Battery, 20 Locating Regiment
Battery, 45 Air Defence Regiment
Air OP
Engineers
1 Field Company
77 Field Company
100 Field Company
41 Field Park Company
2 Independent Armoured Brigade (Brigadier TK Theogaraj) (XI Corps reserve)
3 Cavalry
7 Light Cavalry
8 Light Cavalry
1 Field Regiment (Self Propelled)
74 Assault Field Company
1 Dogra
29 Infantry Brigade (from 16 September 1965) (7 Infantry Division)
2 Maratha Light Infantry
3/9 Gorkha Rifles
4 (Independent) Squadron
144 Field Regiment (TA)
62 Brigade commenced its attacks on 6 September and secured its objectives, except for the far bund in Rohi Nallah area. 7 Brigade met with stiff opposition. 4 Grenadiers secured the line of Ichhogil canal, but 7 Grenadiers could not secure its objective of capturing Ballanwala. This was followed by heavy enemy shelling. Some units suffered heavy casualties and desertions. Anticipating an armour thrust, the GOC decided to pull back to Asal Uttar on 7 September and hold the enemy. It assumed a ‘horse shoe’ shaped defensive position with Asal Uttar as its focal point. The Pakistani forces, consisting of the 1 Armoured Division and 11 Infantry Division attacked on 8 September. Though some positions of 1/9 Gorkhas and 18 Rajputana Rifles were overrun, 7 and 62 Brigades supported by Deccan Horse and 3 Cavalry were able to repulse the attacks. The Pakistanis launched a second attack on the night of 8 September. This attack was held back by the units of 7 Brigade, supported by armour and artillery and the enemy lost many tanks. Anticipating a wide outflanking manoeuvre from the west, Brigadier Theogaraj moved the major part of his brigade to cover the Lakhna-Mahmudpura-Chima area and flooded part of the approaches to guide the enemy tanks to a trap. As expected, in the morning of 10 September, the Pakistani M-47 and M48 Patton tanks were lured inside the horse-shoe shaped defensive position. They were first held back by the 4 Grenadiers. The battalion held out with great gallantry. This was when Company Quartermaster Havildar Abdul Hamid destroyed three tanks with his recoilless gun (for which he was awarded the Param Vir Chakra). The Pakistanis made multiple attempts to overrun the Indian defences. However, the swampy grounds and the tactical planning of the Indians meant that they suffered heavy losses - which included a total of 97 tanks and many men and senior officers. At the same time, the Indian Army lost only 10 tanks. The bulk of the Pakistani offense withdrew to Khemkaran. The division then made many unsuccessful attempts to capture Khemkaran, without success.
4 Mountain Division suffered 60 killed, 206 wounded and 93 missing in action. The major gallantry awards won during the battle were -
Param Vir Chakra
Company Quartermaster Havildar Abdul Hamid, 4 Grenadiers
Maha Vir Chakra
Major General Gurbaksh Singh, GOC 4 Mountain Division.
Brigadier TK Theograj, Commander, 2 Independent Armoured Brigade
Lieutenant Colonel Raghubir Singh, Commanding Officer, 18 Rajputana Rifles.
Lieutenant Colonel Salim Caleb, Commandant, 3 Cavalry.
Lieutenant Colonel AS Vaidya, Commandant, 9 Horse.
The battle honour Asal Uttar was awarded for the period 9 to 11 September to the following units-
9 Horse (Deccan Horse)
3 Cavalry
91 Mountain Regiment
40 Medium Regiment
4 Grenadiers
18 Rajputana Rifles (now 11 Mechanised Infantry Regiment)
1 Dogra (now 7 Mechanised Infantry Regiment)
2 Mahar
9 Jammu and Kashmir Rifles
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
The division along with 9 Infantry Division was part of the II Corps on the eastern sector. The order of battle (ORBAT) for the division was as follows-
4 Mountain Division (Major General Mohinder Singh Barar)
45 Cavalry (A Squadron)
7 Mountain Brigade (Brigadier Zail Singh)
22 Rajput
5 Jat
1 Naga Regiment
41 Mountain Brigade (Brigadier A.H.E. "Tony" Michigan)
5 Guards
9 Dogra
5/1 Gorkha Rifles
62 Mountain Brigade (Brigadier Rajendra Nath)
5 Maratha Light Infantry
4 Sikh Light Infantry
2/9 Gorkha Rifles
4 Mountain Artillery Brigade (Brigadier Baljeet Singh)
22 Mountain Regiment
194 Mountain Regiment
7 Field Regiment
181 Light Regiment
78 Medium Regiment (1 battery)
Engineers
63 Engineer Regiment
Before the outbreak of full-fledged war, 4 Mountain Division had captured the border areas of Jibannagar, Uthali (by 62 Brigade) and Darshana (by 41 Brigade). The divisional plan was to advance on Magura by way of Majdia, Jibannagar, Kotchandpur and Jhenaidah, so as to secure the ferry on the Madhumati river.
After the commencement of operations, Kotchandpur was captured by 62 Brigade on 4 December 1971, though they suffered heavy casualties. 41 Mountain Brigade was tasked to form a block between Chuadanga and Jhenaidah, preventing two Pakistani battalions from moving towards Jhenaidah. 41 Mountain Brigade advanced and captured Jhenaidah and Kaliganj by 7 December. 62 Mountain Brigade captured Magura by 9 December. 7 Mountain Brigade, which had been entrusted to capture Kushtia in the North, met with stiff resistance on 9 December from the Pakistanis, which included armour. 41 Mountain Brigade and 62 Infantry Brigade therefore had to be sent to capture Kushtia. This delay led to 62 and 7 Mountain Brigades resuming their offensive towards Faridpur only on 15 December. By this time, IV Corps had reached Dacca, forcing a Pakistani surrender on 16 December 1971. On 16 December, Major General M.H. Ansari, GOC, Pakistan’s 9 Infantry Division and his divisional staff surrendered to Major General M.S. Barar at Kamarkhali, while his 3,000-strong garrison laid down arms before Brigadier Rajendra Nath at Faridpur.
The major gallantry awards won during the battle were
Maha Vir Chakra
Brigadier A.H.E. Michigan
Lieutenant Colonel Chittoor Venugopal, 5/1 Gorkha Rifles
Havildar Bir Bahadur Pun, 5/1 Gorkha Rifles
Rifleman Pati Ram Gurung, 5/1 Gorkha Rifles
The battle honour Darsana was awarded to the following units-
45 Cavalry
5/1 Gorkha Rifles
Indian Peace Keeping Force
54 Infantry Division was the first division to be inducted in Sri Lanka. It was joined by 36 Infantry Division and finally the 4 and 57 Infantry Divisions in February 1988. The division operated in the Vavuniya, Mannar and Kilinochchi areas and was active in counter-insurgency operations against the LTTE.
Present day
The 4 Infantry Division is under the I Corps and headquartered at Allahabad. The division presently consists of -
7 Infantry Brigade at Kanpur
41 Infantry Brigade at Lucknow
62 Infantry Brigade at Kanpur
4 Artillery Brigade at Allahabad
Notes
References
External links
British Military History – British Troops in The Sudan 1930–47
Indian World War II divisions
Divisions of the Indian Army
British Indian Army divisions
Military units and formations established in 1939
Military units and formations of the British Empire in World War II
Military units and formations in British Somaliland in World War II
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204392
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Charleston%20%28C-22%29
|
USS Charleston (C-22)
|
The third USS Charleston (C-22/CA-19) was a United States Navy protected cruiser. She was launched 23 January 1904 by Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co., Newport News, Virginia, sponsored by Miss Helen Whaley Rhett, and commissioned on 17 October 1905, Captain Cameron McRae Winslow in command. She was reclassified CA-19 on 17 July 1920.
Service history
Pre-World War I
Charleston cruised to South American ports in the summer of 1906 with Secretary of State Elihu Root on board for good-will visits, and after disembarking the official party at Panama in September, returned to the west coast for overhaul. She cleared San Francisco on 6 December 1906 to begin service with the Pacific Squadron, sailing along the west coast from Magdalena Bay, Mexico, to Esquimalt, British Columbia, on exercises and fleet maneuvers until 10 June 1908, when she entered the Puget Sound Navy Yard to prepare for the long passage to the Asiatic Squadron. During this time, Charleston stopped in Portland, Oregon in June 1907 for the annual Portland Rose Festival. Charleston was the first U.S. Navy ship to attend the event, a tradition the Navy continues participate in to this day.
Leaving Puget Sound on 28 October 1908, Charleston served in the Far East until 11 September 1910, first as flagship of 3rd Squadron, Pacific Fleet, and later, as flagship of the Asiatic Fleet. Based on Cavite, Philippines in the winter, the Fleet moved north each summer to Chefoo, China, to continue exercises and visits to ports of China, Japan, Manchuria, and Russia, presenting a powerful reminder of American interest in the Far East. Returning to Bremerton, Washington, Charleston was decommissioned on 8 October 1910 at Puget Sound.
Placed in commission in reserve on 14 September 1912, Charleston joined the Pacific Reserve Fleet, remaining at Puget Sound as a receiving ship through early 1916, aside from a voyage to San Francisco in October 1913 as flagship for the Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Reserve Fleet. From 1912 through early 1916, she was receiving ship at the yard. With a new assignment as tender for the submarines based in the Panama Canal Zone, Charleston arrived at Cristobal, C.Z. on 7 May 1916, for a year of operations with submarines, reconnaissance of anchorages, and gunnery exercises.
World War I
On the day of America's entry into World War I on 6 April 1917, Charleston was placed in full commission, and early in May reported for duty with the Patrol Force in the Caribbean. Based on St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, she patrolled for commerce raiders through the month of May, then sailed north carrying Marines from Haiti to Philadelphia.
Here she readied to join the escort of the convoy carrying the first troops of the American Expeditionary Force to France, which cleared New York on 14 June, made St. Nazaire, France, after a safe passage through submarine waters on 28 June, and returned to New York on 19 July. After training naval volunteers and reserves for two weeks at Newport, Charleston cleared on 16 August for Havana, Cuba, where she supervised the sailing in tow of several former German ships to New Orleans. She next escorted a convoy from Cristobal to Bermuda, where she rendezvoused with a group of British transports, guarding their passage to Hampton Roads.
In September–October 1918, she made two convoy escort voyages to Nova Scotia, then joined the Cruiser and Transport Force, with which she made five voyages to France carrying occupation troops overseas and returning with combat veterans.
Decommissioning and fate
Charleston sailed from Philadelphia for the west coast on 23 July 1919, reaching Bremerton on 24 August. Here she was placed in reduced commission until late in 1920, when she arrived in San Diego to serve as administrative flagship for Commander, Destroyer Squadrons, Pacific Fleet. She served on this duty until 4 June 1923, when she sailed for Puget Sound Navy Yard and decommissioning on 4 December 1923. She was sold on 6 March 1930.
Charleston was stripped down to the waterline and then sold to the Powell River Company, Ltd. On 25 October 1930, the ship was towed to Powell River, British Columbia, Canada, to serve as a floating breakwater for a large logging mill. The hulk was ballasted, anchored and periodically pumped out to keep her afloat. The following year, she was joined by the hull of the cruiser Huron (formerly South Dakota). In 1961, heavy weather caused Charleston to partially flood, and her hull was towed to Kelsey Bay, on the north coast of Vancouver Island. The hulk was run ashore to serve as a breakwater, where she can be seen to this day.
Silver service
On 1 January 1905, the city of Charleston, South Carolina gave a silver punch service to the ship. The service included a silver bowl with an diameter that weighed nearly . The set was designed and made by Carrington, Thomas & Co. in Charleston and included panels showing Fort Sumter, St. Michael's Episcopal Church, Fort Moultrie, City Hall, and a view of the Battery. The set included a bowl, tray, and ladle that all included the seal of the city. When the ship was decommissioned, the service was returned to Charleston where it was displayed, for a period, at the Charleston Museum; it was again given to the next USS Charleston in 1936 and again returned to the city when that ship was itself decommissioned.
References
Further reading
External links
Protected cruisers of the United States Navy
St. Louis-class cruisers (1905)
1904 ships
World War I cruisers of the United States
United States Navy South Carolina-related ships
United States Navy West Virginia-related ships
Ships built in Newport News, Virginia
Ships sunk as breakwaters
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venceremos%20Brigade
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Venceremos Brigade
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The Venceremos Brigade is a politically motivated international organization founded in 1969 by members of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and officials of the Republic of Cuba. It was formed as a coalition of young people attempting to show solidarity with the Cuban Revolution by working side by side with Cuban workers, challenging U.S. policies towards Cuba, including the United States embargo against Cuba. The yearly brigade trips, which as of 2010 have brought more than 9,000 people to Cuba, continue today and are coordinated with the Pastors For Peace Friendship Caravans to Cuba. The 48th Brigade travelled to Cuba in July 2017.
History
Original brigades
The 1959 Cuban Revolution was a key event that galvanized and inspired the growing New Left in the 1960s. Cuba became viewed as a radical and anti-imperialist third world country worthy of praise by many of the radical activists of the 1960s.
In 1969, SDS was composed of competing factions with individual priorities and visions. SDS delegates travelled to Havana, and were inspired by Fidel Castro's New Year's Day speech, in which he called on Cubans to help with the sugar harvest. Although the Americans originally offered to help by taking industrial jobs displaced by the massive sugar harvest, Fidel reportedly responded that if North Americans were to help, they would cut cane. Hoping to unite SDS members behind a new project, the leaders began planning a trip, bringing American activists to Cuba to cut sugar cane. Carl Oglesby originally presented the idea to members of SDS, but was ousted from SDS before it came to fruition. Bernardine Dohrn appointed Julie Nichamin and Brian Murphy to organize the trip. Allen Young was also partly responsible for the organization and negotiations with Carlos Rafael Rodríguez and other members of the Cuban government. While in the US, the group met occasionally by regions to supervise, recruit, and fundraise for the trips. The trip cohort, the Venceremos ("we shall triumph" in Spanish language) Brigade, was promoted as an inspiring and educational experience. The brigade itself was designed to encompass members from all radical movements in the United States, from black power radicals to anti-war student activists.
In November 1969, the first brigade of 216 Americans travelled to Cuba from Mexico City to skirt the U.S. government's restrictions on travel to the island. The participants were to contribute to Cuba's monumental ten million ton zafra (harvest) of 1970, as well as to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the Cuban Revolution. The second Brigade arrived in February 1970, to cut cane and learn about Cuban life. Although the zafra did not reach ten million tons, the Brigades continued.
Later developments
The Antonio Maceo Brigade was formed as a Cuban solidarity group of Cuban American radicals that first traveled to Cuba in 1977. Many Cubans who joined the brigade were motivated to prove that they weren't counterrevolutionary "gusanos". At the time the Venceremos Brigade refused to allow Cuban exiles to be members believing them all to be middle class and counterrevolutionary "gusanos".
Organization
Ideology
In Venceremos Brigade, Sandra Levinson and Carol Brightman describe the participants, brigadistas, as "American radicals." They were attracted to Cuba by the socialist revolution taking place, the anti-imperialist movement, as well as Cuban culture. The Venceremos Brigade included a diverse group participants from the beginning. White, Black, Chicano, Native American, and Puerto Rican Americans, as well as activists and feminists participated. In part, the Venceremos Brigade went to Cuba to study revolutionary culture, Che Guevara, and Che's new socialist man. New Left philosophy permeated the movement. The brigadistas also invoked Cuba's history of antiracist and anticolonial movements, and referred to the Black Power and feminist movements in the US, with the goal of creating a revolutionary political culture within the group.
However, despite the leftist nature of the Brigades and the Cuban government, conflict emerged between Brigade organizers and gay members of the Brigade and their allies. To Cuban officials, the gay liberation movement represented American imperialism, and was a challenge to Fidel Castro and Cuba. The organizers of the Venceremos Brigades settled on a Don't ask, don't tell policy, requiring queer brigadistas to refrain from discussing or performing their sexuality. Queer brigadistas were subject to homophobic slurs and questions, and homophobia was the overall policy. There were also race and gender-based tensions in the early brigades.
Cuban intelligence involvement
According to debriefing statements made to the FBI by a Cuban Intelligence officer who defected in 1983, the Venceremos Brigade was controlled by Cuban Intelligence officer Alfredo Garcia Almeida, chief of the North American Section of the Americas Department and former political counselor at the Cuban Mission to the United Nations in New York City. Despite this accusation, the organization as a whole has experienced little censure from U.S. authorities. However, the FBI has questioned individual travellers over the years. In 2010, at least 10 brigade participants were visited by FBI agents, but were left in peace when they declined to be interviewed.
A contingent of Latinos led by the Young Lords' Field Marshals David Rivera and Raul Lugo traveled from the Young Lords People's Church in Chicago in 1969.
Notable brigadistas
Karen Bass, member of the US House of Representatives
Carol Brightman, counter-cultural author.
Linda Burnham, communist political organizer.
Leslie Cagan, socialist peace activist and radio executive
Johnnetta Cole, college president and museum executive
Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, historian and academic
Tibor Kalman, graphic designer
Michael Kazin, historian, professor and co-editor of Dissent magazine.
Jeffrey Bruce Klein, founder of Mother Jones magazine.
Antonio Villaraigosa, former mayor of Los Angeles
Allen Young, counter-cultural activist and later critic of the Cuban government.
See also
Antonio Maceo Brigade
Further reading
Venceremos Brigade research collection, DePaul University Special Collections and Archives
Oglesby, Carl. Ravens in the Storm, Scribner, New York, 2008. pp. 223-
Cuban Journal : A Poet in the Venceremos Brigade. 1970.
Sandy Lillydahl Venceremos Brigade Photograph Collection
"Cuba, Que Linda Es Cuba? The First Venceremos Brigade". Dissent Magazine. Retrieved 2017-06-13.
Cluster, Dick. "The Venceremos Brigade," The Sixties'', Harvard Review of Latin America.
References
External links
Venceremos Brigade
Pastors For Peace Cuba Friendship Caravan
Young Lords
Brigade who Defied Cuba Travel Ban Return to US July 26, 2010
Rick Rice Papers. circa 1960–1999. 2.44 cubic feet (2 cartons, 1 box).
Political organizations based in the United States
Cuba–United States relations
DePaul University Special Collections and Archives holdings
Cuba solidarity groups
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204398
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear
|
Shear
|
Shear may refer to:
Textile production
Animal shearing, the collection of wool from various species
Sheep shearing
The removal of nap during wool cloth production
Science and technology
Engineering
Shear strength (soil), the shear strength of soil under loading
Shear line (locksmithing), where the inner cylinder ends and the outer cylinder begins in a cylinder lock
Shearing (manufacturing), a metalworking process which cuts stock without the formation of chips or the use of burning or melting
Shear (sheet metal), various tools to shear sheet metal
Board shear, in bookbinding, a tool to cut board or paper
Shear pin, in machinery, such as a plough, designed to shear (break) when a certain force is exceeded, to protect other components of the machine.
Shearing interferometer, in optics, a simple and very common means to check the collimation of beams by observing interference
Shearing in computer graphics, more commonly called screen tearing
Shear wall, a wall composed of braced panels to counter the effects of lateral load acting on a structure
Shear forming, different from conventional metal spinning in that a reduction of the wall thickness is induced
Mathematics/astronomy
Cosmic shear, an effect of distortion of image of distant galaxies due to deflection of light by matter, as predicted by general relativity (see also gravitational lens)
Shear mapping, a particular type of mapping in linear algebra, also called transvection
Shear matrix in geometry, a linear transformation shearing a space
Solid materials
Shear (geology), a form of fault in rocks
Shear stress in physics, refers to a stress state that will cause shearing (see verb) when it exceeds a material's shear strength
Shearing (physics), the deformation of a material substance in which parallel internal surfaces slide past one another
Shear strength, shear strength
Wind/fluids
Simple shear, a special case of deformation of a fluid
Shear (fluid), in fluid dynamics, refers to the shear stresses and responses there to in fluids
Shear rate, a gradient of velocity in a flowing material
Shear line (meteorology), an area of wind shear
Wind shear, a difference in wind speed or direction between two wind currents in the atmosphere
Surnames
Shear (surname)
Shearing (surname)
Other
Shear (comics), a Marvel Comics superhero
See also
Shears (disambiguation)
Shearer (disambiguation)
Sheer (disambiguation)
Sher (disambiguation)
Shere, Surrey, England
|
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] |
204399
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service%20station
|
Service station
|
Service station may refer to:
Filling station, a gasoline or petrol station
Automobile repair shop, a place where automobiles are repaired
Service centre or rest area, a public facility on motorways or controlled-access highways for resting or refuelling
Motorway service area, a rest area in the United Kingdom
Service centre or truck stop
|
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204401
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Cultural%20Association
|
Black Cultural Association
|
The Black Cultural Association (BCA) was an African-American inmate group founded in 1968 at the California Medical Facility at Vacaville, a California state prison, and formally recognized by prison officials in 1969. The primary purpose of the BCA was to provide educational tutoring to inmates, which it did in conjunction with graduate college students from the nearby San Francisco Bay Area. Outsiders were allowed to attend meetings of the BCA, and tutors provided remedial and advanced courses in mathematics, reading, writing, art, history, political science, and sociology. In time, radical political organizations such as Venceremos infiltrated the BCA, giving rise to BCA factions such as Unisight, which eventually gave birth to the Symbionese Liberation Army.
Origins
The 1960s were famous for numerous social movements, including the Black Panther Party in California. This increase in racial tension across the nation fed to rising concerns about the African-American population. The Black Panther Party was created to watch the actions of police forces in Los Angeles making sure that they were protecting the public as a whole, not a specific race. In Oakland, the number of arrests dramatically increased, which led to an increase in prison populations. In the State of California's prisoners statistics it states that the populations of inmates on December 31, 1960, was 21,660 persons. 8 years later on December 31, 1968 the population had increased to a high of 28,462. During the 1960s the black distribution in California prisons was 20.8 percent but gradually increased to 34.1 percent by the 1980s. The same people who were demanding social reforms found themselves in jail demanding prison reforms for those of color. From this rise in black inmate population came the Black Cultural Association, or the BCA. Their goal was to educate black inmates on basic educational skills as well as foster an environment for black empowerment.
Timeline
1954: The Civil Rights Movement Begins
1968: Civil Rights Act of 1968, which prevented "by force or by threat of force, injure, intimidate, or interfere with anyone…by reason of their race, color, religion, or national origin."
1968: The Black Cultural Association is founded.
1971: The Black Cultural Association becomes an officially recognized prison group under the tutoring system put in place by linguistic professor Colston Westbrook.
1972: The BCA gains popularity with white radicals through the help of William Wolfe. White activists begin to attend BCA meetings with the approval of Colston Westbrook.
1972: The Maximum Psychiatric Diagnostic Unit at the Vacaville prison begins doing illegal experimentation on inmates, sparking controversy over fair treatment.
December 1972: Rumors spread within the BCA that Westbrook was connected to the Central Intelligence Agency, therefore part of administering drug tests to black inmates.
1973: The group gains peak attendance, with about 100 inmates part of the BCA.
Education, tutors, and members
Educational tutoring and politics
The main purpose of the BCA was to provide educational tutoring for inmates. For two years the BCA operated without much direction. However, in 1971 the BCA was officially recognized by the California Medical Facility. University of California-Berkeley linguistic professor, Colston Westbrook was recruited to organize an educational tutoring system for the group. Westbrook's goal was to instill racial pride in the prisoners and provide self-help. Westbrook brought in a group of tutors to teach math, reading, writing, art, political science, black sociology, and African heritage. A majority of the BCA tutors were white students from the University of California at Berkeley that held leftist and radical beliefs. BCA tutors included Russell Little and William Wolfe. As well as Patricia Soltysik, Nancy Ling Perry, and Patty Hearst (who used a fake ID with the name Mary Alice Siem), according to Lake Headley, a private investigator. The group began to grow and started to meet two to three times a week. Over time, the BCA evolved from an educational group into more of a political group that focused on radical ideals and black empowerment. Because the focus of the group shifted away from the conventional educational group, no statistics could be found on how successful the program was at improving the education of prisoners.
Donald DeFreeze
One notable member of the BCA was a black prisoner named Donald DeFreeze. Defreeze became close with Westbrook and quickly embraced the revolutionary fantasy that was fostered in the BCA. Eventually, DeFreeze was transferred to Soledad State Prison where he then escaped. Following his escape he teamed up with fellow BCA members Russell Little and William Wolfe, as well as Bill and Emily Harris and Angela Atwood, to create the Symbionese Liberation Army.
List of tutors and members
BCA Coordinator: Colston Westbrook
Member and Inmate: Donald DeFreeze
BCA Visitor/Tutor: William Wolfe
BCA Visitor/Tutor: Russell Little
BCA Visitor/Tutor: Patricia Soltysik
BCA Visitor/Tutor: Nancy Ling Perry
BCA Visitor/Tutor: Patty Hearst aka Mary Alice Siem
Group evolution
The Black Cultural Association met regularly with outside volunteers, some of which did not teach basic educational skills. Tutors and prisoners tended to have discussions on radical ideas, often influencing inmates to join their way of thinking. Donald DeFreeze was one inmate who converted his political ideas after attending BCA meetings. Soon after, DeFreeze broke off from the Black Cultural Association and created his own group within the prison. Willie Wolfe and Russ Little were two white volunteers that joined the small group DeFreeze set up, as well as ex-Black panther and inmate Thero Wheeler. This small group of radical-left's is considered the beginning of the Symbionese Liberation Army, or the SLA. Other volunteers at Vacaville prison were members of the Venceremos, a radical Chicano political organization. When the Venceremos political group became inactive, it joined forces with DeFreeze and the SLA to fight for prison reforms and black rights.
Conspiracy
Because the BCA operated with major political overtones under the pretense of education, many feared the group as a means to control the inmates and fuel the social unrest of the time. Various conspiracy theories involved the accusations that the group was transformed into an assassin group rather than one based purely for education. With inmates cut off from the outside world and their only information being fed to them by the radical tutors, it is believed by some that the group plotted revolution and other drastic means for social change. Louis Nelson, warden at San Quentin stated in a memo:
We are reading in the public press, and hearing via television and radio, that the best breeding and/or recruiting ground for neo-revolutionaries is in the prison system…. I am witnessing the deterioration of our ethnic organizations, which were once dedicated to the educational improvement of our men inside San Quentin, to para-military organizations with revolutionary overtones…. I do not believe that as the propagation of revolutionary acts or material. In fact, I believe it to be the exact opposite of my duty…. I intend to draw the line at revolutionary education.
Suspicions gained truth when radical groups calling for revolution such as the SLA branched off from and eventually took over the BCA. It abandoned education as its purpose and focused instead on political revolution.
See also
Symbionese Liberation Army
Black Panther Party
Black Power Movement
Black Liberation Army
Venceremos Organization
Weather Underground
References
Organizations established in 1968
African-American organizations
Prison-related organizations
Vacaville, California
Symbionese Liberation Army
|
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204404
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary%20consonance
|
Literary consonance
|
Consonance is a stylistic literary device identified by the repetition of identical or similar consonants in neighboring words whose vowel sounds are different (e.g. coming home, hot foot). Consonance may be regarded as the counterpart to the vowel-sound repetition known as assonance.
Alliteration is a special case of consonance where the repeated consonant sound is at the stressed syllable, as in "few flocked to the fight" or "around the rugged rock the ragged rascal ran". Alliteration is usually distinguished from other types of consonance in poetic analysis, and has different uses and effects.
Another special case of consonance is sibilance, the use of several sibilant sounds such as and . An example is the verse from Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven": "And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain." (This example also contains assonance around the "ur" sound.) Another example of consonance is the word "sibilance" itself.
Consonance is an element of half-rhyme poetic format, sometimes called "slant rhyme". It is common in hip-hop music, as for example in the song Zealots by the Fugees: "Rap rejects my tape deck, ejects projectile/Whether Jew or gentile I rank top percentile." (This is also an example of internal rhyme.)
See also
Assonance
Figure of speech
Rhyming
Rhyme scheme
References
External links
Examples of consonance in poetry.
Poetic devices
Rhetorical techniques
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football%20in%20Germany
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Football in Germany
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Football (or "soccer") is the most popular sport in Germany. The German Football Association ( or ) is the sport's national governing body, with 6.6 million members (roughly eight percent of the population) organized in over 26,000 football clubs. There is a league system, with the Bundesliga, 2. Bundesliga and 3. Liga on top. The winner of the Bundesliga is crowned the German football champion. Additionally, there are national cup competitions, most notably the DFB-Pokal (German Cup) and DFL-Supercup (German Supercup).
The Germany national football team has won four FIFA World Cups (1954, 1974, 1990, 2014), being the joint-second most successful nation in the tournament only surpassed by Brazil. It also holds a record (tied with Spain) three UEFA European Championships (1972, 1980, 1996), and won the FIFA Confederations Cup in 2017. The Germany women's national football team has won two FIFA Women's World Cups (2003, 2007) and a record eight UEFA European Women's Championships (1989, 1991, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2013), as well as a gold medal in the Summer Olympics in 2016. Germany is the only nation that has won both the men's and women's World Cup. No team has more combined men's and women's World Cup championships, and only the United States has won more combined men's and women's regional/continental championships (United States 12 in CONCACAF, Germany 11 in UEFA). Germany was the host of the 1974 and 2006 FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro 1988, and the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup. They also hosted the 1989, 1995 and 2001 UEFA European Women's Championship, and the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup. Germany will host UEFA Euro 2024 after beating out rival Turkey by 8 votes (12–4).
History
Introduction to German football
The first football match arguably took place in Braunschweig in 1874. Two schoolteachers, August Hermann and Konrad Koch, initiated the first match after Hermann had obtained a round football from England. In 1875, Koch published the first German version of the rules of football, although Koch's version of the game still closely resembled Rugby football.
First football clubs
The Dresden English Football Club is considered the first modern football club in Germany. It was founded in 1874 by Englishmen living and working around Dresden. In the following 20 years the game achieved a growing popularity. Football clubs were founded in Berlin, Hamburg and Stuttgart.
Foundation To World War I
On 28 January 1900, representatives from 86 football clubs from German-speaking areas in and outside the German Empire met in the restaurant Mariengarten in Leipzig, founding the DFB. The founding meeting was led by E. J. Kirmse, chairman of the Leipziger Fussball Verband (Leipzig Football Association). Ferdinand Hueppe, representing the DFC Prag, was elected first president of the DFB.
Already some years before 1900, associations like the Bund Deutscher Fussballspieler or Deutscher Fussball und Cricket-Bund were founded, but they were limited to smaller areas of the German Empire, in those cases to areas around Berlin. The first championship beyond municipal areas was held in 1898 from the Verband Sueddeutscher Fussball-Vereine (Association of South German football clubs), later affiliated with the DFB.
The German national football team has represented Germany in international football competitions since 1908. It is controlled by the German Football Association DFB, the governing body of football in Germany.
Weimar Republic
The German national football team played its first post-WWI match on 27 June 1920 in Zürich against Switzerland, which the Swiss team won 1:4.
Club football was centered in the region of Franconia during the 1920s as 1. FC Nürnberg and SpVgg Fürth dominated the competition.
In 1919, the proletarian Arbeiter-Turnbund was renamed Arbeiter-Turn- und Sportbund (ATSB). The name change especially reflected the incorporation of football into the federation, which promoted leftist political views and attempted to break the monopolisation of football under the umbrella of the DFB.
Nazi Germany
With the rise of Nazism, left-leaning sporting associations such as the ATSB and Rotsport were banned. Communist sporting officials such as Ernst Grube, Reichstag deputy and head of Rotsport, were murdered in concentration camps. The DFB integrated as Fachamt Reichsfußball into the National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise. From 1933 to 1945 the highest level of play in German football was organised in 16 Gauligen, whose winners qualified for the finals in the German championship, held at the end of season.
Inter-war period
After the war, Germany was occupied in three states. The DFB and its team continued in what was called West Germany, while the Saarland and East Germany fielded separate teams for some years.
East and West
The FIFA World Cup 1974 was staged in West Germany, and both German teams were drawn in the same group in the first round. Meeting on 22 June 1974 in a politically charged match in Hamburg, East Germany beat West Germany 1–0, on a goal by Jürgen Sparwasser. Both German teams advanced to the second round anyway. The GDR team was eliminated there, while the DFB team eventually went on to win the tournament.
Reunification
In the year of German reunification (1990), West Germany secured its third World Cup as West and East Germans celebrated together. The present-day German national team is identical to the team representing what was informally called West Germany from 1949 to 1990, as the German Football Association was again recognized by FIFA after WW2. Nothing changed in 1990 except enlarged membership due to the access of East German states and players, thus the continuity in the German logo and uniform style as well as references to Germany's four World Cup and three European Cup titles. Thus, all references to a "former West German team" are considered by many as false - according to the DFB, this team still exists, called Germany.
Germany's greatest triumphs since 1990 have been winning the 2014 World Championship in Brazil, and the 1996 European Championship secured in England with players from both the former West, including (Jürgen Klinsmann as captain) and East (Matthias Sammer) as anchor of the defence.
New millennium
The greatest success for German team in the new millennium has been their winning the 2014 FIFA World Cup. They had also finished in second place to Brazil at the 2002 World Cup in South Korea and Japan and second place at the 2008 European Championship. There was also a third place at the 2006 World Cup in Germany and in addition another third place at World Cup 2010. Germany's women have achieved even greater success, winning both the 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup in the US and the 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup in China.
German Football Association
The national association is the German Football Association (or Deutscher Fußball-Bund) headquartered in Frankfurt.
The DFB was founded in 1900 in Leipzig, by the representatives of 86 clubs. Today, the association has some 26,000 member clubs which field 170,000 teams with over 2 million players: these numbers include 870,000 female members and 8,600 women's teams. With over six million active and passive members, the DFB is the world's largest sports federation.
National team
Men's
The German national football team has represented Germany in international football competitions since 1908. It is controlled by the German Football Association (DFB), the governing body of football in Germany. They have won four FIFA World Cups and have been runners up on four occasions.
Since the 1954 World Cup, the German national team has been outfitted by the German firm adidas. For home games, the German team wears white jerseys, black shorts and white socks in honour of the Prussian colours. Along with black both red and gold, the other two colours of the German flag, have been included in the strip over the years.
Traditionally, the Germans have worn green jerseys, white shorts and green socks as their alternate uniform. In recent years, however, the Germans have changed their away uniform to grey in 2002–2003, black in 2004 and recently to red. The Germans wore red as their alternate colour in the 2006 World Cup.
The German national team during the 2006 World Cup was coached by former captain Jürgen Klinsmann. Since 12 July 2006, former Assistant Coach Joachim Löw has coached the national team. Its current captain is Bayern Munich goalkeeper Manuel Neuer.
Women's
The German women's national football team, also organised by the DFB, are two-time world champions, having won the FIFA Women's World Cup in 2003 under past coach Tina Theune-Meyer and 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup under current coach Silvia Neid. They are the first women's team to have successfully defended a World Cup. They have also won eight UEFA Women's Championships (1989, 1991, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2005, 2009, 2013), which includes six consecutive titles. Germany is the only nation to have won both the men's and women's World Cup and European Championship.
The Germany women's team are also the first to have won a World Cup at senior level, either for men or women, without conceding a single goal, having done so in 2007. Nadine Angerer was the goalkeeper who managed this feat.
Home stadiums
The national teams play in various stadiums throughout Germany. The cities of Düsseldorf, Munich, Dortmund and Berlin are some of the more popular locations.
FIFA World Cup
The Germany national football team has won four FIFA World Cups and have been the runners up on four other occasions. The four World Cup championships are commemorated by the four stars above the German national team logo on the team's jerseys. Germany hosted the World Cups in 1974 and in 2006.
The women's national team has won two FIFA Women's World Cups, commemorated by two stars above the crest on their jerseys. Germany hosted the 2011 Women's World Cup.
FIFA World Cup 1954
The Wankdorf Stadion in Bern saw 60,000 people cram inside to watch the Final between West Germany and Hungary, a rematch of a first-round game, which Hungary had won 8–3. In response to his team's earlier thrashing at the hands of the Hungarians, legendary West German coach Sepp Herberger made key tactical adjustments in his team's lineup prior to the Final. Shortly before the match, it had started raining - in Germany this was dubbed "Fritz-Walter-Wetter" (Fritz Walter Weather) because the German team captain Fritz Walter was said to play his best in rainy weather.
The Final saw the legendary Ferenc Puskás playing even though he was not fully fit. Despite this he put his team ahead after only 6 minutes and, with Zoltán Czibor adding another two minutes later, it seemed destined that the pre-tournament favourites would take the title.
However, with a goal from Max Morlock on the tenth minute and Helmut Rahn on the nineteenth before halftime, the tide began to turn in the Germans' favor. The second half saw misses from the Hungarian team as well as a disallowed goal from Puskás with 2 minutes left.
Rahn then scored again to make the score 3–2. As he was scoring the goal, the popular German reporter Herbert Zimmermann gave the most famous German piece of commentary of all time - "Rahn schiesst - TOR!" ("Rahn shoots - GOAL!") - while the Hungarian reporter burst into tears. The game would become known as the "Das Wunder von Bern" (the "Miracle of Bern") in German lore and would be the basis for a successful movie released in 2003.
FIFA World Cup 1974
The FIFA World Cup 1974 competition was held in West Germany.
Led by legendary libero Franz Beckenbauer, keeper Sepp Maier, playmaker Paul Breitner, and strikers Uli Hoeneß and "Der Bomber" Gerd Müller (Germany's all-time leading scorer with 68 goals in 62 games), Germany won its second World Cup by defeating the Netherlands in the final, 2–1, behind goals by Breitner and Müller. The Final was famous for the battle between Kaiser Franz (Beckenbauer) and King Johann (Cruyff).
The tournament marked the first time that the current trophy, the FIFA World Cup, was awarded. The previous trophy, the Jules Rimet Trophy, was won for the third time by Brazil in 1970 and awarded permanently to the Brazilians.
FIFA World Cup 1990
In a tournament which included a memorable clash with rival the Netherlands, Germany defeated Argentina, 1–0, on an Andreas Brehme penalty kick, to win its third World Cup title. With its third title (and three second-place finishes), West Germany became the most successful World Cup nation for 4 years, until Brazil won their 4th Championship in 1994. West German team manager Franz Beckenbauer became the second footballer, after Mario Zagallo of Brazil, to become World Champion as a player (in 1974) and as team manager. In doing so, Beckenbauer also became the first captain of a winning team to later manage a winning squad.
FIFA Women's World Cup 2003
The 2003 FIFA Women's World Cup was held in the United States (changed from China due to the SARS epidemic) and won by Germany, who defeated Sweden by 2–1 in extra time. Earlier in the semifinals they had disposed of the defending champions and hosts, the United States, 3–0.
FIFA World Cup 2006
Germany hosted the 2006 FIFA World Cup. Thirty-two nations competed in the tournament, with matches played in a dozen cities ranging from Hamburg in the north to Munich in the south; Leipzig was the only former East city to hold matches (the matches at Berlin were held at former West Berliner territory). The opening match (Germany vs Costa Rica) was held on 9 June in the Allianz Arena in Munich, with Germany defeating Costa Rica 4–2. The final match took place in Olympiastadion Berlin one month later between Italy and France. The match was drawn 1–1 at full-time and after extra time. Zinedine Zidane was controversially sent off for headbutting Italy's Marco Materazzi with 10 minutes to go before the match went into penalties. France lost to Italy in the shootout 5–3.
Germany defeated Portugal 3–1 in the third place play off at the Gottlieb-Daimler-Stadion in Stuttgart on 8 July. Miroslav Klose won the Golden Boot for the highest goalscorer of the tournament with 5 goals. Lukas Podolski received the Best Young Player Award.
FIFA Women's World Cup 2007
The 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup was held in China and won by Germany, who became the first women's team to successfully defend the title. In the opening match in Shanghai, Germany beat Argentina by a record 11–0. Nadine Angerer, the key goalkeeper, went unbeaten the entire tournament. In the final at Shanghai, Germany beat Brazil, 2–0.
Birgit Prinz became the all-time top World Cup goalscorer with 14 goals total.
FIFA World Cup 2010
Germany finished third for the second consecutive time, behind Spain and the Netherlands. Germany was the team that scored the most goals in the FIFA World Cup 2010, with three 4-goal hauls. They lost to only two teams, Serbia and Spain. Thomas Müller won the Golden Shoe and Best Young Player award.
FIFA Women's World Cup 2011
The 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup was held in Germany. The competition kicked off with two matches on 26 June—the first in Sinsheim pitting France and Nigeria, followed by the official opening match in Berlin featuring Germany and Canada. Germany went on to win Group A without dropping a point, but lost in the quarterfinals to eventual champion Japan.
FIFA World Cup 2014
Germany emerged champions of the 2014 World Cup competition, defeating Argentina 1–0 thanks to a memorable goal by 22-year-old Mario Götze. In the run-up to the finals, Germany routed Brazil 7–1 in their semi-final match, breaking several World Cup records. Miroslav Klose also scored his 16th World Cup goal in this match to become the highest scoring player in World Cup history.
FIFA Women's World Cup 2015
The 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup was held in Canada. Germany won Group B on goal difference over Norway. In the knockout rounds, they defeated Sweden in the round of 16 and France in the quarterfinals. They would ultimately be eliminated for the second straight World Cup by the eventual champion, dropping their semifinal to the United States. In the third-place game, Germany lost to England 1–0 on an extra-time penalty.
Germany's Célia Šašić won the tournament's Golden Boot. Šašić and the USA's Carli Lloyd had 6 goals and were level on the first tiebreaker of assists, with 1 each; Šašić won on the second tiebreaker of fewer minutes played.
UEFA European Championship
Germany have won three European Championship (1972, 1980 and 1996). The German team also placed second in the 1976, 1992 and 2008 championships.
Euro 1972
In Euro 1972, a young West German team that would go on to win the World Cup two years later captured the first of its three European Cup titles. In the two-leg quarter-finals, Germany first crushed England, 3–1, in Wembley Stadium on 29 April 1972, then closed the door by earning a 0–0 draw in Berlin. The Germans then advanced to the finals in Belgium, where they defeated the host nation, 2–1, in the semifinal and the Soviet Union, 3–0, in the final to capture their first major championship since the Miracle of Bern.
"This is the best team we ever had," stated former coach Helmut Schön in the hour of his triumph. In admiration of the German effort, the French L’Equipe wrote: "Brussels witnessed the rehabilitation of attacking football." The Times noted: "Germany has the most talented football team on the continent."
Euro 1980
Only 8 years passed before the Germans secured their next title. After defeating Czechoslovakia, Netherlands, and Greece in the opening round, Germany got past Belgium, 2–1, in the final through two goals by Horst Hrubesch. This tournament would be the first of many for midfielder Lothar Matthäus, who would retire after Euro 2000 as Germany's most capped (experienced) player with 150 national team appearances.
Euro 1996
In 1996, Germany won perhaps its most memorable European Championship and its first major championship since reunification. Led by captain Jürgen Klinsmann on offense and Matthias Sammer on defense, the Germans easily defeated the Czech Republic, 2–0, and Russia, 3–0, in the first round. A hard-fought 0–0 draw against Italy completed the first round and saw Germany through to the quarterfinals, where it defeated Croatia 2–1.
This victory set the stage for a classic battle against England, again in Wembley Stadium, in the tournament semifinals. After England jumped in front with a goal in the third minute, the Germans - playing without injured captain Klinsmann - fought back and equalized behind a Stefan Kuntz goal in the 16. minute. Both teams fought through the remainder of regulation and two sudden-death 15-minute overtime periods without scoring, leading to a dramatic penalty kick shootout. In the shootout, German keeper Andreas Köpke held England's sixth attempt, allowing Andreas Möller to stun the Wembley faithful and send Germany through to the final.
In the final, Germany fell behind the same Czech squad it had defeated earlier in the tournament on a controversial (bad) penalty kick decision. Nonetheless, the Germans displayed their usual fighting spirit and tied the game on substitute Oliver Bierhoff's 73. minute header. Regulation ended in a 1–1 tie. Five minutes into the first sudden-death overtime, it was again Oliver Bierhoff who led the Germans to victory with his historic golden goal. Largely because of his outstanding defensive efforts in the tournament, Matthias Sammer was voted "Europe's Player of the Year" after the finals.
Euro 2024
In 2024, Germany will host the UEFA Euro 2024, it will be taking place in 10 cities, Berlin, Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Gelsenkirchen, Hamburg, Leipzig, Munich and Stuttgart. The opening match will take place at the Allianz Arena in Munich and the final will take place at the Olympiastadion in Berlin.
Football competitions
Bundesliga
The country's premier football competition is the 18-team Bundesliga. Bayern Munich has won a record of 30 Bundesliga championships since the formation of the league in 1963. Hamburger SV was the only team to have played in every Bundesliga season until the 2017–18 season when they were relegated for the first time in club history. The second-tier league is known as the 2. Bundesliga. A 3. Liga, run directly by the DFB instead of the DFB-affiliated German Football League (DFL, from the German Deutsche Fußball Liga) which operates the two Bundesligen, was introduced in 2008.
German Cup
The German Cup (German: "DFB-Pokal", Deutscher Fußball Bund-Pokal) is a national football tournament held annually since 1952. It is the second most important national title in German football after the Bundesliga championship.
Each football club which participates in the German football league system is entitled to enter the tournament. The clubs of the lower leagues play in regional qualification rounds, with the winners joining the teams of the Bundesliga and 2. Bundesliga in the main round of the tournament in the following year. Each elimination is determined by a single game held on the ground of one of the two participating teams. Since 1985 the final has been held each year at the Olympic Stadium in Berlin. Bayern Munich has won the cup a record 20 times.
The Tschammer-Pokal was the predecessor to today's cup competition. It was introduced in 1934–35 and contested until 1944.
Divided after World War II, Germany had two cup competitions with East German sides competing for the East German Cup (German: "FDGB-Pokal", Freier Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund-Pokal or Free German Trade Union Federation Cup). Introduced in 1949, the cup was contested annually until 1991 when the tournament was ended in the wake of German re-unification and the merger of the football leagues of the two Germanys.
Participation in European competition
Under current co-efficient rankings, Germany is guaranteed at least four UEFA Champions League spots and three UEFA Europa League spots. Clubs finishing first, second, third and fourth in the Bundesliga are put into the group stage of the Champions League. The fifth and sixth-place finishers enter the Europa League, respectively in the group stage and second qualifying round. The winner of the DFB-Pokal also enters the group stage of the Europa League. However, if the winner of the Cup has already been granted a place in the Champions League through league standings, then the team placed seventh in the Bundesliga is granted a place in the second qualifying round of the Europa League.
Foreign players in Germany
There are many foreign football players in the German professional football leagues. In November 2009, there were 249 foreign players in the 1. Bundesliga, or 45% of all players. In the 2. Bundesliga, there are 145 foreign players, with a ratio of 31%. In the 3. Liga, the foreigner percentage is 15%.
See also
Women's football in Germany
East Germany national football team
Football in Berlin
Football in Munich
References
External links
German Football Association
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pastoral
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Pastoral
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A pastoral lifestyle is that of shepherds herding livestock around open areas of land according to seasons and the changing availability of water and pasture. It lends its name to a genre of literature, art, and music (pastorale) that depicts such life in an idealized manner, typically for urban audiences. A pastoral is a work of this genre, also known as bucolic, from the Greek , from , meaning a cowherd.
Literature
Pastoral literature in general
Pastoral is a mode of literature in which the author employs various techniques to place the complex life into a simple one. Paul Alpers distinguishes pastoral as a mode rather than a genre, and he bases this distinction on the recurring attitude of power; that is to say that pastoral literature holds a humble perspective toward nature. Thus, pastoral as a mode occurs in many types of literature (poetry, drama, etc.) as well as genres (most notably the pastoral elegy).
Terry Gifford, a prominent literary theorist, defines pastoral in three ways in his critical book Pastoral. The first way emphasizes the historical literary perspective of the pastoral in which authors recognize and discuss life in the country and in particular the life of a shepherd. This is summed up by Leo Marx with the phrase "No shepherd, no pastoral." The second type of the pastoral is literature that "describes the country with an implicit or explicit contrast to the urban". The third type of pastoral depicts the country life with derogative classifications.
Hesiod's Works and Days presents a 'golden age' when people lived together in harmony with nature. This Golden Age shows that even before the Alexandrian age, ancient Greeks had sentiments of an ideal pastoral life that they had already lost. This is the first example of literature that has pastoral sentiments and may have begun the pastoral tradition. Ovid's Metamorphoses is much like the Works and Days with the description of ages (golden, silver, bronze, iron, and human) but with more ages to discuss and less emphasis on the gods and their punishments. In this artificially constructed world, nature acts as the main punisher. Another example of this perfect relationship between man and nature is evident in the encounter of a shepherd and a goatherd who meet in the pastures in Theocritus' poem Idylls 1.
Traditionally, pastoral refers to the lives of herdsmen in a romanticized, exaggerated, but representative way. In literature, the adjective 'pastoral' refers to rural subjects and aspects of life in the countryside among shepherds, cowherds and other farm workers that are often romanticized and depicted in a highly unrealistic manner. The pastoral life is usually characterized as being closer to the golden age than the rest of human life. The setting is a locus amoenus, or a beautiful place in nature, sometimes connected with images of the Garden of Eden. An example of the use of the genre is the short poem by the 15th-century Scottish makar Robert Henryson Robene and Makyne which also contains the conflicted emotions often present in the genre. A more tranquil mood is set by Christopher Marlowe's well known lines from his 1599 The Passionate Shepherd to His Love:
"The Passionate Shepherd to His Love" exhibits the concept of Gifford's second definition of 'pastoral'. The speaker of the poem, who is the titled shepherd, draws on the idealization of urban material pleasures to win over his love rather than resorting to the simplified pleasures of pastoral ideology. This can be seen in the listed items: "lined slippers", "purest gold", "silver dishes", and "ivory table" (lines 13, 15, 16, 21, 23). The speaker takes on a voyeuristic point of view with his love, and they are not directly interacting with the other true shepherds and nature.
Pastoral shepherds and maidens usually have Greek names like Corydon or Philomela, reflecting the origin of the pastoral genre. Pastoral poems are set in beautiful rural landscapes, the literary term for which is "locus amoenus" (Latin for "beautiful place"), such as Arcadia, a rural region of Greece, mythological home of the god Pan, which was portrayed as a sort of Eden by the poets. The tasks of their employment with sheep and other rustic chores is held in the fantasy to be almost wholly undemanding and is left in the background, leaving the shepherdesses and their swains in a state of almost perfect leisure. This makes them available for embodying perpetual erotic fantasies. The shepherds spend their time chasing pretty girls – or, at least in the Greek and Roman versions, pretty boys as well. The eroticism of Virgil's second eclogue, Formosum pastor Corydon ardebat Alexin ("The shepherd Corydon burned with passion for pretty Alexis"), is entirely homosexual.
Pastoral poetry
Pastoral literature continued after Hesiod with the poetry of the Hellenistic Greek Theocritus, several of whose Idylls are set in the countryside (probably reflecting the landscape of the island of Cos where the poet lived) and involve dialogues between herdsmen. Theocritus may have drawn on authentic folk traditions of Sicilian shepherds. He wrote in the Doric dialect but the metre he chose was the dactylic hexameter associated with the most prestigious form of Greek poetry, epic. This blend of simplicity and sophistication would play a major part in later pastoral verse. Theocritus was imitated by the Greek poets Bion and Moschus.
The Roman poet Virgil adapted pastoral into Latin with his highly influential Eclogues. Virgil introduces two very important uses of pastoral, the contrast between urban and rural lifestyles and political allegory most notably in Eclogues 1 and 4 respectively. In doing so, Virgil presents a more idealized portrayal of the lives of shepherds while still employing the traditional pastoral conventions of Theocritus. He was the first to set his poems in Arcadia, an idealized location to which much later pastoral literature will refer.
Horace's Epodes, ii Country Joys has "the dreaming man" Alfius, who dreams of escaping his busy urban life for the peaceful country. But as "the dreaming man" indicates, this is just a dream for Alfius. He is too consumed in his career as a usurer to leave it behind for the country.
Later Silver Latin poets who wrote pastoral poetry, modeled principally upon Virgil's Eclogues, include Calpurnius Siculus and Nemesianus and the author(s) of the Einsiedeln Eclogues.
Italian poets revived the pastoral from the 14th century onwards, first in Latin (examples include works by Petrarch, Pontano and Mantuan) then in the Italian vernacular (Sannazaro, Boiardo). The fashion for pastoral spread throughout Renaissance Europe.
Leading French pastoral poets include Marot, a poet of the French court, and Pierre de Ronsard, once called the "prince of poets" in his day.
The first pastorals in English were the Eclogues (c. 1515) of Alexander Barclay, which were heavily influenced by Mantuan. A landmark in English pastoral poetry was Spenser’s The Shepheardes Calender, first published in 1579. Spenser's work consists of twelve eclogues, one for each month of the year, and is written in dialect. It contains elegies, fables and a discussion of the role of poetry in contemporary England. Spenser and his friends appear under various pseudonyms (Spenser himself is "Colin Clout"). Spenser's example was imitated by such poets as Michael Drayton (Idea, The Shepherd's Garland) and William Browne (Britannia's Pastorals). During this period of England's history, many authors explored "anti-pastoral" themes. Two examples of this, Sir Philip Sidney's “The Twenty-Third Psalm” and “The Nightingale”, focus on the world in a very anti-pastoral view. In “The Twenty-Third Psalm,” Nature is portrayed as something we need to be protected from, and in “The Nightingale,” the woe of Philomela is compared to the speaker's own pain. Additionally, he wrote Arcadia which is filled with pastoral descriptions of the landscape. "The Nymph's Reply to the Shepherd" (1600) by Sir Walter Raleigh also comments on the anti-pastoral as the nymph responds realistically to the idealizing shepherd of The Passionate Shepherd to His Love by embracing and explaining the true course of nature and its incompatibility with the love that the Shepherd yearns for with the nymph. Terry Gifford defined the anti-pastoral in his 2012 essay "Pastoral, Anti-Pastoral and Post-Pastoral as Reading Strategies" as an often explicit correction of pastoral, emphasizing "realism" over romance, highlighting problematic elements (showing tensions, disorder and inequalities), challenging literary constructs as false distortions and demythologizing mythical locations such as Arcadia and Shangri-La.
In the 17th century came the Country house poem. Included in this genre is Emilia Lanier's The Description of Cooke-ham in 1611, in which a woman is described in terms of her relationship to her estate and how it mourns for her when she leaves it. In 1616, Ben Jonson wrote To Penshurst, a poem in which he addresses the estate owned by the Sidney family and tells of its beauty. The basis of the poem is a harmonious and joyous elation of the memories that Jonson had at the manor. It is beautifully written with iambic pentameter, a style that Jonson eloquently uses to describe the culture of Penshurst. It includes Pan and Bacchus as notable company of the manor. Pan, Greek god of the Pastoral world, half man and half goat, was connected with both hunting and shepherds; Bacchus was the god of wine, intoxication and ritual madness. This reference to Pan and Bacchus in a pastoral view demonstrates how prestigious Penshurst was, to be worthy in the company with gods.
"A Country Life", another 17th-century work by Katherine Philips, was also a country house poem. Philips focuses on the joys of the countryside and looks upon the lifestyle that accompanies it as being "the first and happiest life, when man enjoyed himself." She writes about maintaining this lifestyle by living detached from material things, and by not over-concerning herself with the world around her. Andrew Marvell's "Upon Appleton House" was written when Marvell was working as a tutor for Lord Fairfax's daughter Mary, in 1651. The poem is very rich with metaphors that relate to religion, politics and history. Similar to Jonson's "To Penshurst", Marvell's poem is describing a pastoral estate. It moves through the house itself, its history, the gardens, the meadows and other grounds, the woods, the river, his Pupil Mary, and the future. Marvell used nature as a thread to weave together a poem centered around man. We once again see nature fully providing for man. Marvell also continuously compares nature to art and seems to point out that art can never accomplish on purpose what nature can achieve accidentally or spontaneously.
Robert Herrick's The Hock-cart, or Harvest Home was also written in the 17th century. In this pastoral work, he paints the reader a colorful picture of the benefits reaped from hard work. This is an atypical interpretation of the pastoral, given that there is a celebration of labor involved as opposed to central figures living in leisure and nature just taking its course independently. This poem was mentioned in Raymond Williams', The Country and the City. This acknowledgment of Herrick's work is appropriate, as both Williams and Herrick accentuate the importance of labor in the pastoral lifestyle.
The pastoral elegy is a subgenre that uses pastoral elements to lament a death or loss. The most famous pastoral elegy in English is John Milton's "Lycidas" (1637), written on the death of Edward King, a fellow student at Cambridge University. Milton used the form both to explore his vocation as a writer and to attack what he saw as the abuses of the Church. Also included is Thomas Gray's, "Elegy In a Country Churchyard" (1750).
The formal English pastoral continued to flourish during the 18th century, eventually dying out at the end. One notable example of an 18th-century work is Alexander Pope's Pastorals (1709). In this work Pope imitates Edmund Spenser's Shepheardes Calendar, while utilizing classical names and allusions aligning him with Virgil. In 1717, Pope's Discourse on Pastoral Poetry was published as a preface to Pastorals. In this work Pope sets standards for pastoral literature and critiques many popular poets, one of whom is Spenser, along with his contemporary opponent Ambrose Philips. During this time period Ambrose Philips, who is often overlooked because of Pope, modeled his poetry after the native English form of Pastoral, employing it as a medium to express the true nature and longing of Man. He strove to write in this fashion to conform to what he thought was the original intent of Pastoral literature. As such, he centered his themes around the simplistic life of the Shepherd, and, personified the relationship that humans once had with nature. John Gay, who came a little later was criticized for his poem's artificiality by Doctor Johnson and attacked for their lack of realism by George Crabbe, who attempted to give a true picture of rural life in his poem The Village.
In 1590, Edmund Spenser also composed the famous pastoral epic The Faerie Queene, in which he employs the pastoral mode to accentuate the charm, lushness, and splendor of the poem's (super)natural world. Spenser alludes to the pastoral continuously throughout the work and also uses it to create allegory in his poem, with the characters as well as with the environment, both of which are meant to have symbolic meaning in the real world. It is of six 'books' only, though Spenser intended to write twelve. He wrote the poem primarily to honor Queen Elizabeth. William Cowper addressed the artificiality of the fast-paced city life in his poems Retirement (1782) and The Winter Nosegay (1782). Pastoral nevertheless survived as a mood rather than a genre, as can be seen from such works as Matthew Arnold's Thyrsis (1867), a lament on the death of his fellow poet Arthur Hugh Clough. Robert Burns can be read as a Pastoral poet for his nostalgic portrayals of rural Scotland and simple farm life in To A Mouse and The Cotter's Saturday Night. Burns explicitly addresses the Pastoral form in his Poem on Pastoral Poetry. In this he champions his fellow Scot Allan Ramsey as the best Pastoral poet since Theocritus.
Another subgenre is the Edenic Pastoral, which alludes to the perfect relationship between God, man, and nature in the Garden of Eden. It typically includes biblical symbols and imagery. In 1645 John Milton wrote L'Allegro, which translates as the happy person. It is a celebration of Mirth personified, who is the child of love and revelry. It was originally composed to be a companion poem to, Il Penseroso, which celebrates a life of melancholy and solitude. Milton's, On the Morning of Christ's Nativity (1629) blends Christian and pastoral imagery.
Pastoral epic
Milton is perhaps best known for his epic Paradise Lost, one of the few Pastoral epics ever written. A notable part of Paradise Lost is book IV where he chronicles Satan's trespass into paradise. Milton's iconic descriptions of the garden are shadowed by the fact that we see it from Satan's perspective and are thus led to commiserate with him. Milton elegantly works through a presentation of Adam and Eve’s pastorally idyllic, eternally fertile living conditions and focuses upon their stewardship of the garden. He gives much focus to the fruit bearing trees and Adam and Eve's care of them, sculpting an image of pastoral harmony. However, Milton in turn continually comes back to Satan, constructing him as a character the audience can easily identify with and perhaps even like. Milton creates Satan as character meant to destabilize the audience’s understanding of themselves and the world around them. Through this mode, Milton is able to create a working dialogue between the text and his audience about the ‘truths’ they hold for themselves.
Pastoral romances
Italian writers invented a new genre, the pastoral romance, which mixed pastoral poems with a fictional narrative in prose. Although there was no classical precedent for the form, it drew some inspiration from ancient Greek novels set in the countryside, such as Daphnis and Chloe. The most influential Italian example of the form was Sannazzaro's Arcadia (1504). The vogue for the pastoral romance spread throughout Europe producing such notable works as Bernardim Ribeiro "Menina e Moça" (1554) in Portuguese, Montemayor's Diana (1559) in Spain, Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia (1590) in England, and Honoré d'Urfé's Astrée (1607–27) in France.
Pastoral plays
Pastoral drama also emerged in Renaissance Italy. Again, there was little Classical precedent, with the possible exception of Greek satyr plays. Poliziano's Orfeo (1480) shows the beginnings of the new form, but it reached its zenith in the late 16th century with Tasso's Aminta (1573), Isabella Andreini's Mirtilla (1588), and Guarini's Il pastor fido (1590). John Lyly's Endimion (1579) brought the Italian-style pastoral play to England. John Fletcher's The Faithful Shepherdess, Ben Jonson's The Sad Shepherd and Sidney's The Lady of May are later examples. Some of Shakespeare's plays contain pastoral elements, most notably As You Like It (whose plot was derived from Thomas Lodge's pastoral romance Rosalynde) and The Winter's Tale, of which Act 4 Scene 4 is a lengthy pastoral digression.
The forest in As You Like It can be seen as a place of pastoral idealization, where life is simpler and purer, and its inhabitants live more closely to each other, nature and God than their urban counterparts. However, Shakespeare plays with the bounds of pastoral idealization. Throughout the play, Shakespeare employs various characters to illustrate pastoralism. His protagonists Rosalind and Orlando metaphorically depict the importance of the coexistence of realism and idealism, or urban and rural life. While Orlando is absorbed in the ideal, Rosalind serves as a mediator, bringing Orlando back down to reality and embracing the simplicity of pastoral love. She is the only character throughout the play who embraces and appreciates both the real and idealized life and manages to make the two ideas coexist. Therefore, Shakespeare explores city and country life as being appreciated through the coexistence of the two.
Pastoral music
Theocritus's Idylls include strophic songs and musical laments, and, as in Homer, his shepherds often play the syrinx, or Pan flute, considered a quintessentially pastoral instrument. Virgil's Eclogues were performed as sung mime in the 1st century, and there is evidence of the pastoral song as a legitimate genre of classical times.
The pastoral genre was a significant influence in the development of opera. After settings of pastoral poetry in the pastourelle genre by the troubadours, Italian poets and composers became increasingly drawn to the pastoral. Musical settings of pastoral poetry became increasingly common in first polyphonic and then monodic madrigals: these later led to the cantata and the serenata, in which pastoral themes remained on a consistent basis. Partial musical settings of Giovanni Battista Guarini's Il pastor fido were highly popular: the texts of over 500 madrigals were taken from this one play alone. Tasso's Aminta was also a favourite. As opera developed, the dramatic pastoral came to the fore with such works as Jacopo Peri's Dafne and, most notably, Monteverdi's L'Orfeo. Pastoral opera remained popular throughout the 17th-century, and not just in Italy, as is shown by the French genre of pastorale héroïque, Englishman Henry Lawes's music for Milton's Comus (not to mention John Blow's Venus and Adonis), and Spanish zarzuela. At the same time, Italian and German composers developed a genre of vocal and instrumental pastorals, distinguished by certain stylistic features, associated with Christmas Eve.
The pastoral, and parodies of the pastoral, continued to play an important role in musical history throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. John Gay may have satirized the pastoral in The Beggar's Opera, but also wrote an entirely sincere libretto for Handel's Acis and Galatea. Rousseau's Le Devin du village draws on pastoral roots, and Metastasio's libretto Il re pastore was set over 30 times, most famously by Mozart. Rameau was an outstanding exponent of French pastoral opera. Beethoven also wrote his famous Pastoral Symphony, avoiding his usual musical dynamism in favour of relatively slow rhythms. More concerned with psychology than description, he labelled the work "more the expression of feeling than [realistic] painting". The pastoral also appeared as a feature of grand opera, most particularly in Meyerbeer's operas: often composers would develop a pastoral-themed "oasis", usually in the centre of their work. Notable examples include the shepherd's "alte Weise" from Wagner's Tristan und Isolde, or the pastoral ballet occupying the middle of Tchaikovsky's The Queen of Spades. The 20th-century continued to bring new pastoral interpretations, particularly in ballet, such as Ravel's Daphis and Chloe, Nijinsky's use of Debussy's Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune, and Stravinsky's Le sacre du printemps and Les Noces.
The Pastorale is a form of Italian folk song still played in the regions of Southern Italy where the zampogna continues to thrive. They generally sound like a slowed down version of a tarantella, as they encompass many of the same melodic phrases. The pastorale on the zampogna can be played by a solo zampogna player, or in some regions can be accompanied by the piffero (also commonly called a ciaramella, 'pipita', or bifora), which is a primitive key-less double reed oboe type instrument.
Pastoral art
Idealised pastoral landscapes appear in Hellenistic and Roman wall paintings. Interest in the pastoral as a subject for art revived in Renaissance Italy, partly inspired by the descriptions of pictures Jacopo Sannazaro included in his Arcadia. The Pastoral Concert in the Louvre attributed to Giorgione or Titian is perhaps the most famous painting in this style. Later, French artists were also attracted to the pastoral, notably Claude, Poussin (e.g. Et in Arcadia ego) and Watteau (in his Fêtes galantes). The Fête champêtre, with scenes of country people dancing was a popular subject in Flemish painting. Thomas Cole has a series of paintings titled The Course of Empire, and the second of these paintings (shown on the right) depicts the perfect pastoral setting.
Religious usage
In Christianity
Pastoral imagery and symbolism feature heavily in Christianity and the Bible. Jesus calls himself the "Good Shepherd" in , contrasting his role as the Lamb of God.
The title "Pastor" used by many denominations is rooted in the Biblical metaphor of shepherding. The Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament) uses the Hebrew word (roʿeh), which is used as a noun as in "shepherd", and as a verb as in "to tend a flock." It occurs 173 times in 144 Old Testament verses and relates to the literal feeding of sheep, as in Genesis 29:7. In Jeremiah 23:4, both meanings are used (ro'im is used for "shepherds" and yir'um for "shall feed them"), "And I will set up shepherds over them which shall feed them: and they shall fear no more, nor be dismayed, neither shall they be lacking, saith the LORD." (KJV).
A pastoral letter, often called simply a pastoral, is an open letter addressed by a bishop to the clergy or laity of a diocese or to both, containing general admonition, instruction or consolation, or directions for behavior in particular circumstances. In most episcopal church bodies, clerics are often required to read out pastoral letters of superior bishops to their congregations.
The pastoral epistles are a group of three books of the canonical New Testament: the First Epistle to Timothy (1 Timothy) the Second Epistle to Timothy (2 Timothy), and the Epistle to Titus. They are presented as letters from Paul the Apostle to Timothy and to Titus. They are generally discussed as a group (sometimes with the addition of the Epistle to Philemon) and are given the title pastoral because they are addressed to individuals with pastoral oversight of churches and discuss issues of Christian living, doctrine and leadership.
Pastoral theory
In the past four hundred years, a range of writers have worked on theorizing the nature of pastoral. These include Friedrich Schiller, George Puttenham, William Empson, Frank Kermode, Raymond Williams, Renato Poggioli, Annabel Patterson, Paul Alpers, and Ken Hiltner.
George Puttenham was one of the first Pastoral theorists. He did not see the form as merely a recording of a prior rustic way of life but a guise for political discourse, which other forms had previously neglected. The Pastoral, he writes, has a didactic duty to “contain and enforme morall discipline for the amendment of mans behaviour”.
Friedrich Schiller linked the Pastoral to childhood and a childlike simplicity. For Schiller, we perceive in nature an “image of our infancy irrevocably past”.
Sir William Empson spoke of the ideal of Pastoral as being embedded in varying degrees of ambivalence, and yet, for all the apparent dichotomies, and contradicting elements found within it, he felt there was a unified harmony within it. He refers to the pastoral process as 'putting the complex into the simple.' Empson argues that "... good proletarian art is usually Covert Pastoral", and uses Soviet Russia's propaganda about the working class as evidence. Empson also emphasizes the importance of the double plot as a tool for writers to discuss a controversial topic without repercussions.
Raymond Williams argues that the foundation of the pastoral lies in the idea that the city is a highly urban, industrialized center that has removed us from the peaceful life we once had in the countryside. However, he states that this is really a "myth functioning as a memory" that literature has created in its representations of the past. As a result, when society evolves and looks back to these representations, it considers its own present as the decline of the simple life of the past. He then discusses how the city's relationship with the country affected the economic and social aspects of the countryside. As the economy became a bigger part of society, many country newcomers quickly realized the potential and monetary value that lay in the untouched land. Furthermore, this new system encouraged a social stratification in the countryside. With the implementation of paper money came a hierarchy in the working system, as well as the "inheritance of titles and making of family names".
Poggioli was concerned with how death reconciled itself with the pastoral, and thus came up with a loose categorization of death in the pastoral as 'funeral elegy', the most important tropes of which he cites as religion (embodied by Pan); friendship; allegory;and poetic and musical calling. He concedes though that such a categorization is open to much misinterpretation. As well, Poggioli focused on the idea that Pastoral was a nostalgic and childish way of seeing the world. In The Oaten Flue, he claims that the shepherd was looked up to was because they were “an ideal kind of leisure class."
Frank Kermode discusses the pastoral within the historical context of the English Renaissance. His first condition of pastoral poetry is that it is an urban product. Kermode establishes that the pastoral is derived as an opposition between two modes of living, in the country and in the city. London was becoming a modern metropolis before the eyes of its citizens. The result of this large-scale urban sprawl left the people with a sense of nostalgia for their country way of living. His next argument focuses on the artificiality of poetry, drawing upon fellow theorist, Puttenham. Kermode elaborates on this and says, "the cultivated, in their artificial way, reflect upon and describe, for their own ends, the natural life". Kermode wants us to understand that the recreation or reproduction of the natural is in itself artificial. Kermode elaborates on this in terms of imitation, describing it as "one of the fundamental laws of literary history" because it "gives literary history a meaning in terms of itself, and provides the channels of literary tradition". Kermode goes on to explain about the works of Virgil and Theocritus as progenitors of the pastoral. Later poets would draw on these earlier forms of pastoral, elaborating on them to fit their own social context. As the pastoral was becoming more modern, it shifted into the form of Pastourelle. This is the first time that the pastoral really deals with the subject of love.
Annabel Patterson emphasizes many important ideas in her work, Pastoral and Ideology. One of these is that the pastoral mode, especially in the later 18th century, was interpreted in vastly different ways by different groups of people. As a result, distinctive illustrations emerged from these groups which were all variations of the understanding of Virgil's Eclogues. Patterson explains that Servius' Commentary is essential to understanding the reception of Virgil's Eclogues. The commentary discusses how poets used analogy in their writings to indirectly express the corruption within the church and government to the public. When speaking of post-Romanticism, it is imperative to take into consideration the influence and effect of Robert Frost on pastoral ideology. His poem, Build Soil is a critique of war and also a suggestion that pastoral, as a literary mode, should not place emphasis on social and political issues, but should rather, as Patterson says, "turn in upon itself, and replace reformist instincts with personal growth and regeneration". William Wordsworth was a highly respected poet in the 1800s and his poem, Prelude, published in 1805, was an excellent example of what a dream of a new golden age might materialize as or look like.
Paul Alpers, in his 1996 book, What is Pastoral?, describes the recurring plot of pastoral literature as the lives of shepherds. With William Empson's notion of placing the complex into the simple, Alpers thus critically defines pastoral as a means of allegory. Alpers also classifies pastoral as a mode of literature, as opposed to a genre, and he defines the attitude of pastoral works maintaining a humble relationship with nature. Alpers also defines pastoral convention as the act of bringing together, and authors use this to discuss loss. He says the speakers in pastoral works are simple herdsmen dramatized in pastoral encounters. However, authors like Herrick changed the herdsmen to nymphs, maidens, and flowers. Thus, achieving a mode of simplicity but also giving objects voice. This is done by personifying objects like flowers. Moreover, authors that do this in their works are giving importance to the unimportant. Alpers talks about pastoral lyrics and love poems in particular. He says "a lyric allows its speaker to slip in and out of pastoral guise and reveal directly the sophistication which prompted him to assume it in the first place″. In other words, he claims pastorals lyrics have both pastoral and not pastoral characteristics, perhaps like in the comparisons between urban and rural, but they always give importance to and enhance on the pastoral. Alpers talks about love poems and how they can be turned into pastoral poems simply by changing words like lover to shepherd. And he mentions Shakespeare as one of the authors who did this in his works. Furthermore, Alpers says the pastoral is not only about praise for the rural and the country side. For instance, Sidney dispraises the country life in The Garden. Pastoral can also include the urban, the court, and the social like in L’Allegro. Alpers says that pastoral narration contradicts “normal” narrative motives and that there is a double aspect of pastoral narration: heroic poetry and worldly realities with narrative motives and conventions. And in respect to pastoral novels, Alpers says pastoral novels have different definitions and examples depending on the reader. Also, the pastoral novel differs from Theocritus and Virgil's works. He says there are pastoral novels of the country life, of the longing for the simple, and with nature as the protagonist. And says the literary category of pastoral novels is realistic and post-realistic fiction with a rural theme or subject based on traditional pastoral.
In What Else Is Pastoral?, Ken Hiltner argues that Renaissance pastoral poetry is more often a form of nature writing than critics like Paul Alpers and Annabel Patterson give it credit for. He explains that even though there is a general lack of lavish description in Renaissance Pastoral, this is because they were beginning to use gestural strategies, and artists begin to develop an environmental consciousness as nature around them becomes endangered. Another argument presented in the book is that our current environmental crisis clearly has its roots in the Renaissance. To do this we are shown examples in Renaissance pastoral poetry that show a keen awareness of the urban sprawl of London contrasted to the countryside and historical records showing that many at the time were aware of the issue of urban growth and attempted to stop it.
See also
American Pastoral
Cottagecore
Eclogue
Rustic modern
References
Further reading
John Dixon Hunt (ed),The Pastoral Landscape, 1992, National Gallery of Art, Washington, Studies in the History of Art 36,
External links
Two Idylls by Theocritus (English)
The Eclogues of Virgil
The complete works of Christopher Marlowe
Shepheardes Calendar by Edmund Spenser
La Castità Conquistata: The Function of the Satyr in Pastoral Drama, by Meredith Kennedy Ray (University of Chicago)
'The Pastoral Concert' at the Louvre site
Pastoral Literature, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Helen Cooper, Laurence Lerner & Julie Sanders (In Our Time'', July 6, 2006)
Literary genres
Visual arts genres
Music genres
Rural culture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian%20nuthatch
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Eurasian nuthatch
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The Eurasian nuthatch or wood nuthatch (Sitta europaea) is a small passerine bird found throughout the Palearctic and in Europe. Like other nuthatches, it is a short-tailed bird with a long bill, blue-grey upperparts and a black eye-stripe. It is a vocal bird with a repeated loud dwip call. There are more than 20 subspecies in three main groups; birds in the west of the range have orange-buff underparts and a white throat, those in Russia have whitish underparts, and those in the east have a similar appearance to European birds, but lack the white throat.
Its preferred habitat is mature deciduous or mixed woodland with large, old trees, preferably oak. Pairs hold permanent territories, and nest in tree holes, usually old woodpecker nests, but sometimes natural cavities. If the entrance to the hole is too large, the female plasters it with mud to reduce its size, and often coats the inside of the cavity too. The 6–9 red-speckled white eggs are laid on a deep base of pine or other wood chips.
The Eurasian nuthatch eats mainly insects, particularly caterpillars and beetles, although in autumn and winter its diet is supplemented with nuts and seeds. The young are fed mainly on insects, with some seeds, food items mainly being found on tree trunks and large branches. The nuthatch can forage when descending trees head first, as well as when climbing. It readily visits bird tables, eating fatty man-made food items as well as seeds. It is an inveterate hoarder, storing food year-round. Its main natural predator is the Eurasian sparrowhawk.
Fragmentation of woodland can lead to local losses of breeding birds, but the species' range is still expanding. It has a large population and huge breeding area, and is therefore classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as being of least concern.
Taxonomy
The nuthatches are a family of similar-looking birds with short tails and wings, compact bodies and longish pointed bills. They have grey or bluish upperparts, a black eyestripe and strong feet. All are in the single genus Sitta. Within the genus, the Eurasian nuthatch forms a superspecies with the chestnut-vented, Indian, chestnut-bellied and Kashmir nuthatches and has in the past been considered conspecific with all of these.
The Eurasian nuthatch was described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae under its current scientific name. Sitta is derived from the Ancient Greek name for this bird, , sittē, and the species name, europaea, is Latin for "European". "Nuthatch", first recorded in 1350, is derived from "nut" and a word probably related to "hack", since these birds hack at nuts they have wedged into crevices.
In 2014, Eric Pasquet and colleagues published a phylogeny based on examination of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA of 21 nuthatch species. The group europaea is related to the two nuthatches of rocky environments, the Western rock nuthatch (S. neumayer) and the Eastern rock nuthatch (S. tephronota), and these two clades diverge from each other by thirteen million years. Within the group europaea, the white-tailed nuthatch (S. himalayensis)—and consequently the white-browed nuthatch (S. victoriae), although not included in the study—appears to be basal, and the Eurasian nuthatch is closely related to the chestnut-vented nuthatch (S. nagaensis) and the Kashmir nuthatch (S. cashmirensis). The Indian Nuthatch (S. castanea), the Beautiful nuthatch (S. cinnamoventris), the Burmese nuthatch (S. neglecta), and the Siberian nuthatch (S. arctica) are not included in the study. All the species of the group "europaea" masonry the entrance to their nests. In 2020, a new phylogeny will appear, covering the genus more exhaustively; it includes, in particular, the four species mentioned above. It uses three mitochondrial genes and two nuclear ones. The three species from the south of the Asian continent (Indian, Beautiful and Burmese nuthatches) are related to the Kashmir nuthatch, but surprisingly, the Siberian nuthatch is located on a clean branch, quite distant from the Eurasian nuthatch, from which it was nevertheless long considered a subspecies.
The study by Päckert and colleagues (2020) also includes a fairly exhaustive sampling of the Eurasian nuthatch subspecies. It highlights three large groups of subspecies, not perfectly overlapping with the traditionally distinguished groups on the basis of the coloring of their lower parts. A first group concerns the "European nuthatch", which includes all the European subspecies, whether buff-bellied or white-bellied, as well as the subspecies of the Near East. It is related to the group of the "Asian Nuthatch", including the subspecies inhabiting the northern part of the Asian continent, from Kazakhstan to Korea and Japan, all white-bellied. Finally, a third group of subspecies, the "Eastern nuthatch," includes the Asian subspecies living further south, in North and East China and in Taiwan.
The fossil record for nuthatches is sparse, and in Europe is limited to the extinct Sitta senogalliensis from the Lower Miocene in Italy and somewhat later material from France; the family appears to be of relatively recent origin.
Subspecies
There are more than 20 subspecies, but the precise number is disputed. These taxa can be divided into three main groups; these may have been geographically isolated from each other until relatively recently. Birds of intermediate appearance occur where the group ranges overlap.
The large, white-breasted S. e. arctica of north east Siberia is distinctive in appearance and genetically, and may be another subspecies group or even a separate species.
Description
The adult male of the nominate subspecies, S. e. europaea is long with a wingspan. It weighs . It has blue-grey upperparts, a black eye-stripe and whitish throat and underparts. The flanks and lower belly are orange-red, mottled with white on the undertail. The stout bill is dark grey with a paler area on the base of the lower mandible, the iris is dark brown and the legs and feet are pale brown or greyish. Most other members of the S. e. europaea group differ only in detail from the nominate form, often with respect to the hue of the underparts, but S. e. arctica is quite distinctive. It is large, pale, has a white forehead and a reduced eye-stripe, and it has more white in the tail and wings than any other subspecies. Nuthatches move on trees with short leaps, and do not use their tails for support. In flight, they have a characteristic appearance, with a pointed head, round wings and a short, square tail. Their flight is fast, with wings closed between beats, and is usually of short duration.
S. e. caesia, the most widespread of the western subspecies, has orange-buff underparts except for a white throat and cheeks. The other western forms mainly differ in the exact shade of the underparts, although some southeastern forms also show a white forehead and supercilium. S. e. sinensis and S. e. formosana, of China and Taiwan respectively, have buff underparts like the western races, but have buff, instead of white, throats.
The female is similar in appearance to the male, but may be identified by her slightly paler upperparts, a browner eyestripe and a more washed-out tone to the flanks and lower belly. In the eastern form, S. e. asiatica, some males have buff underparts like the female, and birds with this appearance are difficult to sex in the field. Young birds resemble the female, although their plumage is duller and they have paler legs. Individuals can be reliably sexed as female from about 12 days old by their paler and buffer flanks, or, in some white-breasted subspecies, by the creamier hue of their underparts.
Adults have a complete moult after breeding which takes about 80 days, starting from late May onwards and finishing by late September. The moult period for Siberian birds is more compressed, running from June to mid-September. Fledged juveniles moult some of their wing coverts when they are about eight weeks old.
In much of its range, Eurasian is the only nuthatch present. In southeast Europe and southwest Asia, the western and eastern rock nuthatches are larger and paler than the Eurasian species. They also lack white spots in the tail and are usually found in a different, stony habitat, and Krüper's nuthatch is small and has a black cap and reddish breast patch. In southwest China, the chestnut-vented nuthatch is very similar to the European bird, but is darker above, has less white on the face and has greyer underparts.
Similar species
In most of its range, the Eurasian nuthatch is the only nuthatch present. In Southeast Europe and Western Asia, the Eastern rock nuthatch (S. tephronota) and the Western rock nuthatch (S. neumayer) inhabit rocky environments and are larger and paler than species. Eurasian species do not have white dots on their tails. In the same area, the Krüper's nuthatch (S. krueperi) is smaller, with a dark crown and a large russet patch on the breast. In southwest China, the chestnut-vented nuthatch (S. nagaensis) is very similar to the torchepot, but has darker upperparts, less white on the face, and more greyish underparts. The Siberian nuthatch (S. arctica) was once considered a subspecies of the Eurasian nuthatch but differs quite clearly from it, being larger, pale, with a shorter and thinner eye line, a longer bill and a straighter culmen, and more white in the tail than any other subspecies.
Voice
The Eurasian nuthatch calls frequently, usually with a loud, sharp dwip normally repeated twice, sometimes more often if excited. It has a shrill sirrrr or tsi-si-si alarm call, and a thin tsit pre-flight call. The song is a slow whistled pee-pee-pee with many variants, including a faster version, and may be intermingled with the call.
The song of the distinctive S. e. arctica is said to be noticeably different from that of its relatives, which would help to establish whether it is a full species, but there has been insufficient research into its vocalizations.
Distribution and habitat
The Eurasian nuthatch's breeding range extends across temperate Eurasia from Great Britain (but not Ireland) to Japan. It is found between the July isotherms, north to about latitude 64°N in western Russia and 69°N in Siberia. It breeds south to the Mediterranean in Europe, although it is absent from the islands, other than Sicily, and in most of Russia the southern boundary is around 54–55°N. In the east, the range includes most of China and Taiwan and much of Korea. It has occurred as a vagrant in Lebanon and the Channel Islands, and the nominate race has been recorded a few times in Finland where S. e. asiatica is the normal form.
Most populations are sedentary, apart from some post-breeding dispersal of young birds, and there is a reluctance to cross even short stretches of open water. Northern and eastern breeders are dependent on the cones of the Siberian stone pine, and if the crop fails many birds of the S. e. asiatica subspecies may move west into northern Sweden and Finland in autumn, sometimes staying to breed. Siberian S. e. arctica may make more limited movements south and east in winter, and S. e. amurensis, from southeast Russia, is regular in winter in Korea.
The preferred habitat is mature woodland with large, old trees, which provide extensive growth for foraging and nesting holes. In Europe, deciduous or mixed forest is favoured, particularly when containing oak. Parks, old orchards and other wooded habitats may be occupied as long as they have at least a block of suitable trees. Particularly in mountains, old spruce and pine forests are used, and pine is also favoured in Taiwan. In most of Russia, conifers are used for nesting, but population densities are relatively low. Moroccan birds nest in oak, Atlas cedar and fir. Unusual habitats include dwarf juniper in Mongolia and rocky terrain in a limited part of southern Siberia.
The Eurasian nuthatch is primarily a lowland bird in the north of its range, but reaches the tree-line in Switzerland, at or higher, and breeds occasionally at in Austria. It breeds at similar levels in the mountains of Turkey, the Middle East and Central Asia. It is mainly a mountain bird in southern Japan, , and Taiwan, , but in southern China, the chestnut-vented nuthatch is the highland species, with the Eurasian species at lower levels.
Behaviour
Breeding
Nuthatches are monogamous, and a pair occupies a breeding territory in which it spends the winter as well. Territory sizes range from in Europe to an average of in the sub-optimal conifer forests of Siberia. The male sings to defend his territory and attract a mate. Both sexes have a courtship display with a floating, quivering flight, and the male will also make circular flights with a spread tail and raised head. He will also feed the female while courting her. Despite the lifelong pairing, genetic research in Germany showed that at least 10% of the young in the study area were fathered by another male, usually from an adjacent territory.
The nest is in a tree cavity, usually an old woodpecker hole, but sometimes of natural origin. Occasionally the female will enlarge an existing hole in rotten wood. The nest site is typically above the ground and has a deep base of pine bark or chips of other wood, rarely supplemented with dry plant material. If the entrance to the hole is too large, it is plastered with mud, clay and sometimes dung to make it smaller. A small entrance and large interior, together with the use of a deep layer of wood chips in which to bury the eggs and small young when the adults leave the nest, may be adaptations to reduce the chance of predation. Nests with small entrance holes are most successful. Locally, a small entrance may make it less likely that the nest will be taken over by common starlings. The female undertakes most of the work, and often plasters the inside of the cavity too, taking up to four weeks to complete the construction. A nest is often re-used in subsequent years.
The clutch is usually 6–9 red-speckled white eggs, although up to 13 eggs are sometimes laid. They average and weigh of which 6% is shell. The female incubates the eggs for 13–18 days to hatching, and broods the altricial downy chicks until they fledge 20–26 days later. Both adults feed the chicks in the nest and continue after they fledge until they become independent in about 8–14 days. Normally only one brood is raised each year. When nest boxes are used, the clutch size and number of fledglings are greater in larger boxes. For reasons that are unclear, there is no link between cavity size and nesting outcomes for natural holes.
The sedentary nature of this species means that juveniles can only acquire a territory by finding a vacant area or replacing a dead adult. In Europe, young birds almost always move to unoccupied habitat, but in the larger territories of Siberia most live within the breeding range of an adult pair.
The adult annual survival rate across most of the range is around 51%, and a small Belgian study found a 25% local survival rate for juveniles. The typical lifespan is two years and the maximum known age for a wild bird is 12 years 11 months in the UK. There is also a Swiss longevity record of 10 years 6 months.
Feeding
The Eurasian nuthatch eats mainly insects, particularly caterpillar and beetles. In autumn and winter, the diet is supplemented with nuts and seeds, hazel nuts and beech mast being preferred. The young are fed mainly on the insects favoured by their parents, with some seeds. Food items are found mainly on tree trunks and large branches, but smaller branches may also be investigated, and food may be taken from the ground, especially outside the breeding season. Nuthatches can forage when descending trees head first, as well as when climbing. Some prey is caught in flight, and a nuthatch will remove bark or rotten wood to reach insects, although it cannot chisel into healthy wood like a woodpecker. A pair may temporarily join a mixed-species foraging flock as it passes near their territory. The Eurasian nuthatch readily visits bird tables and bird feeders in winter, eating human-made food items such as fat, cheese, butter and bread. It has even been recorded as taking slaughterhouse offal. Sizeable hard food items like nuts or large insects are wedged into crevices in tree bark and smashed with the strong bill.
Plant food is stored year-round, but mainly in autumn. Individual seeds are hidden in cracks in bark, occasionally in walls or in the ground. The food item is usually concealed with lichen, moss or small pieces of bark. The cached food is retrieved in cold weather. Siberian birds store the seeds of the Siberian stone pine, sometimes hoarding enough to last a whole year. Cached food may sometimes include non-plant material such as pieces of bread, caterpillars and grubs, the larvae being incapacitated by battering. Hoarding is a long-term strategy, stored food items only being consumed when fresh food is hard to find, sometimes up to three months after caching. Birds with good stored food supplies are fitter than those with more limited resources. Beech mast crops vary widely from year to year. Where beech mast is an important part of the diet, adult survival rates are largely unaffected in years with a poor mast crop, but the number of juvenile birds falls in the autumn as they are lost through starvation or emigration. In areas where common hazel is the prevalent tree species, there is a similar pattern of adult survival and loss of juvenile birds in years with poor nut production.
Predators and parasites
Across most of its European range, the most important predator of the Eurasian nuthatch is the sparrowhawk. Other species known to prey on this nuthatch include the northern goshawk, hobby, tawny owl, pygmy owl and least weasel. A Swedish study showed that 6.2% of the nuthatch nests in their study area were raided by predators. The perpetrators were not identified, but the main single predator of tit nests in the same study was the great spotted woodpecker.
Common starlings will take over Eurasian nuthatch nest holes, reducing their breeding success. This is most likely to occur if the nest is high in a tree and there is a good local breeding density of the nuthatch. Introduced ring-necked parakeets may also compete with Eurasian nuthatches for nesting holes. The parakeets tend to occur in fragmented urban woodlands, while nuthatches prefer large old oak woodlands, which reduces the level of competition. Ornithologists conducting a 2010 Belgian study suggested that the problem was not so severe as to warrant culling of the parakeets.
Mites of the genus Ptilonyssus, such as P. sittae, have been found in the Eurasian nuthatch's nasal cavities. Intestinal worms include the nematodes Tridentocapillaria parusi and Pterothominx longifilla. Small studies in Slovakia and Spain found no blood parasites, but a larger Spanish survey found some evidence of Plasmodium infection.
Status
The European population of the Eurasian nuthatch has been estimated as 22.5–57 million birds, suggesting a global total of 45.9–228 million individuals. China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan and Russia each have between 10,000 and 100,000 breeding pairs. The known breeding area is about 23.3 million km2 (9 million sq mi), which is a large proportion of the potential suitable habitat, and the population appears to be stable. The large numbers and huge breeding range mean that this species is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern.
The Eurasian nuthatch is common throughout much of its range, although densities are lower in the far north and in coniferous forests. Annual numbers in Siberia fluctuate depending on the availability of pine cones from year to year. In recent decades, the nuthatch has colonised Scotland and the Netherlands, and expanded its range in Wales, northern England, Norway and the High Atlas mountain range in North Africa. S. e. asiatica breeds intermittently in Finland and northern Sweden following irruptions. Because large trees are essential, felling or fragmentation of old woodland can lead to local declines or losses.
Notes
References
Cited texts
External links
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 3.2 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Nuthatches
nuthatch
Birds described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Articles containing video clips
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204408
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic%20processing
|
Photographic processing
|
Photographic processing or photographic development is the chemical means by which photographic film or paper is treated after photographic exposure to produce a negative or positive image. Photographic processing transforms the latent image into a visible image, makes this permanent and renders it insensitive to light.
All processes based upon the gelatin silver process are similar, regardless of the film or paper's manufacturer. Exceptional variations include instant films such as those made by Polaroid and thermally developed films. Kodachrome required Kodak's proprietary K-14 process. Kodachrome film production ceased in 2009, and K-14 processing is no longer available as of December 30, 2010. Ilfochrome materials use the dye destruction process. Deliberately using the wrong process for a film is known as Cross processing.
Common processes
All photographic processing use a series of chemical baths. Processing, especially the development stages, requires very close control of temperature, agitation and time.
Black and white negative processing
The film may be soaked in water to swell the gelatin layer, facilitating the action of the subsequent chemical treatments.
The developer converts the latent image to macroscopic particles of metallic silver.
A stop bath, typically a dilute solution of acetic acid or citric acid, halts the action of the developer. A rinse with clean water may be substituted.
The fixer makes the image permanent and light-resistant by dissolving remaining silver halide. A common fixer is hypo, specifically ammonium thiosulfate.
Washing in clean water removes any remaining fixer. Residual fixer can corrode the silver image, leading to discolouration, staining and fading.
The washing time can be reduced and the fixer more completely removed if a hypo clearing agent is used after the fixer.
Film may be rinsed in a dilute solution of a non-ionic wetting agent to assist uniform drying, which eliminates drying marks caused by hard water. (In very hard water areas, a pre-rinse in distilled water may be required – otherwise the final rinse wetting agent can cause residual ionic calcium on the film to drop out of solution, causing spotting on the negative.)
Film is then dried in a dust-free environment, cut and placed into protective sleeves.
Once the film is processed, it is then referred to as a negative.
The negative may now be printed; the negative is placed in an enlarger and projected onto a sheet of photographic paper. Many different techniques can be used during the enlargement process. Two examples of enlargement techniques are dodging and burning.
Alternatively (or as well), the negative may be scanned for digital printing or web viewing after adjustment, retouching, and/or manipulation.
Black and white reversal processing
This process has three additional stages:
Following the First Developer and rinse, the film is bleached to remove the developed negative image. This negative image is composed of metallic silver formed in the First Developer step. The bleach used here only affects the negative, metallic silver grains, it does not affect the unexposed and therefore undeveloped silver halide. The film then contains a latent positive image formed from unexposed and undeveloped silver halide salts.
The film is fogged, either chemically or by exposure to light.
The remaining silver halide salts are developed in the second developer, converting them into a positive image composed of metallic silver.
Finally, the film is fixed, washed, dried and cut.
Colour processing
Chromogenic materials use dye couplers to form colour images.
Modern colour negative film is developed with the C-41 process and colour negative print materials with the RA-4 process. These processes are very similar, with differences in the first chemical developer.
The C-41 and RA-4 processes consist of the following steps:
The colour developer develops the silver negative image by reducing the silver halide crystals that have been exposed to light to metallic silver, this consists of the developer donating electrons to the silver halide, turning it into metallic silver; the donation oxidizes the developer which then activates the dye couplers to form the colour dyes in each emulsion layer, but only does so in the dye couplers that are around unexposed silver halide.
A rehalogenising bleach converts the developed metallic silver into silver halide.
A fixer removes all silver halide, leaving only the dyes.
The film is washed, stabilised, dried and cut.
In the RA-4 process, the bleach and fix are combined. This is optional, and reduces the number of processing steps.
Transparency films, except Kodachrome, are developed using the E-6 process, which has the following stages:
A black and white developer develops the silver in each image layer.
Development is stopped with a rinse or a stop bath.
The film is fogged in the reversal step.
The fogged silver halides are developed and oxidized developing agents couple with the dye couplers in each layer.
The film is bleached, fixed, stabilised and dried as described above.
The Kodachrome process is called K-14. It is very involved, requiring 4 separate developers, one for black and white and 3 for color, reexposing the film in between development stages, 8 or more tanks of processing chemicals, each with precise concentration, temperature and agitation, resulting in very complex processing equipment with precise chemical control.
In some old processes, the film emulsion was hardened during the process, typically before the bleach. Such a hardening bath often used aldehydes, such as formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde. In modern processing, these hardening steps are unnecessary because the film emulsion is sufficiently hardened to withstand the processing chemicals.
Further processing
Black and white emulsions both negative and positive, may be further processed. The image silver may be reacted with elements such as selenium or sulphur to increase image permanence and for aesthetic reasons. This process is known as toning.
In selenium toning, the image silver is changed to silver selenide; in sepia toning, the image is converted to silver sulphide. These chemicals are more resistant to atmospheric oxidising agents than silver.
If colour negative film is processed in conventional black and white developer, and fixed and then bleached with a bath containing hydrochloric acid and potassium dichromate solution, the resultant film, once exposed to light, can be redeveloped in colour developer to produce an unusual pastel colour effect.
Processing apparatus
Before processing, the film must be removed from the camera and from its cassette, spool or holder in a light-proof room or container.
Small scale processing
In amateur processing, the film is removed from the camera and wound onto a reel in complete darkness (usually inside a darkroom with the safelight turned off or a lightproof bag with arm holes). The reel holds the film in a spiral shape, with space between each successive loop so the chemicals may flow freely across the film's surfaces. The reel is placed in a specially designed light-proof tank (called daylight processing tank or a light-trap tank) where it is retained until final washing is complete.
Sheet films can be processed in trays, in hangers (which are used in deep tanks), or rotary processing drums. Each sheet can be developed individually for special requirements. Stand development, long development in dilute developer without agitation, is occasionally used.
Commercial processing
In commercial, central processing, the film is removed automatically or by an operator handling the film in a light proof bag from which it is fed into the processing machine. The processing machinery is generally run on a continuous basis with films spliced together in a continuous line. All the processing steps are carried out within a single processing machine with automatically controlled time, temperature and solution replenishment rate. The film or prints emerge washed and dry and ready to be cut by hand. Some modern machines also cut films and prints automatically, sometimes resulting in negatives cut across the middle of the frame where the space between frames is very thin or the frame edge is indistinct, as in an image taken in low light. Alternatively stores may use minilabs to develop films and make prints on the spot automatically without needing to send film to a remote, central facility for processing and printing.
Some processing chemistries used in minilabs require a minimum amount of processing per given amount of time to remain stable and usable. Once rendered unstable due to low use, the chemistry needs to be completely replaced, or replenishers can be added to restore the chemistry to a usable state. Some chemistries have been designed with this in mind given the declining demand for film processing in minilabs, often requiring specific handling. Often chemistries become damaged by oxidation. Also, development chemicals need to be thoroughly agitated constantly to ensure consistent results. The effectiveness (activity) of the chemistry is determined through pre-exposed film control strips.
Environmental and safety issues
Many photographic solutions have high chemical and biological oxygen demand (COD and BOD). These chemical wastes are often treated with ozone, peroxide or aeration to reduce the COD in commercial laboratories.
Exhausted fixer and to some extent rinse water contain silver thiosulfate complex ions. They are far less toxic than free silver ion, and they become silver sulfide sludge in the sewer pipes or treatment plant. However, the maximum silver concentration in discharge is very often tightly regulated. Silver is also a somewhat precious resource. Therefore, in most large scale processing establishments, exhausted fixer is collected for silver recovery and disposal.
Many photographic chemicals use non-biodegradable compounds, such as EDTA, DTPA, NTA and borate. EDTA, DTPA, and NTA are very often used as chelating agents in all processing solutions, particularly in developers and washing aid solutions. EDTA and other polyamine polycarboxylic acids are used as iron ligands in colour bleach solutions. These are relatively nontoxic, and in particular EDTA is approved as a food additive. However, due to poor biodegradability, these chelating agents are found in alarmingly high concentrations in some water sources from which municipal tap water is taken. Water containing these chelating agents can leach metal from water treatment equipment as well as pipes. This is becoming an issue in Europe and some parts of the world.
Another non-biodegradable compound in common use is surfactant. A common wetting agent for even drying of processed film uses Union Carbide/Dow Triton X-100 or octylphenol ethoxylate. This surfactant is also found to have estrogenic effect and possibly other harms to organisms including mammals.
Development of more biodegradable alternatives to the EDTA and other bleaching agent constituents were sought by major manufacturers, until the industry became less profitable when the digital era began.
In most amateur darkrooms, a popular bleach is potassium ferricyanide. This compound decomposes in the waste water stream to liberate cyanide gas. Other popular bleach solutions use potassium dichromate (a hexavalent chromium) or permanganate. Both ferricyanide and dichromate are tightly regulated for sewer disposal from commercial premises in some areas.
Borates, such as borax (sodium tetraborate), boric acid and sodium metaborate, are toxic to plants, even at a concentration of 100 ppm. Many film developers and fixers contain 1 to 20 g/L of these compounds at working strength. Most non-hardening fixers from major manufacturers are now borate-free, but many film developers still use borate as the buffering agent. Also, some, but not all, alkaline fixer formulae and products contain a large amount of borate. New products should phase out borates, because for most photographic purposes, except in acid hardening fixers, borates can be substituted with a suitable biodegradable compound.
Developing agents are commonly hydroxylated benzene compounds or aminated benzene compounds, and they are harmful to humans and experimental animals. Some are mutagens. They also have a large chemical oxygen demand (COD). Ascorbic acid and its isomers, and other similar sugar derived reductone reducing agents are a viable substitute for many developing agents. Developers using these compounds were actively patented in the US, Europe and Japan, until the 1990s but the number of such patents is very low since the late-1990s, when the digital era began.
Development chemicals may be recycled by up to 70% using an absorber resin, only requiring periodic chemical analysis on pH, density and bromide levels. Other developers need ion-exchange columns and chemical analysis, allowing for up to 80% of the developer to be reused. Some bleaches are claimed to be fully bio-degradable while others can be regenerated by adding bleach concentrate to overflow (waste). Used fixers can have 60 to 90% of their silver content removed through electrolysis, in a closed loop where the fixer is continually recycled (regenerated). Stabilizers may or may not contain formaldehyde.
See also
List of photographic processes
Fogging (photography)
Darkroom
Cross processing
Caffenol
Notes
References
External links
Kodak Processing manuals
The Massive Dev Chart - film development times
The Comprehensive Development Times Chart - Manufacturer's film development times database
Ilford guide to processing black & white film
Science of photography
|
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] |
204409
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murcia%E2%80%93San%20Javier%20Airport
|
Murcia–San Javier Airport
|
Murcia–San Javier Airport is a military air base and former civilian passenger airport located in San Javier, southeast of Murcia, Spain. It is owned by the Spanish Air Force. It was replaced (after several delays) by the new Región de Murcia International Airport, when it opened on 15 January 2019.
Overview
Operations
The airport can handle aircraft up to the size of a Boeing 757. It has Category 5 fire cover by the IATA, and also has one ambulance available.
The military air base dates back to at least the early 1930s and is located at the northern end of the airport. It is used chiefly by Spanish Air Force piston and jet-engined training aircraft of the Academia General del Aire (the Spanish Air Force College), including a well-known formation aerobatic display team which can often be seen practicing over the nearby Mar Menor.
In recent years, Murcia Airport became much busier thanks to the arrival of several low-cost airlines. According to Aena, passenger numbers jumped from 88,608 in 1995 to 1,181,490 passengers in 2012.
Replacement
The airport invested in a new €60 million runway and terminal buildings around 2004 to 2011 In November 2011, the Minister of Public Works Antonio Sevilla, and Secretary of State for Transport Isaías Táboas, signed an official agreement that effectively proposed to close the airport to civilian air traffic from 2012.
In November 2017, the Spanish government said it would be awarding AENA the contract of managing Corvera Airport - whereby San Javier would be closed and flights transferred. In April 2018, it was confirmed that the new Región de Murcia International Airport, which is situated in closer proximity to the city of Murcia, would open in January 2019. San Javier closed on 14 January 2019 and all airlines transferred their services to the new airport the following day. The final flight to operate at San Javier was Ryanair flight FR4117 to Manchester.
Airlines and destinations
All operations transferred to Región de Murcia International Airport on 14 January 2019. Prior to this it was mostly used by leisure and low-cost carriers such as Jet2.com and Ryanair.
Statistics
References
External links
Airports in the Region of Murcia
San Javier, Murcia
Airports disestablished in 2018
|
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] |
204410
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic%20paper
|
Photographic paper
|
Photographic paper is a paper coated with a light-sensitive chemical formula, like photographic film, used for making photographic prints. When photographic paper is exposed to light, it captures a latent image that is then developed to form a visible image; with most papers the image density from exposure can be sufficient to not require further development, aside from fixing and clearing, though latent exposure is also usually present. The light-sensitive layer of the paper is called the emulsion. The most common chemistry was based on Silver halide (the focus of this page) but other alternatives have also been used.
The print image is traditionally produced by interposing a photographic negative between the light source and the paper, either by direct contact with a large negative (forming a contact print) or by projecting the shadow of the negative onto the paper (producing an enlargement). The initial light exposure is carefully controlled to produce a gray scale image on the paper with appropriate contrast and gradation. Photographic paper may also be exposed to light using digital printers such as the LightJet, with a camera (to produce a photographic negative), by scanning a modulated light source over the paper, or by placing objects upon it (to produce a photogram).
Despite the introduction of digital photography, photographic papers are still sold commercially. Photographic papers are manufactured in numerous standard sizes, paper weights and surface finishes. A range of emulsions are also available that differ in their light sensitivity, colour response and the warmth of the final image. Color papers are also available for making colour images.
History
The effect of light in darkening a prepared paper was discovered by Thomas Wedgwood in 1802. Photographic papers have been used since the beginning of all negative–positive photographic processes as developed and popularized by William Fox Talbot (Great Britain/1841-calotype).
After the early days of photography, papers have been manufactured on a large scale with improved consistency and greater light sensitivity.
Types of photographic papers
Photographic papers fall into one of three sub-categories:
Papers used for negative-positive processes. This includes all current black-and-white papers and chromogenic colour papers.
Papers used for positive-positive processes in which the "film" is the same as the final image (e.g., the Polaroid process, Imago direct positive paper).
Papers used for positive-positive film-to-paper processes where a positive image is enlarged and copied onto a photographic paper, for example the Ilfochrome process.
Structure
All photographic papers consist of a light-sensitive emulsion, consisting of silver halide salts suspended in a colloidal material – usually gelatin-coated onto a paper, resin coated paper or polyester support. In black-and-white papers, the emulsion is normally sensitised to blue and green light, but is insensitive to wavelengths longer than 600 nm in order to facilitate handling under red or orange safelighting. In Chromogenic colour papers, the emulsion layers are sensitive to red, green and blue light, respectively producing cyan, magenta and yellow dye during processing.
Base materials
Black-and-white papers
Modern black-and-white papers are coated on a small range of bases; baryta-coated paper, resin-coated paper or polyester. In the past, linen has been used as a base material.
Fiber-based papers (FB)
Fiber-based (FB or Baryta) photographic papers consist of a paper base coated with baryta. Tints are sometimes added to the baryta to add subtle colour to the final print; however most modern papers use optical brighteners to extend the paper's tonal range. Most fiber-based papers include a clear hardened gelatin layer above the emulsion which protects it from physical damage, especially during processing. This is called a supercoating. Papers without a supercoating are suitable for use with the bromoil process. Fiber-based papers are generally chosen as a medium for high-quality prints for exhibition, display and archiving purposes. These papers require careful processing and handling, especially when wet. However, they are easier to tone, hand-colour and retouch than resin-coated equivalents.
Resin-coated papers (RC)
The paper base of resin-coated papers is sealed by two polyethylene layers, making it impenetrable to liquids. Since no chemicals or water are absorbed into the paper base, the time needed for processing, washing and drying durations are significantly reduced in comparison to fiber-based papers. Resin paper prints can be finished and dried within twenty to thirty minutes. Resin-coated papers have improved dimensional stability, and do not curl upon drying.
The baryta layer
The term baryta derives from the name of a common barium sulfate-containing mineral, barite. However, the substance used to coat photographic papers is usually not pure barium sulfate, but a mixture of barium and strontium sulfates. The ratio of strontium to barium differs among commercial photographic papers, so chemical analysis can be used to identify the maker of the paper used to make a print and sometimes when the paper was made. The baryta layer has two functions 1) to brighten the image and 2) to prevent chemicals adsorbed on the fibers from infiltrating the gelatin layer. The brightening occurs because barium sulfate is in the form of a fine precipitate that scatters light back through the silver image layer. In the early days of photography, before baryta layers were used, impurities from the paper fibers could gradually diffuse into the silver layer and cause an uneven loss of sensitivity (before development) or mottle (unevenly discolour) the silver image (after development).
Colour papers
All colour photographic materials available today are coated on either RC (resin coated) paper or on solid polyester. The photographic emulsion used for colour photographic materials consists of three colour emulsion layers (cyan, yellow, and magenta) along with other supporting layers. The colour layers are sensitised to their corresponding colours. Although it is commonly believed that the layers in negative papers are shielded against the intrusion of light of a different wavelength than the actual layer by colour filters which dissolve during processing, this is not so. The colour layers in negative papers are actually produced to have speeds which increase from cyan (red sensitive) to magenta (green sensitive) to yellow (blue sensitive), and thus when filtered during printing, the blue light is "normalized" so that there is no crosstalk. Therefore, the yellow (blue sensitive) layer is nearly ISO 100 while the cyan (red) layer is about ISO 25. After adding enough yellow filtration to make a neutral, the blue sensitivity of the slow cyan layer is "lost".
In negative-positive print systems, the blue sensitive layer is on the bottom, and the cyan layer is on the top. This is the reverse of the usual layer order in colour films.
The emulsion layers can include the colour dyes, as in Ilfochrome; or they can include colour couplers, which react with colour developers to produce colour dyes, as in type C prints or chromogenic negative–positive prints. Type R prints, which are no longer made, were positive–positive chromogenic prints.
Black and white emulsion types
The emulsion contains light sensitive silver halide crystals suspended in gelatin. Black-and-white papers typically use relatively insensitive emulsions composed of silver bromide, silver chloride or a combination of both. The silver halide used affects the paper's sensitivity and the image tone of the resulting print.
Chloride papers
Popular in the past, chloride papers are nowadays unusual; a single manufacturer produces this material. These insensitive papers are suitable for contact printing, and yield warm toned images by development. Chloride emulsions are also used for printing-out papers, or POP, which require no further development after exposure.
Chlorobromide papers
Containing a blend of silver chloride and silver bromide salts, these emulsions produce papers sensitive enough to be used for enlarging. They produce warm-black to neutral image tones by development, which can be varied by using different developers.
Bromide papers
Papers with pure silver bromide emulsions are sensitive and produce neutral black or 'cold' blue-black image tones.
Contrast control
Fixed-grade – or graded – black-and-white papers were historically available in a range of 12 grades, numbered 0 to 5, with 0 being the softest, or least contrasty paper grade and 5 being the hardest, or most contrasty paper grade. Low contrast negatives can be corrected by printing on a contrasty paper; conversely a very contrasty negative can be printed on a low contrast paper. Because of decreased demand, most extreme paper grades are now discontinued, and the few graded ranges still available include only middle contrast grades.
Variable-contrast – or "VC" – papers account for the great majority of consumption of these papers in the 21st century. VC papers permit the selection of a wide range of contrast grades, in the case of the brand leader between 00 and 5. These papers are coated with a mixture of two or three emulsions, all of equal contrast and sensitivity to blue light. However, each emulsion is sensitised in different proportions to green light. Upon exposure to blue light, all emulsions act in an additive manner to produce a high contrast image. When exposed to green light alone, the emulsions produce a low contrast image because each is differently sensitised to green. By varying the ratio of blue to green light, the contrast of the print can be approximately continuously varied between these extremes, creating all contrast grades from 00 to 5.
Filters in the enlarger's light path are a common method of achieving this control. Magenta filters absorb green and transmit blue and red, while yellow filters absorb blue and transmit green and red.
The contrast of photographic papers can also be controlled during processing or by the use of bleaches or toners.
Panchromatic papers
Panchromatic black-and-white photographic printing papers are sensitive to all wavelengths of visible light. They were designed for the printing of full-tone black-and-white images from colour negatives; this is not possible with conventional orthochromatic papers. Panchromatic papers can also be used to produce paper negatives in large-format cameras. These materials must be handled and developed in near-complete darkness. Kodak Panalure Select RC is an example of a panchromatic black-and-white paper; it was discontinued in 2005.
Non Silver papers
Numerous photo sensitive papers that do not use silver chemistry exist. Most are hand made by enthusiasts but Cyanotype prints are made on what was commonly sold as blueprint paper. Certain precious metal including platinum and other chemistries have also been in common use at certain periods.
Archival stability
The longevity of any photographic print media will depend upon the processing, display and storage conditions of the print.
Black-and-white prints
Fixing must convert all non-image silver into soluble silver compounds that can be removed by washing with water. Washing must remove these compounds and all residual fixing chemicals from the emulsion and paper base. A hypo-clearing solution, also referred to as Hypo Clearing Agent, HCA, or a washing aid, and which can consist of a 2% solution of sodium sulfite, can be used to shorten the effective washing time by displacing the thiosulfate fixer, and the byproducts of the process of fixation, that are bound to paper fibers.
Toners are sometimes used to convert the metallic silver into more stable compounds. Commonly used archival toners are: selenium, gold and sulfide.
Prints on fiber-based papers that have been properly fixed and washed should last at least fifty years without fading. Some alternative non-silver processes – such as platinum prints – employ metals that are, if processed correctly, inherently more stable than gelatin-silver prints.
Colour prints
For colour images, Ilfochrome is often used because of its clarity and the stability of the colour dyes.
See also
Standard AD size
Film format#Still photography film formats
Paper size
Photo print sizes
References
Coated paper
Photography equipment
Photographic processes
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204416
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soong%20Ching-ling
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Soong Ching-ling
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Rosamond Soong Ch'ing-ling (27 January 189329 May 1981) was a Chinese political figure. As the third wife of Sun Yat-sen, one of the leaders of the 1911 revolution that established the Republic of China, she was often referred to as Madame Sun Yat-sen. She was a member of the Soong family and, together with her siblings, played a prominent role in China's politics prior to and after 1949.
After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, she held several prominent positions in the new government, including Vice Chairman (1949–1954; 1959–1975) and Vice Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (1954–1959; 1975–1981), traveled abroad during the early 1950s, representing her country at a number of international events. During the Cultural Revolution, however, she was heavily criticized. Following the purge of President Liu Shaoqi in 1968, she and Dong Biwu as Vice Presidents became de facto Heads of State of China until 1972, when Dong was appointed Acting President. Soong survived the political turmoil during the Cultural Revolution but appeared less frequently after 1976. As the acting Chairwoman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress from 1976 to 1978, Soong was again the acting Head of State. During her final illness in May 1981, she was given the special title of "Honorary President of the People's Republic of China".
Soong was the first female head of state of modern China, a position that did not appear again until 2016 when Tsai Ing-wen assumed the presidency of the Republic of China, which is the polity that
now governs Taiwan.
Life and activities before 1949
Soong Ch'ing-ling was born to businessman and missionary Charlie Soong in Chuansha, Pudong, Shanghai, the second of six children. She graduated from McTyeire School for Girls in Shanghai, and Wesleyan College in Macon, Georgia, United States. Like her sisters, she spoke fluent English due to being educated in English for most of her life. Her Christian name was Rosamonde (in her early years, her passport name was spelled as Chung-ling Soong, and in her Wesleyan College diploma, her name was Rosamonde Chung-ling Soong).
Soong married Sun Yat-sen, leader of China's 1911 revolution and founder of the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party), on 25 October 1915. Even though he was a Christian, her parents greatly opposed the match. (Dr. Sun was 26 years her senior.)
After Sun's death in 1925, she was elected to the KMT Central Executive Committee.
However, she left China for Moscow after the expulsion of the Communists from the KMT in 1927, accusing the KMT of betraying her husband's legacy. Her younger sister, May-ling, married Chiang Kai-shek, a Methodist like Soong and her sisters. This made Chiang Soong's brother-in-law. The CPC still treats Sun Yat-sen as one of the founders of their movement and claim descent from him as he is viewed as a proto communist and the economic element of Sun's ideology was socialism. Sun stated, "Our Principle of Livelihood is a form of communism". After an initial warm public reception in Moscow for the cadre, to which Soong Ching-ling belonged, from 1928 their attempts to establish a leftist Chinese front were frustrated.
Soong returned to China in June 1929 when Sun Yat-sen was moved from his temporary burial site in Beijing to a new memorial in Nanjing, but left again three months later, and did not return until July 1931, when her mother died. She resided afterwards in Shanghai until July 1937, when the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out. Following the outbreak of hostilities, she moved first to Hong Kong (where she befriended future restaurateur and philanthropist Madame Wu [Sylvia Cheng]), then to Chongqing, the wartime capital of the Chinese government. In 1939, she founded the China Defense League, which raised funds and sought supplies primarily for the Chinese Communist controlled areas of northern China. In 1946, the League was renamed the China Welfare fund, continuing to seek funds and support for the Chinese Communists.
During the Chinese Civil War, Soong permanently broke with her family and supported the Communists. In 1948, she became honorary chairwoman of the Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang, a left-wing splinter group of the KMT that claimed to be the legitimate heir of Sun's legacy. With the collapse of the Nationalist government and the Communist victory in the civil war, she left Shanghai in September 1949 to attend the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), convened in Beijing by the Communist Party of China to establish a new Central People's Government. On 1 October, she was a guest at the ceremony in Tiananmen Square marking the birth of the new People's Republic of China. The Nationalist government issued an order for her arrest, but this was soon blocked by the swift military victory of the Communists. The KMT fled from mainland China to Taiwan soon after this.
Political offices and activities after 1949
Soong was the third person in the new government mentioned by Mao in the founding Proclamation of the People's Republic of China.
Soong was held in great esteem by the victorious Communists, who reckoned her as a link between their movement and Sun's earlier movement. After the formal establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, she became one of six vice chairpeople of the Central People's Government," and one of several vice-chairpeople of the Sino-Soviet Friendship Association. In April 1951, it was announced that she had been awarded the Stalin Peace Prize for 1950.
In 1950, Soong became chairwoman of the Chinese People's Relief Administration, which combined several organizations dealing with welfare and relief issues. Her China Welfare Fund was reorganized as the China Welfare Institute and began publishing the magazine China Reconstructs, now published as China Today. In 1953, a collection of her writings, Struggle for New China, was published.
In 1953 Soong served on the committees preparing for elections to the new National People's Congress and the drafting of the 1954 constitution. Soong was elected a Shanghai deputy to the first NPC, which adopted the constitution at its first meeting in September 1954. She was elected one of 14 vice-chairpeople of the NPC's standing committee, chaired by Liu Shaoqi. In December of the same year, she was elected a vice-chairwoman of the CPPCC, which became a consultative body, and replaced Liu Shaoqi as chairperson of the Sino-Soviet Friendship Association. During this period, Soong traveled abroad several times, visiting Austria, India, Burma, Pakistan, and Indonesia. Her trips included a January 1953 visit to the Soviet Union, where she was received by Stalin shortly before his death. She visited Moscow again in 1957 with Mao Zedong's delegation to the 40th anniversary of the Russian Revolution.
Vice-presidency
In April 1959, Soong again served as a Shanghai deputy at the 2nd National People's Congress. At this Congress, Mao Zedong and Zhu De stepped down as President and Vice-President of the People's Republic of China. Liu Shaoqi was elected State Chairman (President), and Soong Ching-ling and Dong Biwu, a senior Communist Party 'elder', were elected Vice President of China. Soong resigned at this time from her positions as vice-chairwoman of the CPPCC National Committee and the NPC Standing Committee. She was re-elected to the post of Vice-chairperson of the PRC at the Third National People's Congress in 1965, and appeared frequently in the early 1960s on ceremonial occasions, often greeting important visitors from abroad.
During the Cultural Revolution (1966–76), Soong was heavily criticized by Red Guard factions, and in one incident, the marker of her parents' grave was toppled and their bodies exposed. Following this incident Premier Zhou Enlai recommended that Soong Ching-ling be put on a "List of Cadres to be protected." Zhou's recommendation was approved by Mao Zedong.
Late in the Cultural Revolution, during the 4th NPC which approved the 1975 Constitution in January 1975, Soong's term as Vice President of China ended with the abolishment of that post, after which she was again appointed one of the vice-chairwomen of the NPC Standing Committee.
Later life and death
Soong's public appearances were limited after the Cultural Revolution, and she was in generally poor health, but articles by her, primarily on children's welfare issues, continued to appear in the press. Her last public appearance was on 8 May 1981, when she appeared in a wheelchair at the Great Hall of the People to accept an honorary LL.D. degree from the University of Victoria. A few days later she began running a high fever and was unable to rise again. On 16 May 1981, less than two weeks before her death, she was admitted to the Communist Party and named Honorary Chairwoman of the People's Republic of China (). She is the only person to ever hold this title. According to one of Soong's biographers, she had wanted to join the Communist Party of China as early as 1957. However, when she asked Liu for permission to join the party, the request was turned down because "it was thought better for the revolution that she not join formally, but that she would thenceforth be informed, and her opinion sought, concerning all important inner-Party events matters, not only those involving the government."
Museums
According to her wishes, Soong's cremated remains were placed next to her parents' restored grave in the Soong family burial plot at Shanghai's International Cemetery (), which was later renamed in her honor as the Soong Ching-ling Memorial Park ().
Several of Soong Ch'ing-ling's former residences have also been transformed into museums:
In 1918, Soong and her husband Sun Yat-sen lived in a house in the French Concession of Shanghai. After her husband's death, Soong continued to reside there until 1937. The house has now been converted into a museum dedicated called the Former Residence of Sun Yat-sen. Though dedicated primarily to Sun, it also contains some of Soong's artefacts during their life together.
From 1948 to 1963 Soong Ch'ing-ling lived in the western end of the French Concession in Shanghai. This building is now the Soong Ching-ling Memorial Residence. A memorial hall containing some of her belongings and photographs stands near the entrance. The main building and gardens are preserved in near original state with original furnishings throughout. In the garage are two large cars: one Chinese built Red Flag limousine and another "Russian" car presented to Soong by Josef Stalin.
Soong Ch'ing-ling obtained a mansion in Beijing in 1963 where she lived and worked for the rest of her life and received many dignitaries. After her death the site was converted into the Former Residence of Soong Ching-ling as a museum and memorial. The rooms and furniture have been kept as she had used them, and memorabilia are displayed.
Media portrayal
In the 1997 Hong Kong movie The Soong Sisters, she is portrayed by Maggie Cheung.
In the 2009 mainland China movie The Founding of a Republic, she is portrayed by Xu Qing.
In other popular culture, it is also mentioned by the character Jim Graham in Empire of the Sun that he met Madame Sun Yat-sen when he was three years old.
Family
See also
History of the Republic of China
Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang
He Xiangning (wife of Liao Zhongkai)
Soong sisters
Soong Ai-ling
Soong Mei-ling
Soong Ching-ling Children's Literature Prize
Notes
Before the 1982 Constitution President of the People's Republic of China was officially translated as "Chairman" by the PRC government.
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Soong Ching-ling Foundation
Former Residence of Song Qingling, Beijing
Memorial Residence, Shanghai
1890 births
1981 deaths
Presidents of the People's Republic of China
Women leaders of China
Chinese Methodists
Chinese Communist Party politicians from Shanghai
Female heads of state
People's Republic of China politicians from Shanghai
Republic of China politicians from Shanghai
Members of the Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang
Stalin Peace Prize recipients
Sun Yat-sen family
Vice Chairpersons of the National People's Congress
Vice Chairpersons of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
Vice presidents of the People's Republic of China
Wesleyan College alumni
20th-century Chinese politicians
20th-century women politicians
Burials in Shanghai
Women vice presidents
All-China Women's Federation people
Deaths from leukemia
Deaths from cancer in the People's Republic of China
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] |
204418
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Antarctic%20Territory
|
British Antarctic Territory
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The British Antarctic Territory (BAT) is a sector of Antarctica claimed by the United Kingdom as one of its 14 British Overseas Territories, of which it is by far the largest by area. It comprises the region south of 60°S latitude and between longitudes and , forming a wedge shape that extends to the South Pole, overlapping the Antarctic claims of Argentina (Argentine Antarctica) and Chile (Chilean Antarctic Territory).
The Territory was formed on 3 March 1962, although the UK's claim to this portion of the Antarctic dates back to letters patent of 1908 and 1917. The area now covered by the Territory includes three regions which, before 1962, were administered by the British as separate dependencies of the Falkland Islands: Graham Land, the South Orkney Islands, and the South Shetland Islands. The United Kingdom's claim to the region has been suspended since the Antarctic Treaty came into force in 1961, Article 4 of which states "No acts or activities taking place while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica. No new claim, or enlargement of an existing claim, to territorial sovereignty, shall be asserted while the present Treaty is in force." Most countries do not recognise territorial claims in Antarctica. The United Kingdom has ratified the treaty.
The territory is inhabited by the staff of research and support stations operated and maintained by the British Antarctic Survey and other organisations, and stations of Argentina, Chile and other countries. There are no native inhabitants.
In 2012, the southern part of the territory was named Queen Elizabeth Land in honour of Queen Elizabeth II.
History
The United Kingdom has had a continuous presence in the far South Atlantic since 1833 when it reasserted sovereignty over the Falkland Islands. In 1908, the UK extended its territorial claim by declaring sovereignty over "South Georgia, the South Orkneys, the South Shetlands, the Sandwich Islands, and Graham's Land, situated in the South Atlantic Ocean and on the Antarctic continent to the south of the 50th parallel of south latitude, and lying between the 20th and the 80th degrees of west longitude". All these territories were administered as Falkland Islands Dependencies from Stanley by the Governor of the Falkland Islands.
In 1917, the wording of the claim was modified, so as to, among other things, unambiguously include all the territory in the sector stretching to the South Pole (thus encompassing all of the present-day British Antarctic Territory). The new claim covered "all islands and territories whatsoever between the 20th degree of west longitude and the 50th degree of west longitude which are situated south of the 50th parallel of south latitude; and all islands and territories whatsoever between the 50th degree of west longitude and the 80th degree of west longitude which are situated south of the 58th parallel of south latitude".
The United Kingdom also claimed Victoria Land in 1841 and Enderby Land in 1930. However, all territory between 160°E and 45°E was transferred to Australia in 1933.
In 1943, at the height of World War II, the UK undertook a military operation known as Operation Tabarin to provide reconnaissance and meteorological information in the South Atlantic Ocean. This "secret" wartime project became the civilian Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey and later the British Antarctic Survey (BAS). BAS is responsible for most of the United Kingdom's scientific research in Antarctica. In the 1950s, the Antarctic Treaty was negotiated to demilitarise the region and retain Antarctica – defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude – for peaceful research purposes. The treaty was passed in 1961.
Recognition
The Antarctic Treaty, signed by all relevant regional claimants, does not in itself either recognise or dispute any territorial claims, leaving this matter to individual signatories. Most of the world's countries do not recognise any national claims to Antarctica. Australia, France, New Zealand, Norway and the United Kingdom, all of whom have territorial claims on the continent, mutually recognise each other's claims. Argentina and Chile dispute the British claim, and make their own counter-claims that overlap both Britain's and each other's (see Argentine Antarctica and Chilean Antarctic Territory).
Geography
Topography
The British Antarctic Territory includes the Antarctic Peninsula, the South Shetland Islands, South Orkney Islands and numerous other offshore islands, the Ronne Ice Shelf (Weddell Sea), parts of Coats Land. A triangle of central Antarctica converging on the South Pole was named Queen Elizabeth Land in December 2012, in honour of the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II.
Over 99 per cent of the territory's land surface is covered by a permanent ice sheet, up to about thick. The highest peak in BAT was thought to be Mount Jackson, on the Antarctic Peninsula, at . However, in 2017 Mount Hope was calculated to be taller at .
Vegetation
There are very few plants in the British Antarctic Territories; most of them are mosses and lichens, but there are also two flowering plants: the Antarctic hairgrass and Antarctic pearlwort.
Wildlife
Many bird species, including seven species of penguin breed in the British Antarctic Territories. The British Antarctic Territories are also home to six species of seals.
Administration
The British Antarctic Territory is administered by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO). A Commissioner is appointed and is always the Director of the FCO's Overseas Territories Directorate.
The Territory has a full suite of laws and legal and postal administrations. Given the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty System, the Territory does not enforce its laws on foreign nations who maintain scientific bases within the Territory. It is self-financing, with income from the sale of postage stamps and income tax.
Nationality law
The territory is fully a part of the British Overseas Territories for nationality purposes. It is possible to hold British Overseas Territories citizenship (BOTC) by virtue of a connection with the territory. Additionally, since the relevant provisions of the British Overseas Territories Act 2002 came into force on 21 May 2002, a BOTC connected with the territory would also hold British citizenship.
Although this territory's immigration laws would not allow for naturalisation, a person born in the territory before 1983 would hold BOTC (and British citizenship) on that basis. British citizenship and BOTC would also extend to the first generation born overseas. No people currently fall into this category. While Emilio Palma was born in the Antarctic territories claimed by the UK, he has not claimed British citizenship. Since his parents were both Argentine citizens and he was born at an Argentine base, he was automatically granted Argentine citizenship by the Argentine government. Changes to British nationality law from 1 January 1983 mean that children born in the territory can only gain BOTC and/or British citizenship if his/her father or mother holds BOTC and/or British citizenship or if his/her father or mother is "ordinarily resident" in the territory in compliance with the relevant immigration legislation. This effectively prevents any more children born in Argentine or Chilean bases within the area of the British claim being able to claim BOTC or British citizenship by virtue of being born within the territory.
Research stations
The British Antarctic Survey has two permanently staffed research stations in the Territory:
Halley
Rothera
Signy was operated from 1947 until 1996 and now is only staffed in the summer. There are also two summer-only forward operating stations at Fossil Bluff and Sky Blu.
Faraday was maintained until 1996, when it was sold to Ukraine and renamed Akademik Vernadsky Station.
Since 1996, the historic base at Port Lockroy on Goudier Island has been staffed by the UK Antarctic Heritage Trust during the Antarctic summer. Receiving about 10,000 visitors a year, it is one of the most visited sites on the continent. Visitors can tour the museum, buy souvenirs, post mail, and view the large gentoo penguin colony.
Argentine presence in the territory dates to the foundation of the Orcadas Base, South Orkney Islands, in 1903.
A number of other nations maintain bases in the territory, many in the South Shetland Islands.
Postage stamps and coins
Despite the lack of permanent inhabitants, the British Antarctic Territory issues its own postage stamps. While some are actually used by visiting tourists and resident scientists, the bulk are sold overseas to collectors. The first issue came in 1963, an engraved set with 15 values ranging from ½d to one pound, featuring a portrait of Queen Elizabeth overlooking various scenes of human activity in Antarctica. Several additional issues in the 1960s were followed by a decimalisation issue in 1971 produced by overprinting the 1963 stamps.
In 2008–2009, as part of the celebrations of the centenary of the 1908 British territorial claim, the British Antarctic Territory issued its first ever legal-tender coin.
Queen Elizabeth Land
On 18 December 2012, the Foreign & Commonwealth Office announced that the southern part of British Antarctic Territory has been named Queen Elizabeth Land in honour of Queen Elizabeth II in her Diamond Jubilee year. The area, the southern third of the territory, has an area of about – almost twice the size of the United Kingdom – and is roughly triangular in shape, with the South Pole at one apex and with the and lines of longitude forming the eastern and western boundaries. The northern boundary is formed by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf on the west and by Coats Land on the east.
The name "Queen Elizabeth Land" will be used in future on all British maps, but due to the unique status of Antarctica, it will be up to other countries to recognise the name if they see fit. Argentina, which lays claim to part of the area, criticised the naming.
See also
Australian Antarctic Territory
British Arctic Territories – 16th century to 1880 and now Canadian Arctic Archipelago
Hope Bay incident
Marie Byrd Land
Princess Elizabeth Land
Ross Dependency
Territorial claims in Antarctica
Tierra del Fuego
References
External links
British Antarctic Territory at UK Foreign Office
British Antarctic Survey
Territorial claims in Antarctica
United Kingdom and the Antarctic
Antarctic region
.British Antarctic Territory
States and territories established in 1962
1962 establishments in Antarctica
1962 establishments in the British Empire
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204420
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saliva
|
Saliva
|
Saliva (commonly referred to as spit) is an extracellular fluid produced and secreted by salivary glands in the mouth. In humans, saliva is 98% water plus electrolytes, mucus, white blood cells, epithelial cells (from which DNA can be extracted), enzymes (such as lipase and amylase), antimicrobial agents (such as secretory IgA, and lysozymes).
The enzymes found in saliva are essential in beginning the process of digestion of dietary starches and fats. These enzymes also play a role in breaking down food particles entrapped within dental crevices, thus protecting teeth from bacterial decay. Saliva also performs a lubricating function, wetting food and permitting the initiation of swallowing, and protecting the oral mucosa from drying out.
Various animal species have special uses for saliva that go beyond predigestion. Some swifts use their gummy saliva to build nests. Aerodramus nests form the basis of bird's nest soup.
Cobras, vipers, and certain other members of the venom clade hunt with venomous saliva injected by fangs. Some caterpillars produce silk fiber from silk proteins stored in modified salivary glands.
Composition
Produced in salivary glands, human saliva comprises 99.5% water, but also contains many important substances, including electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds and various enzymes.
Water: 99.5%
Electrolytes:
2–21 mmol/L sodium (lower than blood plasma)
10–36 mmol/L potassium (higher than plasma)
1.2–2.8 mmol/L calcium (similar to plasma)
0.08–0.5 mmol/L magnesium
5–40 mmol/L chloride (lower than plasma)
25 mmol/L bicarbonate (higher than plasma)
1.4–39 mmol/L phosphate
Iodine (mmol/L concentration is usually higher than plasma, but dependent variable according to dietary iodine intake)
Mucus (mucus in saliva mainly consists of mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins)
Antibacterial compounds (thiocyanate, hydrogen peroxide, and secretory immunoglobulin A)
Epidermal growth factor (EGF)
Various enzymes; most notably:
α-amylase (EC3.2.1.1), or ptyalin, secreted by the acinar cells of the parotid and submandibular glands, starts the digestion of starch before the food is even swallowed; it has a pH optimum of 7.4
Lingual lipase, which is secreted by the acinar cells of the sublingual gland; has a pH optimum around 4.0 so it is not activated until entering the acidic environment of the stomach
Kallikrein, an enzyme that proteolytically cleaves high-molecular-weight kininogen to produce bradykinin, which is a vasodilator; it is secreted by the acinar cells of all three major salivary glands
Antimicrobial enzymes that kill bacteria:
Lysozyme
Salivary lactoperoxidase
Lactoferrin
Immunoglobulin A
Proline-rich proteins (function in enamel formation, Ca2+-binding, microbe killing and lubrication)
Minor enzymes including: salivary acid phosphatases A+B, N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanine amidase, NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (quinone), superoxide dismutase, glutathione transferase, class 3 aldehyde dehydrogenase, glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, and tissue kallikrein (function unknown)
Cells: possibly as many as 8 million human and 500 million bacterial cells per mL. The presence of bacterial products (small organic acids, amines, and thiols) causes saliva to sometimes exhibit a foul odor.
Opiorphin, a pain-killing substance found in human saliva
Haptocorrin, a protein which binds to vitamin B12 to protect it against degradation in the stomach, before it binds to intrinsic factor.
Daily salivary output
Experts debate the amount of saliva that a healthy person produces. Production is estimated at 1500ml per day and researchers generally accept that during sleep the amount drops significantly.
In humans, the submandibular gland contributes around 70 to 75% of secretions, while the parotid gland secretes about 20 to 25%; small amounts are secreted from the other salivary glands.
Functions
Saliva contributes to the digestion of food and to the maintenance of oral hygiene. Without normal salivary function the frequency of dental caries, gum disease (gingivitis and periodontitis), and other oral problems increases significantly. Saliva limits the growth of bacterial pathogens and is a major factor in sustaining systemic and oral health through the prevention of tooth decay and the removal of sugars and other food sources for microbes.
Lubricant
Saliva coats the oral mucosa mechanically protecting it from trauma during eating, swallowing, and speaking. Mouth soreness is very common in people with reduced saliva (xerostomia) and food (especially dry food) sticks to the inside of the mouth.
Digestion
The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food and helping to create a food bolus. The lubricative function of saliva allows the food bolus to be passed easily from the mouth into the esophagus. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase, also called ptyalin, which is capable of breaking down starch into simpler sugars such as maltose and dextrin that can be further broken down in the small intestine. About 30% of starch digestion takes place in the mouth cavity. Salivary glands also secrete salivary lipase (a more potent form of lipase) to begin fat digestion. Salivary lipase plays a large role in fat digestion in newborn infants as their pancreatic lipase still needs some time to develop.
Role in taste
Saliva is very important in the sense of taste. It is the liquid medium in which chemicals are carried to taste receptor cells (mostly associated with lingual papillae). People with little saliva often complain of dysgeusia (i.e. disordered taste, e.g. reduced ability to taste, or having a bad, metallic taste at all times). A rare condition identified to affect taste is that of 'Saliva Hypernatrium', or excessive amounts of sodium in saliva that is not caused by any other condition (e.g., Sjögren syndrome), causing everything to taste 'salty'.
Other
Saliva maintains the pH of the mouth. Saliva is supersaturated with various ions. Certain salivary proteins prevent precipitation, which would form salts. These ions act as a buffer, keeping the acidity of the mouth within a certain range, typically pH 6.2–7.4. This prevents minerals in the dental hard tissues from dissolving.
Saliva secretes carbonic anhydrase (gustin), which is thought to play a role in the development of taste buds.
Saliva contains EGF. EGF results in cellular proliferation, differentiation, and survival. EGF is a low-molecular-weight polypeptide first purified from the mouse submandibular gland, but since then found in many human tissues including submandibular gland, parotid gland. Salivary EGF, which seems also regulated by dietary inorganic iodine, also plays an important physiological role in the maintenance of oro-esophageal and gastric tissue integrity. The biological effects of salivary EGF include healing of oral and gastroesophageal ulcers, inhibition of gastric acid secretion, stimulation of DNA synthesis as well as mucosal protection from intraluminal injurious factors such as gastric acid, bile acids, pepsin, and trypsin and to physical, chemical and bacterial agents.
Production
The production of saliva is stimulated both by the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic.
The saliva stimulated by sympathetic innervation is thicker, and saliva stimulated parasympathetically is more fluid-like.
Sympathetic stimulation of saliva is to facilitate respiration, whereas parasympathetic stimulation is to facilitate digestion.
Parasympathetic stimulation leads to acetylcholine (ACh) release onto the salivary acinar cells. ACh binds to muscarinic receptors, specifically M3, and causes an increased intracellular calcium ion concentration (through the IP3/DAG second messenger system). Increased calcium causes vesicles within the cells to fuse with the apical cell membrane leading to secretion. ACh also causes the salivary gland to release kallikrein, an enzyme that converts kininogen to lysyl-bradykinin. Lysyl-bradykinin acts upon blood vessels and capillaries of the salivary gland to generate vasodilation and increased capillary permeability, respectively. The resulting increased blood flow to the acini allows the production of more saliva. In addition, Substance P can bind to Tachykinin NK-1 receptors leading to increased intracellular calcium concentrations and subsequently increased saliva secretion. Lastly, both parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous stimulation can lead to myoepithelium contraction which causes the expulsion of secretions from the secretory acinus into the ducts and eventually to the oral cavity.
Sympathetic stimulation results in the release of norepinephrine. Norepinephrine binding to α-adrenergic receptors will cause an increase in intracellular calcium levels leading to more fluid vs. protein secretion. If norepinephrine binds β-adrenergic receptors, it will result in more protein or enzyme secretion vs. fluid secretion. Stimulation by norepinephrine initially decreases blood flow to the salivary glands due to constriction of blood vessels but this effect is overtaken by vasodilation caused by various local vasodilators.
Saliva production may also be pharmacologically stimulated by the so-called sialagogues. It can also be suppressed by the so-called antisialagogues.
Behaviour
Spitting
Spitting is the act of forcibly ejecting saliva or other substances from the mouth. In many parts of the world, it is considered rude and a social taboo, and has even been outlawed in many countries. In Western countries, for example, it has often been outlawed for reasons of public decency and attempting to reduce the spread of disease; however, these laws are often not strictly enforced. In Singapore, the fine for spitting may be as high as SGD$2,000 for multiple offenses, and one can even be arrested. In some other parts of the world, such as in China, expectoration is more socially acceptable (even if officially disapproved of or illegal), and spittoons are still a common appearance in some cultures. Some animals, even humans in some cases, use spitting as an automatic defensive maneuver. Camels are well known for doing this, though most domestic camels are trained not to.
Because saliva can contain large amounts of virus copies in infected individuals (for example, in people infected with SARS-CoV-2), spitting in public places can pose a health hazard to the public.
Glue to construct bird nests
Many birds in the swift family, Apodidae, produce a viscous saliva during nesting season to glue together materials to construct a nest. Two species of swifts in the genus Aerodramus build their nests using only their saliva, the base for bird's nest soup.
Wound licking
A common belief is that saliva contained in the mouth has natural disinfectants, which leads people to believe it is beneficial to "lick their wounds". Researchers at the University of Florida at Gainesville have discovered a protein called nerve growth factor (NGF) in the saliva of mice. Wounds doused with NGF healed twice as fast as untreated and unlicked wounds; therefore, saliva can help to heal wounds in some species. NGF has not been found in human saliva; however, researchers find human saliva contains such antibacterial agents as secretory mucin, IgA, lactoferrin, lysozyme and peroxidase. It has not been shown that human licking of wounds disinfects them, but licking is likely to help clean the wound by removing larger contaminants such as dirt and may help to directly remove infective bodies by brushing them away. Therefore, licking would be a way of wiping off pathogens, useful if clean water is not available to the animal or person.
Classical conditioning
In Pavlov's experiment, dogs were conditioned to salivate in response to a ringing bell, this stimulus is associated with a meal or hunger. Salivary secretion is also associated with nausea. Saliva is usually formed in the mouth through an act called gleeking, which can be voluntary or involuntary.
Making alcoholic beverages
Some old cultures chewed grains to produce alcoholic beverages, such as chicha, kasiri or sake.
Substitutes
A number of commercially available saliva substitutes exist.
See also
Basic reproduction number
Spittle cures
References
Further reading
External links
Body fluids
Excretion
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe%20GoLive
|
Adobe GoLive
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Adobe GoLive was a WYSIWYG HTML editor and web site management application from Adobe Systems. It replaced Adobe PageMill as Adobe's primary HTML editor and was itself discontinued in favor of Dreamweaver. The last version of GoLive that Adobe released was GoLive 9.
History
GoLive originated as the flagship product of a company named GoNet Communication, Inc. then based in Menlo Park, California, and the development company GoNet Communications GmbH in Hamburg, Germany, in 1996. Later GoNet changed its name to GoLive Systems, Inc, and the name of its product to GoLive CyberStudio. Adobe acquired GoLive in 1999 and re-branded the GoLive CyberStudio product to what became Adobe GoLive. Adobe took over the Hamburg office as an Adobe development site to continue to develop the product.
At the time of the acquisition, CyberStudio was a Macintosh only application. In the spring of 1999 Adobe released Adobe GoLive for both Macintosh and Microsoft Windows.
The first versions of Dreamweaver and CyberStudio were released in a similar timeframe. However, Dreamweaver eventually became the dominant WYSIWYG HTML editor in market share. After the Adobe acquisition of Macromedia (the company that had owned Dreamweaver), GoLive was progressively re-targeted toward Adobe's traditional design market, and the product became better integrated with Adobe's existing suite of design-oriented software products and less focused on the professional web development market.
The Adobe CS2 Premium suite contained GoLive CS2. With the release of Creative Suite 3, Adobe integrated Dreamweaver as a replacement for GoLive and released GoLive 9 as a standalone product.
In April 2008, Adobe announced that sales and development of GoLive would cease in favor of Dreamweaver.
General description and distinctive aspects
GoLive incorporated a largely modeless workflow that relied heavily on drag-and-drop. Most user interaction was done via a contextual inspector rather than the modal workflow found in Dreamweaver. Among its features were a separate editor for tables that supported nesting, and a two-dimensional panel for applying CSS styles to elements. GoLive supported drag-and-drop of native Adobe Photoshop and Adobe Illustrator files via what the company called "Smart Objects", which then automatically guided the user through saving those files in web-supported formats. Updates to the original Photoshop or Illustrator assets were automatically tracked by GoLive. It also implemented a tool called "Components" which allowed updates to interface elements throughout a site to be updated globally by changing one single file. As a website management tool, GoLive allowed users to transfer and publish content directly from within the application, and allowed individual files to be excluded from uploading.
Features
One of the new features of GoLive version 5 was Dynamic Link, which was a method of creating dynamic, database-driven web content without the need to know a server-side language and with full WYSIWYG support in the GoLive user interface.
GoLive had a powerful set of extensibility API which could be used to add additional functionality to the product. The GoLive SDK provided interfaces which allowed developers to use a combination of XML, JavaScript and C/C++ to create plugins for the product. The extensibility API allowed developers access to custom drawing and event handling using JavaScript, as well as a full JavaScript debugger and command line interpreter. This allowed intermediate-level developers using interpreted JavaScript to create sophisticated user interfaces.
Language and framework structure
Adobe GoLive is coded in the C++ programming language. It uses a custom C++ framework called SCL (Simple Class Library) which was initially built from scratch by the engineers at GoLive Systems Inc. The SCL framework was also used in the short-lived Adobe Atmosphere 3D software.
Release history
As the final version, GoLive 9 was discontinued in April 2008.
See also
Comparison of HTML editors
List of HTML editors
References
External links
Adobe GoLive homepage
OReilly Article with GoLive History
mprove: Adobe GoLive’s Point & Shoot - an interface technique for creating hyperlinks
Adobe GoLive Tutorials & Resource Site
GoLive CS2 Tutorials and Reference
GoLiveCentral - Tutorials & Resources
Revive GoLive Adobe Forum
chronicles from the GoLive era
GoLive
C++ software
GoLive
1996 software
HTML editors
Graphics software
|
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] |
204431
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Jeter
|
Michael Jeter
|
Robert Michael Jeter (August 26, 1952 – March 30, 2003) was an American actor. His television roles included Herman Stiles on the sitcom Evening Shade from 1990 until 1994 and Mr. Noodle's brother, Mister Noodle on the Elmo's World segments of Sesame Street from 2000 until 2003. Jeter's film roles include Zelig, Tango & Cash, The Fisher King, Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit,
Waterworld, Air Bud, Mouse Hunt, Patch Adams, The Green Mile, Jurassic Park III, Welcome to Collinwood, Open Range, and The Polar Express.
Early life
Jeter was born Robert Michael Jeter in Lawrenceburg, Tennessee on August 26, 1952. His mother, Virginia (née Raines; May 6, 1927 – May 21, 2019), was a housewife. His father, William Claud Jeter (March 10, 1922 – March 1, 2010), was a dentist. Jeter had one brother, William, and four sisters, Virginia, Amanda, Emily, and Lori. Jeter was a student at Memphis State University (now the University of Memphis) when his interests changed from medicine to acting. He performed in several plays and musicals at the Circuit Theatre and its sister theatre, the Playhouse on the Square, in midtown Memphis. He left Memphis to further pursue his stage career in Baltimore, Maryland.
Career
Jeter's woebegone look, extreme flexibility, and high energy led Tommy Tune to cast him in the off-Broadway play Cloud 9 in 1981. Much of his work specialized in playing eccentric, pretentious, or wimpy characters, as in The Fisher King, Waterworld, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, The Green Mile and Drop Zone. Occasionally, Jeter was able to stray away from these types of roles for more diverse characters like those he portrayed in Jurassic Park III, Air Bud, and Open Range. Jeter is perhaps most known for his role as convicted felon Eduard Delacroix in The Green Mile, a role for which he was nominated along with the rest of the cast for a Screen Actors Guild Award. He played Rudy in Patch Adams as well.
In The Fisher King Jeter portrayed "an unnamed homeless cabaret singer", and "shimmies across the screen with boundless confidence, turning what might have been a grotesque, or at least merely humorous, part into something noble, even indomitable... In a film unafraid of big acting, Jeter goes bigger than anyone."
He also played Mr. Noodle's brother, Mister Noodle, on Sesame Street from 2000 to 2003. He appeared in an episode of Touched by an Angel in 1999 as Gus, an insurance salesman who arrives in Las Vegas in the episode "The Man Upstairs". His last two appearances were in the films Open Range and The Polar Express. Both films were in post-production at the time of his death and, when released, contained a dedication to his memory.
Awards
In 1990, Jeter won a Tony Award for his performance in the Broadway musical Grand Hotel. He won an Emmy Award in 1992 for his role in the television sitcom Evening Shade as math teacher and assistant football coach Herman Stiles. He also received an Outer Critics Circle Award, Drama Desk Award, and the Clarence Derwent Prize.
Personal life
Jeter was openly gay and met his partner, Sean Blue, in 1995; they were together until Jeter's death in 2003.
Death
On March 30, 2003, Jeter was found dead in his Hollywood home at the age of 50. Although he was HIV positive, he had been in good health for many years. His partner Sean Blue said Jeter died of complications after an epileptic seizure. He was cremated.
Filmography
Film
Television
Theater work
Once in a Lifetime
G. R. Point
Cloud 9
Grand Hotel
Alice in Concert
Greater Tuna
References
External links
1952 births
2003 deaths
Deaths from epilepsy
American male film actors
American male musical theatre actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
People with HIV/AIDS
Drama Desk Award winners
Neurological disease deaths in California
Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
American gay actors
People from Lawrenceburg, Tennessee
Theatre World Award winners
Tony Award winners
University of Memphis alumni
Male actors from Memphis, Tennessee
LGBT people from Tennessee
20th-century American singers
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
20th-century American male singers
20th-century LGBT people
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arturo%20Gatti
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Arturo Gatti
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Arturo Gatti (April 15, 1972 – July 11, 2009) was an Italian Canadian professional boxer who competed from 1991 to 2007. A world champion in two weight classes, Gatti held the IBF junior lightweight title from 1995 to 1998, and the WBC super lightweight title from 2004 to 2005. He also participated in The Ring magazine's Fight of the Year a total of four times (1997, 1998, 2002, and 2003). He announced his retirement on July 14, 2007. After his death in 2009, Gatti was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame on December 10, 2012, in his first year of eligibility, becoming the tenth Canadian boxer to be so inducted.
Gatti was born in Calabria, Italy, and raised in Lazio, a region of central western Italy, before moving to Montreal, Canada. Gatti eventually relocated to Jersey City, New Jersey as a teenager where he found a manager he trusted and decided to turn pro. He returned to Montreal after retiring from boxing to work in real estate.
He died under mysterious circumstances in 2009, with his wife first being arrested for homicide and then released after an autopsy done in Brazil ruled his death was a suicide.
Professional career
Arturo Gatti was a member of the Canadian National team, and was training to represent Canada at the 1992 Summer Games, but in 1991, at age 19, he decided to turn pro instead. He began boxing professionally on the night of June 10, 1991, with a third-round knockout of Jose Gonzalez in Secaucus, New Jersey. He went undefeated for six bouts before losing to King Solomon by split decision in six rounds on November 17, 1992.
His next fight, on March 24, 1993, was his first fight abroad, where he visited Amsterdam, Netherlands and knocked out Plawen Goutchev in round one.
In 1994, he beat Leon Bostic, and followed through with a Round 1 knockout over Pete Taliaferro to win the USBA super featherweight title. He retained the title against Richard Salazar and former world champion Jose Sanabria.
Signing with HBO
On December 15, 1995, Gatti challenged the IBF super featherweight Champion Tracy Harris Patterson, Floyd Patterson's adoptive son. Gatti became world champion when he narrowly outpointed Patterson (scoring: 116–111, 115–112, 114–113) and signed a multi-fight deal with HBO to fight on HBO Boxing.
He only had two fights in 1996, once defending his world title. His title defense, at Madison Square Garden against Dominican Wilson Rodriguez was the first of three Gatti fights in a row to be named a candidate for "Fight of the Year" by Ring Magazine. Dropped in round two and with his right eye closing fast, Gatti knocked Rodriguez down in round five with a left hook to the body, before finishing him off in round six to retain the title.
In 1997, he again won a points victory over Patterson, but this time by a larger margin (118–108, 117–109, 116–110). He then scored a technical knockout over former world champion Calvin Grove in the seventh round of a non-title affair. Then came his defense against former world champion Gabriel Ruelas, which was also named "Fight of the Year" by Ring Magazine. Rocked by a left uppercut in the fourth, Gatti absorbed more than 15 consecutive punches before being saved by the bell. In the fifth, with Ruelas again the aggressor and looking close to victory, Gatti connected with a left hook that lifted Ruelas off the canvas and resulted in the knock out.
To the lightweight division
After that fight, Gatti relinquished the world title, going up in weight to the lightweight division. However, 1998 was a bad year for Gatti, as he lost all three of his fights that year. He lost by a technical knockout in round eight to Angel Manfredy, and then lost a pair of close 10-round decisions to Ivan Robinson, the first by split decision, the second by unanimous. In Gatti-Robinson II, Gatti had a point deducted in the eighth round for low blows. Had the point not been deducted, the fight would have been a draw, as Robinson was only ahead by one point on two scorecards. Gatti-Robinson I was chosen "Fight of the Year" by Ring Magazine, thus marking the second year in a row that a Gatti fight was given that award and the third year in a row a Gatti fight was nominated.
He only had one fight in 1999, knocking out Reyes Munoz in round one.
Controversial fight against Gamache
Gatti's first fight of 2000 proved to be controversial. Faced with former world champion Joey Gamache, Gatti won by a knockout in round two. A subsequent lawsuit by Gamache's handlers claimed Gatti had gained 19 pounds since the weigh-in the day before and thus had a large advantage over Gamache. In the wake of the fight, boxing regulators pushed for a new law limiting the amount of weight a competitor can gain between the weigh-in and time of the fight. Gatti was also accused by Gamache's handlers of not having actually made the contracted weight of 141 pounds. After Gatti-Gamache, some boxing commissions started weighing boxers a second time.
Gatti also won his two other fights that year, against Eric Jukabuwski and Joe Hutchinson.
Trilogy against Micky Ward
In 2001, Gatti only had one fight, going up in weight to meet welterweight Oscar De La Hoya, who beat him by a technical knockout in five rounds. In 2002, Gatti returned to the light welterweight division and defeated former world champion Terronn Millett by a knockout in round four.
He then split two ten-round decisions with "Irish" Micky Ward, losing their first bout, but winning their second. Gatti-Ward I also earned "Fight of the Year" honors by Ring Magazine, and the 9th round was called the Round of the Century by Emanuel Steward.
On June 7, 2003, he and Ward had a rubber match. Gatti broke his twice-repaired right hand when he struck Ward's hip bone with an attempted body shot in the fourth, and he dropped his arm. In the sixth, Gatti dominated the round, but got caught with an overhand to the top of the head a second before the bell rang and went down. Gatti would win the match by unanimous decision. The third fight between the two was again named "Fight of the Year" by Ring Magazine.
Gatti vs Ward I & III are also part of HBO's 10 best fights of the decade.
Career after Micky Ward
On January 24, 2004, Gatti, having recovered from a broken hand, scored a tenth round knock-down and defeated Gianluca Branco of Italy by a 12-round unanimous decision to win the vacant WBC light welterweight title.
On July 24, 2004, he knocked out the previously unbeaten former world champion Leonard Dorin Doroftei in two rounds at Atlantic City, to retain his title.
Gatti's second defense of his WBC title came against former WBC super featherweight Champion Jesse James Leija on January 29, 2005. Gatti beat Leija by a fifth-round knockout. That same night, Arturo's protégé, Danny "Little Mac" McDermott, won his pro debut.
In his next fight, Gatti fought former super featherweight and lightweight world champion Floyd Mayweather Jr. on June 25, 2005. He took a horrific beating and Gatti's corner man threw in the towel after he was beaten around the ring, thus ending his title reign via sixth-round technical knockout.
After the loss to Mayweather, Gatti moved up to the welterweight division. He beat Thomas Damgaard on January 28, 2006, by an eleventh-round technical knockout to win the vacant IBA welterweight title and become a champion in 3 different weight divisions.
On July 22, 2006, Gatti lost by a TKO to Carlos Baldomir, vying for the WBC & The Ring welterweight championship. He then broke off his relationship with Buddy McGirt and had a new trainer in Micky Ward.
Final fight and retirement
Gatti attempted a comeback on July 14, 2007, against Alfonso Gomez, only to get TKO'd by Gomez. After the fight, Gatti announced his retirement in the dressing room, reportedly quipping: "I'm coming back — as a spectator."
Gatti retired with a record of 40 wins and 9 losses, with 31 wins by knockout. On September 24, 2008, reports had surfaced that Gatti was considering a comeback against Montreal welterweight Antonin Décarie, the Canadian and North American Boxing Organization champion. On December 10, 2012, Arturo Gatti was voted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame.
Fighting style
Arturo was an aggressive, all-action fighter, often remembered as a Slugger. Early on in his career, Gatti showed his tremendous punching power as he amassed a large number of first-round knockouts. Although he had the ability to box many opponents (as shown in the second Micky Ward fight) Gatti would often get into brawls when his opponents were able to take the power and fight back. This is why many of his bouts against good opposition were slug-fests.
Gatti had incredible heart, and an iron chin, shown in the majority of his major fights. He was able to absorb incredible amounts of punishment by fighters such as Wilson Rodriguez, Gabriel Ruelas, Angel Manfredy, Ivan Robinson, Oscar De La Hoya, Micky Ward, Floyd Mayweather and Carlos Baldomir, none of whom could knock him out cold. In the Rodriguez fight he showed off his recuperative abilities as he was close to being stopped under a barrage of shots and in the next round he stopped his opponent.
Oscar De La Hoya, who faced many big punchers from 130 pounds to 160 pounds, says Gatti hit him the hardest out of any fighter.
Death
On July 11, 2009, Gatti was found dead in a hotel in Ipojuca, Pernambuco, Brazil, where he was on holiday with his Brazilian wife, Amanda Rodrigues, and their 10-month-old son. He was 37 years old. Gatti was to attend his sister's wedding the same day. Gatti's widow was charged with first degree murder after the Brazilian investigator concluded she changed her story several times about how events transpired both the previous night and that morning. The investigator also concluded that it was impossible for Gatti's body to have landed in the position where it was found, under the kitchen counter, after it fell from being hung from the side of a set of stairs. According to Gatti's wife, a strap from her bag was used by Gatti to hang himself, resulting in part of the strap being stained with blood. Rodrigues could not explain how she spent more than 10 hours in the hotel room without realising Gatti was dead. Former boxing champion Acelino Freitas, who was a close friend of Gatti, stated Gatti and Rodrigues were having marital problems. Rodrigues had already filed for separation before their trip to Brazil, yet convinced her husband to go on the trip under the guise of a last ditch attempt to save the marriage. The Brazilian authorities initially ruled Gatti's death a homicide, but after the coroner's autopsy report was released, they declared it was a suicide, and his widow was set free. On July 31, 2009, it was announced that the Canadian government would be seeking more information from the Brazilian authorities on Gatti's death. Gatti's family confirmed that there would be a second autopsy done in Quebec. On August 1, a pathologist hired by the ex-boxing champ's family said Brazilian authorities overlooked bruises on Gatti's body in the initial autopsy. "There were definite injuries that had not been seen by Brazilian authorities", Baden said. Almost a year later, in March 2010, the circumstances concerning Gatti's death remained unclear.
At the family's request, a Quebec coroner agreed to exhume the body so that two pathologists could conduct a second autopsy. Coroner Jean Brochu said, "We've been waiting for this for a long time", and "it's going to take a while" before conclusions can be made, and released to the public. A shortage of staff at the coroner's office was blamed for contributing to the delay of the investigation. Regarding a new toxicology report being prepared, Brochu quipped that it "may take a century to get the results".
The Quebec coroner's report was released in November 2011. Brochu agreed with prior conclusions that Gatti died a violent death from asphyxia by neck constriction. He also noted that Gatti had carisoprodol, a muscle relaxant, in his system, along with alcohol. An expert toxicologist from Quebec retained by the coroner said the drug can produce withdrawal symptoms, such as anxiety, confusion and psychosis. The coroner also stated that "obvious presence of post-mortem lividity" indicated that the body had been suspended for some time before ending up on the floor.
Two independent private investigators from the States hired by Gatti's family proved it was impossible that Gatti's body would have been found in the place and position it was in if he indeed had hanged himself. They believe his wife had an accomplice to assist with murdering Gatti. Motive was Gatti's fortune, which Rodrigues inherited since she was able to coerce Gatti to void their prenuptial agreement three weeks prior to his death. Rodrigues threatened to leave Gatti and take their son with her, moving to Brazil if Gatti did not write a Will leaving his fortune to Rodrigues.
After all the new findings, information, and facts were gathered and presented by independent, outside agencies from Canada and the U.S., Brazilian authorities again concluded Gatti's death was a suicide, and closed the case.
In popular culture
Australian hardcore band Toe to Toe named their 2010 album Arturo Gatti.
Gatti's death in Brazil, on the day of his sister's wedding in Miami, was the subject of the Murder in Paradise episode "Brazilian Knockout", on the Investigation Discovery channel.
Professional boxing record
Pay-per-view bouts
References
Further reading
Cooley, Will. "'Vanilla Thrillas': Modern Boxing and White-Ethnic Masculinity", Journal of Sport and Social Issues 34:4 (November 2010), 418-437.
Raspanti, John J. and Taylor, Dennis. "Intimate Warfare: The True Story of the Arturo Gatti vs. Micky Ward Boxing Trilogy" [Rowman and Littlefield], (2016.)
External links
Arturo Gatti Q&A at BoxingInsider
Arturo Gatti profile at About.com
Official website (archived)
1972 births
2009 deaths
2009 suicides
Canadian expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Canadian male boxers
Boxers from Montreal
Deaths from asphyxiation
Italian emigrants to Canada
Italian male boxers
International Boxing Federation champions
International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees
Naturalized citizens of Canada
People from Cassino
Welterweight boxers
World Boxing Council champions
World light-welterweight boxing champions
World super-featherweight boxing champions
|
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204433
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrotis
|
Macrotis
|
Macrotis is a genus of desert-dwelling marsupial omnivores known as bilbies or rabbit-bandicoots; they are members of the order Peramelemorphia. At the time of European colonisation of Australia, there were two species. The lesser bilby became extinct in the 1950s; the greater bilby survives but remains endangered. It is currently listed as a vulnerable species. It is on average long, excluding the tail, which is usually around long. Its fur is usually grey or white, it has a long pointy nose and very long ears, hence earning its nick-name, the rabbit-eared bandicoot.
Taxonomy
Macrotis means ‘big-eared’ ( + ‘ear’) in Greek, referring to the animal's large, long ears.
The genus name was first proposed as a subgeneric classification, which after a century of taxonomic confusion was eventually stabilised as the accepted name in a 1932 revision by Ellis Troughton. In reviewing the systematic arrangement of the genus, Troughton recognised three species names, including one highly variable population with six subspecies.
The family's current name Thylacomyidae is derived from an invalid synonym Thylacomys, meaning 'pouched mouse', from the Ancient Greek (, 'pouch, sack') and (, 'mouse, muscle'), sometimes misspelt Thalacomys.
The term bilby is a loanword from the Yuwaalaraay Aboriginal language of northern New South Wales, meaning long-nosed rat. It is known as dalgite in Western Australia, and the nickname pinkie is sometimes used in South Australia. The Wiradjuri of New South Wales also call it "bilby".
Gerard Krefft recorded the name Jacko used by the peoples of the lower Darling in 1864, emended to Jecko in 1866 along with Wuirrapur from the peoples at the lower Murray River.
Classification
The placement of the population within taxonomic classification has changed in recent years. Vaughan (1978) and Groves and Flannery (1990) both placed this family within the family Peramelidae. Kirsch et al. (1997) found them to be distinct from the species in Peroryctidae (which is now a subfamily in Peramelidae). McKenna and Bell (1997) also placed it in Peramelidae, but as the sister of Chaeropus in the subfamily Chaeropodinae.
A summary of the treatment as a peramelemorph family is,
Peramelemorphia
Thylacomyidae
Genus Macrotis
Macrotis lagotis, extant
Macrotis leucura, extinct
Chaeropodidae (pig-footed bandicoots, extinct)
Peramelidae (genera known as bandicoots, extant and extinct)
Fossil taxa allied to the family are,
Genus †Ischnodon
†Ischnodon australis
Genus †Liyamayi
†Liyamayi dayi
Description
Bilbies have the characteristic long bandicoot muzzle and very big ears that radiate heat. They are about long. Compared to bandicoots, they have a longer tail, bigger ears, and softer, silky fur. The size of their ears allows them to have better hearing. They are nocturnal omnivores that do not need to drink water, as they obtain their moisture from food, which includes insects and their larvae, seeds, spiders, bulbs, fruit, fungi, and very small animals. Most food is found by digging or scratching in the soil, and using their very long tongues.
Unlike bandicoots, they are excellent burrowers and build extensive tunnel systems with their strong forelimbs and well-developed claws. A bilby typically makes a number of burrows within its home range, up to about a dozen, and moves between them, using them for shelter both from predators and the heat of the day. The female bilby's pouch faces backwards, which prevents the pouch from getting filled with dirt while she is digging.
Bilbies have a gestation of about 12–14 days, one of the shortest among mammals.
The appearance of the bilby has been alluded to as an Australian easter bunny.
Conservation
Bilbies are slowly becoming endangered because of habitat loss and change, and competition with other animals. There is a national recovery plan being developed for saving them. This program includes captive breeding, monitoring populations, and reestablishing bilbies where they once lived. There have been reasonably successful moves to popularise the bilby as a native alternative to the Easter Bunny by selling chocolate Easter Bilbies (sometimes with a portion of the profits going to bilby protection and research). Reintroduction efforts have begun, with a successful reintroduction into the Arid Recovery Reserve in South Australia in 2000, and a reintroduction into Currawinya National Park in Queensland, where six bilbies were released into a predator-proof enclosure in April 2019.
Successful reintroductions have also occurred on the Peron Peninsula in Western Australia as a part of the Western Shield program, and at other conservation lands, including islands and the Australian Wildlife Conservancy's Scotia and Yookamurra Sanctuaries. There is a highly successful bilby breeding program at Kanyana Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre near Perth, Western Australia.
Evolution
The bilby lineage extends back 15 million years. In 2014 scientists found part of a 15-million-year-old fossilised jaw of a bilby which had shorter teeth that were probably used for eating forest fruit. Prior to this discovery, the oldest bilby fossil on record was 5 million years old. Modern bilbies have evolved to have long teeth used to dig holes in the desert to eat worms and insects.
It is thought the bilby diverged from its closest relative, an originally-carnivorous bandicoot, 20 million years ago.
See also
Australian fauna
Boj (TV series), animated cartoon featuring a bilby as a character
Bilby (Film) Animated short made by DreamWorks Animation
References
External links
ARKive - images and movies of the greater bilby (Macrotis lagotis)
Peramelemorphs
Marsupials of Australia
Marsupial genera
Extant Miocene first appearances
Mammal genera with one living species
|
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204435
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe%20PageMaker
|
Adobe PageMaker
|
Adobe PageMaker (formerly Aldus PageMaker) is a discontinued desktop publishing computer program introduced in 1985 by the Aldus Corporation on the Apple Macintosh. The combination of the Macintosh's graphical user interface, PageMaker publishing software, and the Apple LaserWriter laser printer marked the beginning of the desktop publishing revolution. Ported to PCs running Windows 1.0 in 1987, PageMaker helped to popularize both the Macintosh platform and the Windows environment.
A key component that led to PageMaker's success was its native support for Adobe Systems' PostScript page description language. After Adobe purchased the majority of Aldus's assets (including FreeHand, PressWise, PageMaker, etc.) in 1994 and subsequently phased out the Aldus name, version 6 was released. The program remained a major force in the high-end DTP market through the early 1990s, but new features were slow in coming. By the mid-1990s, it faced increasing competition from QuarkXPress on the Mac, and to a lesser degree, Ventura on the PC, and by the end of the decade it was no longer a major force. Quark proposed buying the product and cancelling it, but instead, in 1999 Adobe released their "Quark Killer", Adobe InDesign. The last major release of PageMaker came in 2001, and customers were offered InDesign licenses at a lower cost.
Release history
Aldus Pagemaker 1.0 was released in July 1985 for the Macintosh and in December 1986 for the IBM PC.
Aldus Pagemaker 1.2 for Macintosh was released in 1986 and added support for PostScript fonts built into LaserWriter Plus or downloaded to the memory of other output devices. PageMaker was awarded a Codie award for Best New Use of a Computer in 1986. In October 1986, a version of Pagemaker was made available for Hewlett-Packard's HP Vectra computers. In 1987, Pagemaker was available on Digital Equipment's VAXstation computers.
Aldus Pagemaker 2.0 was released in 1987. Until May 1987, the initial Windows release was bundled with a full version of Windows 1.0.3; after that date, a "Windows-runtime" without task-switching capabilities was included. Thus, users who did not have Windows could run the application from MS-DOS.
Aldus Pagemaker 3.0 for Macintosh was shipped in April 1988. PageMaker 3.0 for the PC was shipped in May 1988 and required Windows 2.0, which was bundled as a run-time version. Version 3.01 was available for OS/2 and took extensive advantage of multithreading for improved user responsiveness.
Aldus PageMaker 4.0 for Macintosh was released in 1990 and offered new word-processing capabilities, expanded typographic controls, and enhanced features for handling long documents. A version for the PC was available by 1991.
Aldus PageMaker 5.0 was released in January 1993.
Adobe PageMaker 6.0 was released in 1995, a year after Adobe Systems acquired Aldus Corporation.
Adobe PageMaker 6.5 was released in 1996. Support for versions 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, and 6.5 is no longer offered through the official Adobe support system. Due to Aldus' use of closed, proprietary data formats, this poses substantial problems for users who have works authored in these legacy versions.
Adobe PageMaker 7.0 was the final version made available. It was released 9 July 2001, though updates have been released for the two supported platforms since. The Macintosh version runs only in Mac OS 9 or earlier; there is no native support for Mac OS X, and it does not run on Intel-based Macs without SheepShaver. It does not run well under Classic, and Adobe recommends that customers use an older Macintosh capable of booting into Mac OS 9. The Windows version supports Windows XP, but according to Adobe, "PageMaker 7.x does not install or run on Windows Vista."
End of development
Development of PageMaker had flagged in the later years at Aldus and, by 1998, PageMaker had lost almost the entire professional market to the comparatively feature-rich QuarkXPress 3.3, released in 1992, and 4.0, released in 1996. Quark stated its intention to buy out Adobe and to divest the combined company of PageMaker to avoid anti-trust issues. Adobe rebuffed the offer and instead continued to work on a new page layout application code-named "Shuksan" (later "K2"), originally started by Aldus, openly planned and positioned as a "Quark killer". This was released as Adobe InDesign 1.0 in 1999.
The last major release of PageMaker was 7.0 in 2001, after which the product was seen as "languishing on life support". Adobe ceased all development of PageMaker in 2004 and "strongly encouraged" users to migrate to InDesign, initially through special "InDesign PageMaker Edition" and "PageMaker Plug-in" versions, which added PageMaker's data merge, bullet, and numbering features to InDesign, and provided PageMaker-oriented help topics, complimentary Myriad Pro fonts, and templates. From 2005, these features were bundled into InDesign CS2, which was offered at half-price to existing PageMaker customers.
No new major versions of Adobe PageMaker have been released since, and it does not ship alongside Adobe InDesign.
Reception
BYTE in 1989 listed PageMaker 3.0 as among the "Distinction" winners of the BYTE Awards, stating that it "is the program that showed many of us how to use the Macintosh to its full potential".
References
External links
Adobe - PageMaker 7 (official site)
List of Adobe PageMaker Resources sites
PageMaker History
1985 software
Aldus software
Desktop publishing software
DTP for MacOS
DTP for Windows
|
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] |
204446
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Redmond
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John Redmond
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John Edward Redmond (1 September 1856 – 6 March 1918) was an Irish nationalist politician, barrister, and MP in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. He was best known as leader of the moderate Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) from 1900 until his death in 1918. He was also leader of the paramilitary organisation the Irish National Volunteers (INV).
He was born to an old prominent Catholic family in rural Ireland; several relatives were politicians. He took over control of the minority IPP faction loyal to Charles Stewart Parnell when that leader died in 1891. Redmond was a conciliatory politician who achieved the two main objectives of his political life: party unity and, in September 1914, the passing of the Government of Ireland Act 1914. The Act granted limited self-government to Ireland, within the United Kingdom. However, implementation of Home Rule was suspended by the outbreak of the First World War. Redmond called on the National Volunteers to join Irish regiments of the New British Army and support the British and Allied war effort to restore the "freedom of small nations" on the European continent, thereby to also ensure the implementation of Home Rule after a war that was expected to be of short duration. However, after the Easter Rising of 1916, Irish public opinion shifted in favour of militant republicanism and full Irish independence, so that his party lost its dominance in Irish politics.
Family influences and background
John Edward Redmond (the younger) was born at Ballytrent House, Kilrane, County Wexford, his grandfather's old family mansion. He was the eldest son of William Archer Redmond, MP by Mary, daughter of General Hoey, the brother of Francis Hoey, heir of the Hoey seat, Dunganstown Castle, County Wicklow.
For over seven hundred years the Redmonds had been a prominent Catholic gentry family in County Wexford and Wexford town. They were one of the oldest Hiberno-Norman families, and had for a long time been known as the Redmonds of 'The Hall', which is now known as Loftus Hall. His more immediate family were a remarkable political dynasty themselves. Redmond's grand uncle, John Edward Redmond, was a prominent banker and businessman before entering Parliament as a member for Wexford constituency in 1859; his statue stands in Redmond Square, Wexford town. After his death in 1866, his nephew, William Archer Redmond, this John Redmond's father, was elected to the seat and soon emerged as a prominent supporter of Isaac Butt's new policy for home rule. John Redmond was the brother of Willie Redmond, MP for Wexford and East Clare, and the father of William Redmond, whose wife was Bridget Redmond.
Redmond's family heritage was more complex than that of most of his nationalist political colleagues. His mother came from a Protestant and unionist family; although she had converted to Catholicism on marriage, she never converted to nationalism. His uncle General John Patrick Redmond, who had inherited the family estate, was created CB for his role during the Indian mutiny; he disapproved of his nephew's involvement in agrarian agitation of the 1880s. John Redmond boasted of his family involvement in the 1798 Wexford Rebellion; a "Miss Redmond" had ridden in support of the rebels, a Father Redmond was hanged by the yeomanry, as was a maternal ancestor, William Kearney.
Education and early career
As a student, young John exhibited the seriousness that many would soon come to associate with him. Educated by the Jesuits at Clongowes Wood College, he was primarily interested in poetry and literature, played the lead in school theatricals and was regarded as the best speaker in the school's debating society. After finishing at Clongowes, Redmond attended Trinity College Dublin to study law, but his father's ill-health led him to abandon his studies before taking a degree. In 1876 he left to live with his father in London, acting as his assistant in Westminster, where he developed more fascination for politics than for law. He first came into contact with Michael Davitt on the occasion of a reception held in London to celebrate the release of the famous Fenian prisoner. As a clerk in the House of Commons he increasingly identified himself with the fortunes of Charles Stewart Parnell, one of the founders of the Irish Land League and a noted 'obstructionist' in the Commons.
Political profession and marriage
Redmond first attended political meetings with Parnell in 1879. Upon his father's death later in 1880, he wrote to Parnell asking for adoption as the Nationalist Party (from 1882 the Irish Parliamentary Party) candidate in the by-election to fill the open seat, but was disappointed to learn that Parnell had already promised the next vacancy to his secretary Timothy Healy. Nevertheless, Redmond supported Healy as the nominee, and when another vacancy arose, this time in New Ross, he won election unopposed as the Parnellite candidate for the seat. On election (31 January 1881), he rushed to the House of Commons, made his maiden speech next day amid stormy scenes following the arrest of Michael Davitt, then a Land League leader, and was ejected from the Commons all on the same evening. He served as MP for New Ross from 1881 to 1885, for North Wexford from 1885 to 1891 and finally for Waterford City from 1891 until his death in 1918.
By the time of Redmond's election, the Land League conflict was by now at a turbulent stage. Early in 1882, he and his brother Willie were sent to Australia on a fundraising mission which was a success in both political and personal terms; in 1883 he and his brother married into the prosperous Irish-Australian Dalton family, and became friends with James Dalton and whom he spent much of his time with. His marriage was short-lived but happy: his wife Johanna died early in 1889 after bearing him three children. He also travelled in 1884, 1886 and 1904 to the US, where he was to use more extreme language but found his contact with Irish-American extremism daunting. His Australian experience, on the other hand, was to have a strong influence on his political outlook, causing him to embrace an Irish version of Liberal Imperialism and to remain anxious to retain Irish representation and Ireland's voice at Westminster even after the implementation of home rule. During the debate which followed Gladstone's conversion to Home Rule in 1886, he declared: "As a Nationalist, I do not regard as entirely palatable the idea that forever and a day Ireland's voice should be excluded from the councils of an empire which the genius and valour of her sons have done so much to build up and of which she is to remain".
In 1899 Redmond married his second wife, Ada Beesley, an English Protestant who, after his death, converted to Catholicism.
Leader of the Parnellite party
Having belatedly become a barrister by completing his terms at the King's Inns, Dublin, being called to the Irish bar in 1887 (and to the English bar a year later), Redmond busied himself with agrarian cases during the Plan of Campaign. In 1888, following a strong and conceivably intimidatory speech, he received five weeks' imprisonment with hard labour. A loyal supporter of Parnell, Redmond—like Davitt—was deeply opposed to the use of physical force and was committed to political change by constitutional means, campaigning constitutionally for Home Rule as an interim form of All-Ireland self-government within the United Kingdom.
In November 1890 the Irish Parliamentary Party split over Parnell's leadership when his long-standing adultery with Katharine O'Shea was revealed in a spectacular divorce case. Redmond stood by Parnell and worked to keep the minority faction active. When Parnell died in 1891, Redmond became MP for Waterford and took over leadership of the Parnellite faction of the split party. Redmond lacked Parnell's oratory and charisma but did demonstrate both his organisational ability and his considerable rhetorical skills. He raised funds for the Parnell Monument in Dublin.
The larger anti-Parnellite group formed the Irish National Federation (INF) under John Dillon. After 1895 the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists, who were opposed to Home Rule, controlled Parliament. Redmond supported the Unionist Irish Secretary Gerald Balfour programme of Constructive Unionism, while advising the Tory Government that its self-declared policy of "killing Home Rule with kindness" would not achieve its objective. The Unionists bought out most of the Protestant landowners, thereby reducing rural unrest in Ireland. Redmond dropped all interest in agrarian radicalism and, unlike the mainstream nationalists, worked constructively alongside Unionists, such as Horace Plunkett, in the Recess Committee of 1895. It led to the establishment of a department of agriculture in 1899. He further argued that the land reforms and democratisation of elected local government under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 would in fact stimulate demands for Home Rule rather than dampen them, as was the case.
Home Rule and the Liberals
When on 6 February 1900, through the initiative of William O'Brien and his United Irish League (UIL), the INL and the INF re-united again within the Irish Parliamentary Party, Redmond was elected its chairman (leader), a position he held until his death in 1918—a longer period than any other nationalist leader, except Éamon de Valera and Daniel O'Connell. However, Redmond, a Parnellite, was chosen as a compromise due to the personal rivalries between the anti-Parnellite Home Rule leaders. Therefore, he never had as much control over the party as his predecessor, his authority and leadership a balancing act having to contend with such powerful colleagues as John Dillon, William O'Brien, Timothy Healy and Joseph Devlin. He nevertheless led the Party successfully through the September 1900 general election.
Then followed William O'Brien's amicable and conciliatory Land Conference of 1902 involving leading landlords under Lord Dunraven and tenant representatives O'Brien, Redmond, Timothy Harrington and T. W. Russell for the Ulster tenants. It resulted in the enactment of the unprecedented Land Purchase (Ireland) Act 1903. Redmond first sided with O'Brien's new strategy of "conciliation plus business", but refused O'Brien's demand to rebuke Dillon for his criticism of the Act, leading to O'Brien's resignation from the party in November 1903. Redmond approved of the unsuccessful 1904 devolution proposals of the Irish Reform Association. Despite their differences, Redmond and Dillon made a good team: Redmond, who was a fine speaker and liked the House of Commons, dealt with the British politicians, while Dillon, who disliked London, the Commons and their influence on Irish politicians, stayed in Ireland and kept Redmond in touch with national feelings.
Though government had been dominated by the Conservative Party for more than a decade, the new century saw much favourable legislation enacted in Ireland's interest. An electoral swing to the Liberal Party in the 1906 general election renewed Redmond's opportunities for working with government policy. The Liberals, however, did not yet back his party's demands for full Home Rule, which contributed to a renewal of agrarian radicalism in the ranch wars of 1906–1910. Redmond's low-key and conciliatory style of leadership gave the impression of weakness but reflected the problem of keeping together a factionalised party. He grew in stature after 1906 and especially after 1910. As far as Redmond was concerned, the Home Rule movement was interested in promoting Irish nationality within the British Empire, but it was also a movement with a visceral antipathy to the English and their colonies.
Redmond initially supported the introduction of the Liberals' 1907 Irish Council Bill, which was also favoured by O'Brien and IPP members who initially voted for the first reading. Redmond said, "if this measure fulfilled certain conditions I laid down we should consider it an aid to Home Rule". When this was rejected by Dillon and the UIL, Redmond, fearing another Party split, quietly endured Dillon's dictate of distancing the Irish Party from any understanding with the landlord class.
The first election of January 1910 changed everything to Redmond's advantage, returning a hung parliament in which his parliamentary party held the balance of power at Westminster; this marked a high point in his political career. The previous year, the Lords had blocked the budget of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George. Redmond's party supported the Liberals in introducing a bill to curb the power of the House of Lords, which, after a second election in December 1910 had generated an almost identical result to the one in January, became the Parliament Act 1911. Irish Home Rule (which the Lords had blocked in 1893) now became a realistic possibility. Redmond used his leverage to persuade the Liberal government of H. H. Asquith to introduce the Third Home Rule Bill in April 1912, to grant Ireland national self-government. The Lords no longer had the power to block such a bill, only to delay its enactment for two years. Home Rule had reached the pinnacle of its success and Redmond had gone much further than any of his predecessors in shaping British politics to the needs of the Irish.
For all its reservations, the Home Rule Bill was for Redmond the fulfilment of a lifelong dream. "If I may say so reverently", he told the House of Commons, "I personally thank God that I have lived to see this day". But Asquith missed a magnificent opportunity, by failing to incorporate into the Bill any significant concessions to Ulster Unionists, who then campaigned relentlessly against it. Nonetheless, by 1914 Redmond had become a nationalist hero of Parnellite stature and could have had every expectation of becoming head of a new Irish government in Dublin.
Home rule passed
But like most leaders in the nationalist scene, not least his successors in the republican scene, he knew little of Ulster or the intensity of Unionist sentiment against home rule. His successor, John Dillon, claimed that Redmond had removed all the obstacles to Irish unity except those of the Ulster unionists. He had persuaded British public and political opinion of all hues of its merits. William O'Brien and his dissident AFIL Party warned in similar vein, that the volatile Northern Ireland situation was left unresolved.
Home rule was vehemently opposed by many Irish Protestants, the Irish Unionist Party and Ulster's Orange Order, who feared domination in an overwhelmingly Catholic state. Unionists also feared economic problems, namely that the predominantly agricultural Ireland would impose tariffs on British goods, leading to restrictions on the importation of industrial produce; the main location of Ireland's industrial development was Ulster, the north-east of the island, the only part of Ireland dominated by unionists. Most unionist leaders, especially Sir Edward Carson—with whom Redmond always had a good personal relationship, based on shared experiences at Trinity College Dublin and the Irish bar—threatened the use of force to prevent home rule, helped by their supporters in the British Conservative Party. Redmond misjudged them as merely bluffing. Carson predicted that if any attempt to coerce any part of Ulster were made, "a united Ireland within the lifetime of any one now living would be out of the question".
During negotiations early in 1914, two lines of concessions for the Carsonites were formulated: autonomy for Ulster in the form of 'Home Rule within Home Rule', which Redmond was inclined to, or alternatively the Lloyd George scheme of three years as the time limit for temporary exclusion. Redmond grudgingly acquiesced to this as "the price of peace". From the moment Carson spurned 'temporary' exclusion, the country began a plunge into anarchy. The situation took on an entirely new aspect in late March with the Curragh Mutiny together with the spectre of civil war on the part of the Ulster Covenanters, who formed the Ulster Volunteers to oppose Home Rule, forcing Redmond to then in July take over control of their counterpart, the Irish Volunteers, established in November 1913 to enforce Home Rule.
Asquith conceded to the Lords' demand to have the Home Rule Act 1914, which had passed all stages in the Commons, amended to temporarily exclude the six counties of Northern Ireland, which for a period would continue to be governed by London, not Dublin, and to later make some special provision for them. A Buckingham Palace Conference failed to resolve the entangled situation. Strongly opposed to the partition of Ireland in any form, Redmond and his party reluctantly agreed to what they understood would be a trial exclusion of now six years; under Redmond's aspiration that "Ulster will have to follow", he was belatedly prepared to concede a large measure of autonomy to it to come in.
Redmond's confidence was strong and communicated itself to Ireland. But whatever could be said to shake confidence was said by William O'Brien and Timothy Healy, who denounced the Bill as worthless when linked to the plan of even temporary partition and declared that, whatever the Government might say at present, "we had not yet reached the end of their concessions". On the division they and their All-for-Ireland Party abstained, so that the majority dropped from 85 to 77. Using the Parliament Act, the Lords was deemed to have passed the Act; it received the Royal Assent in September 1914.
European conflict intervenes
The outbreak of World War I in August 1914 caused the enactment of Home Rule to be postponed for the duration of the conflict. Judged from the perspective of that time, Redmond had won a form of triumph: he had secured the passing of Home Rule with the provision that the implementation of the measure would be delayed "not later than the end of the present war", which "would be bloody but short lived". His Unionist opponents were in confusion and dismayed by the passing of the Home Rule Act and by the absence of any definite provisions for the exclusion of Ulster. In two speeches delivered by Redmond in August and September 1914, deemed as critical turning-points in the Home Rule process, he stated: "Armed Nationalist Catholics in the South will be only too glad to join arms with the armed Protestant Ulstermen in the North. Is it too much to hope that out of this situation there may spring a result which will be good, not merely for the Empire, but good for the future welfare and integrity of the Irish nation?"
Under these circumstances any political bargaining might well have been disastrous to Home Rule. Redmond desperately wanted and needed a rapid enactment of the Home Rule Act, and undoubtedly his words were a means to that end. He called on the country to support the Allied and British war effort and Britain's commitment under the Triple Entente; this was a calculated response to the situation principally in the belief that the attained measure of self-government would be granted in full after the war and to be in a stronger position to stave off a final partition of Northern Ireland. His added hope was that the common sacrifice by Irish nationalists and Unionists would bring them closer together, but above all that nationalists could not afford to allow Ulster Unionists to reap the benefit of being the only Irish to support the war effort, when they spontaneously enlisted in their 36th (Ulster) Division. He said Let Irishmen come together in the trenches and risk their lives together and spill their blood together, and I say there is no power on earth that when they come home can induce them to turn as enemies upon one another.
Redmond also argued that "No people can be said to have rightly proved their nationhood and their power to maintain it until they have demonstrated their military prowess". He praised Irish soldiers, "with their astonishing courage and their beautiful faith, with their natural military genius […] offering up their supreme sacrifice of life with a smile on their lips because it was given for Ireland".
Speaking at Maryborough on 16 August 1914, he addressed a 2,000 strong assembly of Irish Volunteers, some armed, saying he had told the British Parliament that:
for the first time in the history of the connection between England and Ireland, it was safe to-day for England to withdraw her armed troops from our country and that the sons of Ireland themselves, North and South, Catholic and Protestant, and whatever the origin of their race might have been – Williamite, Cromwellian, or old Celtic – standing shoulder to shoulder, would defend the good order and peace of Ireland, and defend her shores against any foreign foe.
Nationalists split
Redmond's appeal, however, to the Irish Volunteers to also enlist caused them to split; a large majority of 140,000 followed Redmond and formed the National Volunteers, who enthusiastically enlisted in Irish regiments of the 10th and 16th (Irish) Divisions of the New British Army, while a minority of around 9,700 members remained as the original Irish Volunteers. Redmond believed that Imperial Germany's hegemony and military expansion threatened the freedom of Europe and that it was Ireland's duty, having achieved future self-government:
"to the best of her ability to go where ever the firing line extends, in defence of right, of freedom and of religion in this war. It would be a disgrace forever to our country otherwise". (Woodenbridge speech to the Irish Volunteers, 20 September 1914)
Redmond requested the War Office to allow the formation of a separate 'Irish Brigade' as had been done for the Ulster Volunteers, but Britain was suspicious of Redmond. His plan was that post-war the 'Irish Brigade' and National Volunteers would provide the basis for an Irish Army, capable of enforcing Home Rule on reluctant Ulster Unionists. Eventually he was granted the gesture of the 16th (Irish) Division which, with the exception of its Irish General William Hickie at first had mostly English officers, unlike the Ulster Division which had its own reserve militia officers, since most of the experienced officers in Ireland had already been posted to the 10th (Irish) Division and most Irish recruits enlisting in the new army lacked the military training to act as officers. Redmond's own son, William Redmond, enlisted, as did his own brother Major Willie Redmond MP, despite being aged over 50 years. They belonged to a group of five Irish MPs who enlisted, the others J. L. Esmonde, Stephen Gwynn, and D. D. Sheehan as well as former MP Tom Kettle.
Redmond was and is still criticised for having encouraged so many Irish to fight in the Great War. However the Irish historian J. J. Lee wrote: "Redmond could have tactically done nothing other than support the British war campaign; . . . nobody committed to Irish unity could have behaved other than Redmond did at the time. Otherwise, there would be no chance whatever of a united Ireland, in which Redmond passionately believed".
Easter Rising and aftermath
During 1915 Redmond felt secure in his course and that the path was already partly cleared for Home Rule to be achieved without bloodshed. He was supported by continued by-election successes of the IPP, and felt strong enough to turn down the offer of a cabinet seat, which would have offset Carson's appointment to the cabinet but would have been unpopular in Ireland. Even in 1916 he felt supremely confident and optimistic despite timely warnings from Bonar Law of an impending insurrection. Redmond did not expect the 1916 Easter Rising, which was staged by the remaining Irish Volunteers and the Irish Citizen Army, led by a number of influential republicans, under Patrick Pearse. Pearse, who had in 1913 stood with Redmond on the same platform where the Rising now took place, had at that time praised Redmond's efforts in achieving the promise of Home Rule. Redmond later acknowledged that the Rising was a shattering blow to his lifelong policy of constitutional action. It equally helped fuel republican sentiment, particularly when General Maxwell executed the leaders of the Rising, treating them as traitors in wartime.
On 3 May 1916, after three of the Rising's leaders had been executed—Pearse, Thomas MacDonagh and Tom Clarke—Redmond said in the House of Commons: "This outbreak, happily, seems to be over. It has been dealt with firmness, which was not only right, but it was the duty of the Government to so deal with it". However, he urged the Government "not to show undue hardship or severity to the great masses of those who are implicated [in the Rising]". Redmond's plea, and John Dillon's, that the rebels be treated leniently were ignored.
There followed Asquith's attempt to introduce Home Rule in July 1916. David Lloyd George, recently appointed Secretary of State for War, was sent to Dublin to offer this to the leaders of the Irish Party, Redmond and Dillon. The scheme revolved around partition, officially a temporary arrangement, as understood by Redmond. Lloyd George, however, gave the Ulster leader Carson a written guarantee that Ulster would not be forced in. His tactic was to see that neither side would find out before a compromise was implemented. A modified Act of 1914 had been drawn up by the Cabinet on 17 June. The Act had two amendments enforced by Unionists on 19 July: permanent exclusion of Ulster, and a reduction of Ireland's representation in the Commons. Lloyd George informed Redmond of this on 22 July 1916, and Redmond accused the government of treachery. This was decisive to the future fortunes of the Home Rule movement; the Lloyd George debacle of 22 July finished the constitutional party, overthrew Redmond's power and left him utterly demoralised. It simultaneously discredited the politics of consent and created the space for radical alternatives. Redmond, after 1916 was increasingly eclipsed by ill-health, the rise of Sinn Féin and the growing dominance of Dillon within the Irish Party.
June 1917 brought a severe personal blow to Redmond when his brother Willie died in action on the front at the onset of the Battle of Messines offensive in Flanders; his vacant seat in East Clare was then won in July by Éamon de Valera, the most senior surviving commandant of the Easter insurgents. It was one of three by-election gains by Sinn Féin, the small separatist party that had played no part in the Rising, but was wrongly blamed by Britain and the Irish media. It was then taken over by surviving Rising leaders, under de Valera and the IRB. Just at this time Redmond made a desperate effort to broker a new compromise with Irish unionists, when he accepted Lloyd George's proposal for a national convention to resolve the problem of Home Rule and draft a constitution for Ireland.
Defeat and death
An Irish Convention of around one hundred delegates sat from July and ended in March 1918. Up until December 1917 Redmond used his influence to have a plan which had been put forward by the Southern Unionist leader Lord Midleton, accepted. It foresaw All-Ireland Home Rule with partial fiscal autonomy (until after the war, without customs and excise). All sides, including most Ulster delegates, wavered towards favouring agreement. Already ailing while attending the convention, his health permanently affected by an accident in 1912, Redmond also suffered assault on the street in Dublin by a crowd of young Sinn Féin supporters on his way to the convention, which included C.S. 'Todd' Andrews. On 15 January, just when he intended to move a motion on his proposal to have the Midleton plan agreed, some nationalist colleagues—the prominent Catholic Bishop O'Donnell and MP Joseph Devlin—expressed doubts. Rather than split the nationalist side, he withdrew his motion. A vital chance was lost.
He ended his participation by saying that under the circumstances he felt he could be of no further use to the Convention in the matter. His final word in the convention was the tragic one – Better for us never to have met than to have met and failed. Late in February the malady from which he was suffering grew worse. He left Dublin for London knowing that a settlement from the convention was impossible. An operation in March 1918 to remove an intestinal obstruction appeared to progress well at first, but then he suffered heart failure. He died a few hours later at a London nursing home on 6 March 1918. One of the last things he said to the Jesuit Father who was with him to the end, was, Father, I am a broken hearted man. At the convention, his last move was an adoption of O’Brien's policy of accommodating Unionist opposition in the North and in the South. It was too late. Had he joined O’Brien ten years before and carried the Irish Party with him, it is possible that Ireland's destiny would have been settled by evolution.
Condolences and expressions of sympathy were widely expressed. After a funeral service in Westminster Cathedral his remains were interred, as requested in a manner characteristic of the man, in the family vault at the old Knights' Templars' chapel yard of Saint John's Cemetery, Wexford town, amongst his own people rather than in the traditional burial place for Irish statesmen and heroes in Glasnevin Cemetery. The small, neglected cemetery near the town centre is kept locked to the public – his vault, which had been in a dilapidated state, has been only partially restored by Wexford County Council.
Party's demise
Redmond was succeeded in the party leadership by John Dillon and spared the experience of further political setbacks when after the German spring offensive of April 1918, Britain, caught in a desperate war of attrition, attempted to introduce conscription in Ireland linked with implementation of Home Rule. The Irish Nationalists led by Dillon walked out of the House of Commons and returned to Ireland to join in the widespread resistance and protests during the resulting conscription crisis.
The crisis boosted Sinn Féin so that in the December general election it won the vast majority of seats, leaving the Nationalist Party with only six seats for the 220,837 votes cast (21.7%) (down from 84 seats out of 105 in 1910). The Party simply did not win a proportionate share of seats because the election was not run under a 'proportional representation' system, but on the 'first past the post' British electoral system. Unionists, on the other hand, won 26 seats for 287,618 (28.3%) of votes, whereas Sinn Féin votes were 476,087 (or 46.9%) for 48 seats, plus 25 uncontested, totalling an impressive 73 seats. In January 1919 a Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the provisional Sinn Féin First Dáil proclaimed an Irish Republic, later abolished in 1921 after the Anglo-Irish War under the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which agreed on the Partition of Ireland and established the Irish Free State with its parliament Dáil Éireann. The Irish Civil War followed.
Home Rule was finally implemented in 1921 under the Government of Ireland Act 1920 (Fourth Home Rule Bill) which foresaw two Home Rule Irelands, although only adopted by the six counties forming Northern Ireland.
Legacy and personal vision
John Redmond's home town of Wexford remained a strongly Redmondite area for decades afterwards. The seat of Waterford city was one of the few outside Ulster not to be won by Sinn Féin in the 1918 general election. Redmond's son William Redmond represented the city until his death in 1932. A later Irish Taoiseach (prime minister), John Bruton, hung a painting of Redmond, whom he regarded as his hero because of his perceived commitment to non-violence in Ireland, in his office in Ireland's Leinster House Government Buildings. However, his successor Bertie Ahern replaced the painting with one of Patrick Pearse.
Redmond's personal vision did not encompass a wholly independent Ireland. He referred to:
"that brighter day when the grant of full self-government would reveal to Britain the open secret of making Ireland her friend and helpmate, the brightest jewel in her crown of Empire".
He had above all a conciliatory agenda; in his final words in parliament he expressed "a plea for concord between the two races that providence has designed should work as neighbours together". For him, Home Rule was an interim step for All-Ireland autonomy:
"His reward was to be repudiated and denounced by a generation which had yet to learn, as they learned three years later when they were forced to accept Partition, that true freedom is rarely served by bloodshed and violence, and that in politics compromise is inevitable. Yet it can be said of John Redmond that none of Ireland's sons had ever served her with greater sincerity or nobler purpose".
Notes
Further reading
Bew, Paul: Redmond, John Edward (1856–1918), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004–05)
Bew, Paul: John Redmond (1996)
Bull, Philip. "The United Irish League and the Reunion of the Irish Parliamentary Party, 1898–1900." Irish Historical Studies (1988): 51–78. in JSTOR
Foster, R. F. Vivid Faces: The Revolutionary Generation in Ireland, 1890–1923 (2015) excerpt
Gwynn, Stephen: John Redmond's last years, Edward Arnold pub. (1919)
Gwynn, Denis: The Life of John Redmond (1932)
Jackson, Alvin. Judging Redmond and Carson, Royal Irish Academy (2018).
O'Connor Lysaght, D. R.: "The Rhetoric of Redmondism" History Ireland (Spring 2003) pp 44–49 in JSTOR
McConnel, James. "John Redmond and Irish Catholic Loyalism." English Historical Review (2010): online
(2008)
Wheatley, Michael. "John Redmond and federalism in 1910." Irish Historical Studies (2001): 343–364. in JSTOR
External links
John Redmond Ireland's Forgotten Patriot
John Redmond Portrait Gallery: UCC Multitext Project in Irish History
1856 births
1918 deaths
Home Rule League MPs
Irish Parliamentary Party MPs
Parnellite MPs
United Irish League
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Waterford constituencies (1801–1922)
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Wexford constituencies (1801–1922)
UK MPs 1886–1892
UK MPs 1892–1895
UK MPs 1895–1900
UK MPs 1900–1906
UK MPs 1906–1910
UK MPs 1910
UK MPs 1910–1918
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Redmond, John Edward
People educated at Clongowes Wood College
John
Redmond, John Edward
Alumni of King's Inns
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive%20and%20extensive%20properties
|
Intensive and extensive properties
|
Physical properties of materials and systems can often be categorized as being either intensive or extensive, according to how the property changes when the size (or extent) of the system changes. According to IUPAC, an intensive quantity is one whose magnitude is independent of the size of the system whereas an extensive quantity is one whose magnitude is additive for subsystems.
An intensive property does not depend on the system size or the amount of material in the system. It is not necessarily homogeneously distributed in space; it can vary from place to place in a body of matter and radiation. Examples of intensive properties include temperature, T; refractive index, n; density, ρ; and hardness of an object, η.
By contrast, extensive properties such as the mass, volume and entropy of systems are additive for subsystems.
Though it is very often convenient to define physical quantities to make them intensive or extensive, they do not necessarily fall under those classifications. For example, the square root of the mass is neither intensive nor extensive.
The terms intensive and extensive quantities were introduced into physics by German writer Georg Helm in 1898, and by American physicist and chemist Richard C. Tolman in 1917.
Intensive properties
An intensive property is a physical quantity whose value does not depend on the amount of the substance for which it is measured. For example, the temperature of a system in thermal equilibrium is the same as the temperature of any part of it. If the system is divided by a wall that is permeable to heat or to matter, the temperature of each subsystem is identical; if a system divided by a wall that is impermeable to heat and to matter, then the subsystems can have different temperatures. Likewise for the density of a homogeneous system; if the system is divided in half, the extensive properties, such as the mass and the volume, are each divided in half, and the intensive property, the density, remains the same in each subsystem. Additionally, the boiling point of a substance is another example of an intensive property. For example, the boiling point of water is 100 °C at a pressure of one atmosphere, which remains true regardless of quantity.
The distinction between intensive and extensive properties has some theoretical uses. For example, in thermodynamics, the state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties, along with one extensive property, such as mass. Other intensive properties are derived from those two intensive variables.
Examples
Examples of intensive properties include:
chemical potential, μ
color
concentration, c
density, ρ (or specific gravity)
magnetic permeability, μ
melting point and boiling point
molality, m or b
pressure, p
refractive index
specific conductance (or electrical conductivity)
specific heat capacity, cp
specific internal energy, u
specific rotation, [α]
specific volume, v
standard reduction potential, E°
surface tension
temperature, T
thermal conductivity
viscosity
See List of materials properties for a more exhaustive list specifically pertaining to materials.
Extensive properties
An extensive property is a physical quantity whose value is proportional to the size of the system it describes, or to the quantity of matter in the system. For example, the mass of a sample is an extensive quantity; it depends on the amount of substance. The related intensive quantity is the density which is independent of the amount. The density of water is approximately 1g/mL whether you consider a drop of water or a swimming pool, but the mass is different in the two cases.
Dividing one extensive property by another extensive property generally gives an intensive value—for example: mass (extensive) divided by volume (extensive) gives density (intensive).
Examples
Examples of extensive properties include:
amount of substance, n
enthalpy, H
entropy, S
Gibbs energy, G
heat capacity, Cp
Helmholtz energy, A or F
internal energy, U
spring stiffness, K
mass, m
volume, V
Conjugate quantities
In thermodynamics, some extensive quantities measure amounts that are conserved in a thermodynamic process of transfer. They are transferred across a wall between two thermodynamic systems, or subsystems. For example, species of matter may be transferred through a semipermeable membrane. Likewise, volume may be thought of as transferred in a process in which there is a move of the wall between two systems, increasing the volume of one and decreasing that of the other by equal amounts.
On the other hand, some extensive quantities measure amounts that are not conserved in a thermodynamic process of transfer between a system and its surroundings. In a thermodynamic process in which a quantity of energy is transferred from the surroundings into or out of a system as heat, a corresponding quantity of entropy in the system respectively increases or decreases, but, in general, not in the same amount as in the surroundings. Likewise, a change of amount of electric polarization in a system is not necessarily matched by a corresponding change in electric polarization in the surroundings.
In a thermodynamic system, transfers of extensive quantities are associated with changes in respective specific intensive quantities. For example, a volume transfer is associated with a change in pressure. An entropy change is associated with a temperature change. A change of amount of electric polarization is associated with an electric field change. The transferred extensive quantities and their associated respective intensive quantities have dimensions that multiply to give the dimensions of energy. The two members of such respective specific pairs are mutually conjugate. Either one, but not both, of a conjugate pair may be set up as an independent state variable of a thermodynamic system. Conjugate setups are associated by Legendre transformations.
Composite properties
The ratio of two extensive properties of the same object or system is an intensive property. For example, the ratio of an object's mass and volume, which are two extensive properties, is density, which is an intensive property.
More generally properties can be combined to give new properties, which may be called derived or composite properties. For example, the base quantities mass and volume can be combined to give the derived quantity density. These composite properties can sometimes also be classified as intensive or extensive. Suppose a composite property is a function of a set of intensive properties and a set of extensive properties , which can be shown as . If the size of the system is changed by some scaling factor, , only the extensive properties will change, since intensive properties are independent of the size of the system. The scaled system, then, can be represented as .
Intensive properties are independent of the size of the system, so the property F is an intensive property if for all values of the scaling factor, ,
(This is equivalent to saying that intensive composite properties are homogeneous functions of degree 0 with respect to .)
It follows, for example, that the ratio of two extensive properties is an intensive property. To illustrate, consider a system having a certain mass, , and volume, . The density, is equal to mass (extensive) divided by volume (extensive): . If the system is scaled by the factor , then the mass and volume become and , and the density becomes ; the two s cancel, so this could be written mathematically as , which is analogous to the equation for above.
The property is an extensive property if for all ,
(This is equivalent to saying that extensive composite properties are homogeneous functions of degree 1 with respect to .) It follows from Euler's homogeneous function theorem that
where the partial derivative is taken with all parameters constant except . This last equation can be used to derive thermodynamic relations.
Specific properties
A specific property is the intensive property obtained by dividing an extensive property of a system by its mass. For example, heat capacity is an extensive property of a system. Dividing heat capacity, , by the mass of the system gives the specific heat capacity, , which is an intensive property. When the extensive property is represented by an upper-case letter, the symbol for the corresponding intensive property is usually represented by a lower-case letter. Common examples are given in the table below.
*Specific volume is the reciprocal of density.
If the amount of substance in moles can be determined, then each of these thermodynamic properties may be expressed on a molar basis, and their name may be qualified with the adjective molar, yielding terms such as molar volume, molar internal energy, molar enthalpy, and molar entropy. The symbol for molar quantities may be indicated by adding a subscript "m" to the corresponding extensive property. For example, molar enthalpy is . Molar Gibbs free energy is commonly referred to as chemical potential, symbolized by , particularly when discussing a partial molar Gibbs free energy for a component in a mixture.
For the characterization of substances or reactions, tables usually report the molar properties referred to a standard state. In that case an additional superscript is added to the symbol. Examples:
= is the molar volume of an ideal gas at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.
is the standard molar heat capacity of a substance at constant pressure.
is the standard enthalpy variation of a reaction (with subcases: formation enthalpy, combustion enthalpy...).
is the standard reduction potential of a redox couple, i.e. Gibbs energy over charge, which is measured in volt = J/C.
Limitations
The general validity of the division of physical properties into extensive and intensive kinds has been addressed in the course of science. Redlich noted that, although physical properties and especially thermodynamic properties are most conveniently defined as either intensive or extensive, these two categories are not all-inclusive and some well-defined physical properties conform to neither definition. Redlich also provides examples of mathematical functions that alter the strict additivity relationship for extensive systems, such as the square or square root of volume, which may occur in some contexts, albeit rarely used.
Other systems, for which standard definitions do not provide a simple answer, are systems in which the subsystems interact when combined. Redlich pointed out that the assignment of some properties as intensive or extensive may depend on the way subsystems are arranged. For example, if two identical galvanic cells are connected in parallel, the voltage of the system is equal to the voltage of each cell, while the electric charge transferred (or the electric current) is extensive. However, if the same cells are connected in series, the charge becomes intensive and the voltage extensive. The IUPAC definitions do not consider such cases.
Some intensive properties do not apply at very small sizes. For example, viscosity is a macroscopic quantity and is not relevant for extremely small systems. Likewise, at a very small scale color is not independent of size, as shown by quantum dots, whose color depends on the size of the "dot".
References
Physical quantities
Thermodynamic properties
|
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204466
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubble%20chamber
|
Bubble chamber
|
A bubble chamber is a vessel filled with a superheated transparent liquid (most often liquid hydrogen) used to detect electrically charged particles moving through it. It was invented in 1952 by Donald A. Glaser, for which he was awarded the 1960 Nobel Prize in Physics. Supposedly, Glaser was inspired by the bubbles in a glass of beer; however, in a 2006 talk, he refuted this story, although saying that while beer was not the inspiration for the bubble chamber, he did experiments using beer to fill early prototypes.
While bubble chambers were extensively used in the past, they have now mostly been supplanted by wire chambers, spark chambers, drift chambers, and silicon detectors. Notable bubble chambers include the Big European Bubble Chamber (BEBC) and Gargamelle.
Function and use
The bubble chamber is similar to a cloud chamber, both in application and in basic principle. It is normally made by filling a large cylinder with a liquid heated to just below its boiling point. As particles enter the chamber, a piston suddenly decreases its pressure, and the liquid enters into a superheated, metastable phase. Charged particles create an ionization track, around which the liquid vaporizes, forming microscopic bubbles. Bubble density around a track is proportional to a particle's energy loss.
Bubbles grow in size as the chamber expands, until they are large enough to be seen or photographed. Several cameras are mounted around it, allowing a three-dimensional image of an event to be captured. Bubble chambers with resolutions down to a few micrometers (μm) have been operated.
It is often useful to subject the entire chamber to a constant magnetic field. It acts on charged particles through Lorentz force and causes them to travel in helical paths whose radii are determined by the particles' charge-to-mass ratios and their velocities. Because the magnitude of the charge of all known, charged, long-lived subatomic particles is the same as that of an electron, their radius of curvature must be proportional to their momentum. Thus, by measuring a particle's radius of curvature, its momentum can be determined.
Notable discoveries
Notable discoveries made by bubble chamber include the discovery of weak neutral currents at Gargamelle in 1973, which established the soundness of the electroweak theory and led to the discovery of the W and Z bosons in 1983 (at the UA1 and UA2 experiments). Recently, bubble chambers have been used in research on weakly interacting massive particles (WIMP)s, at SIMPLE, COUPP, PICASSO and more recently, PICO.
Drawbacks
Although bubble chambers were very successful in the past, they are of limited use in modern very-high-energy experiments for a variety of reasons:
The need for a photographic readout rather than three-dimensional electronic data makes it less convenient, especially in experiments which must be reset, repeated and analyzed many times.
The superheated phase must be ready at the precise moment of collision, which complicates the detection of short-lived particles.
Bubble chambers are neither large nor massive enough to analyze high-energy collisions, where all products should be contained inside the detector.
The high-energy particles may have path radii too large to be accurately measured in a relatively small chamber, thereby hindering precise estimation of momentum.
Due to these issues, bubble chambers have largely been replaced by wire chambers, which allow particle energies to be measured at the same time. Another alternative technique is the spark chamber.
Examples
30 cm Bubble Chamber (CERN)
81 cm Saclay Bubble Chamber
2 m Bubble Chamber (CERN)
Berne Infinitesimal Bubble Chamber
Bevatron, a particle accelerator with a liquid hydrogen bubble chamber
Big European Bubble Chamber
Holographic Lexan Bubble Chamber
Gargamelle, a heavy liquid bubble chamber which operated in CERN between 1970 and 1979.
LExan Bubble Chamber
PICO, liquid freon bubble chamber searching for dark matter
SNOLAB
References
External links
Particle detectors
Hydrogen technologies
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim%20Basinger
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Kim Basinger
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Kimila Ann Basinger ( ; born December 8, 1953) is an American actress, singer, and former fashion model. Following a successful modeling career in New York, Basinger moved to Los Angeles where she began her acting career on television in 1976. She starred in several made-for-television films, including a remake of From Here to Eternity (1979), before making her feature debut in the drama Hard Country (1981).
Hailed as a sex symbol of the 1980s and 1990s, Basinger came to prominence for her performance of Bond girl Domino Petachi in Never Say Never Again (1983). She subsequently received a Golden Globe Award nomination for her role in The Natural (1984), starred in the erotic drama 9½ Weeks (1986), and played Vicki Vale in Tim Burton's Batman (1989), which remains the highest-grossing film of her career. For her femme fatale portrayal in L.A. Confidential (1997), Basinger won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Her other films include No Mercy (1986), Blind Date (1987), Prêt-à-Porter (1994), I Dreamed of Africa (2000), 8 Mile (2002), The Door in the Floor (2004), Cellular (2004), The Sentinel (2006), Grudge Match (2013), and Fifty Shades Darker (2017).
Early life and modeling
Basinger was born in Athens, Georgia, on December 8, 1953. Her mother, Ann Lee (née Cordell; 1925–2017), was a model, actress and swimmer who appeared in several Esther Williams films. Her father, Donald Wade Basinger (1923–2016), was a big band musician and loan manager; as a U.S. Army soldier, he landed in Normandy on D-Day. The middle of five children, she has two older brothers, Skip (b. 1950) and Mick (b. 1951), and two younger sisters, Barbara (b. 1956) and Ashley (b. 1959). Basinger's ancestry includes English, German, Swedish, and Ulster Scots. She was raised a Methodist. Basinger has described herself as extremely shy, which had a major effect on her during her childhood and young adulthood. She has said that her shyness was so extreme that she would faint if asked to speak in class.
Basinger studied ballet from about age three to her mid-teens. By her mid-teens, she grew in confidence and successfully auditioned for the school cheerleading team. At 17, she entered America's Junior Miss Scholarship Pageant, won at the city level and was crowned Athens Junior Miss. While she didn't win at the state level, her beauty was profiled in the national program. She had competed at the state level for the Breck Scholarship and was featured in an ad for Breck in a joint portrait with her mother.
Basinger was offered a modeling contract with the Ford Modeling Agency, but turned it down in favor of singing and acting, and enrolled at the University of Georgia. She soon reconsidered and went to New York to become a Ford model. Despite earning US$1,000 a day, Basinger never enjoyed modeling, saying: "It was very hard to go from one booking to another and always have to deal with the way I looked. I couldn't stand it. I felt myself choking." Basinger has said that even as a model, when others relished looking in the mirror before appearing, she abhorred it and would avoid mirrors out of insecurity. Not long after her Ford deal, Basinger appeared on the cover of magazines. She appeared in hundreds of advertisements throughout the early 1970s, most notably as the Breck Shampoo girl. She alternated between modeling and attending acting classes at the Neighborhood Playhouse, as well as performing in Greenwich Village clubs as a singer.
Basinger is an alumna of the William Esper Studio for the performing arts in Manhattan, New York City.
Career
Early roles (1976–1982)
In 1976, after five years as a cover girl, Basinger quit modeling and moved to Los Angeles to act. She made guest appearances on a few television shows such as McMillan & Wife and Charlie's Angels, turning down a regular role in the latter series that eventually went to Cheryl Ladd. Her first starring role was a made-for-TV movie, Katie: Portrait of a Centerfold (1978), in which she played a small town girl who goes to Hollywood to become an actress and winds up becoming a famous centerfold for a men's magazine. In 1979, she co-starred with Natalie Wood, William Devane and Steve Railsback in the miniseries remake of From Here to Eternity, reprising her role as prostitute Lorene Rogers in a 13-episode spinoff that aired in 1980. In 1981, Basinger posed for a famous nude pictorial for Playboy, and made her feature debut in the critically well-received but little-seen rural drama Hard Country, which she followed with the Charlton Heston-directed outdoorsy adventure Mother Lode (1982).
Worldwide exposure (1983–1989)
Her 1981 Playboy shoot was not published until 1983, when Basinger used it to promote her breakthrough role as the Bond girl Domino Petachi in Never Say Never Again (1983), where she starred opposite Sean Connery. In his review of the film, Gary Arnold of The Washington Post said Basinger "looks like a voluptuous sibling of Liv Ullmann and has a certain something." Worldwide, Never Say Never Again grossed US$160 million. Basinger said her subsequent Playboy appearance led to further opportunities, such as the role of the romantic interest of a baseball team star in Barry Levinson's The Natural (1984), alongside Robert Redford, for which she earned a Golden Globe nomination for Best Supporting Actress.
Blake Edwards cast her twice in his films; as a beautiful woman married to a Texas millionaire in The Man Who Loved Women (1983), and as an apparently shy woman who goes on a date with a workaholic man in Blind Date (1987). Robert Altman cast Basinger in the role of a woman hiding from her former lover at an old motel in Fool for Love (1985). In 1986, Basinger starred as a New York City art gallery employee who has a brief yet intense affair with a mysterious Wall Street broker, opposite Mickey Rourke, in Adrian Lyne's controversial erotic romantic drama 9½ Weeks. Though the film failed at the North American box office, it performed very well in Europe, especially France, and acquired a large American fanbase on home video and cable. Roger Ebert praised the film, comparing it to Last Tango in Paris, and said Basinger helped "develop an erotic tension [...] that is convincing, complicated and sensual."
Academy Award-winning writer-director Robert Benton also cast her in the title role of a slightly pregnant woman in trouble for Nadine (1987). While most of the films Basinger starred in during this period were released to varying degrees of success, they helped to establish her as an actress. With over US$400 million in box office totals, the highest-grossing film of her career thus far is Tim Burton's 1989 film Batman, in which Basinger took on role of photojournalist Vicki Vale, opposite Michael Keaton (Batman) and Jack Nicholson (Joker). The Hollywood Reporter, in its original review, remarked that "the uniqueness and very soul of the film [...] is achieved through the beautifully defined and probing performances of Michael Keaton as Bruce Wayne and Kim Basinger as Vicki Vale".
1990s
Following the success of Batman, Basinger played a glamorous singer, alongside Alec Baldwin, in the comedy The Marrying Man (1991), and starred with Richard Gere, as a woman romantically involved with her sister's psychiatrist, in the neo-noir Final Analysis (1992). Both films were released to moderate box office returns. In 1992, Basinger was also a guest vocalist on a re-recorded version of Was (Not Was)'s "Shake Your Head", which featured Ozzy Osbourne on vocals, and reached the UK Top 5, and starred in what marked her only voice-acting project to date, the film Cool World, directed by Ralph Bakshi, as a cartoon bombshell who longs to become a real human woman.
In 1993, Basinger took on the roles of a woman recently released from prison in the crime film The Real McCoy, and that of a woman named Honey Hornée in the comedy Wayne's World 2. In 1994, she reunited professionally with Baldwin for the thriller The Getaway, in which she portrayed the wife of a former con, and with director Robert Altman for the comedy Prêt-à-Porter, playing a breathlessly dim-witted cable reporter. Amid financial issues, Basinger went into hiatus from the screen by the mid-1990s.
She made a comeback as the high-class hooker in Curtis Hanson's neo-noir L.A. Confidential (1997), alongside Guy Pearce and Russell Crowe. She initially turned down the film twice, feeling an insecurity at returning to the screen and enjoying motherhood. The Washington Post felt that Basinger "exudes a sort of chaste sultriness", in what Roger Ebert described as "one of the best films of the year". The role earned her an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, as well as the Golden Globe and Screen Actor's Guild Award. She holds the distinction of being the only actress who has both posed nude in Playboy and won an Academy Award. In a 2000 interview with Charlie Rose, Basinger said that L.A. Confidential and her next film, I Dreamed of Africa (2000), were the most pleasurable of her career.
2000s
In I Dreamed of Africa, Basinger portrayed writer and environmentalist Kuki Gallmann, with Vincent Pérez, who she called the "most incredible actor she had ever worked with". The film was described as a "passion project" for her, and she told UrbanCinefile that she "cried for hours" when she had to leave Kenya, where filming took place. Budgeted at US$50 million, I Dreamed of Africa got a 10 percent rating on Rotten Tomatoes, and only managed to pull in US$14 million at the worldwide box office.
Curtis Hanson cast her again, this time as the alcoholic mother of an aspiring rapper, in 8 Mile (2002), opposite Eminem and Brittany Murphy. The film appeared on many top ten lists of the year, and in his review, Roger Ebert asserted: "There has been criticism of Kim Basinger, who is said to be too attractive and even glamorous to play [Eminem]'s mother, but [...] Her performance finds the right note somewhere between love and exasperation; it cannot be easy to live with this sullen malcontent, whose face lights up only when he sees his baby sister". 8 Mile was a commercial success, grossing US242.9 million worldwide.
Basinger starred as the wife of a children's book author, with Jeff Bridges and Jon Foster, in The Door in the Floor (2004), a drama with heavy sexual themes adapted from the novel A Widow for One Year by John Irving. The film found a limited audience in theaters, but in his review, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone, felt that "Basinger's haunted beauty burns in the memory" and called it "her finest work".
Basinger next appeared in two crime thrillers—Cellular (2004) and The Sentinel (2006). In Cellular, opposite Chris Evans and Jason Statham, she played a wealthy high school biology teacher taken hostage in her home. Entertainment Weekly considered that "Basinger makes a vividly frightened yet resourceful woman in peril", and the film was a moderate commercial success. In The Sentinel, Basinger portrayed the First Lady of the United States, opposite Michael Douglas, Kiefer Sutherland and Eva Longoria. Despite mixed reviews, the film made US$78.1 million globally. In 2006, Basinger also starred in the Lifetime film The Mermaid Chair, as a married woman who falls in love with a Benedictine monk and experiences a self-awakening.
Basinger then played a mother having extramarital affairs in director Guillermo Arriaga's feature film debut The Burning Plain (2008), a drama narrated in a hyperlink format, opposite Charlize Theron and Jennifer Lawrence. While the film found a limited release in theaters, The Telegraph, in its review, wrote: "Arriaga pulls together the strands of his narrative with great expertise [and] his job is made easier by great performances from three actresses: Theron and Basinger, who both look like racing certs for next year's awards season, and Jennifer Lawrence as Basinger's teenage daughter".
In 2008, Basinger produced and starred in the independent thriller While She Was Out, as a suburban housewife who is forced to fend for herself when she becomes stranded in a desolate forest with four murderous thugs. Despite a very limited release in theaters, L.A. Weekly described that film as a "surprisingly enjoyable female revenge tale" and called Basinger's performance "first-rate". Her next film, The Informers (2009), which was written by Bret Easton Ellis, premiered at the Sundance Film Festival. In it, Basinger starred as the chronically depressed wife of a jaded film executive (played by Billy Bob Thornton).
2010s
Basinger played the mother of a young man who made a promise to his deceased brother, with Zac Efron, in the supernatural drama Charlie St. Cloud (2010), based on the 2004 best-selling novel The Death and Life of Charlie St. Cloud by Ben Sherwood.
Basinger returned to Africa in her next film, the 2012 Nigerian drama Black November, about a Niger Delta community's struggle to save their environment, which was being destroyed by excessive oil drilling. As part of an ensemble cast (which included her 9½ Weeks co-star Mickey Rourke), she played the role of a kidnapped reporter. While the film had a significant impact upon its release, The Hollywood Reporter noted: "Don't be fooled by the names of Mickey Rourke and Kim Basinger on the marquee. Despite the tantalizing prospect of a reunion of the stars of a certain '80s-era hit erotic drama, their minor presence is largely extraneous to the proceedings of [this] overwrought and preachy thriller".
Basinger played the role of wife in two 2013 films — the independent drama Third Person, with Liam Neeson and Olivia Wilde, and the sports comedy Grudge Match, with Robert De Niro and Sylvester Stallone. Critic Odie Henderson, describing Basinger in his review for the latter film, remarked that she "looks stunning at 60 and provides the film's sole voice of reason". She subsequently took on the role of mother in the independent drama 4 Minute Mile (2014) as well as the part of a woman who, after a miscarriage, sets out on a dangerous quest to obtain a child in the likewise independent production The 11th Hour (also 2014), which was released for VOD. IndieWire felt that Basinger "does what she can with [The 11th Hour] material, but that's not much". In 2016, she had a brief role, as a crooked high-ranking official in the United States Department of Justice, in the crime comedy The Nice Guys, alongside Russell Crowe and Ryan Gosling.
Basinger played Elena Lincoln, the business partner and former lover of Christian Grey, in the film adaptation of Fifty Shades Darker (2017), the sequel to Fifty Shades of Grey. Dakota Johnson, her co-star, described her as "one of the great people to work with". Despite negative reviews, the film made US$381.4 million globally. Basinger reprised the role in the 2018 sequel, Fifty Shades Freed.
Personal life
Marriages and relationships
Before she was famous, Basinger dated male model Tim Saunders, photographer Dale Robinette and football player Joe Namath.
On October 12, 1980, she married makeup artist Ron Snyder-Britton, whom she met on the film Hard Country. Basinger developed agoraphobia that same year, following a panic attack in a health-food store, and was housebound for six months. Snyder quit his job during the marriage and changed his surname to Britton after Basinger requested he choose "something with a B" so she could keep the same initials when using her married name. The pair divorced just before Christmas 1989, after which Basinger paid him $9,000 monthly alimony for eight years. Britton later wrote a memoir titled Longer Than Forever, published in 1998, about their time together and about her affair with Richard Gere, with whom she starred in No Mercy (1986) and Final Analysis (1992).
While her first divorce was in the works, Basinger had romantic relationships with hairdresser/producer Jon Peters as well as singer Prince, who did the album for Batman and also produced her unreleased 1989 album Hollywood Affair. She was then involved briefly with fitness trainer Phil Walsh and fashion designer Alexio Gandara.
In 1990, Basinger met her second husband, Alec Baldwin, when they played lovers in The Marrying Man. They married on August 19, 1993, and starred in the 1994 remake of The Getaway. They also played themselves in a 1998 episode of The Simpsons, in which Basinger corrected Homer Simpson on the pronunciation of her last name and polished her Oscar statuette. Basinger and Baldwin have a daughter, Ireland Eliesse Baldwin (born October 23, 1995). They separated at the end of 2000 and divorced on September 3, 2002. In his 2008 book, A Promise to Ourselves: A Journey Through Fatherhood and Divorce, Baldwin chronicled the contentious seven-year custody battle with Basinger over their daughter following their separation, contending that she had spent more than $1.5 million in her efforts to deny him parental access.
After the divorce from Baldwin, Basinger was reported to be romantically linked with 8 Mile co-star Eminem, which the rapper denied in a 2002 interview. She would not have another publicized romantic attachment until 2014, when she began dating Mitch Stone. Like Snyder and Peters before him, Stone met Basinger while doing her hair on a movie set. The couple wear matching gold bands and have since moved in together.
Financial problems
Some family members recommended Basinger buy the bulk of the privately owned land in the small town of Braselton, Georgia, some 1,691 acres in 1989, for $20 million, to establish it as a tourist attraction with movie studios and a film festival. However, she encountered financial difficulties and started to sell parts of it off in 1995. The town is now owned by developer Wayne Mason. In a 1998 interview with Barbara Walters, Basinger stated that "nothing good came out of it," because a rift resulted within her family.
Basinger's financial difficulties were exacerbated when she pulled out of the controversial film Boxing Helena (1993), resulting in the studio's winning an $8.9 million judgment against her. Basinger filed for bankruptcy and appealed the jury's decision to a higher court, which ruled in her favor. She and the studio settled for $3.8 million instead.
Estrangement from family
Basinger's parents were legally married from 1948 to 2016, though they separated in 1980 and had little or no contact for the last 36 years of her father's life. Contrary to erroneous reports, they never divorced.
Starting in the mid-1990s, Basinger was estranged from her mother, Ann, and all except one of her four siblings. Her father Don and youngest sister Ashley were the only family members invited to her second wedding in 1993, and the only family members she thanked in her acceptance speech at the Academy Awards in 1998. Basinger was still estranged from her mother as of 2002.
Activism
Basinger is a vegetarian and an animal rights supporter. She has posed for anti-fur advertisements by PETA, and also filmed a public service announcement on downed farm animals for Farm Sanctuary. She was involved in the gestation of a bill offering protection to diseased and crippled farm animals, which Governor of California Pete Wilson signed. Basinger was interviewed by Samaritan magazine in August 2018 to raise awareness about the inhumane dog meat trade that remains rife in parts of Asia.
Filmography and awards
After transitioning from modeling to acting in the late 1970s, Basinger has had over fifty credits in film and television productions, as of 2018. She garnered a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in The Natural (1984), and as part of the cast of Prêt-à-Porter (1994), she received an ensemble award from the National Board of Review. She won the Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, a BAFTA Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and a Southeastern Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actress in L.A. Confidential (1997).
Basinger received a nomination for the Best Actress Award from the Boston Society of Film Critics, for her role in The Door in the Floor (2004). Basinger has received seven nominations for the Razzie Awards—six for Worst Actress and one for Worst Supporting Actress— and has been nominated at the People's Choice Awards, the Saturn Awards (three times), and the MTV Movie Awards (four times). For her lifetime achievements in the cinematic arts, she has a motion pictures star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Her most acclaimed and highest-grossing films include:
Never Say Never Again (1983)
The Natural (1984)
9½ Weeks (1986)
Batman (1989)
The Real McCoy (1993)
The Getaway (1994)
L.A. Confidential (1997)
8 Mile (2002)
The Door in the Floor (2004)
Cellular (2004)
The Sentinel (2006)
Charlie St. Cloud (2010)
The Nice Guys (2016)
Fifty Shades Darker (2017)
Discography
1989: The Scandalous Sex Suite EP with Prince, Warner Bros. Records
1990: "Hollywood Affair" (unreleased album)
1991: Too Hot to Handle EP: Music from the Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (to The Marrying Man''), produced by Tim Hauser; Hollywood Records
See also
Bond girl
List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
List of actors with Academy Award nominations
List of animal rights advocates
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
1953 births
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from Georgia (U.S. state)
American dance musicians
American women singers
American film actresses
American Methodists
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
American people of Swedish descent
American television actresses
Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners
Best Supporting Actress Golden Globe (film) winners
Female models from Georgia (U.S. state)
Living people
Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre alumni
Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Supporting Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners
People from Athens, Georgia
University of Georgia alumni
William Esper Studio alumni
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204468
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapped%20in%20the%20Body%20of%20a%20White%20Girl
|
Trapped in the Body of a White Girl
|
Trapped in the Body of a White Girl is a 1987 album by Julie Brown.
Brown independently re-released the CD in 2007 via her own pressing and available through her website. The rights to the album were sold in a larger deal to the Noble Rot label, which re-released it officially in 2010.
Though Brown is a comedian, not all of the songs are strictly comedic in nature. The singles "I Like 'Em Big and Stupid", "Trapped in the Body of a White Girl" and "Girl Fight Tonight!" were released. "Homecoming Queen" was a B-side to "Stupid" and was far more successful and popular, but did not feature on a single of its own. Brown did not release another music recording until 2005.
Track listing
"Trapped in the Body of a White Girl" - 3:58
"I Like 'Em Big and Stupid" - 3:49
"Shut Up and Kiss Me" - 3:08
"Inside Every Girl" - 3:40
"Time Slips Away" - 4:14
"Callin' Your Heart" - 3:49
"Boys 'R A Drug" - 3:41
"Girl Fight Tonight!" - 3:42
"Every Boy's Got One" - 3:25
"The Homecoming Queen's Got a Gun" - 4:40
References
1987 debut albums
Sire Records albums
Julie Brown albums
|
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204469
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibbs%E2%80%93Helmholtz%20equation
|
Gibbs–Helmholtz equation
|
The Gibbs–Helmholtz equation is a thermodynamic equation used for calculating changes in the Gibbs energy of a system as a function of temperature. It is named after Josiah Willard Gibbs and Hermann von Helmholtz.
The equation is:
where H is the enthalpy, T the absolute temperature and G the Gibbs free energy of the system, all at constant pressure p. The equation states that the change in the G/T ratio at constant pressure as a result of an infinitesimally small change in temperature is a factor H/T2.
Chemical reactions
The typical applications are to chemical reactions. The equation reads:
with ΔG as the change in Gibbs energy and ΔH as the enthalpy change (considered independent of temperature). The o denotes standard pressure (1 bar).
Integrating with respect to T (again p is constant) it becomes:
This equation quickly enables the calculation of the Gibbs free energy change for a chemical reaction at any temperature T2 with knowledge of just the standard Gibbs free energy change of formation and the standard enthalpy change of formation for the individual components.
Also, using the reaction isotherm equation, that is
which relates the Gibbs energy to a chemical equilibrium constant, the van 't Hoff equation can be derived.
Derivation
Background
The definition of the Gibbs function is where is the enthalpy defined by:
Taking differentials of each definition to find and , then using the fundamental thermodynamic relation (always true for reversible or irreversible processes):
where is the entropy, is volume, (minus sign due to reversibility, in which : work other than pressure-volume may be done and is equal to ) leads to the "reversed" form of the initial fundamental relation into a new master equation:
This is the Gibbs free energy for a closed system. The Gibbs–Helmholtz equation can be derived by this second master equation, and the chain rule for partial derivatives.
Sources
External links
Link - Gibbs–Helmholtz equation
Link - Gibbs–Helmholtz equation
Thermodynamic equations
Hermann von Helmholtz
|
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204470
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat%20content
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Heat content
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] |
204472
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fireball
|
Fireball
|
Fireball may refer to:
Science
Fireball (meteor), a brighter-than-usual meteor
Ball lightning, an atmospheric electrical phenomenon
Bassia scoparia, a plant species
Arts and entertainment
Films
The Fireball, a 1950 film starring Mickey Rooney and Pat O'Brien
Fireball (film), a 2009 Thai martial arts action film directed by Thanakorn Pongsuwan
Fireball (anime), a series of CGI anime shorts
Fireball: Visitors from Darker Worlds, a 2020 documentary film directed by Werner Herzog and Clive Oppenheimer
Fictional characters
Fireball Hikari, a protagonist of Saber Rider and the Star Sheriffs American animated TV series (1987–1988)
the main character from the 70s comic book Bullet (DC Thomson)
a member of the Crusaders (DC Comics) team of superheroes
a member of the All-Star Squadron
a member of the New Crusaders (Archie Comics) superhero team
one of the "stalkers" from the film The Running Man
Rudolph’s friend who is a reindeer in Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer
Music
Fireballs (band), an Australian Punkabilly band
The Fireballs, an American rock and roll band
Fireball (album), a 1971 hard rock album by British band Deep Purple
"Fireball" (Deep Purple song), a 1971 Deep Purple song from the album of the same name
"Fireball" (Dev song), the debut single by American singer Dev
"Fireball" (B'z song), a 1997 single by Japanese band B'z
"Fireball" (Pitbull song), a 2014 song by Pitbull featuring John Ryan
"Fireball" (Willow Smith song), 1 2011 song by Willow Smith
Other arts and entertainment
Fireball (manga), a 1979 unfinished manga
Fireball (novel), a science fiction novel and the first in the Fireball trilogy by John Christopher
Fireball (pinball), a pinball machine
Hadouken (Street Fighter), also referred to as fireball, a ki-energy attack in the game Street Fighter
Fireball (Dungeons & Dragons), a fictional magic spell in Dungeons & Dragons
Fire Ball, an amusement ride
Ammunition
.221 Remington Fireball, a centerfire cartridge
.17 Remington Fireball, based on the .221 Fireball
.300 Whisper, sometimes known as the .300 Fireball
Sports
Fireball (nickname), varioius sportspeople
Fireball (wrestling move), an illegal professional wrestling move
Augusta FireBall, an American soccer team in 2005 and 2006
Tucson Fireballs, an American United Soccer Leagues team from 1997 to 2001, originally the Los Angeles Fireballs
Fireball (wrestler), a Mexican professional wrestler
Transportation
Ryan FR Fireball, an American aircraft
Fireball (dinghy), a sailing boat
Buick V6 engine, originally marketed as Fireball
Other uses
Fireball (search engine), a web search engine
Fireball (software), a browser-hijacking malware
Fireball Cinnamon Whisky, a cinnamon flavoured Canadian whisky liqueur
522d Special Operations Squadron, a US Air Force squadron nicknamed the Fireballs
McMaster Engineering Fireball, official symbol of the Faculty of Engineering McMaster University
Atomic Fireball, a round, cinnamon-flavored hard candy invented by Nello Ferrara
The Fireballs annual ceremony in Stonehaven
See also
Fireball XL5, a British TV series
Fireball 500, a 1966 stock car racing film
Ball of Fire (disambiguation)
Great Balls of Fire (disambiguation)
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophile%20movement
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Homophile movement
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The homophile movement is a collective term for the main organisations and publications supporting and representing sexual minorities in the 1950s-60s around the world. The name comes from the term homophile, which was commonly used by these organisations. At least some of these organisations are considered to have been more cautious than both earlier and later LGBT organisations; in the US, the nationwide coalition of homophile groups disbanded after older members clashed with younger members who had become more radical after the Stonewall riots of 1969.
History
The homosexual organizations and publications of the 1950s and 1960s, which commonly used the term "homophile", are now known collectively as the homophile movement.
After the gains made by the homosexual rights movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the vibrant homosexual subcultures of the 1920s and '30s became silent as war engulfed Europe. Germany was the traditional home of such movements (Scientific-Humanitarian Committee) and activists (Magnus Hirschfeld, Ernst Burchard, Karl Heinrich Ulrichs or Max Spohr), but in Nazi Germany gay literature was burned, gay organizations were dissolved, and many gay men imprisoned in concentration camps. The Swiss journal Der Kreis ("the circle") was the only homosexual publication in Europe to publish during the Nazi era. Der Kreis was edited by Anna Vock, and later Karl Meier; the group gradually shifted from being female-dominated to male-dominated through the 1930s, as the tone of the magazine simultaneously became less militant.
After the war, organizations began to re-form, such as the Dutch COC in 1946. Other, new organizations arose, including Forbundet af 1948 ("League of 1948"), founded by Axel Axgil in Denmark, with Helmer Fogedgaard publishing an associated magazine called Vennen (The Friend) from January 1949 until 1953. Fogedgaard used the pseudonym "Homophilos", introducing the concept of "homophile" in May 1950, unaware that the word had been presented as an alternative term a few months previously by , one of the founders of the Dutch COC. The word soon spread among members of the emerging post-war movement who were happy to emphasize the respectable romantic side of their relationships over genital sexuality.
A Swedish branch of Forbundet af 1948 was formed in 1949 and a Norwegian branch in 1950. The Swedish organization became independent under the name Riksförbundet för sexuellt likaberättigande (RFSL, "Federation for Sexual Equality") in 1950, led by Allan Hellman. The same year in the United States, the Mattachine Society was formed, and other organizations such as ONE, Inc. (1952) and the Daughters of Bilitis (1955) soon followed. By 1954, the monthly sales of ONE's magazine peaked at 16,000. Homophile organizations elsewhere include Arcadie (1954) in France and the British Homosexual Law Reform Society (founded 1958).
These groups are generally considered to have been politically cautious, in comparison to the LGBT movements that both preceded and followed them. Historian Michael Sibalis describes the belief of the French homophile group Arcadie, "that public hostility to homosexuals resulted largely from their outrageous and promiscuous behaviour; homophiles would win the good opinion of the public and the authorities by showing themselves to be discreet, dignified, virtuous and respectable." However, while few were prepared to come out, they did risk severe persecution, and some figures within the Homophile movement such as the American communist Harry Hay were more radical.
In 1951, the president and vice-president of the Dutch COC initiated an International Congress of European homophile groups, which resulted in the formation of the International Committee for Sexual Equality (ICSE). The ICSE brought together, among other groups, the Forbundet of 1948 (Scandinavia), the Riksförbundet för Sexuellt Likaberättigande (Sweden), Arcadie (France), Der Kreis (Swiss), and, later, ONE (U.S.A.). Historian Leila Rupp describes the ICSE as a classic example of transnational organizing; "It created a network across national borders, nurtured a transnational homophile identity, and engaged in activism designed to change both laws and minds." However, the ICSE failed to last beyond the early 1960s due to poor attendance at meetings, lack of active leaders, and failure of members to pay dues.
By the mid-1960s, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people in the United States were forming more visible communities, and this was reflected in the political strategies of American homophile groups. From the mid-1960s, they engaged in picketing and sit-ins, identifying themselves in public space for the first time. Formed in 1964, the San Franciscan Society for Individual Rights (SIR) had a new openness and a more participatory democratic structure. SIR was focused on building community, and sponsored drag shows, dinners, bridge clubs, bowling leagues, softball games, field trips, art classes and meditation groups. In 1966, SIR opened the nation's first gay and lesbian community center, and by 1968 they had over 1000 members, making them the largest homophile organization in the country. The world's first gay bookstore had opened in New York the year before. A 1965 gay picket held in front of Independence Hall in Philadelphia, according to some historians, marked the beginning of the modern gay rights movement. Meanwhile, in San Francisco in 1966, transgender street prostitutes in the poor neighborhood of Tenderloin rioted against police harassment at a popular all-night restaurant, which was called the Compton's Cafeteria riot, having occurred at Compton's Cafeteria. These and other activities of public resistance to oppression led to a feeling of Gay Liberation that was soon to give a name to a new movement.
In 1963, homophile organizations in New York City, Philadelphia and Washington, D.C. joined together to form East Coast Homophile Organizations (ECHO) to more closely coordinate their activities. The success of ECHO inspired other homophile groups across the country to explore the idea of forming a national homophile umbrella group. This was done with the formation in 1966 of the North American Conference of Homophile Organizations (NACHO, rhymes with Waco). NACHO held annual conferences, helped start dozens of local gay groups across the country and issued position papers on a variety of LGBT-related issues. It organized national demonstrations, including a May 1966 action against military discrimination that included the country's first gay motorcade. Through its legal defense fund, NACHO challenged anti-gay laws and regulations ranging from immigration issues and military service to the legality of serving alcohol to homosexuals. NACHO disbanded after a contentious 1970 conference at which older members and younger members, radicalized in the wake of the 1969 Stonewall riots, clashed. Gay Sunshine magazine declared the convention "the battle that ended the homophile movement". The gay liberation movement, which emerged around this time, replaced the term "homophile" by a new set of terminology such as gay, lesbian, and bisexual.
Organisations and publications
Denmark
Forbundet af 1948 (1948–?) and Pan (1954–present)
International Homosexual World Organisation (IHWO), 1952? – first half of the 1970s, political since second half of the 1960s, founded by Axel and Eigil Axgil, German chapter named: Internationale Homophile Welt-Organisation)
France
Arcadie (journal, published 1954–1982), and organisation with the same name. Often published with the subtitle "Mouvement homophile de France".
Netherlands
COC (1946–present) is the earliest homophile organisation. Their first magazine, Vriendschap (Friendship), was published from 1949 to 1964 and digitally available at IHLIA LGBT Heritage. They also produced a number of other publications.
Sweden
RFSL, Riksförbundet för sexuellt likaberättigande—"Federation for Sexual Equality", known since 2007 as the "Swedish Federation for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Rights" (1950–present)
United Kingdom
Homosexual Law Reform Society (1958–1970 when it was renamed as the Sexual Law Reform Society). The HLRS was formed as a response to the 1957 Wolfenden report. Most of the members were heterosexual.
Campaign for Homosexual Equality (1964–present)
United States
Vice Versa: America's Gayest Magazine (1947–1948), the first lesbian periodical in the United States, was free. Lisa Ben (an anagram of "lesbian"), the 25-year-old Los Angeles secretary who created Vice Versa, chose the name "because in those days our kind of life was considered a vice".
Knights of the Clock (c. 1950–?); first interracial gay organization. Focused on social activities but also worked on employment and housing concerns for interracial couples.
The Mattachine Society (1950–1987) and the Mattachine Review (1955–1966); Homosexual Citizen, (published by the Washington chapter, 1966–?)
The Daughters of Bilitis (1955–present) and The Ladder (1956–1972); Focus (published by the Boston chapter, 1971–1983); Sisters, (National, published in San Francisco, 1971–1975).
ONE, Inc. (1952–present) and One magazine (1953–1972); Homophile Studies (1958–1964)
The League for Civil Education (1960 or 1961–?) and The LCE News (1961–?)
The Janus Society (1962–1969) and DRUM magazine (1964–1969). A racy gay-male oriented magazine, DRUM reached a circulation of 10,000 by 1966.
Society for Individual Rights (1964–1976) and Vector (1965–1977)
The Homosexual Law Reform Society (1965–1969)
Phoenix Society for Individual Freedom, Kansas City MO, and The Phoenix: Midwest Homophile Voice, (1966–1972)
Society Advocating Mutual Equality (SAME) (1966–1968), Rock Island IL, "The Challenger" newsletter
Homophile Action League (Philadelphia) and the HAL Newsletter (1969–1970)
International
International Committee for Sexual Equality (ICSE) (1951–1963); Formed by the Dutch COC and functioned as an umbrella organization that united many of the above national organizations from Europe and the United States. Published two German language periodicals, ICSE Kurier and ICSE-PRESS.
See also
Straight ally
Terminology of homosexuality
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
1920s neologisms
20th century in LGBT history
LGBT and society
LGBT rights movement
LGBT terminology
|
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] |
204482
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paulchoffatiidae
|
Paulchoffatiidae
|
Paulchoffatiidae is a family of extinct mammals that lived predominantly during the Upper Jurassic period, though a couple of genera are known from the Early Cretaceous. Fossils have been reported from Europe (Portugal, Spain, Germany and England) . Paulchoffatiids were members of the order Multituberculata. They were relatively early representatives and are within the informal suborder of "Plagiaulacida". The family was named by G. Hahn in 1969, and it honors the Portuguese geologist Léon Paul Choffat. Two subfamilies are recognized.
The most productive fossil site for Paulchoffatiids has been Guimarota, Portugal. Remains from this locality are generally diagnosed on the basis of lower or upper jaws. In only one instance, that of Kuehneodon, has it been possible to match the two up. Some of the lower jaws probably represent the same animals as some of the upper, so the diversity of Paulchoffatiids is very possibly exaggerated. As the site is now a flooded, disused coalmine, further excavations are highly unlikely. However, other locations may yet provide more clarity.
The Paulchoffatiids have been further arranged into two subfamilies and a couple of other genera.
Rugosodon from the Middle Jurassic of China, known from a mostly complete skeleton, was formerly referred to the family, but was later considered an indeterminate member of the Paulchoffatiid-line.
Subfamily Paulchoffatiinae
Paulchoffatia, Bathmochoffatia, Guimarotodon, Henkelodon, Kielanodon, Meketibolodon, Meketichoffatia, Plesiochoffatia, Pseudobolodon, Galveodon, Sunnyodon, Xenachoffatia
Subfamily Kuehneodontinae
This taxon is restricted to one genus, Kuehneodon, with seven species.
Taxonomy
Subclass †Allotheria Marsh, 1880
Order †Multituberculata Cope, 1884:
Suborder †Plagiaulacida Simpson 1925
Family †Paulchoffatiidae Hahn, 1969
Subfamily †Paulchoffatiinae Hahn, 1971
Genus †Paulchoffatia Kühne, 1961
Species †P. delgadoi Kühne, 1961
Genus †Pseudobolodon Hahn, 1977
Species †P. oreas Hahn, 1977
Species †P. krebsi Hahn & Hahn, 1994
Genus †Henkelodon Hahn, 1987
Species †H. naias Hahn, 1987
Genus †Guimarotodon Hahn, 1969
Species †G. leiriensis Hahn, 1969
Genus †Meketibolodon (Hahn, 1978) Hahn, 1993
Species †M. robustus (Hahn, 1978) Hahn, 1993
Genus †Plesiochoffatia Hahn & Hahn, 1999
Species †P. thoas Hahn & Hahn, 1998
Species †P. peparethos Hahn & Hahn, 1998
Species †P. staphylos Hahn & Hahn, 1998
Genus †Xenachoffatia Hahn & Hahn, 1998
Species †X. oinopion Hahn & Hahn, 1998
Genus †Bathmochoffatia Hahn & Hahn, 1998
Species †B. hapax Hahn & Hahn, 1998
Genus †Kielanodon Hahn, 1987
Species †K. hopsoni Hahn, 1987
Genus †Meketichoffatia Hahn, 1993
Species †M. krausei Hahn, 1993
Genus †Galveodon Hahn & Hahn, 1992
Species †G. nannothus Hahn & Hahn, 1992
Genus †Sunnyodon Kielan-Jaworowska & Ensom, 1992
Species †S. notleyi Kielan-Jaworowska & Ensom, 1992
Subfamily †Kuehneodontinae Hahn, 1971
Genus †Kuehneodon Hahn, 1969
Species †K. dietrichi Hahn, 1969
Species †K. barcasensis Hahn & Hahn, 2001
Species †K. dryas Hahn, 1977
Species †K. guimarotensis Hahn, 1969
Species †K. hahni Antunes, 1988
Species †K. simpsoni Hahn, 1969
Species †K. uniradiculatus Hahn, 1978
References
Hahn G. and Hahn R. (2000), Multituberculates from the Guimarota mine, p. 97-107 in Martin T. and Krebs B. (eds), Guimarota - A Jurassic Ecosystem, Published by Dr Friedrich Pfeil in Münich, Germany.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Hurum J.H. (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; Basal Multituberculata, an Internet directory.
Multituberculates
Jurassic first appearances
Cretaceous extinctions
Prehistoric mammal families
Fossil taxa described in 1969
|
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204483
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradise%20parrot
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Paradise parrot
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The paradise parrot, Psephotellus pulcherrimus, was a colourful medium-sized parrot native to the grassy woodlands extending across the Queensland and New South Wales border area of eastern Australia. Once moderately common within its fairly restricted range, the last live bird was seen in 1927. Extensive and sustained searches in the years since then have failed to produce any reliable evidence of it, and it is the only Australian parrot recorded as disappearing and presumed extinct.
Description
The plumage was extraordinarily colourful, even by parrot standards, a mixture of turquoise, aqua, scarlet, black and brown. The tail was almost the same length as the body, unusual for a bird that, although a rapid flyer, spent almost all of its time on the ground.
Taxonomy
The description of the species was first published by John Gould in 1845. Gould used the description supplied to him by the field worker John Gilbert, and was suspected to have copied the field notes of Gilbert from a letter that became lost. A letter from Gilbert (May, 1844) describing this parrot was forwarded to Edward Smith-Stanley (Lord Stanley, Earl of Derby), apparently to entice the enthusiast into purchase of specimens in Gould's possession. A copy of the Gilbert letter, written out by Stanley, that emerged from an archive in Liverpool in 1985 showed a correlation in the wording. Two specimens, thought to be from the type series used in the first description, were supplied to Stanley and these are held at the Liverpool Museum. The type specimen resides at the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
Gilbert's diary records his first encounter with the parrot at the Condamine River, where he also obtained specimens. He later met the species at the Comet River to the north, while journeying with the second expedition led by Leichhardt, and made his last recorded sighting in June 1845 at Mitchell River, shortly before he was killed.
The species is allied to genus Psephotellus of the parrot family Psittaculidae, published by Gregory Mathews in 1913, and is the type for that description. A study using genome analysis of museum specimens concluded the closest living species is Psephotellus chrysopterygius, the alwal or golden-shouldered parrot of north eastern Australia.
Ecology
The species was observed in pairs or small family groups, making their nests in hollowed-out termite mounds, often at or near ground level, and feeding, so far as is known, almost exclusively on grass seeds. Some observers state that termitariums were occupied by the same breeding pair in successive years. Less certain is confirmation of holes at riverbanks being tunnelled out by this species. A recorded range of one pair over a month was restricted to an area of two hectares.
The nest sites were occasionally reported at termitariums previously occupied by the kingfisher Todiramphus macleayii or in burrows of a kookaburra Dacelo leachii (North, 1889), or at the base of a tree (Campbell, 1901).
The reasons for the sudden decline of the paradise parrot remain speculative. Possibilities include overgrazing, land clearing, changed fire regimes, hunting by bird collectors, and predation by introduced mammals like cats and dogs. It became rare towards the end of the 19th century and by 1915 was thought to be possibly extinct. A severe drought in the region during 1902 may have been a factor in its demise, and where the new pastoralist practices were introduced the burning by graziers to encourage fodder for their stock resulted in the loss of seasonal foods.
A collection of these eggs was made at Maryborough and another by George Barnard at Fraser River, A. J. North recorded measurements for these in catalogue of nests and eggs by the Australian Museum (1889). The Maryborough collection were 0.88 × 0.73; 0.86 × 0.71; 0.9 × 0.74 inches and the Barnard collection at Dawson River made September 1883 were 0.86 × 0.71; 0.87 × 0.7; 0.87 × 0.71 inches. Another sample of one 'proper' clutch by A. J. Campbell (1901) reports five eggs in inches as 0.84 × 0.7; 0.84 × 0.67; 0.81 × 0.69; 0.79 × 0.68; and of outliers in size as 0.94 × 0.76 and 0.85 × 0.69 inches. His description of the round oval eggs is having a finely grained pure white shell with a slight gloss, in clutch of four to five eggs.
When comparing the genetic diversity of the Paradise Parrot to genomes of endangered birds, you find that the Paradise Parrot is more genetically diverse than those currently listed as endangered. Research has shown that population size of the Paradise Parrott has dramatically changed with temperature since the last glacial cycle.
A series of searches turned up a few more individuals over the next decade, but the last confirmed sighting was on 14 September 1927.
The Atlas of Australian birds (RAOU, 1984) noted it was not reported in the field during the survey (Field Atlas, 1977–81). The historical reports are commonly from an area in the southeast of Queensland, showing a rapid decline after the 1880s.
The species had occurred at the Duaringa district until 1902.
An attempt to solicit reports from the public in 1918, after a dearth of observations, indicated the presence at several locations.
Confirmed sightings were made 1926–27 at widely separated locations of the known range, at Casino, New South Wales (November 1926) and near Ipswich (1927) and Burnett River (November, 1927).
Unconfirmed reports from the north of the recorded range may be complicated by misidentified observations of the rare golden-shouldered parrot (Psephotellus chrysopterygius). The early report of occurrence at Mitchell River (Queensland) in 1848 is regarded as reliable, and historical records of local occurrences near Coen and Archer River in the 1920s noted as possible.
Images
References
Glimpses of Paradise: The Quest for the Beautiful Parakeet, Penny Olsen , Canberra: National Library of Australia, 2007
Broad-tailed parrots
Extinct birds of Australia
Psephotellus
Bird extinctions since 1500
Birds described in 1845
1927 in the environment
Articles containing video clips
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ink%20wash%20painting
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Ink wash painting
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Ink wash painting (; or ; ; , Hán Nôm: ) is a type of Chinese ink brush painting which uses black ink, such as that used in Chinese calligraphy, in different concentrations. Emerging during the Tang dynasty of China (618–907), it overturned earlier, more realistic techniques. It is typically monochrome, using only shades of black, with a great emphasis on virtuoso brushwork and conveying the perceived "spirit" or "essence" of a subject over direct imitation. It flourished from the Song dynasty in China (960–1279) onwards, as well as in Japan after it was introduced by Zen Buddhist monks in the 14th century. Some Western scholars divide Chinese painting (including ink wash painting) into three periods: times of representation, times of expression, and historical Oriental art. Chinese scholars have their own views different from this, and they believe that contemporary Chinese ink wash paintings are the pluralistic continuation of multiple historical traditions.
In China and Japan, but much less so in Korea, ink wash painting formed a distinct stylistic tradition, with a different set of artists working in it from those doing other types of painting. Especially in China, it was a gentlemanly occupation associated with poetry and calligraphy, and often produced by the scholar-official or literati class, ideally illustrating their own poetry, and producing the paintings as gifts for friends or patrons, rather than painting for payment. In practice a talented painter often had a very useful advantage in climbing the bureaucratic ladder. In Korea, painters were less segregated, and more willing to paint in two techniques, such as mixing areas of colour with monochrome ink, for example in painting the faces of figures.
The vertical hanging scroll was the classic format; the long horizontal handscroll format tended to be associated with professional coloured painting, but was also used for literati painting. In both formats, paintings were generally kept rolled up, and brought out for the owner to admire, often with a small group of friends. Chinese collectors liked to stamp paintings with their seals, usually in red inkpad, and sometimes added poems or notes of appreciation. Some old and famous paintings have become rather disfigured by this; the Qianlong Emperor was a particular offender.
In landscape painting the scenes depicted are typically imaginary, or very loose adaptations of actual views. The style of mountain landscapes are by far the most common, often evoking particular areas traditionally famous for their beauty, from which the artist may have been very distant. Water is very often included.
Philosophy
East Asian writing on aesthetics is generally consistent in stating that the goal of ink and wash painting is not simply to reproduce the appearance of the subject, but to capture its spirit. To paint a horse, the ink wash painting artist must understand its temperament better than its muscles and bones. To paint a flower, there is no need to perfectly match its petals and colors, but it is essential to convey its liveliness and fragrance. In this, it has been compared to the later Western movement of Impressionism. It is also particularly associated with the Chán or Zen sect of Buddhism, which emphasises "simplicity, spontaneity and self-expression", and Daoism, which emphasises "spontaneity and harmony with nature," especially when compared with the less spiritually-oriented Confucianism.
East Asian ink wash painting has long inspired modern artists in the West. In his classic book Composition, American artist and educator Arthur Wesley Dow (1857–1922) wrote this about ink wash painting: "The painter... put upon the paper the fewest possible lines and tones; just enough to cause form, texture and effect to be felt. Every brush-touch must be full-charged with meaning, and useless detail eliminated. Put together all the good points in such a method, and you have the qualities of the highest art". Dow's fascination with ink wash painting not only shaped his own approach to art but also helped free many American modernists of the era, including his student Georgia O'Keeffe, from what he called a "story-telling" approach. Dow strived for harmonic compositions through three elements: line, shading, and color. He advocated practicing with East Asian brushes and ink to develop aesthetic acuity with line and shading.
Technique, materials and tools
Ink wash painting uses tonality and shading achieved by varying the ink density, both by differential grinding of the ink stick in water and by varying the ink load and pressure within a single brushstroke. Ink wash painting artists spend years practicing basic brush strokes to refine their brush movement and ink flow. These skills are closely related to those needed for basic writing in East Asian characters, and then for calligraphy, which essentially use the same ink and brushes. In the hand of a master, a single stroke can produce considerable variations in tonality, from deep black to silvery gray. Thus, in its original context, shading means more than just dark-light arrangement: It is the basis for the nuance in tonality found in East Asian ink wash painting and brush-and-ink calligraphy.
Once a stroke is painted, it cannot be changed or erased. This makes ink and wash painting a technically demanding art form requiring great skill, concentration, and years of training.
The Four Treasures is summarized in a four word couplet: "," (Pinyin: ) "The four jewels of the study: Brush, Ink, Paper, Inkstone" by Chinese scholar-official or literati class, which are also indispensable tools and materials for East Asian painting.
Brush
The earliest intact ink brush was found in 1954 in the tomb of a Chu citizen from the Warring States period (475-221 BCE) located in an archaeological dig site near Changsha (). This primitive version of an ink brush found had a wooden stalk and a bamboo tube securing the bundle of hair to the stalk. Legend wrongly credits the invention of the ink brush to the later Qin general Meng Tian. Traces of a writing brush, however, were discovered on the Shang jades, and were suggested to be the grounds of the Oracle bone script inscriptions.
The writing brush entered a new stage of development in the Han dynasty. First, the decorative craft of engraving and inlaying on the pen-holder appeared. Second, some writings on the production of writing brush have also survived. For example, the first Monograph on the selection, production and function of writing brush was written by Cai Yong in the eastern Han dynasty . Third, the special form of "hairpin white pen" appeared. Officials in the Han dynasty often sharpened the end of the brush and stuck it in their hair or hat for their convenience. Worshipers also often put pen on their heads to show respect.
To the Yuan and Ming dynasty, Huzhou emerged a group of pen making experts, such as Wu Yunhui, Feng Yingke, Lu Wenbao, Zhang Tianxi, etc. Huzhou has been the center of Chinese brush making since the Qing dynasty. At the same time, there was many famous brushes in other places, such as Ruyang Liu brush in Henan province, Li Dinghe brush in Shanghai, Wu Yunhui in Jiangxi province.
Ink wash painting brushes are similar to the brushes used for calligraphy and are traditionally made from bamboo with goat, cattle, horse, sheep, rabbit, marten, badger, deer, boar and wolf hair. The brush hairs are tapered to a fine point, a feature vital to the style of wash paintings.
Different brushes have different qualities. A small wolf-hair brush that is tapered to a fine point can deliver an even thin line of ink (much like a pen). A large wool brush (one variation called the 'big cloud') can hold a large volume of water and ink. When the big cloud brush rains down upon the paper, it delivers a graded swath of ink encompassing myriad shades of gray to black.
Inkstick
Ink wash painting is usually done on rice paper (Chinese) or (Japanese paper) both of which are highly absorbent and unsized. Silk is also used in some forms of ink painting. Many types of Xuan paper and do not lend themselves readily to a smooth wash the way watercolor paper does. Each brush stroke is visible, so any "wash" in the sense of Western style painting requires partially sized paper. Paper manufacturers today understand artists' demands for more versatile papers and work to produce kinds that are more flexible. If one uses traditional paper, the idea of an "ink wash" refers to a wet-on-wet technique, applying black ink to paper where a lighter ink has already been applied, or by quickly manipulating watery diluted ink once it has been applied to the paper by using a very large brush.
In ink wash paintings, as in calligraphy, artists usually grind inkstick over an inkstone to obtain black ink, but prepared liquid inks ( in Japanese) are also available. Most inksticks are made of soot from pine or oil combined with animal glue. An artist puts a few drops of water on an inkstone and grinds the inkstick in a circular motion until a smooth, black ink of the desired concentration is made. Prepared liquid inks vary in viscosity, solubility, concentration, etc., but are in general more suitable for practicing Chinese calligraphy than executing paintings. Inksticks themselves are sometimes ornately decorated with landscapes or flowers in bas-relief and some are highlighted with gold.
Xuan paper
Paper (Chinese: traditional 紙, simplified 纸; Pinyin: ) was first developed in China in the first decade of 100 AD. Previous to its invention, bamboo slips and silks were used for writing material. Several methods of paper production developed over the centuries in China. However, the paper which was considered of highest value was that of the Jingxian (泾县) in Anhui province. Xuan paper features great tensile strength, smooth surface, pure and clean texture and clean stroke, great resistance to crease, corrosion, moth and mold. Xuan paper has a special ink penetration effect, which is not readily available in paper made in Western countries. Xuan paper was first mentioned in ancient Chinese books Notes of Past Famous Paintings and New Book of Tang. It was originally produced in the Tang dynasty in Jing County, which was under the jurisdiction of Xuan Prefecture (Xuanzhou), hence the name Xuan paper. During the Tang dynasty, the paper was often a mixture of hemp (the first fiber used for paper in China) and mulberry fiber.
The materials used in Xuan paper are closely related to the geographical environment of Jing County. The bark of the Pteroceltis tatarinowii, a common variety of elm, is used as the main material for the production of rice paper in this area. Rice and several other materials were later added to the recipe in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. Around that time, bamboo and mulberry also began to be used to produce rice paper.
The production of Xuan paper is roughly eighteen-step processes - taken in detail, over a hundred steps may be counted. Some paper makers keep their process strictly secret. The process includes cooking and bleaching the bark of Pteroceltis tatarinowii and adding various fruit juices.
Inkstone
The inkstone is not only a traditional Chinese stationery device, but also an important tool of ink painting. It is a stone mortar used for the grinding and containment of ink. In addition to stones, inkstones are also made of clay, bronze, iron and porcelain. This device evolved from the friction tool used to rub dyes about six to seven thousand years ago.
History and artists
Chinese painters and their influence on East Asia
In Chinese painting, brush painting was one of the "four arts" expected to be learnt by China's class of scholar-officials. Ink wash painting appeared during the Tang dynasty (618–907), and its early development is credited to Wang Wei (active in the 8th century) and Zhang Zao, among others. In the Ming dynasty, Dong Qichang would identify two distinct styles: a clearer, grander Northern School or or , Japanese: or ), and a freer, more expressive Southern School ( or or , Japanese: or ), also called "Literati Painting" (, Japanese: ).
Tang, Song and Yuan Dynasties
Western scholars have written that before the Song Dynasty, ink wash was primarily used for representation painting, while in the Yuan Dynasty, expressive painting predominated. Chinese historical views have traditionally found it more appropriate to divide the general artistic features of this historical stage by the theory of Southern School and Northern School, as promulgated Dong Qichang in the Ming Dynasty.
Southern School and painters
Southern School () of Chinese painting, often called "literati painting" (), is a term used to denote art and artists which stand in opposition to the formal Northern School of painting. Representing painters are Wang Wei, Dong Yuan, and so on. The Southern School has had a profound impact on Japanese and Southeast Asian paintings.
Wang Wei (; 699–759), Zhang Zao ( or ) and Dong Yuan (, Gan: ; ) are important representatives of early Chinese ink wash painting of the Southern School. Wang Wei was a Chinese poet, musician, painter, and politician during the Tang dynasty, 8th century. Wang Wei is the most important representative of early Chinese ink wash painting. He believed that in all forms of painting, ink wash painting is the most advanced. Zhang Zao was a Chinese painter, painting theorist and politician during the Tang dynasty, 8th century. He created the method of using fingers instead of brush to draw ink wash painting.
Dong Yuan was a Chinese painter during the Five Dynasties (10th century). His ink wash painting style is considered by Dong Qichang to be the most typical style of Southern School.
Chinese ink wash painters such as Li Cheng (; 919–967), Courtesy name (), Fan Kuan (, ), courtesy name "Zhongli" and "Zhongzheng", better known by his pseudonym "Fan Kuan" and Guo Xi () () had a great influence on East Asian ink wash painting. Li Cheng was a Chinese painter of the Song dynasty. He was influenced by Jing Hao, Juran. Li Cheng has a profound impact on Japanese and Korean painters.
Fan Kuan was a Chinese landscape painter of the Song dynasty. He has a profound impact on Japanese and Korean paintings.
Guoxi was a Chinese landscape painter from Henan Province who lived during the Northern Song dynasty. One text entitled "The Lofty Message of Forest and Streams" ( ) is attributed to him.
As representatives of scholar painting (or "Literati Painting", the part of the Southern School), painters such as Su Shi, Mi Fu and Mi Youren, especially Muqi, had a decisive influence on East Asian ink wash painting. Su Shi (; 8 January 1037 – 24 August 1101), courtesy name Zizhan (Chinese: 子瞻), art name Dongpo (Chinese: 東坡), was a Chinese poet, writer, politician, calligrapher, painter, pharmacologist, and gastronome of the Song dynasty.
Mi Fu (, also given as Mi Fei, 1051–1107) was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty.
Mi Youren (, 1074–1153) was a Chinese painter, poet, and calligrapher born in Taiyuan during the Song dynasty. He was the eldest son of Mi Fu.
Muqi (; Japanese: Mokkei; 1210?–1269?), also known as Fachang (), was a Chinese Chan Buddhist monk and painter who lived in the 13th century, around the end of the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). Today, he is considered to be one of the greatest Chan painters in history. His ink paintings, such as the Daitoku-ji triptych and Six Persimmons are regarded as essential Chan paintings. Muqi's style of painting has also profoundly impacted painters from later periods to follow, especially monk painters in Japan.
Four Masters of the Yuan dynasty () is a name used to collectively describe the four Chinese painters Huang Gongwang (, 1269－1354), Wu Zhen (, 1280–1354), Ni Zan (; 1301–1374), and Wang Meng (王蒙, Wáng Méng; Zi: Shūmíng 叔明, Hao: Xiāngguāng Jūshì 香光居士) (c. 1308 – 1385), who were active during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368). They were revered during the Ming dynasty and later periods as major exponents of the tradition of "literati painting" (), which was concerned more with individual expression and learning than with outward representation and immediate visual appeal.
Other notable painters from the Yuan period include Gao Kegong (; 1248–1310), also a poet, and was known for his landscapes, and Fang Congyi.
Northern School and painters
Northern School () was a manner of Chinese landscape painting centered on a loose group of artists who worked and lived in Northern China during the Five Dynasties period that occupied the time between the collapse of the Tang dynasty and the rise of the Song. Representing painters are Ma Yuan, Xia Gui, and so on. The style stands in opposition to the Southern School () of Chinese painting. Northern School has a profound impact on Japanese and Southeast Asian paintings.
Li Tang (, courtesy name Xigu (); c. 1050 – 1130) of the Northern School, especially Ma Yuan (; ) and Xia Gui's ink wash painting modeling and techniques have a profound influence on Japanese and Korean ink wash paintings. Li Tang was a Chinese landscape painter who practised at Kaifeng and Hangzhou during the Song dynasty. He forms a link between earlier painters such as Guo Xi, Fan Kuan and Li Cheng and later artists such as Xia Gui and Ma Yuan. He perfected the technique of "axe-cut" brush-strokes.
Ma Yuan was a Chinese painter of the Song dynasty. His works, together with that of Xia Gui, formed the basis of the so-called Ma-Xia () school of painting, and are considered among the finest from the period. His works has inspired both Chinese artists of the Zhe School, as well as the great early Japanese painters Shūbun and Sesshū.
Xia Gui (; fl. 1195–1225), courtesy name Yuyu (), was a Chinese landscape painter of the Song dynasty. Very little is known about his life, and only a few of his works survive, but he is generally considered one of China's greatest artists. He continued the tradition of Li Tang, further simplifying the earlier Song style to achieve a more immediate, striking effect. Together with Ma Yuan, he founded the so-called Ma-Xia () school, one of the most important of the period. Although Xia was popular during his lifetime, his reputation suffered after his death, together with that of all Southern Song academy painters. Nevertheless, a few artists, including the Japanese master Sesshū, continued Xia's tradition for hundreds of years, until the early 17th century.
Liang Kai (; ) was a Chinese painter of the Southern Song Dynasty. He was also known as "Madman Liang" because of his very informal pictures. His ink wash painting style has a huge influence on East Asia, especially Japan.
Yan Hui (); was a late 13th century Chinese painter who lived during the Southern Song and early Yuan dynasties. Yan Hui's style of painting has also profoundly impacted the painters in Japan.
Ming and Qing Dynasties
Four Masters of the Ming dynasty () are a traditional grouping in Chinese art history of four famous Chinese painters of the Ming dynasty. The group are Shen Zhou (, 1427–1509), Wen Zhengming (, 1470–1559), both of the Wu School, Tang Yin (, 1470–1523), and Qiu Ying (, ). They were approximate contemporaries, with Shen Zhou the teacher of Wen Zhengming, while the other two studied with Zhou Chen. Their styles and subject matter were varied.
Xu Wei (, 1521–1593) and Chen Chun (; 1483–1544) are the main painters of the bold and unconstrained style of literati painting, and their ink wash painting is characterized by the incisive and fluent ink and wash. Their ink wash painting style is considered to have the typical characteristics of the Historical Oriental art. Xu Wei, other department "Qingteng Shanren" (), was a Ming dynasty Chinese painter, poet, writer and dramatist famed for his artistic expressiveness.
Chen Chun was a Ming Dynasty artist. Born into a wealthy family of scholar-officials in Suzhou, he learned calligraphy from Wen Zhengming, one of the Four Masters of the Ming dynasty. Chén Chún later broke with Wen to favor a more freestyle method of ink wash painting.
Dong Qichang (; 1555–1636) of the Ming Dynasty and the Four Wangs () of the Qing Dynasty are representative painters of retro-style ink wash paintings that imitated the painting style before the Yuan Dynasty. Dong Qichang was a Chinese painter, calligrapher, politician, and art theorist of the later period of the Ming Dynasty. He is the founder of the theory of Southern School and Northern School in ink wash painting. His theoretical system has a great influence on the painting concept and practice of East Asian countries, including Japan and Korea.
Four Wangs were four Chinese landscape painters in the 17th century, all called Wang (surname Wang). They are best known for their accomplishments in painting.They were Wang Shimin (1592–1680), Wang Jian (1598–1677), Wang Hui (1632–1717) and Wang Yuanqi (1642–1715).
Bada Shanren (, born "Zhu Da"; {{circa|1626–1705), Shitao (; other department "Yuan Ji" (), 1642–1707) and Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou () are the innovative masters of ink wash painting in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Bada Shanren, other department "Bada Shanren" (), was a Han Chinese painter of ink wash painting and a calligrapher. He was of royal descent, being a direct offspring of the Ming dynasty prince Zhu Quan who had a feudal establishment in Nanchang. Art historians have named him as a brilliant painter of the period.
Shitao, born into the Ming dynasty imperial clan as "Zhu Ruoji" , was one Chinese landscape painter in early Qing Dynasty (1636-1912).
Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou is the name for a group of eight Chinese painters active in the 18th century, who were known in the Qing Dynasty for rejecting the orthodox ideas about painting in favor of a style deemed expressive and individualist.
Xu Gu (, 1824–1896) was a Chinese monk painter and poet during the Qing Dynasty. His ink wash paintings give the audience a sense of abstraction and illusion.
Modern times
Modern and contemporary Chinese freehand ink wash painting is the most famous of the Shanghai School, and the most representative ones are the following painters. Wu Changshuo ( 12 September 1844 – 29 November 1927, also romanised as Wu Changshi, ), born Wu Junqing (), was a prominent painter, calligrapher and seal artist of the late Qing Period. He is the leader of the Shanghai School. Wu Changshuo's style of painting has profoundly impacted the paintings in Japan.
Pu Hua (; ) was a Chinese landscape painter and calligrapher during the Qing dynasty. His style name was 'Zuo Ying'. Pu painted landscapes and ink bamboo in an unconventional style of free and easy brush strokes. He is one of the important representatives of the Shanghai School.
Wang Zhen (; 1867–1938), commonly known by his courtesy name Wang Yiting (), was a prominent businessman and celebrated modern Chinese artist of the Shanghai School.
Qi Baishi (, 1 January 1864–16 September 1957) was a Chinese painter noted for the whimsical, often playful style of his ink wash painting works.
Huang Binhong (; 1865–1955) was a Chinese literati painter and art historian born in Jinhua, Zhejiang province. His ancestral home was She County, Anhui province. He was the grandson of artist Huang Fengliu. He would later be associated with Shanghai and finally Hangzhou. He is considered one of the last innovators in the literati style of painting and is noted for his freehand landscapes.
Important painters who have absorbed Western sketching methods to improve Chinese ink wash painting include Gao Jianfu, Xu Beihong and Liu Haisu, etc. Gao Jianfu (1879–1951; 高剑父, pronounced "Gou Gim Fu" in Cantonese) was a Chinese painter and social activist. He is known for leading the Lingnan School's effort to modernize Chinese traditional ink wash painting as a "new national art."
Xu Beihong (; 19 July 1895 – 26 September 1953), also known as "Ju Péon", was a Chinese painter. He was primarily known for his Chinese ink paintings of horses and birds and was one of the first Chinese artists to articulate the need for artistic expressions that reflected a modern China at the beginning of the 20th century. He was also regarded as one of the first to create monumental oil paintings with epic Chinese themes – a show of his high proficiency in an essential Western art technique. He was one of the four pioneers of Chinese modern art who earned the title of "The Four Great Academy Presidents".
Liu Haisu (; 16 March 1896 – 7 August 1994) was a prominent 20th century Chinese painter and a noted art educator. He excelled in Chinese painting and oil painting. He was one of the four pioneers of Chinese modern art who earned the title of "The Four Great Academy Presidents".
Pan Tianshou, Zhang Daqian and Fu Baoshi are important ink wash painters who stick to the tradition of Chinese classical Literati Painting. Pan Tianshou (; 1897–1971) was a Chinese painter and art educator. Pan was born in Guanzhuang, Ninghai County, Zhejiang Province, and graduated from Zhejiang First Normal School (now Hangzhou High School). He studied Chinese traditional painting with Wu Changshuo. Later he created his own ink wash painting style and built the foundation of Chinese traditional painting education. He was persecuted during the Cultural Revolution until his death in 1971.
Zhang Daqian (; 10 May 1899 – 2 April 1983) was one of the best-known and most prodigious Chinese artists of the 20th century. Originally known as a (traditionalist) painter, by the 1960s he was also renowned as a modern impressionist and expressionist painter. In addition, he is regarded as one of the most gifted master forgers of the 20th century.
Fu Baoshi (; 1904–1965), was a Chinese painter. He also taught in the Art Department of Central University (now Nanjing University). His works of landscape painting employed skillful use of dots and inking methods, creating a new technique encompassing many varieties within traditional rules.
Shi Lu (; 1919–1982), born "Feng Yaheng" (), was a Chinese painter, wood block printer, poet and calligrapher. He based his pseudonym on two artists who greatly influenced him, the landscape painter Shitao and writer Lu Xun. He created two different ink wash painting styles.
Other countries in East Asia
Since the Tang Dynasty, Japan, Korea, and East Asian countries have extensively studied Chinese painting and ink wash painting. Josetsu () who immigrated to Japan from China has been called the "Father of Japanese ink painting". East Asian styles have mainly developed from the painting styles of Southern School and Northern School.
Japan
In Japan, the style was introduced in the 14th century, during the Muromachi period (1333–1573) through Zen Buddhist monasteries, and in particular Josetsu, a painter who immigrated from China and taught the first major early painter Tenshō Shūbun (d. ). Both he and his pupil Sesshū Tōyō (1420–1506) were monks, although Sesshū eventually left the clergy, and spent a year or so in China in 1468–69. By the end of the period the style had been adopted by several professional or commercial artists, especially from the large Kanō school founded by Kanō Masanobu (1434–1530); his son Kanō Motonobu was also very important. In the Japanese way, the most promising pupils married daughters of the family, and changed their names to Kanō. The school continued to paint in the traditional Japanese and other coloured styles as well.
A Japanese innovation of the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568-1600) was to use the monochrome style on a much larger scale in folding screens, often produced in sets so that they ran all round even large rooms. The of about 1595 is a famous example; only some 15% of the paper is painted.
was one of the first suiboku (ink wash) style Zen Japanese painters in the Muromachi Period (15th century). He was probably also a teacher of Tenshō Shūbun at the Shōkoku-ji monastery in Kyoto. A Chinese immigrant, he was naturalised in 1470 and is known as the "Father of Japanese ink painting".
Kanō school, a Japanese ink wash painting genre, was born under the significant influence of Chinese Taoism and Buddhist culture. was the leader of Kano school, laid the foundation for the school's dominant position in Japanese mainstream painting for centuries. He was mainly influenced by Xia Gui (active in 1195–1225), a Chinese court painter of the Southern Song Dynasty. He was the chief painter of the Ashikaga shogunate and is generally considered the founder of the Kanō school of painting. Kano Masanobu specialized in Zen paintings as well as elaborate paintings of Buddhist deities and Bodhisattvas.
was a Japanese Zen Buddhist monk and painter of the Muromachi period. He was deeply influenced by the Northern School () of Chinese painting and Josetsu.
Sesshū Tōyō (; Oda Tōyō since 1431, also known as Tōyō, Unkoku, or Bikeisai; 1420 – 26 August 1506) was the most prominent Japanese master of ink and wash painting from the middle Muromachi period. He was deeply influenced by the Northern School () of Chinese painting, especially Ma Yuan and Xia Gui.
After studying landscape painting in China, he drew “秋冬山水図”.This painting was drawn the landscape of Song dynasty in China.
He painted the natural landscape of winter.The feature of this painting is the thick line that represents the cliff.
and mainly imitated the ink wash painting styles of the Chinese Song Dynasty monk painter Muqi. Sesson Shukei was one of the main representatives of Japanese ink wash painting, a learned and prolific Zen monk painter. He studied a wide range of early Chinese ink wash painting styles and played an important role in the development of Japanese Zen ink wash painting. Colleagues of Chinese ink painter Muqi (active in 13th century) first brought Muxi painting to Japan in the late 13th century. Japanese Zen monks follow and learn the gibbon pictures painted by Chinese monk painter Muqi. By the late 15th century, the animal image of Muqi style had become a hot topic in large-scale Japanese painting projects.
The smaller, more purist and less flamboyant Hasegawa school was founded by Hasegawa Tōhaku (1539-1610), and lasted until the 18th century. The (meaning "Southern painting") or ("literati") style or school ran from the 18th century until the death of Tomioka Tessai (1837–1924) who was widely regarded as the last of the artists.
Hasegawa Tōhaku was a Japanese painter and founder of the Hasegawa school. He is considered one of the great painters of the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573-1603), and he is best known for his byōbu folding screens, such as Pine Trees and Pine Tree and Flowering Plants (both registered National Treasures), or the paintings in walls and sliding doors at Chishaku-in, attributed to him and his son (also National Treasures). He was deeply influenced by Chinese painting of Song Dynasty, especially Liang Kai and Muqi.
The ink wash paintings of Mi Fu and his son had a profound influence on Japanese ink painters, and Ike no Taiga is one of them. was a Japanese painter and calligrapher born in Kyoto during the Edo period. Together with Yosa Buson, he perfected the bunjinga (or nanga) genre. The majority of his works reflected his passion for classical Chinese culture and painting techniques, though he also incorporated revolutionary and modern techniques into his otherwise very traditional paintings. As a bunjin (文人, literati, man of letters), Ike was close to many of the prominent social and artistic circles in Kyoto, and in other parts of the country, throughout his lifetime.
Korea
In Korea, the Dohwaseo or court academy was very important, and most major painters came from it, although the emphasis of the academy was on realistic decorative works and official portraits, so something of a break from this was required. However the high official and painter Gang Se-hwang and others championed amateur literati or painting in the Chinese sensibility. Many painters made both Chinese-style landscapes and genre paintings of everyday life, and there was a tradition of more realistic landscapes of real locations, as well as mountains as fantastical as any Chinese paintings, for which the Taebaek Mountains along the eastern side of Korea offered plenty of inspiration.
An Gyeon was a painter of the early Joseon period. He was born in Jigok, Seosan, Chungcheongnam-do. He entered royal service as a member of the Dohwaseo, the official painters of the Joseon court, and drew (몽유도원도) for Prince Anpyeong in 1447 which is currently stored at Tenri University. He was deeply influenced by the Southern School () of Chinese painting, especially Li Cheng and Guo Xi.
Byeon Sang-byeok was a Korean painter of the Miryang Byeon clan during the late period of the Korean Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910). Byeon is famous for his precise depictions of animals and people in detailed brushwork. Byeon was deeply influenced by the Court Painting () of Chinese painting, especially Huang Quan.
The Korean painters influenced by Northern School in Song Dynasty include Gang Hui-an, Kim Hong-do, Jang Seung-eop and so on. Gang Hui-an (1417?-1464), pen name Injae 인재, was a prominent scholar and painter of the early Joseon period. He was good at poetry, calligraphy, and painting. He entered royal service by passing gwageo in 1441 under the reign of king Sejong (1397–1418–1450).
Kim Hong-do (김홍도, born 1745, died 1806?-1814?), also known as "Kim Hong-do", most often styled "Danwon" (단원), was a full-time painter of the Joseon period of Korea. He was together a pillar of the establishment and a key figure of the new trends of his time, the 'true view painting'. Gim Hong-do was an exceptional artist in every field of traditional painting. His ink wash paintings of figures are deeply influenced by the Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou.
Jang Seung-eop (1843–1897) (commonly known by his pen name "Owon") was a painter of the late Joseon Dynasty in Korea. His life was dramatized in the award-winning 2002 film Chi-hwa-seon directed by Im Kwon-taek. He was one of the few painters to hold a position of rank in the Joseon court.
Jeong Seon () (1676–1759) was a Korean landscape painter, also known by his pen name "Kyomjae" ("humble study"). His works include ink and oriental water paintings, such as Inwangjesaekdo (1751), Geumgang jeondo (1734), and Ingokjeongsa (1742), as well as numerous "true-view" landscape paintings on the subject of Korea and the history of its culture. He is counted among the most famous Korean painters. His style is realistic rather than abstract.
See also
Bird-and-flower painting
Daoism
Dhyāna in Buddhism
Four Gentlemen
Ink-wash animation
Cantonese school of painting
Modern European Ink Painting
Northern School
Shanghai School
Southern School
Wash (visual arts)
Notes
References
Cihai Editorial Committee (辭海編輯委員會), Cihai, , Shanghai: Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House(上海辭書出版社), 1979.
Max Loehr, The Great Painters of China, Oxford: Phaidon Press, 1980.
Dunn, Michael, The Art of East Asia, ed. Gabriele Fahr-Becker, Könemann, Volume 2, 1998.
Farrer, Anne, in Rawson, Jessica (ed). The British Museum Book of Chinese Art, British Museum Press, 2007 (2nd edn).
Jenyns, Soame, A Background to Chinese Painting (with a Preface for Collectors by W. W. Winkworth), 1935, Sidgwick & Jackson, Ltd
Rawson, Jessica (ed). The British Museum Book of Chinese Art, British Museum Press, 2007 (2nd edn).
Sickman, Laurence, in: Sickman L. & Soper A., The Art and Architecture of China, Pelican History of Art, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), 3rd ed 1971. LOC 70-125675
Stanley-Baker, Joan, Japanese Art, Thames and Hudson, World of Art, 2000 (2nd edn).
Little, Stephen; Eichman, Shawn; Shipper, Kristofer; Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, Taoism and the Arts of China, University of California Press, 2000-01-01.
External links
The Palace Museum
National Palace Museum
Shanghai Museum
James Cahill
Hasegawa Tohaku's Pine Trees at the Tokyo National Museum
Sumi-e Beppe Mokuza, Inc.
Sumi-e Society of America, Inc.
Chinese art
Chinese painting
East Asian art
Japanese painting
Korean painting
Painting techniques
Zenga
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204489
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempest
|
Tempest
|
Tempest is a synonym for a storm.
The Tempest is a play by William Shakespeare.
Tempest or The Tempest may also refer to:
Film
The Tempest (1908 film), a British silent film
The Tempest (1911 film), an American silent film
Tempest (1928 film), a John Barrymore film
The Tempest (1935 film), a Chinese film of the 1930s
Tempest (1958 film), an Alberto Lattuada film
The Tempest (1960 film), an American television film
The Tempest (1963 film), an Australian television film
The Tempest (1979 film), a film by Derek Jarman
Tempest (1982 film), a Paul Mazursky film
The Tempest (2010 film), a Julie Taymor film
Tempest (2015 film), an animated short film
The Tempest, a 1980 instalment of BBC Television Shakespeare directed by John Gorrie
The Tempest, a 1998 made-for-TV film by Jack Bender
Tempest, a 2012 film by Rob Curry and Anthony Fletcher
Literature
Tempest (Bulis novel), a 1998 Doctor Who spin-off novel by Christopher Bulis
Tempest (Denning novel), a 2006 Star Wars novel by Troy Denning
The Tempest (Dryden and D'Avenant play), a 1667 adaptation of Shakespeare's play by John Dryden and William d'Avenant
The Tempest, a Star Trek: Deep Space Nine novel by Susan Wright
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Volume IV: The Tempest, part of the comic book series
Military
Tempest (codename), a standard of shielding for wires and computers used by the U.S. and other governments
BAE Systems Tempest, a planned British Royal Air Force fighter plane
HMS Tempest (H71), an R-class destroyer launched in 1917
HMS Tempest (N86), a T-class submarine launched in 1941
USS Tempest (1862), a Civil War gunboat
USS Tempest (1869), a monitor renamed USS Yuma
USS Tempest (PC-2), a Cyclone-class coastal patrol ship launched in 1992
Hawker Tempest, a World War II–era British Royal Air Force fighter plane
Operation Tempest, a World War II operation of the Polish Home Army
Tempest, a variant of the Centurion tank used in Singapore
Tempest MPV, a British army version of the Cougar military vehicle
Music
Classical music and opera
The Tempest (Adès), a 2004 opera by Thomas Adès
The Tempest (Hoiby), a 1986 opera by Lee Hoiby, after Shakespeare
The Tempest (Smith), a 1756 opera by John Christopher Smith
The Tempest (Sullivan), Arthur Sullivan's 1861 incidental music to Shakespeare's play
The Tempest (Sibelius), Jean Sibelius's 1926 incidental music to Shakespeare's play
The Tempest (Tchaikovsky), an 1873 symphonic fantasy by Tchaikovsky
"Tempest Sonata" or Piano Sonata No. 17, a piano sonata by Ludwig van Beethoven
The Tempest, opus Z 631, a 1695 (?) semi-opera by Henry Purcell
Bands
Tempest (Celtic rock band), an American Celtic rock band group
Tempest (musician), electronic/alternative American rock band founded by Gabrielle Wortman
Tempest (UK band), a British progressive rock group
Tempest (South Korean band), a South Korean boy group
Tempest (Christian rock band), an American Christian metal band
The Tempests (band), an American classic rock band
The Tempest (band), a UK pop band
Albums
Tempest (Balflare album) (2006)
Tempest (Jesse Cook album) (1995)
Tempest (Bob Dylan album) (2012)
The Tempest (album), a 2007 album by Insane Clown Posse
Tempest (Tussle album) (2012)
Songs
"Tempest" (Deftones song) (2012)
"Tempest" (Bob Dylan song) (2012)
"Tempest", a song by Namie Amuro, part of a triple A-side single "Naked"/"Fight Together"/"Tempest"
"Tempest", a 2007 song by Delta-S from Voyage to Isis
"Tempest", a 2018 song by Low from Double Negative
"Tempest", a 2018 song by Lucius from Nudes
"The Tempest", a 2008 track by Mike Oldfield from Music of the Spheres
"The Tempest", a 2008 track by Pendulum from In Silico
"Tempest", a 2009 song by A Storm of Light from Forgive Us Our Trespasses
"7empest", a 2019 song by Tool from Fear Inoculum
Painting and sculpture
The Tempest (Giorgione), a 1508 work by Giorgione
The Tempest (La Tempête) sculpture by Auguste Rodin
The Tempest a 1913–1914 painting by Oskar Kokoschka also known as The Bride of the Wind
The Tempest (Hebald), an outdoor sculpture by Milton Hebald in Central Park, New York, U.S.
Television
"Tempest" (Smallville), a 2002 episode of Smallville
"Tempests" (The Outer Limits), an episode of The Outer Limits
The Tempest, a Dharma Initiative station on Lost
Transportation
Tempest (ship), a steamship of the Anchor Line that vanished in 1857
Tempest (keelboat)
Moyes Tempest, a glider produced by Moyes Microlights
Pontiac Tempest, an automobile produced by General Motors from 1961 to 1991
VinFast Tempesr, an Electric scooters by VinFast of Vingroup from Vietnam
Other uses
Tempest (surname)
Tempest (codename), a standard of shielding for wires and computers used by the U.S. and other governments
Tempest (comics), any of a variety of comic book titles and characters
Tempest (video game), a 1981 arcade game from Atari
Tempest (Magic: The Gathering), an expansion to the Magic: The Gathering collectible card game from the Rath block
Tempest Peak, a mountain in Ross Dependency, Antarctica
Tempest Stele, a stele erected by Egyptian Pharaoh Ahmose I c. 1550 BC
Janne Suni or Tempest, Finnish demoscener
The Tempest (media company), digital media startup, founded 2016
Tempest, a fictional starship in Mass Effect: Andromeda
Tempest, a brand operated by the department store Menarys
Tempest, the watermelon flavor of the chewing gum 5 in Australia and New Zealand
People with the given name
Tempest Anderson (1846–1913), English ophthalmic surgeon, amateur photographer and vulcanologist
Tempestt Bledsoe (born 1973), American actress
Tempest Storm (1928–2021), American exotic dancer, burlesque dancer, and film actress
See also
Der Sturm (opera), a German-language opera by Frank Martin
HMS Tempest, a list of ships of the Royal Navy
USS Tempest, a list of United States Navy vessels
|
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204491
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-tailed%20shrike
|
Long-tailed shrike
|
The long-tailed shrike or rufous-backed shrike (Lanius schach) is a member of the bird family Laniidae, the shrikes. They are found widely distributed across Asia and there are variations in plumage across the range. The species ranges across much of Asia, both on the mainland and the eastern archipelagos. The eastern or Himalayan subspecies, L. s. tricolor, is sometimes called the black-headed shrike. Although there are considerable differences in plumage among the subspecies, they all have a long and narrow black tail, have a black mask and forehead, rufous rump and flanks and a small white patch on the shoulder. It is considered to form a superspecies with the grey-backed shrike (Lanius tephronotus) which breeds on the Tibetan Plateau.
Description
The long-tailed shrike is a typical shrike, favouring dry open habitats and found perched prominently atop a bush or on a wire. The dark mask through the eye is broad and covers the forehead in most subspecies and the whole head is black in subspecies tricolor and nasutus. The tail is narrow and graduated with pale rufous on the outer feathers. Subspecies erythronotus has the grey of the mantle and upper back suffused with rufous while the southern Indian caniceps has pure grey. A small amount of white is present at the base of the primaries. The bay-backed shrike is smaller and more contrastingly patterned and has a more prominent white patch on the wing. The sexes are alike in plumage.
Taxonomy
The genus name, Lanius, is derived from the Latin word for "butcher", and some shrikes are also known as "butcher birds" because of their feeding habits. The specific schach is an onomatopoeic name based on the call. The common English name "shrike" is from Old English scríc, "shriek", referring to the shrill call.
A number of subspecies are noted within the widely distributed range of this species. Stuart Baker in the second edition of The Fauna of British India considered Lanius schach, Lanius tephronotus and Lanius tricolor as three species. He considered nigriceps as synonymous with tricolor and included erythronotus as a race of schach. Other treatments were proposed by Hugh Whistler and N B Kinnear where tephronotus was considered a subspecies of schach and nigriceps and nasutus grouped together. Another treatment considered tricolor as a subspecies of L. tephronotus. It was subsequently however noted that tephronotus and schach co-occurred in the Kumaon region and so the two were confirmed as distinct species. Molecular distances also indicate that they are distant enough. The erythronotus group have a grey head which continues into the back with a gradual suffusion of rufous. The westernmost population from Transcaspia named by Sergei Buturlin as jaxartensis and said to be larger, is not considered valid. A very light grey form from western dry region of India named by Walter Koelz as kathiawarensis is also considered merely as a variant. In southern India and Sri Lanka, subspecies caniceps, is marked by the rufous restricted to the rump, light crown and the pure grey on the back. Biswamoy Biswas supported the view that nigriceps (having upper mantle grey and lower mantle rufous) was a hybrid of tricolor and erythronotus.
Subspecies longicaudatus has a greyer crown and is found in Thailand and Burma. The nominate subspecies is found in China from the Yangtze valley south to Hainan and Taiwan. Some individuals of the nominate form show melanism and were once described as a species fuscatus. Island forms include nasutus (Philippine Islands from Mindanao to Luzon and north Borneo), suluensis (Sulu Island), bentet (Sunda Islands and Sumatra other than Borneo) and stresemanni of New Guinea.
Distribution and habitat
The species is found across Asia from Kazakhstan to New Guinea. It is found mainly in scrub and open habitats. Many of the temperate zone populations are migratory, moving south in winter while those in the tropics tend to be sedentary although they may make short distance movements. Subspecies caniceps of southern India is found in winter in the dry coastal zone of southern India. Subspecies tricolor migrates south to Bengal in India. They are found in scrub, grassland and open land under cultivation. A survey in southern India found them to be among the commonest wintering shrikes and found at a linear density along roadsides at about 0.58 per kilometer, often choosing wires to perch.
This species is a rare vagrant to western Europe on the strength of two accepted records in Great Britain on South Uist in November 2000 and the Netherlands near Den Helder in October 2011. A bird matching the features of caniceps was seen on the island of Maldives. It has also occurred as a vagrant to Jordan, Israel, Turkey, Hungary, Japan and Sweden.
Behaviour and ecology
This bird has a characteristic upright "shrike" attitude when perched on a bush, from which it glides down at an angle to take lizards, large insects, small birds and rodents. They maintain feeding territories and are usually found single or in pairs that are well spaced out. Several members have been observed indulging in play behaviour fighting over perches. The usual calls are harsh grating and scolding calls, likened to the squealing of a frog caught by a snake. They are capable of vocal mimicry and include the calls of many species including lapwings, cuckoos, puppies and squirrels in their song. This singing ability makes it a popular pet in parts of southeast Asia.
Long-tailed shrikes take a wide variety of animal prey. On occasion, they have been noted capturing fish from a stream. They also take small snakes. It sometimes indulges in kleptoparasitism and takes prey from other birds. It also captures flying insects in the air. They sometimes impale prey on a thorny bush after feeding just on the head or brain. They have been reported to feed on the fruits of the neem in Kerala, even attempting to impale them on a twig.
The breeding season is in summer in the temperate ranges. The nest is a deep and loose cup made up of thorny twigs, rags and hair. This is placed in a thorny bush, trees such as Flacourtia and wild date palms (Phoenix). The usual clutch is about 3 to 6 eggs which are incubated by both sexes. The eggs hatch after about 13 to 16 days. Young chicks are often fed with pieces of small birds captured by the parents. A second brood may be raised in the same nest. They are sometimes parasitized by cuckoos such as the common cuckoo (Dehra Dun), common hawk-cuckoo, Jacobin cuckoo and the Asian koel in Bangladesh.
Gallery
References
External links
Photographs and media on the Internet Bird Collection
long-tailed shrike
Birds of China
Birds of Central Asia
Birds of South Asia
Birds of Southeast Asia
long-tailed shrike
long-tailed shrike
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helge%20Ingstad
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Helge Ingstad
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Helge Marcus Ingstad (30 December 1899 – 29 March 2001) was a Norwegian explorer. In 1960, after mapping some Norse settlements, Ingstad and his wife archaeologist Anne Stine Ingstad found remnants of a Viking settlement in L'Anse aux Meadows in the province of Newfoundland in Canada. They were thus the first to prove conclusively that the Icelandic/Greenlandic Norsemen such as Leif Erickson had found a way across the Atlantic Ocean to North America, roughly 500 years before Christopher Columbus and John Cabot. He also thought that the mysterious disappearance of the Greenland Norse Settlements in the 14th and 15th centuries could be explained by their emigration to North America.
Helge Ingstad died at Diakonhjemmet Hospital in Oslo at the age of 101.
Early life
Helge Ingstad was the son of Olav Ingstad (1867–1958) and Olga Marie Qvam (1869–1946) in Meråker, Nord-Trøndelag. His father was municipal engineer in Tromsø and held the title of factory supervisor. He was the grandson of lawyer professor, Marcus Pløen Ingstad. Helge and his family moved to Bergen in 1915 where he attended the Bergen Katedralskole (1915–1918), and after graduating cand. jur. in 1922 he took up a practice of lawyer in Levanger.
Career
Helge Ingstad was originally a lawyer by profession, but, ever an outdoorsman, he sold his successful law practice in Levanger and went to Canada's Northwest Territories as a trapper in 1926. For the next three years, the Norwegian travelled with the local Indian tribe known as the Caribou Eaters. After returning to Norway, he wrote the bestselling Pelsjegerliv ("Trapper Life") about his time in Canada, published in English as The Land of Feast and Famine (Knopf, 1933).
Ingstad was the governor (Sysselmann) of Erik the Red's Land in 1932–1933, when Norway annexed that eastern part of Greenland. The Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague decided that the lands belonged to Denmark, and so the official Norwegian presence had to end. Following the verdict, Ingstad was summoned by the government to the job as governor of Svalbard (Spitsbergen and the surrounding islands) — a position suiting him uniquely, considering his profession of law and his experience in Arctic living.
Marriage
During his years on Svalbard, Helge Ingstad met Anne Stine Moe, nearly twenty years his junior. She had read his books from Canada and Greenland with great admiration, and developed a crush on the explorer; she wrote to him, and after some time of correspondence and dating they were engaged, and married in 1941. In 1946, the Ingstads made themselves a home near the Holmenkollen area of Norway's capital, Oslo, where they spent the rest of their lives when not travelling the world. They had one daughter, Benedicte, who became a professor in medical anthropology at the University in Oslo. From her teenage years, Benedicte accompanied her parents on their exploration journeys.
Author
Helge Ingstad was a popular author, whose books on his visits to remote parts of the world gained him fame in Norway. From Greenland he wrote Øst for den store bre ("East of the Great Glacier"), from Svalbard he wrote Landet med de kalde kyster ("The Land With the Chilly Coasts"). He also visited the Apache Indians of northwestern Mexico, from which he wrote Apache-indianerne - jakten på den tapte stamme ("The Apaches - The Hunt for the Lost Tribe"). After World War II he stayed for a period in the Brooks Range in northern Alaska among the Nunamiut Iñupiat, and afterwards wrote Nunamiut - blant Alaskas innlandseskimoer ("Nunamiut - Inland Eskimos of Alaska").
His 1931 book, The Land of Feast or Famine, was republished by McGill University Press, in 1992, after being out of print for over forty years.
Viking settlement of North America
In 1960, he discovered the remains of what later proved to be a Viking settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows at the northernmost tip of Newfoundland in Canada.
It is the only known site of a Norse or Viking village in Canada, and in North America outside of Greenland. Dating to around the year 1000, L'Anse aux Meadows remains the only widely accepted instance of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact and is notable for its possible connection with the attempted colony of Vinland established by Leif Ericson around the same time period or, more broadly, with Norse exploration of the Americas.
Archaeological excavation at the site was conducted in the 1960s by an international team led by archaeologist Anne Stine Ingstad (Helge Ingstad's wife) and under the direction of Parks Canada of the Government of Canada in the 1970s. Following each period of excavation, the site was reburied to protect and conserve the cultural resources.
The settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows has been dated to approximately 1,000 years ago, an assessment that tallies with the relative dating of artifact and structure types. The remains of eight buildings were located. They are believed to have been constructed of sod placed over a wooden frame. Based on associated artifacts, the buildings were variously identified as dwellings or workshops. The largest dwelling measured and consisted of several rooms. Workshops were identified as an iron smithy containing a forge and iron slag, a carpentry workshop, which generated wood debris, and a specialized boat repair area containing worn rivets. Besides those related to iron working, carpentry, and boat repair, other artifacts found at the site consisted of common everyday Norse items, including a stone oil lamp, a whetstone, a bronze fastening pin, a bone knitting needle, and part of a spindle. The presence of the spindle and needle suggests that women were present as well as men. Food remains included butternuts, which are significant because they do not grow naturally north of New Brunswick, and their presence probably indicates the Norse inhabitants travelled farther south to obtain them. Archaeologists concluded that the site was inhabited by the Norse for a relatively short period of time.
Named features
Helge Ingstad has two geographic features in North America named after him. In Canada, a small river, Ingstad Creek, flows into Great Slave Lake. In Alaska, the 1461-meter-high Ingstad Mountain in the Brooks Range was officially approved by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names on 19 April 2006. The name was suggested by the Nunamiut tribe in gratitude for Ingstad's efforts on their behalf.
During the last few years of his life, he worked on categorizing and annotating the large quantity of photos and audio recordings (141 songs) he had made while living with the Nunamiut in 1950. The effort resulted in a booklet, Songs of the Nunamiut, with an accompanying CD containing the audio material. This is an extremely valuable contribution to the preservation of the Nunamiut culture, because it turned out that much of what he had gathered in the mid-20th century was now lost locally and was only preserved in his recordings.
Honours
He was an honorary member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. He also held honorary doctorates at the University of Oslo, Memorial University of Newfoundland in Canada, and at St. Olaf College in Minnesota. He was awarded the Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav (in 1991; previously Knight 1st class in 1965, and Commander in 1970), Knight of the Order of Vasa, and he was presented with the Norwegian Red Cross Badge of Honour for his efforts in Finnmark during World War II. He received a lifetime government grant from the Norwegian government from 1970. He was the subject of a 1981 National Film Board of Canada (NFB) documentary The Man Who Discovered America, and subsequently appeared along with his wife in the 1984 NFB film, The Vinland Mystery. In 1986, he was presented Arts Council Norway's honor award. , the fourth of the five s of the Royal Norwegian Navy was named after Helge Ingstad.
The inner main-belt asteroid 8993 Ingstad, discovered by Danish astronomer Richard Martin West at ESO's La Silla Observatory in Chile in 1980, was named in his memory. The official naming citation was published by the MPC on 24 June 2002 ().
The Helge and Anne Stine Ingstad Building on the St. John's Campus of Memorial University is named after him and his wife. It houses the University's Print and Mail Services.
Books
Ingstad, Helge; Gay-Tifft, Eugene (translator) (1992). The Land of Feast and Famine. McGill-Queens University Press. .
Ingstad, Helge; Naomi Walford (translator) (1966). Land under the Pole Star; a voyage to the Norse settlements of Greenland and the saga of the people that vanished. St. Martins Press.
Ingstad, Helge (1996). Oppdagelsen av det nye land. J. M. Stenersens forlag (Oslo).
Ingstad, Helge; Ingstad, Anne Stine (2001). The Viking Discovery of America: The Excavation of a Norse Settlement in L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland. Checkmark Books. New York. .
Ingstad, Helge; Groven, Eivind (transcriptions); Tveit, Sigvald (ed.) (1998). Songs of the Nunamiut. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. .
Ingstad, Helge (1965). Vesterveg til Vinland; oppdagelsen av norrøne boplasser i Nord-Amerika. Gyldendal (Oslo).
Ingstad, Helge (1954) Nunamiut; Among Alaska's Inland Eskimos New York: W.W. Norton
Ingstad, Helge (1939) Apache Indianerne - Jakten på den tapte stamme (translated by Janine K. Stenehjem (2004) Apaches - the search for the lost tribe University of Nebraska Press)
Ingstad, Helge; (1935) Ost For Den Store Bre Gyldendal Norsk Forlag, Oslo. (translated by Gay-Tifft, Eugene (1937) East of the Great Glacier Alfred A Knopf, Inc.)
Articles
Ingstad, Helge. "Vinland Ruins Prove Vikings Found the New World." National Geographic, November 1964. Microsoft Encarta 2009. © 1993–2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
See also
Norse colonization of North America
References
External links
Obituary from the New York Times as it appeared in the Halifax Sunday Herald, April 1, 2001(note that the name of Ingstad's wife, Anne Stine, is misspelled, twice, differently, in this otherwise well-written obituary)
Concise obituary from Memorial University of Newfoundland Gazette, April 12, 2001
The Norse discovery of America – PubMed abstract of article about the L'Anse Aux Meadows finds
Family genealogy
1899 births
2001 deaths
Governors of Svalbard
Knights of the Order of Vasa
Men centenarians
Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Memorial University of Newfoundland faculty
Norwegian centenarians
Norwegian expatriates in Canada
Norwegian explorers
Norwegian hunters
Norwegian lawyers
People educated at the Bergen Cathedral School
People from Meråker
Norse colonization of North America
University of Oslo faculty
20th-century lawyers
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204495
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian%20minuscule
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Carolingian minuscule
|
Carolingian minuscule or Caroline minuscule is a script which developed as a calligraphic standard in the medieval European period so that the Latin alphabet of Jerome's Vulgate Bible could be easily recognized by the literate class from one region to another. It is thought to have originated before AD 778 at the scriptorium of the Benedictine monks of Corbie Abbey, about north of Paris, and then developed by Alcuin of York for wide use in the Carolingian Renaissance. Alcuin himself still wrote in a script which was a precursor the Carolingian minuscule, which slowly developed over three centuries. He was most likely responsible for copying and preserving the manuscripts and upkeep of the script. It was used in the Holy Roman Empire between approximately 800 and 1200. Codices, pagan and Christian texts, and educational material were written in Carolingian minuscule.
After blackletter developed out of it, the Carolingian minuscule became obsolete, until the 14th century Italian Renaissance, when the humanist minuscule script was also developed from it. By this latter line the Carolingian minuscule is a direct ancestor of most modern-day scripts and typefaces.
Creation
The script is derived from Roman half uncial and the insular scripts that were being used in Irish and English monasteries. The strong influence of Irish literati on the script can be seen in the distinctively cló-Gaelach (Irish style) forms of the letters, especially a, e, d, g, s, and t.
Carolingian minuscule was created partly under the patronage of the Emperor Charlemagne (hence Carolingian). Charlemagne had a keen interest in learning, according to his biographer Einhard (here with apices):
Temptábat et scríbere, tabulásque et códicellós ad hoc in lectó sub cervícálibus circumferre solébat, ut, cum vacuum tempus esset, manum litterís effigiendís adsuésceret, sed parum successit labor praeposterus ac séró incohátus.
This new script was significantly more legible than the scripts used by Romans or that of the script earlier in the Middle Ages, and offered new features such as word spacing, more punctuation, an introduction of lower-case letters, and conventions such as usage of upper-case for titles, a mix of upper and lower case for subtitles, and lower case for the body of a text. Although Charlemagne was never fully literate, he understood the value of literacy and a uniform script in running his empire. Charlemagne sent for the English scholar Alcuin of York to run his palace school and scriptorium at his capital, Aachen. Efforts to supplant Gallo-Roman and Germanic scripts had been under way before Alcuin arrived at Aachen, where he was master from 782 to 796, with a two-year break. The new minuscule was disseminated first from Aachen, of which the Ada Gospels provided classic models, and later from the influential scriptorium at Marmoutier Abbey (Tours), where Alcuin withdrew from court service as an abbot in 796 and restructured the scriptorium.
Characteristics
Carolingian minuscule was uniform, with rounded shapes in clearly distinguishable glyphs, disciplined and above all, legible. Clear capital letters and spaces between words became standard in Carolingian minuscule, which was one result of a campaign to achieve a culturally unifying standardization across the Carolingian Empire.
Traditional charters, however, continued to be written in a Merovingian "chancery hand" long after manuscripts of Scripture and classical literature were being produced in the minuscule hand. Documents written in a local language, like Gothic or Anglo-Saxon rather than Latin, tended to be expressed in traditional local script.
Carolingian script generally has fewer ligatures than other contemporary scripts, although the et (&), æ, rt, st, and ct ligatures are common. The letter d often appears in an uncial form with an ascender slanting to the left, but the letter g is essentially the same as the modern minuscule letter, rather than the previously common uncial ᵹ. Ascenders are usually "clubbed" – they become thicker near the top.
The early period of the script, during Charlemagne's reign in the late 8th century and early 9th, still has widely varying letter forms in different regions. The uncial form of the letter a, similar to a double c (cc), is still used in manuscripts from this period. There is also use of punctuation such as the question mark, as in Beneventan script of the same period. The script flourished during the 9th century, when regional hands developed into an international standard, with less variation of letter forms. Modern glyphs, such as s and v, began to appear (as opposed to the "long s" ſ and u), and ascenders, after thickening at the top, were finished with a three-cornered wedge. The script began to evolve slowly after the 9th century. In the 10th and 11th centuries, ligatures were rare and ascenders began to slant to the right and were finished with a fork. The letter w also began to appear. By the 12th century, Carolingian letters had become more angular and were written closer together, less legibly than in previous centuries; at the same time, the modern dotted i appeared.
Spread
The new script spread through Western Europe most widely where Carolingian influence was strongest. In luxuriously produced lectionaries that now began to be produced for princely patronage of abbots and bishops, legibility was essential. It reached far afield: the 10th century Freising manuscripts, which contain the oldest Slovene language, the first Roman-script record of any Slavic language, are written in Carolingian minuscule. In Switzerland, Carolingian was used in the Rhaetian and Alemannic minuscule types. Manuscripts written in Rhaetian minuscule tend to have slender letters, resembling Insular script, with the letters and , and ligatures such as , showing similar to Visigothic and Beneventan. Alemannic minuscule, used for a short time in the early 9th century, is usually larger, broader, and very vertical in comparison to the slanting Rhaetian type. It was developed by the monk Wolfcoz I at the Abbey of Saint Gall. In the Holy Roman Empire, Carolingian script flourished in Salzburg, Austria, as well as in Fulda, Mainz, and Würzburg, all of which were major centers of the script. German minuscule tends to be oval-shaped, very slender, and slanted to the right. It has uncial features as well, such as the ascender of the letter slanting to the left, and vertical initial strokes of and .
In northern Italy, the monastery at Bobbio used Carolingian minuscule beginning in the 9th century. Outside the sphere of influence of Charlemagne and his successors, however, the new legible hand was resisted by the Roman Curia; nevertheless the Romanesca type was developed in Rome after the 10th century. The script was not taken up in England and Ireland until ecclesiastic reforms in the middle of the 10th century; in Spain a traditionalist Visigothic hand survived; and in southern Italy a 'Beneventan minuscule' survived in the lands of the Lombard duchy of Benevento through the 13th century, although Romanesca eventually also appeared in southern Italy.
Role in cultural transmission
Scholars during the Carolingian Renaissance sought out and copied in the new legible standardized hand many Roman texts that had been wholly forgotten. Most of contemporary knowledge of classical literature derives from copies made in the scriptoria of Charlemagne. Over 7000 manuscripts written in Carolingian script survive from the 8th and 9th centuries alone.
Though the Carolingian minuscule was superseded by Gothic blackletter hands, in retrospect, it seemed so thoroughly 'classic' to the humanists of the early Renaissance that they took these old Carolingian manuscripts to be ancient Roman originals, and used them as bases for their Renaissance hand, the "humanist minuscule". From there the script passed to the 15th- and 16th-century printers of books, such as Aldus Manutius of Venice. In this way it forms the basis of our modern lowercase typefaces. Indeed, 'Carolingian minuscule' is a style of typeface, which approximates this historical hand, eliminating the nuances of size of capitals, long descenders, and so on.
See also
Ada Gospels
References
External links
'Manual of Latin Palaeography' (A comprehensive PDF file containing 82 pages profusely illustrated, June 2014).
Carolingian minuscule at Dr. Dianne Tillotson's website devoted to medieval writing
Pfeffer Mediæval, a Carolingian minuscule typeface which also includes Gothic and Runic characters
Network for the Study of Caroline Minuscule, an international forum dedicated to the study of the script
More information at Earlier Latin Manuscripts
8th century in Francia
Carolingian art
Latin-script calligraphy
Medieval scripts
Palaeographic letters
Western calligraphy
|
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] |
204498
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Portillo
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Michael Portillo
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Michael Denzil Xavier Portillo (born 26 May 1953) is a British journalist, broadcaster and former politician. His broadcast series include railway documentaries such as Great British Railway Journeys and Great Continental Railway Journeys. A former member of the Conservative Party, he was Member of Parliament (MP) for Enfield Southgate from 1984 to 1997 and Kensington and Chelsea from 1999 to 2005.
First elected to the House of Commons in a 1984 by-election, Portillo served as a junior minister under both Margaret Thatcher and John Major, before entering the Cabinet in 1992 as Chief Secretary to the Treasury, before being promoted to Secretary of State for Employment in 1994. A Thatcherite and a Eurosceptic, he was considered a "darling of the right" and was seen as a likely challenger to Major during the 1995 Conservative leadership election, but did not run, and was subsequently promoted to Secretary of State for Defence. As Defence Secretary, he pressed for a course of "clear blue water"; purist policies separating the Conservatives from the Labour Party.
Portillo unexpectedly lost the hitherto safe Conservative Enfield Southgate seat at the 1997 general election. This led to the coining of the expression "Portillo moment". Returning to the Commons in the 1999 by-election in Kensington and Chelsea, Portillo rejoined the frontbench as Shadow Chancellor of the Exchequer. Standing for the leadership of the party in 2001, he finally came in third place behind Iain Duncan Smith and Kenneth Clarke. He retired from the House of Commons and from active politics at the 2005 general election.
Since leaving politics, Portillo has pursued his media interests by presenting and participating in a wide range of television and radio programmes. Portillo's passion for steam trains led him to make the BBC documentary series Great British Railway Journeys, beginning in 2010, in which he travels the British railway networks, referring to various editions of Bradshaw's Guide. The success of the show led Portillo to present series about railway systems in other countries.
Early life
Portillo was born in Bushey, Hertfordshire, to an exiled Spanish republican father, Luis Gabriel Portillo (1907–1993) and a Scottish mother, Cora Waldegrave () (1919–2014). Portillo's father, a devout Catholic, was a member of left-wing movements in the 1930s and fled Madrid when it fell to General Franco in 1939, settling in England. He became head of the London Diplomatic Office of the Government in Exile in 1972. Portillo's maternal grandfather, John Blyth, was a prosperous linoleum manufacturer from Kirkcaldy.
Portillo was registered as a Spanish citizen at the age of 4, and, in accordance with Spanish naming customs, his Spanish passport names him as Miguel Portillo Blyth.
In 1961, Portillo appeared in a television advertisement for Ribena, a blackcurrant cordial drink. He was educated at Stanburn Primary School in Stanmore, Greater London, and Harrow County School for Boys and then won a scholarship to Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he studied history. While at school Portillo had supported the cause of the Labour Party; he attributed his embrace of conservatism at Cambridge to the influence of the right-wing Peterhouse historian Maurice Cowling. In 1999, Portillo gave an interview in which he discussed homosexual relationships he had while at university.
On 12 February 1982 Portillo married Carolyn Claire Eadie.
Political career (1984–2005)
Portillo graduated in 1975 with a first-class degree in history, and, after a brief stint with Ocean Transport and Trading Ltd., a shipping and transport company, he joined the Conservative Research Department in 1976. Following the Conservative victory in 1979, he became a government adviser to David Howell at the Department of Energy. He left to work for Kerr-McGee Oil between 1981 and 1983. In the 1983 general election, he fought his first electoral contest, in the Labour-held seat of Birmingham Perry Barr, losing to the incumbent Jeff Rooker.
Election
Portillo returned to advisory work for the government, and, in December 1984, he stood for and won the Enfield Southgate by-election, following the murder of the incumbent, Sir Anthony Berry, in the bombing of the Grand Hotel, Brighton by the IRA. Initially, he was a Parliamentary Private Secretary to John Moore, and then an assistant whip.
In government
In 1987, Portillo was given his first ministerial post, as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Social Security; the following year, he was promoted to Minister of State for Transport. Portillo has stated that he considers "saving the Settle to Carlisle railway" was his greatest achievement. He was a strong supporter of Margaret Thatcher.
In 1990, Portillo was appointed Minister of State for Local Government, in which post he argued in favour of the ultimately highly unpopular Community Charge system (popularly known as "the Poll Tax"). He demonstrated a consistently right-of-centre line (exemplified by his insistence, in a well-publicised speech, on placing "clear blue water" between the policies of the Conservatives and other parties) and was favoured by Norman Tebbit and Margaret Thatcher, who said of him "[W]e expect great things of you, do not disappoint us". His rise continued under John Major; he was made a Cabinet Minister in 1992 as Chief Secretary to the Treasury and was admitted to the Privy Council the same year. He subsequently became Secretary of State for Employment (1994–95), and then Secretary of State for Defence (1995–1997).
As Defence Secretary, Portillo became the object of criticism when he invoked the motto of the SAS, "Who Dares, Wins", at a speech at the 1995 Conservative Party annual conference.
His high profile led to constant attention from the media, including Private Eye, which mockingly referred to him as "Portaloo". He was accused of vanity when the Alexandra Palace was hired to celebrate his ten years in politics.
Some saw the Defence Secretary post as a reward for Portillo's cautious loyalty to Major during the 1995 leadership challenge of John Redwood, following Major's "back me or sack me" resignation as party leader. Many urged Portillo, the "darling of the right", to run against Major. He declined to enter the first round, but planned to challenge Major if the contest went to a second round. To this end, he set up a potential campaign headquarters, with banks of telephone lines. He later admitted that this had been an error: "I did not want to oppose [Major], but neither did I want to close the possibility of entering a second ballot if it came to that." Portillo acknowledged that "ambiguity is unattractive" and his opponents within the party later used Portillo's apparent equivocation as an example of his indecisiveness; "I appeared happy to wound but afraid to strike: a dishonourable position."
1997 election defeat
Portillo's loss of the Enfield Southgate seat, in the 1997 general election to Labour's Stephen Twigg, came as a shock to many politicians and commentators, and came to symbolise the extent of the Labour landslide victory. Halfway through the campaign, Portillo invited aides Andrew Cooper and Michael Simmonds to his house and presented them with some ideas for a leadership campaign following the expected Conservative defeat and asked them to finish it off. However, when a poll in The Observer on the weekend before the election showed that Portillo held only a three-point lead in his hitherto-safe seat, Portillo asked Cooper, who oversaw the party's internal polling, to reassure him that it was wrong; Cooper was unable to and Portillo began to think that he might lose.
He had a memorable interview with Jeremy Paxman on election night, prior to the result being called in his own seat. Paxman opened the interview with the question "so Michael, are you going to miss the limo?"—a reference to the expectation that the Conservatives were headed for defeat and thus he would no longer be a Minister. Portillo was then asked "are we seeing the end of the Conservative Party as a credible force in British politics?". He has since revealed that, prior to the interview, he had already come to believe he had lost his seat:
Portillo's defeat represented a 17.4% swing to Labour. Symbolising the loss of the election by the Conservative Party, it has been referred to as "the Portillo moment", and in the cliché "Were you up for Portillo?" (i.e., "Were you awake/did you see Portillo's result announced on television?") Portillo himself commented, thirteen years later, that as a consequence "My name is now synonymous with eating a bucketload of shit in public."
Return to Parliament
After the election, Portillo renewed his attachment to Kerr-McGee, but also undertook substantial media work, including programmes for the BBC and Channel 4. In an interview with The Times given in the summer of 1999, Portillo said that "I had some homosexual experiences as a young person." A few weeks after he had given that interview, the death of Alan Clark gave Portillo the opportunity to return to Parliament, despite Lord Tebbit accusing Portillo of lying about the extent of his sexual "deviance", and similar comments from an associate included in a profile of Portillo in The Guardian newspaper. He comfortably won the by-election in late November 1999 to represent Kensington and Chelsea, traditionally one of the safest Conservative seats.
On 1 February 2000, William Hague promoted Portillo to the Shadow Cabinet as Deputy Leader and Shadow Chancellor. On 3 February, Portillo stood opposite the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown, in the House of Commons for the first time in his new role. During this session, Portillo declared that a future Conservative government would enhance the independence of the Bank of England and increase its accountability to Parliament, and that it would not repeal the national minimum wage.
2001 leadership election
Following the 2001 general election, Portillo contested the leadership of the party. In the first ballot of Conservative MPs, he led well. However, there followed press stories, including references to his previous homosexual experiences and to his equivocation at the time of Major's 1995 resignation. He was knocked out in the final round of voting by Conservative MPs, his sexual history – according to Kenneth Clarke – having damaged his chances, leaving party members to choose between Iain Duncan Smith and Kenneth Clarke.
Retirement from politics
When Duncan Smith was elected leader, Portillo returned to the backbenches. In March 2003, he voted in favour of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In November 2003, he turned down an offer of a Shadow Cabinet post from the incoming Conservative leader Michael Howard. He did not seek re-election in the 2005 general election. His membership of the Conservative Party has since lapsed.
Talking to Andrew Neil on This Week in May 2016, he gave his views on the effectiveness of David Cameron's government and its legislative plans as described in the Queen's speech: "After 23 years of careful thought about what they would like to do in power ... the answer is nothing", a description which The Guardian described as "elegant".
Portillo has supported Brexit, though also has expressed the opinion that in the British system, where Parliament is sovereign, the 2016 Brexit referendum "absolutely does not fit with our system" and that "parliament has the right to interpret" the result. In a 2016 television discussion he said that "because of the catastrophic blunder committed by David Cameron, [Nigel] Farage deserves a place in history" because "he spooked the Prime Minister into holding a referendum that he then lost." He also condemned Theresa May's 2018 "Chequers plan" for exit negotiations as "the most dreadful betrayal, and if I had been a member of the Cabinet, I would have been one of the ones who would have quit over the weekend." On another occasion Portillo exclaimed (as a pundit on This Week) that "short of marching Mrs. May into a railway carriage in the Compiègne forest, they could not have produced a more humiliating surrender."
Business interests
In September 2002, Portillo became a non-executive director of the multinational defence contractor BAE Systems. He stepped down from that position in March 2006, owing to potential conflicts of interest. He was a member of the board of the Kerr-McGee Corporation for a few months in 2006.
Broadcasting career (1998–present)
Television
1998 saw Portillo make his first foray into broadcasting on Channel 4 with Portillo's Progress—three 60-minute-long programmes looking into the changed social and political scene in Britain. From 2002 onwards, Portillo developed an active career in media, both as a commentator on public affairs and as a writer and/or presenter of television and radio documentaries.
Between its inception in 2003 and cancellation in 2019, Portillo appeared in the BBC weekly political discussion programme This Week with Andrew Neil, and, until September 2010, Labour MP Diane Abbott.
Portillo has featured in a number of television documentaries. In 2002 these included one about Richard Wagner, and one in Spain: Great Railway Journeys: From Granada to Salamanca, for BBC Two (2002). In 2006 he made a programme on Spanish wildlife for BBC Two's The Natural World series. For an episode of the 2003 BBC Two series My Week In The Real World, in which politicians stepped into the shoes of members of the public, Portillo took over, for one week, the life, family and income of a single mother living on benefits in Wallasey.
He chose to present Queen Elizabeth I for the BBC's series of Great Britons in 2002. Between 2002 and 2007, he presented a discussion series called Dinner with Portillo on BBC Four, in which political and social questions were explored by Portillo and his seven guests over a four-course meal. His guests included Bianca Jagger, Grayson Perry, Francis Wheen, Seymour Hersh, PD James, Baroness Williams, George Galloway, Benazir Bhutto and Germaine Greer. In 2007, he participated in the BBC television project The Verdict, serving, with other well known figures, as a jury member hearing a fictional rape case. He was elected as the jury's foreman.
The documentary How To Kill a Human Being in the Horizon series featured Portillo carrying out a survey of capital punishment methods (including undertaking some near death experiences himself), in an attempt to find an 'acceptable' form of capital punishment. It was broadcast on BBC Two on 15 January 2008. He made a second Horizon documentary, titled How Violent Are You?, broadcast on 12 May 2009.
In 2008, Portillo made a documentary as part of the BBC Headroom campaign, which explored mental health issues. Portillo's documentary Michael Portillo: Death of a School Friend explores how the suicide of Portillo's classmate Gary Findon affected Findon's parents, brother, music teachers, schoolteachers, classmates, and Portillo himself. The programme was originally broadcast on 7 November 2008.
In 2009, he filmed a series titled Great British Railway Journeys, in which he explored, with the aid of George Bradshaw's 1863 tourist handbook, how the railways had a profound influence on the social, economic and political history of Britain. The series commenced broadcasting in January 2010. A second series was broadcast on BBC Two in 2011, and as of May 2021, there have been a total of thirteen series. Portillo also presented a similar television series called Great Continental Railway Journeys, following Portillo around continental Europe. A second series was broadcast in 2013, and to date there has been a total of six series. In 2014, as part of the BBC's World War I commemorations, Portillo presented Railways of the Great War with Michael Portillo over five nights in August 2014. In early 2016, Portillo began a new BBC travel documentary series, Great American Railroad Journeys, which saw him travelling across the United States by rail. Other similar series followed: Great Indian Railway Journeys from 2018 and Great Alaskan and Canadian Railroad Journeys, which started airing in January 2019. A series Great Australian Railway Journeys began airing on BBC2 on 26 October 2019, with six journeys across Australia. This was followed by a series Great Asian Railway Journeys from 27 January 2020.
A ten-part BBC Two series, Portillo's State Secrets, in which Portillo examines classified documents from the British National Archives, commenced on 23 March 2015.
The Enemy Files, a documentary presented by Portillo, was shown on RTÉ One in Ireland, as well as on BBC Northern Ireland, ahead of the centenary of the Easter Rising in 2016.
He also presented a 2020 documentary titled "Hawks & Doves: The Crown and Ireland's War of Independence", which gave an account of the Irish War of Independence from a British perspective.
In July 2017, a two-part series called Spanish Civil War with Michael Portillo, was premiered on Discovery History.
A Channel 5 series, Portillo's Hidden History of Britain, was broadcast in 2018.
In August 2019, the two-part series Portillo: The Trouble With The Tories, which examined the history of the Tory party's divisions, was shown on Channel 5.
In August & September 2021, Portillo presented a six-part Channel 5 series called Coastal Devon & Cornwall with Michael Portillo.
During January & February 2022, Portillo will present Great Coastal Railway Journeys, a spin-off of Great British Railway Journeys will air on BBC Two.
Press and radio
Portillo has written a regular column for The Sunday Times, contributes to other journals (he was a theatre critic for the New Statesman until May 2006), and is a regular radio broadcaster on UK radio. He is a long-serving member of the panel in the BBC Radio 4 series The Moral Maze. In September 2011, he presented a two-part series on BBC Radio 4 called Capitalism on Trial. He has also presented a history series on BBC Radio 4 called The Things We Forgot to Remember.
In June 2013, he presented a series of twelve 15-minute radio programmes (following the daily World at One news programme) on BBC Radio 4 called 1913 – the Year Before, about the state of Britain in the years preceding World War I, challenging the view that these years were optimistic and cheerful.
On 7 May 2020, it was announced that Portillo would join the new digital station Times Radio, which launched in June 2020. He currently hosts a Friday evening programme on politics, culture and history.
Voluntary work
Since 1998, Portillo has been a Commissioner of the International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP). He is President of DEBRA, a British charity working on behalf of people with epidermolysis bullosa (EB), a genetic skin blistering condition.
Portillo served as chairman of the 2008 Man Booker Prize committee.
In 2011, Portillo became chairman of a new arts endowment fund supported by the Arts Council, the Heritage Lottery Fund and the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Applicants could bid for grants of between £500,000 and £5m, which were to be matched from the private sector. The fund, which operated under the title "Catalyst: Endowments", made 31 awards over the two years 2012–13 totalling £36 million. Recipients included Dulwich Picture Gallery, the Mary Rose Trust, Lincoln Cathedral and the Severn Valley Railway.
Portillo is the British chairman of the Anglo-Spanish organisation Tertulias, which organises annual meetings between the two countries. He is also an Honorary Vice-President of Canning House, the Hispanic and Luso Brazilian Council.
Portillo has a strong interest in contemporary visual arts and is Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Federation of British Artists, an educational arts charity.
In 2018 he accepted the role as President of the Friends of the Settle–Carlisle line following the death of previous incumbent, Sir William McAlpine.
Honours
Michael Portillo was sworn in as a member of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in 1992, giving him the honorific title "The Right Honourable".
He was awarded an Honorary Doctorate by Richmond, The American International University in London in 2003.
In 2018 Portillo was made a fellow of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society (FRSGS).
He has been awarded the Freedom of the City of London. He was given the honour of leading the annual Sheep Drive over London Bridge on 29 September 2019.
Publications
Great Continental Railway Journeys, (22 October 2015)
Great American Railway Journeys, (26 January 2017)
Portillo's Hidden History of Britain, (2 May 2019)
Greatest British Railway Journeys, (15 October 2020)
See also
Electoral history of Michael Portillo
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
Portillo's columns for The Sunday Times
The Guardian - Ask Aristotle about Michael Portillo
They Work For You – Michael Portillo
The Public Whip – Michael Portillo voting record
Harrow County Grammar School
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1953 births
Living people
People from Bushey
English people of Spanish descent
English people of Scottish descent
People educated at Harrow High School
Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
UK MPs 2001–2005
British Secretaries of State for Employment
Secretaries of State for Defence (UK)
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
English male journalists
English political commentators
English television personalities
BBC television presenters
Fellows of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society
|
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204501
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean%20Gullette
|
Sean Gullette
|
Sean Leland Sebastian Gullette (born June 4, 1968) is an American film director, writer, screenwriter, actor, and producer.
Personal life
Gullette was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the son of Margaret Morganroth Gullette a cultural critic and writer, and David George Gullette, a professor of English. He attended public schools and Harvard, where he acted in theater and films and directed plays.
Gullette lives between New York City and Tangier, Morocco, and in addition to his film work is the founder of the 212 Society, a US non-profit which supports cultural and educational projects in Morocco, including The Cinematheque de Tanger and Darna. The 212 Society takes its name from the 212 telephone codes of its home city and adoptive country.
Gullette and artist Yto Barrada are married and have two daughters, Vega Violet Alia and Tamo Jasmin Ada.
Acting
His professional work in film began in 1998, when he co-wrote and played the lead role in the award-winning Pi, directed by longtime collaborator Darren Aronofsky. He has since played principal and supporting roles in some twenty films including Brad Anderson's Happy Accidents (with Vincent D'Onofrio and Marisa Tomei) and Darren Aronofsky's Requiem for a Dream (with Jennifer Connelly), the German film Toskana Karrussel (with Susanna Lothar) and as a guest actor on network TV dramas. His occasional theater work has included the lead in the New York premiere of Susan Sandler's If I Were a Train.
In 2010 he played principal roles in Blue Ridge, directed by Vincent Sweeney, and Die zwei Leben des Daniel Shore, with Nikolai Kinski and Morjana Alaoui, directed by Michael Dreher.
In 2015 he played supporting roles in the film Zanj Revolution, by Tariq Teguia and in 2013 Rock the Casbah by Laila Marrakshi.
Gullette performs spoken word pieces on the songs "Song of Alice" from Israeli-French singer Keren Ann's fourth album, Nolita on Blue Note/Capitol/EMI Records and on Northern Irish DJ and musician David Holmes's album Bow Down to the Exit Sign.
Screenwriting
His feature film screenwriting projects have included Trinity, Conviction, Monopolis and Kilroy. He wrote and is a producer of Thanksgiving, starring Yolonda Ross, James Urbaniak and Seymour Cassel. He wrote "New York Stories" for Donna Karan's DKNY, and directed the "Von Hummer the 1st" series of promotional spots for VH1, starring James Urbaniak. He produced Nicole Zaray's gender-inverted short film Joe's Day, featuring Deborah Harry. He has also consulted on screenplays for Warner Bros., Paramount, and independent productions. IMDB reports Gullette as the screenwriter of the upcoming Olivier Megaton film Land of the Living.
Film Directing
Gullette is slated to direct Upland, adapted from the novel Nip the Buds, Shoot the Kids by Nobel Prize–winning Japanese author Kenzaburō Ōe, for an upcoming international co-production.
In 2019, Gullette directed two episodes of the ABC Television series 1969. Gullette wrote that "Was quite an adventure to direct this hour for ABC TV, which aired in the spring and is now streaming. Thanks to EP Jeanmarie Condon, my segment producers Jesse Rosen and Jackie Filer, senior producer Erica Salit, editors Doug Quade and Alessandro Barnett and the team at Lincoln Square Productions. Despite the title, everyone signed on to resist the grotesque Manson Industry and instead listen closely to the stories of two fascinating — and very different — women who joined the group. Both Dianne Lake and Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme sat for powerful, revealing interviews. Our re-reading of the Manson myth is also carried by Peter Fonda, rock author Lizzy Goodman, VIBE editor Desiree Thompson, Woodstock founder Michael Lang, John Fogerty of Creedence, and Tariq Trotter of The Roots."
In 2014, Gullette's first feature film, Traitors, starring Chaimae Ben Acha, Soufia Issami, Mourade Zeguindi, Driss Roukhe and Saleh Bensaleh was released internationally. The film was shot on locations in Tangier, Morocco and the hashish producing Rif mountains. It made its world premiere at the 2013 Venice Film Festival , and screened in competition at the Stockholm Film Festival and at the Marrakech International Film Festival, the Dubai Film Festival, and the Tribeca Film Festival. The film was distributed by Rezo Films, Paris and in the US by Film Movement. Traitors received positive reviews from critics and has a "Fresh" rating of 88% on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 7.1/10.
Gullette was announced at the Cannes Film Festival as the writer-director of Tangier, a film in-development set to star Kristin Scott Thomas and Jeremy Irons. Tangier will be produced by Darren Aronofsky's Protozoa Pictures.
Gullette produced The 8 with Sarah Riggs and Blaire Dessent; the film was selected for the 2010 Berlin Film Festival. He directed several short films from his own scripts. He produced False Start by Yto Barrada which premiered at the Toronto Film Festival and went on to win a Tiger Award at the 2016 Rotterdam Film Festival and Tree Identification for Beginners also by Barrada which premiered at Rotterdam 2018.
Other writing
Gullette's essays, journalism and fiction have been published in magazines including The Face, Spy, Slate, Bidoun, Brill's Content, Gear, Entertainment Weekly, Nejma, and KGB magazine (which he founded as editor and publisher in 1991.) His essay "Mile High" appears in the NYU Press' book 110 Stories: New York Writes After September 11, and his essay "Notes" appears in the Springer-Verlag anthology Art, Technology, and Cinema.
Filmography
Awards and Nominations
Rotterdam International Film Festival
Nominated, Tiger Award
2014
Cyprus Film Days International Festival
Nominated, Glocal Images
Best Film Award for Traitors (2013)
Ft. Lauderdale International Film Festival
Won, Spirit of the Independent Award
Feature Film for Traitors (2013)
Gijón International Film Festival
Won, "Rellumes" Prize
2014
Philadelphia Independent Film Festival, US
Nominated, Best Feature Film
2013
Bratislava International Film Festival
Nominated, Grand Prix
2013
Marrakech International Film Festival
Nominated, Best Director
Nominated, Golden Star
Best Feature Film for Traitors (2013)
2013
Stockholm Film Festival
Nominated, Bronze Horse
Best Film for Traitors (2013)
2013
Venice Film Festival
Nominated, Fedeora Award
Best Film (Venice Days) for Traitors (2013)
Won, Lina Mangiacapre Award - Special Mention
1999
Online Film & Television Association
Nominated, OFTA Film Award
Best Breakthrough Performance: Male for Pi (1998)
Nominated, OFTA Film Award
Best Sci-Fi/Fantasy/Horror Actor for Pi (1998)
References
External links
IndieWire - An Interview with Darren Aronofsky and Sean Gullette of ‘Pi
Variety - ‘Pi’ Star Sean Gullette Talks About Making ‘Traitors’ in Morocco and His Sophomore Project
Hollywood Reporter - ‘Traitors: Venice Review
Filmmaker Magazine - 5 Questions for Traitors Director Sean Gullette
PopOptiq - Tribeca 2014: Interview with ‘Traitors’ director Sean Gullette
TRAITORS - Official U.S. Trailer
Traitors Reviews - Rotten Tomatoes
Hollywood Reporter - 'Colombiana' Director Takes on 'Land of the Living'
The Playlist - Details On Sean Gullette’s ‘Tangier’; Kristen Scott Thomas, Jeremy Irons & Tony Shalhoub Joining Cast
The New York Times - NEWLY RELEASED
1968 births
Male actors from Boston
American male film actors
Harvard University alumni
Living people
American expatriates in Morocco
American essayists
American male screenwriters
Writers from Boston
Film producers from Massachusetts
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male essayists
Screenwriters from Massachusetts
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Librazhd
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Librazhd
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Librazhd () is a town and a municipality in Elbasan County, eastern Albania. The municipality was formed at the 2015 local government reform by the merger of the former municipalities Hotolisht, Librazhd, Lunik, Orenjë, Polis, Qendër Librazhd and Stëblevë, that became municipal units. The seat of the municipality is the town Librazhd. The total population is 31,892 (2011 census), in a total area of . The population of the former municipality at the 2011 census was 6,937. Librazhd is the nearest town to the Shebenik-Jabllanice National Park.
History
Librazhd was one of the youngest cities in Albania and was proclaimed on the 18th of February 1960. Librazhd is also famous for being connected to the Via Egnatia road that stretched from Istanbul all the way on to Durrës. The people of Librazhd also participated in the Albanian Declaration of Independence in the 28 of November 1912. World War II two battalions of the National Liberation Movement ambushed defeated Nazi Germany troops near Librazhd killing over 200 German soldiers.
Historical Places
Via Egnatia
WWII Memorial
Points of Interest
Shebenik-Jabllanice National Park
Shkumbin
World War II Memorial
Transportation
Bus
There are buses in Librazhd that can take you in other cities in Albania and other countries.
Trains
There is no train line that can goes to or from Librazhd.
Elbasan-Pogradec extension has been closed
Highways
The only main road in Librazhd is the SH3 (State Road 3) that starts in Tirana and ends in Korçë and passes by Librazhd.
Sports
Librazhd favourite city sport is football. Its main soccer team is Sopoti Librazhd founded 1948. Its home stadium is Sopoti Stadium created in 1964 with a capacity of 3,000 spectators. The team is now in the Albanian Second Division group A. The team has had some problems with the stadium being outdated but for during the 2017-18 Albanian Second Division now its is a renovated stadium.
Notable residents
Taulant Balla (born 1977), politician
See also
Shebenik-Jabllanice National Park
References
External links
Municipality of Librazhd Official Website
Librazhd tourist guide
Municipalities in Elbasan County
Administrative units of Librazhd
Towns in Albania
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204504
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium
|
Millennium
|
A millennium (plural millennia or millenniums) is a period of one thousand years, sometimes called a kiloannum (ka), or kiloyear (ky). Sometimes, the word is used specifically for periods of a thousand years that begin at the starting point (initial reference point) of the calendar in consideration (typically the year "1") and at later years that are whole number multiples of a thousand years after the start point. The term can also refer to an interval of time beginning on any date. Millennia sometimes have religious or theological implications (see millenarianism).
The word millennium derives from the Latin , thousand, and , year.
Debate over millennium celebrations
There was a public debate leading up to the celebrations of the year 2000 as to whether the beginning of that year should be understood as the beginning of "the" new millennium. Historically, there has been debate around the turn of previous decades, centuries, and millennia. The issue arises from the difference between the convention of using ordinal numbers to count years and millennia, as in "the third millennium", or using a vernacular description, as in "the two thousands". The difference of opinion comes down to whether to celebrate, respectively, the end or the beginning of the "-000" year. The first convention is common in English-speaking countries, but the latter is favoured in, for example, Sweden (tvåtusentalet, which translates literally as the two thousands period).
Those holding that the arrival of the new millennium should be celebrated in the transition from 2000 to 2001 (i.e., December 31, 2000, to January 1, 2001) argued that the Anno Domini system of counting years began with the year 1 (There was no year zero) and therefore the first millennium was from the year 1 to the end of the year 1000, the second millennium from 1001 to the end of 2000, and the third millennium beginning with 2001 and ending at the end of 3000.
Popular culture supported celebrating the arrival of the new millennium in the transition from 1999 to 2000 (i.e., December 31, 1999, to January 1, 2000), in that the change of the hundreds digit in the year number, with the zeroes rolling over, is consistent with the vernacular demarcation of decades by their 'tens' digit (e.g. naming the period 1980 to 1989 as "the 1980s" or "the eighties"). This sometimes referred to as "the odometer effect". Adding to its cultural significance, the "year 2000" had been a popular phrase referring to an often utopian future, or a year when stories in such a future were set. There was also media and public interest in the Y2K computer bug.
A third position was expressed by Bill Paupe, honorary consul for Kiribati: "To me, I just don't see what all the hoopla is about ... it's not going to change anything. The next day the sun is going to come up again and then it will all be forgotten." And even for those who did celebrate, in astronomical terms, there was nothing special about this particular event.
Stephen Jay Gould, in his essay Dousing Diminutive Dennis' Debate (or DDDD = 2000) (Dinosaur in a Haystack), discussed the "high" versus "pop" culture interpretation of the transition. Gould noted that the high culture, strict construction had been the dominant viewpoint at the 20th century's beginning, but that the pop culture viewpoint dominated at its end.
The start of the 21st century and 3rd millennium was celebrated worldwide at the start of the year 2000. One year later, at the start of the year 2001, the celebrations had largely returned to the usual ringing in of just another new year, although some welcomed "the real millennium", including America's official timekeeper, the U.S. Naval Observatory, and the countries of Cuba and Japan.
The popular approach was to treat the end of 1999 as the end of "a millennium" and to hold millennium celebrations at midnight between December 31, 1999, and January 1, 2000, with the cultural and psychological significance of the events listed above combining to cause celebrations to be observed one year earlier than the formal date.
See also
List of calendars
List of decades, centuries, and millennia
Decade
Century
Millenarianism
Millennialism
Millennium celebrations
Millennium Dome
Year 2000 problem
References
External links
Units of time
Chronology
1000 (number)
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20birds%20of%20Europe
|
List of birds of Europe
|
In this article, Europe refers to the geographical continent, not the somewhat larger Western Palearctic, which includes parts of the Middle East and north Africa.
There are 930 species of bird in the area, and in general the avifauna is similar to Asia north of the Himalayas, which is also in the Palearctic realm. There are also many groups shared with North America. 65 species are globally threatened, 4 species are extinct, and 18 species are introduced by man.
Conversely, many of the Southern Hemisphere groups, including the ancient flightless Struthioniformes (ostrich order), and their relatives the tinamous are not represented at all.
The order follows the IOC World Bird List version 11.2.
The following tags have been used to highlight several categories. The commonly occurring native species do not fall into any of these categories.
(A) Accidental - a species that rarely or accidentally occurs in Europe
(E) Endemic - a species endemic to Europe
(Ext) Extinct - a species that no longer exists
(Ex) Extirpated - a species that is extinct in the wild in Europe
(I) Introduced - a species introduced to Europe as a consequence, direct or indirect, of human actions
Guineafowl
Order: GalliformesFamily: Numididae
Guineafowl are a group of African, seed-eating, ground-nesting birds that resemble partridges, but with featherless heads and spangled grey plumage.
Helmeted guineafowl, Numida meleagris (I)
Pheasants and allies
Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae
Pheasants and allies are terrestrial species, feeding and nesting on the ground. They are variable in size but generally plump, with broad and relatively short wings.
Hazel grouse, Tetrastes bonasia
Western capercaillie, Tetrao urogallus
Black grouse, Lyrurus tetrix
Rock ptarmigan, Lagopus muta
Willow ptarmigan, Lagopus lagopus
Rock partridge, Alectoris graeca
Chukar partridge, Alectoris chukar
Barbary partridge, Alectoris barbara
Red-legged partridge, Alectoris rufa
Black francolin, Francolinus francolinus (Ex)
Grey partridge, Perdix perdix
Common quail, Coturnix coturnix
Reeves's pheasant, Syrmaticus reevesii (I)
Common pheasant, Phasianus colchicus (I)
Golden pheasant, Chrysolophus pictus (I)
Lady Amherst's pheasant, Chrysolophus amherstiae (I)
Ducks, geese, and swans
Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae
The swans, ducks and geese are medium to large birds that are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet and bills which are flattened to a greater or lesser extent. In many ducks the male is colourful while the female is dull brown. The diet consists of a variety of animals and plants. The family is well represented in Europe with many introduced species as well.
White-faced whistling duck, Dendrocygna viduata (A)
Brant goose, Branta bernicla
Red-breasted goose, Branta ruficollis
Canada goose, Branta canadensis
Barnacle goose, Branta leucopsis
Cackling goose, Branta hutchinsii (A)
Bar-headed goose, Anser indicus (A)
Ross's goose, Anser rossii (A)
Snow goose, Anser caerulescens
Greylag goose, Anser anser
Taiga bean goose, Anser fabalis
Pink-footed goose, Anser brachyrhynchus
Tundra bean goose, Anser serrirostris
Greater white-fronted goose, Anser albifrons
Lesser white-fronted goose, Anser erythropus
Mute swan, Cygnus olor
Tundra swan, Cygnus columbianus
Whooper swan, Cygnus cygnus
Egyptian goose, Alopochen aegyptiaca
Common shelduck, Tadorna tadorna
Ruddy shelduck, Tadorna ferruginea
Wood duck, Aix sponsa
Mandarin duck, Aix galericulata (I)
Baikal teal, Sibirionetta formosa (A)
Garganey, Spatula querquedula
Cinnamon teal, Spatula cyanoptera (A)
Blue-winged teal, Spatula discors (A)
Northern shoveler, Spatula clypeata
Gadwall, Mareca strepera
Falcated duck, Mareca falcata (A)
Eurasian wigeon, Mareca penelope
American wigeon, Mareca americana (A)
Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos
American black duck, Anas rubripes (A)
Northern pintail, Anas acuta
Eurasian teal, Anas crecca
Green-winged teal, Anas carolinensis
Marbled duck, Marmaronetta angustirostris
Red-crested pochard, Netta rufina
Canvasback, Aythya valisineria (A)
Redhead, Aythya americana (A)
Common pochard, Aythya ferina
Ferruginous duck, Aythya nyroca
Ring-necked duck, Aythya collaris (A)
Tufted duck, Aythya fuligula
Greater scaup, Aythya marila
Lesser scaup, Aythya affinis (A)
Steller's eider, Polysticta stelleri
Spectacled eider, Somateria fischeri (A)
King eider, Somateria spectabilis
Common eider, Somateria mollissima
Harlequin duck, Histrionicus histrionicus
Surf scoter, Melanitta perspicillata (A)
Velvet scoter, Melanitta fusca
White-winged scoter, Melanitta deglandi
Stejneger's scoter, Melanitta stejnegeri
Common scoter, Melanitta nigra
Black scoter, Melanitta americana
Long-tailed duck, Clangula hyemalis
Bufflehead, Bucephala albeola (A)
Common goldeneye, Bucephala clangula
Barrow's goldeneye, Bucephala islandica
Smew, Mergellus albellus
Hooded merganser, Lophodytes cucullatus (A)
Common merganser, Mergus merganser
Red-breasted merganser, Mergus serrator
Ruddy duck, Oxyura jamaicensis
White-headed duck, Oxyura leucocephala
Nightjars
Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae
Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs and very short bills. Their soft plumage is cryptically coloured to resemble bark or leaves.
Common nighthawk, Chordeiles minor (A)
Red-necked nightjar, Caprimulgus ruficollis
European nightjar, Caprimulgus europaeus
Egyptian nightjar, Caprimulgus aegyptius (A)
Swifts
Order: ApodiformesFamily: Apodidae
Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces.
White-throated needletail, Hirundapus caudacutus (A)
Chimney swift, Chaetura pelagica (A)
Alpine swift, Tachymarptis melba
Common swift, Apus apus
Plain swift, Apus unicolor
Pallid swift, Apus pallidus
Pacific swift, Apus pacifica (A)
Little swift, Apus affinis
White-rumped swift, Apus caffer
Bustards
Order: OtidiformesFamily: Otididae
Bustards are large terrestrial birds mainly associated with dry open country and steppes in the Old World. They are omnivorous and nest on the ground. They walk steadily on strong legs and big toes, pecking for food as they go. They have long broad wings with "fingered" wingtips and striking patterns in flight. Many have interesting mating displays.
Great bustard, Otis tarda
Houbara bustard, Chlamydotis undulata (A)
Macqueen's bustard, Chlamydotis macqueenii (A)
Little bustard, Tetrax tetrax
Cuckoos
Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae
The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails and strong legs. The Old World cuckoos are brood parasites.
Great spotted cuckoo, Clamator glandarius
Yellow-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus americanus (A)
Black-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus erythropthalmus (A)
Rufous hawk-cuckoo, Hierococcyx hyperythrus (A)
Himalayan cuckoo, Cuculus saturatus (A)
Oriental cuckoo, Cuculus optatus (A)
Common cuckoo, Cuculus canorus
Sandgrouse
Order: PterocliformesFamily: Pteroclidae
Sandgrouse have small, pigeon like heads and necks, but sturdy compact bodies. They have long pointed wings and sometimes tails and a fast direct flight. Flocks fly to watering holes at dawn and dusk. Their legs are feathered down to the toes.
Pallas's sandgrouse, Syrrhaptes paradoxus (A)
Pin-tailed sandgrouse, Pterocles alchata
Black-bellied sandgrouse, Pterocles orientalis
Pigeons and doves
Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere.
Rock dove, Columba livia
Stock dove, Columba oenas
Common wood pigeon, Columba palumbus
Trocaz pigeon, Columba trocaz
Bolle's pigeon, Columba bollii
Laurel pigeon, Columba junoniae
European turtle dove, Streptopelia turtur
Oriental turtle dove, Streptopelia orientalis (A)
Eurasian collared dove, Streptopelia decaocto
African collared dove, Streptopelia roseogrisea (I)
Laughing dove, Streptopelia senegalensis
Passenger pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius (Ext)
Mourning dove, Zenaida macroura (A)
Zenaida dove, Zenaida aurita (A)
Rails, crakes, and coots
Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae
Rallidae is a family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers.
Virginia rail, Rallus limicola (A)
Water rail, Rallus aquaticus
African crake, Crecopsis egregia (A)
Corn crake, Crex crex
Sora, Porzana carolina (A)
Spotted crake, Porzana porzana
Lesser moorhen, Paragallinula angulata (A)
Common gallinule, Gallinula galeata (A)
Common moorhen, Gallinula chloropus
Eurasian coot, Fulica atra
Red-knobbed coot, Fulica cristata
American coot, Fulica americana (A)
Allen's gallinule, Porphyrio alleni (A)
Purple gallinule, Porphyrio martinica (A)
Western swamphen, Porphyrio porphyrio
African swamphen, Porphyrio madagascariensis (A)
Grey-headed swamphen, Porphyrio poliocephalus (A)
Baillon's crake, Zapornia pusilla
Little crake, Zapornia parva
Striped crake, Aenigmatolimnas marginalis (A)
Watercock, Gallicrex cinerea (A)
Cranes
Order: GruiformesFamily: Gruidae
Cranes are large, long-legged and long-necked birds. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances".
Siberian crane, Leucogeranus leucogeranus
Sandhill crane, Antigone canadensis (A)
Demoiselle crane, Grus virgo
Common crane, Grus grus
Hooded crane, Grus monacha (A)
Grebes
Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae
Grebes are small to medium-large diving birds with lobed toes and pointed bills. They are seen mainly on lowland waterbodies and coasts. They feed on aquatic animals and nest on a floating platform of vegetation.
Little grebe, Tachybaptus ruficollis
Pied-billed grebe, Podilymbus podiceps (A)
Red-necked grebe, Podiceps grisegena
Great crested grebe, Podiceps cristatus
Horned grebe, Podiceps auritus
Black-necked grebe, Podiceps nigricollis
Flamingos
Order: PhoenicopteriformesFamily: Phoenicopteridae
Flamingos are gregarious wading birds, usually tall, found in both the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. Flamingos filter-feed on shellfish and algae. Their oddly shaped beaks are specially adapted to separate mud and silt from the food they consume and, uniquely, are used upside-down.
Greater flamingo, Phoenicopterus roseus
American flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber (A)
Lesser flamingo, Phoenicopterus minor (A)
Buttonquail
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Turnicidae
The buttonquail are small, drab, running birds which resemble the true quails. The female is the brighter of the sexes and initiates courtship. The male incubates the eggs and tends the young.
Common buttonquail, Turnix sylvaticus
Stone-curlews and thick-knees
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Burhinidae
The thick-knees are a group of largely tropical waders in the family Burhinidae. They are found worldwide within the tropical zone, with some species also breeding in temperate Europe and Australia. They are medium to large waders with strong black or yellow-black bills, large yellow eyes and cryptic plumage. Despite being classed as waders, most species have a preference for arid or semi-arid habitats.
Eurasian stone-curlew, Burhinus oedicnemus
Oystercatchers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae
The oystercatchers are large and noisy plover-like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs.
American oystercatcher, Haematopus palliatus (A)
Canary Islands oystercatcher, Haematopus meadewaldoi (Ext)
Eurasian oystercatcher, Haematopus ostralegus
Stilts and avocets
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Recurvirostridae
A family of fairly large wading birds. The avocets have long legs and long up-curved bills. The stilts have extremely long legs and long, thin, straight bills.
Black-winged stilt, Himantopus himantopus
Pied avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta
American avocet, Recurvirostra americana (A)
Plovers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae
Small to medium-sized wading birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water.
Northern lapwing, Vanellus vanellus
Spur-winged lapwing, Vanellus spinosus
Grey-headed lapwing, Vanellus cinereus (A)
Sociable lapwing, Vanellus gregarius (A)
White-tailed lapwing, Vanellus leucurus (A)
European golden plover, Pluvialis apricaria
Pacific golden plover, Pluvialis fulva (A)
American golden plover, Pluvialis dominica (A)
Grey plover, Pluvialis squatarola
Common ringed plover, Charadrius hiaticula
Semipalmated plover, Charadrius semipalmatus (A)
Little ringed plover, Charadrius dubius
Killdeer, Charadrius vociferus (A)
Kittlitz's plover, Charadrius pecuarius (A)
Kentish plover, Charadrius alexandrinus
Lesser sand plover, Charadrius mongolus (A)
Greater sand plover, Charadrius leschenaultii (A)
Caspian plover, Charadrius asiaticus (A)
Oriental plover, Charadrius veredus (A)
Eurasian dotterel, Charadrius morinellus
Painted-snipes
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Rostratulidae
Painted-snipes are short-legged, long-billed birds similar in shape to the true snipes, but more brightly coloured.
Greater painted-snipe, Rostratula benghalensis
Sandpipers and snipes
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae
Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food.
Upland sandpiper, Bartramia longicauda (A)
Eurasian whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus
Hudsonian whimbrel, Numenius hudsonicus (A)
Little curlew, Numenius minutus (A)
Eskimo curlew, Numenius borealis (A)
Slender-billed curlew, Numenius tenuirostris (A)
Eurasian curlew, Numenius arquata
Bar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica
Black-tailed godwit, Limosa limosa
Hudsonian godwit, Limosa haemastica (A)
Ruddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres
Great knot, Calidris tenuirostris (A)
Red knot, Calidris canutus
Ruff, Calidris pugnax
Broad-billed sandpiper, Calidris falcinellus
Sharp-tailed sandpiper, Calidris acuminata (A)
Stilt sandpiper, Calidris himantopus (A)
Curlew sandpiper, Calidris ferruginea
Temminck's stint, Calidris temminckii
Long-toed stint, Calidris subminuta (A)
Spoon-billed sandpiper, Calidris pygmeus (A)
Red-necked stint, Calidris ruficollis (A)
Sanderling, Calidris alba
Dunlin, Calidris alpina
Purple sandpiper, Calidris maritima
Baird's sandpiper, Calidris bairdii (A)
Little stint, Calidris minuta
Least sandpiper, Calidris minutilla (A)
White-rumped sandpiper, Calidris fuscicollis (A)
Buff-breasted sandpiper, Calidris subruficollis (A)
Pectoral sandpiper, Calidris melanotos (A)
Semipalmated sandpiper, Calidris pusilla (A)
Western sandpiper, Calidris mauri (A)
Long-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus scolopaceus (A)
Short-billed dowitcher, Limnodromus griseus (A)
Eurasian woodcock, Scolopax rusticola
American woodcock, Scolopax minor (A)
Jack snipe, Lymnocryptes minimus
Pin-tailed snipe, Gallinago stenura (A)
Swinhoe's snipe, Gallinago megala (A)
Great snipe, Gallinago media
Common snipe, Gallinago gallinago
Wilson's snipe, Gallinago delicata (A)
Terek sandpiper, Xenus cinereus
Wilson's phalarope, Phalaropus tricolor (A)
Red-necked phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus
Red phalarope, Phalaropus fulicarius
Common sandpiper, Actitis hypoleucos
Spotted sandpiper, Actitis macularius (A)
Green sandpiper, Tringa ochropus
Solitary sandpiper, Tringa solitaria (A)
Grey-tailed tattler, Tringa brevipes (A)
Lesser yellowlegs, Tringa flavipes (A)
Willet, Tringa semipalmata (A)
Common redshank, Tringa totanus
Marsh sandpiper, Tringa stagnatilis
Wood sandpiper, Tringa glareola
Spotted redshank, Tringa erythropus
Common greenshank, Tringa nebularia
Greater yellowlegs, Tringa melanoleuca (A)
Coursers and pratincoles
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae
Glareolidae is a family of wading birds comprising the pratincoles, which have short legs, long pointed wings and long forked tails, and the coursers, which have long legs, short wings and long, pointed bills which curve downwards.
Cream-colored courser, Cursorius cursor (A)
Collared pratincole, Glareola pratincola
Oriental pratincole, Glareola maldivarum (A)
Black-winged pratincole, Glareola nordmanni (A)
Gulls, terns and skimmers
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae
Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds, the gulls, terns, and skimmers. They are typically grey or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with grey or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years.
Brown noddy, Anous stolidus (A)
Black skimmer, Rynchops niger (A)
Black-legged kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla
Ivory gull, Pagophila eburnea (A)
Sabine's gull, Xema sabini
Slender-billed gull, Chroicocephalus genei (A)
Bonaparte's gull, Chroicocephalus philadelphia (A)
Black-headed gull, Chroicocephalus ridibundus
Grey-headed gull, Chroicocephalus cirrocephalus (A)
Little gull, Hydrocoloeus minutus
Ross's gull, Rhodostethia rosea (A)
Laughing gull, Leucophaeus atricilla (A)
Franklin's gull, Leucophaeus pipixcan (A)
Relict gull, Ichthyaetus relictus (A)
Audouin's gull, Ichthyaetus audouinii
Mediterranean gull, Ichthyaetus melanocephalus
Pallas's gull, Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus (A)
White-eyed gull, Ichthyaetus leucophthalmus (A)
Common gull, Larus canus
Short-billed gull, Larus brachyrhynchus (A)
Ring-billed gull, Larus delawarensis (A)
Great black-backed gull, Larus marinus
Kelp gull, Larus dominicanus (A)
Glaucous-winged gull, Larus glaucescens (A)
Glaucous gull, Larus hyperboreus
Iceland gull, Larus glaucoides
European herring gull, Larus argentatus
American herring gull, Larus smithsonianus
Vega gull, Larus vegae (A)
Caspian gull, Larus cachinnans
Yellow-legged gull, Larus michahellis
Armenian gull, Larus armenicus
Slaty-backed gull, Larus schistisagus (A)
Lesser black-backed gull, Larus fuscus
Gull-billed tern, Gelochelidon nilotica
Caspian tern, Hydroprogne caspia
Royal tern, Thalasseus maximus
Lesser crested tern, Thalasseus bengalensis (A)
Royal tern, Thalasseus maximus (A)
West African crested tern, Thalasseus albididorsalis (A)
Sandwich tern, Thalasseus sandvicensis
Cabot's tern, Thalasseus acuflavidus (A)
Elegant tern, Thalasseus elegans (A)
Little tern, Sternula albifrons
Saunders's tern, Sternula saundersi (A)
Least tern, Sternula antillarum (A)
Aleutian tern, Onychoprion aleuticus (A)
Bridled tern, Onychoprion anaethetus (A)
Sooty tern, Onychoprion fuscatus (A)
Roseate tern, Sterna dougallii
Common tern, Sterna hirundo
White-cheeked tern, Sterna repressa (A)
Arctic tern, Sterna paradisaea
Forster's tern, Sterna forsteri (A)
Whiskered tern, Chlidonias hybridus
White-winged tern, Chlidonias leucopterus
Black tern, Chlidonias niger
Skuas
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae
The family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with grey or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants.
South polar skua, Stercorarius maccormicki (A)
Great skua, Stercorarius skua
Pomarine jaeger, Stercorarius pomarinus
Parasitic jaeger, Stercorarius parasiticus
Long-tailed jaeger, Stercorarius longicaudus
Auks
Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Alcidae
Auks are superficially similar to penguins due to their black-and-white colours, their upright posture and some of their habits, however they are not related to the penguins and differ in being able to fly. Auks live on the open sea, only deliberately coming ashore to nest.
Little auk, Alle alle
Thick-billed murre, Uria lomvia
Common murre, Uria aalge
Razorbill, Alca torda
Great auk, Pinguinus impennis (Ext)
Black guillemot, Cepphus grylle
Pigeon guillemot, Cepphus columba
Long-billed murrelet, Brachyramphus perdix (A)
Ancient murrelet, Synthliboramphus antiquus (A)
Parakeet auklet, Aethia psittacula (A)
Crested auklet, Aethia cristatella (A)
Atlantic puffin, Fratercula arctica
Horned puffin, Fratercula corniculata (A)
Tufted puffin, Fratercula cirrhata (A)
Tropicbirds
Order: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae
Tropicbirds are a family of tropical pelagic seabirds. They are the sole living representatives of the order Phaethontiformes.
Red-billed tropicbird, Phaethon aethereus (A)
White-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon lepturus (A)
Loons
Order: GaviiformesFamily: Gaviidae
Loons, known as divers in Europe, are a group of aquatic birds found in many parts of North America and northern Europe. They are the size of a large duck or small goose, which they somewhat resemble when swimming, but to which they are completely unrelated.
Red-throated loon, Gavia stellata
Black-throated loon, Gavia arctica
Pacific loon, Gavia pacifica (A)
Common loon, Gavia immer
Yellow-billed loon, Gavia adamsii
Austral storm petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae
Austral storm petrels, or southern storm petrels, are seabirds in the family Oceanitidae, part of the order Procellariiformes. These smallest of seabirds feed on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. Their flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like.
Wilson's storm petrel, Oceanites oceanicus
White-faced storm petrel, Pelagodroma marina
Black-bellied storm petrel, Fregetta tropica (A)
Albatrosses
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Diomedeidae
The albatrosses are among the largest flying birds, with long, narrow wings for gliding. The majority are found in the Southern Hemisphere with only vagrants occurring in the North Atlantic.
Wandering albatross, Diomedea exulans (A)
Tristan albatross, Diomedea dabbenena (A)
Black-browed albatross, Thalassarche melanophris (A)
Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross, Thalassarche chlororhynchos (A)
Northern storm petrels
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae
The northern storm-petrels are the smallest seabirds, feeding on plankton and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. They nest in colonies on the ground, most often in burrows.
European storm petrel, Hydrobates pelagicus
Band-rumped storm petrel, Hydrobates castro
Monteiro's storm petrel, Hydrobates monteiroi
Swinhoe's storm petrel, Hydrobates monorhis (A)
Leach's storm petrel, Hydrobates leucorhea
Petrels and shearwaters
Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae
These are highly pelagic birds with long, narrow wings and tube-shaped nostrils. They feed at sea on fish, squid and other marine life. They come to land to breed in colonies, nesting in burrows or on cliffs.
Southern giant petrel, Macronectes giganteus (A)
Northern fulmar, Fulmarus glacialis
Cape petrel, Daption capense (A)
Atlantic petrel, Pterodroma incerta (A)
Soft-plumaged petrel, Pterodroma mollis (A)
Zino's petrel, Pterodroma madeira
Fea's petrel, Pterodroma feae
Desertas petrel, Pterodroma deserta
Bermuda petrel, Pterodroma cahow (A)
Black-capped petrel, Pterodroma hasitata (A)
Kermadec petrel, Pterodroma neglecta (A)
Herald petrel, Pterodroma heraldica (A)
Trindade petrel, Pterodroma arminjoniana (A)
White-chinned petrel, Procellaria aequinoctialis (A)
Scopoli's shearwater, Calonectris diomedea
Cory's shearwater, Calonectris borealis
Cape Verde shearwater, Calonectris edwardsii
Sooty shearwater, Ardenna grisea
Short-tailed shearwater, Ardenna tenuirostris (A)
Great shearwater, Ardenna gravis
Manx shearwater, Puffinus puffinus
Yelkouan shearwater, Puffinus yelkouan
Balearic shearwater, Puffinus mauretanicus
Audubon's shearwater, Puffinus lherminieri (A)
Barolo shearwater, Puffinus baroli
Boyd's shearwater, Puffinus boydi (A)
Bulwer's petrel, Bulweria bulwerii
Storks
Order: CiconiiformesFamily: Ciconiidae
Storks are large, long-legged, long-necked, wading birds with long, stout bills. Storks are mute, but bill-clattering is an important mode of communication at the nest. Their nests can be large and may be reused for many years. Many species are migratory.
Yellow-billed stork, Mycteria ibis
Black stork, Ciconia nigra
White stork, Ciconia ciconia
Marabou stork, Leptoptilos crumenifer
Frigatebirds
Order: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae
Frigatebirds are found across all tropical and subtropical oceans. All have predominantly black plumage, long, deeply forked tails and long hooked bills. Females have white underbellies and males have a distinctive red gular pouch, which they inflate during the breeding season to attract females. Their wings are long and pointed and can span up to 2.3 metres (7.5 ft), the largest wing area to body weight ratio of any bird.
Ascension frigatebird, Fregata aquila (A)
Magnificent frigatebird, Fregata magnificens (A)
Gannets and boobies
Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae
The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium-large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish.
Northern gannet, Morus bassanus
Cape gannet, Morus capensis (A)
Masked booby, Sula dactylatra (A)
Red-footed booby, Sula sula (A)
Brown booby, Sula leucogaster (A)
Anhingas and darters
Order: SuliformesFamily: Anhingidae
Anhingas or darters are often called "snake-birds" because of their long thin neck, which gives a snake-like appearance when they swim with their bodies submerged. The males have black and dark-brown plumage, an erectile crest on the nape and a larger bill than the female. The females have much paler plumage especially on the neck and underparts. The darters have completely webbed feet and their legs are short and set far back on the body. Their plumage is somewhat permeable, like that of cormorants, and they spread their wings to dry after diving.
African darter, Anhinga rufa
Cormorants and shags
Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae
Cormorants are medium to large coastal, fish-eating seabirds. Plumage colouration varies, with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black-and-white and a few being colourful.
Pygmy cormorant, Microcarbo pygmeus
White-breasted cormorant, Phalacrocorax lucidus
Great cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo
Spectacled cormorant, Urile perspicillatus (Ext)
European shag, Gulosus aristotelis
Double-crested cormorant, Nannopterum auritum
Ibises and spoonbills
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae
A family of long-legged, long-necked wading birds. Ibises have long, curved bills. Spoonbills have a flattened bill, wider at the tip.
African sacred ibis, Threskiornis aethiopicus (I)
Northern bald ibis, Geronticus eremita (A)
Glossy ibis, Plegadis falcinellus
Eurasian spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia
African spoonbill, Platalea alba (A)
Herons and bitterns
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae
The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more wary. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises and spoonbills.
Eurasian bittern, Botaurus stellaris
American bittern, Botaurus lentiginosus (A)
Least bittern, Ixobrychus exilis (A)
Little bittern, Ixobrychus minutus
Von Schrenck's bittern, Ixobrychus eurhythmus (A)
Dwarf bittern, Ixobrychus sturmii (A)
Black-crowned night heron, Nycticorax nycticorax
Yellow-crowned night heron, Nyctanassa violacea (A)
Green heron, Butorides virescens (A)
Striated heron, Butorides striata
Squacco heron, Ardeola ralloides
Indian pond heron, Ardeola grayii (A)
Chinese pond heron, Ardeola bacchus (A)
Western cattle egret, Bubulcus ibis
Eastern cattle egret, Bubulcus coromandus (A)
Grey heron, Ardea cinerea
Great blue heron, Ardea herodias (A)
Black-headed heron, Ardea melanocephala
Purple heron, Ardea purpurea
Great egret, Ardea alba
Intermediate egret, Ardea intermedia (A)
Black heron, Egretta ardesiaca (A)
Tricolored heron, Egretta tricolor (A)
Little blue heron, Egretta caerulea (A)
Snowy egret, Egretta thula (A)
Little egret, Egretta garzetta
Western reef heron, Egretta gularis
Pelicans
Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae
Pelicans are large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak.
Great white pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus
Dalmatian pelican, Pelecanus crispus
Ospreys
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae
Ospreys are large migratory fish-eating bird of prey. It is mainly brown above and white below with long, angled wings.
Western osprey, Pandion haliaetus
Kites, hawks, and eagles
Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae
A family of birds of prey which includes hawks, buzzards, eagles, kites and harriers. These birds have very large powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons and keen eyesight.
Black-winged kite, Elanus caeruleus
Bearded vulture, Gypaetus barbatus
Egyptian vulture, Neophron percnopterus (A)
European honey buzzard, Pernis apivorus
Crested honey buzzard, Pernis ptilorhynchus
Swallow-tailed kite, Elanoides forficatus (A)
White-backed vulture, Gyps africanus
White-rumped vulture, Gyps bengalensis (A)
Rüppell's vulture, Gyps rueppelli (A)
Griffon vulture, Gyps fulvus
Cinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus
Lappet-faced vulture, Torgos tracheliotos (A)
Short-toed snake eagle, Circaetus gallicus
Lesser spotted eagle, Clanga pomarina
Greater spotted eagle, Clanga clanga
Booted eagle, Hieraaetus pennatus
Steppe eagle, Aquila nipalensis
Spanish imperial eagle, Aquila adalberti
Eastern imperial eagle, Aquila heliaca
Golden eagle, Aquila chrysaetos
Bonelli's eagle, Aquila fasciata
Levant sparrowhawk, Accipiter brevipes
Eurasian sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus
Northern goshawk, Accipiter gentilis
Western marsh harrier, Circus aeruginosus
Hen harrier, Circus cyaneus
Northern harrier, Circus hudsonius (A)
Pallid harrier, Circus macrourus
Montagu's harrier, Circus pygargus
Red kite, Milvus milvus
Black kite, Milvus migrans
Pallas's fish eagle, Haliaeetus leucoryphus (A)
White-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla
Bald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus (A)
Rough-legged buzzard, Buteo lagopus
Upland buzzard, Buteo hemilasius (A)
Long-legged buzzard, Buteo rufinus
Common buzzard, Buteo buteo
Barn owls
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae
Barn owls are medium-sized to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons.
Western barn owl, Tyto alba
American barn owl, Tyto furcata
Typical owls
Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae
Owls are a group of birds that belong to the order Strigiformes, constituting 200 extant bird of prey species. Most are solitary and nocturnal, with some exceptions (e.g., the northern hawk-owl). Owls hunt mostly small mammals, insects, and other birds, although a few species specialize in hunting fish.
Eurasian scops owl, Otus scops
Snowy owl, Bubo scandiacus
Eurasian eagle-owl, Bubo bubo
Tawny owl, Strix aluco
Maghreb owl, Strix mauritanica
Ural owl, Strix uralensis
Great grey owl, Strix nebulosa
Northern hawk-owl, Surnia ulula
Eurasian pygmy owl, Glaucidium passerinum
Little owl, Athene noctua
Boreal owl, Aegolius funereus
Brown hawk-owl, Ninox scutulata
Long-eared owl, Asio otus
Short-eared owl, Asio flammeus
Marsh owl, Asio capensis (A)
Hoopoes
Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Upupidae
Distinctive birds with a long curved bill, a crest and black-and-white striped wings and tail.
Eurasian hoopoe, Upupa epops
African hoopoe, Upupa africana
Rollers
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Coraciidae
A small family of colourful, medium-sized birds with a crow-like shape that feed mainly on insects.
Abyssinian roller, Coracias abyssinicus (A)
European roller, Coracias garrulus
Kingfishers
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae
Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long, pointed bills, short legs and stubby tails.
White-throated kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis (A)
Common kingfisher, Alcedo atthis
Belted kingfisher, Megaceryle alcyon (A)
Pied kingfisher, Ceryle rudis (A)
Bee-eaters
Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Meropidae
A group of near-passerine birds characterised by richly coloured plumage, slender bodies and usually elongated central tail feathers.
Asian green bee-eater, Merops orientalis (A)
Blue-cheeked bee-eater, Merops persicus (A)
European bee-eater, Merops apiaster
Woodpeckers
Order: PiciformesFamily: Picidae
Woodpeckers are small to medium-sized birds with chisel-like beaks, short legs, stiff tails and long tongues used for capturing insects. Some species have feet with two toes pointing forward and two backward, while several species have only three toes. Many woodpeckers have the habit of tapping noisily on tree trunks with their beaks.
Eurasian wryneck, Jynx torquilla
Yellow-bellied sapsucker, Sphyrapicus varius (A)
Eurasian three-toed woodpecker, Picoides tridactylus
Middle spotted woodpecker, Dendrocoptes medius
Lesser spotted woodpecker, Dryobates minor
Syrian woodpecker, Dendrocopos syriacus
Great spotted woodpecker, Dendrocopos major
White-backed woodpecker, Dendrocopos leucotos
Northern flicker, Colaptes auratus (A)
Black woodpecker, Dryocopus martius
European green woodpecker, Picus viridis
Iberian green woodpecker, Picus sharpei
Grey-headed woodpecker, Picus canus
Falcons
Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae
Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons.
Lesser kestrel, Falco naumanni
Common kestrel, Falco tinnunculus
American kestrel, Falco sparverius (A)
Red-footed falcon, Falco vespertinus
Amur falcon, Falco amurensis (A)
Eleonora's falcon, Falco eleonorae
Sooty falcon, Falco concolo (A)
Merlin, Falco columbarius
Eurasian hobby, Falco subbuteo
Lanner falcon, Falco biarmicus
Saker falcon, Falco cherrug
Gyrfalcon, Falco rusticolus
Peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus
African and New World parrots
Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittacidae
In Europe, a species has established itself after being introduced by humans.
Monk parakeet, Myiopsitta monachus (I)
Old World parrots
Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittaculidae
In Europe, a species has established itself after being introduced by humans.
Rose-ringed parakeet, Psittacula krameri (I)
Tyrant flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tyrannidae
A family from the Americas with very rare vagrants recorded in Iceland, Ireland and Great Britain.
Eastern phoebe, Sayornis phoebe (A)
Olive-sided flycatcher, Contopus cooperi (A)
Eastern wood pewee, Contopus virens (A)
Yellow-bellied flycatcher, Empidonax flaviventris (A)
Acadian flycatcher, Empidonax virescens (A)
Willow flycatcher, Empidonax traillii (A)
Alder flycatcher, Empidonax alnorum (A)
Least flycatcher, Empidonax minimus (A)
Western kingbird, Tyrannus verticalis (A)
Fork-tailed flycatcher, Tyrannus savana (A)
Eastern kingbird, Tyrannus tyrannus (A)
Shrikes
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Laniidae
Shrikes are passerine birds known for their habit of catching other birds and small animals and impaling the uneaten portions of their bodies on thorns. A typical shrike's beak is hooked, like a bird of prey.
Brown shrike, Lanius cristatus (A)
Red-backed shrike, Lanius collurio
Isabelline shrike, Lanius isabellinus (A)
Red-tailed shrike, Lanius phoenicuroides (A)
Long-tailed shrike, Lanius schach (A)
Lesser grey shrike, Lanius minor
Northern shrike, Lanius borealis (A)
Great grey shrike, Lanius excubitor
Iberian grey shrike, Lanius meridionalis
Woodchat shrike, Lanius senator
Masked shrike, Lanius nubicus
Vireos, greenlets, and shrike-babblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Vireonidae
The vireos are a group of small to medium-sized passerine birds restricted to the New World and Southeast Asia.
White-eyed vireo, Vireo griseus (A)
Yellow-throated vireo, Vireo flavifrons (A)
Blue-headed vireo, Vireo solitarius (A)
Philadelphia vireo, Vireo philadelphicus (A)
Red-eyed vireo, Vireo olivaceus (A)
Figbirds and orioles
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Oriolidae
The figbirds and orioles are medium-sized passerines, mostly with bright and showy plumage, the females often have duller plumage than the males The beak is long, slightly curved and hooked. Orioles are arboreal and tend to feed in the canopy.
Eurasian golden oriole, Oriolus oriolus
Crows and jays
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae
The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence.
Siberian jay, Perisoreus infaustus
Eurasian jay, Garrulus glandarius
Iberian magpie, Cyanopica cooki (E)
Eurasian magpie, Pica pica
Spotted nutcracker, Nucifraga caryocatactes
Red-billed chough, Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax
Alpine chough, Pyrrhocorax graculus
Western jackdaw, Corvus monedula
Daurian jackdaw, Coloeus dauuricus (A)
House crow, Corvus splendens (A)
Rook, Corvus frugilegus
Carrion crow, Corvus corone
Hooded crow, Corvus cornix
Northern raven, Corvus corax
Fan-tailed raven, Corvus rhipidurus (A)
Waxwings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Bombycillidae
The waxwings are a group of birds with soft silky plumage and unique red tips to some of the wing feathers. In the Bohemian and cedar waxwings, these tips look like sealing wax and give the group its name. These are arboreal birds of northern forests. They live on insects in summer and berries in winter.
Bohemian waxwing, Bombycilla garrulus
Cedar waxwing, Bombycilla cedrorum (A)
Tits and chickadees
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Paridae
The Paridae are mainly small stocky woodland species with short stout bills. Some have crests. They are adaptable birds, with a mixed diet including seeds and insects.
Coal tit, Periparus ater
European crested tit, Lophophanes cristatus
Sombre tit, Poecile lugubris
Grey-headed chickadee, Poecile cinctus
Marsh tit, Poecile palustris
Willow tit, Poecile montana
African blue tit, Cyanistes teneriffae
Eurasian blue tit, Cyanistes caeruleus
Azure tit, Cyanistes cyanus
Great tit, Parus major
Penduline tits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Remizidae
The penduline tits are a group of small passerine birds related to the true tits. They are insectivores.
Eurasian penduline tit, Remiz pendulinus
Bearded reedling
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Panuridae
A single species formerly placed in the Old World babbler family.
Bearded reedling, Panurus biarmicus
Larks
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Alaudidae
Larks are small terrestrial birds with often extravagant songs and display flights. Most larks are fairly dull in appearance. Their food is insects and seeds.
Greater hoopoe-lark, Alaemon alaudipes (A)
Thick-billed lark, Ramphocoris clotbey (A)
Desert lark, Ammomanes deserti (A)
Bar-tailed lark, Ammomanes cinctura (A)
Woodlark, Lullula arborea
White-winged lark, Alauda leucoptera (A)
Oriental skylark, Alauda gulgula (A)
Eurasian skylark, Alauda arvensis
Thekla's lark, Galerida theklae (A)
Crested lark, Galerida cristata
Horned lark, Eremophila alpestris
Temminck's lark, Eremophila temmincki (A)
Greater short-toed lark, Calandrella brachydactyla
Bimaculated lark, Melanocorypha bimaciulata (A)
Calandra lark, Melanocorypha calandra (A)
Black lark, Melanocorypha yeltoniensis (A)
Dupont's lark, Chersophilus duponti
Asian short-toed lark, Alaudala cheleensis (A)
Mediterranean short-toed lark, Alaudala rufescens
Turkestan short-toed lark, Alaudala heinei
Bulbuls
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pycnonotidae
Bulbuls are medium-sized songbirds. Some are colourful with yellow, red or orange vents, cheeks, throats or supercilia, but most are drab, with uniform olive-brown to black plumage. Some species have distinct crests.
White-eared bulbul, Pycnonotus leucotis
Common bulbul, Pycnonotus barbatus
Swallows and martins
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae
The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base.
Brown-throated martin, Riparia paludicola (A)
Sand martin, Riparia riparia
Pale martin, Riparia diluta
Tree swallow, Tachycineta bicolor (A)
Purple martin, Progne subis (A)
Barn swallow, Hirundo rustica
Eurasian crag martin, Ptyonoprogne rupestris
Pale crag martin, Ptyonoprogne obsoleta (A)
Rock martin, Ptyonoprogne fuligula (A)
Common house martin, Delichon urbica
Red-rumped swallow, Cecropis daurica (A)
American cliff swallow, Petrochelidon pyrrhonota
Cettia bush warblers and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cettiidae
Cettiidae is a family of small insectivorous songbirds. It contains the typical bush warblers (Cettia) and their relatives. Its members occur mainly in Asia and Africa, ranging into Oceania and Europe.
Cetti's warbler, Cettia cetti
Bushtits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Aegithalidae
Bushtits are a group of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They make woven bag nests in trees. Most eat a mixed diet which includes insects.
Long-tailed tit, Aegithalos caudatus
Leaf warblers and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Phylloscopidae
Leaf warblers are small, active, insectivorous passerine birds. They glean the foliage for insects along the branches of trees and bushes. They forage at various levels within forests, from the top canopy to the understorey. Most of the species are markedly territorial both in their summer and winter quarters. Most are greenish or brownish above and off-white or yellowish below.
Wood warbler, Phylloscopus sibilatrix
Western Bonelli's warbler, Phylloscopus bonelli
Eastern Bonelli's warbler, Phylloscopus orientalis (A)
Hume's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus humei (A)
Yellow-browed warbler, Phylloscopus inornatus
Pallas's leaf warbler, Phylloscopus proregulus
Radde's warbler, Phylloscopus schwarzi (A)
Dusky warbler, Phylloscopus fuscatus (A)
Plain leaf warbler, Phylloscopus neglectus (A)
Willow warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus
Mountain chiffchaff, Phylloscopus sindianus (A)
Canary Islands chiffchaff, Phylloscopus canariensis
Common chiffchaff, Phylloscopus collybita
Iberian chiffchaff, Phylloscopus brehmii
Eastern crowned warbler, Phylloscopus coronatus (A)
Green warbler, Phylloscopus nitidus (A)
Two-barred warbler, Phyloscopus plumbeitarsus (A)
Greenish warbler, Phylloscopus trochiloides
Large-billed leaf warbler, Phylloscopus magnirostris (A)
Pale-legged leaf warbler, Phylloscopus tenellipes (A)
Kamchatka leaf warbler, Phylloscopus examinandus (A)
Arctic warbler, Phylloscopus borealis
Reed warblers, Grauer’s warbler, and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Acrocephalidae
The species in this family are usually rather large warblers. Most are rather plain olivaceous brown above with much yellow to beige below. They are usually found in open woodland, reedbeds, or tall grass. The family occurs mostly in southern to western Eurasia and surroundings, but also ranges far into the Pacific, with some species in Africa.
Great reed warbler, Acrocephalus arundinaceus
Clamorous reed warbler, Acrocephalus stentoreus (A)
Moustached warbler, Acrocephalus melanopogon
Aquatic warbler, Acrocephalus paludicola
Sedge warbler, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus
Paddyfield warbler, Acrocephalus agricola (A)
Blyth's reed warbler, Acrocephalus dumetorum
Eurasian reed warbler, Acrocephalus scirpaceus
African reed warbler, Acrocephalus baeticatus
Marsh warbler, Acrocephalus palustris
Thick-billed warbler, Arundinax aedon (A)
Booted warbler, Iduna caligata (A)
Sykes's warbler, Iduna rama (A)
Eastern olivaceous warbler, Iduna pallida
Western olivaceous warbler, Iduna opaca
Upcher's warbler, Hippolais languida (A)
Olive-tree warbler, Hippolais olivetorum
Melodious warbler, Hippolais polyglotta
Icterine warbler, Hippolais icterina
Grassbirds and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Locustellidae
Grassbirds are small insectivorous songbirds, with tails that are usually long and pointed. These birds occur mainly in Eurasia, Africa, and the Australian region. They are less wren-like than the typical shrub-warblers (Cettia) but like these drab brownish or buffy all over. Many have bold dark streaks on wings and/or underside. Most live in scrubland and frequently hunt food by clambering through thick tangled growth or pursuing it on the ground; they are perhaps the most terrestrial of the "warblers".
Gray's grasshopper warbler, Helopsaltes fasciolatus (A)
Pallas's grasshopper warbler, Helopsaltes certhiola (A)
Lanceolated warbler, Locustella lanceolata (A)
River warbler, Locustella fluviatilis
Savi's warbler, Locustella luscinioides
Common grasshopper warbler, Locustella naevia
Cisticolas and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cisticolidae
Cisticolas are generally very small birds of drab brown or grey appearance found in open country such as grassland or scrub. They are often difficult to see and many species are similar in appearance, so the song is often the best identification guide. These are insectivorous birds which nest low in vegetation.
Zitting cisticola, Cisticola juncidis
Graceful prinia, Prinia gracilis
Sylviid babblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sylviidae
The sylviid warblers are a group of small insectivorous passerine birds. They mainly occur as breeding species, as the common name implies, in Europe, Asia and, to a lesser extent, Africa. Most are of generally undistinguished appearance, but many have distinctive songs.
Eurasian blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla
Garden warbler, Sylvia borin
Barred warbler, Curruca nisoria
Desert whitethroat, Curruca minula (A)
Lesser whitethroat, Curruca curruca
Hume's whitethroat, Curruca althaea (A)
Western Orphean warbler, Curruca hortensis
Eastern Orphean warbler, Curruca crassirostris
African desert warbler, Curruca deserti (A)
Asian desert warbler, Curruca nana (A)
Tristram's warbler, Curruca deserticola
Menetries's warbler, Curruca mystacea (A)
Rüppell's warbler, Curruca ruppeli
Cyprus warbler, Curruca melanothorax
Sardinian warbler, Curruca melanocephala
Western subalpine warbler, Curruca iberiae
Moltoni's warbler, Curruca subalpina
Eastern subalpine warbler, Curruca cantillans
Common whitethroat, Curruca communis
Spectacled warbler, Curruca conspicillata
Marmora's warbler, Curruca sarda
Dartford warbler, Curruca undata
Balearic warbler, Curruca balearica (E)
Laughingthrushes, barwings, and sibias
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Leiothrichidae
The laughingthrushes are a family of Old World passerine birds. They are diverse in size and coloration. These are birds of tropical areas, with the greatest variety in Southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent.
Red-billed leiothrix, Leiothrix lutea (I)
Goldcrests and kinglets
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Regulidae
The kinglets, also called crests, are a small group of birds often included in the Old World warblers, but frequently given family status because they also resemble the titmice.
Common firecrest, Regulus ignicapillus
Goldcrest, Regulus regulus
Madeira firecrest, Regulus madeirensis
Ruby-crowned kinglet, Corthylio calendula (A)
Wrens
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Troglodytidae
The wrens are mainly small and inconspicuous except for their loud songs. These birds have short wings and thin down-turned bills. Several species often hold their tails upright. All are insectivorous.
Marsh wren, Cistothorus palustris
Eurasian wren, Troglodytes troglodytes
Nuthatches
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sittidae
Nuthatches are small woodland birds. They have the unusual ability to climb down trees head first, unlike other birds which can only go upwards. Nuthatches have big heads, short tails and powerful bills and feet.
Krüper's nuthatch, Sitta krueperi
Red-breasted nuthatch, Sitta canadensis (A)
Corsican nuthatch, Sitta whiteheadi (E)
Western rock nuthatch, Sitta neumayer
Eurasian nuthatch, Sitta europaea
Wallcreeper
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Tichodromidae
The wallcreeper is a small bird related to the nuthatch family, which has stunning crimson, grey and black plumage.
Wallcreeper, Tichodroma muraria
Treecreepers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Certhiidae
Treecreepers are small woodland birds, brown above and white below. They have thin pointed down-curved bills, which they use to extricate insects from bark. They have stiff tail feathers, like woodpeckers, which they use to support themselves on vertical trees.
Eurasian treecreeper, Certhia familiaris
Short-toed treecreeper, Certhia brachydactyla
Mockingbirds and thrashers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Mimidae
Medium-sized passerine birds with long tails. Some are notable for their ability to mimic sounds such as other birds' songs.
Grey catbird, Dumetella carolinensis (A)
Northern mockingbird, Mimus polyglottos (A)
Brown thrasher, Toxostoma rufum (A)
Starlings and rhabdornis
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae
Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen.
Crested myna, Acridotheres cristatellus (I)
Daurian starling, Agropsar sturninus (A)
Rosy starling, Pastor roseus
Common starling, Sturnus vulgaris
Spotless starling, Sturnus unicolor
Thrushes
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae
The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs.
Siberian thrush, Geokichla sibirica (A)
White's thrush, Zoothera aurea
Scaly thrush, Zoothera dauma (A)
Varied thrush, Ixoreus naevius (A)
Veery, Catharus fuscescens (A)
Grey-cheeked thrush, Catharus minimus (A)
Swainson's thrush, Catharus ustulatus (A)
Hermit thrush, Catharus guttatus (A)
Wood thrush, Hylocichla mustelina (A)
Tickell's thrush, Turdus unicolor (A)
Ring ouzel, Turdus torquatus
Common blackbird, Turdus merula
Eyebrowed thrush, Turdus obscurus (A)
Black-throated thrush, Turdus atrogularis
Red-throated thrush, Turdus ruficollis (A)
Naumann's thrush, Turdus naumanni (A)
Dusky thrush, Turdus naumanni
Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris
Redwing, Turdus iliacus
Song thrush, Turdus philomelos
Mistle thrush, Turdus viscivorus
American robin, Turdus migratorius (A)
Chats and Old World flycatchers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Muscicapidae
Old World flycatchers are a large group of small passerine birds native to the Old World. They are mainly small arboreal insectivores. The appearance of these birds is highly varied, but they mostly have weak songs and harsh calls.
Rufous-tailed scrub robin, Cercotrichas galactotes
Spotted flycatcher, Muscicapa striata
Mediterranean flycatcher, Muscicapa tyrrhenica
Dark-sided flycatcher, Muscicapa sibirica (A)
Asian brown flycatcher, Muscicapa dauurica (A)
European robin, Erithacus rubecula
Siberian blue robin, Larvivora cyane (A)
Rufous-tailed robin, Larvivora sibilans (A)
Bluethroat, Luscinia svecica
Thrush nightingale, Luscinia luscinia
Common nightingale, Luscinia megarhynchos
White-throated robin, Irania gutturalis
Siberian rubythroat, Calliope calliope (A)
Red-flanked bluetail, Tarsiger cyanurus
Taiga flycatcher, Ficedula albicilla (A)
Red-breasted flycatcher, Ficedula parva (A)
Semicollared flycatcher, Ficedula semitorquata
European pied flycatcher, Ficedula hypoleuca
Collared flycatcher, Ficedula albicollis
Atlas pied flycatcher, Ficedula speculigera (A)
Eversmann's redstart, Phoenicurus erythronotus
Black redstart, Phoenicurus ochruros
Common redstart, Phoenicurus phoenicurus
Moussier's redstart, Phoenicurus moussieri (A)
Plumbeous water redstart, Phoenicurus fuliginosus (A)
Common rock thrush, Monticola saxatilis
Blue rock thrush, Monticola solitarius
Whinchat, Saxicola rubetra
Canary Islands stonechat, Saxicola dacotiae
European stonechat, Saxicola rubicola
Siberian stonechat, Saxicola maurus
Amur stonechat, Saxicola stejnegeri
African stonechat, Saxicola torquatus
Pied bush chat, Saxicola caprata (A)
Northern wheatear, Oenanthe oenanthe
Isabelline wheatear, Oenanthe isabellina
Desert wheatear, Oenanthe deserti (A)
Western black-eared wheatear, Oenanthe hispanica
Eastern black-eared wheatear, Oenanthe melanoleuca
Cyprus wheatear, Oenanthe cypriaca
Pied wheatear, Oenanthe pleschanka
Red-rumped wheatear, Oenanthe moesta (A)
Variable wheatear, Oenanthe picata (A)
Black wheatear, Oenanthe leucura
White-crowned wheatear, Oenanthe leucopyga (A)
Finsch's wheatear, Oenanthe finschii (A)
Kurdish wheatear, Oenanthe xanthoprymna (A)
Dippers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cinclidae
Dippers are a group of perching birds whose habitat includes aquatic environments in the Americas, Europe and Asia. They are named for their bobbing or dipping movements.
White-throated dipper, Cinclus cinclus
Old World sparrows and snowfinches
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae
Sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown or grey birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed-eaters and they also consume small insects.
House sparrow, Passer domesticus
Italian sparrow, Passer italiae
Spanish sparrow, Passer hispaniolensis
Dead Sea sparrow, Passer moabiticus (A)
Eurasian tree sparrow, Passer montanus
Rock sparrow, Petronia petronia
White-winged snowfinch, Montifringilla nivalis
Weavers and widowbirds
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Ploceidae
The weavers are small passerine birds related to the finches. They are seed-eating birds with rounded conical bills. The males of many species are brightly coloured, usually in red or yellow and black, some species show variation in colour only in the breeding season.
Black-headed weaver, Ploceus melanocephalus (I)
Yellow-crowned bishop, Euplectes afer (I)
Waxbills, munias and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Estrildidae
The estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have wide variation in plumage colours and patterns.
Scaly-breasted munia, Lonchura punctulata (I)
Tricolored munia, Lonchura malacca
Chestnut munia, Lonchura atricapilla (I)
Common waxbill, Estrilda astrild (I)
Red avadavat, Amandava amandava (I)
Accentors
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Prunellidae
The accentors are in the only bird family, Prunellidae, which is completely endemic to the Palearctic. They are small, fairly drab species superficially similar to sparrows.
Alpine accentor, Prunella collaris
Siberian accentor, Prunella montanella (A)
Radde's accentor, Prunella ocularis
Black-throated accentor, Prunella atrogularis (A)
Dunnock, Prunella modularis
Wagtails and pipits
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Motacillidae
The Motacillidae are a family of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. They include the wagtails, longclaws and pipits. They are slender, ground feeding insectivores of open country.
Western yellow wagtail, Motacilla flava
Eastern yellow wagtail, Motacilla tschutschensis
Citrine wagtail, Motacilla citreola
Grey wagtail, Motacilla cinerea
White wagtail, Motacilla alba
Richard's pipit, Anthus richardi
Paddyfield pipit, Anthus rufulus (A)
Blyth's pipit, Anthus godlewskii (A)
Tawny pipit, Anthus campestris
Long-billed pipit, Anthus similis (A)
Meadow pipit, Anthus pratensis
Tree pipit, Anthus trivialis
Olive-backed pipit, Anthus hodgsoni (A)
Pechora pipit, Anthus gustavi (A)
Red-throated pipit, Anthus cervinus
Buff-bellied pipit, Anthus rubescens (A)
Water pipit, Anthus spinoletta
Eurasian rock pipit, Anthus petrosus
Berthelot's pipit, Anthus berthelotii
Finches and euphonias
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Fringillidae
Finches are seed-eating passerine birds, that are small to moderately large and have a strong beak, usually conical and in some species very large. All have twelve tail feathers and nine primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well.
Common chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs
Tenerife blue chaffinch, Fringilla teydea
Gran Canaria blue chaffinch, Fringilla polatzeki
Brambling, Fringilla montifringilla
Evening grosbeak, Hesperiphona vespertina (A)
Hawfinch, Coccothraustes coccothraustes
Pine grosbeak, Pinicola enucleator
Eurasian bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula
Azores bullfinch, Pyrrhula murina
Asian crimson-winged finch, Rhodopechys sanguineus
Trumpeter finch, Bucanetes githagineus
Mongolian finch, Bucanetes mongolicus
Grey-crowned rosy finch, Leucosticte tephrocotis
Common rosefinch, Carpodacus erythrinus
Great rosefinch, Carpodacus rubicilla (A)
Pallas's rosefinch, Carpodacus roseus (A)
European greenfinch, Chloris chloris
Twite, Linaria flavirostris
Common linnet, Linaria cannabina
Common redpoll, Acanthis flammea
Lesser redpoll, Acanthis cabararet
Arctic redpoll, Acanthis hornemanni
Parrot crossbill, Loxia pytyopsittacus
Scottish crossbill, Loxia scotica (E)
Red crossbill, Loxia curvirostra
Two-barred crossbill, Loxia leucoptera
European goldfinch, Carduelis carduelis
Citril finch, Carduelis citrinella
Corsican finch, Carduelis corsicana
Red-fronted serin, Serinus pusillus (A)
European serin, Serinus serinus
Atlantic canary, Serinus canaria
Cape canary, Serinus canicollis (A)
Eurasian siskin, Spinus spinus
Longspurs and snow buntings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Calcariidae
The Calcariidae are a family of birds that had been traditionally grouped with the New World sparrows, but differ in a number of respects and are usually found in open grassy areas.
Lapland longspur, Calcarius lapponicus
Snow bunting, Plectrophenax nivalis
Buntings
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Emberizidae
The emberizids are a large family of passerine birds. They are seed-eating birds with distinctively shaped bills. Many emberizid species have distinctive head patterns.
Corn bunting, Emberiza calandra
Yellowhammer, Emberiza citrinella
Pine bunting, Emberiza leucocephalos (A)
Rock bunting, Emberiza cia
Grey-necked bunting, Emberiza buchanani (A)
Cinereous bunting, Emberiza cineracea
Ortolan bunting, Emberiza hortulana
Cretzschmar's bunting, Emberiza caesia
Cirl bunting, Emberiza cirlus
Striolated bunting, Emberiza striolata
House bunting, Emberiza sahari (A)
Chestnut-eared bunting, Emberiza fucata (A)
Little bunting, Emberiza pusilla
Yellow-browed bunting, Emberiza chrysophrys (A)
Rustic bunting, Emberiza rustica
Yellow-breasted bunting, Emberiza aureola (A)
Chestnut bunting, Emberiza rutila (A)
Black-headed bunting, Emberiza melanocephala
Red-headed bunting, Emberiza bruniceps (A)
Black-faced bunting, Emberiza spodocephala (A)
Pallas's reed bunting, Emberiza pallasi (A)
Common reed bunting, Emberiza schoeniclus
New World sparrows and bush tanagers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passerellidae
The New World sparrows (or American sparrows) are a large family of seed-eating passerine birds with distinctively finch-like bills.
Lark sparrow, Chondestes grammacus (A)
Red fox sparrow, Passerella iliaca (A)
American tree sparrow, Spizelloides arborea (A)
Dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis
White-crowned sparrow, Zonotrichia leucophrys (A)
White-throated sparrow, Zonotrichia albicollis (A)
Savannah sparrow, Passerculus sandwichensis (A)
Song sparrow, Melospiza melodia (A)
Lincoln's sparrow, Melospiza lincolnii (A)
Eastern towhee, Pipilo erythrophthalmus (A)
Yellow-breasted chat
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Icteriidae
This species was historically placed in the wood-warblers (Parulidae) but nonetheless most authorities were unsure if it belonged there. It was placed in its own family in 2017.
Yellow-breasted chat, Icteria virens (A)
Oropendolas, orioles, and blackbirds
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Icteridae
Icterids make up a family of small- to medium-sized, often colorful, New-World passerine birds. Most species have black as a predominant plumage color, often enlivened by yellow, orange or red. The species in the family vary widely in size, shape, behavior and coloration.
Yellow-headed blackbird, Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus (A)
Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus (A)
Baltimore oriole, Icterus galbula (A)
Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus (A)
Brown-headed cowbird, Molothrus ater (A)
Rusty blackbird, Euphagus carolinus (A)
Common grackle, Quiscalus quiscula (A)
New World warblers
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Parulidae
A group of small, often colourful passerine birds restricted to the New World. Most are arboreal and insectivorous.
Ovenbird, Seiurus aurocapilla (A)
Louisiana waterthrush, Parkesia motacilla (A)
Northern waterthrush, Parkesia noveboracensis (A)
Golden-winged warbler, Vermivora chrysoptera (A)
Blue-winged warbler, Vermivora cyanoptera (A)
Black-and-white warbler, Mniotilta varia (A)
Prothonotary warbler, Protonotaria citrea (A)
Tennessee warbler, Leiothlypis peregrina (A)
Orange-crowned warbler, Leiothlypis celata (A)
Nashville warbler, Leiothlypis ruficapilla (A)
Connecticut warbler, Oporornis agilis (A)
Mourning warbler, Geothlypis philadelphia (A)
Common yellowthroat, Geothlypis trichas (A)
Hooded warbler, Setophaga citrina (A)
American redstart, Setophaga ruticilla (A)
Cape May warbler, Setophaga tigrina (A)
Cerulean warbler, Setophaga cerulea (A)
Northern parula, Setophaga americana (A)
Magnolia warbler, Setophaga magnolia (A)
Bay-breasted warbler, Setophaga castanea (A)
Blackburnian warbler, Setophaga fusca (A)
American yellow warbler, Setophaga aestiva (A)
Chestnut-sided warbler, Setophaga pensylvanica (A)
Blackpoll warbler, Setophaga striata (A)
Black-throated blue warbler, Setophaga caerulescens (A)
Palm warbler, Setophaga palmarum (A)
Pine warbler, Setophaga pinus (A)
Myrtle warbler, Setophaga coronata (A)
Audubon's warbler, Setophaga auduboni (A)
Yellow-throated warbler, Setophaga dominica (A)
Prairie warbler, Setophaga discolor (A)
Black-throated green warbler, Setophaga virens (A)
Canada warbler, Cardellina canadensis (A)
Wilson's warbler, Cardellina pusilla (A)
Cardinals and allies
Order: PasseriformesFamily: Cardinalidae
Cardinals are passerine birds found in North and South America. They are also known as cardinal-grosbeaks and cardinal-buntings.
Summer tanager, Piranga rubra (A)
Scarlet tanager, Piranga olivacea (A)
Rose-breasted grosbeak, Pheucticus ludovicianus (A)
Dickcissel, Spiza americana (A)
Blue grosbeak, Pheucticus caerulea (A)
Indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea (A)
See also
Lists of birds by region
The EBCC Atlas of European Breeding Birds
References
Checklist of birds of Europe. Avibase, LePage, Denis. 14 February 2020
Mullarney, Killian; Svensson, Lars, Zetterstrom, Dan; Grant, Peter. (2001). Birds of Europe. Princeton University Press. pp. 74–5
BirdLife International (2004) Birds in the European Union: a status assessment.
Crochet P.-A., Joynt G. (2015) AERC list of Western Palearctic birds. July 2015 version.
Rouco, M., Copete, J. L., De Juana, E., Gil-Velasco, M., Lorenzo, J. A., Martín, M., Milá, B., Molina, B. & Santos, D. M. (2019) Lista de las aves de España. Edición de 2019. SEO/BirdLife. Madrid.
Rafael Matias, Paulo Catry, Helder Costa, Gonçalo Elias, João Jara, C.C. Moore & Ricardo Tomé (2007) Lista sistemática das aves de portugal continental. Anuário Ornitológico 5: 74-132 (2007)
British Ornithologists’ Union (2017) The British List: A Checklist of Birds of Britain (9th edition). Ibis 160: 190-240.
Irish Rare Birds Committee (2015) The Irish list as on 31 December 2015
Overzicht van alle vogels waargenomen in Nederland, Dutch Avifauna.nl
Belgian Rare Birds Committee (2014) Belgian official checklist
Hellenic Rarities Committee (2016) List of the birds οf Greece
Yann Kolbeinsson (2011) List of Icelandic Bird Species
Birdlife Suomi Finland: Suomessa havaitut luonnonvaraiset ei-varpuslinnut (non-passerine birds of Finland)
Birdlife Suomi Finland: Suomessa havaitut luonnonvaraiset varpuslinnut (passerine birds of Finland)
Netfugl.dk: Bird list of Denmark
Birds
Europe
|
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204509
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafiz%20%28Quran%29
|
Hafiz (Quran)
|
Hafiz (; , , pl. ḥuffāẓ, f. ḥāfiẓa), literally meaning "guardian" or "memorizer", depending on the context, is a term used by Muslims for someone who has completely memorized the Quran. Hafiza is the female equivalent.
Practice
Importance
Hifz is memorization of the Quran. Muslims believe that whoever memorizes the Quran and acts upon it will be rewarded and honoured greatly by Allah, so that they will rise in status in Paradise to a level commensurate with what they memorized of the Book of Allah. Abdullah ibn Amr narrated that the Messenger of Allah said: “The Hafiz-e-Quran (a person who has memorized the Quran) will be said on the day of Judgment: Recite and rise in status, recite as you used to recite in the world, for your status will be at the last verse that you recite.” (Jami` at-thirmidhi 2914)
Having memorised the Quran, the hafiz or hafiza must then ensure they do not forget it. To ensure perfect recall of all the learned verses requires constant practice. The memorisation of the Quran was important to Muslims in the past and also in the present. Yearly, thousands of students master the Quran and complete the book with interpretation and also memorisation. The Quran is perhaps the only book, religious or secular, that has been memorized completely by millions of people.
In Pakistan alone, Qari Hafeez Jalandhari, the general secretary of the Wafaq-ul-Madaris, which is a central board accounting for most of the religious seminaries in Pakistan, says that, in its network of madaris, "one million children have become Hafiz-e-Quran after an exam was introduced in 1982", with more than 78,000 (including 14,000 girls) every year, which he compared to the yearly output of Saudi Arabia, which is 5,000.
Cultural differences
For Muslims who are attempting to memorize certain suras but are unfamiliar with the Arabic script, the ulema have made various elucidations. There are mixed opinions on the usage of romanization of Arabic due to concerns about mispronunciations, higher approval of writing systems with close consonantal and vocalic equivalents to classical Arabic or relevant and effective diacritics, and a preference for Quran tutors or recorded recitations from qaris or any device with clear audible sound storage technology, such as CDs or cassettes.
Keeping the Quran memorized has always been a challenging and, at the same time, important issue in Muslim countries. In Iran, according to Resolution 573 of the Supreme Council of the Cultural Revolution, there is at least one specialized examination of the preservation of the Quran each year, according to specific criteria. The reviewer of this evaluation is Dar al-Qur'an al-Karim, a subsidiary of the Islamic Advertising Organization. According to Article 5 of the above Decree, holders of specialized qualifications for memorizing the Quran will enjoy the benefits of one to five art degrees, subject to the approval of the 547th session of the Supreme Council for Cultural Revolution. Therefore, the approval of the Qualification Degrees 1 to 5 of the Quran are in line with the Doctoral, Master's, Bachelor, Associate's Diploma and Diploma degrees, respectively.
Notable persons
See also
Qari'
Hafez
References
Islamic terminology
Memory in culture
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical%20skepticism
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Philosophical skepticism
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Philosophical skepticism (UK spelling: scepticism; from Greek σκέψις skepsis, "inquiry") is a family of philosophical views that question the possibility of knowledge. Philosophical skeptics are often classified into two general categories: Those who deny all possibility of knowledge, and those who advocate for the suspension of judgment due to the inadequacy of evidence. This distinction is modeled after the differences between the Academic skeptics and the Pyrrhonian skeptics in ancient Greek philosophy.
Overview
Philosophical skepticism begins with the claim that one currently lacks knowledge.
Skepticism can be classified according to its scope. Local skepticism involves being skeptical about particular areas of knowledge (e.g. moral skepticism, skepticism about the external world, or skepticism about other minds), whereas radical skepticism claims that one cannot know anything—including that one cannot know about knowing anything.
Skepticism can also be classified according to its method. Western philosophy has two basic approaches to skepticism. Cartesian skepticism—named somewhat misleadingly after René Descartes, who was not a skeptic but used some traditional skeptical arguments in his Meditations to help establish his rationalist approach to knowledge—attempts to show that any proposed knowledge claim can be doubted. Agrippan skepticism focuses on justification rather than the possibility of doubt. According to this view, none of the ways in which one might attempt to justify a claim are adequate. One can justify a claim based on other claims, but this leads to an infinite regress of justifications. One can use a dogmatic assertion, but this is not a justification. One can use circular reasoning, but this fails to justify the conclusion.
Philosophical skepticism is distinguished from methodological skepticism in that philosophical skepticism is an approach that questions the possibility of certainty in knowledge, whereas methodological skepticism is an approach that subjects all knowledge claims to scrutiny with the goal of sorting out true from false claims. Similarly, scientific skepticism differs from philosophical skepticism in that scientific skepticism is an epistemological position in which one questions the veracity of claims lacking empirical evidence. In practice, the term most commonly references the examination of claims and theories that appear to be pseudoscience, rather than the routine discussions and challenges among scientists.
Skeptical arguments
The ancient Greek Pyrrhonists developed sets of arguments to demonstrate that claims about reality cannot be adequately justified. Two sets of these arguments are well known. The oldest set is known as the ten tropes of Aenesidemus – although whether he invented the tropes or just systematized them from prior Pyrrhonist works is unknown. The tropes represent reasons for epoché (suspension of judgment). These are as follows:
Different animals manifest different modes of perception;
Similar differences are seen among individual men;
For the same man, information perceived with the senses is self-contradictory
Furthermore, it varies from time to time with physical changes
In addition, this data differs according to local relations
Objects are known only indirectly through the medium of air, moisture, etc.
These objects are in a condition of perpetual change in color, temperature, size and motion
All perceptions are relative and interact one upon another
Our impressions become less critical through repetition and custom
All men are brought up with different beliefs, under different laws and social conditions
Another set are known as the five tropes of Agrippa:
Dissent – The uncertainty demonstrated by the differences of opinions among philosophers and people in general.
Progress ad infinitum – All proof rests on matters themselves in need of proof, and so on to infinity, i.e, the regress argument.
Relation – All things are changed as their relations become changed, or, as we look upon them from different points of view.
Assumption – The truth asserted is based on an unsupported assumption.
Circularity – The truth asserted involves a circularity of proofs.
According to Victor Brochard "the five tropes can be regarded as the most radical and most precise formulation of philosophical skepticism that has ever been given. In a sense, they are still irresistible today."
Skeptical scenarios
A skeptical scenario is a hypothetical situation which can be used in an argument for skepticism about a particular claim or class of claims. Usually the scenario posits the existence of a deceptive power that deceives our senses and undermines the justification of knowledge otherwise accepted as justified, and is proposed in order to call into question our ordinary claims to knowledge on the grounds that we cannot exclude the possibility of skeptical scenarios being true. Skeptical scenarios have received a great deal of attention in modern Western philosophy.
The first major skeptical scenario in modern Western philosophy appears in René Descartes' Meditations on First Philosophy. At the end of the first Meditation Descartes writes: "I will suppose... that some evil demon of the utmost power and cunning has employed all his energies to deceive me."
The "evil demon problem", also known as "Descartes' evil demon", was first proposed by René Descartes. It invokes the possibility of a being who could deliberately mislead one into falsely believing everything that you take to be true.
The "brain in a vat" hypothesis is cast in contemporary scientific terms. It supposes that one might be a disembodied brain kept alive in a vat and fed false sensory signals by a mad scientist. Further, it asserts that since a brain in a vat would have no way of knowing that it was a brain in a vat, you cannot prove that you are not a brain in a vat.
The "dream argument", proposed by both René Descartes and Zhuangzi, supposes reality to be indistinguishable from a dream.
The "five minute hypothesis", most notably proposed by Bertrand Russell, suggests that we cannot prove that the world was not created five minutes ago (along with false memories and false evidence suggesting that it was not only five minutes old).
The "simulated reality hypothesis" or "Matrix hypothesis" suggests that everyone, or even the entire universe, might be inside a computer simulation or virtual reality.
Epistemological skepticism
Skepticism, as an epistemological view, calls into question whether knowledge is possible at all. This is distinct from other known skeptical practices, including Cartesian skepticism, as it targets knowledge in general instead of individual types of knowledge.
Skeptics argue that belief in something does not justify an assertion of knowledge of it. In this, skeptics oppose foundationalism, which states that there are basic positions that are self-justified or beyond justification, without reference to others. (One example of such foundationalism may be found in Spinoza's Ethics.) The skeptical response to this can take several approaches. First, claiming that "basic positions" must exist amounts to the logical fallacy of argument from ignorance combined with the slippery slope.
Among other arguments, skeptics use the Münchhausen trilemma and the problem of the criterion to claim that no certain belief can be achieved. This position is known as "global skepticism" or "radical skepticism." Foundationalists have used the same trilemma as a justification for demanding the validity of basic beliefs. Epistemological nihilism rejects the possibility of human knowledge, but not necessarily knowledge in general.
There are two different categories of epistemological skepticism, which can be referred to as mitigated and unmitigated skepticism. The two forms are contrasting but are still true forms of skepticism. Mitigated skepticism does not accept "strong" or "strict" knowledge claims but does, however, approve specific weaker ones. These weaker claims can be assigned the title of "virtual knowledge", but must be to justified belief. Some mitigated skeptics are also fallibilists, arguing that knowledge does not require certainty. Mitigated skeptics hold that knowledge does not require certainty and that many beliefs are, in practice, certain to the point that they can be safely acted upon in order to live significant and meaningful lives. Unmitigated skepticism rejects both claims of virtual knowledge and strong knowledge. Characterising knowledge as strong, weak, virtual or genuine can be determined differently depending on a person's viewpoint as well as their characterisation of knowledge. Unmitigated skeptics believe that objective truths are unknowable and that man should live in an isolated environment in order to win mental peace. This is because everything, according to them, is changing and relative. The refusal to make judgments is of uttermost importance since there is no knowledge; only probable opinions.
Criticism of epistemological skepticism
One of the versions of philosophical skepticism asserts that no truth is knowable, and that truth is at best only probable. A criticism of this version is that there is a contradiction involved in claiming that the proposition that “no truth is knowable” is knowably true. The here is one hand argument is another relatively simple criticism that reverses the skeptic's proposals and supports common sense. Thus, if the skeptics are right, they have to admit that they can't be sure about it.
An argument commonly made but limited to science is that the scientific method asserts only probable findings, because the number of cases tested is always limited and because the tests constitute perceptual observations.
Pierre Le Morvan (2011) has distinguished between three broad philosophical responses to skepticism. The first he calls the "Foil Approach." Skepticism is treated as a problem to be solved, or challenge to be met, or threat to be parried; its value, if any, derives from its role as a foil. It clarifies by contrast, and so illuminates what is required for knowledge and justified belief. The second he calls the "Bypass Approach" according to which skepticism is bypassed as a central concern of epistemology. Le Morvan advocates a third approach—he dubs it the "Health Approach"—that explores when skepticism is healthy and when it is not, or when it is virtuous and when it is vicious.
History of Western skepticism
Ancient Greek skepticism
Ancient Greek skeptics were not "skeptics" in the contemporary sense of selective, localized doubt. Their concerns were epistemological, noting that truth claims could not be adequately supported, and psychotherapeutic, noting that beliefs caused mental perturbation.
The Western tradition of systematic skepticism goes back at least as far as Pyrrho of Elis (b. circa 360 BCE) and arguably to Xenophanes (b. circa 570 BCE). Parts of skepticism also appear among the "5th century sophists [who] develop forms of debate which are ancestors of skeptical argumentation. They take pride in arguing in a persuasive fashion for both sides of an issue."
In Hellenistic philosophy, Pyrrhonism and Academic Skepticism were the two schools of skeptical philosophy. Subsequently, the words Academic and Pyrrhonist were often be used to mean skeptic.
Pyrrhonism
Like other Hellenistic philosophies, the goal of Pyrrhonism was eudaimonia, which the Pyrrhonists sought through achieving ataraxia (an untroubled state of mind), which they found could be induced by producing a state of epoché (suspension of judgment) regarding non-evident matters. Epoché could be produced by pitting one dogma against another to undermine belief, and by questioning whether a belief could be justified. In support of this questioning Pyrrhonists developed the skeptical arguments cited above (the Ten Modes of Aenesidemus and the Five Modes of Agrippa) demonstrating that beliefs cannot be justified:
Pyrrho of Elis
According to an account of Pyrrho's life by his student Timon of Phlius, Pyrrho extolled a way to become happy and tranquil:
"Whoever wants to live well (eudaimonia) must consider these three questions: First, how are pragmata (ethical matters, affairs, topics) by nature? Secondly, what attitude should we adopt towards them? Thirdly, what will be the outcome for those who have this attitude?" Pyrrho's answer is that "As for pragmata they are all adiaphora (undifferentiated by a logical differentia), astathmēta (unstable, unbalanced, not measurable), and anepikrita (unjudged, unfixed, undecidable). Therefore, neither our sense-perceptions nor our doxai (views, theories, beliefs) tell us the truth or lie; so we certainly should not rely on them. Rather, we should be adoxastous (without views), aklineis (uninclined toward this side or that), and akradantous (unwavering in our refusal to choose), saying about every single one that it no more is than it is not or it both is and is not or it neither is nor is not.
Aenesidemus
Pyrrhonism faded as a movement following the death of Pyrrho's student Timon. The Academy became slowly more dogmatic such that in the first century BCE Aenesidemus denounced the Academics as "Stoics fighting against Stoics," breaking with the Academy to revive Pyrrhonism. Aenesidemus's best known contribution to skepticism was his now-lost book, Pyrrhonian Discourses, which is only known to us through Photius, Sextus Empiricus, and to a lesser extent Diogenes Laërtius. The skeptical arguments most closely associated with Aenesidemus are the ten modes described above designed to induce epoche.
Sextus Empiricus
The works of Sextus Empiricus (c. 200 CE) are the main surviving account of ancient Pyrrhonism. Long before Sextus' time, the Academy had abandoned skepticism and had been destroyed as a formal institution. Sextus compiled and further developed the Pyrrhonists' skeptical arguments, most of which were directed against the Stoics but included arguments against all of the schools of Hellenistic philosophy, including the Academic skeptics.
Sextus, as the most systematic author of the works by Hellenistic skeptics which have survived, noted that there are at least ten modes of skepticism. These modes may be broken down into three categories: one may be skeptical of the subjective perceiver, of the objective world, and the relation between perceiver and the world. His arguments are as follows.
Subjectively, both the powers of the senses and of reasoning may vary among different people. And since knowledge is a product of one or the other, and since neither are reliable, knowledge would seem to be in trouble. For instance, a color-blind person sees the world quite differently from everyone else. Moreover, one cannot even give preference on the basis of the power of reason, i.e., by treating the rational animal as a carrier of greater knowledge than the irrational animal, since the irrational animal is still adept at navigating their environment, which suggests the ability to "know" about some aspects of the environment.
Secondly, the personality of the individual might also influence what they observe, since (it is argued) preferences are based on sense-impressions, differences in preferences can be attributed to differences in the way that people are affected by the object. (Empiricus:56)
Third, the perceptions of each individual sense seemingly have nothing in common with the other senses: i.e., the color "red" has little to do with the feeling of touching a red object. This is manifest when our senses "disagree" with each other: for example, a mirage presents certain visible features, but is not responsive to any other kind of sense. In that case, our other senses defeat the impressions of sight. But one may also be lacking enough powers of sense to understand the world in its entirety: if one had an extra sense, then one might know of things in a way that the present five senses are unable to advise us of. Given that our senses can be shown to be unreliable by appealing to other senses, and so our senses may be incomplete (relative to some more perfect sense that one lacks), then it follows that all of our senses may be unreliable. (Empiricus:58)
Fourth, our circumstances when one perceives anything may be either natural or unnatural, i.e., one may be either in a state of wakefulness or sleep. But it is entirely possible that things in the world really are exactly as they appear to be to those in unnatural states (i.e., if everything were an elaborate dream). (Empiricus:59)
One can have reasons for doubt that are based on the relationship between objective "facts" and subjective experience. The positions, distances, and places of objects would seem to affect how they are perceived by the person: for instance, the portico may appear tapered when viewed from one end, but symmetrical when viewed at the other; and these features are different. Because they are different features, to believe the object has both properties at the same time is to believe it has two contradictory properties. Since this is absurd, one must suspend judgment about what properties it possesses due to the contradictory experiences. (Empiricus:63)
One may also observe that the things one perceives are, in a sense, polluted by experience. Any given perception—say, of a chair—will always be perceived within some context or other (i.e., next to a table, on a mat, etc.) Since this is the case, one often only speaks of ideas as they occur in the context of the other things that are paired with it, and therefore, one can never know of the true nature of the thing, but only how it appears to us in context. (Empiricus: 64)
Along the same lines, the skeptic may insist that all things are relative, by arguing that:
Absolute appearances either differ from relative appearances, or they do not.
If absolutes do not differ from relatives, then they are themselves relative.
But if absolutes do differ from relatives, then they are relative, because all things that differ must differ from something; and to "differ" from something is to be relative to something. (Empiricus:67)
Finally, one has reason to disbelieve that one knows anything by looking at problems in understanding objects by themselves. Things, when taken individually, may appear to be very different from when they are in mass quantities: for instance, the shavings of a goat's horn are white when taken alone, yet the horn intact is black.
Academic skepticism
Pyrrho's thinking subsequently influenced the Platonic Academy, arising first in the Academic skepticism of the Middle Academy under Arcesilaus (c. 315 – 241 BCE) and then the New Academy under Carneades (c. 213–129 BCE). Clitomachus, a student of Carneades, interpreted his teacher's philosophy as suggesting an account of knowledge based on truth-likeness. The Roman politician and philosopher, Cicero, was also an adherent of the skepticism of the New Academy, even though a return to a more dogmatic orientation of the school was already beginning to take place.
Augustine on skepticism
In 386 CE, Augustine published Contra Academicos (Against the Academic Skeptics), which argued against claims made by the Academic Skeptics (266 BCE – 90 BCE) on the following grounds:
Objection from Error: Through logic, Augustine argues that philosophical skepticism does not lead to happiness like the Academic Skeptics claim. His arguments is summarized as:
A wise man lives according to reason, and thus is able to be happy.
One who is searching for knowledge but never finds it is in error.
Imperfection objection: People in error are not happy, because being in error is an imperfection, and people cannot be happy with an imperfection.
Conclusion: One who is still seeking knowledge cannot be happy.
Error of Non-Assent: Augustine's argument that suspending belief does not fully prevent one from error. His argument is summarized below.
Introduction of the error: Let P be true. If a person fails to believe P due to suspension of belief in order to avoid error, the person is also committing an error.
The Anecdote of the Two Travelers: Travelers A and B are trying to reach the same destination. At a fork in the road, a poor shepherd tells them to go left. Traveler A immediately believes him and reaches the correct destination. Traveler B suspends belief, and instead believes in the advice of a well-dressed townsman to go right, because his advice seems more persuasive. However, the townsman is actually a samardocus (con man) so Traveler B never reaches the correct destination.
The Anecdote of the Adulterer: A man suspends belief that adultery is bad, and commits adultery with another man's wife because it is persuasive to him. Under Academic Skepticism, this man cannot be charged because he acted on what was persuasive to him without assenting belief.
Conclusion: Suspending belief exposes individuals to an error as defined by the Academic Skeptics.
Skepticism's revival in the sixteenth century
Francisco Sanches's That Nothing is Known (published in 1581 as Quod nihil scitur) is one of the crucial texts of Renaissance skepticism.
Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592)
The most notable figure of the Skepticism revival in the 1500s, Michel de Montaigne wrote about his studies of Academic Skepticism and Pyrrhonism through his Essais.
His most notable writings on skepticism occurred in an essay written mostly in 1575–1576, "Apologie de Raimond Sebond," when he was reading Sextus Empiricus and trying to translate Raimond Sebond's writing, including his proof of Christianity's natural existence. The reception to Montaigne's translations included some criticisms of Sebond's proof. Montaigne responded to some of them in Apologie, including a defense for Sebond's logic that is skeptical in nature and similar to Pyrrhonism. His refutation is as follows:
Critics claiming Sebond's arguments are weak show how egoistic humans believe that their logic is superior to others’.
Many animals can be observed to be superior to humans in certain respects. To argue this point, Montaigne even writes about dogs who are logical and creates their own syllogisms to understand the world around them. This was an example used in Sextus Empiricus.
Since animals also have rationality, the over-glorification of man's mental capabilities is a trap—man's folly. One man's reason cannot be assuredly better than another's as a result.
Ignorance is even recommended by religion so that an individual can reach faith through obediently following divine instructions to learn, not by one's logic.
Marin Mersenne (1588–1648)
Marin Mersenne was an author, mathematician, scientist, and philosopher. He wrote in defense of science and Christianity against atheists and Pyrrhonists before retiring to encourage development of science and the "new philosophy," which includes philosophers like Gassendi, Descartes, Galileo, and Hobbes. A major work of his in relation to Skepticism is La Verité des Sciences, in which he argues that although we may not be able to know the true nature of things, we can still formulate certain laws and rules for sense-perceptions through science.
Additionally, he points out that we do not doubt everything because:
Humans do agree about some things, for example, an ant is smaller than an elephant
There are natural laws governing our sense-perceptions, such as optics, which allow us to eliminate inaccuracies
Man created tools such as rulers and scales to measure things and eliminate doubts such as bent oars, pigeons’ necks, and round towers.
A Pyrrhonist might refute these points by saying that senses deceive, and thus knowledge turns into infinite regress or circular logic. Thus Mersenne argues that this cannot be the case, since commonly agreed upon rules of thumb can be hypothesized and tested over time to ensure that they continue to hold.
Furthermore, if everything can be doubted, the doubt can also be doubted, so on and so forth. Thus, according to Mersenne, something has to be true. Finally, Mersenne writes about all the mathematical, physical, and other scientific knowledge that is true by repeated testing, and has practical use value. Notably, Mersenne was one of the few philosophers who accepted Hobbes' radical ideology—he saw it as a new science of man.
Skepticism in the seventeenth century
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)
During his long stay in Paris, Thomas Hobbes was actively involved in the circle of major skeptics like Gassendi and Mersenne who focus on the study of skepticism and epistemology. Unlike his fellow skeptic friends, Hobbes never treated skepticism as a main topic for discussion in his works. Nonetheless, Hobbes was still labeled as a religious skeptic by his contemporaries for raising doubts about Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch and his political and psychological explanation of the religions. Although Hobbes himself did not go further to challenge other religious principles, his suspicion for the Mosaic authorship did significant damage to the religious traditions and paved the way for later religious skeptics like Spinoza and Isaac La Peyrère to further question some of the fundamental beliefs of the Judeo-Christian religious system. Hobbes' answer to skepticism and epistemology was innovatively political: he believed that moral knowledge and religious knowledge were in their nature relative, and there was no absolute standard of truth governing them. As a result, it was out of political reasons that certain truth standards about religions and ethics were devised and established in order to form a functioning government and stable society.
Baruch Spinoza and religious skepticism
Baruch Spinoza was among the first European philosophers who were religious skeptics. He was quite familiar with the philosophy of Descartes and unprecedentedly extended the application of the Cartesian method to the religious context by analyzing religious texts with it. Spinoza sought to dispute the knowledge-claims of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic religious system by examining its two foundations: the Scripture and the Miracles. He claimed that all Cartesian knowledge, or the rational knowledge should be accessible to the entire population. Therefore, the Scriptures, aside from those by Jesus, should not be considered the secret knowledge attained from God but just the imagination of the prophets. The Scriptures, as a result of this claim, could not serve as a base for knowledge and were reduced to simple ancient historical texts. Moreover, Spinoza also rejected the possibility for the Miracles by simply asserting that people only considered them miraculous due to their lack of understanding of the nature. By rejecting the validity of the Scriptures and the Miracles, Spinoza demolished the foundation for religious knowledge-claim and established his understanding of the Cartesian knowledge as the sole authority of knowledge-claims. Despite being deeply skeptical of the religions, Spinoza was in fact exceedingly anti-skeptical towards reason and rationality. He steadfastly confirmed the legitimacy of reason by associating it with the acknowledgement of God, and thereby skepticism with the rational approach to knowledge was not due to problems with the rational knowledge but from the fundamental lack of understanding of God. Spinoza's religious skepticism and anti-skepticism with reason thus helped him transform epistemology by separating the theological knowledge-claims and the rational knowledge-claims.
Pierre Bayle (1647–1706)
Pierre Bayle was a French philosopher in the late 17th century that was described by Richard Popkin to be a "supersceptic" who carried out the sceptic tradition to the extreme. Bayle was born in a Calvinist family in Carla-Bayle, and during the early stage of his life, he converted into Catholicism before returning to Calvinism. This conversion between religions caused him to leave France for the more religiously tolerant Holland where he stayed and worked for the rest of his life.
Bayle believed that truth cannot be obtained through reason and that all human endeavor to acquire absolute knowledge would inevitably lead to failure. Bayle's main approach was highly skeptical and destructive: he sought to examine and analyze all existing theories in all fields of human knowledge in order to show the faults in their reasoning and thus the absurdity of the theories themselves. In his magnum opus, Dictionnaire Historique et Critique (Historical and Critical Dictionary), Bayle painstakingly identified the logical flaws in several works throughout the history in order to emphasize the absolute futility of rationality. Bayle's complete nullification of reason led him to conclude that faith is the final and only way to truth.
Bayle's real intention behind his extremely destructive works remained controversial. Some described him to be a Fideist, while others speculated him to be a secret Atheist. However, no matter what his original intention was, Bayle did cast significant influence on the upcoming Age of Enlightenment with his destruction of some of the most essential theological ideas and his justification of religious tolerance Atheism in his works.
Skepticism in the Age of Enlightenment
David Hume (1711–1776)
David Hume was among the most influential proponents of philosophical skepticism during the Age of Enlightenment and one of the most notable voices of the Scottish Enlightenment and British Empiricism. He especially espoused skepticism regarding inductive reasoning, and questioned what the foundation of morality was, creating the is–ought problem. His approach to skepticism is considered even more radical than that of Descartes.
Hume argued that any coherent idea must be either a mental copy of an impression (a direct sensory perception) or copies of multiple impressions innovatively combined. Since certain human activities like religion, superstition, and metaphysics are not premised on any actual sense-impressions, their claims to knowledge are logically unjustified. Furthermore, Hume even demonstrates that science is merely a psychological phenomenon based on the association of ideas: often, specifically, an assumption of cause-and-effect relationships that is itself not grounded in any sense-impressions. Thus, even scientific knowledge is logically unjustified, being not actually objective or provable but, rather, mere conjecture flimsily based on our minds perceiving regular correlations between distinct events. Hume thus falls into extreme skepticism regarding the possibility of any certain knowledge. Ultimately, he offers that, at best, a science of human nature is the "only solid foundation for the other sciences".
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to provide a ground for empirical science against David Hume's skeptical treatment of the notion of cause and effect. Hume (1711–1776) argued that for the notion of cause and effect no analysis is possible which is also acceptable to the empiricist program primarily outlined by John Locke (1632–1704). But, Kant's attempt to give a ground to knowledge in the empirical sciences at the same time cut off the possibility of knowledge of any other knowledge, especially what Kant called "metaphysical knowledge". So, for Kant, empirical science was legitimate, but metaphysics and philosophy was mostly illegitimate. The most important exception to this demarcation of the legitimate from the illegitimate was ethics, the principles of which Kant argued can be known by pure reason without appeal to the principles required for empirical knowledge. Thus, with respect to metaphysics and philosophy in general (ethics being the exception), Kant was a skeptic. This skepticism as well as the explicit skepticism of G. E. Schulze gave rise to a robust discussion of skepticism in German idealistic philosophy, especially by Hegel. Kant's idea was that the real world (the noumenon or thing-in-itself) was inaccessible to human reason (though the empirical world of nature can be known to human understanding) and therefore we can never know anything about the ultimate reality of the world. Hegel argued against Kant that although Kant was right that using what Hegel called "finite" concepts of "the understanding" precluded knowledge of reality, we were not constrained to use only "finite" concepts and could actually acquire knowledge of reality using "infinite concepts" that arise from self-consciousness.
Skepticism in the 20th century and contemporary philosophy
G. E. Moore famously presented the "Here is one hand" argument against skepticism in his 1925 paper, "A Defence of Common Sense". Moore claimed that he could prove that the external world exists by simply presenting the following argument while holding up his hands: "Here is one hand; here is another hand; therefore, there are at least two objects; therefore, external-world skepticism fails". His argument was developed for the purpose of vindicating common sense and refuting skepticism. Ludwig Wittgenstein later argued in his On Certainty (posthumously published in 1969) that Moore's argument rested on the way that ordinary language is used, rather than on anything about knowledge.
In contemporary philosophy, Richard Popkin was a particularly influential scholar on the topic of skepticism. His account of the history of skepticism given in The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle (first edition published as The History of Scepticism From Erasmus to Descartes) was accepted as the standard for contemporary scholarship in the area for decades after its release in 1960. Barry Stroud also published a number of works on philosophical skepticism, most notably his 1984 monograph, The Significance of Philosophical Scepticism. From the mid-1990s, Stroud, alongside Richard Fumerton, put forward influential anti-externalist arguments in favour of a position called "metaepistemological scepticism". Other contemporary philosophers known for their work on skepticism include James Pryor, Keith DeRose, and Peter Klein.
History of skepticism in non-Western philosophy
Ancient Indian skepticism
Ajñana
Ajñana (literally 'non-knowledge') were the skeptical school of ancient Indian philosophy. It was a śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism. They have been recorded in Buddhist and Jain texts. They held that it was impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge was possible, it was useless and disadvantageous for final salvation.
Buddhism
The historical Buddha asserted certain doctrines as true, such as the possibility of nirvana; however, he also upheld a form of skepticism with regards to certain questions which he left "un-expounded" (avyākata) and some he saw as "incomprehensible" (acinteyya). Because the Buddha saw these questions (which tend to be of metaphysical topics) as unhelpful on the path and merely leading to confusion and "a thicket of views", he promoted suspension of judgment towards them. This allowed him to carve out an epistemic middle way between what he saw as the extremes of claiming absolute objectivity (associated with the claims to omniscience of the Jain Mahavira) and extreme skepticism (associated with the Ajñana thinker Sanjaya Belatthiputta).
Later Buddhist philosophy remained highly skeptical of Indian metaphysical arguments. The Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna in particular has been seen as the founder of the Madhyamaka school, which has been in turn compared with Greek Skepticism. Nagarjuna's statement that he has "no thesis" (pratijña) has parallels in the statements of Sextus Empiricus of having "no position". Nagarjuna famously opens his magnum opus, the Mulamadhyamakakarika, with the statement that the Buddha claimed that true happiness was found through dispelling 'vain thinking' (prapañca, also "conceptual proliferation").
According to Richard P. Hayes, the Buddhist philosopher Dignaga is also a kind of skeptic, which is in line with most early Buddhist philosophy. Hayes writes:
...in both early Buddhism and in the Skeptics one can find the view put forward that man's pursuit of happiness, the highest good, is obstructed by his tenacity in holding ungrounded and unnecessary opinions about all manner of things. Much of Buddhist philosophy, I shall argue, can be seen as an attempt to break this habit of holding on to opinions.
Scholars like Adrian Kuzminski have argued that Pyrrho of Elis (ca. 365–270) might have been influenced by Indian Buddhists during his journey with Alexander the Great.
Cārvāka philosophy
The Cārvāka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) school of materialism, also known as Lokāyata, is a distinct branch of Indian philosophy. The school is named after Cārvāka, author of the Bārhaspatya-sūtras and was founded in approximately 500 BC. Cārvāka is classified as a "heterodox" (nāstika) system, characterized as a materialistic and atheistic school of thought. This school was also known for being strongly skeptical of the claims of Indian religions, such as reincarnation and karma.
Jainism
While Jain philosophy claims that is it possible to achieve omniscience, absolute knowledge (Kevala Jnana), at the moment of enlightenment, their theory of anekāntavāda or 'many sided-ness', also known as the principle of relative pluralism, allows for a practical form of skeptical thought regarding philosophical and religious doctrines (for un-enlightened beings, not all-knowing arihants).
According to this theory, the truth or the reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth. Jain doctrine states that, an object has infinite modes of existence and qualities and, as such, they cannot be completely perceived in all its aspects and manifestations, due to inherent limitations of the humans. Anekāntavāda is literally the doctrine of non-onesidedness or manifoldness; it is often translated as "non-absolutism". Syādvāda is the theory of conditioned predication which provides an expression to anekānta by recommending that epithet “Syād” be attached to every expression. Syādvāda is not only an extension of Anekānta ontology, but a separate system of logic capable of standing on its own force. As reality is complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus the term “syāt” should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement. For Jains, fully enlightened beings are able to see reality from all sides and thus have ultimate knowledge of all things. This idea of omniscience was criticized by Buddhists such as Dharmakirti.
Ancient Chinese philosophy
Zhuang Zhou (c. 369 – c. 286 BC)
Zhuang Zhou (莊子，"Master Zhuang") was a famous ancient Chinese Taoism philosopher during the Hundred Schools of Thought period. Zhuang Zhou demonstrated his skeptical thinking through several anecdotes in the preeminent work Zhuangzi attributed to him:
"The Debate on the Joy of Fish" (知魚之樂) : In this anecdote, Zhuang Zhou argued with his fellow philosopher Hui Shi whether they knew the fish in the pond were happy or not, and Zhuang Zhou made the famous observation that "You are not I. How do you know that I do not know that the fish are happy?" (Autumn Floods 秋水篇, Zhuangzi)
"The Butterfly of the Dream"(周公夢蝶) : The paradox of "Butterfly Dream" described Zhuang Zhou's confusion after dreaming himself to be a butterfly: "But he didn't know if he was Zhuang Zhou who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming that he was Zhuang Zhou." (Discussion on Making All Things Equal 齊物篇, Zhuangzi)
Through these anecdotes in Zhuangzi, Zhuang Zhou indicated his belief in the limitation of language and human communication and the inaccessibility of universal truth. This establishes him as a skeptic. But he was by no means a radical skeptic: he only applied skeptical methods partially, in arguments demonstrating his Taoist beliefs. He held the Taoist beliefs themselves dogmatically.
Wang Chong (27 – AD)
Wang Chong () was the leading figure of the skeptic branch of the Confucianism school in China during the first century AD. He introduced a method of rational critique and applied it to the widespread dogmatism thinking of his age like phenomenology (the main contemporary Confucianism ideology that linked all natural phenomena with human ethics), state-led cults, and popular superstition. His own philosophy incorporated both Taoism and Confucianism thinkings, and it was based on a secular, rational practice of developing hypotheses based on natural events to explain the universe which exemplified a form of naturalism that resembled the philosophical idea of Epicureans like Lucretius.
Medieval Islamic philosophy
The Incoherence of the Philosophers, written by the scholar Al-Ghazali (1058–1111), marks a major turn in Islamic epistemology. His encounter with skepticism led Ghazali to embrace a form of theological occasionalism, or the belief that all causal events and interactions are not the product of material conjunctions but rather the immediate and present will of God. While he himself was a critic of the philosophers, Ghazali was a master in the art of philosophy and had immensely studied the field. After such a long education in philosophy, as well as a long process of reflection, he had criticized the philosophical method.
In the autobiography Ghazali wrote towards the end of his life, The Deliverance From Error (Al-munqidh min al-ḍalāl ), Ghazali recounts how, once a crisis of epistemological skepticism was resolved by "a light which God Most High cast into my breast...the key to most knowledge," he studied and mastered the arguments of Kalam, Islamic philosophy, and Ismailism. Though appreciating what was valid in the first two of these, at least, he determined that all three approaches were inadequate and found ultimate value only in the mystical experience and spiritual insight he attained as a result of following Sufi practices. William James, in Varieties of Religious Experience, considered the autobiography an important document for "the purely literary student who would like to become acquainted with the inwardness of religions other than the Christian", comparing it to recorded personal religious confessions and autobiographical literature in the Christian tradition.
Aztec philosophy
Recordings of Aztec philosophy suggest that the elite classes believed in an essentially panentheistic worldview, in which teotl represents an unified, underlying universal force. Human beings cannot truly perceive teotl due to its chaotic, constantly changing nature, just the "masks"/facets it is manifested as.
See also
References
Further reading
Popkin, Richard H. 2003. The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle. New York, New York: Oxford University Press.
Popkin, Richard H. and J. R. Maia Neto, eds. 2007. Skepticism: An Anthology. New York, New York: Prometheus Books.
Beiser, Frederick C. 1987. The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Breker, Christian. 2011. Einführender Kommentar zu Sextus Empiricus' "Grundriss der pyrrhonischen Skepsis", Mainz, 2011: electr. publication, University of Mainz. available online (comment on Sextus Empiricus’ “Outlines of Pyrrhonism” in German language)
di Giovanni, George and H. S. Harris, eds. 2000. Between Kant and Hegel: Texts in the Development of Post-Kantian Idealism. Translated with Introductions by George di Giovanni and H. S. Harris. Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing.
Forster, Michael N. 1989. Hegel and Skepticism. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Harris, H. S. 1985. "Skepticism, Dogmatism and Speculation in the Critical Journal". In di Giovanni and Harris 2000.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. 1802. "On the Relationship of Skepticism to Philosophy, Exposition of its Different Modifications and Comparison of the Latest Form with the Ancient One". Translated by H. S. Harris. In di Giovanni and Harris 2000.
Leavitt, Fred. 2021. “If Ignorance is Bliss We Should All be Ecstatic.” Open Books.
Jesús Padilla Gálvez, Scepticism as Philosophical Superlative, in: Wittgenstein and the Sceptical Tradition, António Marques & Rui Bertrand Romao (Eds.), Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford, Wien, Peter Lang, 2020, pp. 113–122.
Thorsrud, Harald. 2009. Ancient Scepticism. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
Unger, Peter. 1975. Ignorance: A Case for Scepticism. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 2002.
Zeller, Eduard and Oswald J. Reichel. 1892. The Stoics, Epicureans and Sceptics. London, England: Longmans, Green, and Co.
External links
Ancient Greek Skepticism entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Contemporary Skepticism entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Responses to skepticism by Keith DeRose
Article: Skepticism and Denial by Stephen Novella MD, The New England Journal of Skepticism
Classical Skepticism by Peter Suber
Review and summary of Skepticism and the Veil of Perception by Michael Huemer
Skepticism
Epistemological theories
Philosophical movements
Philosophical methodology
Doubt
Criticism of science
Pyrrhonism
Philosophical traditions
pl:Sceptycyzm#Sceptycyzm filozoficzny
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific%20skepticism
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Scientific skepticism
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Scientific skepticism or rational skepticism (also spelled scepticism), sometimes referred to as skeptical inquiry, is a position in which one questions the veracity of claims lacking empirical evidence. In practice, the term most commonly references the examination of claims and theories that appear to be beyond mainstream science, rather than the routine discussions and challenges among scientists. Scientific skepticism differs from philosophical skepticism, which questions humans' ability to claim any knowledge about the nature of the world and how they perceive it, and the similar but distinct methodological skepticism, which is a systematic process of being skeptical about (or doubting) the truth of one's beliefs.
The skeptical movement (British spelling: sceptical movement) is a modern social movement based on the idea of scientific skepticism. The movement has the goal of investigating claims made on fringe topics and determining whether they are supported by empirical research and are reproducible, as part of a methodological norm pursuing "the extension of certified knowledge".
Roots of the movement date at least from the 19th century, when people started publicly raising questions regarding the unquestioned acceptance of claims about spiritism, of various widely-held superstitions, and of pseudoscience.
Publications such as those of the Dutch Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij (1881) also targeted medical quackery. Using as a template the Belgian organization founded in 1949, Comité Para, Americans Paul Kurtz and Marcello Truzzi founded the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP), in Amherst, New York, in 1976. Now known as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI), this organization has inspired others to form similar groups worldwide.
Overview
Scientific skeptics maintain that empirical investigation of reality leads to the most reliable empirical knowledge, and suggest that the scientific method is best suited to verifying results. Scientific skeptics attempt to evaluate claims based on verifiability and falsifiability; they discourage accepting claims which rely on faith or anecdotal evidence.
Paul Kurtz described scientific skepticism in his 1992 book The New Skepticism, calling it an essential part of scientific inquiry. The Skeptics Society describes it as "the application of reason to any and all ideas—no sacred cows allowed." Robert K. Merton introduced Mertonian norms, which assert that all ideas must be tested and are subject to rigorous, structured community scrutiny. Kendrick Frazier said that scientific skeptics have a commitment to science, reason, evidence, and the quest for truth. Carl Sagan emphasized the importance of being able to ask skeptical questions, recognizing fallacious or fraudulent arguments, and considering the validity of an argument rather than simply whether we like the conclusion. Similarly, Steven Novella described skepticism as selecting "beliefs and conclusions that are reliable and valid to ones that are comforting or convenient" and as the study of "pitfalls of human reason and the mechanisms of deception so as to avoid being deceived by others or themselves". Brian Dunning called skepticism "the process of finding a supported conclusion, not the justification of a preconceived conclusion.''
Skeptics often focus their criticism on claims they consider implausible, dubious or clearly contradictory to generally-accepted science. Scientific skeptics do not assert that unusual claims should be automatically rejected out of hand on a priori grounds – rather they argue that one should critically examine claims of paranormal or anomalous phenomena and that extraordinary claims would require extraordinary evidence in their favor before they could be accepted as having validity. From a scientific point of view, skeptics judge ideas on many criteria, including falsifiability, Occam's Razor, Morgan's Canon and explanatory power, as well as the degree to which their predictions match experimental results.
Skepticism in general may be deemed part of the scientific method; for instance an experimental result is not regarded as established until it can be shown to be repeatable independently.
The Sci.Skeptic FAQ characterizes the skeptic spectrum as divided into "wet" and "dry" sceptics, primarily based on the level of engagement with those promoting claims that appear to be pseudoscience; the dry skeptics preferring to debunk and ridicule, in order to avoid giving attention and thus credence to the promoters, and the "wet" skeptics, preferring slower and more considered engagement, in order to avoid appearing sloppy and ill-considered and thus similar to the groups all skeptics opposed.
Ron Lindsay has argued that while some non-scientific claims appear to be harmless or "soft targets", it is important to continue to address them and the underlying habits of thought that lead to them so that we do not "have a lot more people believing that 9/11 was an inside job, that climate change is a hoax, that our government is controlled by aliens, and so forth – and those beliefs are far from harmless".
Skeptical movement
With regard to the skeptical social movement, Daniel Loxton refers to other movements already promoting "humanism, atheism, rationalism, science education and even critical thinking" beforehand.
He saw the demand for the new movement—a movement of people called "skeptics" — as based on a lack of interest by the scientific community to address paranormal and fringe-science claims. In line with Kendrick Frazier, he describes the movement as a surrogate in that area for institutional science.
The movement set up a distinct field of study, and provided an organizational structure, while "the long-standing genre of individual skeptical writing" lacked such a community and background.
Skeptical organizations typically tend to have science education and promotion among their goals.
The skeptical movement has had issues with allegations of sexism. Mary Coulman identified a disparity between women and men in the movement in a 1985 skeptic newsletter. The skeptic movement has generally been made up of men; at a 1987 conference the members there discussed the fact that the attendees were predominantly older white men and a 1991 listing of 50 CSICOP fellows included four women. Following a 2011 conference, Rebecca Watson, a prominent skeptic, raised issues of the way female skeptics are targeted with online harassment including threats of sexual violence by opponents of the movement, and also raised issues of sexism within the movement itself. While she received some support in response to her discussion of sexism within the movement, she later became a target of virulent online harassment, even from fellow skeptics, after posting an online video that discussed her discomfort with being propositioned in a confined space. This became known as "Elevatorgate", based on Watson's discussion about being propositioned in a hotel elevator in the early morning after a skeptic event.
Debunking and rational inquiry
The verb "to debunk" is used to describe efforts by skeptics to expose or discredit claims believed to be false, exaggerated, or pretentious. It is closely associated with skeptical investigation or rational inquiry of controversial topics (compare list of topics characterized as pseudoscience) such as U.F.O.s, claimed paranormal phenomena, cryptids, conspiracy theories, alternative medicine, religion, or exploratory or fringe areas of scientific or pseudoscientific research.
Further topics that scientifically skeptical literature questions include health claims surrounding certain foods, procedures, and alternative medicines; the plausibility and existence of supernatural abilities (e.g. tarot reading) or entities (e.g. poltergeists, angels, gods—including Zeus); the monsters of cryptozoology (e.g. the Loch Ness monster); as well as creationism/intelligent design, dowsing, conspiracy theories, and other claims the skeptic sees as unlikely to be true on scientific grounds.
Skeptics such as James Randi have become famous for debunking claims related to some of these. Paranormal investigator Joe Nickell cautions, however, that "debunkers" must be careful to engage paranormal claims seriously and without bias. He explains that open minded investigation is more likely to teach and change minds than debunking.
A striking characteristic of the skeptical movement is the fact that while most of the phenomena covered, such as astrology and homeopathy, have been debunked again and again, they stay popular. Frazier reemphasized in 2018 that "[w]e need independent, evidence-based, science-based critical investigation and inquiry now more than perhaps at any other time in our history."
The scientific skepticism community has traditionally been focused on what people believe rather than why they believe—there might be psychological, cognitive or instinctive reasons for belief when there is little evidence for such beliefs. According to Hammer, the bulk of the skeptical movement's literature works on an implicit model, that belief in the irrational is being based on scientific illiteracy or cognitive illusions. He points to the skeptical discussion about astrology: The skeptical notion of astrology as a "failed hypothesis" fails to address basic anthropological assumptions about astrology as a form of ritualized divination. While the anthropological approach attempts to explain the activities of astrologers and their clients, the skeptical movement's interest in the cultural aspects of such beliefs is muted.
According to sociologist David J. Hess, the skeptical discourse tends to set science and the skeptical project apart from the social and the economic. From this perspective, he argues that skepticism takes on some aspects of a sacred discourse, as in Emile Durkheim's Elementary Forms of the Religious Life—Science, seen as pure and sacred (motivated by values of the mind and reason), is set apart from popular dealings with the paranormal, seen as profane (permeated by the economic and the social); obscuring the confrontation between science and religion. Hess states as well a strong tendency in othering: both skeptics and their opponents see the other as being driven by materialistic philosophy and material gain and assume themselves to have purer motives.
Perceived dangers of pseudoscience
While not all pseudoscientific beliefs are necessarily dangerous, some can potentially be harmful. Plato believed that to release others from ignorance despite their initial resistance is a great and noble thing. Modern skeptical writers address this question in a variety of ways. Bertrand Russell argued that some individual actions based on beliefs for which there is no evidence of efficacy, can result in destructive actions.
James Randi often wrote on the issue of fraud by psychics and faith healers. Unqualified medical practice and alternative medicine can result in serious injury and death. Skeptical activist Tim Farley, who aims to create catalogue of harmful pseudoscientific practices and cases of damage caused by them, estimates documented number of killed or injured to be more than 600,000. Richard Dawkins points to religion as a source of violence (notably in The God Delusion), and considers creationism a threat to biology. Some skeptics, such as the members of The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe podcast, oppose certain new religious movements because of their cult-like behaviors.
Leo Igwe, Junior Fellow at the Bayreuth International Graduate School of African Studies and past Research Fellow of the James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF), wrote A Manifesto for a Skeptical Africa, which received endorsements from multiple public activists in Africa, as well as skeptical endorsers around the world. He is a Nigerian human rights advocate and campaigner against the impacts of child witchcraft accusations. Igwe came into conflict with high-profile witchcraft believers, leading to attacks on himself and his family.
In 2018, Amardeo Sarma provided some perspective on the state of the skeptical movement by addressing "the essence of contemporary skepticism and [highlighting] the vital nonpartisan and science-based role of skeptics in preventing deception and harm." He emphasized the dangers of pseudoscience as a reason for prioritizing skeptical work.
Pseudoskepticism
Richard Cameron Wilson, in an article in New Statesman, wrote that "the bogus sceptic is, in reality, a disguised dogmatist, made all the more dangerous for his success in appropriating the mantle of the unbiased and open-minded inquirer". Some advocates of discredited intellectual positions (such as AIDS denial, Holocaust denial and climate change denial) engage in pseudoskeptical behavior when they characterize themselves as "skeptics". This is despite their cherry picking of evidence that conforms to a pre-existing belief. According to Wilson, who highlights the phenomenon in his 2008 book Don't Get Fooled Again, the characteristic feature of false skepticism is that it "centres not on an impartial search for the truth, but on the defence of a preconceived ideological position".
Scientific skepticism is itself sometimes criticized on this ground. The term pseudoskepticism has found occasional use in controversial fields where opposition from scientific skeptics is strong. For example, in 1994, Susan Blackmore, a parapsychologist who became more skeptical and eventually became a Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP) fellow in 1991, described what she termed the "worst kind of pseudoskepticism":
Commenting on the labels "dogmatic" and "pathological" that the "Association for Skeptical Investigation" puts on critics of paranormal investigations, Bob Carroll of the Skeptic's Dictionary argues that that association "is a group of pseudo-skeptical paranormal investigators and supporters who do not appreciate criticism of paranormal studies by truly genuine skeptics and critical thinkers. The only skepticism this group promotes is skepticism of critics and [their] criticisms of paranormal studies."
History
Historical roots
According to skeptic author Daniel Loxton, "skepticism is a story without a beginning or an end." His 2013 article in Skeptic magazine "Why Is There a Skeptical Movement" claims a history of two millennia of paranormal skepticism. He is of the opinion that the practice, problems, and central concepts extend all the way to antiquity and refers to a debunking tale as told in some versions of the Old Testament, where the Prophet Daniel exposes a tale of a "living" statue as a scam. According to Loxton, throughout history, there are further examples of individuals practicing critical inquiry and writing books or performing publicly against particular frauds and popular superstitions, including people like Lucian of Samosata (2nd century), Michel de Montaigne (16th century), Thomas Ady and Thomas Browne (17th century), Antoine Lavoisier and Benjamin Franklin (18th century), many different philosophers, scientists and magicians throughout the 19th and early 20th century up until and after Harry Houdini. However, skeptics banding together in societies that research the paranormal and fringe science is a modern phenomenon.
Two early important works influential to the skeptical movement were Daniel Webster Hering's Foibles and Fallacies of Science (1924) and D. H. Rawcliffe's The Psychology of the Occult.
Loxton mentions the Belgian Comité Para (1949) as the oldest "broad mandate" skeptical organization. Although it was preceded by the Dutch Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij (VtdK) (1881), which is therefore considered the oldest skeptical organization by others, the VtdK only focuses on fighting quackery, and thus has a 'narrow mandate'. The Comité Para was partly formed as a response to a predatory industry of bogus psychics who were exploiting the grieving relatives of people who had gone missing during the Second World War. In contrast, Michael Shermer traces the origins of the modern scientific skeptical movement to Martin Gardner's 1952 book Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science.
In 1968, the French Association for Scientific Information (AFIS) was founded. AFIS strives to promote science against those who deny its cultural value, abuse it for criminal purposes or as a cover for quackery. According to AFIS, science itself cannot solve humanity's problems, nor can one solve them without using the scientific method. It maintains that people should be informed about scientific and technical advancements and the problems it helps to solve. Its magazine, Science et pseudo-sciences, attempts to distribute scientific information in a language that everyone can understand.
CSICOP and contemporary skepticism
In 1976, the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP), known as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI) since November 2006, was founded in the United States. Some see this as the "birth of modern skepticism", however, founder Paul Kurtz actually modeled it after the Comité Para, including its name. Kurtz' motive was being "dismayed ... by the rising tide of belief in the paranormal and the lack of adequate scientific examinations of these claims."
Kurtz was an atheist and had also founded the Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion. While he saw both aspects as being covered in the skeptical movement, he had recommended CSICOP to focus on paranormal and pseudoscientific claims and to leave religious aspects to others. Despite not being the oldest, CSICOP was "the first successful, broad-mandate North American skeptical organization of the contemporary period", popularized the usage of the terms "skeptic", "skeptical" and "skepticism" by its magazine, Skeptical Inquirer, and directly inspired the foundation of many other skeptical organizations throughout the world, especially in Europe.
These included Australian Skeptics (1980), Vetenskap och Folkbildning (Sweden, 1982), New Zealand Skeptics (1986), GWUP (Austria, Germany and Switzerland, 1987), Skepsis r.y. (Finland, 1987), Stichting Skepsis (Netherlands, 1987), CICAP (Italy, 1989) and SKEPP (Dutch-speaking Belgium, 1990).
Besides scientists such as astronomers, stage magicians like James Randi were important in investigating charlatans and exposing their trickery. In 1996 Randi formed the James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) and created the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge, where anyone who could demonstrate paranormal abilities, under mutually agreed-upon controlled circumstances, could claim the prize. After Randi's retirement in 2015, the Paranormal Challenge was officially terminated by the JREF with the prize unclaimed:
Other influential second-generation American organizations were The Skeptics Society (founded in 1992 by Michael Shermer), the New England Skeptical Society (originating in 1996) and the Independent Investigations Group (formed in 2000 by James Underdown).
After 1989
After the Revolutions of 1989, Eastern Europe saw a surge in quackery and paranormal beliefs that were no longer restrained by the generally secular Communist regimes or the Iron curtain and its information barriers. The foundation of many new skeptical organizations was as well intending to protect consumers. These included the Czech Skeptics' Club Sisyfos (1995), the Hungarian Skeptic Society (2006), the Polish Sceptics Club (2010) and the Russian-speaking Skeptic Society (2013). The Austrian Skeptical Society in Vienna (founded in 2002) deals with issues such as Johann Grander's "vitalized water" and the use of dowsing at the Austrian Parliament.
The European Skeptics Congress (ESC) has been held throughout Europe since 1989, from 1994 onwards co-ordinated by the European Council of Skeptical Organizations. In the United States, The Amaz!ng Meeting (TAM) hosted by the JREF in Las Vegas had been the most important skeptical conference since 2003, with two spin-off conferences in London, UK (2009 and 2010) and one in Sydney, Australia (2010). Since 2010, the Merseyside Skeptics Society and Greater Manchester Skeptics jointly organized Question, Explore, Discover (QED) in Manchester, UK. World Skeptics Congresses have been held so far, namely in Buffalo, New York (1996), Heidelberg, Germany (1998), Sydney, Australia (2000), Burbank, California (2002), Abano Terme, Italy (2004) and Berlin, Germany (2012).
In 1991, the Center for Inquiry, a US think-tank, brought the CSICOP and the Council for Secular Humanism (CSH) under one umbrella. In January 2016, the Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science announced its merger with the Center for Inquiry.
In 2010, as a form of skeptical outreach to the general population, Susan Gerbic launched the Guerrilla Skepticism on Wikipedia (GSoW) project to improve skeptical content on Wikipedia.
Notable skeptical media
Books
The Demon-Haunted World Why People Believe Weird Things Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe
Magazines
Skeptic (US)
Skeptical Inquirer The Skeptic (UK)
Television programs
Penn & Teller: Bullshit! MythBustersPodcasts
The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe Skepticality The Skeptic Zone Skeptoid Point of Inquiry For Good Reason See also
References
Notes
Further reading
External links
The Skeptic's Dictionary – Robert Todd Carroll, contains many articles on science, alternative medicine, pseudoscience, etc.
A skeptical manifesto – Michael Shermer, a philosophical analysis of scientific skepticism
Proper Criticism – Ray Hyman, suggestions to upgrade the quality of scientific skepticism
Carl Sagan's Baloney Detection Kit. Operation Clambake. 1998. Based on the book "The Demon Haunted World: Science as a candle in the dark''". ()
New England Skeptical Society Newsletter Articles – includes articles on such topics as Homeopathy, Intelligent Design, and other pseudoscientific topics
sci.skeptic FAQ
Why Is There A Skeptical Movement? – Daniel Loxton, contains an overview of the history (and pre-history) of the skeptical movement as well as the principles underlying scientific skepticism.
Social movements
|
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204514
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little%20London%2C%20Tadley%2C%20Hampshire
|
Little London, Tadley, Hampshire
|
Little London is a village situated between the North Hampshire Downs and the gravel plains of the Kennet valley, north of Basingstoke and south of Reading. It is situated within Pamber civil parish and backs on to Pamber Forest, a SSSI and remnant of the much larger ancient Royal Forest of Pamber. It is recorded as having been established for at least 400 years.
History
Until the mid 19th century the village was a local centre for brick-making, the local clays being recognised as particularly good since the Roman period. Examples of clay roof tiles produced in this area for the nearby Roman town of Calleva Atrebatum (near modern Silchester) can be seen at Reading Museum.
A major part of the village was confiscated from the Englefield family and given to the Benyon family during the late Tudor period. Other parts were gifted in payment to The Queen's College, Oxford. It is assumed that this was in return for education, although it may not have been. This legacy can be seen by the names of farms, pubs and houses in the area.
The village has grown organically from a few houses, being effectively one street with no social centre. Current local planning policy has successfully prevented any inappropriate development of additional housing in the area. Current population is of only a few hundred. It is a desirable location, resulting in upper quartile house prices typical of rural Hampshire. The village has one Pub, The Plough, which maintains a very traditional 'English Pub' environment.
'Little London' is a common village name in England, assumed by some to have its origins in the quantity of seasonal Londoners who would camp for the harvest season. However, in common with many 'Little Londons' approximately or so from London, it has also been claimed that the name was given by settlers escaping the Great Plague of London of 1665. Alternatively, it could have been corrupted from 'Little Loddon', the name of a stream that marks the Southern extent of the village.
Little London at Tadley would have been established by the Welsh cattle drovers in the second half of the 16th century. It was on a main drovers route into London, like that at Oakley in Buckinghamshire. There have been at least 70 communities established in England and Wales, many of which still exist. They were temporary "homes" for the long distance drovers, moving their cattle to London, and the great fairs and markets of England. Tadley was on the route to the fairs of Blackbush, Farnham, Croydon and Kingston, and London's Smithfield market. The sites
were established on common land away from other communities. The drovers had a licence to travel, granted by Elizabeth 1st, and were regarded as "foreigners" by the local parishioners who could not travel without a "settlement certificate".
Governance
The village of Little London is part of the civil parish of Pamber, which covers Pamber Heath, Pamber End, Pamber Green and Little London and meets in Pamber Heath Memorial Hall and St. Stephen's Hall, Little London. It is also part of the Pamber and Silchester ward of Basingstoke and Deane borough council. The borough council is a Non-metropolitan district of Hampshire County Council.
Geography
Community facilities
The main facility for the community is St. Stephens Hall, Silchester Road.
Transport
The village is served by Stagecoach South bus route 14 to Basingstoke and Tadley. The nearest railway station is Bramley, to the east. Bus 14 sometimes terminates at Berry Court, just nearby.
Religious sites
The church of St. Stephen on Silchester Road is part of the Deanery of Basingstoke and the Diocese of Winchester and is linked to the parish of Bramley. There was also a Methodist Chapel on Silchester Road, built in 1867 which closed c1980 and was converted to a Bed and breakfast.
References
Villages in Hampshire
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Villers-Bocage
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Battle of Villers-Bocage
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The Battle of Villers-Bocage took place during the Second World War on 13 June 1944, one week after the Normandy Landings, which had begun the Western Allies' conquest of German-occupied France. The battle was the result of a British attempt to improve their position by exploiting a gap in the German defences west of the city of Caen. After one day of fighting in and around the small town of Villers-Bocage and a second day defending a position outside the town, the British force retreated.
The Allies and the Germans regarded control of Caen as vital to the Normandy battle. In the days following the D-Day landings on 6June, the Germans rapidly established strong defences in front of the city. On 9June, a two-pronged British attempt to surround and capture Caen was defeated. On the right flank of the British Second Army, the 1st US Infantry Division had forced back the German 352nd Infantry Division and opened a gap in the German front line. Seizing the opportunity to bypass the German Panzer-Lehr Division blocking the direct route south in the area of Tilly-sur-Seulles, a mixed force of tanks, infantry and artillery, based on the 22nd Armoured Brigade of the 7th Armoured Division, advanced through the gap in a flanking manoeuvre towards Villers-Bocage. British commanders hoped that the appearance of a strong force in their rear would force the Panzer-Lehr Division to withdraw or be surrounded.
Under the command of Brigadier William "Loony" Hinde, the 22nd Armoured Brigade group reached Villers-Bocage without serious incident on the morning of 13 June. The leading elements advanced eastwards from the town on the Caen road to Point 213, where they were ambushed by Tiger I tanks of the 101st SS Heavy Panzer Battalion. In fewer than numerous tanks, anti-tank guns and transport vehicles were destroyed, many by SS-Obersturmführer Michael Wittmann. The Germans then attacked the town and were repulsed, losing several Tigers and Panzer IVs. After six hours, Hinde ordered a withdrawal to a more defensible position on a knoll west of Villers-Bocage. The next day the Germans attacked the brigade box, arranged for all-round defence, in the Battle of the Island. The British inflicted a costly repulse on the Germans and then retired from the salient. The Battle for Caen continued east of Villers-Bocage, the ruins of which were captured on 4August, after two raids by strategic bombers of the Royal Air Force.
The British conduct of the Battle of Villers-Bocage has been controversial, because their withdrawal marked the end of the post D-Day "scramble for ground" and the start of an attritional battle for Caen. Some historians have written that the British attack was a failure caused by a lack of conviction among some senior commanders, rather than the fighting power of the German army, while others judge the British force to have been insufficient for the task. The "single-handed" attack by Wittmann early on, has excited imaginations to the extent that some historians and writers conclude that it has dominated the historical record to an unwarranted degree and that while "remarkable", the role of Wittmann in the battle has been exaggerated.
Background
D-Day and Operation Perch
The British 3rd Infantry Division, of I Corps, came ashore on Sword Beach on 6June 1944, with Caen— inland—as their final objective. The vicinity of Caen was attractive to Allied planners because it contained airfields and was open, dry and conducive to swift offensive operations, for which the Allies had the advantage of numerical superiority in tanks and mobile units. The attempt to capture Caen on D-Day was ambitious and traffic jams on the beaches delayed the 27th Armoured Brigade. The advance of the 3rd Infantry Division diminished as it fought past German fortifications and was stopped short of Caen before dark, by elements of the 21st Panzer Division.
The next day, the British began Operation Perch, an advance to the south-east of Caen, according to a contingency in the invasion plan. I Corps continued the attack towards Caen, but the Germans were able to reinforce the defenders, which made it impossible to rush the city with small numbers of men and tanks. On 9June, the Allied ground forces commander, General Bernard Montgomery, revised Operation Perch to be a bigger attack with a pincer movement to surround the city. After delays caused by the time taken to get the attacking forces into position, on 12 June, simultaneous attacks began west and east of Caen. On the east side of the Orne River, in the airborne bridgehead, two attacking brigades of the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division were held up by the 21st Panzer Division and on 13 June, the attack was called off. To the west of Caen, XXX Corps was unable to advance south of the village of Tilly-sur-Seulles against the Panzer-Lehr Division, one of the most powerful armoured formations in the German army, which had recently arrived in Normandy.
Caumont Gap
The envelopment of Caen had been prevented by the Germans on the right flank of XXX Corps, at the junction between the British Second and United States First armies, five German battle groups, including the last reserves of LXXXIV Korps had been destroyed, leaving only the remnants of the 352nd Infantry Division defending the front from Trévières to Agy. American attacks caused the left flank of the division to collapse and on the night of 9/10 June, the division retreated to Saint-Lô, leaving a gap between the Panzer-Lehr Division and the German troops near Caumont-l'Éventé, with only the 17th SS-Panzergrenadier Division reconnaissance battalion left in the area. The Germans intended to fill the gap with the 2nd Panzer Division but on 10 June, the bulk of the division was still between Amiens and Alençon and not expected to arrive in strength until 13 June. Although reluctant to commit the 2nd Panzer Division piecemeal, General der Panzertruppe Hans Freiherr von Funck, commander of the XLVII Panzer Korps, rushed the divisional reconnaissance battalion to Caumont to hold the high ground.
The Second Army commander, Lieutenant-General Miles Dempsey, ordered Lieutenant-General Gerard Bucknall, the XXX Corps commander and Major-General George Erskine, the 7th Armoured Division commander, to disengage the 7th Armoured Division from Tilly-sur-Seulles, move through the gap, seize Villers-Bocage and menace the exposed left flank of the Panzer-Lehr Division. The British objective was a ridge to the east of Villers-Bocage. Dempsey hoped that its capture would force the Panzer-Lehr Division to withdraw or risk being surrounded. The 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division and most of the infantry brigade of the 7th Armoured Division were to continue the attack against the Panzer-Lehr Division around Tilly-sur-Seulles and the 1st US and 2nd US Infantry divisions of the V US Corps would continue their advance.
The 7th Armoured Division spent the morning of 12 June attacking towards Tilly-sur-Seulles according to its original orders; at 12:00 Erskine ordered Hinde to move the 22nd Armoured Brigade immediately through the gap. Soon afterwards, the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars, the divisional reconnaissance regiment, began to reconnoitre a route for the brigade and the rest of the division left Trungy at around 16:00. Four hours later the main body was close to Livry after a unopposed advance, the last of which was through German-held territory. The leading Cromwell tank of the 8th Hussars was destroyed by a Panzer-Lehr Division Escort Company anti-tank gun which held out for two hours. Taylor wrote that the lead tank was destroyed and Forty wrote that a leading tank was lost. Hoping to mislead the Germans about the objective, on reaching the vicinity of la Mulotiere, north of Livry, Hinde ordered a halt for the night and the 8th King's Royal Irish and 11th (Prince Albert's Own) Hussars, the XXX Corps armoured car regiment, reconnoitred the flanks. The 11th Hussars encountered no resistance on the right flank and gained touch with the 1st US Infantry Division near Caumont. On the left flank, 3 Troop, A Squadron, 8th Hussars, located elements of the Panzer-Lehr Division less than away. The two leading tanks were knocked out by an anti-tank gun and the Troop leader, Lieutenant H. Talbot Harvey was killed along with six other members of his troop.
Plan
It was clear that to control Villers-Bocage, the British would have to occupy the ridge rapidly. The 4th County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters) (4th CLY), with a company of the 1st Battalion Rifle Brigade, was to pass through Villers-Bocage and occupy the highest point of the ridge at Point 213. The 1/7th Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey) would follow up and occupy the town and the 5th Royal Tank Regiment (5th RTR) and a company of the Rifle Brigade, were to take high ground at Maisoncelles-Pelvey to the south-west of Villers-Bocage. The 260th Anti-tank Battery of the Norfolk Yeomanry would cover the gap between the 4th CLY and the 5th RTR with 17pdr SP Achilles self-propelled anti-tank guns. The 5th Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (5th RHA), would follow the rest of the brigade group with its Sexton self-propelled guns. The 5th RHA and the brigade group tactical headquarters were established at Amayé-sur-Seulles. The two Hussar regiments were to provide flank protection against the Panzer-Lehr Division and uncover German positions either side of the line of advance. The 131st Infantry Brigade, with the 1st Royal Tank Regiment (1st RTR) and the 1/5th and 1/6th Queen's, was to hold Livry as a firm base.
The I SS-Panzer Korps commander Obergruppenführer Sepp Dietrich ordered his only reserve, 101st SS Heavy Panzer Battalion to move behind the Panzer-Lehr and 12th SS-Panzer divisions in the Villers-Bocage area, as a precaution against an attempt to advance into the Caumont Gap. 101st SS Heavy Panzer Battalion had arrived in Normandy on 12 June, after a five-day drive from Beauvais. The battalion had an establishment of 45 Tiger I but had been reduced to about 17 serviceable tanks by an air attack near Versailles. The 1st Company moved to a position north-east of Villers-Bocage; the 2nd Company to just south of Point 213 on the Villers-Bocage ridge and the 3rd remained near Falaise with one serviceable tank. The 2nd Company had twelve tanks, but through a combination of losses and mechanical failures, only six Tigers were present on 13 June. The area around Villers-Bocage came under heavy naval artillery fire during the night of 12/13 June and the 2nd Company moved three times; the company planned a mechanical overhaul for the morning.
Battle
Advance
During the early hours of 13 June, the 1st Rifle Brigade reconnoitred the first of the route. Livry was reported to be clear of Germans and the advance resumed at 05:30 with the 4th CLY leading the way. The column was met by jubilant French civilians, leading to a relaxed mood among the soldiers. Erroneous information was passed to the British that German tanks were stranded in Tracy-Bocage and rumours held that other tanks were similarly stranded at the Château de Villers-Bocage. On 11 June, German medical personnel had established a hospital at the château but had left at dawn on 13 June; a few German troops remained about the town.
As the column approached Villers-Bocage, an Sd.Kfz. 231 armoured car crew observed the British advance and escaped. At 08:30, having covered , the 22nd Armoured Brigade group entered the town to be greeted by celebrating residents; two German soldiers were spotted leaving at high speed in a Volkswagen Kübelwagen. The two Hussar regiments made contact with German forces on either side of the 22nd Brigade group route and the 8th Hussars engaged (eight-wheeler armoured cars). The Hussars reported German tanks heading towards Villers-Bocage but Lieutenant Charles Pearce, of 4th CLY, thought that these were probably self-propelled guns.
Morning
With Villers-Bocage occupied, A Squadron 4th CLY motored ahead to Point 213 without reconnaissance, as ordered. A Kübelwagen was destroyed and the tanks moved into hull down positions to establish a defensive perimeter. Along the road between the town and the ridge, the personnel carriers of the Rifle Brigade pulled over nose-to-tail, to allow reinforcements for Point 213 to pass. The riflemen dismounted and posted sentries but could see fewer than to either side of the road.
Major Wright, the commanding officer of the 1st Rifle Brigade, called a conference at Point 213 for all officers and the senior NCOs of A Company. It was realised that a shell could wipe out the company commanders, and the half-track occupants were rapidly dispersed among several other vehicles. In Villers-Bocage Lieutenant-Colonel Arthur, Viscount Cranley, commander of the 4th CLY, expressed concern that his men were "out on a limb" but was assured by Hinde that all was well and was ordered to Point 213, to ensure his men had taken up good defensive positions. Hinde then left Villers-Bocage for his headquarters.
South of Point 213 Wittmann, the commander of the 2nd Company, 101st SS Heavy Panzer Battalion, was surprised by the British advance through Villers-Bocage:
Wittmann's Tiger was spotted at about 09:00 by Sergeant O'Connor of the Rifle Brigade, who was travelling towards Point 213 in a half-track and broke radio silence to give the only warning the British force received. The Tiger emerged from cover onto Route Nationale 175 and knocked out a Cromwell, the rearmost tank at Point 213. A Sherman Firefly was then knocked out, caught fire and blocked the road. The British at Point 213 were then engaged by the rest of the 2nd Company and lost three more tanks.
Wittmann drove towards Villers-Bocage and along the road, the Rifle Brigade troops attempted to reply with PIAT anti-tank weapons and a 6-pounder anti-tank gun but, as the Tiger drew closer, panic set in and the riflemen looked for cover. The brigade vehicles were set on fire by machine guns and high-explosive shells, but few casualties were inflicted. At the east end of Villers-Bocage, Wittmann engaged and knocked out three M3 Stuart light tanks of the 4th CLY Reconnaissance Troop.
In the town, the tanks of the 4th CLY Regimental Headquarters tried to escape, but their reverse speed was "painfully slow" and one tank fired two shots before being destroyed by the Tiger. Two tanks reversed off the road into gardens, the 4th CLY Adjutant Captain Pat Dyas parked behind a barn; the Tiger drove past a wrecked Stuart towards the centre of town, knocking out another tank but missed Dyas. Lieutenant Charles Pearce took his scout car and warned the rest of the reconnaissance troop in the town centre and Pearce continued westwards to alert B Squadron of the 4th CLY. Wittmann knocked out another Cromwell and on the main street, destroyed two artillery observation post (OP) tanks of the 5th RHA, the intelligence officer's scout car and the medical officer's half-track.
Forty and Taylor wrote that Wittmann was engaged by a Sherman Firefly and withdrew after collapsing a house that contained a German sniper. Bob Moore wrote that he forced Wittmann to retire when a shot from his tank dented the driver visor of the Tiger. Wittmann's withdrawal brought him close to Dyas who, having been bypassed, had been stalking the Tiger to fire at its thinner rear armour. The Cromwell shells had no effect and Wittmann destroyed the British tank. Pearce wrote that Wittmann engaged the Cromwell with the Tiger turret reversed. Dyas escaped the tank and was shot at by German infantry in houses along the street. Wittmann drove east to the outskirts of Villers-Bocage, before being disabled by a 6-pounder anti-tank gun at the Tilly-sur-Seulles road junction. Wittmann wrote that his tank was disabled by an anti-tank gun in the town centre. In fewer than 15 minutes, two anti-tank guns and vehicles had been destroyed by the 2nd Company, 101st SS Heavy Panzer Battalion, many by Wittmann. Wittmann and the crew made their way to the Panzer-Lehr Division headquarters at Cháteau d'Orbois, north of Villers-Bocage.
Point 213
Major Werncke of the Panzer-Lehr Division conducted a reconnaissance of Point 213 later in the morning and reconnoitring on foot, discovered a column of unoccupied Cromwell tanks. The tank crews were studying a map with an officer at the front of the column and Werncke drove one off before the British could react. At the east end of Villers-Bocage, he found a scene of "burning tanks and Bren-gun carriers and dead Tommies" and drove back to the Panzer-Lehr headquarters at Château d'Orbois. After the ambush on Point 213, A Squadron, 4th CLY had nine tanks operational, including two Fireflies and a Cromwell OP tank, although some were short of crew. There was one rifle section and an equal number of officers. It was decided to hold the position on the ridge until reinforcements arrived and an all round defence was organised. At around 10:00, support and reconnaissance troops of the 4th Company, 101st SS Heavy Panzer Battalion arrived and began to collect prisoners between the ridge and the town. Some of the British escaped and about 30 got back to British lines.
The 1/7th Queen's took up defensive positions in Villers-Bocage and captured an advance party of three men from the 2nd Panzer Division. A relief force was prepared to rescue the troops on the ridge but this was rejected by Cranley. At about 10:30, Cranley reported that the position on Point 213 was becoming untenable and withdrawal was impossible. A break-out attempt was planned and two hours later, a Cromwell crew tried to get back to Villers-Bocage by a roundabout route and were knocked out by German tank fire. The Germans shelled the trees along the road, spraying shell and wood splinters and after five minutes the troops on the ridge surrendered. The British tried to burn their tanks but German soldiers arrived quickly and took thirty of the CLY prisoner, along with some riflemen and troops of the Royal Horse Artillery. A few men escaped; Captain Christopher Milner of the Rifle Brigade, spent the rest of the day on the run and crossed back into British lines after dark.
Wittmann briefed the Panzer-Lehr Division intelligence officer and was given a Schwimmwagen to return to Point 213. Kauffmann ordered Hauptmann Helmut Ritgen to block the northern exits of the town with 15 Panzer IV, mainly from 6th Company, 2nd Battalion Panzer-Lehr Regiment 130 and ten from a workshop south of Route Nationale 175. Ritgen rendezvoused with the Panzer-Lehr Division commanding officer, Generalleutnant Fritz Bayerlein, at Villy-Bocage. As Ritgen's tanks moved towards Villers-Bocage they ran into a British anti-tank gun screen and lost a tank. Four Panzer IVs entered the town from the south and the first two tanks were knocked out; the others withdrew.
In Villers-Bocage, A Company of the 1/7th Queen's secured the area around the railway station and B and C companies occupied the east side of the town. German infantry had entered the town and house-to-house fighting began. Two German tanks were damaged and driven off, but the 1/7th Queen's infantry companies became mingled and were ordered to fall back to reorganise. A Company was ordered back to the railway station, C Company was assigned the north-eastern edge of the town and D Company the south-eastern edge. B Company was placed in reserve and the battalion anti-tank guns were distributed along the front line. At the town square an ambush was laid by the 4th CLY. A Sherman Firefly, several Cromwells, a 6-pounder anti-tank gun and infantry of the 1/7th Queen's with PIATs, waited for German tanks to move down the main street. To the west of the town, the Germans attacked the 1/5th Queen's near Livry and lost a tank.
Afternoon
At around 13:00, tanks of the Panzer-Lehr Division advanced into Villers-Bocage unsupported by infantry. Four Panzer IVs tried to enter from the south near a wrecked Panzer IV and two were knocked out by anti-tank fire. Some Tigers were brought up and silenced the anti-tank position. Möbius divided the primary counter-attack down the main highway through Villers-Bocage and through the southern section of town parallel to the main road, to secure the town centre. The Tigers advanced slowly to intimidate the British into withdrawing and ran into the British ambush. The Firefly opened fire on the lead tank and missed but the anti-tank gun knocked it out. A group of three Tigers split up and drove through the back streets to flank the British; one was engaged by an anti-tank gun and destroyed, the other two were engaged with PIATs, one was knocked out and the other immobilised.
A fifth Tiger halted on the main street short of the ambush site, apparently waiting for the British to emerge from cover. The Tiger was spotted by the Firefly crew through the windows of a corner building. They reversed to shoot through the windows. The Tiger was hit on the gun mantlet and raced past the side street. A Cromwell advanced onto the main street and fired into the rear of the Tiger, knocking it out and then reversed back into cover. The Firefly knocked out a Panzer IV and during a lull, the disabled tanks were set on fire with blankets and petrol. Outside the town, the 7th Armoured Division brigade group stretched back to Amayé-sur-Seulles and was attacked from the north and south. The attacks were repulsed and at Tracey-Bocage, the 11th Hussars overwhelmed a pocket of resistance.
Under a mortar and artillery bombardment, the Germans attacked A Company 1/7th Queen's in the town and a platoon was cut off and captured. Even with the whole of the Queen's battalion in the town, the German troops found their way inside. Two grenadier battalions of the 2nd Panzer Division attacked from the south, were engaged by B Squadron 4th CLY and suffered many casualties. Both sides called for artillery support and several British mortars and a carrier were destroyed. By 18:00 the Queen's battalion headquarters was threatened and Hinde decided to withdraw before dark made the town untenable. Behind a smoke screen and bombardment by the 5th RHA and V US Corps, the infantry retreated covered by tanks of the 4th CLY. The Germans harassed the withdrawal with artillery fire and infantry from Tracy-Bocage attacked the British for hours as they fell back. Though costly to the Germans this continued until around 22:30.
14 June
On 14 June, the 22nd Armoured Brigade group formed an all round defensive position, a "brigade box", in the Amayé-sur-Seulles–Tracy-Bocage–St-Germain area to overlook Villers-Bocage. Supported by the 1st Company, 101st SS Heavy Panzer Battalion, the Panzer-Lehr Division attacked the Brigade Box. The 1st US Infantry Division, on the heights around Caumont, opened observed artillery fire, which helped to defeat the first German attack. Later attacks got so close that the artillery could not fire without hitting British positions. A platoon was overrun and a counter-attack with tanks and infantry then forced the Germans back. The Germans subjected the box to harassing fire and attacked from two sides later in the day with artillery and tanks, which broke into the box and came close to the brigade headquarters before being repulsed. Although confident that the brigade box could be held, the inability of the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division to come up, prompted the decision to recall the brigade group and straighten the front line.
Aftermath
Casualties
Contradictory sources make casualty figures difficult to establish. The 22nd Armoured Brigade group suffered around 217 men killed, wounded and missing, many of whom were taken prisoner at Point 213. This figure includes five riflemen who had been captured but were then shot by their guards, apparently for attempting to escape, when they took cover spontaneously in a ditch under American artillery fire. The British lost from more than half of which were on Point 213, where A Squadron 4th CLY lost all 15 of its tanks. The Panzer-Lehr Division and the 2nd Panzer Division were in action elsewhere on 13 June and did not count the casualties at Villers-Bocage separately from the day's losses. The 101st SS Heavy Panzer Battalion was only engaged at Villers-Bocage and Taylor gave nine men killed and ten wounded in the 1st Company and one killed and three wounded in the 2nd Company.
Sources differ on the number of German tanks lost, in part because the Panzer-Lehr Division was committed piecemeal, making it impossible to be certain of the number of Panzer IVs knocked out. German tank losses are generally considered to be from six Tigers. Chester Wilmot states that this was a serious loss, as there were only 36 Tiger tanks in Normandy. Taylor wrote that the numbers claimed by the British included tanks that were immobilised and later recovered. Marie named at least nine French civilians who died on 13 June. Six were killed by crossfire or shrapnel during the battle and three by artillery fire just before midnight. Three of the deaths may have been war crimes. More civilians became casualties in the fighting and bombing later. Following the British withdrawal, the town was reoccupied and searched by the Germans; several shops, houses and the town hall were set on fire.
Bombing and liberation
During the night of 14/15 June, to cover the withdrawal of the 22nd Armoured Brigade group, 337 Royal Air Force (RAF) bombers (223 Avro Lancasters, 100 Handley Page Halifax and 14 de Havilland Mosquitos from No.4, No.5 and No. 8 Group RAF) dropped of high explosives on the town of Évrecy and on targets around Villers-Bocage, destroying one Tiger tank and damaging three more. No aircraft were lost. Just over two weeks later, at 20:30 on 30 June, Villers-Bocage was bombed again by 266 bombers (151 Lancasters, 105 Halifaxes and 10 Mosquitos from No.3, No.4 and No.8 Group RAF) in support of Operation Epsom, dropping of bombs. Only two aircraft were lost. The town was a vital traffic centre for German forces and though it was hoped that German troops would be caught in the bombing, only French civilians were present at the time. After being severely damaged by the fighting of 13 June and subsequent bombing raids, the town was liberated by a patrol of the 1st Battalion Dorset Regiment, 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, on 4August 1944.
Command changes
In early August up to 100 men, including Bucknall, Erskine, Hinde and other senior officers, were removed from their positions and reassigned. Historians largely agree that this was a consequence of the failure at Villers-Bocage and had been planned since the battle. Daniel Taylor is of the opinion that the battle's outcome simply provided a convenient excuse and that the sackings took place to "demonstrate that the army command was doing something to counteract the poor public opinion of the conduct of the campaign".
Battle honours and awards
In 1956 and 1957, the British and Commonwealth system of battle honours recognised participation in the Battle of Villers-Bocage by the award to 11 units of the battle honour Villers Bocage, for service in expanding the bridgehead from 8–15 June. For his actions at Villers-Bocage, Michael Wittmann was promoted to Hauptsturmführer and awarded Swords to his Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.
Analysis
Propaganda
Both sides tried to exploit the Villers-Bocage battle for propaganda. Having escaped from their knocked-out tank, Lieutenant John Cloudsley-Thompson and his crew of the 4th CLY spent much of the day in a basement in Villers-Bocage. They made their way back after dark and were picked up by troops of the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division. During debriefing Cloudsley-Thompson said that he "never wished to see another tank as long as [he] lived" but the British press reported this as: "The first thing the five tank men asked for was another tank". Because the British had lost contact with the forces on Point 213 and withdrawn from Villers-Bocage, they were ignorant of the losses on both sides. The German propaganda machine swiftly credited Wittmann, a household name in Germany, with all the British tanks destroyed at Villers-Bocage.
Wittmann recorded a radio message on the evening of 13 June, describing the battle and claiming that later counter-attacks had destroyed a British armoured regiment and an infantry battalion. Doctored images were produced; three joined-together photographs, published in the German armed forces magazine Signal, gave a false impression of the scale of destruction in the town. The propaganda campaign was given credence in Germany and abroad, leaving the British convinced that the Battle of Villers-Bocage had been a disaster when its results were less clear-cut. Schneider, an instructor at the German Bundeswehr tank school and an historian, wrote that the Waffen-SS did not have an "experienced tank arm", compared to the army panzer divisions. The Waffen-SS may have fought with distinction during the Battle of Kursk but could not match the army's success, hence Dietrich's attempts to manufacture a hero out of Wittmann.
Wittmann
In 2007, Stephen Badsey wrote that Wittmann's engagement of the spearhead of the 22nd Armoured Brigade group had overshadowed the period between D-Day and 13 June in historical accounts. Carlo D'Este wrote that Wittmann's attack was "one of the most amazing engagements in the history of armoured warfare", Max Hastings called it "one of the most devastating single-handed actions of the war" and Antony Beevor wrote that it was "one of the most devastating ambushes in British military history". Hubert Meyer attributed the failure of Operation Perch to Wittmann's "courage, his tactical and technical abilities and [...] the valor, the expertise and the camaraderie of his Panzer crew". Henri Marie called the attack a "spur of the moment" decision, that showed Wittmann's quick grasp of the possibility of surprising the British but described the action as foolhardy and that other historians had got carried away by Wittmann's ambush; Wittmann lost the first Tiger knocked out in Normandy.
John Buckley attributed the hyperbole about Wittmann to the lingering influence of the German propaganda campaign and criticised D'Este and Meyer for exaggerating his role and implying that he single-handedly stopped the 7th Armoured Division. Buckley wrote that Russell A Hart's claim that Wittmann "all but annihilated" the 7th Armoured Division spearhead was wrong and that "the complete German propaganda treatment" was available from Gary Simpson. Badsey called Wittmann's attack and the attention it has received, "remarkable but massively over-written". In 2013, Buckley wrote that unquestioning regurgitation of Nazi propaganda by writers and historians was inexcusably casual, when a glance at the facts showed that the defeat of the 7th Armoured Division by one Tiger crew led by Wittmann was a myth. Wittmann made a bold attack, which helped to stop the advance of the 4th CLY but did not make a solo effort; the action at Point 213 was led by Rolf Möbius.
Tactics
Beevor and Patrick Delaforce have written that the ambush would have been mitigated had it been detected sooner and blame "Erskine's failure to provide [a] reconnaissance screen" ahead of the British vanguard as it moved to Point 213. Marie wrote that the British vanguard out-paced the rest of the Brigade group, whose flanks were well protected and advanced with poor information and little intelligence gathering. Milner of the Rifle Brigade wrote that information was not gleaned from the town's inhabitants when it should have been and that had the battalion scout platoon been present, the result of the first engagement may have been different. Milner also wrote that the first attack could have been repulsed had the battalion officers and NCOs been with their men instead of with the O-group on the ridge. Buckley wrote that while Wittmann showed great audacity, the causes of the British defeat were broader and that the British were to blame for the failure at Villers-Bocage, not superior German tanks. Hastings wrote that although the Tiger was "incomparably" more deadly than the Cromwell, the "shambles" caused by the Tigers reflected poorly on the tactics of the British force and that the
Marie noted that Dempsey was disappointed in the lack of tactical flair shown by Brigadier Hinde throughout the battle and that the British should have known better than to attempt an armoured advance unsupported by infantry in the bocage. The British fought an uncoordinated infantry and tank battle during the morning and the Germans did much the same throughout the day.
Schneider described the contribution of the 101st SS Heavy Panzer Battalion to the battle as "everything but awe-inspiring". The Tiger companies and the Panzer-Lehr Division averted a serious British breakthrough but there was no need for the German counter-attack to have been piecemeal. Möbius and the 1st Company was in command of the road to Caen so Wittmann had time to plan a coordinated attack. Schneider wrote that "a competent tank company commander does not accumulate so many serious mistakes". By putting the Tigers in a sunken lane overnight, with a vehicle with engine trouble at the head of the column, Wittmann risked blocking the company. Schneider called the advance by Wittmann into the town courageous but that it went "against all the rules". No intelligence was gathered beforehand and there was no "centre of gravity" or "concentration of forces" in the attack. "The bulk of the 2nd Company and Rolf Möbius' 1st Company, came up against an enemy who had gone onto the defensive".
Wittmann's "carefree" advance into British-occupied positions, was "pure folly" and "such over hastiness was uncalled for". Had Wittmann properly prepared an assault involving the rest of his company and the 1st Company, far greater results could have been achieved. "[T]houghtlessness of this kind was to cost [Wittmann] his life [in] August... near Gaumesnil, during an attack casually launched in open country with an exposed flank". Meyer wrote that the 2nd Company advance into the town without infantry support was "obviously inexpedient". Marie called this a serious tactical error by Möbius but that it was a justifiable risk under the circumstances. Infantry were unavailable and the British could have been expected to still be "under the devastating impression of seeing [their] vanguard totally destroyed in such a short time".
British withdrawal
The British Official Historian, L. F. Ellis, described the 22nd Armoured Brigade group withdrawal and explained that with the unexpected arrival of the 2nd Panzer Division, the 7th Armoured Division "could hardly have achieved full success". This view was partially supported by the briefing given to 7th Armoured Division commanders prior to the retreat but has gained little support. In 1979, following the revelation of Ultra, it was revealed that intercepted German communications revealed the 2nd Panzer Division to be from the front line on 12 June. Ralph Bennett called Montgomery's claim that the division "suddenly appeared", disingenuous. Buckley wrote that the order to retreat was given before the 2nd Panzer division arrived in any real strength and Reynolds wrote that "2nd Panzer's tanks were nowhere near Villers-Bocage at this time". Ellis described the retirement as temporary, the 7th Armoured Division was to be reinforced with the 33rd Armoured Brigade to renew the offensive towards Évrecy.
David French wrote that the follow-up formations landing in Normandy were on average two days behind schedule and that had the 33rd Armoured Brigade, the 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division and the 7th Armoured Division's infantry brigade landed on time, XXX Corps might have been able to secure Villers-Bocage, before the arrival of substantial German forces. Other historians wrote that substantial British forces remained uncommitted during the battle. Mungo Melvin wrote that although the 7th Armoured Division changed its organisation to a flexible combined arms structure, which was not done by the other British armoured divisions until after Operation Goodwood, neither the 131st Infantry Brigade nor the balanced divisional reserve of an armoured regiment and an infantry battalion were employed well.
Buckley referred to "a reduced armoured brigade, with only limited mobile infantry and artillery support" and doubted it could worry the Germans and noted that the 151st Infantry Brigade was available in Corps reserve. Hastings was critical of a British failure to concentrate force at the crucial place and time and referred to the feelings of the "men on the spot" in Villers-Bocage that "a single extra infantry brigade could have been decisive in turning the scale". D'Este supported XXX Corps commander Bucknall's claim that neither the 151st Infantry Brigade or the 49th Infantry Division could be made ready in time to influence the battle.
Result
After the ambush by the 2nd Company, 101st SS Heavy Panzer Battalion and the loss of Point 213, the 22nd Armoured Brigade group had repulsed every German attack for two days,
Students of the battle have looked to the senior commanders involved to explain the "fumbled failure" at Villers-Bocage. Dempsey remarked after the war that
D'Este called Dempsey "excessively harsh" and that once the town had been abandoned the Brigade group withdrawal was inevitable. Other historians suggest that Bucknall threw away the chance swiftly to capture Caen. Montgomery had been a patron of Bucknall and wrote that his protégé "could not manage a Corps once the battle became mobile". Buckley wrote that Bucknall was unprepared to support the attack once problems developed and that Erskine was not suited to the task. Wilmot agreed with Dempsey that Bucknall, not the Germans, was to blame for the 7th Armoured Division withdrawal. He further wrote that Bucknall refused to reinforce the division, because he had already decided that its lines of communication were endangered
D'Este wrote that the failure to unhinge the German front line south of Caen and outflank the I SS Panzer Corps, was "one of the costliest Allied mistakes" of the campaign. With the British withdrawal the chance of mounting a "snap airborne operation" to seize Caen or to deepen the Allied bridgehead had been lost. Wilmot wrote that after the battle, "Caen [could] be taken only by a set-piece assault". Hastings called Villers-Bocage a "debacle" and the moment which "marked, for the British, the end of the scramble for ground that had continued since D-Day". Reynolds wrote that the consequences of the battle would be felt in the coming weeks, during the costly attacks needed to drive the Germans from Caen and the surrounding area. The official 7th Armoured Division history called the battle indecisive: "... the brilliant defensive battle of Villers Bocage... although it obliged us to withdraw some seven miles, cost the enemy casualties disproportionate to this gain". This view is shared by Taylor, who wrote that the battle ended with no clear winner.
Notes
Footnotes
References
Books
Journals
Newspapers
Websites
Further reading
Books
Websites
External links
War Diary of 8th Kings Royal Irish Hussars – June 1944
Tiger I Information Center
of the British 7th Armoured Division
War Diaries for the 4th County of London Yeomanry, September 1939 To July 1944
War Diaries for the 11th Hussars, (Prince Albert's Own) September 1939 To March 1946
German newsreel footage of the aftermath of the Battle of Villers-Bocage
Conflicts in 1944
Battle of Villers-Bocage
Military history of Normandy
Battle for Caen
Villers-Bocage
Battles of World War II involving Germany
Battle honours of the British Army
Battle honours of the Rifle Brigade
June 1944 events
Tank battles involving Germany
Tank battles involving the United Kingdom
Tank battles of World War II
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204525
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege%20of%20Kut
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Siege of Kut
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The siege of Kut Al Amara (7 December 1915 – 29 April 1916), also known as the first battle of Kut, was the besieging of an 8,000 strong British Army garrison in the town of Kut, south of Baghdad, by the Ottoman Army. In 1915, its population was around 6,500. Following the surrender of the garrison on 29 April 1916, the survivors of the siege were marched to imprisonment at Aleppo, during which many died. Historian Christopher Catherwood has called the siege "the worst defeat of the Allies in World War I". Ten months later, the British Indian Army, consisting almost entirely of newly recruited troops from Western India, conquered Kut, Baghdad and other regions in between in the Fall of Baghdad.
Prelude
The 6th (Poona) Division of the Indian Army, under Major-General Charles Townshend, had fallen back to the town of Kut after retreating from Ctesiphon. The British Empire forces arrived at Kut around 3 December 1915. They had suffered significant losses, numbering only 11,000 soldiers (plus cavalry). General Townshend chose to stay and hold the position at Kut instead of continuing the march downriver towards Basra. Contained within a long river loop, Kut offered a good defensive position although supply lines from distant Basra were stretched.
The siege
The pursuing Ottoman forces under Halil Pasha arrived on 7 December 1915. Once it became clear the Ottomans had enough forces to lay siege to Kut, Townshend ordered his cavalry to escape south, which it did, led by Lieut. Colonel Gerard Leachman. The Ottoman forces numbered around 11,000 men and were increasing steadily with additional reinforcements arriving constantly. They were commanded by the respected but elderly German general and military historian Baron von der Goltz. Goltz knew the Ottoman army well, as he had spent 12 years working on modernizing it, from 1883 to 1895. After three attacks in December, Goltz directed the building of siege fortifications facing Kut. He prepared for an attack from Basra, using the Tigris River, by building defensive positions further down the river designed to cut off a river-borne relief.
After a month of siege, Townshend wanted to break out and withdraw southwards but his commander, General Sir John Nixon saw value in tying down the Ottoman forces in a siege. Nixon had ordered transports from London, but none had arrived. The War Office was in the process of reorganizing military command; previously the orders had come from the Viceroy and India Office.
However, when Townshend—inaccurately—reported that only one month of food remained, a rescue force was hastily raised. It is not clear why Townshend reported he only had enough food for one month when he actually had food for more than four months (although at a reduced level), but Townshend would not attempt an infantry retreat unprotected through hostile tribal lands without river transport. Nixon had ordered this with reinforcements, commanded by his son, but by December they were still only in the Suez Canal. The confusing communications would prove a critical delay.
Medical facilities in Kut were headed by Major General Patrick Hehir.
Relief expeditions
The first relief expedition comprised some 19,000 men under Lieutenant-General Aylmer and it headed up the river from Ali Gharbi in January 1916.
Battle of Sheikh Sa'ad
The first attempt to relieve Kut (the Battle of Sheikh Sa'ad) came on 6 January by troops under the command of Major-General George Younghusband. Aylmer's joined the British forces with two brigades the next day following which he took over the command. Part of the cause of delay was the debate in Cabinet over whether one division would be an adequate force, or whether two divisions should be sent. Deliberations were painfully slow. The ageing General Maurice insisted on being informed at every turn as the evidence came into the Committee of Imperial Defence; which was further complicated by a restructuring involving the setup of a new sub-committee system and transfer of military responsibilities. At least three urgent memoranda were sent from General Nixon demanding transports to evacuate Townshend's division. By Christmas his health had broken down, and he requested a return to Bombay.
Nixon's replacements with additional staff as a mandatory requirement moved forward from Ali Al Gharbi towards Sheikh Sa'ad along both banks of the Tigris. Younghusband's column made contact with the Ottomans on the morning of 6 January east of Sheikh Sa'ad. British efforts to defeat the Ottomans were unsuccessful.
The following day, on 7 January, Aylmer arrived with the main body of his forces and ordered a general attack. Younghusband led the attack on the left bank and Major-General Kemball took the right. After heavy fighting all day, Kemball's troops had overrun Ottoman trenches on the right bank, taking prisoners and capturing two guns. However, the Ottoman left bank held firm and they carried out supporting manoeuvres from the north.
After little change on 8 January, renewed British attacks on 9 January resulted in the Ottomans retiring from Sheikh Sa'ad. Over the following two days the Ottomans were followed by Aylmer's force but heavy rains made the roads virtually impassable.
Battle of Wadi
The Ottomans retreated for about from Sheikh Sa'ad to a tributary of the Tigris on the left bank known by the Arabic toponym simply as the Wadi (meaning "the river valley"). The Ottomans made their camp beyond the Wadi and on the other side of the Tigris opposite the Wadi.
On 13 January, Aylmer attacked the Ottoman Wadi position on the left bank with all of his forces. After putting up a stiff resistance the Ottomans retreated to the west and they were followed by Aylmer's troops.
Battle of Hanna
The Ottomans then made their camp upstream of the Wadi at the Hanna defile, a narrow strip of dry land between the Tigris and the Suwaikiya Marshes. British losses at the Battle of Hanna amounted to 2,700 killed and wounded, which was disastrous for the garrison in Kut.
Later efforts
At this point, Khalil Pasha (the Ottoman commander of the whole region) came to the battle, bringing with him a further 20,000 to 30,000 reinforcements.
Following the defeat of Aylmer's expedition, General Nixon was replaced as supreme commander by Percy Lake on 19 January. More forces were sent to bolster Aylmer's troops. He tried again, attacking the Dujaila redoubt on 8 March. This attack failed, at a cost of 4,000 men. General Aylmer was dismissed and replaced with General George Gorringe on 12 March.
In April, starvation within the British garrison at Kut forced Indian troops to abandon the vegetarian diet of their religion and eat horse meat.
The relief attempt by Gorringe is usually termed the first battle of Kut. The British Empire's forces numbered about 30,000 soldiers, roughly equal to the Ottomans. The battle began on 5 April and the British soon captured Fallahiyeh, but with heavy losses, Beit Asia was taken on 17 April. The final effort was against Sannaiyat on 22 April. The Allies were unable to take Sannaiyat and suffered some 1,200 casualties in the process.
In April 1916 No. 30 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps carried out the first air supply operation in history. Food and ammunition were dropped to the defenders of Kut, but "as often as not their parcels go into the Tigris or into the Turkish trenches!" and the food rations provided between the 11 and 29 April were only enough for three days.
All the relief efforts had failed, at a cost of around 30,000 Allied killed or wounded. Ottoman casualties are believed to have been around 10,000. The Ottomans also lost the aid of Baron von der Goltz. He died in April 1916, supposedly of typhoid about a week before the British surrendered on the 29 April. After Goltz's death, no German commander took his place in Mesopotamia for the rest of the war.
Surrender of the British army
British leaders attempted to buy their troops out. Aubrey Herbert and T. E. Lawrence were part of a team of officers sent to negotiate a secret deal with the Ottomans. The British offered £2 million (equivalent to £ million in ) and promised they would not fight the Ottomans again, in exchange for Townshend's troops. Enver Pasha at first pretended to negotiate in good faith, then publicized and rejected the offer as a final humiliation to the British.
The British also asked for help from the Russians. General Baratov, with his largely Cossack force of 20,000, was in Persia at the time. Following the request he advanced towards Baghdad in April 1916, but he turned back when news reached him of the surrender.
General Townshend arranged a ceasefire on the 26th and, after failed negotiations, he simply surrendered on 29 April 1916 after a siege of 147 days. Around 13,000 Allied soldiers survived to be made prisoners. Historian İlber Ortaylı states that "Halil Pasha acted like a gentleman to the surrendering British officers" and offered "to take the POWs up towards the north in river boats in case fuel could be provided from British bases nearby." The offer was rejected by the British. However, historian Marc Ferro suggested a different image. According to Ferro, the surrendered British and Indian forces were forced to march around the city of Baghdad while being maltreated by the Ottoman troops supervising their march.
Townshend himself was taken to the island of Heybeliada on the Sea of Marmara, to sit out the war in relative luxury. The author Norman Dixon, in his book On the Psychology of Military Incompetence, described Townshend as being "amused" by the plight of the men he had deserted, as if he had pulled off some clever trick. Dixon says Townshend was unable to understand why his friends and comrades were ultimately censorious over his behaviour.
In British Army battle honours, the siege of Kut is named as "Defence of Kut Al Amara".
Aftermath
Jan Morris, a British historian, described the loss of Kut as "the most abject capitulation in Britain's military history." After this humiliating loss, General Lake and General Gorringe were removed from command. The new commander was General Maude, who trained and organized his army and then launched a successful campaign.
Ten months after the Siege of Kut, the British Indian Army conquered the whole region from Kut to Baghdad in the war called the Fall of Baghdad (1917) on 11 March 1917. With Baghdad captured, the British administration undertook vital reconstruction of the war-torn country and Kut was slowly rebuilt.
Some of the Indian prisoners of war from Kut later came to join the Ottoman Indian Volunteer Corps under the influence of Deobandis of the Silk Letter Movement and with the encouragement of the German High Command. These soldiers, along with those recruited from the prisoners from the European battlefields, fought alongside Ottoman forces on a number of fronts. The Indians were led by Amba Prasad Sufi, who during the war was joined by Kedar Nath Sondhi, Rishikesh Letha, and Amin Chaudhry. These Indian troops were involved in the capture of the frontier city of Karman and the detention of the British consul there, and they also successfully harassed Sir Percy Sykes' Persian campaign against the Baluchi and Persian tribal chiefs who were aided by the Germans.
See also
Second Battle of Kut, which took place on 23 February 1917.
Battle of Chamb, battle with similar outcome.
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
The siege of Kut-al-Amara, to 29 April 1915 – from the website The Long, Long Trail, downloaded January 2006.
A Kut Prisoner by H. C. W. Bishop – e-book and HTML version with maps and graphics from Project Gutenberg.
Kut
Kut
1915 in Ottoman Iraq
1916 in Ottoman Iraq
Kut
Kut
Kut
Kut 1
Kut
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Kut
Kut
December 1915 events
January 1916 events
February 1916 events
March 1916 events
April 1916 events
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] |
204527
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Albany
|
USS Albany
|
USS Albany has been the name of more than one United States Navy ship, and may refer to:
, a 22-gun sloop-of-war commissioned in 1846 and lost at sea in 1854.
, a 14-gun screw sloop-of-war commissioned as USS Contoocook in 1868, renamed Albany in 1869, and decommissioned in 1870
, a protected cruiser, later reclassified as a light cruiser, in commission from 1900 to 1904, from 1907 to 1913, in 1914, and from 1916 to 1922
USS Albany (CA-72), a heavy cruiser renamed in 1942 prior to the beginning of construction
, a heavy cruiser in commission from 1946 to 1958, converted to a guided missile cruiser and redesignated USS Albany (CG-10), and then in commission again from 1962 to 1967 and from 1968 to 1980
, a Los Angeles-class attack submarine commissioned in 1990 and still in active service
United States Navy ship names
|
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] |
204528
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logan
|
Logan
|
Logan may refer to:
Places
Australia
Logan (Queensland electoral district), an electoral district in the Queensland Legislative Assembly
Logan, Victoria, small locality near St. Arnaud
Logan City, local government area in Queensland
Logan Lagoon, Flinders Island, Tasmania
Logan River, river flowing into Moreton Bay, Queensland
Logan Village, Queensland, a town and locality within Logan City, Queensland
Canada
Mount Logan, Canada's highest mountain
Logan (Manitoba electoral district), former electoral district in the Canadian province of Manitoba
Logan Lake, a district municipality in the Southern Interior of British Columbia
United Kingdom
Logan Botanic Garden, Wigtownshire, Scotland
Logan, East Ayrshire, Scotland
United States
Logan, Dearborn County, Indiana
Logan, Lawrence County, Indiana
Logan, Iowa
Logan, Kansas
Logan, Greene County, Missouri
Logan, Lawrence County, Missouri
Logan, Montana
Logan, Michigan, the original name of Adrian, Michigan
Logan, Nebraska
Logan, New Mexico
Logan, Ohio
Logan, Oregon
Logan, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a neighborhood
Logan, Utah
Logan, West Virginia
Logan, Wisconsin
Logan International Airport, Boston, Massachusetts
Billings Logan International Airport, Billings, Montana
Logan Canyon, mountain canyon in northern Utah
Logan County (disambiguation)
Logan Pass, pass in Glacier National Park, Montana
Logan Peak, mountain near Cache Valley, Utah
Logan Square, Chicago
Logan Township (disambiguation)
People
Logan (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters
Logan (surname)
Clan Logan, a Scottish clan
Logan (Iroquois leader) (c. 1723?–1780), Native American orator and war leader
Captain Logan (c. 1776 – 1812), Shawnee warrior also known as Logan or Spemica Lawba
Entertainment
Logan (band), a rock band from Glasgow, Scotland
Logan (film), a 2017 American film featuring the Marvel Comics character Wolverine
Logan (album), a 2021 Album by South African Rapper Emtee
Geology
Mount Logan, the highest mountain in Canada
Logan Medal, an award given to Canadian geologists for outstanding contribution to the field
Logan Rock, a rocking stone found in Cornwall, United Kingdom
Logan Run, a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania
Rocking stones, also known as logan stones, large stones that are carefully balanced so as to move with the slightest touch
Logan or pokelogan, a shallow, swampy lake or pond
Vehicles
Logan (automobile), an American car produced in Ohio 1903–1908
Logan (cyclecar), an American car produced in Chicago 1914
Dacia Logan, a low cost automobile produced by Renault and Dacia
Other uses
Logan (magazine), an American bimonthly for young people with disabilities
Logan, a 2-row barley variety
See also
Logan Act, a United States law forbidding private citizens from negotiating with foreign governments
Logan's Roadhouse, an American restaurant chain
Longan, a southeast Asian fruit sometimes misspelled “Logan”
Loganville (disambiguation)
Logansport (disambiguation)
|
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204532
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citadelle%20of%20Quebec
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Citadelle of Quebec
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The Citadelle of Quebec (), also known as La Citadelle, is an active military installation and the secondary official residence of both the Canadian monarch and the governor general of Canada. It is located atop Cap Diamant, adjoining the Plains of Abraham in Quebec City, Quebec. The citadel contains the oldest military building in Canada, and forms part of the fortifications of Quebec City, which is one of only two cities in North America still surrounded by fortifications, the other being Campeche, Mexico.
The strategic importance of Cap Diamant was recognized by the French as early as 1608. Several defensive fortifications were built on the site first by the French, and then by the British after their conquest of New France. The modern citadel was built from 1820 to 1850, in effort to secure Quebec City against a potential American attack. The British used the citadel until 1871, when they formally handed the property over to the Canadian government. Following the handover, the citadel was used as a military installation by the Canadian Armed Forces, and as a royal and viceregal residence.
The Citadelle is a National Historic Site of Canada and forms part of the Fortifications of Québec National Historic Site of Canada. The fortress is located within the Historic District of Old Québec, which was designated a World Heritage Site in 1985. The site receives some 200,000 visitors annually.
History
Cap Diamant's strategic value was identified by Samuel de Champlain in 1608 and led him to found Quebec City at the base of the escarpment. The promontory was practically insurmountable and thus the only side of the settlement ever to be heavily fortified was the west, the only one not naturally protected by the hill.
Early fortifications
French-rule
The first protective wall (enceinte)—Major Provost's palisade—was built by command of Governor General of New France Louis de Buade, sieur de Frontenac and completed just in time for the Battle of Quebec in 1690. Three years later, a plan by engineer Josué Boisberthelot de Beaucours for new, wide enceinte was developed by the French military engineer Jacques Levasseur de Néré and approved in 1701 by King Louis XIV's Commissary General of Fortifications, Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban.
The proposal to build a full fort was deemed by the government in France to be too costly, despite both the importance and vulnerability of Quebec City. After the fall of Louisbourg in 1745, considerable work on the battlements took place under the direction of military engineer Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros de Léry.
British-rule
The first British lieutenant governor of Quebec, General James Murray, saw the weakness of Quebec City's defences (indeed, Murray's post existed precisely because the British had conquered Quebec City four years before Murray's appointment as governor in 1763). He urged the construction of a citadel, but the imperial government at Westminster, like the French before, deemed a large fort to be of little value; a smaller, wooden citadel was built.
During the American Revolutionary War, after seizing Montreal in the autumn of 1775, American rebels, led by General Richard Montgomery and Benedict Arnold, attempted to take Quebec on 31 December. There, Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded and forced to retreat. The Americans attempted to keep Quebec under siege, but withdrew after the arrival of British reinforcements in the spring of 1776.
Present fortification (1820–present)
As tensions between the United Kingdom and the United States, as well as fears of further rebellion in British North America, grew in the late 18th century, the British reinforced the defences of their colonies according to a plan drawn up in the 1790s by Gother Mann. The ramparts around the Upper Town cliff and four martello towers (still extant) on the Plains of Abraham were completed before 1812. A citadel was a key part of Mann's design, but no fort was built because the cost was deemed prohibitive.
That opinion finally shifted following the War of 1812; as part of a wider improvement of Canada's defences coordinated by the Duke of Richmond, then Governor-in-Chief of British North America, the existing star fort was built between 1820 and 1850 under the direction of Lieutenant Colonel Elias Walker Durnford of the Royal Engineers. Intended to secure Quebec City against the Americans and serve as a refuge for the British garrison in the event of attack or rebellion, the Citadelle incorporated a section of the French enceinte of 1745 and the layout was based on Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban's design for an arms, munitions, and supplies depot, as well as a barracks. That, though, was somewhat of an anachronism by the time of the fort's completion, in comparison to other contemporary European military architecture. Additional buildings were completed in 1850.
After Canadian Confederation in 1867, Canada became responsible for its own defence; the British departed the Citadelle in 1871. Two batteries of the Royal Canadian Artillery were established at the Citadelle and an artillery school was opened in 1871, followed by a cavalry school. From the late 19th century, living conditions for soldiers at the fort gradually improved; canteens were opened and the casemates were made more comfortable. The preservation of much of the fortifications and defences of Quebec is due to the intervention of Governor General of Canada the Marquess of Dufferin and Ava, who also established the Citadelle as a viceregal residence in 1872, reviving a tradition dating to the founding of New France. Since 1920, the Citadelle has been the home station of the Royal 22e Régiment of the Canadian Forces.
The Quebec Conferences of 1943 and 1944, in which Governor General of Canada the Earl of Athlone, Prime Minister of Canada William Lyon Mackenzie King, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and US President Franklin D. Roosevelt discussed strategy for World War II, were held at the Citadelle of Quebec.
The Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada designated the Citadel as a national historic site in 1946. The fortress was designated as a National Historic Site of Canada in 1980 and, five years later, the Historic District of Old Québec, of which the Citadelle is a part, was placed on UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites.
Function
The Citadelle is a functioning military installation for the Canadian Armed Forces, as well as an official residence of both Canada's monarch and its governor general. The latter, by tradition, resides there for several weeks during the summer as well as other shorter periods throughout the year. As is done at the other federal royal residence, Rideau Hall in Ottawa, Canadian award presentations and investitures and ceremonies for both incoming and outgoing ambassadors and high commissioners to Canada are held at the Citadelle. The residence is also open to the public, running a visitors' program and free tours of the state rooms throughout the year as well as educational tours for students. The Citadelle attracts approximately 200,000 visitors each year.
A number of military ceremonies related to the Royal 22e Régiment take place at the Citadelle's parade ground, such as the changing of the guard and of battalion command and the consecration of each successive Batisse the Goat as regimental mascot. Additionally, daily at noon, a cannon is fired from the fort, the sound of which can be heard throughout Quebec City. Originally, two guns were fired each day, at 12:00 pm to alert Quebec City residents of the lunch hour and Angelus, or noon-day prayer and at 9:30 pm, marking the curfew for gunners and soldiers in the city. The tradition has continued since 1871, save for between 1994 and 2004.
Buildings
The fort is an uneven star shaped citadel and comprises four bastions and three straight curtain walls, all constructed with locally quarried sandstone. Within its walls are 24 buildings constructed mostly of grey cut stone.
Royal and viceregal residence
The Officer's Barracks, a neo-Norman structure built in 1831 by the British Army, has been a residence of the governor general of Canada since 1872. The residence today has a total of 153 rooms over , including offices for the governor general's secretary.
The entrance into the original area of the residence is through a set of double doors beneath a neo-classical porch bearing the words GOUVERNEUR GÉNÉRAL on the frieze and the crest of the Royal Arms of Canada in the tympanum. Within is a foyer with marble tile floor and a stair descending to the basement and, through another set of doors in a screen with translucent leaded glass sidelights and fanlight, is a hall; both rooms are in the Georgian style, in beige, cream, and gold. The Small Dining Room is similarly Georgian in decor, with robin's egg blue walls and white-painted trim. From the ceiling hang two crystal chandeliers.
Soon after the building became a royal residence, additions to accommodate the viceregal party and household were required, including a ballroom and sunroom. These, however, were on 2 February 1976 destroyed by fire and the other rooms of the residence suffered smoke and water damage. The Department of Public Works and Government Services Canada (which oversees the infrastructure of the Citadelle) restored the original wing and new state rooms were built in place of the lost post-1872 additions, the work being completed in 1984.
This new wing was built at the east end of and at a slight angle to the 1831 structure, the roof being copper and the exterior walls of the same masonry as the adjacent buildings, but, using more regulated block sizes and a flatter relief of pilasters and windows, as well as less detailing overall. The wing contains a separate entrance and ceremonial foyer with twin spiral staircases ascending to a piano nobile; the stairs have wood handrails with aluminum pickets and between them is a niche for sculpture. On the upper level is an event space, lounge, and sunroom with a terrace overlooking the St. Lawrence River. The former two areas are fully barrel vaulted and linked together by a continuous, narrow skylight in the roof under which crystal pendants of different lengths hang and transfer the natural light into the rooms. Interiors of the modern addition were designed by Quebec artist Madeleine Arbour, who was inspired by the colours of winter in Quebec, and use Canadian materials, including granite, walnut, and aluminum. The residence is furnished with pieces from the Crown Collection, mostly in New France style, antique furniture mixed with contemporary Canadian art.
Royal 22e Régiment Museum
Building 15, constructed in 1750, also known as the powder magazine, houses the Museum of the Royal 22e Régiment and Canadian Forces Museum, which collects, preserves, and displays artifacts of Canadian military historical significance, as well as the Museum, which features weapons, uniforms, and other military artifacts of the Royal 22e Régiment. The Museum is affiliated with: CMA, CHIN, OMMC and Virtual Museum of Canada.
Other buildings
Building 1, the Former Hospital Administration Building, is the principal structure in Mann's Bastion. It is a two-story, rectangular, symmetrical stone structure with a hipped-roof pierced by two brick chimneys. The west-facing facade features restrained decorative detailing of pilasters supporting a flat cornice along the length of the five-bay façade. Loopholes are visible on the second floor on both sides of the building. The rear elevation facing into the bastion is functional and plain in appearance.
Building 2, also known as the Men's Barracks, was formerly the armory and powder magazine. It faces the parade ground near the throat of the Prince of Wales Bastion. It is a long, rectangular, two story masonry building built of smooth limestone with a hipped roof clad in sheet copper. The main façade of the building has little ornamentation and is regulated and orderly, with small, regularly placed, multi-paned windows.
Building 5, the Former Powder Magazine, is a low, rectangular stone structure with a gabled roof and a surrounding protective blast wall. Two doors at ground level and three openings at gable level pierce the symmetrical façade. Along the plain side elevations are three half-barrel-vaulted passages, or traverses, two on the west and one on the east.
Building 7, also known as the Memorial Building, forms part of a complex of three structures, which includes a chapel and a workshop, situated near the parade ground. They are attached by a 19th-century protective wall. It is a small, rectangular, one-story masonry edifice with a pyramidal stone roof and a row of windows on all four elevations. Its principal façade is distinguished by a modern porchway. Governor General Georges Vanier and his wife Pauline Vanier are interred here at the commemorative chapel.
Located within the King's Bastion and adjacent to the governor general's residence, Building 10 is the former military prison and presently the museum annex. Constructed in 1842, it is a two-story rectangular stone structure with a hipped roof pierced by three brick chimneys. The west elevation facing the citadel is restrained but decorated by pilasters. Loopholes pierce the walls on both stories. There are several irregularly placed windows with iron bars.
Building 14, the former ordnance store, stands along the parade ground. The long, rectangular two story structure is constructed of stone with a hipped roof clad in copper sheet. The symmetrical façade features small, evenly spaced windows.
Building 16 is the museum office and former cooperage.
Building 17, also known as the Men's Barracks, stands on the south side of the parade ground near the throat of the Dalhousie Bastion. Two stories high for most of its length, the rectangular building has exterior walls of stone and features symmetrical elevations, a hipped, copper clad roof, and a projecting course of stone above the ground floor.
Clearly seen from the river and aligned on the meridian for observation purposes, Building 20, also known as the Ball House, is the former observatory and time ball tower. It is a compact, tall, two story stone structure of several architectural shapes. The rectangular section with a gabled roof was the former observatory and the square section formerly housed the time ball installation topped with an antenna. The building is entered from the ground floor of its small porch, which joins the two buildings.
Building 32, formerly the Defensive Guard House, is located at the eastern end of the north main ditch below the King's Bastion. It is a small, squat, one story masonry edifice with a gable roof supported by wood rafters. A chimney rises through the roof, which is covered in painted tin sheeting.
The former caponier, Building 46, is located at the south end of the ditch separating the counterscarp from the Men's Barracks. Its two walls and small turret in the middle of its gabled roof are the only visible elements of this small stone building. It is integrated with the ramparts and pierced with loopholes.
See also
Government Houses in Canada
Government Houses of the British Empire and Commonwealth
List of forts
Ramparts of Quebec City
References
External links
Buildings and structures in Quebec City
Canadian federal government buildings
1745 establishments in Canada
1820 establishments in Canada
Infrastructure completed in 1850
Military history of Quebec
Official residences in Canada
French forts in Canada
Houses in Quebec City
Museums in Quebec City
Military and war museums in Canada
Military forts in Quebec
Quebec Citadel
French Colonial architecture in Canada
Old Quebec
History museums in Quebec
Time balls
Royal residences in Canada
Government Houses in Canada
Royal 22nd Regiment
|
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204533
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Gall
|
James Gall
|
James Gall (27 September 1808 – 7 February 1895) was a Scottish clergyman who founded the Carrubbers Close Mission. He was also a cartographer, publisher, sculptor, astronomer and author. In cartography he gives his name to three different map projections: Gall stereographic; Gall isographic; and Gall orthographic (Gall–Peters projection).
Life
Gall was born on 27 September 1808, the son of Ann Collie and James Gall, a printer who founded the printing company of Gall & Inglis in Edinburgh, which specialised in easy-access astronomy. His uncle, John Gall, ran a coach-building business. He was baptised at St Cuthbert's Church, Edinburgh on 15 October 1808.He lived with his family at Potterrow on the South Side of Edinburgh.
He was educated at the High School close to his home and at the Trustees Academy. He was then apprenticed as a printer in his father's firm from 1822 before studying at the University of Edinburgh. From 1838 he became a partner in his father's publishing firm, which specialised in maps.
In1849, aged 41, he decided to retrain as a Free Church minister and studied at New College, Edinburgh graduating in 1855. His first role was in the establishment of a mission at Carrubbers Close on the Royal Mile.
At this time he was still a partner in Gall & Inglis. He was living at Myrtle Bank in Trinity, Edinburgh.
In 1858 he was chosen to minister at the new Free Church in the Canongate, holding the overspill from the growing mission work at Carrubbers Close. This originally held services in a hall at Moray House until a building was completed in 1862. This stood on Holyrood Road on the Site now occupied by the main Moray College building. It was later named the Moray Free Church. He lived adjacent to the church at 10 St John Street. He resigned from the church in 1872 to concentrate on mission work. His place at the Moray Church was filled by Rev Walter Glendinning. He lost his manse at John Street as a result of this decision, and lived for a while thereafter at a flat at 47 Forrest Road.
He died at home, 35 Newington Road in Edinburgh on 7 February 1895. He is buried in the north-east section of Grange Cemetery in Edinburgh, nearby his father. His funeral took place on 11 February 1895 and was attended by over 600 of his many admirers.
Religious views
Most of Gall's work on religion was detailed in a book called The Stars and the Angels, (1858) in which he not only argues for the existence of other inhabited planets, but describes the view that Gabriel would have had on his way from heaven to earth to tell Mary that she would have a baby next Christmas.
A rare, but important, work by Gall is The Synagogue Not the Temple, the Germ and Model of the Christian Church, published in 1890. It discusses the foundation upon which the Christian Church is modelled.
Astronomy
Gall's main work as an astronomer was with the constellations. As part of this work he developed the Gall orthographic projection, a derivative of the Lambert cylindrical equal-area projection, to project the celestial sphere onto flat paper in a manner that avoided distorting the shapes of the constellations. He also applied this technique to terrestrial mapmaking as a way to make a flat map of the round Earth. Gall Orthographic was re-invented by Arno Peters in 1967 and adopted by organisations such as UNESCO. In recognition of both men the form is now called the Gall-Peters projection.
Gall himself was an advocate of accessible mapping for blind people. One format he suggested was to combine Braille printing with twine to indicate lines. An 1851 book included such a map by Gall and his partner Inglis. It used raised borders to indicate county boundaries and other features.
Publications
Easy Guide to the Constellations (1870)
People's Atlas of the Stars
Handbook to Astronomy
Use of Cylindrical Projections for Geographical, Astronomical and Scientific Purposes (1885)
Anthropology of the Bible
The Science of Missions
The Synagogue as the Model of the Christian Church
Catechism of Christian Baptism
Dipping not Baptism
Evangelistic Baptism
Good Friday: A Chronological Mistake
Home Missions: The People's Work
Revival of Pentecostal Christianity
Where the Morisonians Are Wrong
Family
Gall's father, James Gall (1784–1874), designed a "triangular alphabet" used for embossed books for blind people and was instrumental.in founding the Royal Blind School in Edinburgh. He was also the principal creator of the Scottish Sunday School system.
In 1833 Gall married Mary Campbell from Belfast (1810-1866). Their eldest son, James Gall (b.1834) became a businessman in Jamaica. Their daughter, Elizabeth ("Eliza") Walkingshaw Gall (1835-1912), married Robert Inglis, the son of James Gall's business partner, who then inherited the printing company of Gall & Inglis on James's death. Robert's son, James Gall Inglis FRSE (1865–1939) was also a keen astronomer and came to the firm in 1880. He is buried with James Gall. Anna Gall (1838-1929) died a spinster.
References
Astronomical Publishing in Edinburgh in the 19th Century (implies he founded "Carrubbers Close Mission" after 1874)
Carrubbers Close Mission History at carrubbers.org (does not mention James Gall and states founded in 1858)
Further reading
James P. Snyder (1987), Map Projections—A Working Manual: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1395, Washington: Government Printing Office.
1808 births
1895 deaths
Scientists from Edinburgh
Alumni of New College, Edinburgh
Scottish cartographers
Clergy from Edinburgh
Scottish religious writers
People educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh
|
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204535
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley%20Maude
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Stanley Maude
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Lieutenant General Sir Frederick Stanley Maude KCB, CMG, DSO (24 June 1864 – 18 November 1917) was a British Army officer. He is known for his operations in the Mesopotamian campaign during the First World War and for conquering Baghdad in 1917.
Early life
Maude was born in Gibraltar, the youngest son of General Sir Frederick Francis Maude, who had been awarded the Victoria Cross in 1855 during the Crimean War, and of Catherine Mary, née Bisshopp, daughter of Very Reverend Sir George Bisshopp, 8th Baronet, Dean of Lismore. The Maude family claimed descent from Eustace de Montaut, who came over to England during the Norman Conquest.
Maude attended St Michael's School, Aldis House, Slough, and Eton College, where he was elected to Pop. After attending a crammer, he entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. He graduated in 1883 and was commissioned into the Coldstream Guards in February 1884.
Early service
Maude first saw active service in Egypt from March to September 1885, where he was awarded the Egyptian Medal and the Khedive's Egyptian Star. While attending the Staff College, Camberley from 1895 to 1896, he was promoted to captain on 28 August 1895.
He was promoted again, this time to major, on 5 February 1899, and next saw service during the Second Boer War, where he served from January 1900 to March 1901; and for which he was mentioned in Despatches (10 September 1901), was appointed a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) and received the Queen's South Africa Medal.
In May 1901, he was appointed military secretary to the Earl of Minto, Governor-General of Canada, in which capacity he accompanied the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York (later King George V and Queen Mary) on their Royal Tour of Canada in September and October 1901. During this trip Maude joined the Duke of York and Lord Minto on a duck hunt at Delta Marsh, Manitoba, and for his services administering the tour he was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in October 1901. He served on the staff of the Governor-General until Lord Minto stepped down in 1904, when he returned to Britain to become second-in-command at the Coldstream Guards. He then joined the General Staff, was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in 1907 and colonel in 1911.
First World War
Western Front
In World War I, Maude first served in France. He was a staff officer with III Corps when, in October 1914, he was promoted to brigadier-general and given command of the 14th Brigade, part of the 5th Division. He was wounded in April 1915 and returned home to recover. He returned to France in May and, in June, he was promoted to major-general and transferred to command the 33rd Division, then still in training.
Dardanelles
In mid-August, however, Maude was instead given charge of the 13th Division in Suvla. The 13th suffered heavy casualties retreating from Suvla and landing and later evacuating from Helles before being shifted to Mesopotamia in March 1916. He was the last man evacuated from Suvla Bay.
Mesopotamian Campaign
Maude arrived to catch the end of the British failure at the Siege of Kut where he was promoted to lieutenant-general, replacing General George Gorringe as commander of the newly dubbed Tigris Corps (III Indian Army Corps) in July 1916. Despite being instructed to do no more than hold the existing line, Maude set about to re-organising and re-supplying his mixed British and Indian forces. He was made commander of all Allied forces in Mesopotamia in late July 1916, replacing Sir Percy Lake.
Further advances in Mesopotamia were ordered (18 September 1916) by politicians such as Curzon and Chamberlain and against the wishes of the CIGS Robertson. Liddell Hart later argued that Maude clearly "consciously or unconsciously" ignored his secret orders from Robertson not to attempt to take Baghdad. Robertson changed his mind when it seemed that the Russians might advance to Mosul, removing any Turkish threat to Mesopotamia, and authorised Maude to attack in December 1916.
Given reinforcements and more equipment, Maude directed his force in a steady series of victories. Advancing up the Tigris and winning the battles of Mohammed Abdul Hassan, Hai and Dahra in January 1917, recapturing Kut in February 1917, he took Baghdad on 11 March 1917. (He issued the Proclamation of Baghdad on 19 March.) From Baghdad, he launched the Samarrah Offensive and extended his operations to the Euphrates and Diyala rivers.
Death
After a lull over the summer, in November 1917, whilst his forces were engaged at Ramadi and Tikrit, Maude contracted cholera (which some sources claim to have been caught from drinking unboiled milk) and died in the same house as German Field Marshal von der Goltz nineteen months earlier. General Marshall succeeded him.
His body was buried in Baghdad (North Gate) War Cemetery. His initial grave and marker was replaced by a more elaborate structure and then enclosed in a small mausoleum structure on the walls of which is mounted the standard Commonwealth War Graves Commission headstone. The epitaph on his CWGC gravestone reads: "'I am the resurrection and the life'. He fought a good fight. He kept the faith." In March 1918 parliament agreed to a request from the King that he grant the sum of £25,000 to his widow.
Memorials
Maude has a memorial stone at Brompton Cemetery in London. An equestrian statue of him was unveiled in December 1923 in Baghdad. The statue was by William Goscombe John and the pedestal by Edward Warren. It was unveiled by Sir Henry Dobbs, the High Commissioner to Iraq, in the presence of King Feisal, Air Marshall Sir John Salmond and many others, including the French and American consuls. The statue was attacked and torn down by an anti-British mob during the Iraqi Republican Revolution of 1958, its subsequent fate is unknown.
Mount Maude, a peak in the Cascade Range, was named for Frederick Maude by Albert H. Sylvester.
Quotes
"Our armies do not come into your cities and lands as conquerors or enemies, but as liberators." — Baghdad, March, 1917
References
Bibliography
Liddell Hart, Basil. A History of the World War. Faber & Faber 1930, Cassell 1970, Papermac 1997. .
Woodward, David R (1998). Field Marshal Sir William Robertson. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers. .
External links
Flickr Photo Download: General Maude Statue, Baghdad —A photograph of his statue that was once stood in Baghdad, torn down after the 1958 coup.
1864 births
1917 deaths
Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley
British Army generals
British Army generals of World War I
British Army personnel of the Second Boer War
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Deaths from cholera
Gibraltarians
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Grand Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Maude family
People educated at Eton College
British military personnel killed in World War I
Burials at Baghdad (North Gate) War Cemetery
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] |
204536
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Constellation%20%28CV-64%29
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USS Constellation (CV-64)
|
USS Constellation (CV-64), a supercarrier, was the third ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the "new constellation of stars" on the flag of the United States. One of the fastest ships in the Navy, as proven by her victory during a battlegroup race held in 1985, she was nicknamed "Connie" by her crew and officially as "America's Flagship".
The contract to build Constellation was awarded to the New York Naval Shipyard on 1 July 1956, and her keel was laid down 14 September 1957 at the New York Navy Yard. She was christened and launched 8 October 1960, sponsored by Mary Herter (wife of Secretary of State Christian Herter). Constellation was delivered to the Navy 1 October 1961, and commissioned on 27 October 1961, with Captain T. J. Walker in command. At that time, she had cost about US$264.5 million. Constellation was the last conventional U.S. aircraft carrier (as of January 2021) to be built at a yard other than Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Company. Constellation was scrapped at Brownsville, Texas, in 2015–2017.
History
The keel of Constellation was laid down at New York Naval Shipyard in 1957.
Fire during construction
USS Constellation was heavily damaged by fire while under construction on 19 December 1960. The carrier was in the final stages of construction at the Brooklyn Navy Yard in Brooklyn, New York when the fire began.
The fire broke out when a forklift operating on the hangar deck accidentally pushed its cargo into a steel plate knocking it over. The plate then broke off the plug of a tank of diesel fuel which spilled from the container reaching the lower levels of the ship. The fuel was ignited perhaps by a cutting torch of a fitter, and then moved to a wooden scaffolding. The flames spread quickly, filling the passageways of the ship with smoke. A Navy commander commented on the nature of the ship's design at an inquiry, "Ships of this class are the most complex structures ever designed by man."
It took 17 hours for firefighters to extinguish the fire, some of whom had been "driven to the raw edge of exhaustion" after being called into service in the Park Slope air accident. The firefighters saved hundreds of lives without losing any of their own, however fifty shipyard workers were killed. The extensive damage cost 75 million dollars to repair, and delayed the commissioning date by seven months, leading to a rumor that the ship that had burned in New York was and the fire caused the Navy to change the names and hull number designations between the two sister ships that were being built simultaneously in separate shipyards in separate states. An abstract of a New York Times article from the day after the fire, 20 December 1960, refers to the ship as USS Constellation.
1960–1969
Constellation was launched 8 October 1960, and she was delivered to the Navy 1 October 1961. She was commissioned on 27 October 1961, with Captain T. J. Walker in command. Another fire occurred aboard Constellation on 7 November 1961, while she was being tested at sea, killing four and injuring nine others.
Following fitting out and acceptance trials, Constellation departed her home port of Norfolk, Virginia, on 7 February 1962 for initial air operations off the Virginia Capes. She conducted her first catapult launch and arrested landing the same day with Commander George C. Watkins, air group (CVG) 13 commander, at the controls of an A4D-2 Skyhawk of Attack Squadron 34. After a month of operating locally, Connie (as the carrier became known) conducted a two-month shakedown cruise in the Caribbean Sea.
In summer 1962, Constellation was transferred to the U.S. Pacific Fleet and CVG-13 was disestablished. For the two-month trip around Cape Horn to her new home port of San Diego, California, Connie embarked elements of CVG-5 and departed Mayport, Florida, on 25 July. In November Constellation, with CVG-14 on board, commenced workup exercises for her upcoming maiden deployment to the western Pacific as a component of the U.S. Seventh Fleet. The uneventful cruise took place from February to September 1963.
Constellations second deployment began on 5 May 1964. She relieved Kitty Hawk on station in the Gulf of Tonkin off Vietnam on 8 June, embarked Carrier Air Wing (CVW) 14 (air groups had been redesignated air wings on 20 December 1963) and flew armed photo reconnaissance missions over Laos until 13 July. Following an upkeep period at Subic Bay, Philippines, Constellation reached Hong Kong for a port visit on 27 July, but within a few days was called back into action.
As a result of orders received during the first day of the Gulf of Tonkin Incident (2 August 1964), Constellation got underway and headed toward the Gulf of Tonkin. On 4 August, Constellation launched F-4B Phantom IIs to join aircraft from in providing air cover over the destroyers which were alleged by the Johnson administration to have been attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. On 5 August both carriers launched Operation Pierce Arrow, a series of air strikes on a North Vietnamese oil facility and naval vessels. CVW-14 lost two aircraft, an A-1 Skyraider, piloted by Lieutenant (junior grade) Richard C. Sather, who was killed in action (KIA), and an A-4 Skyhawk flown by Lieutenant (junior grade) Everett Alvarez Jr., who became one of the United States' first prisoners of war (POW) of the Vietnam War. Operations returned to a more normal cycle for the remainder of the deployment, and Constellation returned to San Diego on 1 February 1965, ending a nearly nine-month cruise. Connie and CVW-14 were awarded a Navy Unit Commendation (NUC) for the early August operations. During the deployment, Constellation appears to have been under the direction of Commander Carrier Division 9.
A first shipyard period for Constellation followed, lasting eight months; then workups commenced for her first full-blown war cruise. The carrier, with CVW-15 on board, was underway for operations off Vietnam in May 1966. During 111 days on station, aircraft from Constellation pounded roads, bridges and other targets, attempting to impede the flow of men and war materials south. The F-4B aircrew of pilot Lieutenant William M. McGunigan and radar intercept officer Lieutenant (junior grade) Robert M. Fowler from Fighter Squadron 161 (VF-161) shot down a MiG-17 fighter jet on 13 July, marking the ship’s first MiG kill of the war. Constellation returned to San Diego in December after her seven-month combat cruise, having lost 16 aircrewmen and 15 aircraft. Subsequently, both Constellation and CVW-15 were awarded a NUC for this deployment.
After a short workup cycle, Constellations third combat deployment commenced in April 1967. With CVW-14 embarked, the carrier operated first on Dixie Station (a patrol area about off South Vietnam) with strikes in the Iron Triangle region, and then moved north to Yankee Station (a patrol area about off North Vietnam) for a total of 121 days on the line. Reflecting the intensive nature of air operations, F-4Bs of VF 142 and VF 143 accounted for four MiG kills. The eight-month deployment ended in December, having totaled losses of 16 aircraft and 20 personnel, including seven KIAs and eight POWs. Both the carrier and CVW-14 received a NUC.
Constellation began her fourth deployment to the western Pacific and Vietnam on 29 May 1968. During this deployment, the Constellation/CVW-14 team was restricted to strikes below the 20th parallel of North Vietnam as a result of a March Presidential order. On 1 November, as directed by President Johnson, all bombing of North Vietnam was halted at 21:00 Saigon time. The last Navy mission over the restricted area was flown earlier in the day by Cmdr. Kenneth E. Enney in an A-7 Corsair II. Constellation returned to homeport to on 31 January 1969, after flying more than 11,000 combat and support missions and dropping almost 20,000 tons of ordnance. Fifteen aircraft were destroyed, nine due to enemy action. Six aircrew members perished, five were listed as KIAs and three were taken as POW.
By August, it was time for Constellation to return to Vietnam for a fifth combat deployment, again with CVW-14. Following an initial 20-day period of supporting strikes in South Vietnam as well as Laos, Constellation sailed to Defender Station in the Sea of Japan, which had been created as a result of increased tensions on the Korean Peninsula. On 2 October 1969, there was an accident caused when the tail rotor came off of a helicopter just before landing on the flight deck. Nine men went down with the chopper and were never recovered. A return to Yankee Station on 1 November also produced a major milestone in the carrier's life when the F-4J aircrew of air wing skipper Commander R. K. Billings and Lieutenant (junior grade) Jeff Taylor of VF-143 conducted Connies 100,000th arrested landing. During a mission on 28 March 1970, the VF-142 F-4 crew of Lieutenant Jerome E. Beaulier and Lieutenant Steven J. Barkley downed a North Vietnamese MiG-21 jet fighter. Following a total of 128 days on the line, Constellations nine-month deployment ended in May, with CVW-14 suffering the loss of seven total aircraft, five to enemy action. One member of the aircrew was taken as a POW, but there were no fatalities.
1970–1979
Upon her return Constellation began a nine-month major shipyard overhaul, her second since commissioning. In spring 1971 she welcomed aboard a new air wing, CVW-9, and departed San Diego on 1 October for what would become a historic combat deployment. Air operations commenced with strikes against mainly logistic targets in Laos as well as reconnaissance missions over North Vietnam into 1972. On 19 January, the VF-96 F-4 Phantom crew of Lieutenant Randall H. "Duke" Cunningham and Lieutenant (junior grade) William P. Driscoll scored a kill against a MiG-21, the first for a Navy aircraft since Connies VF-142 kill on 28 March 1970. The carrier was nearing the end of her scheduled deployment when her tour was extended to meet the threat posed by the North Vietnamese Easter Offensive.
Initial air strikes in support of ground troops were followed by a new, more intensive series of air strikes against major targets in North Vietnam. On 8 May, the same VF-96 aircrew team of Cunningham and Driscoll scored against a MiG-17. Then on 10 May, Cunningham and Driscoll downed three MiG-17s, becoming the first aces of the Vietnam war. Three more MiG-17s were downed by two other VF-96 crews, two by Lieutenant Michael J. Connelly and Lieutenant Thomas J. Blonski and one by Lieutenant Steven C. Shoemaker and Lieutenant (junior grade) Keith V. Crenshaw. Adding to the score, VF-92 aircrew Lieutenant Curt Dose and Lieutenant Commander James McDevitt shot down a MiG-21. All told, Constellation fliers shot down seven MiGs on 10 May. The nine-month deployment ended on 1 July, the carrier having spent 154 days off Vietnam. Seven aircraft were lost, two aircrewmen were reported KIA and two became POWs. The Constellation/CVW-9 team received the Presidential Unit Citation for their outstanding efforts.
Black sailor protests
Constellation was the focus of media attention when black members of her crew protested what they saw as systemic racism in the Navy, leading to what some saw as an aborted mutiny in late 1972. Constellation returned to the United States on 1 July and prepared to return to the western Pacific in early 1973. Replacement personnel reported aboard while Constellation was in the United States until the ship had 250 more men than the ship's berthing could accommodate. Constellations commanding officer ordered administrative (less than honorable) discharges for five black sailors he considered troublemakers. He planned to give early discharges to another 250 men whose enlistments would expire while Constellation was overseas. While Constellation was conducting exercises off the California coast, a rumor started that the captain was going to give 250 less than honorable discharges to black sailors. On 1 November, black sailors waylaid a white mess cook in a passageway and broke his jaw. The captain scheduled an open meeting for 21:00 3 November to clarify the 250 planned discharges. At noon 3 November a group of 50 black sailors began a sit-in on a portion of the mess deck. On the night of 3–4 November 60 black sailors took control of the scheduled meeting, refused to leave the mess deck, and threatened to "tear up the ship." Constellation returned to San Diego on 4 November to offload 130 men, including 12 white sailors, before returning to sea. Constellation returned to San Diego on 7 November and the offloaded sailors were transported back to the dock on 9 November, but only 8 boarded their ship. The remaining sailors sat down on the dock to be filmed by television crews and were ultimately transferred to shore stations for mast. Twelve received general discharges, 35 were honorably discharged but not recommended for re-enlistment, and 73 received punishments ranging from loss of pay and reduction in rate to warnings prior to being reassigned to sea duty.
End of Vietnam War
In January 1973, Constellation headed back to Southeast Asia. The Paris Peace Accords took effect on 28 January, but CVW-9 aircraft continued to strike targets in Laos until a cease-fire in that country was called on 21 February. Thus Connie, which had been on station at the beginning of combat operations in Vietnam in 1964, was on station at the end, nine years later. The remainder of the nine-month deployment consisted largely of flights in support of mine-clearing operations in North Vietnam.
Upon her return in October 1973, Constellation enjoyed a nine-month workup cycle, and departed in June 1974 for her first peacetime deployment in 10 years. On 23 November, she became the first carrier to enter the Persian Gulf since 1949. The six-month cruise ended on 24 December 1974.
A 14-month major overhaul and upgrade at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Washington, commenced in February 1975, during which Constellation was modified to reflect the Navy's new multipurpose air, surface and antisubmarine warfare role for carriers. She was redesignated a CV on 30 June 1975. With the overhaul completed in April 1976, Connie could now operate both the new S-3A Viking and F-14A Tomcat. However, the workups uncovered problems, and a 26-day drydocking in late 1976 at Long Beach Naval Shipyard, California, was required. The highlight for the remaining workup cycle was participation in Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) multinational exercises held in and around the Hawaiian Islands. An uneventful April to November 1977 deployment, Connies tenth, to the Far East followed.
Constellations next deployment, from September 1978 to May 1979, was originally scheduled to end in March but was extended due to her sortie into the Indian Ocean in reaction to a political crisis in Yemen. Following a relatively short eight-month turnaround cycle, she was underway again in February 1980 under the command of Captain Leon Edney, USN. After participating in RIMPAC exercises, Constellation steamed westward to the Arabian Sea, where Gonzo Station had been established following the November 1979 takeover of the American Embassy in Tehran, Iran. Connie had reached the eastern Indian Ocean when the unsuccessful 24 April 1980 raid to free American hostages took place, and she relieved on Gonzo Station on 1 May. This at-sea period would last a record-setting 110 days. As a result, the crew of Constellation was awarded the Navy Expeditionary Medal for their service. The deployment ended in mid-October.
1980–1989
During the 1981 workup cycle President Ronald Reagan visited Constellation on 20 August 1981 and proclaimed the carrier "America's Flagship" while presenting the crew a presidential flag and announcing to the crew: "Let friend and foe alike know that America has the muscle to back up its words, and ships like this and men like you are that muscle." Under the command of Captain Dennis M Brooks USN Constellation sailed to the western Pacific and Indian Ocean from October 1981 to May 1982.
In January 1983, Constellation entered the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard for a 13-month complex overhaul, during which the ship's Terrier missile system was replaced with NATO Sea Sparrow, the Phalanx Close-In Weapon System was added and modifications were made to allow the carrier to operate the new F/A-18A Hornet strike aircraft.
Connie deployed from February to August 1985 with CVW-14 embarked, marking the first deployment for the F/A-18. As part of this deployment, Constellation, and escorts including , guided missile cruiser USS Worden, combat support ship USS Camden, guided missile frigate USS Crommelin and destroyer USS Fletcher, made a port call at Mombasa in Kenya. It was during this deployment that the Connie gained her motto, "Go Ahead Make My Day", which was painted on the ship's island; a direct quote from President Ronald Reagan in response to terrorist threats made against Connie when she responded to the American hostage crisis of 1985 TWA Flight 847. For their performance in 1985, Connies crew earned the Meritorious Unit Citation, and the ship herself received the Secretary of the Navy's Environmental Protection Award.
As preparations for a 1987 deployment proceeded, it was announced that Constellation had earned the coveted Pacific Fleet Battle Efficiency Award (Battle Efficiency E) for the 18-month period ending on 30 June 1986. During an April to October 1987 deployment, Connie conducted air operations in support of Operation Earnest Will, the escorting of re-flagged Kuwaiti tankers in the Persian Gulf as a result of Iranian attacks against international shipping. As a result, the crew of Constellation was awarded the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal for their service.
On the morning of 2 August 1988 Connie quietly slipped her moorings for a routine two-week carrier qualification off the coast of southern California. Things quickly turned out to be anything but routine. The ship had barely cleared the harbor when a JP-5 fuel leak in the uptakes rained down to number One main machinery room and erupted into a full blown conflagration that tore through the uptakes and spread throughout the ship. The Fuel Oil Supervisor and Oil Lab were blamed early on even though they were not transferring fuel at the time. One Main Top Watch (a Boiler Technician) triggered the halon fire suppression system as he exited the space. Unfortunately the standard procedure was to wait 30 minutes after Halon had been triggered to re-enter the space. When the crew re entered the space was still hot and reignited the fire. Three explosions rocked the ship and the crew went into General Quarters. Amid explosions and extreme heat, volunteers from the crew entered enclosed spaces to extinguish the fires and preserve the ship. Through the damage control efforts of her crew, Connies main fires were extinguished around 2100. To the crew's horror, the fires reflashed and the crew went back into action.
Into the next day, the crew battled the blaze that had reflashed and continued to threaten the entire ship. During the conflagration, an over-temperature alarm sounded for the Mt. 23 CIWS 20 mm ammunition magazine. This necessitated the firecontrolmen offloading the magazine contents over the side because low firemain pressure precluded flooding the magazine to cool it. Mt 23 was situated on the port side of the island just forward of the boiler uptakes. After the long battle fighting the main space and collateral fires, there were no fatalities. There were however some serious injuries ranging from broken bones to smoke inhalation. Connie pulled back into North Island on 3 August. The subsequent investigation showed that there was a problem with a JP-5 pipe leading to a fuel station that wasn't adequately inspected after an in-port maintenance availability period. The problem was that a pipe that had long ago been removed that used to pass through the uptakes was hooked back up. The pipe in the uptakes just emptied into the uptakes where 1MMR's 6 forced draft blowers sucked the fuel into the running boilers. The total amount of JP-5 pumped into the uptakes was approximately 20,000 gallons.
Round-the-clock repairs by the crew assisted by civilian contractors got the ship ready for deployment, on schedule. The Constellation/CVW-14 team deployed on 1 December 1988 for the Indian Ocean. She left port on three screws with the final repairs to the fourth screw being completed at Subic Bay, Philippines. Four days out to sea, a Prowler and its four crew members were lost at sea. This West-Pac deployment ended six months later at San Diego on 1 June 1989.
1990–1999
With CVW-9 embarked, Connie departed San Diego on 12 February 1990 for the East Coast. Following exercises with the air forces of several South American countries, including Gringo-Gaucho with the Argentine Navy, while en route and preparations at Norfolk, Virginia, Constellation entered Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, Pa., in July to begin an $800-million, three-year Service Life Extension Program (SLEP). Completed in March 1993, the SLEP was a cross between new construction and a comprehensive overhaul, designed to add 15 years to the carrier's operational life. Among other things, her main, largest steam turbines were replaced, an operation that had never been designed into a ship of this size. Constellation conducted her post-SLEP shakedown with a number of CVW-17 squadrons, and then moored at Mayport, Florida, on 8 April. With CVW-2 assigned, Connie departed Mayport on 29 May and conducted exercises with various South American air forces while en route to San Diego, where she arrived on 22 July 1993.
During May–June 1994 Connie and CVW-2 participated in RIMPAC exercises, and on 10 November departed San Diego for an extended deployment for the first time in six years. Exercises off Okinawa were followed by a series of exercises off Korea that year following a discovery by U.S intelligence: that North Korea was attempting to develop nuclear weapons. On 11 January 1995, the Constellation battle group entered the Persian Gulf to take up station in support of Operation Southern Watch (OSW), enforcing the no-fly zone over southern Iraq. The six-month deployment concluded with her return to San Diego on 10 May. Effective 1 October 1995, Constellation was assigned to Cruiser-Destroyer Group 1. Constellations next deployment, from 1 April to 1 October 1997, included a return to the Persian Gulf for Southern Watch, now under control of the United States Fifth Fleet. In over 10 weeks of operating in the Gulf, CVW-2 flew more than 4,400 sorties, with well over 1,000 Southern Watch sorties.
As Connie prepared for her 1999 deployment, tensions were once again rising on the Korean Peninsula following an exchange of gunfire between North and South Korean vessels. Constellation departed San Diego on 18 June 1999 for the Korean Peninsula to monitor the situation. On 28 August, she entered the Persian Gulf and in ten weeks conducted more than 5,000 sorties and 1,256 OSW sorties. This period was highlighted by air strikes against two Iraqi radar stations and an attempt by VF-2 to engage an Iraqi jet with the long-range Phoenix air-to-air missile on 14 September. CVW-2 aircraft engaged in nine specific ordnance-dropping air strikes while in the Persian Gulf. The battle group departed the Persian Gulf on 5 November, and she arrived home for the holidays on 17 December. At the year's end, Constellation was awarded her second Battle Efficiency E as the Pacific Fleet's best carrier for the 12-month reporting period.
2000 onwards
Constellations 20th deployment began on 16 March 2001. She entered the Persian Gulf on 30 April and immediately commenced operations in support of OSW. On 13 May, Captain John W. Miller assumed command as Connies 30th skipper, and her last. She ceased OSW operations on 4 August, having conducted multiple air strikes in response to Iraqi violations of the no-fly zone. Connie departed Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on 9 September with dependents on board for the traditional Tiger Cruise on the final leg to San Diego. On 11 September Constellation was nearly halfway between Pearl Harbor and San Diego when word was received of the terrorist attacks on New York and the Pentagon. Despite discussions about turning the battle group around, the carrier was allowed to complete her regularly scheduled deployment. Connie arrived in San Diego on Friday 14 September and celebrated her 40th birthday the next month.
Following an abbreviated turnaround cycle, Constellation prepared for her final deployment and the opportunity to fight in the Global War on Terrorism. She departed on 2 November 2002, leading Cruiser-Destroyer Group 1 under the command of Rear Admiral Barry M. Costello. She was soon supporting Operation Enduring Freedom; on 17 December she entered the Persian Gulf to begin OSW missions. On 19 March 2003, with two carriers in the eastern Mediterranean and three in the gulf, Operation Iraqi Freedom commenced. Connie was designated a night carrier and remained on station throughout the major ground combat phase. She launched more than 1,500 sorties and CVW-2 aircraft delivered over 1.7 million pounds (770,000 kg) of ordnance. While one aircraft was lost in an operational mishap, there were no fatalities.
Connie departed the gulf on 17 April and steamed for San Diego for the last time. On 1 June a Sea Control Squadron 38 (VS-38) S-3B Viking crewed by Lieutenant Hartley Postlethwaite, Lieutenant (junior grade) Arthur Gutting and Constellation Commanding Officer, Captain John W. Miller, recorded Constellations 395,710th and final arrested landing. Her 21st and final deployment ended the next day.
Constellation was replaced by .
Decommissioning and scrapping
After 41 years of commissioned service, USS Constellation was decommissioned at the Naval Air Station North Island in San Diego on 7 August 2003. The ship was towed, beginning 12 September 2003, to the ghost fleet at the Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility, Bremerton, Washington. On 2 December 2003, the ship was stricken (formally removed from the Naval Vessel Register) when Admiral Vern Clark decided against expenditure of maintenance costs. Constellation was placed in Reserve Category X, meaning it received no maintenance or preservation, and only security against fire, flooding, and pilferage was provided. Reserve Category X applies to ships that have been stricken and are awaiting disposal by scrap, sale to foreign countries, as a designated target in a live fire exercise, memorial, or donation, as applicable.
According to news reports in February 2008, Constellation was scheduled to be disposed of by dismantling in the next five years, along with .
As of 26 January 2012, the Navy's Naval Sea Systems Command posted a notice of solicitation for the towing and complete dismantlement of multiple CV-59/CV-63 Class Aircraft Carriers in the United States, to include ex-, ex-, and ex-USS Constellation.
Constellation was scrapped at Brownsville, Texas starting in early 2015. She was towed around Cape Horn on her final voyage. NASA's Operation IceBridge captured a photo south of Punta Arenas, Chile, of the ship being towed to the scrap yard. The carrier arrived at its final resting place in Brownsville on 16 January 2015. Scrapping was complete on 10 May 2017 when the last propeller shaft strut was pulled from the water.
In popular culture
In 1996, the aircraft carrier is featured in an episode of Home Improvement, season 6, episode 1. The episode featured the cast of Tool Time boarding and touring the ship's facilities.
In 2004, the film Tiger Cruise is set aboard Constellation during the tiger cruise at the ending of her deployment in September 2001. The story tells of the events aboard the ship before, during, and after the September 11 attacks. Constellation actually was underway to Naval Air Station North Island with a number of "tigers" (family of crew members) on that day. The carrier had already been decommissioned when the movie was filmed; , , and were used as stand-ins.
See also
List of aircraft carriers
List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy
References
External links
An official US Navy USS Constellation page
– NAVSHIPSO (NAVSEA Shipbuilding Support Office)
An unofficial USS Constellation webpage
Maritimequest USS Constellation CV-64 Photo Gallery
Overhead view of the Kitty Hawk in 'mothballs' – Google Maps
USS Constellation Association history page
USS Constellation history at U.S. Carriers
America's Flagship: A History of USS Constellation (CV/CVA-64) by Mike Weeks – Naval Aviation News – March–April 2004
1960 ships
Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States
Kitty Hawk-class aircraft carriers
Racially motivated violence in the United States
Ships built in Brooklyn
Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States
Riots and civil disorder in the United States
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] |
204539
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mira%20variable
|
Mira variable
|
Mira variables (named for the prototype star Mira) are a class of pulsating stars characterized by very red colours, pulsation periods longer than 100 days, and amplitudes greater than one magnitude in infrared and 2.5 magnitude at visual wavelengths. They are red giants in the very late stages of stellar evolution, on the asymptotic giant branch (AGB), that will expel their outer envelopes as planetary nebulae and become white dwarfs within a few million years.
Mira variables are stars massive enough that they have undergone helium fusion in their cores but are less than two solar masses, stars that have already lost about half their initial mass. However, they can be thousands of times more luminous than the Sun due to their very large distended envelopes. They are pulsating due to the entire star expanding and contracting. This produces a change in temperature along with radius, both of which factors cause the variation in luminosity. The pulsation depends on the mass and radius of the star and there is a well-defined relationship between period and luminosity (and colour). The very large visual amplitudes are not due to large luminosity changes, but due to a shifting of energy output between infra-red and visual wavelengths as the stars change temperature during their pulsations.
Early models of Mira stars assumed that the star remained spherically symmetric during this process (largely to keep the computer modelling simple, rather than for physical reasons). A recent survey of Mira variable stars found that 75% of the Mira stars which could be resolved using the IOTA telescope are not spherically symmetric, a result which is consistent with previous images of individual Mira stars, so there is now pressure to do realistic three-dimensional modelling of Mira stars on supercomputers.
Mira variables may be oxygen-rich or carbon-rich. Carbon-rich stars such as R Leporis arise from a narrow set of conditions that override the normal tendency for AGB stars to maintain a surplus of oxygen over carbon at their surfaces due to dredge-ups. Pulsating AGB stars such as Mira variables undergo fusion in alternating hydrogen and helium shells, which produces periodic deep convection known as dredge-ups. These dredge-ups bring carbon from the helium burning shell to the surface and would result in a carbon star. However, in stars above about , hot bottom burning occurs. This is when the lower regions of the convective region are hot enough for significant CNO cycle fusion to take place which destroys much of the carbon before it can be transported to the surface. Thus more massive AGB stars do not become carbon-rich.
Mira variables are rapidly losing mass and this material often forms dust shrouds around the star. In some cases conditions are suitable for the formation of natural masers.
A small subset of Mira variables appear to change their period over time: the period increases or decreases by a substantial amount (up to a factor of three) over the course of several decades to a few centuries. This is believed to be caused by thermal pulses, where the helium shell reignites the outer hydrogen shell. This changes the structure of the star, which manifests itself as a change in period. This process is predicted to happen to all Mira variables, but the relatively short duration of thermal pulses (a few thousand years at most) over the asymptotic giant branch lifetime of the star (less than a million years), means we only see it in a few of the several thousand Mira stars known, possibly in R Hydrae. Most Mira variables do exhibit slight cycle-to-cycle changes in period, probably caused by nonlinear behaviour in the stellar envelope including deviations from spherical symmetry.
Mira variables are popular targets for amateur astronomers interested in variable star observations, because of their dramatic changes in brightness. Some Mira variables (including Mira itself) have reliable observations stretching back well over a century.
List
The following list contains selected Mira variables. Unless otherwise noted, the given magnitudes are in the V-band, and distances are from the Gaia DR2 star catalogue.
See also
Long period variable
Semiregular variable star
References
External links
OGLE Atlas of Variable Star Light Curves - Mira Variables
|
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204540
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexi%20%28Phoenician%20colony%29
|
Sexi (Phoenician colony)
|
Sexi (, ), also known as Ex, was a Phoenician colony at the present-day site of Almuñécar on southeastern Spain's Mediterranean coast.
The Roman name for the place was . Alternative transcriptions of the Phoenician name of the city in Latin include Secks, Seks, Sex, Eks, Seksi and Sexsi.
History
The ancient Phoenician settlement, whose earliest phases are unclear, was located southwest of the Solorius Mons (the modern Sierra Nevada mountain range). From the 3rd-2nd centuriesBC it issued a sizable corpus of coinage, with many coins depicting the Phoenico-Punic god Melqart on the obverse and one or two fish on the reverse, possibly alluding to the abundance of the sea and also a principal product of the area. The Barrington atlas of the ancient world equates ancient Sexi with modern Almuñécar.
References
Citations
Bibliography
.
Archaeological sites in Andalusia
Roman sites in Spain
Phoenician colonies in Spain
Almuñécar
|
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204541
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penny%20%28English%20coin%29
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Penny (English coin)
|
The English penny (plural "pence"), originally a coin of pure silver, was introduced by King Offa of Mercia. These coins were similar in size and weight to the continental deniers of the period and to the Anglo-Saxon sceats which had preceded it.
Throughout the period of the Kingdom of England, from its beginnings in the 9th century, the penny was produced in silver. Pennies of the same nominal value, of a pound sterling, were in circulation continuously until the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707.
Etymology
The name "penny" comes from the Old English pennige (), sharing the same root as the German Pfennig. Its abbreviation d. comes from the Roman denarius and was used until decimalisation in 1971.
Idioms
Due to their ubiquity pennies have accumulated a great number of idioms to their name usually recognizing them for their commonality and minuscule value.
These might include:
cut (one) off without a penny
mean enough to steal a penny off a dead man's eyes
not have two pennies to rub together
penny-pincher
penny-wise and pound-foolish
spend a penny
worth every penny
History
Anglo-Saxon silver pennies were the currency used to pay the Danegeld, essentially protection money paid to the Vikings so that they would go away and not ravage the land. As an illustration of how heavy a burden the Danegeld was, more Anglo-Saxon pennies from the decades around the first millennium have been found in Denmark than in England. In the reign of Ethelred the Unready (978–1016), some 40 million pennies were paid to the Danes, while King Canute (Knut) (1016–1035) paid off his invasion army with another 20 million pennies. This adds up to about of silver, equivalent to £250,000 at the time, and worth about £10 million in money (its purchasing power at that time may have exceeded £100 million and may have been as high as £1 billion in 2005).
The penny initially weighed 20 to 22.5 modern grains (1.3 to 1.5 g). It was standardized to 32 Tower grains, of a Tower pound (approx. 350 g). The alloy was set to sterling silver of .925 fineness in 1158 under King Henry II. The weight standard was changed to the Troy pound (373.242 g) in 1527 under Henry VIII, i.e. a pennyweight became about 1.555 grams. As the purity and weight of the coin was critical, the name of the moneyer who manufactured the coin, and at which mint, often appeared on the reverse side of the coin.
From the time of King Offa, the penny was the only denomination of coin minted in England for 500 years, until the attempted gold coinage issue of King Henry III in 1257 and a few halfpennies and farthings in 1222, the introduction of the groat by King Edward I in 1279, under whom the halfpenny and farthing were also reintroduced, and the later issues of King Edward III.
At the time of the 1702 London Mint Assay by Sir Isaac Newton, the silver content of British coinage was defined to be one troy ounce of sterling silver for 62 pence. Therefore, the value of the monetary pound sterling was equivalent to only 3.87 troy ounces of sterling silver. This was the standard from 1601 to 1816.
Pennies by period
History of the English penny (c. 600-1066)
History of the English penny (1066-1154) (The Early Normans and the Anarchy, 1066–1154)
History of the English penny (1154-1485) (The Plantagenets, 1154–1485)
History of the English penny (1485-1603) (The Tudors, 1485–1603)
History of the English penny (1603–1707) (The Stuarts and the Commonwealth)
History of the British penny (1714-1901) (The Hanoverians)
History of the British penny (1901-1970) (The twentieth century penny, 1901–1970)
Decimal Day, 1971
Penny (British decimal coin) (Post-decimalisation, 1971–present)
See also
Coins of the pound sterling
Sixpence
Notes
References
Coincraft's Standard Catalogue English & UK Coins 1066 to Date, Richard Lobel, Coincraft.
Coins of England
Pennies
Silver coins
no:Old penny sterling
pt:Penny antigo
|
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] |
204542
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20Muhlenberg
|
Frederick Muhlenberg
|
Frederick Augustus Conrad Muhlenberg (; January 1, 1750 – June 4, 1801) was an American minister and politician who was the first Speaker of the United States House of Representatives and the first Dean of the United States House of Representatives. A member of the Federalist party, he was delegate to the Pennsylvania state constitutional convention and a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania and a Lutheran pastor by profession, Muhlenberg was born in Trappe, Pennsylvania. His home, known as The Speaker's House, is now a museum and is currently undergoing restoration to restore its appearance during Muhlenberg's occupancy.
Early life and ministerial career
Frederick Muhlenberg was born in Trappe, Pennsylvania, the son of Anna Maria (Weiser) and Heinrich Melchior Mühlenberg. His father, an immigrant from Germany, was considered the founder of the Lutheran Church in North America. His maternal grandfather was Pennsylvania German colonial leader Conrad Weiser. His brother, Peter, was a general in the Continental Army and his brother Gotthilf Heinrich Ernst was a botanist.
In 1763, together with his brothers John Peter Gabriel and Gotthilf Henry Ernst, he attended the Latina at the Franckesche Stiftungen in Halle, Germany. In 1769, he attended the University of Halle, where he studied theology. He was ordained by the Pennsylvania Ministerium as a minister of the Lutheran Church on October 25, 1770. He preached in Stouchsburg, Pennsylvania, and Lebanon, Pennsylvania, from 1770 to 1774, and in New York City from 1774 to 1776. When the British entered New York at the onset of the American Revolutionary War, he felt obliged to leave and returned to Trappe. He moved to New Hanover Township, Pennsylvania and was pastor there and in Oley and New Goshenhoppen until August 1779.
On October 15, 1771, he married Catherine Schaeffer, the daughter of wealthy Philadelphia sugar refiner David Schaeffer. They had seven children.
Political career
Continental Congress
Muhlenberg was a member of the Continental Congress in 1779 and 1780, and served in the Pennsylvania House of Representatives from 1780 to 1783. He was elected its speaker on November 3, 1780. He was a delegate to and chairman of the Pennsylvania state constitutional convention in 1787 called to ratify the Federal Constitution. He was the first signer of the Bill of Rights.
U.S. House of Representatives
He served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania in the first and the three succeeding United States Congresses (March 4, 1789 – March 4, 1797). Muhlenberg was also the first Speaker of the United States House of Representatives. In August 1789, he cast the deciding vote for the location of the nation's new capital. He did not seek renomination as speaker in 1796. On April 29, 1796, as chairman of the Committee of the Whole, he cast the deciding vote for the laws necessary to carry out the Jay Treaty.
In 1794, during Muhlenberg's second tenure as Speaker, the House voted 42–41 against a proposal to translate some of the laws into German. Muhlenberg, who himself abstained from the vote, commented later that "the faster the Germans become Americans, the better it will be." Despite not having voted against the bill, a legend, the Muhlenberg Legend, developed in which he was responsible for prohibiting German as an official language of the United States.
According to another legend, Muhlenberg also suggested that the title of the President of the United States should be "Mr. President," instead of "His High Mightiness" or "His Elected Majesty," as John Adams had suggested.
Other offices
Muhlenberg was president of the council of censors of Pennsylvania, and was appointed receiver general of the Pennsylvania Land Office on January 8, 1800, serving until his death in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, on June 4, 1801.
Death and legacy
He was interred in Woodward Hill Cemetery in Lancaster.
See also
German language in the United States
The Speaker's House, in Trappe, Pennsylvania, home of Frederick Muhlenberg
Muhlenberg College, in Allentown, Pennsylvania, named for Henry Muhlenberg
References
Biography and portrait at the University of Pennsylvania
Notes
External links
1750 births
1801 deaths
People from Trappe, Pennsylvania
American Lutheran clergy
Pennsylvania Democratic-Republicans
Continental Congressmen from Pennsylvania
18th-century American politicians
Muhlenberg family
Members of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania
Politicians from Lancaster, Pennsylvania
Speakers of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives
Speakers of the United States House of Representatives
People of colonial Pennsylvania
American people of German descent
Burials in Pennsylvania
Democratic-Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Deans of the United States House of Representatives
Burials at Woodward Hill Cemetery
18th-century American clergy
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin%20Murphy
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Kevin Murphy
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Kevin Murphy may refer to:
Artists and actors
Kevin Murphy (actor) (born 1956), American actor, author and puppeteer, best known for his work on Mystery Science Theater 3000
Kevin Murphy (musician) (born 1947), American keyboardist
Kevin Murphy (screenwriter), American screenwriter, television producer, and composer
Kevin Andrew Murphy, American novelist and game writer
Kevin Mark Murphy (born 1957), Canadian musician, criminal lawyer, co-founder of Singing Fools
Politicians
Kevin Murphy (ombudsman) (1937–2012), appointed Ombudsman by the President of Ireland, serving from 1994 to 2003
Kevin J. Murphy (politician) (born 1952), Massachusetts House of Representatives
Kevin P. Murphy (born 1965), Pennsylvania politician, representing the 113th PA House District
Kevin Murphy (Canadian politician) (born 1970), Canadian politician, Speaker of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly
Sports figures
Kevin Murphy (linebacker) (born 1963), retired American football player
Kevin Murphy (lineman) (born 1965), American football player
Kevin Murphy (basketball) (born 1990), professional basketball player
Kevin Murphy (cricketer) (born 1963), Zimbabwean cricketer
Kevin Murphy (swimmer) (born 1949), "King of the Channel" title holder for crossing the English Channel
Other
Kevin J. Murphy (professor) (born 1957), Kenneth L. Trefftzs Chair in Finance, USC Marshall School of Business
Kevin M. Murphy (born 1958), economist and professor at the University of Chicago
Kevin Murphy (hairdresser), Australian-born hairdresser
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204546
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimoda%2C%20Shizuoka
|
Shimoda, Shizuoka
|
is a city and port located in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 21,402 in 10,787 households, and a population density of 200 persons per km2. The total area of the city is . In the 1850s, Japan was in political crisis over its increasing inability to maintain its national seclusion policy and the issue of what relations, if any, it should have with foreign powers. For a few years, Shimoda was central to this debate.
Geography
Shimoda is located at the southern tip of the Izu Peninsula about 100 kilometres southwest of Tokyo. Shimoda's location, with the Amagi Mountains to the north, and the warm Kuroshio Current to the south give the city a humid, sub-tropical climate.
Surrounding Municipalities
Shizuoka Prefecture
Minamiizu
Kawazu
Matsuzaki
Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Shimoda has been in slow decline over the past 40 years.
Climate
The city has a climate characterized by hot and humid summers, and relatively mild winters (Köppen climate classification Cfa). The average annual temperature in Shimoda is 15.5 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1159 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 25.4 °C, and lowest in January, at around 6.4 °C.
History
Shimoda has been settled since prehistoric times, with numerous Jōmon period remains found within city limits. It is mentioned in Nara period documents as the location to which Prince Ōtsu was exiled in 686 after his failed rebellion, and in Heian period documents in reference to its iron ore deposits. During the Sengoku period it was controlled by the Odawara Hōjō clan, who built a castle (later destroyed by Toyotomi Hideyoshi). Under the Tokugawa shogunate, Shimoda was tenryō territory directly administered by the shōgun. During the Edo period, Shimoda prospered as a seaport, and was a major port of call for coastal vessels travelling between Osaka and Edo. Until 1721, as a security measure, all vessels were obligated to call at Shimoda before proceeding on to Edo.
Treaty Port
During the Bakumatsu period, Shimoda port was opened to American trade under the conditions of the Convention of Kanagawa, negotiated by Commodore Matthew Perry and signed on March 31, 1854. Shimoda was also the site of Yoshida Shōin's unsuccessful attempt to board Perry's Black Ships in 1854.
The first American Consulate in Japan was opened at the temple of Gyokusen-ji under Consul General Townsend Harris. Harris negotiated the Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the two countries, which was signed at nearby Ryōsen-ji in 1858. Gyokusen-ji is also the location of a small number of foreign graves dating from as early as 1854 marking the final resting place of US forces personnel that died while serving as a part of the Perry Expedition. Japan's relations with Imperial Russia were also negotiated in Shimoda, and in 1855 the Treaty of Shimoda was signed at Chōraku-ji. In June 1859, with the opening of the port of Yokohama to foreign trade, the port of Shimoda was again closed and the American consulate was relocated to Zenpuku-ji in Edo.
After the Meiji Restoration, Shimoda came under the control of the short-lived Kikuma Domain in 1868, and the equally short-lived Ashigara Prefecture from 1871. The Mikomotoshima Lighthouse was completed in 1870 by British engineer Richard Henry Brunton. It is currently the oldest functioning lighthouse in Japan and is now a National Historic Monument. Ashigara Prefecture was divided between Kanagawa and Shizuoka prefectures in 1876. With the establishment of the modern municipalities system in 1889, Shimoda Town was formally established within Kamo District. The town was repeatedly bombed in 1945 in the final stages of World War II.
Shimoda expanded in March 1955 through the merger of six neighboring towns and villages. In 1958, an All Nippon Airways DC-3 en route from Haneda to Nagoya crashed offshore from Shimoda, killing three passengers. Shimoda suffered damage from sizeable earthquakes in 1974 and in 1978.
Government
Shimoda has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral city legislature of 13 members.
Economy
The economy of Shimoda is based on tourism (primarily centered on the hot spring resorts and marine sports) and commercial fishing.
Education
Shimoda has seven public elementary schools and four public middle schools operated by the city government and one public high school operated by the Shizuoka Prefectural Board of Education. The prefecture also operates one special education school. Tsukuba University and Nihon University both have marine biology research centers in Shimoda.
Transportation
Railway
Izukyu Corporation - Izu Kyūkō Line
Izukyū Shimoda Station - Rendaiji Station - Inazusa Station
Highway
Izu-Jūkan Expressway
Ferry service is available to Niijima and Shikinejima in the Izu Islands. There used to be a ferry service from Shimoda to Shimizu, Shizuoka; however, it is no longer in operation.
Local attractions
Apart from its role in the opening of Japan, Shimoda is famous for its hot spring resorts and beaches. Tatadohama, Ohama and Iritahama beaches attract many tourists in summer and are popular surfing spots year round, and Iritahama has been voted most beautiful Japanese beach a number of years.
Shimoda is also a setting for much of Yasunari Kawabata's famous short story The Dancing Girl of Izu.
Shimoda is the real-world inspiration for Pallet Town in the Pokémon video game and anime series.
Shimoda is the town where the 2012 anime Natsuiro Kiseki unfolds.
Museums in the area include the Uehara Museum of Modern Art.
Sister cities
- Newport, Rhode Island, United States
- Numata, Gunma Japan
- Hagi, Yamaguchi Japan
Notable people from Shimoda
Shimooka Renjō, Photographer.
Harumi Kurihara, Television personality.
Michiko Matsumoto, Photographer.
Okichi Saito, geisha, famous for her tragic story.
Ash Ketchum, Pokemon Master.
In popular media
The Japanese anime television series Natsuiro Kiseki is set in Shimoda.
Pallet Town from the Japanese game series Pokémon is geographically placed in the real-world location of Shimoda City, although the fictional town is inspired by creator Satoshi Tajiri’s own hometown of Machida, Tokyo.
References
External links
Shimoda city and great beaches
Article in the Observer
Book about the history of Okichi Saito and the black ships
Cities in Shizuoka Prefecture
Port settlements in Japan
Populated coastal places in Japan
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakodate
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Hakodate
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is a city and port located in Oshima Subprefecture, Hokkaido, Japan. It is the capital city of Oshima Subprefecture. As of July 31, 2011, the city has an estimated population of 279,851 with 143,221 households, and a population density of 412.83 persons per km2 (1,069.2 persons per sq. mi.). The total area is . The city is the third biggest in Hokkaido after Sapporo and Asahikawa.
History
Hakodate was Japan's first city whose port was opened to foreign trade in 1854, as a result of Convention of Kanagawa, and used to be the most important port in northern Japan. Also, the city had been the biggest city in Hokkaido before the Great Hakodate Fire of 1934.
Pre-Meiji restoration
Hakodate (like much of other parts of Hokkaido) was originally populated by the Ainu. They lived in the Oshima Peninsula. The name "Hakodate" might originate from an Ainu word. Another possibility is that it means "box" or "building" in Japanese which refers to the castle built by the Kono (Kano) clan in the fifteenth century.
Hakodate was founded in 1454, when Kono Kaganokami Masamichi constructed a large manor house in the Ainu fishing village of Usukeshi (the word for bay in Ainu).
After his death, Masamichi's son, Kono Suemichi, and family were driven out of Hakodate into nearby Kameda during the Ainu rebellion in 1512 and little history was recorded for the area during the next 100 years. There was constant low-level conflict in the Oshima peninsula at the time with the Ainu, as armed merchants like the Kono family, established bases to control trade in the region. This conflict culminated in an uprising from 1669 to 1672, led by Ainu warrior Shakushain after which the Ainu in the region were suppressed.
Hakodate flourished during the Hoei period (1704–11), and many new temples were founded in the area. The town's fortunes received a further boost in 1741 when the Matsumae clan, which had been granted nearby areas on the Oshima Peninsula as a march fief, moved its Kameda magistracy to Masamichi's house in Hakodate.
In 1779, the Tokugawa shogunate took direct control over Hakodate, which triggered rapid development in the area. Merchant Takadaya Kahei, who is honoured as the founder of Hakodate port, set up trading operations, which included opening the northern Etorofu sea route to the Kuril island fisheries. He is credited with turning Hakodate from a trading outpost into a thriving city. A Hakodate magistracy was established in 1802. By 1807, the power of the Tokugawa government extended to the entire region. However, in 1821, the central government relaxed their control of the area and restored the Matsumae clan to the full powers they had before.
Meiji restoration
The port of Hakodate was surveyed by a fleet of five U.S. ships in 1854 under the conditions of the Convention of Kanagawa, as negotiated by Commodore Matthew Perry.
Hakodate port partially opened to foreign ships for provisioning in the following year and then completely to foreign trade on 2 June 1859 as one of five Japanese open ports designated in the 1858 Treaty of Amity and Commerce signed with the U.S. The Hakodate foreign settlement is one of the legacies of foreign influence in Hakodate.
A mariner in Perry's fleet died during a visit to the area and became the first U.S. citizen to be buried in Japan when he was interred in Hakodate's cemetery for foreigners.
British merchant, naturalist and spy, Thomas Blakiston, took up residence in Hakodate in the summer of 1861 to establish a saw milling business and in doing so acquainted the city with western culture. He stayed in Hakodate until 1884, during which time he documented the local natural environment, equipped the local meteorological station and ran guns to the Boshin War rebels.
As one of few points of Japanese contact with the outside world, Hakodate was soon host to several overseas consulates. The Russian consulate included a chapel from where Nicholas of Japan is credited with introducing Eastern Orthodox Christianity to Japan in 1861 (now the Japanese Orthodox Church). The Orthodox church is neighbored by several other historical missionary churches, including Anglican and Catholic.
Hakodate also played a central role in the Boshin War between the Tokugawa shogunate and the Meiji Emperor which followed Perry's opening of Japan. Shogunate rebel Enomoto Takeaki fled to Hakodate with the remnants of his navy and his handful of French advisers in winter 1868, including Jules Brunet. They formally established the Republic of Ezo on December 25. The republic tried unsuccessfully to gather international recognition to foreign legations in Hakodate, including the Americans, French, and Russians. The Naval Battle of Hakodate was fought from 4 to 10 May 1869, between the remnants of the Tokugawa shogunate navy and the newly formed Imperial Japanese Navy. It was a decisive victory for the Imperial Japanese Navy.
On 14 June 1868, Hakodate was designated as an urban prefecture (府 fu), one of the first two, the other being Kyoto. On February 8, 1882, it was enlarged into Hakodate-ken, and then became part of Hokkaido on January 26, 1886.
The rebels occupied Hakodate's famous European-style Goryōkaku fort and used it as the centre of their defences in southern Hokkaido. Government forces defeated the secessionists in the Battle of Hakodate in 1869 and the city and fort were surrendered to emperor. Military leader, Hijikata Toshizō, was one of those slain in the fighting.
In 1878, Isabella Bird reported of the city in her travelogue:
The streets are very wide and clean, but the houses are mean and low. The city looks as if it had just recovered from a conflagration. The houses are nothing but tinder… Stones, however, are its prominent feature. Looking down upon it from above you see miles of grey boulders, and realise that every roof in the windy capital is "hodden doun" by a weight of paving stones.
20th century to present day
Hakodate was awarded city status on August 1, 1922. On March 21, 1934, a serious fire had destroyed around two-thirds of all the buildings in Hakodate. This event also led to many residents leaving and subsequently depopulating the city. The city escaped most of the ravages of World War II. Areas around Hakodate-yama were fortified and access restricted to the public. Many prisoners of war were interned in Hakodate and historians record a total of 10 camps. The city was subjected to two Allied bombing raids on 14 and 15 July 1945. Around 400 homes were destroyed on the western side of Hakodate-yama and an Aomori-Hakodate ferry was attacked with 400 passengers killed.
In 1976, a defecting Soviet pilot named Viktor Belenko flew his plane into the civilian airport in Hakodate.
Hakodate's size nearly doubled on December 1, 2004, when the town of Minamikayabe (from Kayabe District), and the towns of Esan and Toi, and the village of Todohokke (all from Kameda District), were merged into it.
The Hokkaido Shinkansen line opened on 26 March 2016. The undersea Seikan Tunnel with the Shinkansen rail line greatly reduced the travel time from Honshu to Hakodate.
Geography
Mount Hakodate was originally an island formed by volcanic eruptions millions of years ago. During the course of history a sand bar formed between Mount Hakodate and the peninsula. This landform, which is an example of a tombolo, finished forming in circa 1000 BCE. The tombolo connects the former Hakodate island with the main island Hokkaido to the north. The main central area of Hakodate city is located on the sandbar.
Hakodate is located in the center of Kameda peninsula. The city is overlooked by Mount Hakodate which is a forested mountain. The summit can be reached by hiking trail, cable car, or by car. Visitors can also reach the peak of Mount Hakodate by taking tour bus and/or direct bus. that departs from JR Hakodate Station. An obscure local nickname of the bumpy mountain is Gagyūzan (Mount Cow's Back), alluding to the way the mountain resembles a resting cow.
The former Goryōkaku fort is now used in as a public park and is popular in Hokkaido for hanami (cherry blossom viewing). Since April 2006, the park has also featured the tall, white Goryōkaku Tower. Resembling an air traffic control tower, the structure offers a panoramic view of the park, including mainland Japan across the Tsugaru Strait on clear days.
Nearby cities and towns
Hokuto to the west
Nanae to the north
Shikabe to the north east
Mountains
Mount E (): Hokkaido's southernmost volcano
Mount Hakodate ()
Rivers
Cityscape
Hakodate has a distinct cityscape that covers the center of the Kameda peninsula. A narrow land area separates Hakodate Bay to the west from Tsugaru Strait in the south-east side. It is best viewed from the top of Mount Hakodate.
Demographics
The population of Hakodate increased by 402% from 28,825 to 144,749 between 1873 till 1920 CE. Hakodate's population peaked in 1980 at 320,154, but has been gradually in decline due to aging since then.
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification, Hakodate's climate is humid continental (Dfb) of warm summer and winters with regular intense blizzards. With an alternate definition, using the isotherm, Hakodate falls in the rare oceanic climate (Cfb) of the east coast of the continents due to the warm current of Tsushima. The warmest month has an average temperature of . And so the city is the limit of hot summer climates for a city on the immediate coast in Japan (Cfa/Dfa), although appearing in other interior regions of the province. Hakodate has snowy winters and warm, humid summers. Winters are cold for the latitude but milder than much of Hokkaido.
Hakodate features four distinct seasons. The city sees a substantial amount of snowfall during the course of the year, averaging roughly of snow annually. Spring typically begins with some snowfall, but sees a gradual warming trend as the season progress. Summers are generally warm but not hot, with average high temperatures in the warmest month (August) hovering around . Fall initially is warm but becomes increasingly colder as the season progress. It is not uncommon to see snowfall in the latter parts of the fall season.
Economy
Prior to its dissolution, Air Hokkaido was headquartered in Hakodate. In January 2006, the regional airline Airtransse was headquartered in Hakodate.
Culture and landmarks
In Funami-cho stands the Koryu-ji temple. It's the oldest Buddhist temple (affiliated with the Soto school) in the region which was built in 1633. It was badly damaged during the Boshin War and moved to its current location in 1879. The existing main building was built in 1900.
The city is well known for seafood and sushi, especially for tuna, squid, salmon roe, sea urchin and crab. Hakodate shio ramen is also a famous speciality of the city. Shio (salt) ramen has a pale, clear, broth made with plenty of salt and any combination of chicken, pork bone, vegetables, fish, and seaweed. On a similar note, Hakodate's city fish is the squid. Hakodate is famous for the restaurant Ikkatei Tabiji, which serves a dish called "dancing squid": - a recently deceased squid is served with soy sauce, the sodium of which causes a cadaveric spasm when poured over the squid.
Every year (August) the city gets together for the Hakodate Port Festival. Hordes of citizens gather in the streets to dance a wiggly dance known as the Ika-odori (Squid Dance), the name of which describes the dance appropriately. The glowing lights of squid-catching boats can be seen in the waters surrounding the city. The bell of Haristos Orthodox Church is one of the 100 Soundscapes of Japan.
The Hakodate Fish Market (otherwise known as the Ashaichi or Morning Market) is a 10-minute walk from JR Hakodate Station. It is open daily and boasts hundreds of fish and sea food stands in addition to restaurants. Popular fares include sea urchin and calamare, the famous Japanese snow crab from the famous Hokkaido waters.
Hakodate Hachiman Shrine
Mt. Hakodate Ropeway
Hakodate City Museum
Hakodate City Museum of Literature
Hakodate City Museum of Northern Peoples
Hakodate Museum of Art, Hokkaido
Hakodate Jōmon Culture Center
Hakodate Park
Shinori-date
Shiryōkaku
Virgin of the Angel Trappistine Monastery
Transportation
Hakodate Transportation Bureau operates tram (Light rail) lines.
The Hokkaido Shinkansen opened in March 2016. It currently runs to Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto Station through the Seikan Tunnel from Shin-Aomori Station. The new terminal is away from Hakodate Station. There are plans to extend the Hokkaido Shinkansen north to Sapporo Station by 2030.
JR Hokkaido station
Hakodate Main Line : Hakodate Station - Goryōkaku Station - Kikyō Station
South Hokkaido Railway Company : Goryōkaku Station
Hakodate Airport
Port of Hakodate
Hokkaido Expressway
Education
Universities
National
Hokkaido University, Hakodate Campus
Hokkaido University of Education, Hakodate Campus
Public
Future University Hakodate
Private
Hakodate University
Hakodate Junior College
Hakodate Otani College
Russia Kyokutou University Hakodate school
College of Technology
National
Hakodate National College of Technology
High schools
Public
Hokkaido Hakodate Chubu High School
Hokkaido Hakodate Nishi High School
Hokkaido Hakodate Ryohoku High School
Hokkaido Hakodate Technical High School
Hokkaido Hakodate Commercial High School
Hokkaido Minamikayabe High School
Hokkaido Toi High School
Hakodate City High School
Private
Hakodate La Salle Junior High School & Senior High School
Hakodate Shirayuri Gakuen Junior High School & Senior High School
Hakodate Otani High School
Iai Joshi Women's Academy
Otsuma High School
Seisho Gakuin High School
Hakuryo High School affiliated with Hakodate University
Yuto High School affiliated with Hakodate University
Sister cities
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, since 1982
Vladivostok, Primorsky Krai, Russia, since 1992
City of Lake Macquarie, New South Wales, Australia, since 1992
Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Sakhalin Oblast, Russia, since 1997
Tianjin, China, since 2001
Goyang, Gyeonggi, South Korea, since 2011
Notable people
Kazuo Ohno, Butoh dancer
Saburō Kitajima, singer
Glay, rock/pop band
Juran Hisao, mystery writer
Kōhan Kawauchi, screenwriter
Hidemi Kon, literary critic
Naoko Matsui, voice actress
Kogo Noda, screenwriter
Hideko Takamine, actress
Yuki, musician (Real Name: Yuki Kuramochi, Nihongo: 倉持 有希, Kuramochi Yuki)
Great Kojika, Japanese professional wrestler, founder and chairman of Big Japan Pro Wrestling (Real Name: Shinya Koshika, Nihongo: 小鹿 信也, Koshika Shinya)
Menso-re Oyaji, Japanese professional wrestler (Real Name: Yohei Nakajima, Nihongo: 中島洋平, Nakajima Yōhei)
References
External links
Official Website
Populated places established in the 1450s
Cities in Hokkaido
Port settlements in Japan
Populated coastal places in Japan
Capitals of former nations
1454 establishments in Asia
1450s establishments in Japan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Sekigahara
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Battle of Sekigahara
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The Battle of Sekigahara (Shinjitai: ; Kyūjitai: , Hepburn romanization: Sekigahara no Tatakai) was a decisive battle on October 21, 1600 (Keichō 5, 15th day of the 9th month) in what is now Gifu prefecture, Japan, at the end of the Sengoku period. This battle was fought by the forces of Tokugawa Ieyasu against a coalition of Toyotomi loyalist clans under Ishida Mitsunari, several of which defected before or during the battle, leading to a Tokugawa victory. The Battle of Sekigahara was the largest battle of Japanese feudal history and is often regarded as the most important. Toyotomi's defeat led to the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate.
Tokugawa Ieyasu took three more years to consolidate his position of power over the Toyotomi clan and the various daimyō, but Sekigahara is widely considered to be the unofficial beginning of the Tokugawa shogunate, which ruled Japan for another two and a half centuries until 1868.
Background
Toyotomi clan rule
Toyotomi Hideyoshi was a prominent general under Oda Nobunaga. Nobunaga unified much of Japan under his rule after defeating the Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiaki and ending the Ashikaga shogunate; however, he was betrayed by Akechi Mitsuhide and died at the Honnō-ji Incident of 1582. Hideyoshi quickly avenged his master and consolidated control over Japan afterward, with the aid of his brother Hidenaga. Hideyoshi had risen from humble roots – his father was an ashigaru (foot-soldier) – to become the ruler of Japan. To bolster his claim, Hideyoshi married noble women so that his heirs at least would descend from suitably distinguished families.
However, the final years of Hideyoshi's reign were troubled. While rivals in the Hojo clan were defeated at the Siege of Odawara in 1590, failures in the invasions of Korea significantly weakened the Toyotomi clan's power and its support from bureaucrats who served in the government. Additionally, Hideyoshi ordered the execution of Toyotomi Hidetsugu and his entire family in 1595. Hidetsugu was his nephew and heir as well as the regent at the time who had been trained and expected to take up leadership after Hideyoshi. When Hideyoshi died in 1598, the new heir Toyotomi Hideyori was only 5 years old, necessitating a regency government. His death created a power vacuum; there was no appointed shōgun over the armies. The respected regent Maeda Toshiie, a neutral party between the clashing factions, kept the peace for a time, but he too died in 1599.
Feuding factions
Two main factions arose during the fading years of Hideyoshi's rule and the immediate aftermath of his death. Tokugawa Ieyasu was unrivaled in terms of seniority, rank, reputation, and overall influence within the regency government, and had the allegiance of many of the lords of eastern Japan. Toyotomi clan loyalists and the lords of western Japan rallied behind Ishida Mitsunari. Tensions between them sometimes boiled into open hostilities, with relations eventually degenerating into the conflicts of 1600 that led to Sekigahara.
Katō Kiyomasa and Fukushima Masanori were publicly critical of the bureaucrats, especially Mitsunari and Konishi Yukinaga. Tokugawa Ieyasu took advantage of this situation, and recruited them, redirecting the animosity to weaken the Toyotomi clan. Rumours started to spread stating that Ieyasu, at that point the only surviving contemporary ally of Oda Nobunaga, would take over Hideyoshi's legacy just as Nobunaga's was taken. This was especially evident amongst the loyalist bureaucrats, who suspected Ieyasu of agitating unrest amongst Toyotomi's former vassals.
Later, a supposed conspiracy to assassinate Ieyasu surfaced, and many Toyotomi loyalists, including Maeda Toshiie's son, Toshinaga, were accused of taking part and forced to submit to Ieyasu's authority. However, Uesugi Kagekatsu, one of Hideyoshi's appointed regents, defied Ieyasu by building up his military. When Ieyasu officially condemned him and demanded that he come to Kyoto to explain himself, Kagekatsu's chief advisor, Naoe Kanetsugu responded with a counter-condemnation that mocked Ieyasu's abuses and violations of Hideyoshi's rules, and Ieyasu was infuriated.
Afterwards, Ieyasu summoned the help of various supporters and led them northward to attack the Uesugi clan. However, many of them were at that moment besieging Hasedō. Ishida Mitsunari, grasping the opportunity created by the chaos, rose up in response and created an alliance to challenge Ieyasu's supporters.
Troop deployment
Ishida, in his home Sawayama Castle, met with Ōtani Yoshitsugu, Mashita Nagamori, and Ankokuji Ekei. Here, they forged their alliance, and invited Mōri Terumoto to be its head. They formed what came to be referred to as the Western Army. Mōri seized Osaka Castle for their base of operations, since most of Tokugawa's forces had vacated the area to attack Uesugi.
Ishida wanted to reinforce Mōri at the impregnable Osaka Castle. This would let Ishida control the capital of Kyoto and challenge the Tokugawa. To this end, Ishida's forces headed for Gifu Castle in order to use it as a staging area to move on Kyoto, since it was controlled by his ally Oda Hidenobu.
Back in Edo, Tokugawa Ieyasu received news of the situation in the Kansai region and decided to deploy his forces. Ieyasu himself commanded 30,000 men and his subordinates led another 40,000 men. This made up the bulk of what would later be called the Eastern Army. He had some former Toyotomi daimyō engage with the Western Army, while he split his troops and marched west on the Tōkaidō towards Osaka.
Since the Tokugawa army departed from Edo, it could only take two roads, both of which converged on Gifu Castle. Ieyasu marched on Gifu while Ishida Mitsunari was delayed at Fushimi Castle. This fortress was a halfway point between Osaka and Kyoto and was controlled by the Tokugawa ally Torii Mototada. Ishida could not risk leaving a force that could attack his rear, so he marched on it. It took him ten days to capture Fushimi, and in that time Gifu Castle had fallen. This forced Ishida Mitsunari to retreat southward in the rain. The rain was relevant in that the bulk of both armies were equipped with matchlock rifles (tanegashima), which required dry gunpowder to fire. Ishida Mitsunari and his troops were stationed at Ōgaki Castle by mid-October, 1600. They were evaluating their situation when Tokugawa's army arrived two days later at Mino Akasaka, a few miles away from their location.
Initially, the Eastern Army had 75,000 men, while the Western Army numbered 120,000. Ieyasu had also brought a supply of arquebuses. Knowing that the Tokugawa forces were heading towards Osaka, Ishida decided to abandon his positions and marched to Sekigahara. Even though the Western army had tremendous tactical advantages, Ieyasu had already been in contact with many of the daimyō in the Western Army for months, promising them land and leniency after the battle should they switch sides.
Shima Sakon, one of Mitsunari's commanders, requested permission to attack the nearest Tokugawa troops. Later, Sakon clashed with Honda Tadakatsu at the Battle of Kuisegawa. As a result, the Eastern Army suffered significant losses from the battle and had to pull back from the Mino Akasaka territory to Sekigahara. Not wanting to lose the advantage, Mitsunari ordered his army to surround Ieyasu at Sekigahara. Ishida deployed his troops in a strong defensive position, flanked by two streams with high ground on the opposite banks. His right flank was reinforced by daimyō Kobayakawa Hideaki on Mount Matsuo.
On October 20, 1600, Ieyasu learned that Ishida Mitsunari had deployed his troops at Sekigahara in a defensive position. They had been following the Western Army, and benefited from considerably better weather.
The Battle
At dawn on October 21, 1600, the Tokugawa advance guard stumbled into Ishida's army. Neither side saw each other because of the dense fog caused by the earlier rain. Both sides panicked and withdrew, but that resulted in both sides being aware of their adversary's presence.
Ishida held his current defensive position and Ieyasu deployed his forces in south from Ishida forces, he sent his allies' forces in a line to the front and held his own troops in reserve. Around 8:00 am, wind blew away the fog, and both sides noticed their respective adversary's positions. Last-minute orders were issued and the battle began.
The battle started when Fukushima Masanori, the leader of the Tokugawa advance guard, charged north from the Eastern Army's left flank along the Fuji River against the Western Army's right centre under Ukita Hideie. The ground was still muddy from the previous day's rain, so the conflict there devolved into something more primal. Ieyasu then ordered attacks from his right and his centre against the Western Army's left in order to support Fukushima's attack.
This left the Western Army's centre unscathed, so Ishida ordered this unit under the command of Shimazu Yoshihiro to reinforce his right flank. Shimazu refused as daimyō of the day only listened to respected commanders, which Ishida was not.
Fukushima's attack was slowly gaining ground, but this came at the cost of exposing their flank to attack from across the Fuji River by Ōtani Yoshitsugu, who took advantage of this opportunity. Just past Ōtani's forces were those of Kobayakawa Hideaki on Mount Matsuo.
Kobayakawa Hideaki was one of the daimyō who had been courted by Tokugawa. Even though he had agreed to defect to the Tokugawa side, in the actual battle he was hesitant and remained neutral. As the battle grew more intense, Ieyasu finally ordered his arquebuses to fire at Kobayakawa's position on Mount Matsuo to force a choice. At that point Kobayakawa joined the battle as a member of the Eastern Army. His forces charged Ōtani's position, which did not end well for Kobayakawa. Ōtani's forces had dry gunpowder, so they opened fire on the turncoats, making the charge of 16,000 men mostly ineffective. However, Ōtani's troops were already engaging against forces under the command of Tōdō Takatora and Oda Yūraku when Kobayakawa charged. At this point, the buffer Ōtani established was outnumbered. Seeing this, Western Army daimyos Wakisaka Yasuharu, Ogawa Suketada, Akaza Naoyasu, and Kutsuki Mototsuna switched sides, turning the tide of battle.
Fall of the Western Army
Heavily outnumbered, Ōtani had no choice but to retreat. This left the Western Army's right flank wide open, so Fukushima and Kobayakawa began to roll it up. Thus Ishida's right flank was destroyed and his centre was being pushed back, so he retreated.
Ishida's only remaining forces were on Mount Nangu. However, these forces were there for a reason. Kikkawa Hiroie was one of the commanders on the mountain. Kikkawa's troops formed the front lines of the Mōri army, which was commanded by his cousin Mōri Hidemoto. Earlier, when Hidemoto decided to attack the Tokugawa forces, Hiroie refused to comply, stating he was busy eating and asked to be left alone. This in turn prevented the Chōsokabe army, which deployed behind the Mōri clan, from attacking. When Ishida arrived, Kikkawa betrayed him as well. He kept the Mōri army at bay, and since Ishida had no more support, he was defeated.
The Western Army disintegrated afterwards with the commanders scattering and fleeing. Some, like Ukita Hideie, managed to escape, at least initially. Many others did not. Shima Sakon was shot and fatally wounded by a round from an arquebus and Ōtani Yoshitsugu committed suicide. Ishida, Yukinaga, and Ekei were some of those who were captured and a few, like Shimazu Yoshihiro, were able to return to their home provinces. Mōri Terumoto and his forces had remained entrenched at Osaka Castle rather than join the battle, and later quietly surrendered to Tokugawa. Ishida himself was later executed.
Late arrivals
Both sides had forces that did not arrive at Sekigahara in time to participate due to other battles. Ieyasu's son Hidetada led another group through Nakasendō. However, Hidetada's forces were bogged down as he attempted to besiege Sanada Masayuki's Ueda Castle against his father's direct orders. Even though the Tokugawa forces numbered some 38,000, an overwhelming advantage over Sanada's mere 2,000, they were still unable to capture the famous strategist's well-defended position.
At the same time, 15,000 Toyotomi troops were being held up by 500 troops under Hosokawa Yūsai at Tanabe Castle in present-day Maizuru, Kyoto Prefecture. Some among the 15,000 troops respected Hosokawa so much they intentionally slowed their pace. Due to these incidents, a large number of troops from both sides failed to show up in time for the battle. If either of these armies participated in the conflict, it could have ended quite differently.
Aftermath
Rise of the Tokugawa Shogunate
Following the public execution of Ishida Mitsunari, Konishi Yukinaga, and Ankokuji Ekei on November 6, the influence and reputation of the Toyotomi clan and its remaining loyalists drastically decreased. Tokugawa Ieyasu redistributed the lands and fiefs of the participants, generally rewarding those who assisted him and displacing, punishing, or exiling those who fought against him. In doing so, he gained control of many former Toyotomi territories.
At the time, the battle was considered only an internal conflict between Toyotomi vassals. However, after Ieyasu was named shōgun in 1603 by Emperor Go-Yōzei, a position that had been left vacant since the fall of the Ashikaga shōgunate 27 years earlier, the battle was perceived as a more important event. In 1664, Hayashi Gahō, Tokugawa historian and rector of Yushima Seidō, summarised the consequences of the battle: "Evil-doers and bandits were vanquished and the entire realm submitted to Lord Ieyasu, praising the establishment of peace and extolling his martial virtue. That this glorious era that he founded may continue for ten thousands upon ten thousands of generations, coeval with heaven and earth."
Seeds of dissent from Sekigahara
While most clans were content with their new status, there were many clans, especially those on the Western side, who became bitter about their displacement or what they saw as a dishonorable defeat or punishment. Three clans in particular did not take the aftermath of Sekigahara lightly:
The Mōri clan, headed by Mōri Terumoto, remained angry toward the Tokugawa shogunate for being displaced from their fief, Aki, and being relocated to the Chōshū Domain, even though the clan did not take part in the battle at all.
The Shimazu clan, headed by Shimazu Yoshihiro, blamed the defeat on its poor intelligence-gathering, and while they were not displaced from their home province of Satsuma, they did not become completely loyal to the Tokugawa shōgunate either. Taking advantage of its large distance between Edo and the island of Kyūshū as well as its improved espionage, the Shimazu clan demonstrated that it was virtually an autonomous kingdom independent from the Tokugawa shōgunate during its last days.
The Chōsokabe clan, headed by Chōsokabe Morichika, was stripped of its title and domain of Tosa and sent into exile. Former Chōsokabe retainers never quite came to terms with the new ruling family, the Yamauchi clan, which made a distinction between its own retainers and former Chōsokabe retainers, giving them lesser status as well as discriminatory treatment. This class distinction continued even generations after the fall of the Chōsokabe clan.
The descendants of these three clans would in two centuries collaborate to bring down the Tokugawa shogunate, leading to the Meiji Restoration.
Kokudaka of daimyō
○ = Main daimyōs who participated in the Battle of Sekigahara
● = Daimyōs who defected
Chronology
Below is a chronology of the events leading up to the final battle of Sekigahara 1600:
May 7 – Ieyasu asks Uesugi Kagekatsu for explanations for his military mobilization. Kagekatsu refuses Ieyasu.
June 8 – Ieyasu calls his allies to punish the Uesugi.
July 12 – Ieyasu holds a meeting in Osaka to plan the punishment of the Uesugi, attended by Date Masamune, Mogami Yoshiaki, Satake Yoshinobu and Nanbu Toshinao.
July 26 – Ieyasu leaves Fushimi Castle after meeting with Torii Mototada.
August 15 – Siege of Tanabe, Onoki Shigekatsu leads a Western army against Hosokawa Fujitaka.
August 16 – Mitsunari meets with Ōtani Yoshitsugu and convinces him to take sides against the Tokugawa.
August 17 – Ishida Mitsunari, Ankokuji Ekei, Ōtani Yoshitsugu and Mashita Nagamori meet in Sawayama and agree to ask Mōri Terumoto to become commander in chief of the alliance. Nagamori secretly sends Ieyasu news about the meeting.
August 22 – Mōri Terumoto arrives at Osaka Castle and takes command of the Western Alliance.
August 27 – Siege of Fushimi, led by Mitsunari and Kobayakawa Hideaki.
August 29 – Ieyasu establishes his headquarters in Oyama, Shizuoka to discuss strategy with allies.
August 30 – Battle of Asai, Maeda Toshinaga for the Eastern coalition, stems a force of Niwa Nagashige supported by Uesugi Kagekatsu.
September 1 – Siege of Shiroishi, Uesugi Kagekatsu loses Shiroishi Castle to Date Masamune's pro-Tokugawa troops .
September 6 – fall of Fushimi castle, Torii Mototada dies.
September 7 – Maeda Toshinaga (Tokugawa ally) attacks his brother, Toshimasa, and besieges Daishoji Castle. The commander of the garrison, Yamaguchi Munenaga, commits seppuku.
September 10 – Ieyasu returns to Edo Castle from Oyama.
September 15 – Mitsunari's Western army arrives at Ogaki Castle.
September 29 – Nabeshima Naoshige and other Western Army generals besiege Matsuoka Castle. The Army of the East occupies the heights of Akasaka, near Ogaki Castle. Tokugawa Hidetada heads towards Nakasendo.
September 29 – Fall of Gifu Castle into the hands of the Eastern coalition.
September 30 – Mōri Hidemoto lays siege to Annotsu Castle held by Tomita Nobutaka.
October 1 – Mitsunari returns to Sawayama Castle from Ogaki, asking Terumoto to move.
October 7 – Ieyasu leaves Edo at the head of 30,000 men towards Tokaido.
October 9 – Hidetada reaches Komoro, Nagano and against the orders of his father, diverts his forces towards Ueda.
October 12 – Ieyasu passes through Shimada in Suruga. Hidetada camps in Sometani village to besieged Ueda Castle against Sanada Masayuki.
October 13 – Ieyasu passes through Nakaizumi in Tōtōmi. Mōri Hidemoto and Kikkawa Hiroie enters Mino and sets up camp near Mount Nangu. Mōri Hidekane, Tachibana Muneshige, and Tsukushi Hirokado besiege Otsu Castle, held for Ieyasu by Kyōgoku Takatsugu.
October 14 - Ieyasu receives a secret messenger from Kobayakawa Hideaki, who offers him support. Naoe Kanetsugu leads the Uesugi forces against Mogami Yoshiaki at the Siege of Hasedo.
October 16 – Hidetada abandons the Siege of Ueda Castle and heads to Mino.
October 19 – Ieyasu arrives at Gifu castle in Mino. Kuroda Yoshitaka defeats Ōtomo Yoshimune and other Mitsunari allied generals at the Battle of Ishigakibara.
October 20 – Ieyasu moves to Akasaka. The two coalitions make contact at Kuisegawa, near Akasaka. The Eastern force retreats to Sekigahara. The Western coalition heads to Sekigahara from Ogaki Castle.
October 21 – Battle of Sekigahara
October 30 – Date Masamune tries to conquer Fukushima Castle but retires. (In May 1601, during the Battle of Matsukawa, Masamune is repelled by Honjō Shigenaga.)
Notable figures
Before the fateful confrontation in Sekigahara, Ishida Mitsunari claimed Osaka Castle and planned to take hostages from relatives loyal to Toyotomi. He hoped to use them to force his rival generals to join his cause. He sought to make noblewomen as political hostages, Hosokawa Gracia, Yamauchi Chiyo, Kushihashi Teru, and other women were targets of Mitsunari's plan.
When Mitsunari's soldiers threatened to take Hosokawa's home, Hosokawa Gracia was killed to protect her honor by a family soldier named Ogasawara Shōsai. He and the rest of the residents committed seppuku to avoid capture. As the last notable survivor of the Akechi clan, the clan responsible for the death of Oda Nobunaga, Gracia's death impacted both armies. The incident did much damage to Ishida's reputation, which greatly reduced his chances of recruiting more allies, some of whom were also secretly Christians.
After Hideyoshi's death, Kodain-in (Hideyoshi's chief consort) left Osaka Castle and lived as a castellan in Kyoto. Hideyoshi's second wife, Yodo-dono, inherited the political power of both figures, as Hideyori was too young to lead the Toyotomi clan. Yodo-dono was present in the maintenance of the Western army, although she did not play a very notable role during the campaign. Subsequently, Ieyasu began to receive hostages, nobles who were involved with the Mitsunari army, such as Maeda Matsu, whose son, Maeda Toshimasa, was involved in the Western army, while her other son, Maeda Toshinaga, was an ally of the Eastern army. After Ieyasu defeated Mitsunari in Sekigahara, Kodain-in received several women from the Western army at her home.
Kuki Yoshitaka, one of Nobunaga and Hideyoshi's top generals, fought alongside the western forces, while his son Kuki Moritaka joined the eastern forces, under Tokugawa Ieyasu. Following Tokugawa's victory, his son successfully guaranteed Yoshitaka's safety from Ieyasu. In a turn of fate, Yoshitaka committed seppuku before the news from Moritaka reached him.
Legend has it that the rōnin Miyamoto Musashi was present at the battle among Ukita Hideie's army and escaped the defeat of Hideie's forces unharmed. Musashi would have been around 16 years of age at the time. There is no hard evidence to prove whether Musashi was present or not for the battle. According to one account, the Musashi yuko gamei, "Musashi's achievements stood out from the crowd, and were known by the soldiers in all camps." Musashi is reticent on the matter, writing only that he had "participated in over six battles since my youth".
The cannons from the Liefde, the trading ship that English sailor William Adams came to Japan on, were used by Tokugawa's forces at Sekigahara. It is unlikely Adams himself was at the battle, although some fictional accounts have entertained the possibility.
Battlefield
The site of the battle was designated a National Historic Site of Japan in 1931. The site encompasses the sites of the initial position of Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川家康最初陣地), the final position of Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川家康最後陣地), the position of Ishida Mitsunari (石田三成陣地), the Okayama beacon (岡山烽火場), the grave of Ōtani Yoshitsugu (大谷吉隆墓), the east kubizuka (東首塚), and the west kubizuka (西首塚)
Cultural depictions
The Battle of Sekigahara has been depicted in a number of works of literature. Ryōtarō Shiba wrote a three volume historical novel called Sekigahara on it in the 1960s. James Clavell's 1975 novel, Shōgun, includes a fictionalized version of both the political struggle and the battle. Tokyo Broadcasting System aired a television miniseries about the subject in January 1981, also entitled , loosely based on Shiba's novel series. It featured actors Hisaya Morishige, Gō Katō, and Rentarō Mikuni.
The battle did not get a full movie featuring it until 2017, with previous inclusions generally only including a brief snippet in passing, such as the beginning of the 1954 movie Samurai I or the 1991 film Journey of Honor. This changed with the 2017 film Sekigahara, which covers the rivalry between Ishida Mitsunari and Tokugawa Ieyasu before leading to the battle itself in the final third of the film. The film is somewhat notable in being a revisionist reassessment, showing Tokugawa more as an antagonist while Mitsunari is a man of honor and the main protagonist. The 2008 BBC Docudrama television series Heroes and Villains included an episode which featured the battle. The anime Sengoku Basara: Samurai Kings depicts the different alliances and armies from a more fantastic (and less realistic) viewpoint, with a conclusion that wasn't as bloody as in history.
In games, the 2000 video game Kessen is set during the conflict between Tokugawa and Toyotomi clan, and features the Battle of Sekigahara. It also provides an alternate scenario in case the Western forces win the battle. GMT Games produced the 2011 block wargame Sekigahara: Unification of Japan, which attempts to reflect the patchy loyalties of the armies involved by having randomized cards represent the loyalty of specific armies; players know which of their units are "reliable" but their opponents are not necessarily sure. The 2017 video game Nioh includes a mission related to the battle and features heavily fictionalized versions of the events leading up to it.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Paul Davis used the following sources to compile the chapter "Sekigahara, 21 October 1600" in 100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present "Sekigahara, 21 October 1600."
De Lange, William. Samurai Battles: The Long Road to Unification Groningen: Toyo Press, 2020
Sadler, A.L. The Maker of Modern Japan: The Life of Tokugawa Ieyasu London: George Allen & Unwin, 1937
Sansom, George. A History of Japan from 1334–1615 Stanford University Press, 1961
Turnbull, Stephen. The Samurai: A Military History New York: Macmillan, 1977
External links
SengokuDaimyo.com The website of samurai author and historian Anthony J. Bryant. Bryant is the author of the above-mentioned Sekigahara 1600: The Final Struggle for Power.
Several strategy war games based on the battle: Sekigahara: Unification of Japan
1600 in Asia
1600 in Japan
Sekigahara 1600
Sekigahara
Sekigahara, Gifu
Historic Sites of Japan
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] |
204554
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jock%20column
|
Jock column
|
During the Second World War, Jock columns were small combined arms groups of armoured cars, artillery and motorised infantry, generally drawn from the British 7th Armoured Division. They were used in the Western Desert Campaign by the British Army to harass German and Italian forces. The columns were named after an officer who was a superb exponent of the tactic and may have conceived it originally, Lieutenant Colonel John Charles "Jock" Campbell.
The basis for the Jock column was a battery of six 25-pounder and a troop of 2-pounders, supported by a squadron of tanks and a company of infantry, along with several anti-aircraft artillery guns. Having suffered heavily in the Battle of Greece and in Crete, the mobility of the Jock column allowed the British to compensate for their equipment losses by deploying artillery where needed. On the defensive, Jock columns could effectively harass the enemy, or attack their rear areas, but the columns' decentralized nature made them ill-suited for stopping a major attack.
However, once the British went on the offensive in mid-1941 with their Brevity and Battleaxe operations, "British doctrine had become weakened by the improvised over-use of Jock Columns". Rather than concentrating armor as Rommel tended to, the columns were further separating their tanks into groups which were more easily defeated. The splitting up of critical medium and heavy artillery made them less effective at covering assault troops, and "Royal Artillery commanders were critical of the lack of concentration of guns".
See also
William Gott
Flying column
Long Range Desert Group
Footnotes
References
Military units and formations of the British Army in World War II
Ad hoc units and formations of the British Army
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wader
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Wader
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Waders or shorebirds are birds of the order Charadriiformes commonly found wading along shorelines and mudflats in order to forage for food crawling or burrowing in the mud and sand, usually small arthropods such as aquatic insects or crustaceans. The term "wader" is used in Europe, while "shorebird" is used in North America, where "wader" may be used instead to refer to long-legged wading birds such as storks and herons.
There are about 210 species of wader, most of which live in wetland or coastal environments. Many species of Arctic and temperate regions are strongly migratory, but tropical birds are often resident, or move only in response to rainfall patterns. Some of the Arctic species, such as the little stint, are amongst the longest distance migrants, spending the non-breeding season in the southern hemisphere.
Many of the smaller species found in coastal habitats, particularly but not exclusively the calidrids, are often named as "sandpipers", but this term does not have a strict meaning, since the upland sandpiper is a grassland species.
The smallest member of this group is the least sandpiper, small adults of which can weigh as little as and measure just over . The largest species is believed to be the Far Eastern curlew, at about and , although the beach thick-knee is the heaviest at about .
Taxonomy
In the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, waders and many other groups are subsumed into a greatly enlarged order Ciconiiformes. However, the classification of the Charadriiformes is one of the weakest points of the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy, as DNA–DNA hybridization has turned out to be incapable of properly resolving the interrelationships of the group. Formerly, the waders were united in a single suborder Charadrii, but this has turned out to be a "wastebasket taxon", uniting no fewer than four charadriiform lineages in a paraphyletic assemblage. However, it indicated that the plains wanderer actually belonged into one of them. Following recent studies (Ericson et al., 2003; Paton et al., 2003; Thomas et al., 2004a, b; van Tuinen et al., 2004; Paton & Baker, 2006), the waders may be more accurately subdivided.
The waders are a group of two Charadriiformes suborders which include 13 families. Species in the third Charadriiforme suborder, Lari, are not considered as waders.
Suborder Charadrii
Family Burhinidae – stone-curlews, thick-knees (10 species)
Family Pluvianellidae – Plains-wanderer
Family Chionidae – sheathbills (2 species)
Family Pluvianidae – Egyptian plover
Family Charadriidae – plovers (68 species)
Family Recurvirostridae – stilts, avocets (10 species)
Family Ibidorhynchidae – ibisbill
Family Haematopodidae – oystercatchers (12 species)
Suborder Scolopaci
Family Rostratulidae – painted-snipes (3 species)
Family Jacanidae – jacanas (8 species)
Family Pedionomidae – plains-wanderer
Family Thinocoridae – seedsnipes (4 species)
Family Scolopacidae – sandpipers, snipes (98 species)
Characteristics
Shorebirds is a blanket term used to refer to multiple bird species that live in wet, coastal environments. Because most these species spend much of their time near bodies of water, many have long legs suitable for wading (hence the name ‘Waders’). Some species prefer locations with rocks or mud. Many shorebirds display migratory patterns and often migrate before breeding season. These behaviors explain the long wing lengths observed in species, and can also account for the efficient metabolisms that give the birds energy during long migrations.
The majority of species eat small invertebrates picked out of mud or exposed soil. Different lengths of bills enable different species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food. Many waders have sensitive nerve endings at the end of their bills which enable them to detect prey items hidden in mud or soft soil. Some larger species, particularly those adapted to drier habitats will take larger prey including insects and small reptiles.
Sexual dimorphism
Shorebirds, like many other animals, exhibit phenotypic differences between males and females, also known as sexual dimorphism. In shorebirds, various sexual dimorphisms are seen, including, but not limited to, size (e.g. body size, bill size), color, and agility. In polygynous species, where one male individual mates with multiple female partners over his lifetime, dimorphisms tend to be more diverse. In monogamous species, where male individuals mate with a single female partner, males typically do not have distinctive dimorphic characteristics such as colored feathers, but they still tend to be larger in size compared to females. The suborder Charadrii displays the widest range of sexual dimorphisms seen in the order Charadriiformes. However, cases of sexual monomorphism, where there are no distinguishing physical features besides external genitalia, are also seen in this order.
Sexual selection
One of the biggest factors that leads to the development of sexual dimorphism in shorebirds is sexual selection. Males with ideal characteristics favored by females are more likely to reproduce and pass on their genetic information to their offspring better than the males who lack such characteristics. Mentioned earlier, male shorebirds are typically larger in size compared to their female counterparts. Competition between males tends to lead to sexual selection toward larger males and as a result, an increase in dimorphism. Bigger males tend to have greater access (and appeal) to female mates because their larger size aids them in defeating other competitors. Likewise, if the species exhibits gender role reversal (where males take on roles traditionally done by females such as childcare and feeding), then males will select female mates based on traits that are the most appealing. In the Jacana species, females compete with each other for access to male mates, so females are larger in size. Males choose female mates based on who presents herself as the strongest and who 'owns' the most territory.
Natural selection
Another factor that leads to the development of dimorphisms in species is natural selection. Natural selection focuses on traits and the environment's response to the traits in question; if the said trait increases the overall fitness of the individual possessing it, then it will be 'selected' and eventually become a permanent part of the population's gene pool. For example, depending on the food available in a shorebird specie's respective niche, bigger bill sizes may be favored in all individuals. This would essentially lead to monomorphism within the species but is subject to change once sexual selection acts on the trait. Sexual selection could give rise to males with relatively larger bills than females if males used their bills to compete with other males. If larger bill size assisted the male in gathering resources, it would also make him more attractive to female mates.
See also
Hybridisation in shorebirds
List of Charadriiformes by population
References
Sources
Ericson, P. G. P.; Envall, I.; Irestedt, M.; & Norman, J. A. (2003). Inter-familial relationships of the shorebirds (Aves: Charadriiformes) based on nuclear DNA sequence data. BMC Evol. Biol. 3: 16. PDF fulltext
Pandiyan, J. and S. Asokan. 2015. Habitat use of pattern of tidal mud and sandflats by shorebirds (charadriiformes) Wintering in southern India. Coastal Conservation https://doi.org/10.1007/s11852-015-0413-9.
Paton, Tara A.; & Baker, Allan J. (2006). Sequences from 14 mitochondrial genes provide a well-supported phylogeny of the Charadriiform birds congruent with the nuclear RAG-1 tree. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 39(3): 657–667. (HTML abstract)
Paton, T. A.; Baker, A. J.; Groth, J. G.; & Barrowclough, G. F. (2003). RAG-1 sequences resolve phylogenetic relationships within charadriiform birds. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 29: 268–278. (HTML abstract)
Thomas, Gavin H.; Wills, Matthew A. & Székely, Tamás (2004a). Phylogeny of shorebirds, gulls, and alcids (Aves: Charadrii) from the cytochrome-b gene: parsimony, Bayesian inference, minimum evolution, and quartet puzzling. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 30(3): 516–526. (HTML abstract)
Thomas, Gavin H.; Wills, Matthew A.; & Székely, Tamás (2004b). A supertree approach to shorebird phylogeny. BMC Evol. Biol. 4: 28. PDF fulltext Supplementary Material
van Tuinen, Marcel; Waterhouse, David; & Dyke, Gareth J. (2004). Avian molecular systematics on the rebound: a fresh look at modern shorebird phylogenetic relationships. Journal of Avian Biology 35(3): 191–194. PDF fulltext
Explore the World With Shorebirds. (2004). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Web. http://digitalmedia.fws.gov/cdm/ref/collection/document/id/1598
Lindenfors, P.; Szekely, T.; and Reynolds, J. D. (2003). Directional Changes in Sexual Size Dimorphism in Shorebirds, Gulls and Alcids. Journal of Evolutionary Biology J Evolution Biol: 930–38. Print.
Szekely, T.; Freckleton, R.; & Reynolds, J. (2004). Sexual selection explains Rensch's rule of size dimorphism in shorebirds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101(33): 12224–12227.
Szekely, Tamas; John D. Reynolds; and Jordi Figuerola. (2000) Sexual Size Dimorphism in Shorebirds, Gulls, and Alcids: The Influence of Sexual and Natural Selection. Evolution 54(4): 1404–413.
External links
Bird common names
|
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] |
204565
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sugarhill%20Gang
|
The Sugarhill Gang
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The Sugarhill Gang is an American hip hop trio. Their 1979 hit "Rapper's Delight" was the first rap single to become a top 40 hit on the Billboard Hot 100; reaching a peak position of number 36 on January 12, 1980. This was the trio's only U.S. hit, though they did have further success in Europe until the mid-1980s. The trio reformed in 1999 and did a world tour in 2016.
Formation and early years
The members, all from Englewood, New Jersey, consisted of Michael "Wonder Mike" Wright, Henry "Big Bank Hank" Jackson, and Guy "Master Gee" O'Brien. The three were assembled into a group by producer Sylvia Robinson, who founded Sugar Hill Records with her husband, record producer Joe Robinson. The group and the record company were named after the Sugar Hill, Harlem, neighborhood.
Their 1979 hit "Rapper's Delight" was the first rap single to become a Top 40 hit on the Billboard Hot 100. The group never had another U.S. hit, though it had multiple European hits, such as "Apache", "8th Wonder" (which was performed on the American music show Soul Train in 1981), "Rapper's Reprise (Jam Jam)", and "Showdown" (with the Furious Five). The trio wound down over the next five years and disbanded in 1985.
Later years
In 1999, the trio reunited and recorded Jump on It! a hip hop children's album.
After Wonder Mike and Hen Dogg left Sugarhill Records in 2005, the original members of Sugarhill Gang (besides Jackson) have performed as the Original Sugar and as Rapper's Delight Featuring Wonder Mike and Master Gee. This is largely due to a string of legal cases against them regarding the use of 'Sugarhill Gang' as their name.
On November 11, 2014, Big Bank Hank died at the age of 58 after a long battle with cancer.
In 2016, the remaining living members of the original Sugarhill Gang, including Wonder Mike, Hen Dogg and Master Gee embarked on their first world tour in over a decade under the name The Sugarhill Gang. During this, they performed as the Sugarhill Gang for the Art of Rap festival tour in 2016, and at V Festival in Hylands Park and Weston Park in the UK as part of their world tour in 2016. Other places included, the Clockenflap Festival in Hong Kong on November 27, 2016, and they headlined at the Depot in the Park Festival in Cardiff, United Kingdom on August 5, 2017. In July 2019 they played the North Nibley Festival in Gloucestershire.
In 2019, The Sugarhill Gang celebrated the 40th anniversary of the release of "Rapper's Delight" and the group's formation. They went on a worldwide tour called Rapper's Delight 40th Anniversary World Tour. The gang made new music in early 2019. The tour lasted from May 24th to July 26, 2019. They are still going on tours to this day despite the COVID-19 pandemic.
On October 25, 2019, the group performed "Rapper's Delight" on Jimmy Kimmel Live.
Discography
The discography of The Sugarhill Gang includes five studio albums, nine compilations and fifteen singles.
Studio albums
Compilation albums
Sugarhill Gang Greatest Hits (1984)
Rapper's Delight: The Best of Sugarhill Gang (1996)
Ain't Nothin' but a Party (1998)
Back to the Old School 2 - Rapper's Delights (1999)
Sugarhill Gang, The* Vs. Grandmaster Flash - The Greatest Hits (2000)
The Greatest Hits of Sugarhill Gang (2004 Tour) (2004)
The Story of Sugarhill Records (2005)
Hip Hop Anniversary Europe Tour: Sugarhill Gang Live (2008)
Rhythm & Rhymes: The Definitive Collection (2010)
Singles
See also
List of 1970s one-hit wonders in the United States
References
External links
Sugarhill Gang playlist on WaveCat
"I Want My Name Back" documentary on the Sugar Hill Gang, Featuring Master Gee and Wonder Mike
Master Gee interview
The Sugarhill Gang - Rapper's Delight (Official Video)
East Coast hip hop groups
Rappers from New Jersey
African-American musical groups
1979 establishments in New Jersey
Musical groups established in 1979
American musical trios
Musical groups from New Jersey
Hansa Records artists
Sugar Hill Records artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20battleships%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Navy
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List of battleships of the United States Navy
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The United States Navy began the construction of battleships with in 1892, but the first battleship under that designation would be . Texas and , commissioned three years later, were part of the New Navy program of the late 19th century, a proposal by then Secretary of the Navy William H. Hunt to match Europe's navies that ignited a years-long debate that was suddenly settled in Hunt's favor when the Brazilian Empire commissioned the battleship . In 1890, Alfred Thayer Mahan's book The Influence of Sea Power upon History was published and significantly influenced future naval policy—as an indirect of its influence on Secretary Benjamin F. Tracy, the Navy Act of June 30, 1890 authorized the construction of "three sea-going, coast-line battle ships" which became the . The Navy Act of July 19, 1892 authorized construction of a fourth "sea-going, coast-line battle ship", which became . Despite much later claims that these were to be purely defensive and were authorized as "coastal defense ships", they were almost immediately used for offensive operations in the Spanish–American War. By the start of the 20th century, the United States Navy had in service or under construction the three and two battleships, making the United States the world's fifth strongest power at sea from a nation that had been 12th in 1870.
Except for , named by an act of Congress, all U.S. Navy battleships have been named for states, and each of the 48 contiguous states has had at least one battleship named for it except Montana; two battleships were authorized to be named Montana but both were cancelled before construction started. Alaska and Hawaii did not become states until 1959, after the end of battleship building, but the battlecruiser, or "Large Cruiser," was built during World War II and her sister, , was begun but never completed. The pre-dreadnoughts (formerly the Austrian ), (formerly the Austrian ), and the dreadnought USS Ostfriesland (formerly the German SMS Ostfriesland), taken as prizes of war after World War I, were commissioned in the US Navy, but were not assigned hull classification symbols.
No American battleship has ever been lost at sea, though four were sunk during the attack on Pearl Harbor. Of these, only and were permanently destroyed as a result of enemy action. Several other battleships have been sunk as targets, and , demilitarized and converted into a target and training ship, was permanently destroyed at Pearl Harbor. The hulk of Oklahoma was salvaged and was lost at sea while being towed to the mainland for scrapping. Two American-built pre-dreadnought battleships, and her sister , were sunk in 1941 by German bombers during their World War II invasion of Greece. The ships had been sold to Greece in 1914, becoming and respectively.
1880s–1910s
and were part of the "New Navy" program of the 1880s. Texas and BB-1 to BB-4 were authorized as "coast defense battleships", but Maine was ordered as an armored cruiser and was only re-rated as a "second class battleship" when she turned out too slow to be a cruiser. The next group, BB-5 Kearsarge through BB-25 New Hampshire, followed general global pre-dreadnought design characteristics and entered service between 1900 and 1909. The definitive American pre-dreadnought was the penultimate class of the type, the Connecticut class, sporting the usual four-gun array of weapons, a very heavy intermediate and secondary battery, and a moderate tertiary battery. They were good sea boats and heavily armed and armored for their type. The final American pre-dreadnought class, the Mississippi-class, were an experiment in increasing numbers with slower ships of limited range. The Navy soon rejected the concept and within 6 years of commissioning, sold these to Greece in 1914 to pay for a new super-dreadnought .
The dreadnoughts, BB-26 South Carolina through BB-35 Texas, commissioned between 1910 and 1914, uniformly possessed twin turrets, introduced the superimposed turret arrangement that would later become standard on all battleships, and had relatively heavy armor and moderate speed (). Five of the ten ships used the established vertical triple expansion (VTE) propulsion rather than faster direct-drive turbines, used by the British which had higher fuel consumption. The ships had 8 (South Carolina class), 10 (Delaware and Florida) or 12 (Wyoming class) 12-inch guns, or 10 (New York class) guns. The dreadnoughts gave good service, the last two classes surviving through World War II before being scrapped. However, they had some faults that were never worked out, and the midships turrets in the ten and twelve-gun ships were located near boilers and high-pressure steam lines, a factor that made refrigeration very difficult and problematic in hot climates. One of their number, Texas (BB-35), is the last remaining American battleship of the pre–World War II era and the only remaining dreadnought in the world.
Next came the twelve Standards, beginning with BB-36 Nevada, commissioned over the period 1914 to 1920. The last ship commissioned was BB-48 West Virginia (BB-49 through 54 were also Standards, but were never commissioned, and scrapped under the Washington Naval Treaty). Oklahoma (BB-37) was the last American battleship commissioned with triple expansion machinery; all the other Standards used either geared steam turbines (Nevada, the Pennsylvania class, Idaho and Mississippi) or turbo-electric propulsion (New Mexico, the Tennessee and Colorado classes). The Standards were a group of ships with four turrets, oil fuel, a top speed, a tactical diameter at top speed, and heavy armor distributed on the "All or Nothing" principle. Armament was fairly consistent, starting with ten 14-inch guns in the Nevada class, twelve in the Pennsylvania, New Mexico and Tennessee classes, and eight guns in the Colorado class.
1930s–1940s
After the 1930s "builders holiday," the USN commissioned ten more battleships of an entirely new style, the so-called fast battleship. These ships began with BB-55 North Carolina and the last ship laid down was BB-66 Kentucky (the last completed ship was BB-64 Wisconsin). These ships were a nearly clean break from previous American design practices. All ten ships were built to a Panamax design (technically post-Panamax, as they exceeded normal Panamax beam by two feet, but they were still able to transit the canal). They were fast battleships, and could travel with the aircraft carriers at cruising speed (their speed was not intended for that role, but rather so they could run down and destroy enemy battlecruisers). They possessed almost completely homogeneous main armament (nine 16-inch guns in each ship, the sole difference being an increase in length from 45 to 50 calibers with the Iowa-class vessels), very high speed relative to other American designs ( in the North Carolina and South Dakota classes, in the Iowa class), and moderate armor. The North Carolina class was of particular concern, as their protection was rated as only "adequate" against the 16-inch super-heavy shells. They had been designed with, and armored against, a battery of three quadruple 14-inch guns, then changed to triple 16-inch guns after the escalator clause in the Second London Naval Treaty had been triggered. Secondary armament in these ships was almost homogeneous as well: Except for South Dakota, configured as a flagship, the other nine ships of this group sported a uniform 20-gun 5-inch (127 mm) secondary battery (South Dakota deleted two 5-inch mounts to make room for flag facilities). Visually, the World War II ships are distinguished by their three-turret arrangement and the massive columnar mast that dominates the superstructure. The last ship, Wisconsin (BB-64), commissioned in 1944 (Wisconsin was approved last; however, Missouri (BB-63) was commissioned three months later, due to delays from additional aircraft carrier construction). Missouri (BB-63), famous for being the ship on which the Japanese instrument of surrender was signed, was the last battleship in the world to be decommissioned on 31 March 1992. Seven of these ten ships are still in existence. South Dakota, Washington and Indiana were scrapped, but the remainder are now museum ships. There was intended to be another class of five of these ships, the Montana class (BB-67 Montana through BB-71 Louisiana), but they were cancelled before being laid down in favor of a greater number of aircraft carriers. The Montana-class ships would have been built to a 60,000-ton post-Panamax design, and carried a greater number of guns (twelve 16-inch guns) and heavier armor than the other ships; otherwise they would have been homogeneous with the rest of the World War II battleships.
In October 2006, the last battleships, ( and ), were stricken from the Naval Registry.
Key
Second-class battleship
USS Texas (1892)
The acquisition of modern, European-built warships by Argentina, Brazil, and Chile had alarmed the United States. The straw that broke the camel's back was Brazil's commissioning of the battleship Riachuelo, which suddenly made the Brazilian Navy the strongest in the Americas. Congressman Hilary A. Herbert, chairman of the House Naval Affairs Committee, said of the situation, "if all this old navy of ours were drawn up in battle array in mid-ocean and confronted by the Riachuelo it is doubtful whether a single vessel bearing the American flag would get into port." Facing the possibility of enemy ironclads operating in American coastal waters, the Naval Consulting Board began planning a pair of ironclads of their own, which would be able to use all major American naval bases and have a minimum speed of . The first of these two was USS Texas, long, sporting an armor belt thick, displacing , sailing at a top speed of , and armed with two 35-caliber primary and six 30-caliber secondary guns.
Texas was authorized by Congress on 3 August 1886, but construction lagged until she was laid down on 1 June 1889. She was launched in the presence of the granddaughter of Sam Houston on 28 June 1892, and commissioned on 15 August 1895. Texass early service revealed a number of structural issues, which was addressed via some reinforcement of various parts of the ship, and she ran aground near Newport, Rhode Island, in September 1896.This in turn revealed even more faults with Texas, as massive flooding easily disabled her in the shallow waters where she ran aground. After repairs, she joined the North Atlantic Squadron, briefly leaving for a Gulf Coast visit to Galveston and New Orleans that saw her beached on a mud bank off Galveston, an event whose aftermath gave Texas her nickname, "Old Hoodoo." After repairs, she returned to the North Atlantic Squadron and her patrols of the Eastern Seaboard. In the Spring of 1898, Texass near-sister ship (the other of the two original coastal defense ships) was destroyed by an explosion in Havana's harbor, and the United States went to war with the Spanish Empire. An American fleet including Texas was at Key West, and was part of the Flying Squadron in its engagements with Spanish fortifications on the Cuban coast. She saw real surface fleet combat on 3 July at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba alongside , , and against the fleet of Pascual Cervera y Topete as it tried to escape the American fleet and emerged with only light damage. After the war, Texas was decommissioned and refitted on two occasions before finally be declared obsolete in 1911 and permanently decommissioned and converted into a target ship in the same year. On 15 February 1911, Texas was christened as San Marcos to free the name up for the dreadnought , and was then sunk in the waters of Tangier Sound by 's guns. The remains of the San Marcos continued to be used for gunnery practice after her sinking until January 1959, when vast quantities of explosives were used to bury her remains.
Pre-dreadnought battleships
Indiana class
USS Iowa
Kearsarge class
Illinois class
Displacement: 11,565 tons
Armament: 4 × 13 in (330 mm) (2x2), 14 × 6 in (152 mm) (14x1), 16 × 6 pounders (2.7 kg) (16x1), 6 × 1 pounders (454 g) (6x1), 4 torpedo tubes
Speed: 17 knots
Ships in class: 3: , , and
Commissioned: 16 October 1900 (Alabama)
Decommissioned 15 May 1920 (Illinois, Wisconsin)
Fate: Illinois transferred to New York Naval Militia 1921, renamed Prairie State 1941, scrapped 1956; Alabama sunk as target 1921; Wisconsin scrapped 1922.
Maine class
Virginia class
Displacement: 15,000 tons
Armament: 4 × 12 in (305 mm) (2x2), 8 × 8 in (203 mm) (4x2), 12 × 6 in (152 mm) guns (12x1), 24 1-pounders (24x1), 4 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor: Belt 11 inches; Turret 12 inches; Deck 3 inches
Speed: 19 knots
Ships in class: 5: , , , , and
Commissioned: 19 February 1906 (Rhode Island)
Decommissioned: 13 August 1920 (Virginia)
Fate: Virginia and New Jersey sunk as targets, remainder sold for scrap, 1923
Connecticut class
Displacement: 16,000 tons
Armament: 4 × 12 in (305 mm) (2x2), 8 × 8 in (203 mm) (4x2), 12 × 7 in (178 mm) (12x1), 10 × 3 in (76 mm) (10x1), 4 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor: 11in Belt / 3in Deck
Speed: 18 knots
Ships in class: 6: , , , , , and
Commissioned: 2 June 1906 (Louisiana)
Decommissioned: 1 March 1923 (Connecticut)
Fate: Scrapped 1923–24
Mississippi class
Displacement: 13,000 tons
Armament: 4 × 12 in (305 mm) (2 × 2), 8 × 8 in (203 mm) (4 × 2), 8 × 7 in (178 mm) (8x1), 12 × 3 in (76 mm) (12 × 1), 6 × 3 pounder gun (6 × 1), 2 × 1-pounder Mark 6 (2 × 1), 6 × .30-caliber machine guns (6 × 1), 2 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor:
Speed: 17 knots
Ships in class: 2: and
Commissioned: 1 February 1908 (Mississippi)
Fate: Decommissioned 30 July 1914 and sold to Greece. Kilkis (ex-Mississippi) and Limnos (ex-Idaho) sunk by German bombers in April 1941.
Dreadnought battleships
South Carolina class
Displacement: 16,000 tons
Armament: 8 × 12 in (305 mm) guns (4 × 2), 22 × 3 in (76 mm) (22x1), 2 × 3 pounder (2 × 1), 2 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor: 12” belt, 2.5" deck
Speed: 18 knots
Ships in class: 2: and
Commissioned: 4 January 1910 (Michigan)
Decommissioned: 11 February 1922 (Michigan)
Fate: Scrapped 1924
Delaware class
Displacement: 20,380 tons
Armament: 10 × 12 in (305 mm) (5x2), 14 × 5 in (127 mm) (14x1), 22 × 3 in (76 mm) (22x1), 2 × 3 pounder (2x1) guns, 2 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor:
Speed: 21 knots
Ships in class: 2: and
Commissioned: 4 April 1910 (Delaware)
Decommissioned: 22 November 1923 (North Dakota)
Fate: Delaware scrapped 1924; North Dakota converted to target ship 1924, scrapped 1931
Florida class
Displacement: 21,800 tons
Armament: 10 × 12 in (305 mm) (5x2), 16 × 5 in (127 mm) (16x1), 2 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor:
Speed: 21 knots
Ships in class: 2: and
Commissioned: 31 August 1911 (Utah)
Decommissioned: 16 February 1931 (Florida)
Fate: Florida scrapped in 1932, Utah became target ship (AG-16) in 1931, sunk at Pearl Harbor in 1941
Wyoming class
Displacement: 26,000 tons
Armament: 12 × 12 in (305 mm) (6x2), 21 × 5 in (127 mm) (21x1), two 3-inch (3x1), 2 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor: 11in Belt / 2in Deck
Speed: 20.5 knots
Ships in class: 2: and
Commissioned: 17 September 1912 (Arkansas)
Decommissioned: 1 August 1947 (Wyoming)
Fate: Wyoming became a training ship (AG-17) in 1931, scrapped in 1947. Arkansas sunk at Operation Crossroads in 1946
New York class
Displacement: 27,200 tons
Armament: 10 × 14 in (356 mm) (5x2), 21 5-inch (21x1), two 3-inch (2x1), 2 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor: 12in Belt
Speed: 21 knots
Ships in class: 2: and
Commissioned: 12 March 1914 (Texas)
Decommissioned: 21 April 1948 (Texas)
Fate: New York sunk as target 1948; Texas preserved as a memorial 1948
Standard-type battleships
The so-called "Standard-type" was a series of battleships ordered between 1911 and 1916, and incorporating a number of new features including "all or nothing" armor. Twelve of these battleships were constructed across five classes, and were commissioned between 1916 and 1923.
Nevada class
Displacement: 27,500 tons
Armament: 10 × 14 in (356 mm) (2x3, 2x2), 21 × 5 in (127 mm) (21x1), 4 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor:13.5in Belt / 2.9in Deck
Speed: 20 knots
Ships in class: 2: and
Commissioned: 11 March 1916 (Nevada)
Decommissioned: 29 August 1946 (Nevada)
Fate: Nevada sunk as target 1948; Oklahoma sunk at Pearl Harbor in 1941, raised and stripped of salvageable parts, sunk en route to scrapping 1947
Pennsylvania class
Displacement: 31,400 tons
Armament: 12 × 14 in (356 mm) (4x3), 22 × 5 in (127 mm) (22x1), 4 × 3 in (76 mm) (4x1), 2 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor: 13.5in Belt / 3in Deck
Speed: 21 knots
Ships in class: 2: and
Commissioned: both in 1916
Fate: Pennsylvania sunk after Operation Crossroads in 1946, Arizona destroyed at Pearl Harbor in 1941, designated as a memorial.
New Mexico class
Displacement: 32,000 tons
Armament: 12 × 14 in (356 mm) (4x3), 14 × 5 in (127 mm) (14x1), 2 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor: 13.5in Belt / 3.5in Deck
Speed: 21 knots
Ships in class: 3: , , and
Commissioned: 18 December 1917 (Mississippi)
Decommissioned: 17 September 1956 (Mississippi)
Fate: New Mexico & Idaho scrapped 1947; Mississippi converted to trials ship (AG-128) 1946, scrapped 1956
Tennessee class
Displacement: 32,300 tons
Armament: 12 × 14 in (356 mm) (4x3), 14 × 5 in (127 mm) (14x1), 2 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor: 13.5in Belt / 3.5in Deck
Speed: 21 knots
Ships in class: 2: , and
Commissioned: 3 June 1920 (Tennessee)
Decommissioned: 14 February 1947 (both)
Fate: sold for scrap 1959
Colorado class
Displacement: 32,600 tons
Armament: 8 × 16 in (406 mm) (4x2), 12 × 5 in (127 mm) (12x1), 8 × 3 in (76 mm) (8x1), 2 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor:13.5in Belt / 3.5in Deck
Speed: 21 knots
Ships in class: 4: , , , and
Commissioned: Maryland in 1921, Colorado and West Virginia in 1923, Washington not completed and sunk as target
Fate: Remaining three decommissioned 1947 and sold for scrap 1959.
South Dakota class (1920)
Displacement: 43,200 tons
Armament: 12 × 16 in (406 mm) (4x3), 16 × 6 in (152 mm) (16x1), 8 × 3 in (76 mm) (8x1), 2 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor: 13.5in Belt / 4.75in Deck
Speed: 23 knots
Ships in class: 6: , , , , , and
Fate: Because of the Washington Naval Treaty, all were cancelled and scrapped on their slips prior to launch in 1923.
Fast battleships
The term "fast battleship" was applied to new designs in the early 1910s incorporating propulsion technology that allowed for higher speeds without sacrificing armour protection. The US Navy began introducing fast battleships into service following the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936, with a total of ten across three classes entering service.
North Carolina class
Displacement: 35,000 tons
Armament: 9 × 16 in (406 mm) (3x3), 20 × 5 in (127 mm) (10x2), 16 × 1.1 inch AA (4x4)
Armor: 12in Belt / 7in Deck
Speed: 28 knots
Ships in class: 2: and
Commissioned: 1941
Fate: North Carolina preserved as memorial 1965; Washington scrapped 1962
South Dakota class (1939)
Displacement: 38,000 tons
Armament: 9 × 16 in (406 mm) (3×3), 20 (16 on South Dakota) × 5 inch (10 or 8 × 2), up to 68 × 40 mm AA (17 × 4), up to 76 × 20 mm AA (76x1), 3 aircraft
Armor: 12.2in Belt / 7.5in Deck
Speed: 27 knots
Ships in class: 4: , , , and
Commissioned: 1942
Fate: South Dakota and Indiana scrapped 1962 and 1963 respectively; Alabama preserved as memorial 1964; Massachusetts preserved as memorial 1965
Iowa class
Displacement: 48,500 tons
Armament: 9 × 16 in (406 mm) (3x3), 20 × 5 in (127 mm) (10x2), 80 × 40 mm AA (20x4), 49 × 20 mm AA (49x1) (1980s modification added 32 × Tomahawk and 16 × Harpoon missiles and 4 × Phalanx CIWS, and deleted 8 5-in guns and all other light anti-aircraft gun systems)
Armor: 12in Belt / 7.5in Deck
Speed: 33 knots
Ships in class: 6: , , , , , and
Commissioned: Four commissioned; first, Iowa 1943; last, Missouri 1944.
Fate: Iowa preserved as memorial in San Pedro, California; Missouri preserved as memorial at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; Wisconsin preserved as memorial in Norfolk, Virginia; New Jersey preserved as memorial in Camden, NJ; Illinois cancelled and scrapped on slip (bell currently at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign's Memorial Stadium (Champaign), home of the Illinois Fighting Illini football team, traditionally rung when the Illini score a touchdown); Kentucky launched 1950, not completed, scrapped 1958.
Montana class
Displacement: 65,000 tons
Armament: 12 × 16 in (406 mm) (4x3), 20 × 5 in (127 mm) (10x2), undesignated number of 40 mm and 20 mm
Armor: 16in Belt / 8.2in Deck
Speed: 28 knots
Ships in class: 5: , , , , and
Fate: All cancelled in 1943 before being laid down
See also
List of battleships
Timeline of battleships of the United States Navy
Notes
Footnotes
Citations
References
Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
Journals
; cited in
Publications
Online resources
Battleships of the United States Navy
Battleships
United S
Battleships list
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Morey
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Samuel Morey
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Samuel Morey (October 23, 1762 – April 17, 1843) was an American inventor, who worked on early internal combustion engines and was a pioneer in steamships who accumulated a total of 20 patents.
Early life
The son of a Revolutionary War Officer. He was the second of seven children born to Israel Morey (1735–1809) and Martha Palmer (1733–1810) and was born in Hebron, Connecticut, but moved to Orford, New Hampshire, with his family in 1768. His father Israel Morey served in the colonial militia and rapidly rose from private to general. Samuel Morey operated a successful lumber business in Orford and Fairlee, Vermont. He died in 1843, and was buried in Orford. Lake Morey in Vermont is named in his honor.
Steam work
Morey's first patent, in 1793, was for a steam-powered spit, but he had grander plans. Morey realized that steam could be a power source in the 1780s, and he probably appreciated a steamboat's potential from work on his father's ferry and the locks he designed along the Connecticut river. In the early 1790s he fitted a paddle wheel and steam engine to a small boat and powered it up and down the Connecticut River. Legend has it, this was done on a Sunday morning, when the town was at church, to avoid ridicule if he failed.
The most important aspect of this craft was the paddle wheel. It was an old idea – supposedly dating to antiquities – and previously tried with a steam engine. Jonathan Hulls of England used a rear-mounted paddle wheel in 1737 but an inefficient method of turning the steam engine's reciprocating motion into the circular motion hobbled it. In 1789, Nathan Reed of Massachusetts experimented with a paddle wheel, and considered patenting it, but eventually patented a different method instead. The American John Fitch experimented with side-mounted paddle wheels, but in 1791 used and patented oars instead. Morey's may have been the first successful use of a steam power paddle wheel, which was the best method of propulsion until the propeller, invented by Fitch, was perfected.
A Road Marker in Vermont is inscribed with his accomplishment, "Samuel Morey, resident of Orford (New Hampshire) and later Fairlee (Vermont), successfully operated a steamboat on the Conn. River in 1793. Making over 4000 experiments, this early scientist patented an internal combustion engine in 1826 to anticipate the age of the motor car and airplane."
Morey's first boat was little more than a proof of concept, so he built another in New York. In a letter to New York legislator William Duer, Morey describes how over the next three summers he traveled down to New York, and the following summer to Hartford, Connecticut to improve and exhibit his boat. Finally, in 1797 he went to Bordentown, New Jersey (a stop on Fitch's failed Philadelphia-to-Trenton passenger service), because it was “sickly in New York”, and built a boat employing two side-mounted paddle wheels. At this point, Morey considered his boat ready for commercial use and sought financial backers. For reasons that are unclear, his backing fell through because of “a series of misfortunes”. This is likely the end of Morey's direct work with steamboats – although there are many tales of a later fourth steamboat– but not the end of his steam engine patents. In addition to one received in 1795 for improvements he made working on the steam engine in boat, he received patents for other applications and improvements in 1799, 1800, and 1803.
Despite Morey's success in building a working steamboat, credit for the first successful steamboat line goes to Robert Fulton and his financier, Chancellor Robert Livingston. This was a cause for contention, as Morey claims that they took some of his ideas. His account, which seems more reasonable than later, derived accounts, is laid out in his letter to Duer and is as follows. The summer after the one Morey spent at Hartford, he returned to New York and gave Livingston a ride in his boat (perhaps at the advice of Benjamin Silliman – publisher of Morey's papers – who knew Livingston to be a supporter of the arts). He was impressed and offered Morey a “considerable sum” if he could improve the boat's speed to 8 miles per hour. He also offered $7,000 for the rights to use his current work around New York but Morey declined the offer. However, he continued working towards Livingston's speed goal. Morey had conversations with Fulton and Livingston, and Livingston even traveled to Orford to see him (although Morey doesn't say when or what was discussed). Later, Morey reportedly was aboard Fulton's boat and expressed to Fulton his displeasure that his ideas had netted Fulton much but nothing for himself.
In 1815, Morey patented a “revolving” steam engine, described at length in the American Journal of Science in 1819 by John Sullivan, its purchaser. With the exception of one harsh initial review predicting that it would barely work – which was rebuffed by Sullivan, it was apparently well received and Sullivan's description appeared in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal along with an introduction praising American steam engine and boat refinements. Instead of a stationary cylinder driving a rod that turns a wheel through a second linkage, it seems that the cylinder is allowed to pivot as the rod moves, which then turns a crank. The cylinder's pivot doubles as a valve that controls the direction and flow of steam according to its position. The claimed advantages of this configuration are lightweight, high-speed operation, durable construction, and low cost. This engine met with some commercial success; recorded applications include tugboats, a glass factory, and a sawmill in the Boston naval yard. One tugboat even sailed to South Carolina, where its owner was pleased by its performance. Morey received one more steam patent in 1817 but his interest had been captured by experiments with flammable vapors, which had started some time before.
Experiments with vapors and combustion
In an 1834 letter to Silliman, Morey wrote: “It is now more than twenty years since I have been in the constant, I may say daily practice of making experiments on the decomposition of water, by mixing with its vapor that of spirits of turpentine, and a great portion of atmospheric air.” This would seem to understate the scope of some research that led to such diverse discoveries as the liquid fueled internal combustion engine, a method for carbonating water, and odd bubbles formed by molten resin. The last two appeared in journals in England and Germany, respectively. Morey noted differences in flames near knots, perhaps rich in sap, or in wet wood. Eventually he experimented with anything he could find: “tar, rosin, rough turpentine, or the spirit, or alcohol, or any kind of oil, fat, or tallow; mineral coal, pitch-pine wood, and the knots, birch bark, pumpkin, sun-flower, flax, and other seeds; as well as many other substances.”
His experiments are described at length over several articles in the American Journal of Science and Arts. They are light on theory, and Silliman comments that “[Morey's] results are often very valuable, and perhaps, in some cases, not the less so, for having been sought without the direction of preconceived, theoretical views.” This is mostly true; theory enters into these articles mostly for possible explanations. However, in 1834, 15 years after his first publication on the subject, he proposes a theory of combustion that has electricity as its basic force. Hints of this theory may be visible in his first paper, but his early experiments were not guided by it.
His first practical application was to heat water for his revolving engine. He observed that passing steam over burning coal or tar caused the flames to burn brighter and without smoke, and he theorized that the steam was decomposed in this process. Word of these experiments reached the eminent French chemist Gay-Lussac, and he commented on them in Annales de Chimie et de Physique in 1819. He contended that the temperature was insufficient to cause decomposition. Instead, the steam freed more flammable vapors in the fuel causing the flame's change. Morey was correct. He produced what is now known as town gas. The oxygen from the water combines with carbon from the fuel to form carbon monoxide and the hydrogen forms a diatomic molecule. Both later burn to form water and carbon dioxide. Morey was not the first to use water-gas for lighting, and his devices, including the patented 1818 American Water Burner, simply used the gas immediately instead of piping it to be burnt elsewhere, done as early as 1792 in England. Morey apparently did not know of this advance or at least did not recognize it as the same process. Strangely, in 1819 J. F. Dana of Dartmouth and Harvard proposed attaching steam boilers to street lamps to take advantage of Morey's discovery, but water-gas was already being piped to some London street lamps from a central source in 1812. Still, Morey's device did produce more light, and there is evidence that it resulted in more efficient combustion.
Internal combustion work
During his experiments, Morey discovered that the vapor of turpentine, when mixed with air, was explosive. He recognized its potential, developed an engine, and wrote an unpublished description in 1824, which he modified in 1825 and 1826. He finally published and patented the idea later in that year. The revisions between the drafts are small, and deal mostly with reworking of the engine's valves.
The engine has much in common with modern ones. It has two cylinders, a carburetor, a familiar arrangement of valves and cams. However, unlike modern engines, and unlike the earlier 1807 François Isaac de Rivaz engine, the explosion did not directly provide power. Instead, the explosion expelled air from the cylinder through a one-way valve. The cylinder was cooled by a water jacket and water injected into the combustion chamber after it fired. The cooling gasses caused a vacuum and atmospheric pressure drove the piston. Morey did mention trying direct action, and elaborated on it in other descriptions. However, his method was more complicated and possibly less efficient because it used more of the engine's stroke to draw in fuel.
Morey demonstrated his engine in New York and Philadelphia and there are eyewitness reports for both. In Philadelphia, he demonstrated it powering a boat and a wagon. Unfortunately, when he decided to demonstrate the car on the street, he fell off after starting the engine and the vehicle powered across Market Street into a ditch. This was the second car ride in the world, and the first in the United States. Despite these mostly successful demonstrations, Morey could not find a buyer, and became frustrated. A letter from Reverend Dana of Orford written in October 1829 tells of Morey's trip to Baltimore, “I am told, the Capt. is determined to make one more vigorous effort, to sell his patent right for some of his modern inventions [he later singles out the vapor engine], and if he does not now succeed, he will give the matter up, and return to Orford, to spend his days in quiet.” Morey did not find a buyer, and as he was then in his late 60s, it made sense to stop traveling up and down the east coast and call it quits.
While the engine was state of the art, it was not novel in many respects. Morey seemed aware of contemporary internal combustion work – Hardenberg, who wrote a book on Morey's engine, adeptly noted that in his 1825 draft Morey “stated that he named his invention ‘vapor engine, to distinguish it from the… gas engine.’” However, Hardenberg concludes that Morey could only have known of three engines similar to his. He never mentioned them, and Hardenberg concludes that they did not influence Morey. His internal combustion engine is the first documented in the United States, and his use of liquid fuel and a heated surface carburetor was world's first. Another interesting feature was the wire mesh used to prevent the combustion from reaching the carburetor. This feature was reinvented and patented again in 1872 because the patent office had lost Morey’s patent in the 1836 patent office fire. The lack of interest in his vapor engine is unfortunate, because the vapor engine was his most farsighted invention. Morey notes in his unpublished 1824 draft that:
He mentions "the earth's surface" because elsewhere he proposed using the engine to propel balloons. Now that the internal combustion engine's potential has been realized, people often focus on his engine. The first push to popularize his work was done by Charles Duryea, a fellow inventor who produced the first gasoline engine in America around 1890. He funded the creation of two working replicas of Morey's Engine — one is in the possession of the Smithsonian and the other is owned by Dean Kamen — and posited that Morey's engine was a direct precursor of the modern engine, a position with which others disagree. Recently, Morey's work has received renewed attention by people other than locals and engineers, in particular American comedian Jay Leno, who is an avid car collector.
Writing
Patent "discovery"
In 2004, 10 of Morey's patents, including the one for the internal combustion engine, were "found" in the Dartmouth College archives. In truth, they had never really been lost.
Morey holds the earliest patent for an internal-combustion engine. Other patents include a steam-powered rotisserie.
Honors
Samuel Morey Elementary School
Articles by Samuel Morey
"On preserving Indian Corn from frost", Memoirs of the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture, Volume 4
"On a new revolving steam engine", Edinburgh Philosophical Journal 1 (1819): pp. 348–352 (also in American Journal of Science 1818)
"On the Revolving Steam Engine" of SAMUEL MOREY. J. L. SULLIVAN. American Journal of Science and Arts, 4, 57, (1819).
"On the Revolving Steam Engine". ISAAC DOOLITTLE. American Journal of Science and Arts, 2, 101, (1820).
"On A New Means of Producing Heat and Light". SULLIVAN. American Journal Of Science and Arts, 1, 91 (1819).
"On heat and light", American Journal of Science and Arts 2 (1820): pp. 118–132.
"On Heat and Light". MOREY. American Journal of Science and Arts, 2, 118, 122 (1820).
"Bubbles blown in Melted Rosin." MOREY. American Journal of Science and Arts, 2, 179 (1820).
"On artificial mineral waters, with some remarks on artificial light", American Journal of Science and Arts 3 (1821): pp. 94–102.
"On Fetid Crystallized Limestone". MOREY. American Journal of Science and Arts, 3, 324 (1821).
"Remarks on the patent Water-Burner". American Journal of Science and Arts 7 (1824): pp. 141–145.
"An account of a new explosive engine, generating a power that may be substituted for that of the steam engine". American Journal of Science and Arts 11 (1826): pp. 104–110.
"An Account of a New Explosive Engine", generating a Power that may be Substituted for that of the Steam Engine. MOREY. American Journal of Science and Arts, r I, 104 ( 1826). Journal Of the Franklin Institute, 2, 115 (1826).
"Observations on combustion and the powers concerned in that process", American Journal of Science and Arts 25 (1834): pp. 146–151.
Recovered X-patents
Granted July 14, 1815
Patents continued:
95X Improvement in Applying Steam
107X Raising Water by Wind
244X Obtaining force from water by steam
462X Steam Engine Samuel Morey, Rufus Graces, Richard Giles
1740X Power from difference between rarefied and unrarefied air Mode of obtaining power between the difference of a column of rarified and unrarified air. Samuel Morey, Philadelphia, PA
1867X Fireplace and chimney for saving fuel
2753X Boiler for steam engines
3042X Treble pipe steam boiler
3043X Improvement on the American water burner
See also
1877 U. S. Patent Office fire
1836 U.S. Patent Office fire
History of the internal combustion engine
Horst O. Hardenberg, "The Middle Ages of the I.C. Engine" (Warrendale, 1999) pages 115-132.
Samuel Morey papers, 1793 - 1860, Dartmouth Library
References
Sources
Capt. Samuel Morey who Built a Steamboat Fourteen Years Before Fulton by Gabriel Farrell, 1915
Who invented the American Steamboat? A Statement of the Evidence that the First American Steamboat, Propelled by Means of Paddle Wheels, was Invented, Constructed, and Successfully Operated on Connecticut River, about 1792, by Captain Samuel Morey, of Orford, N.H., and that Robert Fulton Saw the Boat in Operation by the Antiquarian Society, 1874
Samuel Morey: The Edison of His Day by George Carter, The Rumford Press, 1945.
Frederick H. Getman, "Samuel Morey, a Pioneer of Science in America", Osiris 1 (Jan., 1936): 278–302.
"American Water Burner", The American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review (1819), Volumes 3–4, p. 310.
External links
Early patent records found in Dartmouth library
The Unsolved Mystery of Samuel Morey
The Papers of Samuel Morey at Dartmouth College Library
1762 births
1843 deaths
People from Fairlee, Vermont
18th-century American inventors
19th-century American inventors
People from Orford, New Hampshire
Place of death missing
Burials in New Hampshire
People from Hebron, Connecticut
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204570
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen%20Corr
|
Karen Corr
|
Karen Corr (born 10 November 1969) is a professional pool and former snooker and English billiards player representing Northern Ireland, and was inducted in the BCA Hall of Fame in 2012.
Early life
Corr was born on 10 November 1969 in Ballymoney, Northern Ireland and spent her early childhood near Maghera. When she was 8 years old, her family moved to England. She loved watching snooker matches on television and joined a snooker club at the age of 14 with her dad and her brother. Her friends in Bourne saw that she had exceptional snooker skills and encouraged her to play in tournaments.
Snooker and pool career
At the age of 15, she entered into her first tournament in Leicester and never looked back. Bolstered with confidence, she continued to play in tournaments and rapidly became a top–notch snooker player supported by her family. On the day after her 21st birthday, Corr won her first Women's World Snooker Championship. She would go on to repeat that feat in 1995 and 1997. She also won the World Women's Billiards Championship in 1998 and 1999.
A recession in the mid 1990s and increased restrictions on tobacco sponsorship caused prize funds to rapidly decrease for snooker events outside the World Championship. This forced Corr to look elsewhere for profitable tournament play. Fellow snooker player Julie Kelly told her about the WPBA Tour in the United States. Corr moved to America in 1998 to see how well she could play pool. After winning ten consecutive qualifying events, she was able to compete in the professional WPBA events.
By the end of 1998, Corr was ranked #24. At the end of 1999, she was ranked # 4. By the end of 2000, she was ranked 2nd in the world.
Corr won her first WPBA Classic Tour title, "The 2000 Cuetec Cues Players Championship" in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. She completed that year with two more Classic tour titles. She also won the "All Japan Open Championship" held in Osaka, Japan. She placed second in the "WPA Women's World Championship" and in the "UCC World Ladies Championship" held in Tokyo, Japan.
In 2001, she became the first person to win every WPBA Classic tour event in the same season since they began. She won the silver medal at the World Games and placed 2nd at the World Championships. Before 2001 ended, Corr found herself at the top, the No. 1 ranked player in the World and remained there for 2 years.
Since then, she has been a leading player in women's pool. The crowning achievement of her career came on 26 October 2012, when Corr was formally inducted into the Greatest Player wing of the BCA Hall of Fame. Her Hall of Fame induction announcement stated "her quick rise to the top and her consistent dominance on American soil has earned her the only spot in this year's BCA Hall of Fame class."
She has been runner-up at the World 9-ball Championship four times.
Titles and achievements
Pool
Member – BCA Hall of Fame (Greatest Player Category)
Snooker
English billiards
References
External links
Karen Corr's Official website
Karen Corr on Xtreme Pressbox
Karen Corr image gallery
BCA website - Hall of Fame section
Pool players from Northern Ireland
Snooker players from Northern Ireland
Players of English billiards from Northern Ireland
1969 births
Living people
Female players of English billiards
Female pool players
Female snooker players
People from Ballymoney
World Games silver medalists
Competitors at the 2001 World Games
World champions in English billiards
|
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] |
204577
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quercus%20bicolor
|
Quercus bicolor
|
Quercus bicolor, the swamp white oak, is a North American species of medium-sized trees in the beech family. It is a common element of America's north central and northeastern mixed forests. It can survive in a variety of habitats. It forms hybrids with bur oak where they occur together in the wild.
Description
Quercus bicolor grows rapidly and can reach tall with the tallest known reaching and lives up to 285 years. The bark resembles that of the white oak. The leaves are broad ovoid, long and broad, always more or less glaucous on the underside, and are shallowly lobed with five to seven lobes on each side, intermediate between the chestnut oak and the white oak. In autumn, they turn brown, yellow-brown, or sometimes reddish, but generally, the color is not as reliable or as brilliant as the white oak can be. The fruit is a peduncled acorn, (rarely ) long and broad, maturing about 6 months after pollination.
https://www.mortonarb.org/files/trees-plants/Quercus-bicolor-fall-sm-JH.jpg
Habitat
The swamp white oak generally occurs singly in four different forest types: black ash–American elm–red maple, silver maple–American elm, bur oak, and pin oak–sweetgum. Occasionally the swamp white oak is abundant in small areas. It is found within a very wide range of mean annual temperatures from . Extremes in temperature vary from . Average annual precipitation is from . The frost-free period ranges from 210 days in the southern part of the growing area to 120 days in the northern part. The swamp white oak typically grows on hydromorphic soils. It is not found where flooding is permanent, although it is usually found in broad stream valleys, low-lying fields, and the margins of lakes, ponds, or sloughs. It occupies roughly the same ecological niche as pin oak but is not nearly as abundant. While pin oak seldom lives longer than 100 years; swamp white oak may live up to 300 years.
Range
Swamp white oak, a lowland tree, occurs across the eastern and central United States and eastern and central Canada, from Maine to South Carolina, west as far as Ontario, Minnesota, and Tennessee with a few isolated populations in Nebraska and Alabama. This species is most common and reaches its largest size in western New York and northern Ohio.
Cultivation and uses
It is one of the more important white oaks for lumber production. The wood is similar to that of Q. alba and is not differentiated from it in the lumber trade. In recent years, the swamp white oak has become a popular landscaping tree due to its relative ease of transplanting.
Being in the white oak group, wildlife such as deer, bear, turkey, ducks, and geese as well as other animals are attracted to this tree when acorns are dropping in the fall.
Cultivars
A mix of Quercus robur fastigiata x Quercus bicolor, named 'Nadler' or the Kindred Spirit hybrid oak, exists.
References
External links
Quercus bicolor images from Vanderbilt University
photo of herbarium specimen at Missouri Botanical Garden, collected in Missouri in 1934
bicolor
Trees of Eastern Canada
Trees of the Eastern United States
Trees of the North-Central United States
Trees of the Northeastern United States
Trees of humid continental climate
Plants described in 1801
Taxa named by Carl Ludwig Willdenow
|
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204581
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagaudae
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Bagaudae
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Bagaudae (also spelled bacaudae) were groups of peasant insurgents in the later Roman Empire who arose during the Crisis of the Third Century, and persisted until the very end of the Western Empire, particularly in the less-Romanised areas of Gallia and Hispania, where they were "exposed to the depredations of the late Roman state, and the great landowners and clerics who were its servants".
The invasions, military anarchy, and disorders of the third century provided a chaotic and ongoing degradation of the regional power structure within a declining Empire into which the bagaudae achieved some temporary and scattered successes, under the leadership of members of the underclass as well as former members of local ruling elites.
Etymology
The name probably means "fighters" in Gaulish. C.E.V. Nixon assesses the bagaudae, from the official Imperial viewpoint, as "bands of brigands who roamed the countryside looting and pillaging". J.C.S. Léon interprets the most completely assembled documentation and identifies the bagaudae as impoverished local free peasants, reinforced by brigands, runaway slaves and deserters from the legions, who were trying to resist the ruthless labor exploitation of the late Roman proto-feudal colonus manorial and military systems, and all manner of punitive laws and levies in the marginal areas of the Empire.
Suppression
After the bagaudae came to the full attention of the central authorities about AD 284, the re-establishment of the settled social order was swift and severe: the peasant insurgents were crushed in AD 286 by the Caesar Maximian and his subordinate Carausius under the aegis of the Augustus Diocletian. Their leaders are mentioned as Amandus and Aelianus, although E.M. Wightman, in her Gallia Belgica proposes that the two belonged to the local Gallo-Roman landowning class who then became "tyrants" and most likely rebelled against the grinding taxation and garnishing of their lands, harvests, and manpower by the predatory agents of the late Roman state (see frumentarii, publicani).
The Panegyric of Maximian, dating to AD 289 and attributed to Claudius Mamertinus, relates that during the bagaudae uprisings of AD 284–285 in the districts around Lugdunum (Lyon), "simple farmers sought military garb; the plowman imitated the infantryman, the shepherd the cavalryman, the rustic harvester of his own crops the barbarian enemy". In fact they shared several similar characteristics with the Germanic Heruli people. Mamertinus also called them "two-shaped monsters" (monstrorum biformium), emphasising that while they were technically Imperial farmers and citizens, they were also marauding rogues who had become foes to the Empire.
Recurrences
The phenomenon recurred in the mid-fourth century in the reign of Constantius, in conjunction with an invasion of the Alemanni. Although Imperial control was re-established by the Frankish general Silvanus, his subsequent betrayal by court rivals forced him into rebellion and his work was undone. In around AD 360 the historian Aurelius Victor is the sole writer to note the attacks of bagaudae in the peripheries of the larger towns and walled cities.
In the fifth century Bagaudae are noted initially in the Loire valley and Brittany, circa AD 409–17, fighting various armies sent against them by the last seriously effective Western Roman general, Flavius Aëtius. Aetius used federates such as the Alans under their king Goar to try and suppress a Bacaudic revolt in Armorica. St Germanus got mercy for the Bagaudae but they later revolted again under a leader called Tibatto. They are also mentioned around the same time in the province of Macedonia, the only time they emerge in the Eastern Empire, which may be connected with economic hardships under Arcadius.
By the middle of the fifth century they are mentioned in control of parts of central Gaul and the Ebro valley. In Hispania, the king of the Suevi, Rechiar (died AD 456), took up as allies the local bagaudae in ravaging the remaining Roman municipia, a unique alliance between Germanic ruler and rebel peasant.
That the depredations of the ruling classes were mostly responsible for the uprising of the bagaudae was not lost on the fifth-century writer of historicised polemic Salvian; setting himself in the treatise De gubernatione Dei the task of proving God's constant guidance, he declares in book iii that the misery of the Roman world is all due to the neglect of God's commandments and the terrible sins of every class of society. It is not merely that slaves and servants are thieves and runaways, wine-bibbers and gluttons – the rich are much worse (iv. 3); it is their harshness and greed that drive the poor to join the bagaudae and flee for shelter to the barbarian invaders (v. 5 and 6).
Reputation
The reputation of the bagaudae has varied with the uses made of them in historicised narratives of the Late Roman Empire and the Middle Ages. There has been some speculation that theirs was a Christian revolt, but the sparsity of information in the texts gives that little substance although there may well have been many Christians among them. In general, they seem to have been equal parts of brigands and insurgents.
In the second half of the 19th century, interest in the bagaudae revived, resonating with contemporary social unrest. The French historian Jean Trithemié was famous for a nationalist view of the "Bagaudae" by arguing that they were an expression of national identity among the Gallic peasants, who sought to overthrow oppressive Roman rule and realize the eternal "French" values of liberty, equality and brotherhood.
Communist E. A. Thompson's assessment in Past and Present (1952) portrayed the phenomenon of these rural malcontents as so-called Marxist class warfare.
See also
Jacquerie
List of peasant revolts
Popular revolt in late medieval Europe
Citations
References
Thompson, E. A. Romans and Barbarians: The Decline of the Western Empire. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press) 1982.
Trithemié, Jean. Les Bagaudes et les origines de la nation française. 2 vols. (Paris: Les séries historiques, Ecole anormale supérieure), 1873.
Further reading
Léon, J. C. S. (1996). Les sources de l'histoire des Bagaudes. Paris.
Léon, J. C. S. (1996). Los bagaudas: rebeldes, demonios, mártires. Revueltas campesinas en Galia e Hispania durante el Bajo Imperio. University of Jaén.
3rd-century conflicts
280s establishments in the Roman Empire
450s disestablishments in the Roman Empire
3rd century in Roman Gaul
Ancient peoples
Ancient Roman outlaws
Crisis of the Third Century
Gaulish language
Insurgent groups in Europe
Organizations disestablished in the 5th century
Organizations established in the 3rd century
Peasant revolts
Rebellions against the Roman Empire
Spain in the Roman era
Tetrarchy
Armorica
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Five%20Forks
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Battle of Five Forks
|
The Battle of Five Forks was fought on April 1, 1865, southwest of Petersburg, Virginia, around the road junction of Five Forks, Dinwiddie County, at the end of the Siege of Petersburg, near the conclusion of the American Civil War.
The Union Army commanded by Major General Philip Sheridan defeated a Confederate force from the Army of Northern Virginia commanded by Major General George Pickett. The Union force inflicted over 1,000 casualties on the Confederates and took up to 4,000 prisoners while seizing Five Forks, the key to control of the South Side Railroad, a vital supply line and evacuation route.
After the Battle of Dinwiddie Court House (March 31) at about 10:00 pm, V Corps infantry began to arrive near the battlefield to reinforce Sheridan's cavalry. Pickett's orders from his commander General Robert E. Lee were to defend Five Forks "at all hazards" because of its strategic importance.
At about 1:00 pm, Sheridan pinned down the front and right flank of the Confederate line with small arms fire, while the massed V Corps of infantry, commanded by Major General Gouverneur K. Warren, attacked the left flank soon afterwards. Owing to an acoustic shadow in the woods, Pickett and cavalry commander Major General Fitzhugh Lee did not hear the opening stage of the battle, and their subordinates could not find them. Although Union infantry could not exploit the enemy's confusion, owing to lack of reconnaissance, they were able to roll up the Confederate line by chance, helped by Sheridan's personal encouragement. After the battle, Sheridan controversially relieved Warren of command of V Corps, largely due to private enmity. Meanwhile, the Union held Five Forks and the road to the South Side Railroad, causing General Lee to abandon Petersburg and Richmond, and begin his final retreat.
Background
Military situation
Siege of Petersburg
The 292-day Richmond–Petersburg Campaign (Siege of Petersburg) began when two corps of the Union Army of the Potomac, which were unobserved when leaving Cold Harbor at the end of the Overland Campaign, combined with the Union Army of the James outside Petersburg, but failed to seize the city from a small force of Confederate defenders at the Second Battle of Petersburg on June 15–18, 1864. Union General-in-Chief Ulysses S. Grant then had to conduct a campaign of trench warfare and attrition in which the Union forces tried to wear down the smaller Confederate Army, destroy or cut off sources of supply and supply lines to Petersburg and Richmond and extend the defensive lines which the outnumbered and declining Confederate force had to defend to the breaking point. The Confederates were able to defend Richmond and the important railroad and supply center of Petersburg, Virginia, south of Richmond for over 9 months against a larger force by adopting a defensive strategy and skillfully using trenches and field fortifications.
After the Battle of Hatcher's Run on February 5–7, 1865 extended the lines another , Lee had few reserves after manning the lengthened defenses. Lee knew that his defenses would soon become unsustainable and the best chance to continue the war was for part or all of his army to leave the Richmond and Petersburg lines, obtain food and supplies at Danville, Virginia or possibly Lynchburg, Virginia and join General Joseph E. Johnston's force opposing Major General William Tecumseh Sherman's army in North Carolina. If the Confederates could quickly defeat Sherman, they might turn back to oppose Grant before he could combine his forces with Sherman's. Lee began preparations for the movement and informed Confederate President Jefferson Davis and Confederate States Secretary of War John C. Breckinridge of his conclusions and plan.
Under pressure to maintain the defenses of Richmond from President Jefferson Davis and in any event unable to move effectively over muddy roads with poorly fed animals in winter, General Lee accepted a plan by Major General John B. Gordon to launch an attack on Union Fort Stedman designed to break Union lines east of Petersburg or at least compel Grant to shorten the Union Army lines. If this were accomplished, Lee would have a better chance to shorten the Confederate lines and send a substantial force, or nearly his whole army, to help Johnston.
Gordon's surprise attack on Fort Stedman in the pre-dawn hours of March 25, 1865 captured the fort, three adjacent batteries and over 500 prisoners while killing and wounding about 500 more Union soldiers. The Union IX Corps (Ninth Corps) under Major General John G. Parke promptly counterattacked. The IX Corps recaptured the fort and batteries, forced the Confederates to return to their lines and in places to give up their advance picket line. The IX Corps inflicted about 4,000 casualties, including about 1,000 captured, which the Confederates could ill afford.
Gains by the II Corps and VI Corps (Sixth Corps) on the afternoon of March 25, at the Battle of Jones's Farm, capturing Confederate picket lines near Armstrong's Mill and extending the left end of the Union line about closer to the Confederate fortifications, put the VI Corps within about of the Confederate line. After the Confederate defeats at Fort Stedman and Jones's Farm, Lee knew that Grant soon would move against the only remaining Confederate supply lines to Petersburg, the South Side Railroad and the Boydton Plank Road, and possibly cut off all routes of retreat from Richmond and Petersburg.
Beginning of Appomattox Campaign
Grant's orders
On March 24, 1865, the day before the Confederate attack on Fort Stedman, Grant already had planned for an offensive to begin March 29, 1865. The objectives were to draw the Confederates out into a battle where they might be defeated and, if the Confederates held their lines, to cut the remaining road and railroad supply and communication routes between areas of the Confederacy still under Confederate control and Petersburg and Richmond. The Battle of Fort Stedman had no effect on his plans. The Union Army lost no ground due to the attack, did not need to contract their lines and suffered casualties that were a small percentage of their force.
Grant ordered Major General Edward Ord to move part of the Army of the James from the lines near Richmond to fill in the line to be vacated by the II Corps under Major General Andrew A. Humphreys at the southwest end of the Petersburg line before that corps moved to the west. This freed two corps of Major General George Meade's Army of the Potomac for offensive action against Lee's flank and railroad supply lines: Major General Andrew A. Humphrey's II Corps and the V Corps commanded by Major General Gouverneur K. Warren. Grant ordered the two infantry corps, along with Major General Philip Sheridan's cavalry corps, still designated the Army of the Shenandoah, under Sheridan's command, to move west. Sheridan's cavalry consisted of two divisions commanded by Brigadier General Thomas Devin and Brigadier General (Brevet Major General) George Armstrong Custer but under the overall command of Brigadier General (Brevet Major General) Wesley Merritt, as an unofficial corps commander, and the division of Major General George Crook detached from the Army of the Potomac. Grant's objectives remained the same although he thought it unlikely the Confederates would be drawn into open battle.
Lee's orders
Confederate General-in-chief Robert E. Lee, who was already concerned about the ability of his weakening army to maintain the defense of Petersburg and Richmond, realized that the Confederate defeat at Fort Stedman would encourage Grant to make a move against his right flank and communication and transportation routes. On the morning of March 29, 1865, Lee already had prepared to send some reinforcements to the western end of his line and had begun to form a mobile force of about 10,600 infantry, cavalry and artillery under the command of Major General George Pickett and cavalry commander Major General Fitzhugh Lee. This force would go beyond the end of the line to protect the key junction at Five Forks from which a Union force could access the remaining open Confederate roads and railroads.
Union troop movements
Before dawn on March 29, 1865, Warren's V Corps moved west of the Union and Confederate lines while Sheridan's cavalry took a longer, more southerly route toward Dinwiddie Court House. Humphrey's II Corps filled in the gap between the existing end of the Union line and the new position of Warren's corps. Warren's corps led by Brigadier General Joshua Chamberlain's First Brigade of Brigadier General (Brevet Major General) Charles Griffin's First Division of the V Corps proceeded north on the Quaker Road toward its intersection with the Boydton Plank Road and the Confederates' nearby White Oak Road Line.
Battle of Lewis's Farm
Along Quaker Road, across Rowanty Creek at the Lewis Farm, Chamberlain's men encountered brigades of Confederate Brigadier Generals Henry A. Wise, William Henry Wallace and Young Marshall Moody which had been sent by Fourth Corps commander Lieutenant General Richard H. Anderson and his only present division commander, Major General Bushrod Johnson, to turn back the Union advance. A back-and-forth battle ensued during which Chamberlain was wounded and almost captured. Chamberlain's brigade, reinforced by a four-gun artillery battery and regiments from the brigades of Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Edgar M. Gregory and Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Alfred L. Pearson, who was later awarded the Medal of Honor, drove the Confederates back to their White Oak Road Line. Casualties for both sides were nearly even at 381 for the Union and 371 for the Confederates.
After the battle, Griffin's division moved up to occupy the junction of the Quaker Road and Boydton Plank Road near the end of the Confederate White Oak Road Line. Late in the afternoon of March 29, 1865, Sheridan's cavalry occupied Dinwiddie Court House on the Boydton Plank Road without opposition. The Union forces had cut the Boydton Plank Road in two places and were close to the Confederate line and in a strong position to move a large force against both the Confederate right flank and the crucial road junction at Five Forks in Dinwiddie County to which Lee was just sending Pickett's mobile force defenders. The Union Army was nearly in position to attack the two remaining Confederate railroad connections with Petersburg and Richmond, if they could take Five Forks.
Encouraged by the Confederate failure to press their attack at Lewis's Farm and their withdrawal to their White Oak Road Line, Grant decided to expand Sheridan's mission to a major offensive rather than just a possible battle or a railroad raid and forced extension of the Confederate line.
Battle of White Oak Road
On the morning of March 31, General Lee inspected his White Oak Road Line and learned that the Union left flank held by Brigadier General Romeyn B. Ayres's division had moved forward the previous day and was "in the air." A wide gap also existed between the Union infantry and Sheridan's nearest cavalry units near Dinwiddie Court House. Lee ordered Major General Bushrod Johnson to have his remaining brigades under Brigadier General Henry A. Wise and Colonel Martin L. Stansel in lieu of the ill Young Marshall Moody, reinforced by the brigades of Brigadier Generals Samuel McGowan and Eppa Hunton, attack the exposed Union line.
Stansel's, McGowan's and Hunton's brigades attacked both most of Ayres's division and all of Crawford's division which quickly had joined the fight as it erupted. In this initial encounter, two Union divisions of over 5,000 men were thrown back across Gravelly Run by three Confederate brigades. Brigadier General (Brevet Major General) Charles Griffin's division and the V Corps artillery under Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Charles S. Wainwright finally stopped the Confederate advance short of crossing Gravelly Run. Adjacent to the V Corps, Major General Andrew A. Humphreys conducted diversionary demonstrations and sent two of Brigadier General Nelson Miles's brigades from his II Corps forward. They initially surprised and, after a sharp fight, drove back Wise's brigade on the left of the Confederate line, taking about 100 prisoners.
At 2:30 pm, Brigadier General Joshua Chamberlain's men forded the cold, swollen Gravelly Run, followed by the rest of Griffin's division and then the rest of Warren's reorganized corps. Under heavy fire, Chamberlain's brigade, along with Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Edgar M. Gregory's brigade, charged Hunton's brigade and drove them back to the White Oak Road Line, allowing Chamberlain's and Gregory's men across White Oak Road. The remainder of the Confederate force then had to withdraw to prevent being outflanked and overwhelmed. Warren's corps ended the battle again across a section of White Oak Road between the end of the main Confederate line and Pickett's force at Five Forks, cutting direct communications between Anderson's (Johnson's) and Pickett's forces. Union casualties (killed, wounded, missing – presumably mostly captured) were 1,407 from the Fifth Corps and 461 from the Second Corps and Confederate casualties have been estimated at about 800.
Battle of Dinwiddie Court House
About 5:00 p.m. on March 29, 1865, Union Major General Philip Sheridan led two of his three divisions of Union cavalry, totaling about 9,000 men counting the trailing division, unopposed into Dinwiddie Court House, Virginia, about west of the end of the Confederate lines and about south of the important road junction at Five Forks, Virginia. Sheridan planned to occupy Five Forks the next day. That night, under orders from General Robert E. Lee, Confederate Major General Fitzhugh Lee led his cavalry division from Sutherland's Station to Five Forks to defend against an anticipated Union drive to the South Side Railroad which would be intended to cut use of that important final Confederate railroad supply line to Petersburg. Fitzhugh Lee arrived at Five Forks with his division early on the morning of March 30 and headed toward Dinwiddie Court House.
On March 30, 1865, in driving rain, Sheridan sent Union cavalry patrols from Brigadier General Thomas Devin's division to seize Five Forks, the key junction for reaching the South Side Railroad. Devin's force unexpectedly found and skirmished with units of Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry division. That night Confederate Major General George Pickett reached Five Forks with about 6,000 infantrymen in five brigades (under Brigadier Generals William R. Terry, Montgomery Corse, George H. Steuart, Matt Ransom and William Henry Wallace) and took overall command of the operation as ordered by General Lee. The cavalry divisions of Major Generals Thomas L. Rosser and W. H. F. "Rooney" Lee arrived at Five Forks late that night. Fitzhugh Lee took overall command of the cavalry and put Colonel Thomas T. Munford in charge of his own division.
The rain continued on March 31. Under Sheridan's direction, Brigadier General (Brevet Major General) Wesley Merritt sent two of Devin's brigades toward Five Forks and held one brigade in reserve at J. Boisseau's farm. Sheridan sent brigades or detachments from Major General George Crook's division to guard two fords of a swampy stream just to the west, Chamberlain's Bed, in order to protect the Union left flank from surprise attack and to guard the major roads. Dismounted Union troopers of Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Charles H. Smith's brigade armed with Spencer repeating carbines held up Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry attack at the southern ford, Fitzgerald's Ford. At about 2:00 pm, Pickett's force crossed the northern ford, Danse's Ford, against a small force from Brigadier General Henry E. Davies's brigade, which was left to hold the ford while much of the brigade unnecessarily moved to help Smith and could not return fast enough to help the few defenders.
Union brigades and regiments fought a series of delaying actions throughout the day but were consistently eventually forced to withdraw toward Dinwiddie Court House. The brigades of Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Alfred Gibbs and Brigadier General John Irvin Gregg, later joined by Colonel Smith's brigade, held the junction of Adams Road and Brooks Road for two to three hours. Meanwhile, Sheridan had called up Brigadier General (Brevet Major General) George Armstrong Custer with two brigades of his division under Colonels Alexander C. M. Pennington, Jr. and Henry Capehart. Custer set up another defensive line about north of Dinwiddie Court House, which together with Smith's and Gibbs's brigades, held off the attack by Pickett and Fitzhugh Lee until darkness ended the battle. Both armies initially stayed in position and close to each other after dark. The Confederates intended to resume the attack in the morning.
The Confederates did not report their casualties and losses. Historian A. Wilson Greene has written that the best estimate of Confederate casualties in the Dinwiddie Court House engagement is 360 cavalry, 400 infantry, 760 total killed and wounded. Union officers' reports showed that some Confederates also were taken prisoner. Sheridan suffered 40 killed, 254 wounded, 60 missing, total 354. Pickett lost Brigadier General William R. Terry to a disabling injury. Terry was replaced as brigade commander by Colonel Robert M. Mayo.
Opposing Forces
Union
Confederate
Battle
V Corps and Mackenzie's division join Sheridan
Early in the evening of March 31, 1865, Union V Corps commander, Major General Gouverneur K. Warren, recognized from the sound of battle that Sheridan's cavalry was being pushed back at Dinwiddie Court House and sent Brigadier General Joseph J. Bartlett's brigade to reinforce Sheridan. Moving cross country, Bartlett's men drove Confederate pickets from Dr. Boisseau's farm, just east of Crump Road. Since the Gravelly Run bridge on the Boydton Plank Road had been wrecked by the Confederates, Pearson was delayed. At about 8:20 pm, Warren told Meade about the needed bridge repair and possible delay but Meade did not pass the information to Sheridan.
Meade told Warren to have his entire force ready to move. By 9:17 pm, Warren was ordered to withdraw from the line and send a division to Sheridan at once. At 9:45 pm, Meade first advised Grant of Bartlett's forward location at Dr. Boisseau's farm and inquired of Grant whether Warren's entire corps should go to help Sheridan. Meade did not tell Grant that the plan to move Warren's entire corps to Sheridan's aid was Warren's idea.
When Grant then notified Sheridan that the V Corps and Ranald Mackenzie's division from the Union Army of the James had been ordered to his support, he gratuitously and without any basis said that Warren should reach him "by 12 tonight." It was impossible for the tired V Corps soldiers to cover about on dark, muddy roads with a bridge out over Gravelly Run along the way in about an hour. Through the night, no one gave Sheridan accurate and complete information about Warren's dispositions, logistical situation and when he received his orders. Nonetheless, Warren's supposed failure to meet his schedule was something for which Sheridan would hold Warren to account.
When Mackenzie's division reached Dinwiddie Court House about dawn, Sheridan ordered them to rest since they had been on the road since 3:30 am.
Meade's further order to send Griffin's division down the Boydton Plank Road and Ayres's and Crawford's divisions to join Bartlett at Dr. Boisseau's farm so they could attack the rear of the Confederate force did not acknowledge the large Confederate force at Dr. Boisseau's farm and the needed repair of the Gravelly Run bridge. Meade learned of the Gravelly Run bridge problem when the telegraph was restored at about 11:45 pm. Warren also received information from a staffer that a Confederate cavalry force under Brigadier General William P. Roberts held the junction of Crump Road and White Oak Road, threatening to hold up or stop a direct move by the V Corps to Dinwiddie Court House or Five Forks.
Warren rejected Meade's suggestion to consider alternate routes because it would take too long to move his corps, even considering the existing delays. Ayres had received Warren's order to move to the Boydton Plank Road at about 10:00 pm. This required him to move over about two miles of rough country and cross a branch Gravelly Run. Warren allowed Crawford's and Griffin's men to rest where they were until he learned that Ayres's division had made contact with Sheridan's cavalry.
Warren was told that the new Gravelly Run bridge was completed at 2:05 am. Ayres's division arrived at Sheridan's position near dawn. As predicted by Warren, the effect of Bartlett's appearance threatening Pickett's flank was enough for Pickett to withdraw to Five Forks, which the Confederates had done by the time Ayres reach Dinwiddie Court House. One of Sheridan's staff officers met Ayres and told him that his division should have turned on to Brooks Road, a mile back.<ref name="Trudeau24">Trudeau, Noah Andre. "Out of the Storm: The End of the Civil War, April–June 1865. Boston, New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1994. . p. 24.</ref> Ayres returned to Brooks Road, where a lone Confederate picket promptly fled as the division approached and, after Sheridan rode up for a brief meeting with Ayres, Ayres's men settled down for a rest until 2:00 pm.
At 4:50 am, Warren received Sheridan's 3:00 a.m. message to cooperate with the cavalry by hitting Pickett's retreating men in the flank and rear. This was similar to the plan Warren had proposed earlier in the evening but which had been given no consideration by Grant and Meade at that time. Warren personally began to arrange the move of Griffin's and Crawford's divisions. Warren had to carefully move Griffin's and Crawford's divisions because of the possibility of attack from the Confederates as the men withdrew from the White Oak Road Line and again at positions near Dinwiddie Court House where Confederates had been positioned while in contact with the Union cavalry earlier. Warren personally supervised Crawford's division's withdrawal and movement, leaving Warren at the end of the column when the troops moved. Despite Warren's problems and Pickett's earlier retreat which would have prevented Warren from reaching him short of Five Forks, Sheridan blamed Warren for slow movements which gave Pickett the time to complete his retreat.
About 5:00 am, Griffin's division was told to move to the left to J. Boisseau's house. Since Warren did not definitely know that Pickett had withdrawn his force, he still thought Griffin could intercept the Confederates. Griffin moved Chamberlain's brigade at the head of his column in line of battle with great care because Griffin thought they might strike the Confederate force if they emerged from White Oak Road while his division moved toward Crump Road. The Confederates did not attack and Griffin advanced on Crump Road. With a Confederate counterattack still thought to be possible as Crawford moved, Warren remained with Crawford until he reached Crump Road when Warren perceived that the Confederates from the White Oak Road Line were not going to wait for or follow the moving Union division.
Sheridan was upset that a chance to strike Pickett was lost and was even more upset to find out from Brigadier General Joshua Chamberlain at the head of Griffin's column at about 7:00 a.m. that Warren was at the end of the column. Sheridan exclaimed: "That is where I should expect him to be!" Warren's men knew this was an unfair comment because Warren had never shown a lack of personal bravery. Chamberlain's further explanation about why Warren was in that position seemed to calm Sheridan at the time. Warren thought he was doing what he should to be sure that disengagement of his corps in close contact with the enemy was made carefully. Sheridan instructed Griffin to place his men south of J. Boisseau's farm, while Ayres's remained south of Griffin. Crawford's division arrived soon thereafter. After seeing Crawford off and checking for any men or wagons not moving in the right direction, Warren and his staff then rode to join Griffin at about 9:00 am. Meanwhile, Griffin had met Devin's cavalry division at J. Boisseau's where he stopped his division and reported to Sheridan who was at the scene.
At 6:00 am, Meade's Chief of Staff, Brigadier General Alexander S. Webb, had sent an order to Warren to report to Sheridan for further orders, which officially transferred Warren and his corps to Sheridan's command at that time.Bearss, 2014, 457. Two of Warren's divisions had reported to Sheridan within an hour of the dispatch of that message.Longacre, 2003, p. 86. A staff officer rode up to Warren at about 9:00 a.m. and handed him Webb's message. At the same time that Webb sent this message to Warren, 6:00 am, Meade sent a telegram to Grant stating that Warren would be at Dinwiddie soon with his whole corps and would require further orders. Warren reported to Meade on the successful movement of the corps and stated that while he had not personally met with Sheridan, Griffin had spoken with him. Warren did not personally meet with Sheridan until 11:00 am.Bearss, 2014, p. 458. The failure of Warren to immediately report directly to Sheridan may have contributed to his being relieved from command later on April 1. At their brief meeting, Sheridan told Warren to hold his men at J. Boisseau's farm but expressed some displeasure with Warren's remarks during the meeting.
When Sheridan soon moved off to the front, he accepted distorted reports that the Confederate works were stronger than they were and extended further than they did. He did not want to scout them further because he thought his plans might be given away by such activity. This left the mistaken impression that the Confederate line extended about further to the east than it actually did.
Pickett withdraws to Five Forks
When Pickett became aware that Union infantry divisions were arriving near his flank at about 10:00 pm, he withdrew to his modest log and dirt defensive line about 1.75 miles (2.8 km) north at Five Forks.Greene, 2009, p. 182.Davis, Burke. To Appomattox: Nine April Days, 1865. New York: Eastern Acorn Press reprint, 1981. . First published New York: Rinehart, 1959. p. 40. The Confederates withdrew between 2:00 a.m. and 5:00 a.m., covered by Munford's cavalry and with Custer's men close behind but not forcing an engagement.
After Pickett returned to Five Forks on the morning of April 1, 1865, he surmised that the Union forces were organizing to attack his left flank. He later recalled that he sent a telegram to General Robert E. Lee asking for reinforcements and a diversion to prevent his force from being isolated by Sheridan's men coming between his force and the end of the White Oak Road defenses. Pickett also said that he would have deployed north of Hatcher's Run had he not received a telegram from General Lee that, according to many historians, stated:
Historian Edward G. Longacre discounts the reliability of the report of this message, saying it was recalled 30 years later by Pickett's widow, who tended to exaggerate, distort and falsify her husband's records. He wrote that Pickett's report only mentions Lee's direction to protect the road to Ford's Depot and that no copy of the message has ever been found, which historian Douglas Southall Freeman also had noted in 1944.
Robert E. Lee knew that if the Union Army could take Five Forks, they would be able to reach the South Side Railroad and the Richmond and Danville Railroad, cutting the major supply routes to and retreat routes from Petersburg and Richmond, cut the wagon roads to the west and circle around Hatcher's Run and attack the Confederate right flank. Even if it were not the best location for a defense, Five Forks had to be defended.Freeman, Douglas S. Lee's Lieutenants: A Study in Command. Gettysburg to Appomattox. Vol. 3 of 3 vols. New York: Scribner, 1944. . p. 662. Pickett later wrote that he assumed Lee had his message and would make a helpful diversion and send reinforcements.
The slow withdrawal and narrow roads kept the last of the Confederate force from reaching Five Forks until midmorning on April 1. When the Confederates reached Five Forks, they began to improve the trenches and fortifications, including establishing a return or refusal of the line running north of the left or eastern side of their trenches.Longacre, 2003, p. 82. While particular attention was given to improving the refused left flank, Pickett did not have the line that initially had been constructed when his men had reached Five Forks substantially improved after his men returned from Dinwiddie Court House.Hess, 2009, p. 261.Weigley, Russell F. A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2000. . p. 436. The location of the line was not well chosen because some of it was in low places.
Disposition of Confederate force
Not only did the Confederate line at Five Forks consist only of slim pine logs with a shallow ditch in front but Pickett's disposition of his force was poor. The cavalry in particular were poorly placed in wooded areas inundated by heavy streams so that they could only move to the front by a narrow road. The artillery was poorly placed by Pickett, especially Colonel Willie Pegram's three guns set at the center of the line. At the Warren Court of Inquiry 24 years later, Fitzhugh Lee said the Confederates made less careful dispositions than usual along White Oak Road at Five Forks because they expected to face only cavalry or to be supported by Lieutenant General Richard Anderson's corps if Union infantry left their lines to support Sheridan's force. Historian Ed Bearss has written that Fitzhugh Lee and Pickett either did not know the result of the Battle of White Oak Road or failed to realize its significance.Freeman, 1944, p. 664. Two of Major General Bushrod Johnson's brigades, from Anderson's only division, already were with Pickett and the troops left at White Oak Road and Claiborne Road were weakened and cut off to the west after the battle. General Lee decided to send no reinforcements to Pickett because he had no notification that Pickett's force was in trouble.
Pickett's line across Five Forks was dug mainly just north of White Oak Road, with a "refused" (bent back) left flank. It extended about about half on each side of the junction of White Oak Road with Dinwiddie Court House Road (Ford's Road to the north) and Scott Road. Pickett placed W. H. F. "Rooney" Lee's cavalry on the right of the line with Rufus Barringer's brigade watching the right flank at the western edge of Gilliam's farm. From right to left the line was held by the brigades of Brigadier General Montgomery Corse, Colonel Robert M. Mayo, who replaced the injured Brigadier General William R. Terry, and Brigadier Generals George H. Steuart, William Henry Wallace and Matt Ransom. On the left flank, the 8th Virginia Cavalry Regiment from Colonel Thomas T. Munford's division was in contact with the understrength cavalry brigade led by the Confederate Army's youngest general, Brigadier General William Paul Roberts. This small unit of a regiment plus a battalion was assigned to cover the between the end of Pickett's line and the end of the main Confederate defensive line at the junction of Claiborne Road and White Oak Road. The rest of Munford's division was positioned on Ford's Road behind the center of the line at Five Forks. Three of artillery Colonel Willie Pegram's six guns were placed along the line where fields of fire in the wooded location could be found, with the other three placed in battery at Five Forks. Four guns of Major William M. McGregor's Battalion were put on the right flank.Humphreys, 1883, p. 344.Davis, Burke, 1959, p. 42. Thomas L. Rosser's division was in reserve, watching the wagon train north of Hatcher's Run. Rosser later recalled that he asked for this assignment because his horses had been ridden hard and needed attention.
Pursuit of Pickett's force
At dawn on April 1, 1865, Custer reported to Sheridan that his scouts had found that the Confederates had withdrawn from their positions in front of the line confronting the final Union defensive line set up on the evening of March 31 about north of Dinwiddie Court House. After Pickett's withdrawal, Sheridan planned to attack the Confederates at Five Forks as soon as possible. Sheridan ordered Merritt to pursue Pickett's force with Custer's and Devin's divisions. Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) William Wells's brigade of Custer's division was recalled from guarding the wagon train.
When Custer reached the junction of Adams Road and Brooks Road with Pennington's and Capehart's brigades, he found Ayres's division of Warren's corps had arrived at that location about dawn.Greene, 2008, p. 184. Due to the wet ground, Merritt decided to deploy Custer's men dismounted and move them cross country to turn the Confederate right flank. Custer moved his men forward with Pennington's brigade on the left and Capehart's on the right, with Chamberlain's Bed and Bear Swamp to the cavalrymen's left. Custer's troopers captured a few Confederate stragglers and drove off a patrol guarding the Scott Road crossing of Bear Swamp. When Custer's men approached within several hundred yards of the Confederate defensive line at White Oak Road, he decided not to attack the apparently strong defenses but to send out combat patrols to test the line. They could not find a weak spot in the line so Custer told his men to hold their ground.
When Custer's troops moved off the Dinwiddie Court House Road, Merritt sent Devin's force up that road to J. Boisseau's farm where they met Griffin's division, which had begun to arrive about 7:00 am, with Crawford's division following soon thereafter. After Devin had met with Griffin, he moved toward Five Forks. Stagg's brigade discovered that Confederate infantry held the crossing of Chamberlain's Bed in force. Devin then sent Fitzhugh's dismounted brigade to ford the creek and establish a position on the other side. Stagg then sent his mounted force along with the 1st U.S. Cavalry Regiment to follow Fitzhugh's men across while the rest of Gibbs's brigade covered the right flank and rear of the division. Devin then sent the dismounted brigade flanked by the mounted troopers to take a wooded area between Chamberlain's Bed and White Oak Road. The mounted men got within of the Confederate line and some of the dismounted men even briefly crossed the line and brought back some prisoners before being driven off. Stagg dismounted his brigade and moved them into the line. Gibbs's brigade also was brought forward to oppose the center of the Confederate line and was dismounted except for one regiment, the 1st U.S. Cavalry.
Custer's division was on the left of the Union line and its farthest right brigade, Pennington's, was at first in contact with Stagg's 1st Michigan Cavalry from Devin's division but the 1st Michigan moved off to look for the rest of their brigade which was in the middle of Devin's line. Pennington then moved back to reform his line and to move to the right in thick woods about south of the Confederate line. After this move, Pennington was across Scott Road from Fitzhugh's brigade, rather than from Stagg's brigade. The dismounted troopers threw up log breastworks while waiting for further orders.
Wells's brigade of Custer's division arrived at Dinwiddie Court House with the wagons at 11:00 am. After Wells allowed his men to rest until 1:00 pm, they moved up to the battle line to report to Custer. Davies's and Smith's brigades of Crook's division were assigned to guard the wagon trains when Wells's brigade moved forward. One of Davies's regiments was sent to watch the Boydton Plank Road bridge across Stony Creek. Gregg's brigade of Crook's division was sent across Chamberlain's Bed at Fitzgerald's Ford to seize Little Five Forks. That junction controlled the roads to the left and rear of Custer's division. Gregg sent out patrols to be sure the Confederates could not make a surprise attack on Sheridan's left flank.
Grant sends Sheridan permission to relieve Warren
Just before noon, one of Grant's staff, Lieutenant Colonel Orville E. Babcock, told Sheridan:
Sheridan replied to Babcock that he hoped that would not be necessary. Grant had issued the order in part because a staff officer mistakenly reported to him at about 10:00 a.m. that Warren's corps still was held up at Gravelly Run. Warren did not hear about Grant's message but some word leaked out to V Corps generals including Griffin and Chamberlain.
Sheridan's plan of attack; V Corps called up
Sheridan then planned an attack where Custer would feint toward the Confederate right flank with Capehart's brigade, Warren's infantry corps would attack the left flank and Devin, joined by Pennington's brigade, would make a frontal attack on the Confederate entrenchments when they heard Warren's attack begin. Sheridan sent a staff officer to order up the V Corps and an engineer, Captain George L. Gillespie, to turn the front of Warren's Corps into Gravelly Run Church road obliquely to and a short distance from White Oak Road, about east of Five Forks. In the Warren Court of Inquiry in 1880, Gillespie testified that contrary to Sheridan's after action report, he had made no reconnaissance of the Confederate line and did not know there was a "return" on the left flank. He only knew he was to align the V Corps with the right flank of Devin's division and have them positioned as a turning column a short distance from White Oak Road and about east of Five Forks.Bearss, 2014, pp. 476–477.
Gillespie reached Warren at J. Boisseau's farm at 1:00 p.m. with Sheridan's instructions. Upon hearing Sheridan's order, Warren sent Colonel Henry C. Bankhead to have the division commanders move up at once. Bankhead gave Crawford and Griffin the message and sent another officer to contact Ayres while he waited to see that the orders were obeyed as promptly as possible by the divisions at the farm.
Warren went to see Sheridan who briefly and tersely explained to him the tactical situation and plan of operations. Warren then rode to examine the ground where his men were to be massed on Gravelly Run Church Road and he sent his escort to patrol as far as White Oak Road to prevent the Confederates from discovering the V Corps' movement.Trudeau, 1994, p. 29.
Sheridan told Warren to advance with his entire corps in a two-division front oblique to the road with the third division following in reserve. He wanted the attack in a single blow and not piecemeal. Otherwise, Warren could determine the number of assault waves and length of the line. Warren decided that each division should put two brigades in front in double battle lines with their third brigade centered behind the first two. Warren's corps would cover about a front with about 12,000 officers and men, reduced from 15,000 by casualties, detachments and stragglers over the past 3 days.
Crawford's division reached Gravelly Run Church first and deployed as Warren instructed. Griffin's division arrived soon after Crawford's. Warren showed him where to set up and asked him to be as expeditious as possible in forming his line. Ayres's division arrived last and Warren also asked him at least twice to move expeditiously.Humphreys, 1883, p. 346.
If the angle or "return" in the Confederate line had been where Warren was led to believe it was, Crawford's men would hit it first and Griffin would be with him to reinforce the attack.Hess, 2008, p. 262 Ayres division would prevent the Confederate troops in the earthworks facing White Oak Road from reinforcing Ransom's brigade which was holding the return. Warren prepared a sketch map of the presumed situation for the division commanders.Humphreys, 1883, p. 345. Warren had to draw up the orders in reliance on what he was told about the location of the Confederate line and without making a personal reconnaissance. Colonel James W. Forsyth, Sheridan's chief of staff said that Sheridan also saw a copy of Warren's diagram and instructions and approved them.Bearss, 2014, pp. 479–480. The instructions directed the corps to advance northwestwardly to the White Oak Road, wheel to the left, take a position at right angles to the road and that as soon as they were engaged, Custer's and Devin's men were to charge along the rest of the line. No cavalry were on the right with the V Corps but Mackenzie's troopers were reported to be advancing on White Oak Road toward the V Corps' position.
The ground where the V Corps formed was rough, wooded and filled with ravines. Since the Confederate breastworks could not be seen from this location, the direction of advance depended on the roads and supposed location of the Confederate works along White Oak Road.
Warren "used all exertions possible" to get his troops to the point of departure. The march appeared to be off to a good start. Griffin received his orders at 2:00 pm. The division marched over a narrow, woody road, arriving at the marshaling area about 4:00 pm, which most observers agreed was reasonable time, especially since the road was muddy and blocked by led horses of dismounted cavalry. Sheridan came to visit Warren during the V Corps organizational movements and expressed concern that Warren get ready before his cavalry fired all their ammunition. Warren offered to move with those troops which were ready if Sheridan so directed, but Sheridan wanted all the infantry to attack at once.
Sheridan felt that Warren was not exerting himself to get the corps into position and stated in his after action report that he was anxious for the attack to begin as the sun was getting low and there was no place to entrench.Bearss, 2014, p. 481. Warren denied Sheridan's allegation that Warren had given the impression he wanted the sun to go down before the attack could be made and that there were 2.5 hours of daylight still left at 4:00 pm.
Mackenzie disperses Roberts's cavalry
While the V Corps was organizing for their attack, Sheridan was further disturbed to learn that Meade had pulled Miles's division from the White Oak Road line back to the Boydton Plank Road, opening the possibility that Confederate reinforcements could come down White Oak Road and strike the V Corps in the flank and rear. Sheridan called up Mackenzie's division. They moved up the Adams and Dinwiddie Court House Roads to J. Boisseau's and turned on to the Crump Road, intending to move to the White Oak Road and set up a roadblock, with Major James E. McFarlan's battalion of the 11th Pennsylvania Cavalry in the lead.
About south of White Oak Road and east of Five Forks, Mackenzie's troopers encountered a considerable force of Roberts's men posted in rifle pits along the edge of a wood along White Oak Road with an open field to their front. Rapid fire from Mackenzie's men who were armed with Spencer repeating carbines kept the Confederates pinned down and allowed Mackenzie personally to lead Major Robert S. Monroe's battalion of the 11th Pennsylvania Cavalry on horseback across the rifle pits into White Oak Road, striking the left flank of the Confederate line. The North Carolina cavalrymen retreated in confusion as the remainder of the 11th Pennsylvania Cavalry charged the Confederate cavalry's line. Union brigade commander Colonel Samuel P. Spear was wounded in the mopping up operation.
When he was informed of Mackenzie's success, Sheridan ordered Mackenzie to leave a detachment to block White Oak Road and to bring his division to Five Forks. When Mackenzie reached a position near the Confederate line and was about to order his lead brigade to charge, the V Corps started across White Oak Road, briefly delaying both units' progress to their positions.
Pickett, Fitzhugh Lee away at shad bake
From north of Hatcher's Run, Fitzhugh Lee's other division commander, Thomas L. Rosser, invited Lee and Pickett to a shad bake lunch. Rosser had brought a large catch of shad on ice from the Nottoway River when his division moved from that station to Five Forks.Trudeau, 1994, p. 31. Pickett and Lee accepted. At 2:00 pm, as Lee was about to leave the line, Munford came up to report a dispatch from a lieutenant of the 8th Virginia Cavalry who wrote that Roberts's cavalry brigade stationed to the east along the White Oak Road had been overpowered by Union cavalry.Bearss, 2014, p. 469. Some of Roberts's men fled into Pickett's line while others retreated into Anderson's end of the main Confederate White Oak Road line at Claiborne and White Oak roads. The dispersal of Roberts's command meant that Pickett was cut off and if any reinforcements were sent, they would need to fight their way through on White Oak Road to reach his position or take a very circuitous route. Fitzhugh Lee asked Munford to check this personally and to order up his division if necessary and report back. Munford then saw Lee riding with Pickett north on Ford's Road toward Hatcher's Run but had no knowledge of their destination, which was about north of the front.
After Pickett and Fitzhugh Lee had departed, Major General Rooney Lee was the senior officer in charge, though he was at the far right of the line and did not know he was in charge. With Rooney Lee in overall command, Colonel Munford, who was better located in any event, would be the senior cavalry officer, while Brigadier General Steuart was the ranking infantry commander. None of these officers knew that Pickett and Fitzhugh Lee were at the rear having a lengthy lunch and that they should assume additional duties.Colonel Willie Pegram was chief of the artillery. His command was unchanged by the absence of Pickett and Fitzhugh Lee. Bearss, 2014, p. 470.
Soon after Pickett and Fitzhugh Lee left for lunch, Colonel Munford saw the Union attack shaping up as he prepared to have his cavalry division defend the left flank against the attack. Munford sent several couriers to look for Pickett or Fitzhugh Lee to tell them of the impending attack but they could not be found.Bearss, 2014, p. 485. Captain Henry Lee of Fitzhugh Lee's staff also could not find them. Munford had his division dismount, and deployed it on the left of Ransom's refused line. Each Confederate unit commander prepared for the attack as best he could, not always in co-operation with each other.
Ayres starts V Corps attack; Sheridan at front
When Ayres finished aligning his men, about 4:15 pm, the order was given for the attack. Sheridan, Warren and Colonel Porter rode at the front of Ayres's division. Union skirmishers drove in the Confederate outposts. Ayres was told by a staff officer that there were indications of the enemy to the left. Ayres alerted his reserve brigade commander Brigadier General Frederick Winthrop to be ready to bring his brigade forward.
As Ayres's men crossed White Oak Road, they ran into Mackenzie's approaching cavalry. Sheridan had ordered Mackenzie to strike toward Hatcher's Run, turn west and occupy Ford's Road, covering the V Corps' right flank.Trudeau, 1994, pp. 33–34. Warren soon realized that the V Corps had crossed White Oak Road east of the left of the Confederate line and Crawford's division was starting to diverge from Ayres's. Warren thought that the Confederate line must be in the edge of the woods, about from the road and continued to lead the corps toward the northwest.
Ransom's Confederate brigade began to fire on Ayres's division after they crossed White Oak Road and entered a field beyond. This established that the Confederate line was not immediately across White Oak Road from Gravelly Church Road but to west of that intersection. The bad information about the location of the Confederate line had put the V Corps' march off target, with two of the three divisions past the end of the Confederate line but in a position to strike from the rear.
Warren later recalled that Ransom's brigade was in a thick belt of woods, which disrupted their aim and reduced initial Union casualties. The Confederate refused left flank was shorter than in length. Ayres realized the situation soon after the attack began and changed his front to the left to face the return (bend) of the line. The movement of Colonel Richard N. Bowerman's brigade to the left opened a space in the line which Ayres filled with Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Frederick Winthrop's brigade which had started in reserve. Ayres then led the line in the attack. Crawford, however, failed to adjust his movement when Ayres changed his front and Griffin continue to follow Crawford north and west through the woods.
Ayres's men had faltered briefly when they became exposed to closer, more accurate firing from Ransom's brigade. Sheridan then rode along the battle line shouting encouragement. When a soldier was hit in the neck and fell shouting "I'm killed!" Sheridan called to him "You're not hurt a bit, pick up your gun, man, and move right on to the front." Reacting to Sheridan's words, the man stood up, picked up his gun and moved a dozen paces before he finally collapsed dead.
Ayres's right flank brigade under Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) James Gwyn had moved well ahead of Crawford's division and began to waver as the troops realized they might be exposed to a flank attack. On his horse, Sheridan called for his battle flag. He rode among the soldiers shouting encouragement, threats, profanities and orders to close ranks.Davis, Burke, 1959, p. 57. His color sergeant was killed. Another staff officer was wounded and at least two other staff officers' horses were killed. Sheridan and Ayres and his officers managed to quickly get the troops under control and order them forward again. This time some of Ransom's defenders broke for the rear. McGregor's gunners limbered up their four artillery pieces and pulled out just as Ayres's men came over the earthworks. Ayres's men killed or captured all of Ransom's men who had not fled.
As some of his men got away from the crumbling line, Ransom had to be freed from under his wounded and grounded horse.Davis, Burke, 1959, p. 47. An officer in one of Ransom's regiments later wrote: "The Yankees simply run over us and crowded us so that it became impossible to shoot." The color-sergeant of the 190th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment planted the first Union flag on the Confederate line.
Sheridan jumped his horse over the berm and landed among Confederates who had thrown down their weapons and were waiting to surrender. When they asked him what to do, Sheridan pointed to the rear and said: "Go over there. Get right along, now. Drop your guns; youll never need them any more. You'll be safe over there. Are there any more of you? We want every one of your fellows."Bearss, 2014, p. 490. Ayres had taken the key to the entire Confederate line, over 1,000 prisoners and eight battle flags but among the Union casualties was Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Frederick Winthrop who was mortally wounded and Colonel Richard N. Bowerman who was severely wounded. Colonel James Grindley assumed command of Winthrop's brigade while Colonel David L. Stanton took charge of Bowerman's brigade.
Soon after Sheridan jumped his horse into the Confederate works, an orderly reported to him that Colonel Forsyth of his staff had been killed. Sheridan replied; "It's no such thing. I don't believe a word of it. You'll find Forsyth's alright." Ten minutes later, Forsyth rode up and Sheridan shouted: "There! I told you so." Sheridan ordered Ayres to halt and reform his division. When it was obvious that the Confederate line in fact had given way, Sheridan ordered Ayres to move forward.
Warren searches for Griffin, Crawford
When Griffin's and Crawford's divisions diverged from Ayres, Ayres sent a message to Griffin to come up on his right. Sheridan also sent orders to Griffin and Crawford to come in on the right. Warren sent staff officers in pursuit of them. Warren established a command post in the field east of the return where he thought he could get information from all points and exercise control of the whole field assigned to his corps. Sheridan, however, thought Warren should have been leading from the front. When the staff officers did not report back promptly, Warren himself went looking for the wayward divisions. He was fired upon when he reached a local landmark, the "Chimneys", about north of the end of the Confederate refused line, by the volleys that caused Gwyn's brigade to recoil.
Crawford's division had come in several hundred yards from the road before they wheeled to the left, entirely missing the approximately Confederate return line. Warren first found Colonel John A. Kellogg's brigade and told him to form his brigade at right angles to its previous direction and wait until another brigade could close up on his right. Warren and his staff officers could not find Crawford to tell him to move his other brigades.Trudeau, 1994, p. 35. When Warren came back from the woods, Kellogg was gone, having been ordered forward by one of Sheridan's staff officers who was also searching for Crawford.Trudeau, 1994, p. 38. A patrol of Munford's cavalry stopped Kellogg's advance from positions inside the Sydnor house. Colonel Jonathan Tarbell brought up a battalion of the 91st New York Infantry Regiment which drove out Munford's men and allowed Kellogg's brigade to resume their move to the west.
One of Warren's staff officers, Major Emmor B. Cope found Crawford and had him swing to the right to join Kellogg. Since Kellogg had moved, Crawford proceeded toward the Chimneys, with the brigades of Brigadier General Henry Baxter and Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Richard Coulter, encountering a few of Munford's pickets as they progressed. Crawford then found and moved against Munford's dismounted troopers, which still moved Crawford toward the northwest away from the main Confederate line.
Griffin joins the main attack
Warren finally found Griffin about north of the return at the Chimneys.Humphreys, 1883, p. 349. Griffin had pushed ahead of Crawford's division and had gone even further to the right of the end of the refused segment of the Confederate line. Griffin realized something was wrong when he did not come up against fortifications after marching about and only finding Munford's outposts as opposition.
Brigadier General Joseph J. Bartlett of Griffin's division rode to the left when he heard increased firing and saw the Confederate left flank on the opposite side of Sydnor's field. Griffin also rode to Sydnor's field and saw the Confederate movement along White Oak Road. Major Cope then rode up and told Griffin that Warren wanted him to move toward White Oak Road by the left flank. Meanwhile, all of Griffin's men except three regiments of Bartlett's brigade had moved off and joined Crawford's division.
Griffin then led Bartlett's three regiments across Sydnor's field. Brigadier General Joshua Chamberlain saw the division flag moving to the left and followed Griffin with his brigade and a regiment of Colonel (Brevet Brigadier General) Edgar M. Gregory's brigade. By the time Warren returned to White Oak Road, Ayres's division had captured the return. Since no attack was now needed at the return (refused end) of the Confederate line, Warren sent Major Cope to tell Griffin to push westward toward the Ford's Road. Griffin turned his men to the right and headed west parallel to White Oak Road. Warren then turned back toward the return to look again for Crawford's division.
Second Confederate left flank line breached
The collapse of Ransom's brigade put both Wallace's and Steuart's brigades in danger of being outflanked and attacked from the rear. The three Confederate brigadier generals quickly threw up a new defensive line with light field works at a right angle to White Oak Road in the woods at the west end of Sydnor's field in order to protect Ford's Road. Griffin's brigade soon charged against this line with Chamberlain's brigade and one of Gregory's regiments on the left, Bartlett's brigade on the right and two of Gregory's regiments behind. When Chamberlain's men attacked, their right wing overcame the new Confederate line and then a Union regiment and a battalion headed toward White Oak Road while Griffin's remaining troops maintained their pressure on that part of the Confederate line which was still holding out.Trulock, 1992, p. 272. Another of Chamberlain's regiments and a battalion continued to pressure the Confederate line. Bartlett's regiments met stiff resistance and even engaged in hand-to-hand fighting. Some of Bartlett's men took cover in rifle pits where Chamberlain's men had broken the line. Griffin's men succeeded in breaking the line after a fight of about half an hour.
The generals and staff officers had to reform Bartlett's brigade and deploy the men at right angles to the Confederate line so they would not be trapped if the Confederates managed a counterattack. Chamberlain rushed two regiments to help. Together, these units put the Confederates to flight, taking about 1,500 prisoners and several battle flags. Bartlett and Chamberlain reorganized 150 to 200 stragglers and put them back into the battle. Chamberlain saw Colonel Gwyn's battle flag to the rear and asked Gwyn to have his brigade assist Chamberlain's men, which Gwyn did. Suddenly confronted by a large number of Confederates, Chamberlain feared being caught in a cross-fire when the Confederates suddenly threw down their arms and surrendered.
Sheridan orders Ayres, Griffin, Chamberlain forward
As the second Confederate return line collapsed, Ayres and Sheridan came forward. Sheridan ordered Chamberlain to take command of all the infantry in the vicinity and to push for Five Forks. He did so with the help of one of Griffin's staff officers. After being cautioned by Sheridan and Ayres that his men were firing into their own cavalry, Chamberlain told Sheridan that he should go to a safer place. Instead, Sheridan rode west on White Oak Road, following Griffin and Bartlett who had just come up.
Griffin had not paused with the victory at the second defensive line but continued to advance to Five Forks where he met the dismounted troopers of Pennington's and Fitzhugh's brigades who had just broken through the Confederate fortifications. Ayres's division then reached Five Forks as well. On the right, Bartlett's brigade reached Ford's Road and captured an ambulance and wagon train.
Crawford moves forward; Warren searches again
Crawford's troops also moved steadily across Ford's Road from the northern end of Sydnor's field and captured seven ambulances and some wagons from Wallace's brigade. Crawford sent these wagons with many prisoners to the rear so fast that Crawford's provost marshal could not keep an accurate count of them.
After Ayres's division had captured the return, Warren again went to search for Crawford.Bearss, 2014, p. 498. He found Crawford's division in good order on the east side of the Boisseau farm, facing west.Trudeau, 1994, p. 42.Humphreys, 1883, p. 350. Unfortunately for Warren, Sheridan asked for Warren at about this time and no one could say where he was. Sheridan then ordered Griffin to take command of the corps. Meanwhile, Warren ordered Crawford to wheel to the left and drive south against Five Forks because Warren perceived that the Confederates still held the crossroads because of artillery fire coming from that direction. Coulter's brigade led the attack on the left of Ford's Road with Kellogg's and Baxter's brigades and four of Bartlett's separated regiments coming up on the right. From woods on the south of the Boisseau farm, the Confederates fired steadily on the Union battle line. Three companies of the 1st Maine Veteran Infantry Regiment routed a patrol of Rosser's cavalry across Hatcher's Run before rejoining their regiment. Warren assigned the 1st Maine Veteran Infantry Regiment and the 118th Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment to watch the ford across Hatcher's Run.Bearss, 2014, p. 500.
Pickett learns of attack; rides back to battle
During the shad bake lunch at Rosser's camp, two of Munford's pickets rode up to report that Union forces were advancing on all roads. Fitzhugh Lee and Pickett decided that since they could not hear an attack, due as it turned out to the thick pine forest and heavy atmosphere between the camp and Five Forks and an acoustic shadow, there was little to worry about. Soon after 4:00 pm, Pickett asked Rosser for a courier to take a message to Five Forks. Not long after that, two couriers were dispatched, the officers heard gunfire and saw the lead courier captured by Union horsemen on Ford's Road just across Hatcher's Run.Trudeau, 1994, p. 41. Then they saw a Union Army battle line coming toward the road.Bearss, 2014, p. 471.
Pickett crossed the ford just as some of Munford's cavalrymen were falling back with Kellogg's brigade pressing them closely. Pickett appealed to his cavalrymen to hold back the Union attackers long enough so he could get to the front. A small group of the Confederate cavalrymen, led by Captain James Breckinridge who was killed, charged the advancing Union soldiers, giving Pickett enough time to pass using the horse's head and neck as a shield. Getting to the ford a little later than Pickett, Fitzhugh Lee was unable to cross as Kellogg's men had occupied Ford's Road by that time. Lee then tried to attack the roadblock with Rosser's reserve division but they failed to breach the Union line. So Lee deployed the division north of Hatcher's Run in an effort to keep the Union force from using Ford's Road to reach the South Side Railroad.
Pickett found that his subordinates, Ransom, Steuart and Wallace, had formed a new line parallel to and east of Ford's Road and were fighting with Griffin's division.Trudeau, 1994, p. 39.
Third Confederate left flank formed, collapses
Pickett pulled Mayo's brigade from the line west of Five Forks along with Graham's two guns to shore up the line and added stragglers from Ransom's and Wallace's brigades to the line in order to man a third line of resistance east of Ford's Road.Bearss, 2014, pp. 500–501. Coulter's Union brigade faced fierce fire from Mayo's brigade and Graham's battery but continued to advance with the support of Crawford's two other brigades and two of Bartlett's regiments.
Mayo's brigade broke when Coulter's men rushed into the woods and over their line, although Mayo was able to reform part of the brigade in Gilliam's field. Seeing the disordered condition of Mayo's brigade, and although the Confederates still controlled the Five Forks intersection, Pickett gave up the fight at Ford's Church Road and ordered Mayo to go across country to the South Side Railroad. Coulter's brigade took a large number of prisoners from Mayo's brigade and captured Graham's two guns.
After Mayo's brigade had been broken, Warren told Crawford to oblique his division to the right and occupy White Oak Road west of Five Forks to close the last line for Confederate retreat. Custer's and Rooney Lee's divisions were engaged in fierce combat to the southwest of Crawford. Crawford's left flank passed north of Five Forks and Warren split off for Five Forks. Warren met the 1st U.S. Cavalry Regiment riding up Ford's Road and instructed them to file to the left and march to support Crawford.
Corse, Rooney Lee cover Confederate withdrawal
When Pickett sent Mayo off the field, he called for Corse's brigade to come from the front and deploy on the west side of Gilliam's field at a right angle to White Oak Road. The Union forces would need to cross this open field to advance. Pickett's objective was to gain time for the survivors of the shattered brigades of Ransom, Steuart and Wallace to escape. Corse's men threw up light field works and Barringer's and Beale's brigades of Rooney Lee's cavalry division supported them to the south and west.
Mackenzie's cavalry had advanced on the right of the V Corps and scattered Munford's picket line as well as screening the infantry from any attempt by Rosser's division north of Hatcher's Run to come in from behind.Calkins, 1997, p. 35. Mackenzie had to pause twice to break up pockets of resistance. The Union cavalrymen captured large numbers of prisoners during their advance. At about 9:00 pm, Mackenzie halted and reported his location to Sheridan. Sheridan sent instructions to have a cavalry detail relieve the infantry detachment then guarding the Hatcher's Run ford on Ford's Road.
After Munford and his remaining troopers crossed Hatcher's Run, they remounted, crossed back and rode to the right to report to Pickett. Realizing that they only could get trapped by continuing to fight, Pickett ordered Munford to rejoin Fitzhugh Lee north of Hatcher's Run. They did so after recrossing the run to the west at W. Dabney's Road and reported to Fitzhugh Lee after dark.
Union cavalry attack
In line with Sheridan's order, Merritt ordered Devin and Custer to dismount their men and charge the Confederate works as soon as they heard the sound of battle from the infantry attack. They were to leave one brigade each on horseback to exploit any breakthrough. Devin's men and Pennington's brigade of Custer's division attacked the fortifications along White Oak Road when they heard the infantry's attack.Bearss, 2014, pp. 503–504. Pennington was at Custer's command post where Custer told him to call for his "led horses" so he could support Custer's flank attack, contrary to Merritt's orders that he should attack dismounted along with Devin's men.
Within minutes of speaking with Custer, Pennington heard the sound of firing, followed by the appearance of a staff officer who told him that Merritt had sent Pennington's brigade into the attack. Custer said he must be mistaken and rode off. Pennington headed for the front only to find that his brigade in fact had attacked, faltered and was pulling back in confusion. In his after action report, Pennington said the failure to maintain contact with Fitzhugh's brigade, the removal of Capehart's division from his left and the fact his men were running out of ammunition caused the retreat. With Pennington's brigade no longer on his left, Devin had to pull his division back. While the Union forces regrouped, Devin supplied Pennington's men with more ammunition and the Union attack was resumed. After renewing their attack, Pennington's brigade fell back again but Devin's division continued their attack against Steuart's and Wallace's brigades.
After Ayres's division broke the Confederate line, Steuart and Wallace had to withdraw a large number of their troops to man the new defensive line at right angles to White Oak Road. Nonetheless, Pennington's men were being held back at the breastworks and Sheridan halted them temporarily because he was concerned that Ayres's men would fire into them. It was only after Mayo's brigade was pulled out of the front line to form the third left flank line that Pennington's brigade made progress.
Five Forks taken; Pegram killed
The guns at Five Forks and part of Steuart's brigade still held the intersection. Colonel Pegram had posted his three guns to the west of Ford's Road in a little salient as directed by Pickett, then went to sleep.Davis, Burke, 1959, pp. 43, 46–47. When the firing started, Pegram woke up and rushed to the Five Forks intersection. Pegram's three cannon fired at the charging Union cavalrymen, who were firing at the artillerists with repeating carbines. Pegram rode out between the guns to give orders without dismounting and, after shouting "Fire your canister low, men!," was mortally wounded.Freeman 1944, p. 673. Pegram died the following morning.
The Confederate detachments from Mayo's, Steuart's and Wallace's brigades could not carry on holding the front of the Confederate line when Union troops from Griffin's division appeared on their left to add weight to the attack by the Union cavalrymen who charged over the fortifications as Griffin's men came up. Devin then sent the mounted 1st U.S. Cavalry regiment after the fleeing Confederates. The Union cavalry division commanders reported that they captured almost 1,000 prisoners and seized two battle flags and two guns during the battle.
After the Union cavalry broke the front line at the Five Forks intersection, Griffin's and Ayres's infantry divisions arrived at the scene, causing some disorder as units intermingled. After restoring organization to their commands, Devin wheeled his division to the left and set up on Griffin's left while Ayres's division was behind Griffin's.Hess, 2009, p. 263. Then the Union battle line moved to the west of the junction.Bearss, 2014, p. 508.
Miles blocks White Oak Road
At 5:30 p.m. on April 1, Grant sent Brigadier General Nelson Miles's division of the II Corps to hold White Oak Road at Claiborne Road and prevent reinforcements moving to Pickett over White Oak Road.
Custer held off; pursues Fitzhugh Lee
Before the Union attack began, Custer positioned Capehart's and Wells' brigades opposite the Confederate right and remounted them as ordered by Merritt. Custer then told the 15th New York Cavalry Regiment to make a feint against the end of the main line held by Corse's brigade. Custer planned to lead the rest of the men of the two brigades in an attack on the Confederate flank. Corse had been reinforced by a dismounted brigade from Rooney Lee's cavalry division. The 15th New York was turned back twice as they tried to reach Confederate cannons that were firing canister.Calkins, 1997, p. 33.
Custer began his flank attack when the 15th New York Cavalry began their attack on the front and swung his mounted brigades around the Confederate flank. Before Custer could seize a position behind Corse, Rooney Lee led the 2nd North Carolina Cavalry (19th State Troops) and 3rd North Carolina Cavalry (41st State Troops) in a counterattack. Lee's troopers held their position, keeping Custer from joining the Union forces moving west along the Confederate line.Humphreys, 1883, p. 351. Covered by Rooney Lee's troopers from Barringer's brigade, McGregor's battery, many infantry, wagons and ambulances and Beale's cavalry brigade withdrew north of Hatcher's Run.Bearss, 2014, p. 510.
Warren leads a final charge
Warren found Crawford's division hesitating at the edge of the woods on the east side of Gilliam's field at the same time Custer's division was being held back by Rooney Lee's men to the south and west. The Union soldiers were not heeding officers' orders to move forward against Corse's line of breastworks. After a few minutes for reorganization of the units, Warren took the corps flag and rode into the field with his staff officers and called for the men to follow.Trulock, 1992, p. 281. The men then rose and followed their officers and color bearers to attack Corse's brigade, capturing many prisoners and dispersing the other Confederates. In the attack, Warren's horse was shot from under him just short of the Confederate line, an orderly was killed and Lieutenant Colonel Hollon Richardson of the 7th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment was badly wounded when he jumped his horse between Warren and the Confederate defenders.
After Corse's brigade had been scattered, Crawford's men moved west on White Oak Road about . After mopping up a few pockets of resistance, Warren halted the pursuit since no more Confederates could be seen and night was falling.Trudeau, 1994, p. 44. Warren had earlier sent his aide, Lieutenant Colonel Frederick Locke, to tell Sheridan he had gained the enemy's rear, taken over 1,500 prisoners and was pushing in a division as fast as he could. Sheridan told Locke: "Tell General Warren, by God! I say he was not at the front. That is all I have got to say to him."Trulock, 1992, p. 280.
When Pickett ordered Corse to the west side of Gilliam's field, he ordered Rooney Lee to prepare to withdraw to the South Side Railroad. Lee covered his dismounted men with his mounted men and fought a successful delaying action as he slowly retreated. He had to speed up as Corse's brigade collapsed. Yet, Custer could not cut off many of Lee's men, who crossed Hatcher's Run at W. Dabney Road and then marched to Ford's Road to report to Fitzhugh Lee. Custer followed Lee's men for about but gave up and set up camp on the battlefield, where Pennington's brigade rejoined them, as darkness closed in.
Casualties
Historians offer a range of casualties. Some are similar to Earl J. Hess's numbers of about 600 killed and wounded, 4,500 prisoners and thirteen flags and six guns lost by the Confederates and 633 casualties for Warren's infantry and "probably...fewer" for Sheridan's cavalry. Noah Andre Trudeau gives the same number of Union infantry casualties and a total of 830 Union casualties with 103 killed, 670 wounded, 57 missing. Trudeau gives a "more modern accounting." Although earlier than Hess's account, Greene and several other historians state that the Confederates lost about 605 killed and wounded and 2,400 taken prisoner. A. Wilson Greene later gives the same figures. Chris Calkins also cites the lower estimate of Confederate prisoners. John S. Salmon gives Union casualties as 830 and Confederate casualties as 605 plus 2,000 to 2,400 taken prisoner for a total of about 3,000 lost. This is nearly identical to the National Park Service figures.National Park Service
Aftermath
Confederate survivors move toward railroad
The survivors of the Confederate infantry brigades moved north through the woods and fields to ford Hatcher's Run and moved over the W. Dabney road to a position near the South Side Railroad. After some order was restored to the intermingled mass of survivors, Pickett moved the men in their re-formed units toward Exeter Mills at the mouth of Whippornock Creek where he planned to ford the Appomattox River and return to the Army of Northern Virginia.
Sheridan relieves Warren of command
After Crawford's division was halted, Warren asked for Colonel Bankhead to report to Sheridan on what had occurred and ask for further instructions. Soon afterwards, at about 7:00 pm, Colonel George A. Forsyth of Sheridan's staff rode up and handed Warren this message: "Major-General Warren, commanding Fifth Army Corps, is relieved of duty, and will report at once for orders to General Grant, commanding Armies of the United States."Humphreys, 1883, p. 356. In his after action report, Sheridan cited what he perceived to be Warren's lack of effort in getting his troops ready for the attack at the staging area at Gravelly Run Church. The wavering of Gwyn's brigade in the attack on the return also angered Sheridan because he believed it resulted from a lack of confidence because Warren did not make enough effort to inspire it. Sheridan also drafted an order putting Griffin in charge of the V Corps, Bartlett in charge of Griffin's division and Pearson in charge of Bartlett's brigade and directing them to pursue the Confederates down White Oak Road.Bearss, 2014, p. 512. By this time the victory was complete and Sheridan and Griffin had reached Five Forks.
A stunned Warren rode to Sheridan's command post to ask for reconsideration. Sheridan blustered in reply: "Reconsider? Hell! I don't reconsider my determination. Obey the order." Warren's officers and men were surprised by this action and some wrote defenses of Warren near the time of the battle or later, blaming the action on Sheridan's jealousy because of Warren's role in the victory.Marvel, 2002, p. 16. Considering the 1883 verdict of the Warren Court of Inquiry that Sheridan's removal of Warren was unjustified, many historians also have stated that Sheridan's action was unjust.
Porter reports victory to Grant; Grant orders general assault
Colonel Horace Porter, Grant's staff officer and observer of the battle, started back for Grant's headquarters at about 7:30 pm.Davis, Burke, 1959, p. 59. He excitedly reported the victory and told Grant over 5,000 prisoners were taken. The victory at Five Forks opened the road to the South Side Railroad for the Union troops. As soon as Grant learned of the victory, at about 8:00 pm, he ordered Meade to have Humphreys with the II Corps and Parke with the IX Corps ready to push ahead to keep Confederates from escaping from Petersburg and converging on Sheridan.Bearss, 2014, p. 515. Grant told the officers at his headquarters that he had ordered a general assault along the lines.
Meade asked Grant for clarification because Grant had ordered a 4:00 a.m. attack all along the line. Grant said both Humphreys and Parke should feel for a chance to push on that night, that Humphreys should send skirmishers forward and attack if the Confederates were leaving their positions. If the Confederates held their line, Grant said that Humphreys should send Miles's division down White Oak Road to reinforce Sheridan. Grant also directed that Wright, Parke and Ord, with John Gibbon's XXIV Corps from the Army of the James, should begin an artillery barrage on the Confederate lines. The corps commanders and Ord reported their men could not see well enough to attack. At 10:00 pm, Union artillery opened fire on the Confederate lines opposite the Petersburg lines until 2:00 am. The Confederates did not leave the lines and the Union assault began at about 4:40 am.
Grant sends Confederate flags to Lincoln
In the absence of available aides, Grant sent reporter Sylvanus Cadwallader of the New York Herald to bring the news of the victory at Five Forks along with captured battle flags to President Lincoln aboard the River Queen at City Point. Lincoln took the flags and said: "Here is something material – something I can see, feel and understand. This means victory. This is victory." By this time, the Union artillery barrage had started and Lincoln remained awake. When he finally fell asleep he had the dream in which he saw himself dead in the White House, killed by an assassin.
Lee learns of defeat, sends troops west to railroad
After the battle on the night of April 1, Fitzhugh Lee informed Robert E. Lee of the defeat and rout at Five Forks from Church's Crossing near the Ford Church's Road junction with the South Side Railroad where the remaining forces of Rooney Lee and Thomas Rosser joined him. Lee sent Lieutenant General Richard H. Anderson with his infantry to help Pickett reorganize and hold the South Side Railroad.Trudeau, 1994, p. 46. Anderson left a small force behind and left Burgess Mill to join Fitzhugh Lee at about 6:30 p.m. Anderson arrived about 2:00 a.m. on April 2. General Lee's intention was to defend the South Side Railroad at Sutherland's Station. Anderson's force included Major General Bushrod Johnson's division, Brigadier General Eppa Hunton's brigade of Pickett's command, and the survivors of Pickett's task force at Five Forks.Bearss, 2014, pp. 516–517. Lee also ordered troops from Richmond to come to Petersburg to help defend against attacks which he thought to be imminent.
Grant sends Miles division to Sheridan; Sheridan's plan
On the night of April 1, two divisions of the Union V Corps camped across White Oak Road near Gravelly Run Church while the third division camped near Ford's Road. Sheridan's cavalry camped at the Gilliam Farm near Five Forks while Mackenzie's men settled in near the Ford's Road crossing of Hatcher's Run. Nelson A. Miles's division of Andrew Humphrey's II Corps joined Sheridan later that night.
Grant sent a message to Sheridan late on April 1 that he was sending Miles's division to him and that he planned an attack along the Petersburg lines at 4:00 am. Grant said he could give Sheridan no specific instructions but "would like you however to get something done to the South Side Road even if they do not tear up a mile of it." Sheridan replied at 12:30 a.m. that he planned to sweep the White Oak Road and all north of it down to Petersburg.
On April 2, Union attacks, especially the successful assault by Major General Horatio G. Wright's VI Corps, broke through the Confederate lines at the Third Battle of Petersburg, putting the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia to flight toward Appomattox Court House and surrender on April 9, 1865.
Medal of Honor recipients
The Union Army soldiers Wilmon W. Blackmar, John Wallace Scott, Robert F. Shipley, Thomas J. Murphy, August Kauss, William Henry Harrison Benyaurd, Jacob Koogle, George J. Shopp, Joseph Stewart, William W. Winegar, Albert E. Fernald, Adelbert Everson, James G. Grindlay, Charles N. Gardner, Henry G. Bonebrake, Hiram H. De Lavie and David Edwards were all later awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions during the battle.
Footnotes
Notes
References
Beringer, Richard E., Herman Hattaway, Archer Jones, and William N. Still, Jr. Why the South Lost the Civil War. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986. .
Bearss, Edwin C., with Bryce A. Suderow. The Petersburg Campaign. Vol. 2, The Western Front Battles, September 1864 – April 1865. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2014. .
Bonekemper, Edward H., III. A Victor, Not a Butcher: Ulysses S. Grant's Overlooked Military Genius. Washington, DC: Regnery, 2004. .
Calkins, Chris. The Appomattox Campaign, March 29 – April 9, 1865. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, 1997. .
Davis, Burke. To Appomattox: Nine April Days, 1865. New York: Eastern Acorn Press reprint, 1981. . First published New York: Rinehart, 1959.
Davis, William C. An Honorable Defeat: The Last Days of the Confederate Government. New York: Harcourt, Inc., 2001. .
Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .
Freeman, Douglas S. Lee's Lieutenants: A Study in Command. Gettysburg to Appomattox. Vol. 3 of 3 vols. New York: Scribner, 1944. .
Greene, A. Wilson. The Final Battles of the Petersburg Campaign: Breaking the Backbone of the Rebellion. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2008. .
Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones. How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. . pp. 669–671.
Hess, Earl J. In the Trenches at Petersburg: Field Fortifications & Confederate Defeat. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009. .
Horn, John. The Petersburg Campaign: June 1864 – April 1865. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing, 1999. . p. 220. Retrieved February 11, 2015.
Humphreys, Andrew A., The Virginia Campaign of 1864 and 1865: The Army of the Potomac and the Army of the James. New York: Charles Scribners' Sons, 1883. . Retrieved March 5, 2015.
Keegan, John, The American Civil War: A Military History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009. .
Kennedy, Frances H., ed., The Civil War Battlefield Guide, 2nd ed., Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998, .
Longacre, Edward G. The Cavalry at Appomattox: A Tactical Study of Mounted Operations During the Civil War's Climactic Campaign, March 27 – April 9, 1865. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003. .
Longacre, Edward G. Lee's Cavalrymen: A History of the Mounted Forces of the Army of Northern Virginia. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2002. .
Marvel, William. Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002. .
Salmon, John S., The Official Virginia Civil War Battlefield Guide, Stackpole Books, 2001, .
Simpson, Brooks D. The Civil War in the East: Struggle, Stalemate, and Victory. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2011. .
Trudeau, Noah Andre. The Last Citadel: Petersburg, Virginia, June 1864 – April 1865. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991. .
Trudeau, Noah Andre. "Out of the Storm: The End of the Civil War, April–June 1865. Boston, New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1994. .
Trulock, Alice Rains. In the Hands of Providence: Joshua L. Chamberlain and the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. .
Weigley, Russell F. A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2000. .
Further reading
Bearss, Edwin C., and Chris Calkins. The Battle of Five Forks. Lynchburg, VA: H. E. Howard, Inc., 1985. .
Calkins, Chris. History and Tour Guide of Five Forks, Hatcher's Run and Namozine Church. Columbus, OH: Blue & Gray Magazine, 2003. .
Tidball, John C. The Artillery Service in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1865. Westholme Publishing, 2011. .
External links
Battle of Five Forks in Encyclopedia Virginia
Animated history of the Siege of Petersburg and Surrender at Appomattox
National Park Service battle description
CWSAC Report Update
1865 in Virginia
Five Forks
Five Forks
1865 in the American Civil War
George Pickett
Five Forks
Five Forks
Five Forks
April 1865 events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areopagus
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Areopagus
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The Areopagus () is a prominent rock outcropping located northwest of the Acropolis in Athens, Greece. Its English name is the Late Latin composite form of the Greek name Areios Pagos, translated "Hill of Ares" (). The name Areopagus also referred, in classical times, to the Athenian governing council, later restricted to the Athenian judicial council or court that tried cases of deliberate homicide, wounding and religious matters, as well as cases involving arson of olive trees, because they convened in this location.
The war god Ares was supposed to have been tried by the other gods on the Areopagus for the murder of Poseidon's son Halirrhothius (a typical example of an aetiological myth).
History
The exact origin of the Areopagus is unclear. In pre-classical times (before the 5th century BC), the Areopagus may have been a council of elders for the city of Athens, and membership was restricted to those who had held high public office, in this case that of Archon. Conversely, it may have also begun almost exclusively as a homicide court and judicial body. While there is no true consensus, homicide trials would have been held on the Areopagus hill as early as 7th century BC and possibly into the mid-8th century BC.
In 594 BC, the Areopagus was heavily restructured by Solon, as was the rest of the Athenian state. Aristotle suggests that he confirmed its competence over cases of treason (eisangelia, εἰσαγγελία) and its guardianship of the laws (nomophylakia, νομοφυλακία). Solon's entrusting of the nomophylakia to the Areopagus may imply that the council was invested with maintaining the stability of his reforms after he left Athens.
Under the reforms of Cleisthenes enacted in 508/507 BC, the Boule (βουλή) or council was expanded from 400 to 500 men, and was formed of 50 men from each of ten clans or phylai (φυλαί). There is very little evidence to suggest that Cleisthenes may have altered the composition or the jurisdiction of the Areopagus, given that he himself was likely a member of the council.
In 462/461 BC, Ephialtes may have put through reforms which deprived the Areopagus of almost all its functions except that of a murder tribunal in favour of Heliaia. While this perception is corroborated by most ancient authors, it may have merely been a retrojection by those writing long after the 5th century BC. This is because there is little evidence to suggest that the Areopagus had done anything of note to warrant an attack on its powers by the time of Ephialtes. Regardless, over the course of the 5th century BC, the Areopagus did lose it's competence over eisangelia and dokimasia (δοκιμασία), the initial examination of those elected into office, though it is unknown if this was because of Ephialtes.
In The Eumenides of Aeschylus (458 BC), the Areopagus is the site of the trial of Orestes for killing his mother (Clytemnestra) and her lover (Aegisthus).
Phryne, a hetaera of the 4th century BC who was famed for her beauty, appeared before the Areopagus accused of profaning the Eleusinian mysteries. One story has her letting her cloak drop and so impressing the judges with her almost divine form that she was summarily acquitted.
In the second half of the 4th century BC, the Areopagus grew in influence and political power, and contributed to the anti-Macedonian faction of the city. It conducted an investigation on charges of treason and bribery (apophasis, ἀπόφασις) against Demosthenes as a result of the Harpalus affair in 324 BC. At the same time, the Areopagus may have also regained power over the nomophylakia, which had been lost to reforms in the 5th century BC.
The Areopagus continued to function as a body of former archons in Roman times. After Sulla's capture of Athens in 86/87 BC and subsequent restructuring of the city's political structure, it was elevated to one of the most prestigious and politically powerful institutions in Athens. The Roman statesman Cicero once said of the council, "when one says 'the Athenian state is ruled by the council,' the words 'of the Areopagus' are omitted."
Acts 17:16-34 prominently features the Areopagus as the setting for the Apostle Paul's Areopagus sermon during his visit to Athens, notably leading to the conversion of Dionysius the Areopagite. However, it is unclear whether Paul gave his speech before the Areopagus council in the setting of a judicial investigation or trial, or on the physical location of the Areopagus hill as an informal speech. Additionally, the Areopagus likely would not have met on the actual Areopagus hill by the time of Paul's visit, but rather in the agora or the Stoa Basileios.
The Areopagus ceased operation as a political council by at least the early 5th century AD, according to Theodoret of Cyrus.
After its closure, the Areopagus hill was inhabited by various houses and dwellings while under Byzantine rule. The only buildings of note on the hill during this time included a church and monastery both dedicated to Dionysios the Areopagite.
The term "Areopagus" also refers to the judicial body of aristocratic origin that subsequently formed the higher court of modern Greece.
Near the Areopagus was also constructed the basilica of Dionysius Areopagites.
Modern references
The English poet John Milton titled his defence of freedom of the press "Areopagitica", arguing that the censors of ancient Athens, based at the Areopagus, had not practiced the kind of prior restraint of publication being called for in the English Parliament of Milton's time.
The Areopagus Society, formed in 1893, is one of the oldest clubs at the preparatory Hotchkiss School, Connecticut, USA, and meets to debate on certain topics.
"Areopagus" is the title of the second poem in Irish poet Louis MacNeice's 1952 collection, Ten Burnt Offerings.
See also
Areopagus sermon
Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece, a regional Greek administration during the Greek Revolution of 1821, which was named after the Ancient Athenian institution.
Footnotes
Further reading
The Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens by Gustav Gilbert
Pantologia by John Mason Good, Olinthus Gregory, Newton Bosworth. p. 565
The London Encyclopaedia, Volume 2. Edited by Thomas Curtis. p. 647
External links
Acts 17:16-34 – A Biblical account of St. Paul discussing with the Areopagus the nature of the Christian God. Also referred to is the story concerning the altar to "The Unknown God."
Athens Photo Guide
Ancient Greek geography
Landmarks in Athens
Greek courts of appeal
Ancient Greek buildings and structures in Athens
Ares
Hills of Athens
Ancient Greek law
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20political%20slogans
|
List of political slogans
|
The following is a list of notable political slogans.
Political slogan (listed alphabetically)
A
Abki baar Modi Sarkar - Bharatiya Janata Party's campaign slogan for 2014 Indian Parliamentary Elections
ACT UP, Fight Back, Fight AIDS - The slogan of the AIDS activist group ACT UP, the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power, grassroots political activists working to end the HIV/AIDS pandemic. <
B
Bangladesh Zindabad – Long live Bangladesh
Believe women - used to encourage people to believe the testimony of women regarding violent and sexual assault.
Bessarabia, Romanian land – Romanian nationalist and irredentist phrase posing claims over the region of Bessarabia.
Better dead than Red – anti-Communist slogan.
Black is beautiful – political slogan of a cultural movement that began in the 1960s by African Americans
Black Lives Matter
Black Power – a political slogan and a name for various associated ideologies, popularized by Stokely Carmichael in the 1960s.
Blood and soil – political slogan for Nazi Germany's racial policies. Later adopted by other white-supremacist movements, including the alt-right in the United States.
Brazil Above Everything, God Above Everyone - Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro's most known slogan, emphasizing Brazilian people's Christianity and patriotism.
Bread and roses – labor and immigrant rights slogan.
Brotherhood and unity – used by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia after World War II.
Build Back Better - name of the economic recovery plan put forward by the Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign
Build The Wall - political slogan used by Donald Trump, as a chant to build the border wall between Mexico and America.
C
Choose Forward - election slogan of the Liberal Party of Canada for the 2019 Canadian federal election
Chowkidar Chor Hai - coined by the Rahul Gandhi of Indian National Congress in 2019 election in response to Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi calling himself Chowkidar.
Church in Danger – used by the Tory Party in elections during Queen Anne's reign.
Come and take it – Slogan at the Battle of Gonzales
Compassionate conservatism – slogan of George W. Bush's campaign during the 2000 presidential election.
Change is Coming- slogan used by Mombasa County, Kenya, gubernatorial candidate Suleiman Shahbal during his bid to be the first Governor of the Cosmopolitan County.
Common Prosperity a Chinese government political slogan and policy to bolster social equality.
Change You Can Believe In--Barack Obama campaign slogan 2008
D
Decolonise Education – slogan used to demand that universities in South Africa must dismantle of Eurocentric and Western centered ideas, institutions, interests, systems, symbols, and standards within the higher education system. It was used during the 2015 students protests which called for the removal of a statue at the University of Cape Town that commemorated Cecil Rhodes and the other 2015 students protests which followed calling for the abolition of fees in public universities in the country.
Death to fascism, freedom to the people – anti-Nazi slogan used by the Yugoslav resistance movement during World War II
Deeds Not Words – Women's Social and Political Union suffragette slogan, 1903.
¡Democracia Real Ya! – (Real Democracy Now!) Used in the 2011 Spanish protests
Deus, Patria, e Familia – Salazar reactionary slogan in the Estado Novo regime in Portugal
Do you want John Quincy Adams who can write, or Andrew Jackson who can fight? – Jacksonian Democrat slogan in the 1820s
Don't just hope for a better life. Vote for it. – slogan used by Margaret Thatcher.
Don't let him take Britain back to the 1980s – 2010 Labour poster attacking Conservative leader, David Cameron.
Don't Mess with Texas – slogan that began as anti-littering campaign; later adopted for political and other purposes
There is no Stop, Keep Going On! – The general electoral slogan of the Justice and Development Party in the Turkish general elections of 2007. It is still used by the supporters.
Drill, baby, drill – slogan used by the U.S. Republican Party to call for increasing domestic oil and gas production
E
Each for all and all for each – Tariff Reform League, 1905.
Eat the Rich – A leftist slogan originally traced back to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who is reputed to have said, "When the people shall have nothing more to eat, they will eat the rich."
Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer ("One people, one empire, one leader") – Nazi Germany.
Empower your Future – Slogan used by the Workers' Party of Singapore in the 2015 general election
Ena-Ena-Tessera (ένα-ένα-τέσσερα ) – Greek slogan from the late 1960s to early 1970s. Means One-One-Four, the number of the constitution that says the king may not interfere with the workings of government.
England Will Fight to the Last American – Slogan of the America First Committee, against providing aid to Britain during World War II
Éirinn go Brách (Ireland Forever) – used to express allegiance to Ireland or Irish pride; anglicised "Erin go Bragh"
Every Man a King – 1934 Introduced in February 1934, during a radio broadcast, this was the wealth and income redistributionist platform slogan (and later a song and a book) for Louisiana Governor Huey Long; it was part of a broader program that had the slogan, "Share Our Wealth".
Extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue. – Used by Barry Goldwater's campaign in the 1964 presidential election after his acceptance speech at the 1964 Republican National Convention.
F
#FeesMustFall – slogan used during the 2015 national student protests calling for the abolition of fees in public universities in South Africa.
Fianna Fáil (Now... The Next Steps) – slogan used during 2007 Irish General Election
Fifty-Four Forty or Fight – Oregon boundary dispute, 1846, Democrats claim all of Oregon Country for the United States
For the many, not the few – Jeremy Corbyn's famous slogan for the Labour Party (UK) in the UK 2017
Forward – Barack Obama, 2012 re-election campaign.
Four new inventions - Chinese media, the year 2017
From each according to his ability, to each according to his need (от каждого по способностям, каждому по потребностям)- Marxist slogan
Fuck War! (Хуй войне!) – anti-Iraq War phrase made famous by Russian group t.A.T.u.
Führer befiehl, wir folgen dir! (Führer command, we'll follow you!), from the song ""
G
Get Brexit Done. Unleash Britain's Potential — Conservative Party slogan for the 2019 UK General Election
Give me liberty, or give me death! – slogan coined by Patrick Henry prior to the American Revolutionary War, various versions and translations have been used around the world
Glory to Ukraine! Glory to Heroes! (Слава Україні! Героям слава!) – slogan of Ukrainian nationalists originating from the Ukrainian War of Independence.
God made Adam and Eve, not Adam and Steve – Anti-gay slogan used by Christians who oppose homosexuality on religious grounds, originating with the televangelist and Moral Majority leader Jerry Falwell.
Got Guv? – A play on the "got milk" campaign; used by dairy owner Jim Oberweis in 2006 during his campaign for Governor of Illinois.
Go For Growth – Australian Liberal 2007 campaign slogan used by John Howard. The slogan refers to the period of economic growth under his leadership.
Go Imran Go – a slogan used by Pakistan Muslim League (N) supporters against the Imran Khan
Go Nawaz Go – Inqilab March – Azaadi March slogan used by Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf and Pakistan Awami Tehrik supporters, during the political movement against the Nawaz Sharif government in Pakistan.
H
Hakkō ichiu (All The World Under One Roof) - Japanese political slogan in the Second Sino-Japanese War to World War II.
Had enough? – This was the 1946 slogan for Congressional elections for the out-of-power Republican Party; noting that they had been out of power in Congress since 1930, this slogan asked voters if they had "had enough" of the Democrats.
Hands Off Russia – slogan created by British socialists protesting the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War.
¡Hasta la victoria siempre! (Until Victory, Forever!) – Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara's famous slogan, and how he would end his letters.
He killed my ma, he killed my pa, but I will vote for him. – Charles Taylor's 1997 election slogan. Taylor threatened to restart the Liberian Civil War if he wasn't elected.
Heim ins Reich (Back home into the Reich), describing the Adolf Hitler's initiative to include all areas with ethnic Germans into the German Reich (Austria, Sudetenland, Danzig, etc.) that led to World War II.
He's Good Enough for Me – Balfour's Conservative poster, 1906 general election.
"He is finished" (Gotov je), key symbol for the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević on October 5, 2000.
Hey, Hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today? – Anti-Vietnam War and anti-Lyndon B. Johnson slogan from the 1960s. Other variations included, "How many boys did you kill today?"
Hum Do Humare Do is an Indian Political Slogan given by Rahul Gandhi leader of Indian National Congress on 11 February 2021 in his Budget speech in Indian Parliament. Mr. Gandhi believes that Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Home Minister Amit Shah are unduly handing over India's wealth to their corporate friends, mainly two businessmen known as Adani and Ambani. This slogan was coined by Mr. Gandhi when India is witnessing the world's largest protests by Indian farmers against the corporatization of agriculture!
I
I agree with Nick – Unofficial Liberal Democrat slogan for the 2010 United Kingdom general election, parodying Gordon Brown's performance in the televised debates where he often ended up espousing the same views as Lib Dem leader, Nick Clegg.
I like Ike - the slogan for the Draft Eisenhower movement, the only successful political draft of the 20th century. It persuaded former General Dwight D. Eisenhower to run for President of the United States in 1952.
I'm with Nicola - Used by the Scottish National Party (SNP) during the 2015 UK general election
In your heart, you know he's right - Used by the Barry Goldwater presidential campaign
In your guts you know he's nuts - Used by people who were against Barry Goldwater during his presidential campaign
Inquilab Zindabad - A Hindustani phrase, which translates to "Long live the revolution". Used by communist parties in India and Pakistan.
If you want a nigger for a neighbour, vote Liberal or Labour – Slogan for the successful candidacy of Peter Griffiths for Smethwick in the 1964 general election.
It's Scotland's oil – Used by the Scottish National Party (SNP) during the 1970s in making their economic case for Scottish independence
It's Time – Used by the Australian Labor Party in 1972; they had been out of government since 1949.
It's Time for Real Change — Labour Party slogan for the 2019 UK General Election
Il Duce ha sempre ragione! — Slogan used in Fascist Italian propaganda, translates to "The Duce [Benito Mussolini] is always right!"
J
Jai Bhim - A Hindustani phrase translating to "Hail Bhim" or "Victory to Bhim" referring to B. R. Ambedkar. It is a slogan, greeting, or salute word used by Indians especially Ambedkarites.
Jai Jawan Jai Kisan – Used by the Prime Minister of India Lal Bahadur Shashtri in 1965; It means hail the soldier and hail the farmer.
Jai Jawan Jai Kisan Jay Vigyan – Used by the former Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 2001; It means hail the soldier, hail the farmer and hail the science.
Jedem das Seine – Literally, the slogan means "to each his own" and was the German translation of Prussia's motto which read in Latin: "suum cuique". The meaning at that time was "justice for everyone". Used 1937–45 by Nazi Germany over the main gate at Buchenwald concentration camp it figuratively meant "everyone gets what he deserves". The slogan was already used in ancient Roman times by Cicero and Cato.
Je suis Charlie – slogan born of the 2015 Charlie Hebdo killings, used by those expressing outrage or support for the victims, as well as the free speech movement
Joy Bangla – Slogan used by the people in the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.
K
Keep the Bastards Honest – slogan used by the Australian Democrats since the 1980 Australian federal election.
Khela Hobe – slogan used in Bangladesh and India.
"Kosovo is Serbia" (Kosovo je Srbija), slogan used by protesters as a reaction to Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence.
L
Labour Isn't Working – 1978 Conservative Party poster devised by Saatchi and Saatchi. The poster showed a long queue outside an 'unemployment office' commenting on the high levels of unemployment. The campaign was a success with the Conservatives winning the election and Margaret Thatcher becoming Prime Minister.
Lal Salam - A Hindustani phrase translating to "Red Salute". It is a salute, greeting, or code word used by communists in Indian subcontinent.
Last Best West – slogan of Canada encouraging immigration to the Prairie Provinces.
LBJ for the USA - used by the Lyndon Baines Johnson presidential campaign
Let's Keep Moving - New Zealand Labour Party
Le Québec aux Québécois – (Quebec for the Québécois) Separatist chant. 1970s+
Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité (Liberty, Equality, Fraternity) – the national motto of France, with its origins in the French Revolution.
Lips That Touch Liquor Must Never Touch Mine – slogan of the Anti-Saloon League of the U.S. temperance movement from a poem from George W. Young, supposedly written c. 1870
Liberation before education – slogan in opposition to the segregated Bantu education system in South Africa under apartheid.
M
Mujhy keu nikala - why you ousted me out, famous slogan of Nawaz Sharif when he was ousted out of office of prime minister 3rd time.
Ma Mati Manush – popular political slogan coined by Mamata Banerjee, Chief Minister of West Bengal, who represented All India Trinamool Congress
Maggie, Maggie, Maggie – Out, Out, Out – Popular chant used at rallies and marched opposing the government of Margaret Thatcher.
Make America Great Again – Slogan used by various conservative political candidates in the United States since 1980, most notably Ronald Reagan and Donald Trump.
MATH - Make America Think Harder - Slogan used by Andrew Yang.
Make love, not war – anti-war slogan began during the War in Vietnam
Me ne frego! – Slogan used by the Benito Mussolini's blackshirts, literally "I don't give a damn".
Meine Ehre heißt Treue – motto of the Schutzstaffel in Nazi Germany, meaning "My honor is called loyalty." Banned in modern Germany along with other Nazi slogans under Strafgesetzbuch section 86a.
Merkel muss weg! ("Merkel must go!") - Slogan commonly used by the Islamophobic right-wing PEGIDA movement in (mostly former East) Germany.
More to do but we're heading in the right direction. – Slogan of the NSW Labor government of 2007. They were returned to office, but defeated in a landslide in 2011.
Moving New Hampshire Forward – Slogan used by Maggie Hassan in her 2012 NH gubernatorial campaign.
N
Naya Pakistan – Slogan used by Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf in its 2013 election campaign.
Never had it so good – 1957 campaign under Harold Macmillan's leadership of the Conservative Party.
Never been had so good – 1957 campaign slogan of the British Labour Party (in response to the Tory slogan).
Never Forget – Commemorative slogan used in the United States in reference to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks
New Labour, New Danger – Slogan on 1997 Conservative Party campaign poster showing Tony Blair with glowing red eyes. The campaign backfired as the poster was criticized for implying that Blair, a stated Christian, was demonic and then the Conservative Party's failure to state who had authorized the poster.
New Nationalism – campaign slogan of Theodore Roosevelt's 1912 presidential campaign and the Progressive Party. Derived from Herbert Croly's pamphlet The Promise of American Life and adopted by Roosevelt after an August 1910 speech in Osawatomie, Kansas.
The New Freedom – campaign slogan of Woodrow Wilson's 1912 presidential campaign
Ni dieu, Ni maitre (No God, No Master) – A French anti-religious saying.
¡No pasarán! ¡Pasaremos! (They shall not pass! But we will!) – Slogan of International Brigade in Spanish Civil War in reference to the Nationalist siege of Madrid.
Touch one, touch all – Australian unionist slogan meaning harming one worker, harms all workers.
No Surrender! – Pro Northern Irish Loyalist slogan referring to the Siege of Derry
No return to the status quo - used by former Sinn Féin Deputy First Minister (DFM) of Northern Ireland Martin McGuiness when he resigned as DFM during the Renewable Heat Incentive scandal. His resignation triggered the 2017 Northern Ireland Assembly election and the party has used this as their slogan since.
No taxation without representation – slogan first used during the American Revolutionary War
Nothing About Us Without Us! is a slogan used to communicate the idea that no policy should be decided by any representative without the full and direct participation of members of the group(s) affected by that policy.
Not Me. Us. - Slogan used by American Democratic Party Presidential Nomination contender Bernie Sanders in the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries and the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.
No War but Class War – Used by diverse Marxist groups as a means of underlining the priority of class struggle above other political aims – and as a general anti-militarist slogan.
O
On Your Side – Slogan of the Australian Labor Party for its 2022 Australian federal election campaign.
One man, one vote – slogan used worldwide for universal suffrage, most famously in the United Kingdom, the United States, and South Africa.
One settler, one bullet. – rallying cry of the Azanian People's Liberation Army during the armed struggle against apartheid.
One people under one God saluting one flag – slogan used during and after 2016 U.S. presidential campaign, particularly by the Christian right.
Not a step back! (Ни шагу назад!) – The motto representing Joseph Stalin's Order No. 227 issued on July 28, 1942. It is famous for its line "Not a step back!", that became a slogan of Soviet antifascist resistance.
P
Pakistan khappay (God bless Pakistan)
Patriotism, protection, and prosperity – slogan of the Republican Party and William McKinley's campaign in the 1896 presidential election in support of the gold standard and protectionism.
Patriarchy Must Fall – slogan used during the 2015 national student protests calling for the abolition of fees in public universities in South Africa and against gender based violence in South African universities.
Patria o Muerte (Homeland or Death) – A 1960 slogan of Fidel Castro used for the first time at a memorial service for the La Coubre explosion. As a result, it became a motto of the Cuban Revolution.
Patria y Vida (Homeland and Life) - A slogan and song associated with the 2021 Cuban protests. It is an inversion of the Cuban Revolution motto Patria o Muerte (Homeland or Death). The slogan was popularized by a reggaeton song released in February 2021 by Yotuel, Descemer Bueno, Gente de Zona, Luis Manuel Otero Alcántara, Maykel Osorbo and DJ El Funky. It originates with the San Isidro Movement.
Perón o muerte – (Perón or death) Peronist slogan used in Argentina.
Peace with Honor – phrase originally used by Cicero and William Shakespeare. Originated as a political slogan by Edmund Burke in favor of a conciliatory policy towards the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution. British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli and the Conservative Party revived the slogan after the Congress of Berlin. It was famously repeated by Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain after concluding the Munich Agreement with Nazi Germany before World War II, which was criticized by Chamberlain's opponents including Winston Churchill. President Richard Nixon evoked the concept in reference to the Paris Peace Accords ending U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War.
Peace without surrender. – slogan of anti-communists in the Republican Party during the Cold War in the 1950s and the 1960s, most famously Richard Nixon's campaign in the 1960 presidential election.
Piss On Pity is a rallying cry for those in the disability-inclusive circles of world politics.
Power to the people – A frequent anti-establishment slogan used in a variety of contexts by different political groups around the world such as libertarians, socialists and pro-democracy movements.
Proletariat of the world, unite! (Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь!) – A Soviet communist slogan coined by Karl Marx from The Communist Manifesto.
Promises Kept – Slogan used by Thomas P. Gordon in 2012 race for New Castle County Executive.
Putin Must Go – Slogan of opponents of Russian President Vladimir Putin since 2010.
R
Rooti, kapra aur makan - Pakistan peoples party slogan.
Rally Around O'Malley – Campaign slogan used during Patrick O'Malley's 2002 Illinois gubernatorial campaign.
Read my lips: no new taxes – Used by George H. W. Bush.
Return integrity to the White House. – Used by the Democratic nominee Jimmy Carter's 1976 presidential campaign in conduct to the Republican Party and President Richard Nixon in the Watergate scandal.
Remember Pearl Harbor! – A slogan, a song, an invitation to encourage American patriotism and sacrifice during World War II.
Remember the Alamo! – Battle cry at the Battle of San Jacinto.
Remember the Maine! – The rallying cry during the Spanish–American War.
Revolution is not a dinner party – A phrase by Mao Zedong, extracted from his full statement that "Revolution is not a dinner party, nor an essay, nor a painting, nor a piece of embroidery; it cannot be advanced softly, gradually, carefully, considerately, respectfully, politely, plainly, and modestly. A revolution is an insurrection, an act of violence by which one class overthrows another."
Ro Imran Ro – A slogan used by Pakistan Muslim League (N) supporters during Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf sit-in in Islamabad.
Remember Remember the Fifth of November - a phrase from popular English poem that refers to Guy Fawkes Night.
Rhodes Must Fall – slogan used during the early 2015 students protests in South Africa. It was directed against the now removed statue at the University of Cape Town (UCT) that commemorated Cecil Rhodes. The campaign led to a wider movement to decolonise education across South Africa.
S
Safe and Strong – WA Labor's campaign slogan during the 2021 Western Australian state election.
Safety First – Conservative election poster during the 1929 United Kingdom general election.
Save the Bay – Chesapeake Bay Foundation slogan to save the Chesapeake Bay. Also the name, and main slogan, for Save The Bay, a San Francisco Bay environmental organization
Să trăiți bine! ("May you live well!") - one of the slogans used by president Traian Băsescu in the 2004 presidential campaign. After he had been elected, Romanians' standard of living did not perceivably improve, and his former slogan became probably the most famous example of empty political campaign promises, used both by Mr. Băsescu's political opponents and by disgruntled citizens as a cynical way of expressing critique and discontent towards his presidency. In 2014, Băsescu mentioned that this electoral slogan was meant as wishing well to the Romanians, not as a promise, and that he was misunderstood, although this very tagline was used in a 2004 electoral poster along various political promises.
Serve the People (全心全意为人民服务) – a political slogan of Mao Zedong. The slogan later became popular among the New Left, Red Guard Party, and Black Panther Party; due to their strong Maoist influences.
Simon Go Back – Against the Simon Commission: The Indian Statutory Commission was a group of seven British Members of Parliament that had been dispatched to India in 1927 to study constitutional reform in that colony. It was commonly referred to as the Simon Commission after its chairman, Sir John Simon. Ironically, one of its members was Clement Attlee, who subsequently became the British Prime Minister who would oversee the granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947.
Sí se puede. Spanish for “Yes, we can.” The United Farm Workers motto.
Sinn Féin – Irish Gaelic motto for the Irish Home Rule movement beginning in the 19th century, translates to "We ourselves." Inspired political party of the same name in Northern Ireland.
Sous les pavés, la plage! ("Under the cobblestones, the beach!") Notable slogan of the May '68 demonstrations in France.
Stanley Baldwin the Man You Can Trust! – 1929 election poster
Stay the course – Popularized by Ronald Reagan while campaigning for Republicans during the 1982 mid-term elections and later picked up by his Vice President George H.W. Bush.
Slavery is a social, moral, and political wrong. – Used by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party during the 1860 presidential election.
Stop Brexit. Build a Brighter Future — Liberal Democrats' slogan for the 2019 UK General Election
Stop the boats – Tony Abbott, during his time as Leader of the Liberal Party
Strong and stable - Theresa May
Suit-Boot Ki Sarkar - an Indian Political Slogan given by Rahul Gandhi on 23 April 2015. He had accused Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi of favoring his rich corporate friends.
T
Tabdeeli aa nahi rahi – Tabdeeli aa gai hai – Slogan used by Pakistan Tehreek Insaf during their 2013 election campaign; later made a part of the Pakistan Tehreek Insaf Party anthem
The Buck Stops Here – A phrase first uttered by Harry S. Truman in reference to government accountability
The Chinese must go – used by 19th century California labor leader Denis Kearney, known for his anti-Chinese stance, who ended every speech with the phrase
The personal is political. Associated with second wave feminism in the 1960s.
The Party Of Lincoln Is Dead - A phrase first used by segregationists after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln.
The rich get richer and the poor get poorer – Used by Marxist-inspired socialists to criticize capitalism
The stakes are too high for you to stay home – Used by Lyndon B. Johnson's 1964 presidential campaign in the Daisy advertisement. Aired during the Cold War, and meant to imply that Johnson's opponent Barry Goldwater would cause a nuclear war with the Soviet Union if elected.
There Ain't No Such Thing as a Free Lunch – the first official slogan of the Libertarian Party, a phrase popularized by Robert A. Heinlein in his 1966 novel The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress. Commonly abbreviated as 'TANSTAFL'.
The whole world is watching – phrase used by anti-war demonstrators and others
There is no alternative – a slogan often used by Margaret Thatcher.
They shall not pass (Spanish: ¡No Pasaran!) – used during the Battle of Verdun in World War I by French General Robert Nivelle
Three Word Chant! – Anarchist anti-slogan used in the 1999 Seattle WTO protests to illustrate the reification of the slogan in mass culture.
Think globally, act locally or "Think global, act local" has been used in various contexts, including town planning, environment, and business
Tiocfaidh ár lá (Our Day Will Come) – slogan for a United Ireland
Tippecanoe and Tyler Too - campaign slogan from the 1840 United States presidential election
Tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, nulla contro lo Stato (Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State) – Early 1930s Italian Fascist slogan.
Trust Baldwin he will steer you to safety! – 1929 Conservative poster
Tyler and Texas! – John Tyler's slogan for supporting the annexation of Texas.
U
¡Una, Grande y Libre! – "One, Great and Free!", a Francoist slogan from Spain. It expressed three nationalist concepts; One) indivisible, against regional separatism, Great) in recognition of its imperial past and advocation of future expansion in Africa, Free) not submitted to internationalist foreign influences, which was a reference to what Francoists claimed was a "Judeo-Masonic-International Communist conspiracy" against Spain.
Up the proletariat! – loosely attributed to Karl Marx and early Marxist movements.
United we stand America – Slogan of Ross Perot in his campaign in the 1992 presidential election. Later adopted for the Reform Party.
V
Venceremos (We will overcome/we shall triumph) – A Spanish phrase associated with the Cuban Revolution and socialism in Latin America and unofficial national anthem of Chile during the period leading up to the coup.
Vivre Libre ou Mourir ("Live free or die") – French Revolution slogan
Vote for Change – British Conservative party slogan for the 2010 general election.
W
War on Women – Political slogan used by the Democratic Party in the United States in attacks from 2010 onward.
We are the 99% – a solidarity internet meme commonly associated with the 2011 Occupy Wall Street and associated protests
We demand better - Political Slogan used by the Liberal Democratic Party UK in 2019
When the looting starts, the shooting starts - Statement by Walter Headley on the eve of the 1968 Republican National Convention in response to unrest, Re-introduced into the political narrative by Donald Trump in response to protests relating to the murder of George Floyd.
White male privilege – catch phrase authored by Peggy McIntosh and used in Women's Studies , labor union and political party identity politics campaigns to attract non- white males and validate sentiments about white men's privilege. Variants include: Unearned white male privilege. privileged old white men.
White Power – slogan and chant of white supremacists
Wir schaffen das ("We will make it!"; "we can manage this"; "we can do it"; "we can do this") 2015 slogan used by Chancellor Angela Merkel to defend her open border policy during the 2015 European migrant crisis
Wir sind das Volk (We are the people), motto of the "Monday demonstrations" that led to the demise of the German Democratic Republic and German reunification.
With you, For you, For Singapore – People's Action Party slogan in the 2015 general election, Singapore.
Workers of the world, unite! - one of the most famous rallying cries of the socialist, communist and labor movements.
What this country needs is a good five-cent cigar. – First said by Vice President Thomas R. Marshall in the U.S. Senate
Whip inflation now (WIN) – Initiative by the administration of President Gerald Ford to combat stagflation during the recession of the 1970s by voluntary measures as opposed to the minimum wage and price controls pursued by his predecessor Richard Nixon, liberal Republicans, and the Democratic Party. Widely ridiculed by the public and contributed to the Democratic Party's victory in the 1974 congressional elections and the 1976 presidential election. Abandoned during the 1976 Republican Party presidential primaries in favor of a program of tax cuts.
Y
Yes We Can – Barack Obama, 2008 US presidential campaign. Inspired by the Spanish slogan "Si se puede." of the United Farm Workers.
Ya me ye (It's ours) – Peoples Democratic Party slogan for the 2019 municipal elections campaign.
You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns, you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold. – Slogan of William Jennings Bryan's campaign during the 1896 presidential election in opposition to the gold standard.
Z
Zimbabwean Lives Matter – The slogan started on 31 July 2020 after the government of Zimbabwe foiled the planned National Protests which became a successful stay away. The #ZimbabweLivesMatter campaign started to trend on Twitter with famous people like Barack Obama, Cristiano Ronaldo, Julius Malema and many others supporting the campaign. The arrest of journalist Hopewell Chin'ono and politician Jacob Ngarivume on flimsy charges infuriated the people. The gross violation of human rights including abduction, torture & illegal detention of political opponents and journalists gave the campaign momentum. Protesters were demanding political & economic reforms.
See also
Slogans
List of labor slogans
List of U.K. political slogans
List of U.S. presidential campaign slogans
List of United States political catchphrases
References
Lists of slogans
Political slogans
|
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] |
204592
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atropa
|
Atropa
|
Atropa is a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family, Solanaceae: tall, calcicole, herbaceous perennials (rhizomatous hemicryptophytes), bearing large leaves and glossy berries particularly dangerous to children, due to their combination of an attractive, cherry-like appearance with a high toxicity. Atropa species favour temperate climates and alkaline soils, often growing in light shade in woodland environments associated with limestone hills and mountains. Their seeds can remain viable in the soil for long periods, germinating when the soil of sites in which plants once grew (but from which plants have long been absent) is disturbed by human activity or by natural causes, e.g. the windthrow of trees (a property shared by the seeds of other Solanaceae in tribe Hyoscyameae e.g. those of Hyoscyamus spp., the henbanes). The best-known member of the genus Atropa is deadly nightshade (A. belladonna) - the poisonous plant par excellence in the minds of many. The pharmacologically active ingredients of Atropa species include atropine, scopolamine, and hyoscyamine, all tropane alkaloids having anticholinergic, deliriant, antispasmodic and mydriatic properties. The genus is named for Άτροπος (Atropos) - lit. 'she who may not be turned (aside)' - one of the Three Fates and cutter of the thread of life / bringer of death - in reference to the extreme toxicity of A.belladonna and its fellow species - of which three others are currently accepted.
In some older classifications, the mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) has been placed in the genus Atropa, under the binomial Atropa mandragora.
Species
Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl. – Indian belladonna/maitbrand (Kashmir and adjoining regions of India, Pakistan and Afghanistan, also N. Iran). Endangered. Accepted species.
Atropa acuminata Royle ex Miers – (not an accepted species, though probably referable to the species above) is reported to occur not only in Kashmir, but also in Iran and Mongolia - which would make it the easternmost of the Atropa species, and possibly of disjunct distribution.
Atropa baetica Willk. – Andalusian belladonna / tabaco gordo / tabba (S. and S.E. Spain and W. North Africa). Endangered. Accepted species.
Atropa belladonna L. – Belladonna/deadly nightshade (Europe, Western Asia and North Africa). A very variable species with a very extensive distribution, the which factors have contributed to the description of species not currently accepted. A.belladonna itself is an accepted species.
Atropa belladonna ssp. caucasica (Kreyer)Avet. – Caucasian Belladonna ( Caucasus, Turkey, Iran, Balkans(?)).
Atropa komarovii Blin.& Shalyt – Turkmenistan belladonna (Kopet Dag range dividing Iran from Turkmenistan and adjoining regions in N.E. (Caspian) Iran).
Atropa pallidiflora Schönb.-Tem. – Hyrcanian belladonna (Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests, notably those of Mazandaran Province, N. Iran, also Afghanistan). Accepted species.
The genus Atropa is currently under review, so changes in nomenclature are likely, once said review is complete. It will be seen from the above that there is an overlap in the respective distributions of A. acuminata, A. komarovii and A. pallidiflora in the lush Hyrcanian forests of Northern Iran, and it is possible that some or all of these species may yet be subsumed in the concept Atropa belladonna. A. belladonna itself (including its variety caucasica) is also present in the Hyrcanian forests and vol. 100 of Flora Iranica includes a useful key with which to distinguish the four species occurring in northern Iran. Data on A. pallidiflora and A. acuminata Royle ex Miers are neither abundant nor readily accessible on the Internet at present. The reported presence of an Atropa species in Mongolia is intriguing, given that country's relative remoteness from Kashmir and its (Kashmir's) well-attested population of Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl. The unequivocal presence of Atropa in the Eastern Himalaya would go at least some way to bridging the gap between Kashmiri and Mongolian populations of this genus. Some light might be cast upon this problem by the gaining of a better knowledge of the rare and poorly-known monotypic genus Pauia, found in Arunachal Pradesh and adjoining areas of Assam. The single species Pauia belladonna Deb and Dutta is described as bearing a marked similarity to Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl. and may yet prove to be referable to the genus Atropa, after all.
References
Solanoideae
Entheogens
Solanaceae genera
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] |
204594
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Preuss%20%28author%29
|
Paul Preuss (author)
|
Paul Preuss (born March 7, 1942 in Albany, Georgia) is an American writer of science fiction and science articles, who also works as a science consultant for film companies. He is the author of numerous stand-alone novels as well as novels in Arthur C. Clarke's Venus Prime series, based upon incidents, characters, and places from Clarke's short stories.
Preuss was a consulting editor for the six-book Dr. Bones series (1988-1989) published by Ace Books.
Personal life
Preuss was born in Albany, Georgia. His father, who worked in the Air Force was stationed at Turner Field. In the first few years of his life Paul had lived in Georgia, Texas, New Mexico, Hawaii and Virginia.
The Preuss' settled down in Albuquerque. Paul's father began working at Sandia Base testing nuclear bombs. The scientists Paul met during these formative years were an influence on the types of characters he would write about 40 years later.
Paul went to school at Yale, where he met and befriended Sidney Mintz as well as Jean Rouch.
Bibliography
Standalone Novels
Series
Peter Slater
Arthur C. Clarke's Venus Prime
Short Fiction
References
External links
20th-century American novelists
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
Novelists from Georgia (U.S. state)
People from Albany, Georgia
1942 births
Living people
20th-century American male writers
|
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204595
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Idaho%20%28BB-42%29
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USS Idaho (BB-42)
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USS Idaho (BB-42), a , was the fourth ship of the United States Navy to be named for the 43rd state. She was the third of three ships of her class. Built by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden, New Jersey, she was launched in June 1917 and commissioned in March 1919. She was armed with a battery of twelve guns in four three-gun turrets, and was protected by heavy armor plate, with her main belt armor being thick.
Idaho spent most of the 1920s and 1930s in the Pacific Fleet, where she conducted routine training exercises. Like her sister ships, she was modernized in the early 1930s. In mid-1941, before the United States entered World War II, Idaho and her sisters were sent to join the Neutrality Patrols that protected American shipping during the Battle of the Atlantic. After Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, Idaho and her sisters were sent to the Pacific, where she supported amphibious operations in the Pacific. She shelled Japanese forces during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands and the Philippines campaigns and the invasions of Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa.
Idaho was among the ships present in Tokyo Bay when Japan formally surrendered on 2 September 1945. With the war over, the ship was decommissioned in July 1946. She was sold to ship breakers in November 1947 and subsequently dismantled.
Design
Idaho was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of . She displaced as designed and up to at full combat load. The ship was powered by four-shaft Curtis turbines and nine oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers rated at , generating a top speed of . The ship had a cruising range of at a speed of . Her crew numbered 1,081 officers and enlisted men. As built, she was fitted with two lattice masts with spotting tops for the main gun battery. The main armored belt was thick, while the main armored deck was up to thick. The main battery gun turrets had thick faces on barbettes. The conning tower had thick sides.
The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve /50 caliber guns in four, three-gun turrets on the centerline, placed in two superfiring pairs forward and aft of the superstructure. Unlike earlier American battleships with triple turrets, these mounts allowed each barrel to elevate independently. The secondary battery consisted of fourteen /51 caliber guns mounted in individual casemates clustered in the superstructure amidships. Initially, the ship was to have been fitted with twenty-two of the guns, but experiences in the North Sea during World War I demonstrated that the additional guns, which would have been placed in the hull, would have been unusable in anything but calm seas. As a result, the casemates were plated over to prevent flooding. The secondary battery was augmented with four /50 caliber guns. In addition to her gun armament, Idaho was also fitted with two torpedo tubes, mounted submerged in the hull, one on each broadside.
Modifications
Starting in 1921, the Navy began installing aircraft catapults on its battleships, and Idaho was among the vessels to receive a Mark II catapult. Idaho was heavily modernized in the early 1930s. Her original turbines were replaced with new geared models manufactured by Westinghouse, and she received six express boilers designed by the Bureau of Engineering. This improved her performance to a top speed of from . Her armament was also revised, with the main battery turrets being modified to allow elevation to 30 degrees, greatly extending the range of the guns. Two of the 5-inch guns were removed, and eight 5-inch/25 caliber anti-aircraft guns were installed. She received an additional armored deck, and her underwater protection was improved. Both lattice masts were removed; a heavy tower bridge was built in place of the fore mast, and a light pole mast was erected in place of the main mast. During the installation of the new bridge, she was fitted out as a flagship, which included the addition of a flag bridge for the admiral and his staff. These alterations greatly increased her displacement, to standard and full load. Her crew increased significantly, to 1,443.
During a refit from 14 October to 28 December 1942, Idaho received a new anti-aircraft battery of ten quadruple Bofors guns and forty-three Oerlikon guns, though the Oerlikons were added in stages. By the time the refit ended, she carried only sixteen of them, with eleven more added in January 1943, the remaining sixteen being added in February. From 22 October 1944 to 1 January 1945, Idaho received another major refit, which included the installation of ten 5-inch/38 caliber guns in individual, dual-purpose mounts in place of the old 25-caliber guns. She also received new Mark 8 radars for her main battery fire control system.
Service history
Interwar period
Idaho was laid down on 20 January 1915 at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation in Camden, New Jersey. She was launched on 30 June 1917, and after fitting-out work ended, the new battleship was commissioned into the fleet on 24 March 1919. Shortly afterward, the ship began her shakedown cruise, departing on 13 April for Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, before returning to New York. There, the President of Brazil, Epitácio Pessoa, boarded the ship to return to Brazil. The trip began on 6 July; Idaho reached Rio de Janeiro on 17 July, where Pessoa left the ship, and continued on to the Panama Canal. She steamed to Monterey, California, where she joined the Pacific Fleet in September. The fleet then conducted a series of training exercises and held a naval review on 13 September for President Woodrow Wilson. Idaho hosted the Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels and the Secretary of the Interior John B. Payne for a tour of Alaska, which concluded on 22 July.
Idaho returned to the peacetime routine of fleet exercises over the next five years; these were held off the coast of North and South America, as far south as Chile. The ship was also present for a variety of ceremonies during this period, including a Naval Review for President Warren Harding in Seattle in 1923. The Pacific Fleet was reorganized as the Battle Fleet in 1922. She took part in major exercises off Hawaii in 1925, departing California on 15 April. The exercises lasted until 1 July, after which Idaho embarked on a cruise to the southern Pacific. Stops included Samoa, Australia, and New Zealand. While returning from Hawaii to California, she carried Commander John Rodgers, who had failed in his attempt to fly a seaplane from California to Hawaii. The ship reached San Francisco on 24 September. For the next six years, Idaho was based in San Pedro, where she continued to conduct readiness training, alternating between the Pacific and the Caribbean Sea.
On 7 September 1931, she departed San Pedro for the Norfolk Navy Yard, where she received a major reconstruction that began after her arrival on 30 September. The lengthy reconstruction finished on 9 October 1934, and after completing another shakedown cruise in the Caribbean, Idaho returned to San Pedro, arriving on 17 April 1935. Fleet maneuvers increased in frequency, particularly after tensions began to rise with Japan over its expansionist policies in Asia. In mid-1940, the Battle Fleet was transferred from California to Hawaii; Idaho joined the other ships on 1 July. By this time, World War II had broken out in Europe, spawning the Battle of the Atlantic. In response, President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated the Neutrality Patrols to protect American shipping. On 7 May 1941, Admiral Harold Stark, the Chief of Naval Operations, transferred Idaho, her sisters and , the aircraft carrier , four light cruisers, and two destroyer squadrons to the Atlantic to reinforce the Neutrality Patrols. Idaho left Hawaii on 6 June, bound for Hampton Roads to join the neutrality patrols. In September, she was stationed in Hvalfjörður, Iceland, and was there when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December.
World War II
With the United States now an active participant in World War II, Idaho and Mississippi left Iceland on 9 December to rejoin the Pacific Fleet. They stopped in Norfolk before steaming through the Panama Canal and continuing on to San Francisco, where they arrived on 31 January 1942. For much of the year, Idaho was occupied with combat training off the coast of California. In October, she went to the Puget Sound Navy Yard to receive replacements for her worn out main battery guns. The original secondary battery of 5-inch/51 cal. guns was removed as these guns were badly needed to arm merchant ships. Further training followed until April 1943, when on the 7th she departed for the Aleutian Islands, where Japanese troops had occupied the islands of Attu and Kiska. Idaho served as the flagship of the bombardment and patrol force. On 11 May, US Army forces went ashore on Attu, and Idaho provided gunfire support for the assault. The following month, a second attack followed on Kiska, but the Japanese had already abandoned the island in July. On 7 September, Idaho returned to San Francisco to begin preparations for the next major amphibious assault, which shifted focus to the central Pacific.
Idaho moved to Pearl Harbor and then joined the invasion fleet on 10 November, which then steamed to the Gilbert Islands. They arrived off Makin Atoll on 20 November; Idaho continued her role as gunfire support for the next two weeks, shelling Japanese positions in the Gilberts as well as contributing her antiaircraft battery to defend against Japanese aerial attacks. On 5 December, she left the area for Pearl Harbor, where she prepared for the next attack, against the Marshall Islands. On 31 January 1944, Idaho and the rest of the fleet arrived off Kwajalein to begin the preparatory bombardment. She continued to batter Japanese forces until 5 February, by which time the Marines had wrested control of the small island from its Japanese garrison. Idaho replenished fuel and ammunition at Majuro before returning to shell Japanese positions on other islands in the Marshalls before steaming to Kavieng, New Ireland to conduct a diversionary bombardment on 20 March.
On 25 March, Idaho arrived in the New Hebrides, before continuing on to Australia for a brief stay. She returned to Kwajalein on 8 June, where she joined a group of escort carriers for the invasion of the Mariana Islands. Idaho began the preparatory bombardment of Saipan on 14 June, with the assault taking place the following day. Idaho then shifted to Guam, where she shelled Japanese positions. During the Battle of the Philippine Sea on 19–20 June, Idaho remained with the invasion fleet and protected the troop transports and supply ships. She steamed to Eniwetok in the Marshalls to replenish her stocks of ammunition from 28 June to 9 July, before returning to Guam on 12 July. She bombarded the island for eight days before ground troops went ashore on 21 July. The ship continued to support American forces ashore until 2 August, when she returned to Eniwetok for further supplies. From there, she steamed to Espiritu Santo, where on 15 August she entered a floating dry dock for repairs.
In early September, Idaho steamed to Guadalcanal, where she took part in amphibious assault training. On 12 September, she steamed to Peleliu and joined the preparatory bombardment of the island. In the ensuing Battle of Peleliu, dug in Japanese defenders inflicted heavy casualties on the assaulting Marines, with Idaho providing artillery support until 24 September, when she withdrew for an overhaul. She steamed to Manus and then to Bremerton, Washington, arriving on 22 October. During the refit, the 5-inch /25 cal. guns were replaced by ten 5-inch /38 cal. guns in single enclosed mounts; she was the only ship of her class to receive this modification. The installation of these guns required the removal of the last of the old 5-inch /51 guns, as the new weapons required continuous ammunition hoists. After completion of the work, she conducted training off California. On 28 January 1945, Idaho departed San Diego, bound for Pearl Harbor. There, she joined the bombardment group, which proceeded to the Marianas and then on 14 February steamed north to Iwo Jima, the target of the next major amphibious assault. The ship bombarded the Japanese defenders on 19 February as the Marines went ashore; Idaho remained there for nearly a month before withdrawing on 7 March to replenish at Ulithi.
On 21 March, Idaho joined Task Force 54 (TF 54), the Gunfire and Covering Group under the command of Rear Admiral Morton Deyo, as the flagship of Bombardment Unit 4 for the invasion of Okinawa. She began shelling Okinawa on 25 March, and the landings started on 1 April. The battle marked the height of the kamikaze attacks by the increasingly desperate Japanese defenders. Idaho shot down five kamikazes in a massed attack on 12 April, and in return, a near miss inflicted damage to her port side anti-torpedo bulge. Temporary repairs were effected off Okinawa, and on 20 April she left for Guam, arriving on the 25th. Permanent repairs were completed quickly, allowing the ship to return to Okinawa on 22 May, where she resumed her fire support mission. She operated off Okinawa until 20 June, before departing for the Philippines. There, she conducted training operations in Leyte Gulf until Japan agreed to surrender on 15 August. Idaho was among the ships to enter Tokyo Bay on 27 August, carrying a detachment of occupation troops. She was present during the signing of the surrender documents on 2 September. The ship left Japanese waters on 6 September, bound for the east coast of the United States. She arrived in Norfolk on 16 October, and was decommissioned there on 3 July 1946. She remained in reserve for a year and a half before being sold for scrap on 24 November 1947 to Lipsett, Inc., of New York City.
Footnotes
Notes
Citations
References
Further reading
External links
From Dam Neck to Okinawa, First person account of Kamikazee attacks on Idaho and Tennessee by an Anti-Aircraft Director
The Organization, Administration and Ship's Regulations of the United States Ship Idaho, 1934-1935, MS 87 held by Special Collections & Archives, Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy
New Mexico-class battleships
Ships built in Camden, New Jersey
1917 ships
World War II battleships of the United States
United States Navy Idaho-related ships
Ships of the Aleutian Islands campaign
|
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204599
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20Post
|
An Post
|
(; literally 'The Post') is the state-owned provider of postal services in the Republic of Ireland. An Post provides a "universal postal service" to all parts of the country as a member of the Universal Postal Union. Services provided include letter post, parcel service, deposit accounts, Express Post (an all-Ireland next-day delivery service), and EMS (international express-mail service).
Background
An Post, the Irish postal administration, came into being in 1984 when, under the terms of the Postal & Telecommunications Services Act of 1983, the Post Office services of the Department of Posts and Telegraphs (P&T) were divided between An Post and Telecom Éireann, the telecommunications operator now called Eir. At its inception, during the early years of the Irish Free State, the Department of Posts and Telegraphs was the country's largest department of state, and its employees (most of them postmen) constituted the largest sector of the civil service.
Prior to this, the Post Office in Ireland had been under the control of various Postmasters General, Irish and British, with the appointment of Evan Vaughan as postmaster in Dublin in 1638, generally accepted as the date for the establishment of a semi-formal postal system in Ireland. Oliver Cromwell's Postal Act of 1657 created a combined General Post Office for the three kingdoms of Ireland, Scotland, and England; the position was affirmed by Charles II and his parliament by the Post Office Act of 1660.
As of 2020, An Post remains one of Ireland's largest employers but it has undergone considerable downsizing. In 2020, Munster’s only sorting centre in Little Island, Cork closed. The closure of individual branches in rural areas has become a significant political issue. In 2014, all parts of An Post made a profit for the first time in eight years. As of 2018 there were approximately 1,100 An Post offices and over 100 postal agents across the Republic of Ireland.
The Irish government announced the introduction of a postcode system, Eircode, in Ireland from 2008 though An Post was against the system at the time, saying it was unnecessary. The introduction of the postcode system took place on 13 July 2015, after almost a decade of delays.
All parcel post arriving in Ireland passes through An Post's mail centre in Portlaoise, where customs officials are on duty to inspect it.
An Post adopted its current logo on 14 December 2018; it did not make its first appearance until 13 March 2019. On branded signage, individual post offices are labelled or (in English) 'Post Office'.
Subsidiaries and joint ventures
An Post is involved in a number of joint venture operations and also has several subsidiaries. It has complete ownership of some of these, while it is part-owner of others, such as the An Post National Lottery Company and the Prize Bond Company Limited.
An Post National Lottery Company
An Post held the licence granted by the Minister for Finance to run the National Lottery through its subsidiary, An Post National Lottery Company until February 2014. All employees of An Post National Lottery Company were seconded from An Post, and as such were employed and paid by An Post rather than by the subsidiary. Since 2014, the National Lottery has been operated by Premier Lotteries Ireland, in which An Post is a stakeholder.
An Post Transaction Services
In 2003, An Post set up a new division to run its post office and transaction services business, entitled An Post Transaction Services or PostTS. It rebranded its post offices network as "Post Office" or "Oifig an Phoist" with a new, white-and-red logo, and introduced banking services in conjunction with Allied Irish Banks. This followed the introduction of a service whereby newsagents could provide some Post Office services. This service, entitled PostPoint and operated as subsidiary of An Post, was originally formed in 2000 to sell mobile phone top-ups over-the-counter to Eircell subscribers.
In 2005 PostTS sold its foreign operations, and the rebranding effort largely reversed, with the traditional An Post logo restored to Post Offices. Between 2005 and 2006, An Post sold its interest in the Post TS UK and An Post Transaction Services businesses to Alphyra, for a reported €59.3m.
Geodirectory
Jointly established by An Post and Ordnance Survey Ireland, Geodirectory is a service that provides a database of buildings and addresses in the Republic of Ireland, as well as their geolocation details. It holds records for 2.2 million properties that receive post. GeoDirectory assigns each property its own individual "fingerprint" – a unique, verified address in a standardised format, together with a geocode which identifies every property in the country. Geodirectory also operates a mobile app called GeoFindIT.
Postbank
On 5 October 2006 An Post signed an agreement for the creation of a joint venture with Fortis to provide financial services through the Post Office network. This joint venture with BNP Paribas was created to offer financial products and services to the Irish market, including daily banking, savings products, insurance, mortgages, and credit cards. PostPoint and the company's insurance business, One Direct, was to become part of the new company, with access to the Post Office network. In April 2007 a press launch was held for the new bank, which is to be known as Postbank (legally Postbank Ireland Limited, to distinguish from other similarly named operations such as Deutsche Postbank). By February 2010, the closure of the Postbank unit had been announced, and the operation was wound down by the end of December 2010.
Some counter business for AIB, Bank of Ireland and Ulster Bank can also be conducted at post offices.
Postbus
Between 1982 and 2004 the company operated a postbus route linking Ennis with parts of County Clare.
Television licensing
Television licensing is administered by An Post. It is responsible for the collection of revenue, inspection, and prosecution in cases of non-payment of the licence on behalf of the state.
An Post Mobile
An Post runs a mobile virtual network operator (MVNO) using Vodafone's Irish network.
Developments
In 2009, An Post sponsored a postcard project, called "C Both Sides", which ran for a year, with the public being invited to create postcards on different themes.
In February 2012, the Commission for Communications Regulation (ComReg) launched legal proceedings against An Post over the quality of its service. An Post said it was "puzzled" by the decision.
In August 2018, it was announced that all post offices serving communities of fewer than 500 people (excluding offshore islands) were to be closed. However, three of these 159 branches were "spared" closure following local campaigns at Ballinskelligs (Kerry), Cliffoney (Sligo), and Ballycroy (Mayo).
See also
An Post Museum
Communications in Ireland
General Post Office, Dublin
List of companies of Ireland
Postage stamps of Ireland
Postal addresses in Ireland
Notes
References
External links
Financial services in the Republic of Ireland
Ire
Republic of Ireland postal system
State-sponsored bodies of the Republic of Ireland
Telecommunications companies of the Republic of Ireland
Transport companies established in 1984
Irish companies established in 1984
|
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204601
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Till%20We%20Have%20Faces
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Till We Have Faces
|
Till We Have Faces: A Myth Retold is a 1956 novel by C. S. Lewis. It is a retelling of Cupid and Psyche, based on its telling in a chapter of The Golden Ass of Apuleius. This story had haunted Lewis all his life, because he realized that some of the main characters' actions were illogical. As a consequence, his retelling of the story is characterized by a highly developed character, the narrator, with the reader being drawn into her reasoning and her emotions. This was his last novel, and he considered it his most mature, written in conjunction with his wife, Joy Davidman.
The first part of the book is written from the perspective of Psyche's older sister Orual, as an accusation against the gods. The story is set in the fictive kingdom of Glome, a primitive city-state whose people have occasional contact with civilized Hellenistic Greece. In the second part of the book, the narrator undergoes a change of mindset (Lewis would use the term conversion) and understands that her initial accusation was tainted by her own failings and shortcomings, and that the gods are lovingly present in humans' lives.
Characters
Royalty
Trom: King of Glome
Orual: oldest daughter of Trom
Maia: Psyche's Greek nickname for Orual (μαῖα, Greek for "foster-mother")
Redival: second daughter of Trom
Istra: youngest daughter of Trom, half sister of Orual and Redival
Psyche: Orual's Greek nickname for Istra
Trunia: prince of the neighbouring country of Phars, marries Redival
Daaran: son of Trunia and Redival, nephew and heir of Orual
Argan: another prince of Phars, defeated by Orual.
Other people
Batta: nurse to the sisters
Fox (Lysias): Greek slave who acts as tutor and counsellor, a follower of Stoicism
Poobi: faithful maid of Orual
Alit: daughter of Poobi
Tarin: soldier who is castrated
Bardia: trusted soldier
Ansit: wife of Bardia
Ilerdia: son of Bardia
Gram: a soldier
Penuan: noble of Glome
Arnom: Second Priest of Ungit
Gods
Ungit: goddess of Glome, equivalent to Aphrodite/Venus
God of the Grey Mountain: son of Ungit, equivalent to Eros/Cupid
Talapal: name for Ungit in Essur
Ialim: son of Talapal, equivalent to Eros/Cupid
Plot summary
Part One
The story tells the ancient Greek myth of Cupid and Psyche, from the perspective of Orual, Psyche's older sister.
It begins as the complaint of Orual as an old woman, who is bitter at the injustice of the gods. She has always been ugly, but after her mother dies and her father the King of Glome remarries, she gains a beautiful half-sister Istra, whom she loves as her own daughter, and who is known throughout the novel by the Greek version of her name, Psyche. Psyche is so beautiful that the people of Glome begin to offer sacrifices to her as to a goddess. The Priest of the goddess Ungit, a powerful figure in the kingdom, then informs the king that various plagues befalling the kingdom are a result of Ungit's jealousy, so Psyche is sent as a human sacrifice to the unseen "God of the Mountain" at the command of Ungit, the mountain-god's mother. Orual plans to rescue Psyche but falls ill and is unable to prevent anything.
When she is well again, Orual arranges to go to where Psyche was stranded on the mountain, either to rescue her or to bury what remains of her. She is stunned to find Psyche is alive, free from the shackles in which she had been bound, and furthermore says she does not need to be rescued in any way. Rather, Psyche relates that she lives in a beautiful castle that Orual cannot see, as the God of the Mountain has made her a bride rather than a victim. At one point in the narrative, Orual believes she has a brief vision of this castle, but then it vanishes like a mist. Hearing that Psyche has been commanded by her new god-husband not to look on his face (all their meetings are in the nighttime), Orual is immediately suspicious. She argues that the god must be a monster, or that Psyche has actually started to hallucinate after her abandonment and near-death on the mountain, that there is no such castle at all, and that her husband is actually an outlaw who was hiding on the mountain and takes advantage of her delusions in order to have his way with her. Orual says that because either possibility is one that she cannot abide by, she must disabuse her sister of this illusion.
She returns a second time, bringing Psyche a lamp for her to use while her "husband" sleeps, and when Psyche insists that she will not betray her husband by disobeying his command, Orual threatens both Psyche and herself, stabbing herself in the arm to show she is capable of following through on her threat. Ultimately, reluctantly, Psyche agrees because of the coercion and her love for her sister.
When Psyche disobeys her husband, she is immediately banished from her beautiful castle and forced to wander as an exile. The God of the Mountain appears to Orual, stating that Psyche must now endure hardship at the hand of a force he himself could not fight (likely his mother the goddess Ungit), and that "You too shall be Psyche," which Orual attempts to interpret for the rest of her life, usually taking it to mean that as Psyche suffers, she must suffer also. She decries the injustice of the gods, saying that if they had shown her a picture of Psyche's happiness that was easier to believe, she would not have ruined it. From this day forward she vows that she will keep her face veiled at all times.
Eventually, Orual becomes a Queen, and a warrior, diplomat, architect, reformer, politician, legislator, and judge, though all the while remaining alone. She drives herself, through work, to forget her grief and the love she has lost. Psyche is gone, her other family she never cared for, and her beloved tutor, "the Fox," has died. Her main love interest throughout the novel, Bardia the captain of the royal guard, is married and forever faithful to his wife until his death. To her, the gods remain, as ever, silent, unseen, and merciless.
While Bardia is on his deathbed, Orual decides she can no longer stand the sight of her own kingdom and decides to leave it for the first time to visit neighboring kingdoms. While resting on her journey, she leaves her group at their camp and follows sounds from within a wood, which turn out to be coming from a temple to the goddess Istra (Psyche). There Orual hears a version of Psyche's myth, which shows her as deliberately ruining her sister's life out of envy. In response, she writes out her own story, as set forth in the book, to set the record straight. Her hope is that it will be brought to Greece, where she has heard that men are willing to question even the gods.
Part Two
Orual begins the second part of the book stating that her previous accusation that the gods are unjust is wrong. She does not have time to rewrite the whole book because she is very old and of ill health and will likely die before it can be redone, so instead she is adding on to the end.
She relates that since finishing part one of the book, she has experienced a number of dreams and visions, which at first she doubts the truth of except that they also start happening during daytime when she is fully awake. She sees herself being required to perform a number of impossible tasks, like sorting a giant mound of different seeds into separate piles, with no allowance for error, or collecting the golden wool from a flock of murderous rams, or fetching a bowl of water from a spring on a mountain which cannot be climbed and furthermore is covered with poisonous beasts. It is in the midst of this last vision that she is led to a huge chamber in the land of the dead and given the opportunity to read out her complaint in the gods' hearing. She discovers, however, that instead of reading the book she has written, she reads off a paper that appears in her hand and contains her true feelings, which are indeed less noble than Part One of the book would suggest. Still, rather than being jealous of Psyche, as the story she heard in the temple suggested, she reveals that she was jealous of the gods because they were allowed to enjoy Psyche's love while she herself was not.
The gods make no reply, but Orual is content, as she sees that the gods' "answer" was really to make her understand the truth of her own feelings. Then she is led by the ghost of the Fox into a sunlit arena in which she learns the story of what Psyche has been up to: she has herself been assigned the impossible tasks from Orual's dreams, but was able to complete them with supernatural help. Orual then leaves the arena to enter another verdant field with a clear pool of water and a brilliant sky. There she meets Psyche, who has just returned from her last errand: retrieving a box of beauty from the underworld, which she then gives to Orual, though Orual is hardly conscious of this because at that moment she begins to sense that something else is happening. The God of the Mountain is coming to be with Psyche and judge Orual, but the only thing he says is "You also are Psyche" before the vision ends. The reader is led to understand that this phrase has actually been one of mercy the entire time.
Orual, awoken from the vision, dies shortly thereafter but has just enough time to record her visions and to write that she no longer hates the gods but sees that their very presence is the answer she always needed.
Conception
The idea of retelling the myth of Cupid and Psyche, with the palace invisible, had been in C. S. Lewis's mind ever since he was an undergraduate; the retelling, as he imagined it, involved writing through the mouth of the elder sister. He argued that this made the sister not simply envious and spiteful, but ignorant (as any mortal might be of the divine) and jealous (as anyone could be in their love). He tried it in different verse-forms when he considered himself primarily a poet, so that one could say that he'd been "at work on Orual for 35 years", even though the version told in the book "was very quickly written". In his pre-Christian days, Lewis would imagine the story with Orual "in the right and the gods in the wrong".
Origin of title
C. S. Lewis originally titled his working manuscripts "Bareface". The editor (Gibb) rejected the title "Bareface" on the ground that readers would mistake it for a Western. In response, Lewis said he failed to see why people would be deterred from buying the book if they thought it was a Western, and that the working title was cryptic enough to be intriguing. Nevertheless, Lewis started considering an alternative title on February 29, 1956, and chose "Till We Have Faces", which refers to a line from the book where Orual says, "How can [the gods] meet us face to face till we have faces?" He defended his choice in a letter to his long-time correspondent, Dorothea Conybeare, explaining the idea that a human "must be speaking with its own voice (not one of its borrowed voices), expressing its actual desires (not what it imagines that it desires), being for good or ill itself, not any mask."
Reception
Lewis considered this novel to be his best and most accomplished work. This opinion was echoed by J. R. R. Tolkien as well as publications such as The New York Times. The novel was well received by the literary community upon its initial release and has continued to enjoy acclaim since.
See also
Beauty and the Beast, for a fairy tale that has been connected to the "Cupid and Psyche" myth by scholar Bruno Bettelheim (see below).
References
Further reading
. The connection between "Cupid and Psyche" and "Beauty and the Beast" is found on these pages.
.
Discusses the many classical references that Lewis used that may now be obscure to readers.
External links
.
1956 British novels
Cupid and Psyche
British fantasy novels
Novels by C. S. Lewis
Works based on The Golden Ass
Geoffrey Bles books
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1869%20in%20literature
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1869 in literature
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This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1869.
Events
February 3 – Booth's Theatre opens on Manhattan with the owner, Edwin Booth, playing the male lead in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet.
May 10 – As a protest against her drama school having been closed down by the Russian authorities, Swedish-born actress Hedvig Raa-Winterhjelm delivers the lines in her next performance, Aleksis Kivi's Lea, in the Finnish language, the first time it has been spoken in the public theatre in Finland.
May 22 – Serial publication of Anthony Trollope's novel He Knew He Was Right concludes and it appears in London as the first book to include a fictional private investigator, ex-policeman Samuel Bozzle.
August
Ambrose Bierce, writing a satirical column for the San Francisco News Letter, begins to produce the cynical definitions which will eventually become The Devil's Dictionary.
Macmillan Publishing opens its first American office in New York City, headed by George Edward Brett.
October 5 – Model, poet and artist Elizabeth Siddal (d. 1862) is exhumed at Highgate Cemetery in London in order to recover the manuscript of Dante Gabriel Rossetti's Poems buried with her.
December – Publication of Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace («Война и миръ», Voyna i mir) complete in book form concludes. It is printed in Moscow and sold by the author on subscription.
unknown dates – Eiríkur Magnússon and William Morris publish their first translations of Old Icelandic sagas into English: Grettis Saga: The Story of Grettir the Strong (from Grettis saga) and The Story of Gunnlaug the Worm-tongue and Raven the Skald (from Gunnlaugs saga ormstungu).
New books
Fiction
Thomas Bailey Aldrich – The Story of a Bad Boy
Ignacio Manuel Altamirano – Clemencia (debut novel)
Horatio Alger, Jr. – Luck and Pluck
R. M. Ballantyne – Erling the Bold
R. D. Blackmore – Lorna Doone
Fyodor Dostoyevsky – The Idiot (Идіотъ)
Alexandre Dumas, père – The Knight of Sainte-Hermine (Le Chevalier de Sainte-Hermine, unfinished; first published 2005)
Gustave Flaubert – Sentimental Education (L'Éducation sentimentale)
Émile Gaboriau – Monsieur Lecoq
Ivan Goncharov – The Precipice (Обрыв)
Edmond and Jules de Goncourt – Madame Gervaisais
Victor Hugo – The Man Who Laughs (L'Homme qui rit)
Sheridan Le Fanu – The Wyvern Mystery
Nikolai Leskov – Old Years in Plodomasovo («Ста′рые го′ды в селе′ Плодома′сове» published serially in Russkiy Vestnik)
Joaquim Manuel de Macedo – A Luneta Mágica (The Magical Glasses)
Hector Malot – Romain Kalbris
Florence Montgomery – Misunderstood
Charles Reade – Foul Play
Capt. Hawley Smart – Breezie Langton
Hesba Stretton – Alone in London
Leo Tolstoy – War and Peace
Charlotte M. Yonge – The Chaplet of Pearls
Children and young people
Louisa May Alcott – Good Wives
Frances Freeling Broderip
Tales of the Toys told by Themselves
The Daisy and her Friends: Tales and Stories for Children
Juliana Horatia Ewing – Mrs. Overtheway's Remembrances
Jean Ingelow – Mopsa the Fairy
A. D. T. Whitney – Hitherto
Drama
Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson – Sigurd Slembe (Sigurd the Bastard, trilogy, first performed, in Germany)
François Coppée – Le Passant
Navalram Pandya – Veermati
Mendele Mocher Sforim – Di Takse (The Tax, unperformed)
Alexander Sukhovo-Kobylin – Scenes from the Past
Poetry
Henry Kendall – Leaves from Australian Forests
Non-fiction
Matthew Arnold – Culture and Anarchy
P. T. Barnum – Struggles and Triumphs
Josephine Butler (editor) – Women's Work and Women's Culture
Warren Felt Evans – The Mental Cure, illustrating the influence of the Mind on the Body
William Ewart Gladstone – Juventus Mundi: The gods and men of "the heroic" age
John Stuart Mill – The Subjection of Women
John Neal — Wandering Recollections of a Somewhat Busy Life: An Autobiography
Mark Twain – The Innocents Abroad
Richard Wagner – Das Judenthum in der Musik (Jewishness in Music)
Garnet Wolseley – Soldier’s Pocket-book for Field Service
Births
January 10 – Rachel Davis Harris, African American librarian (died 1969)
January 15 – Stanisław Wyspiański, Polish dramatist, poet, painter and architect (died 1907)
February 8 – Victor Ido, born Hans van de Wall, Dutch East Indian journalist, novelist and playwright (died 1948)
February 11 – Else Lasker-Schüler, German-born poet, playwright and short story writer (died 1945)
March 11
F. G. Loring, English writer and naval officer (died 1951)
Rosa Louise Woodberry, American journalist and educator (died 1932)
March 14 – Algernon Blackwood, English writer (died 1951)
May 10 – Rachel Davis Harris, African American librarian (died 1969)
May 23 – Olivia Ward Bush-Banks, American poet (died 1944)
June 10 – Arthur Shearly Cripps, English-born poet, short story writer and Anglican priest in Africa (died 1952)
July 1 – William Strunk, Jr., American professor of English (died 1946)
July 8 – William Vaughn Moody, American dramatist and poet (died 1910)
July 29 – Booth Tarkington, American novelist (died 1946)
August 10 – Laurence Binyon, English poet and dramatist (died 1943)
September 6 – Felix Salten, Austrian author and critic (died 1945)
October 6 – Bo Bergman, Swedish poet (died 1967)
November 15 – Charlotte Mew, English poet (died 1928)
November 20 – Zinaida Gippius, Russian writer (died 1945)
November 22 – André Gide, French writer (died 1951)
December 22 – Edwin Arlington Robinson, American poet (died 1935)
December 30 – Stephen Leacock, English-born Canadian humorist and economist (died 1944)
Deaths
January 20 – Carl Wilhelm Göttling, German classical commentator (born 1793)
January 28 – Sophie Bolander, Swedish writer (born 1807)
January 30
Frances Catherine Barnard, English writer (born 1796)
William Carleton, Irish writer (born 1794)
February 15 – Ghalib, Indian poet (born 1796)
February 28 – Alphonse de Lamartine, French poet and politician (born 1790)
March 31 – David Rees (Y Cynhyrfwr), Nonconformist leader and author (born 1801)
May 18 – Peter Cunningham, British literary scholar and antiquarian (born 1816)
July 7 – Paul Botten-Hansen, Norwegian librarian, book collector, magazine editor and literary critic (born 1824)
July 11 – William Jerdan, Scottish-born editor (born 1782)
July 15 – Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Duncker, German publisher (born 1781)
July 19 – Victor Aimé Huber, German travel writer and literary historian (born 1800)
July 22 – Julius Braun, German historian (born 1825)
August 2 – Thomas Medwin, English poet, biographer and translator (born 1788)
September 12 – Peter Mark Roget, British lexicographer (born 1779)
October – John Jones (Talhaiarn), poet (born 1810)
October 13 – Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, French literary critic (b. 1804)
October 18 – Simon Jenko, Slovene poet (born 1835)
November 3 – Andreas Kalvos, Greek Romantic poet and dramatist (born 1792)
November 12 – Gheorghe Asachi, Moldavian polymath (born 1788)
Notes
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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204610
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1868%20in%20literature
|
1868 in literature
|
Events from the year 1868 in literature .
Events
January – Émile Zola defends his first major novel, Thérèse Raquin (1867), against charges of pornography and corruption of morals.
January 4–August 8 – Wilkie Collins' epistolary novel The Moonstone: a Romance is serialised in All the Year Round (U.K.), being published in book format in July by Tinsley Brothers of London. It is seen as a precursor of full-length mystery fiction (with its introduction of the police detective Sergeant Cuff) and the psychological thriller.
January 9 – John William De Forest, writing for The Nation, calls for a more specifically American literature; the essay's title, "The Great American Novel", is the first known use of the term.
April 29 – The Court of King's Bench (England) decides on appeal the legal case Regina v. Hicklin on interpretation of the word "obscene" in the Obscene Publications Act 1857, applying the "Hicklin test": that any part of a publication with a "tendency... to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences, and into whose hands a publication of this sort may fall" makes the whole publication obscene, regardless of the author's intentions.
September – The first volume of Louisa May Alcott's novel for girls Little Women is published by Roberts Brothers of Boston, Massachusetts.
November
Robert Browning's narrative poem The Ring and the Book begins four-part publication by Smith, Elder & Co. in London. It is a major commercial and critical success.
Norman MacLeod, editor of Good Words (U.K.), begins publishing its companion juvenile version, Good Words for the Young. The first issue begins the serial publication of George MacDonald's At the Back of the North Wind.
December – The Globe Theatre (Newcastle Street) in London opens with the première of the recently bankrupted Henry James Byron's semi-autobiographical comedy Cyril's Success.
unknown dates
The first edition of The World Almanac and Book of Facts is published by the New York World.
The first substantial translation into English from Dream of the Red Chamber is made by Edward Charles Bowra.
Tauchnitz publishers of Leipzig begin their Collection of German Authors, a series of cheap, authorized paperback reprints.
New books
Fiction
R. M. Ballantyne – Deep Down
Henry Ward Beecher – Norwood, or Villagtdve Life in New England
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Dead-Sea Fruit
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Run to Earth
Mortimer Collins – Sweet Anne Page
Wilkie Collins – The Moonstone
Alphonse Daudet - Le Petit Chose
Comte de Lautréamont (anonymously as "***") – Les Chants de Maldoror, Chant premier
Fyodor Dostoevsky – The Idiot («Идио́т»)
Émile Gaboriau – Slaves of Paris (Les Esclaves de Paris)
Hermann Goedsche – Biarritz
Bret Harte – The Luck of Roaring Camp
Sheridan Le Fanu – Haunted Lives
George MacDonald – Robert Falconer
Anthony Trollope - Linda Tressel
Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward - The Gates Ajar
Émile Zola – Madeleine Ferat
Children and young people
Louisa May Alcott – Little Women (Vol. 1; Vol. 2 in 1869)
Horatio Alger Jr. – Ragged Dick (book publication)
Horatio Alger Jr. – Fame and Fortune
Horatio Alger Jr. – Struggling Upward
Rosa Nouchette Carey – Nellie's Memories
James Greenwood – The Purgatory of Peter the Cruel
Hesba Stretton – Little Meg's Children
Jules Verne – In Search of the Castaways (Les Enfants du capitaine Grant)
Drama
Samson Bodnărescu – Rienzi
Henry James Byron – Cyril's Success
Aleksandr Ostrovsky – Enough Stupidity in Every Wise Man (Na vsyakogo mudretsa dovolno prostoty)
Hendrik Jan Schimmel – Struensee
Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy – Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich
Poetry
William Morris – The Earthly Paradise Volume 1
Non-fiction
Elizabeth Keckley - Behind the Scenes: Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House
Eliza Lynn Linton – The Girl of the Period
Edward A. Pollard – The Lost Cause Regained
John Wisden – Cricket and How to Play it
World Almanac (first edition)
Births
January 5 – Edward Garnett, English writer, critic and literary editor (died 1937)
February 4 – Miyake Kaho (三宅花圃), Japanese novelist, essayist and poet (died 1943)
February 10 – William Allen White, American journalist (died 1944)
February 23 – W. E. B. Du Bois, American sociologist, historian and Pan-Africanist (died 1963)
March 28 – Maxim Gorky, Russian novelist and dramatist (died 1936)
April 1 – Edmond Rostand, French poet and novelist (died 1918)
May 6 – Gaston Leroux, French journalist and novelist (died 1927)
May 7 – Stanisław Przybyszewski, Polish novelist, dramatist and poet (died 1927)
July 10 – Afevork Ghevre Jesus, Ethiopian novelist and linguist (died 1947)
July 14 – Gertrude Bell, English archaeologist, writer, spy and administrator (died 1926)
July 17 – Henri Nathansen, Danish writer and stage director (died 1944)
August 6 – Paul Claudel, French poet, dramatist and diplomat (died 1955)
August 23 – Edgar Lee Masters, American poet, biographer, dramatist and lawyer (died 1950)
September 9 – Mary Hunter Austin, American writer of fiction and non-fiction (died 1934)
September 14 – Théodore Botrel, French poet and dramatist (died 1925)
October 18 – Ernst Didring, Swedish novelist (died 1931)
November 5 – Kassian Bogatyrets, Rusyn priest, politician and historian (died 1960)
November 14 – Steele Rudd, Australian author (died 1935)
November 30 – Angela Brazil, English writer of schoolgirl fiction (died 1947)
c. December 12 – Stephen Hudson (born Sydney Schiff), English novelist, translator and arts patron (died 1944)
December 19 – Eleanor H. Porter, American novelist (died 1920)
December 25 – Ahmed Shawqi, Egyptian poet (died 1932)
December 28 – Bucura Dumbravă, Romanian novelist and spiritualist (died 1926)
Deaths
January 6 – Scarlat Vârnav, Romanian journalist, educationist and librarian (digestive illness, year of birth unknown)
January 24 – John David Macbride, English Arabist and academic (born 1778)
March 8 – Jón Thoroddsen elder, Icelandic poet and novelist (born 1818 or 1819)
June 6 – Daniel Pierce Thompson, American novelist and lawyer (born 1795)
June 15 – Robert Vaughan, English historian and religious writer (born 1795)
June 18 – Charles Harpur, Australian poet (tuberculosis, born 1813)
July 6 – Samuel Lover, Irish writer and composer (born 1797)
July 30 – Mihály Tompa, Hungarian lyric poet (born 1819)
August 24 – Constantin Negruzzi (Costache Negruzzi), Romanian poet, novelist and playwright (born 1808)
August 25 – Jacob van Lennep, Dutch poet and novelist (born 1802)
September 24 – Henry Hart Milman, English historian (born 1791)
November 30 – August Blanche, Swedish journalist, novelist and statesman (heart attack; born 1811)
Awards
Newdigate Prize – John Alexander Stewart
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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] |
204613
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed%20EP-3
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Lockheed EP-3
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The Lockheed EP-3 is electronic signals reconnaissance version of the P-3 Orion, operated by the United States Navy.
Development
A total of 12 P-3C aircraft were converted to replace older versions of the aircraft, which had been converted in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The aircraft is known by the acronym ARIES, or "Airborne Reconnaissance Integrated Electronic System". and has Signals intelligence (SIGINT) capabilities. SIGINT is the interception of signals, whether communications between people (communications intelligence—abbreviated to COMINT) or from electronic signals not directly used in communication (electronic intelligence—abbreviated to ELINT). The EP-3E generally has a crew of 24, including linguists, cryptographers and technicians.
The squadrons that flew the EP-3E also flew the Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star from 1962 to 1974 and the Douglas EA-3B Skywarrior from 1960 to 1991. There are 11 EP-3Es in the Navy's inventory, the last of which was delivered in 1997.
Hainan Island incident
On April 1, 2001 an aerial collision between a United States Navy EP-3E ARIES II, a signals reconnaissance version and a People's Liberation Army Navy Shenyang J-8II fighter resulted in an international incident between the United States and China. Operating about 70 miles (110 km) away from the PRC island province of Hainan Island, the EP-3 was intercepted by two J-8II fighters. One of the J-8IIs collided with it. The J-8II crashed into the sea and the pilot, Lt. Cdr. Wang, was seen to eject after the collision. His body was never recovered and he was declared dead. The EP-3 came close to becoming uncontrollable, at one point sustaining a nearly inverted roll, but was able to make a successful, unauthorized emergency landing at Lingshui airfield on Hainan island, where the two J-8II fighters involved in the incident had been based. At least 15 distress signals from the Orion had gone unanswered. The crew and the plane were subsequently detained by Chinese authorities, accused of "killing the Chinese pilot".
After several days of interrogations, the crew was repatriated separately to the United States while the aircraft remained in China, reportedly taken apart for research on American intelligence technology. Although the crew attempted to destroy as much classified material, hardware, and software on the aircraft prior to the emergency landing, there is little doubt that the EP-3 was exploited by Chinese intelligence services. An American team was later permitted to enter Hainan in order to dismantle the aircraft, which was subsequently airlifted on board two of Russia's Polet Airlines Antonov An-124 Ruslan back to the United States for reassembly and repair.
Other incidents
On January 29, 2018 a near accident was reported on the Black Sea, when a Russian Su-27 passed a US EP-3 at a distance of several feet.
In a separate incident, on the 5th of November 2018, a US EP-3 was again claimed to have been closely passed in international airspace by a Russian Su-27.
On July 19, 2019, a U.S. EP-3 was "performing a multi-nationally recognized and approved mission in international airspace" over the Caribbean Sea, when a Venezuelan Su-30 aggressively shadowed it at an unsafe distance.
Fictional incidents
EP-X
Boeing has started working on an unscheduled replacement aircraft, the EP-X, based on their 737.
On 16 August 2009, The Navy issued an "EP-X Analysis of Alternatives" that called for "information useful for the execution of the Electronic Patrol-X (EP-X) program which will recapitalize the EP-3E aircraft to provide tactical, theater, and national level Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance, and Targeting (ISR&T) support to Carrier Strike Groups and to Theater, Combatant, and National Commanders."
On 23 September 2009, leaked Navy budget documents for FY2011 revealed that the EP-X program would be delayed rather than started in that year.
On 1 February 2010, President Obama unveiled his proposed budget for 2010. This budget called for, among other things, canceling the EP-X program.
Replacement
After the cancellation of the EP-X Program, the US Navy has planned to replace the EP-3E Aries II with the Northrop Grumman MQ-4C Triton unmanned aircraft and the MQ-8B Fire Scout unmanned helicopter. All P-3 Orion aircraft assigned to special projects squadrons (VPU) and all EP-3E Aries II aircraft are expected to fully retire by 2025.
Variants
EP-3A: Seven modified for electronic reconnaissance testing.
EP-3B: Least known of all in the P-3 family. Three P-3As (BuNo 149669, BuNo 149673, and BuNo 149678) were obtained by the CIA from the US Navy under Project STSPIN in May 1963, as the replacement aircraft for CIA's own covert operation fleet of RB-69A/P2V-7Us. Converted by Aerosystems Division of LTV at Greenville, Texas, the three P-3As were simply known as "black" P-3As under Project Axial. Officially transferred from US Navy to CIA in June/July 1964. LTV Aerosystems converted the three aircraft to be both ELINT and COMINT platforms. The first of the three "black" P-3As arrived in Taiwan and were officially transferred to ROCAF's top secret "Black Bat" Squadron on June 22, 1966. Armed with 4 Sidewinder short range AAM missiles for self-defense, the three "black" P-3As flew peripheral missions along the China coast to collect SIGINT and air samples. When the project was terminated in January 1967, all three "black" P-3As were flown to NAS Alameda, California, for long term storage. Two of the three aircraft (BuNo 149669 and BuNo 149678) were converted into the only two EP-3Bs in existence by Lockheed at Burbank in September 1967, while the third aircraft (149673) was converted by Lockheed in 1969–1970 to serve as a development aircraft for various electronic programs. The two EP-3Bs, known as "Bat Rack", owing to their period of service with Taiwan's "Black Bat" Squadron, were issued to the US Navy's VQ-1 Squadron in 1969 and deployed to Da Nang, Vietnam. In the 1980s these two planes were based at the Naval Air Facility, Atsugi, Japan with the Atsugi VQ-1 detachment. Later, the two EP-3Bs were converted to EP-3E ARIES, along with 10 EP-3As. The 12 EP-3Es retired in 1990s, when replaced by 12 EP-3E ARIES II.
EP-3: ELINT aircraft for the Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force.
EP-3E ARIES: 10 P-3As and two EP-3Bs were converted into ELINT aircraft.
EP-3E ARIES II: 12 P-3Cs were converted into ELINT aircraft. Last delivered in 1997.
EP-3J: Two, modified from P-3As, for FEWSG were uses as simulated adversary EW platforms in exercises; later transferred to the former Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 33 (VAQ-33), then transferred to the former Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron 11 (VQ-11).
Operators
Current operators
Japan
Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force – 5 EP-3
United States
United States Navy
Active Squadrons
VQ-1 based at Naval Air Station Whidbey Island
Former Squadrons
VQ-2 was based at Naval Station Rota, Spain until 2006 when it moved to Naval Air Station Whidbey Island (disestablished on 17 May 2012).
Specifications (EP-3E-II - P-3C as indicated)
See also
Chinese espionage in the United States
References
Further reading
Winchester, Jim, ed. Military Aircraft of the Cold War (The Aviation Factfile). London: Grange Books plc, 2006. .
External links
P-3C fact file and P-3 history page on U.S. Navy site
NASA Wallops Flight Facility Aircraft Office operators of the NASA P-3
EP-3E on CombatAircraft.com
P-003, E
1960s United States military reconnaissance aircraft
Four-engined tractor aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Four-engined turboprop aircraft
Signals intelligence
Lockheed P-3 Orion
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204614
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1867%20in%20literature
|
1867 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1867.
Events
By February – The first blue plaque is erected in London by the Society of Arts on the birthplace (1788) of poet Lord Byron (later demolished).
October 3 – Anthony Trollope resigns from a senior administrative position in the British General Post Office, to write full-time.
November – The Leipzig publisher Reclam launches its Universal-Bibliothek series of cheap reprints with an edition of Goethe's Faust following the lifting of copyright restrictions in the new North German Confederation for authors dead for more than 30 years.
December 2 – Charles Dickens begins a U.S. reading tour in New York City.
December – After publication of Leo Tolstoy's 1805, an early version of War and Peace, concludes in The Russian Messenger, an advertisement appears for the revised complete novel.
unknown dates
The première of Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy's historical drama The Death of Ivan the Terrible (, written in 1863 and first published in 1866) is held at the Alexandrinsky Theatre in Saint Petersburg, the first of a trilogy.
Mrs. Henry Wood purchases and begins editing the U.K. fiction magazine Argosy.
Three American periodicals for children – Oliver Optic's Magazine, Frank Leslie's Boys' and Girls' Weekly, and the Riverside Magazine for Young People – are launched.
New books
Fiction
Horatio Alger, Jr. – Ragged Dick; or, Street Life in New York with the Boot Blacks (serialization in Student and Schoolmate)
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Circe
Rhoda Broughton
Cometh Up as a Flower
Not Wisely, But Too Well
Charles Theodore Henri de Coster – The Legend of Thyl Ulenspiegel and Lamme Goedzak (La Légende et les aventures héroïques, joyeuses et glorieuses d'Ulenspiegel et de Lamme Goedzak au pays de Flandres et ailleurs)
John William De Forest – Miss Ravenel's Conversion from Secession to Loyalty
Anna Hanson Dorsey – Coaina: The Rose of the Algonquins
Fyodor Dostoyevsky – The Gambler («Игрок», Igrok, novella)
Augusta Jane Evans – St. Elmo
Émile Gaboriau – The Mystery of Orcival (Le Crime d'Orcival)
Goncourt brothers – Manette Salomon
Jorge Isaacs – María
Ippolito Nievo – Le confessioni di un ottagenario (translated as The Castle of Fratta)
Caroline Norton – Old Sir Douglas (serialization concluded)
Ouida – Under Two Flags
Anthony Trollope
The Last Chronicle of Barset (sixth of the Chronicles of Barsetshire; serial publication concludes July 6; book publication in 2 vols, March–July)
Phineas Finn (second of the Palliser novels; serialization begins in Saint Paul's Magazine, October)
Ivan Turgenev – Smoke («Дым», Dym)
Mark Twain – The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County (collected short stories)
Émile Zola – Thérèse Raquin
Children and young people
Ada Cambridge – Little Jenny
George Manville Fenn – Hollowdell Grange
G. A. Henty – A Search for a Secret
Hesba Stretton – Jessica's First Prayer
Drama
Erckmann-Chatrian – Le Juif Polonais
W. S. Gilbert – Harlequin Cock Robin and Jenny Wren
Henrik Ibsen – Peer Gynt (first published)
Navalram Pandya – Bhatnu Bhopalu
Thomas William Robertson – Caste
Poetry
Matthew Arnold – New Poems, including "Dover Beach"
William Morris – The Life and Death of Jason
Jan Neruda – Knihy veršů (Books of Verses)
Piet Paaltjens (François Haverschmidt) – Snikken en grimlachjes: poëzie uit den studententijd ("Sobs and Bitter Grins: poetry of student days")
Henry Timrod – "Ode: Sung on the Occasion of Decorating the Graves of the Confederate Dead at Magnolia Cemetery, Charleston, S.C., 1867"
Non-fiction
Walter Bagehot – The English Constitution (in book form)
Augusta Theodosia Drane – Christian Schools and Scholars
Edward Augustus Freeman – The History of the Norman Conquest of England (completed in six volumes in 1879)
William Carew Hazlitt – Handbook to the Popular, Poetical and Dramatic Literature of Great Britain, from the Invention of Printing to the Restoration
Francis Marrash – Rihlat Baris
Karl Marx – Das Kapital
Henry Maudsley – The Physiology and Pathology of Mind
Marius Nygaard – Kortfattet Fremstilling af det norske Landsmaals Grammatik (Brief introduction to Norwegian Landsmål Grammar)
William Makepeace Thackeray – The English Humorists of the Eighteenth Century: a series of lectures
William Thomson – Treatise on Natural Philosophy
Births
January 18 – Rubén Darío, Nicaraguan poet (died 1916)
February 7 – Laura Ingalls Wilder, American novelist (died 1957)
February 18 – Hedwig Courths-Mahler (Ernestine Friederike Elisabeth Mahler), German novelist (died 1950)
February 27 – George Diamandy, Romanian journalist, dramatist and political figure (died 1917)
April 19 – Zinaida Vengerova, Russian literary critic and translator (died 1941)
May 1 – Harry Leon Wilson, American author and playwright (died 1939)
May 7 – Władysław Reymont, Polish novelist, Nobel laureate (died 1925)
May 8 – Margarete Böhme, German novelist (died 1939)
May 27 – Arnold Bennett, English novelist (died 1931)
May 31 – Ieremia Cecan, Bessarabian journalist and Christian polemicist (died 1941)
June 8 – Dagny Juel, Norwegian writer (murdered 1901)
August 9 – H. E. Marshall, Scottish history writer for children (died 1941)
August 23 – Marcel Schwob, French writer (died 1905)
September 25 – Katharine Glasier (born Katharine Conway), English writer and socialist (died 1950)
October 2 – Timrava (Božena Slančíková), Slovak novelist, short story writer and playwright (died 1951)
October 31 – David Graham Phillips, American journalist and novelist (died 1911)
November 1 – Mulshankar Mulani, Gujarati playwright (died 1957)
December 24 – Tevfik Fikret, Ottoman Turkish poet and journalist (died 1915).
December 25 – Alfred Kempner, German-Jewish theatre critic (suicide 1948)
Deaths
February 5 – Henry Crabb Robinson, English man of letters and diarist (born 1775)
April 12 – Robert Bell, British man of letters (born 1800)
May 27 – Thomas Bulfinch, American collector of myths and legends (born 1796)
July 31 – Catharine Sedgwick, American novelist (born 1789)
August 8 – Sarah Austin, English editor and translator (born 1793)
August 31 – Charles Baudelaire, French poet, critic and translator (stroke, born 1821)
October 7 – Henry Timrod, American poet (tuberculosis, born 1829)
October 29 – Frederick Chamier, English novelist and Royal Navy captain (born 1796)
November 19 – Fitz-Greene Halleck, American poet (born 1790)
unknown date – Charlotte Barton, Australian children's author (born 1797)
Awards
Newdigate Prize – Robert Campbell Moberly
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1866%20in%20literature
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1866 in literature
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This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1866.
Events
January – Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novel Crime and Punishment (Преступлéние и наказáние, Prestupleniye i nakazaniye) is serialized through the year in the monthly literary magazine Russkiy Vestnik (Русскій Вѣстникъ, "The Russian Messenger"). His novella The Gambler (Игрок, Igrok) is dictated to his future wife to meet a publisher deadline of November 1.
July – Anthony Trollope's novel Nina Balatka: The Story of a Maiden of Prague is initially published anonymously (serialisation in Blackwood's Magazine July 1866 – January 1867). Trollope is interested in discovering whether his books sell on their own merits or as a consequence of the author's name and reputation.
September 8 – London publisher Samuel Orchart Beeton is obliged by the financial panic of 1866 to settle all his debts by selling his property. He sells his titles and name to Ward Lock & Co.
November – The American magazine for children Children's Hour publishes its first issue.
unknown dates
Ludwig Anzengruber returns to Vienna after working as a travelling actor.
Charles Baudelaire's collection Les Épaves is published in Belgium, containing poems from Les Fleurs du mal (Paris, 1857) that were suppressed for outraging public morality.
Luigi Capuana becomes a theatre critic for the Italian newspaper The Nation.
Josip Jurčič has Deseti brat ("The Tenth Brother") published, as the first full-length novel in Slovene.
Nandshankar Mehta publishes Karana Ghelo ("The Idiot King Karana"), the first novel in Gujarati.
Hesba Stretton's children's story Jessica's First Prayer is serialized in Sunday at Home (U.K.) As a book, it sells one and half million copies.
Algernon Charles Swinburne's first collection Poems and Ballads causes a sensation on publication in London, especially the ones written in homage to Sappho and the sadomasochistic "Dolores (Notre-Dame des Sept Douleurs)". Under threat of prosecution, his original publisher, Moxon and Co., transfers publication rights to the more liberal John Camden Hotten.
The Stockholm Reading Parlor (Stockholms läsesalong) is co-founded by Sophie Adlersparre in Sweden; it becomes a free library for women to improve their access to education.
The first detective fiction by women authors is published: the dime novel The Dead Letter, an American Romance by "Seeley Regester" (Metta Victoria Fuller Victor) in New York City as the first full-length American work of crime fiction, having begun to appear serially in the January Beadle's Monthly; Mary Fortune's story "The Dead Witness, or the Bush waterhole" is published in the Australian Journal on January 20.
Charles Dickens publishes "Mugby Junction" as a Christmas supplement to his magazine All the Year Round (London), containing short stories by himself (including "The Signal-Man") and by Charles Collins, Amelia B. Edwards, Andrew Halliday and Hesba Stretton.
New books
Fiction
Louisa May Alcott (as A. M. Barnard) – "Behind a Mask, or A Woman's Power" (novella published in The Flag of Our Union)
R. D. Blackmore – Cradock Nowell
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay – Kapalkundala
Wilkie Collins – Armadale (serialization completed and in book form)
John Esten Cooke – Surry of Eagle's-Nest
Alphonse Daudet – Letters From My Windmill (Lettres de mon moulin)
Fyodor Dostoyevsky – Crime and Punishment
Alexandre Dumas, fils – L'Affaire Clemenceau
George Eliot – Felix Holt, the Radical
Augusta Jane Evans – St. Elmo
John William De Forest – Miss Ravenel's Conversion from Secession to Loyalty
Émile Gaboriau – L'Affaire Lerouge
Elizabeth Gaskell (died 1865) – Wives and Daughters (serialization completed and in book form)
Victor Hugo – Toilers of the Sea (Les Travailleurs de la mer)
George MacDonald – Annals of a Quiet Neighbourhood
John Neal — Little Moccasin, or Along the Madawaska: A Story of Life and Love in the Lumber Region
Mrs Oliphant – Miss Marjoribanks
Ouida – Chandos
Charles Reade – Griffith Gaunt
Emmanuel Rhoides – Ἡ Πάπισσα Ἰωάννα (I Papissa Ioanna, Pope Joan)
Felicia Skene (anonymously) – Hidden Depths
Anthony Trollope – Nina Balatka
José Milla y Vidaurre – La Hija del Adelantado
Children
Anna Harriett Drury – The Three Half-Crowns : a story for boys
James Greenwood – The True History of a Little Ragamuffin
Hesba Stretton – Jessica's First Prayer
Drama
Dion Boucicault – Rip van Winkle or The Sleep of Twenty Years
Alexandre Dumas, fils – Heloise Paranquet
Henrik Ibsen – Brand
Dobri Voynikov – Princess Rayna
Poetry
Charles Baudelaire – Les Épaves
Algernon Charles Swinburne – Poems and Ballads
Paul Verlaine – Poèmes saturniens, including "Chanson d'automne"
Non-fiction
Teodor Boldur-Lățescu – Adivărul adivărat (Truth and Nothing But)
William Wells Brown – The Negro in the American Rebellion
Edward Bruce Hamley – The Operations of War Explained and Illustrated
Friedrich Albert Lange – History of Materialism and Critique of its Present Importance (Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner Bedeutung in der Gegenwart, published October 1865 but dated 1866)
Edward A. Pollard – The Lost Cause
John Robert Seeley (anonymously) – Ecce Homo: A Survey in the Life and Work of Jesus Christ
Charles Haddon Spurgeon – The Wordless Book
Benjamin Thorpe assisted by Elise Otté (translator) – Edda Sæmundar Hinns Frôða: the Edda of Sæmund the Learned, from the old Norse or Icelandic
Births
January 2 (December 21, 1865 OS) – Gheorghe Bogdan-Duică (Gheorghe Bogdan), Romanian literary critic (died 1934)
January 29 – Romain Rolland, French dramatist, novelist and Nobel Prize-winner (died 1944)
February 9 – George Ade, American columnist and playwright (died 1944)
February 24 – Arthur Pearson, English writer and newspaper publisher (died 1921)
March 2 – John Gray, English poet (died 1934)
March 16 – E. K. Chambers, English literary scholar (died 1954)
May 2 – Paul Kretschmer, German linguist (died 1956)
July 28 – Beatrix Potter, English children's writer and illustrator (died 1943)
August 12 – Jacinto Benavente, Spanish dramatist and Nobel Prize-winner (died 1954)
August 16 – Dora Sigerson, Irish poet (died 1918)
September 7 – Tristan Bernard, French writer (died 1947)
August 31 – Elizabeth von Arnim, née Mary Annette Beauchamp, Australian-born novelist (died 1941)
September 21 – H. G. Wells, English novelist and social commentator (died 1946)
October 28 – Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Spanish dramatist and novelist (died 1936)
November 4 – Jane Findlater, Scottish novelist (died 1946)
November 21 – Dusé Mohamed Ali, Egyptian-born political activist, journalist and dramatist (died 1945)
unknown date – Edith Escombe, English fiction writer and essayist (died 1950)
Deaths
January 23 – Thomas Love Peacock, English satirical novelist (born 1785)
February 2 – François-Xavier Garneau, French Canadian historian and civil servant (born 1809)
March 6 – William Whewell, English polymath and cleric (born 1794)
March 29 – John Keble, English poet and cleric (born 1792)
May 5 – John Critchley Prince, English poet (born 1808)
June 16 – Joseph Méry, French satirist and librettist (born 1797)
August 1 – Luigi Carlo Farini, Italian historian (born 1812)
August 12 – Philip Stanhope Worsley, English poet and translator (born 1835)
September 10 – Charles Maclaren, Scottish founding editor of The Scotsman (born 1782)
September 14 – Léon Gozlan, French novelist and dramatist (born 1803)
September 19 – Christian Hermann Weisse, German philosopher (born 1801)
September 26 – Carl Jonas Love Almqvist, Swedish-born novelist (born 1793)
October – Evan Bevan, Welsh writer of satirical verse (born 1803)
December 20 – Ann Taylor, English poet and critic (born 1782)
Awards
Newdigate Prize – George Yeld
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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204617
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1865%20in%20literature
|
1865 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1865.
Events
January – The first issue appears of Our Young Folks, an American monthly for children produced by Ticknor and Fields in Boston.
February – Publication of Leo Tolstoy's 1805, an early version of War and Peace, begins in the magazine Russkiy Vestnik.
April 14 – The President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln, is shot while attending a performance of the farce Our American Cousin at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., by actor and Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln dies the following day.
June 9 – Charles Dickens is caught in the Staplehurst rail crash in Kent, England, together with the actress Ellen Ternan and her mother. Dickens is deeply affected by the event for the rest of his life.
June 14 – Karl May begins a four-year prison sentence for thefts and frauds at Osterstein Castle (Zwickau).
July – The American magazine for children The Little Corporal first appears.
July 4 – Lewis Carroll's children's book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland is published by Macmillan in London for Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (Carroll), three years after it was first narrated to Alice Liddell and her sisters. He and his illustrator, John Tenniel, withdraw this edition (printed in Oxford), and the first trade editions are published on November 26 and released in December (dated 1866), that published by Appleton in New York using the rejected sheets from the earlier printing.
November 11 – London West End opening of the comedy drama Society written and directed by Thomas William Robertson at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, considered a milestone in English Victorian drama because of its realism in dialogue and performance.
November 18 – Mark Twain's story "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County" is published in the New York weekly The Saturday Press in its original version as "Jim Smiley and His Jumping Frog".
unknown dates
English writer Edwin Abbott Abbott becomes headmaster of the City of London School at the age of 26.
Frederick Warne & Co established as publishers in London.
New books
Fiction
José de Alencar – Iracema
R. M. Ballantyne – The Lighthouse
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay – Durgeshnandini
Annie Hall Cudlip – Theo Leigh
Charles Dickens – Our Mutual Friend (publication concludes)
Mary Mapes Dodge – Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates
Fyodor Dostoyevsky – "The Crocodile" («Крокодил», Krokodil, short story published in Epoch)
Goncourt brothers – Germinie Lacerteux
Charles Kingsley – Hereward the Wake
Sheridan Le Fanu – Guy Deverell
Nikolai Leskov – Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District («Леди Макбет Мценского уезда», novella published in Epoch January)
George MacDonald – Alec Forbes of Howglen
Robert Smith Surtees (died 1864) – Mr. Facey Romford's Hounds
Anthony Trollope – Can You Forgive Her? (publication concludes)
Jules Verne – From the Earth to the Moon (De la Terre à la Lune)
Émile Zola – La Confession de Claude
Children and young people
Wilhelm Busch – Max und Moritz
Lewis Carroll – Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
Mary Mapes Dodge – Hans Brinker, or The Silver Skates
Jean Ingelow – Stories Told to a Child
Mary Wright Sewell – Mother's Last Words: a ballad
Drama
Francis Burnand – Windsor Castle
Henry James Byron – War to the Knife
Henrik Ibsen – Brand
T. W. Robertson – Society
Victorien Sardou – La Famille Benoîton
Poetry
Edward Lear – The History of the Seven Families of the Lake Pipple-Popple
A. C. Swinburne
Atalanta in Calydon
Chastelard: a tragedy
Non-fiction
Annals of the Joseon Dynasty (final volume)
Matthew Arnold – Essays in Criticism
P. T. Barnum – The Humbugs of the World
Jacob Grimm – Deutsche Sagen (German Sayings)
Friedrich Albert Lange – History of Materialism and Critique of its Present Importance (Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner Bedeutung in der Gegenwart, published October dated 1866)
Karl Marx – Value, Price and Profit (written as speech)
John Stuart Mill – Examinations of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy
William Gifford Palgrave – Narrative of a Year's Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia
James Hutchison Stirling – The Secret of Hegel: Being the Hegelian System in Origin Principle, Form and Matter
James Hudson Taylor – China's Spiritual Need and Claims
Births
February 12 – Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer, Polish poet and novelist (died 1940)
February 21 – John Haden Badley, English educationalist and writer (died 1967)
March 15 – Edith Maude Eaton (Sui-Sin Far), English-born writer on Chinese affairs (died 1914)
March 20 – Arthur Bayldon, English-born Australian poet (died 1958)
March 27 – Marion Angus, Scottish poet writing in Braid Scots and English (died 1946)
March 28 – Mary Findlater, Scottish novelist (died 1963)
March 29 – Stephen Bonsal, American writer, journalist and translator (died 1951)
May 2 – Clyde Fitch, American playwright (died 1909)
May 15 – Albert Verwey, Dutch poet (died 1937)
June 13 – W. B. Yeats, Irish poet (died 1939)
June 20 – Enrico Corradini, Italian novelist and essayist (died 1931)
June 26 – Bernard Berenson, American art historian (died 1959)
July 21 – M. P. Shiel, born Matthew Phipps Shiell, Montserrat-born British fantasy fiction author (died 1947)
August 14 – Pietro Gori, Italian anarchist poet (died 1911)
August 26 – Ellen Marriage, English translator of Balzac (died 1946)
September 11 – Rainis, Latvian poet and dramatist (died 1929)
November 2 – Panuganti Lakshminarasimha Rao, Indian writer (died 1940)
December 11 – Frida Stéenhoff, Swedish writer (died 1945)
December 13 – Ángel Ganivet, Spanish writer (suicide 1898)
December 30 – Rudyard Kipling, English poet and fiction writer (died 1936)
Deaths
January 11 – Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Ferland, French Canadian historian (born 1805)
January 18 – Charles Greville, English diarist (born 1794)
January 19 – Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, French philosopher (born 1809)
January 21 – X. B. Saintine, French novelist and dramatist (born 1798)
February 6 – Isabella Beeton, English writer on household management (born 1836)
February 25 – Otto Ludwig, German novelist and playwright (born 1813)
April 2
John Cassell, English publisher (born 1817)
Richard Cobden, English political writer (born 1804)
April 10 – Shoqan Walikhanov, Russian Kazakh historian and folklorist (born 1835)
April 13 – Theodosia Trollope, English-born writer (born 1816)
April 15 – Abraham Lincoln, American orator and president of the republic (born 1809)
May 14 – Pierre François Xavier de Ram, Belgian historian (born 1804)
June 10 – Lydia Sigourney, American poet (born 1791)
June 11 – Frederic Charles Lascelles Wraxall, English writer (born 1828)
August 4 – William Edmondstoune Aytoun, Scottish poet and humorist (born 1813)
September 29 – Richard Lower, English dialect poet (born 1782)
September 30 – Dudley Costello, Irish writer and journalist (born 1803)
November 12 – Elizabeth Gaskell, English novelist (born 1810)
December 1 – Abraham Emanuel Fröhlich, Swiss poet (born 1796)
December 3 – Joseph Marie Quérard, French bibliographer (born 1797)
December 20 – Barton Bouchier, English religious writer (born 1794)
Awards
Newdigate Prize – Frederic Dobree Teesdale
Notes
References
External links
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1864%20in%20literature
|
1864 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1864.
—Opening of Our Mutual Friend
Events
January – Anthony Trollope's Can You Forgive Her?, the first of his Palliser novels, begins to appear in monthly parts in London. Trollope completes it on April 28 and the first volume is published as a book in September by Chapman & Hall. In April, The Small House at Allington concludes publication in the Cornhill Magazine and is published in book form by George Smith.
January 2–April 16 – James Payn publishes his most popular story, Lost Sir Massingberd, in Chambers's Journal. He follows it in the magazine (August 6 – December 24) by Married Beneath Him.
February 20 – Painter George Frederic Watts marries his 16-year-old model, the actress Ellen Terry, 30 years his junior, in London. She elopes less than a year later.
March (dated January–February) – The first issue of the Russian literary magazine Epoch («Эпо́ха»), edited by Fyodor Dostoyevsky and his brother Mikhail (died July 22), is published in Saint Petersburg. This and the March and April issues contain the first publication of Fyodor's existential novella Notes from Underground («Записки из подполья», Zapiski iz podpol'ya).
April 10 – Publisher William Ticknor dies of pneumonia in Philadelphia while on a trip with Nathaniel Hawthorne for the sake of the latter's health.
April 23 – The Deutsche Shakespeare-Gesellschaft (German Shakespeare Society) is founded as the first scientific and cultural association of its type in Weimar, and one of the world's oldest continuing literary societies.
April – Charles Baudelaire leaves Paris for Belgium in the hope of resolving his financial difficulties.
May 26 – Alexandre Dumas, fils marries Nadejda Naryschkine. His father, Alexandre Dumas, père, returns to Paris from Italy.
May – The first Lithuanian press ban is imposed in the Russian Empire.
June 19 – Henrik Ibsen arrives in Rome in a self-imposed exile from Norway that will last for 27 years.
June 27 – Ambrose Bierce is wounded at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain.
July 2 – The Female Detective is published under the pseudonym "Andrew Forrester, Junior" in London, presenting the first female professional detective in fiction. Around December, she is followed by Mrs Paschal in Revelations of a Lady Detective, published anonymously by William Stephens Hayward.
September – A debate at the Royal Geographical Society between Richard Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke is prevented by Speke's suicide (or accidental shooting).
November 10 – The poet and critic John Addington Symonds the younger marries Janet Catherine North.
November 25 – The brothers Edwin Booth (playing Brutus), John Wilkes Booth (who carries out the assassination of Abraham Lincoln the following year, playing Mark Antony) and Junius Brutus Booth, Jr. (playing Cassius) make their only appearance onstage together, in a performance of Shakespeare's Julius Caesar (in the year of the playwright's birth tricentennial) at the Winter Garden Theater in New York City, staged to raise funds for a memorial to William Shakespeare in the city's Central Park.
December – Sheridan Le Fanu's Gothic locked room mystery-thriller Uncle Silas completes its serialisation in his Dublin University Magazine as "Maud Ruthyn and Uncle Silas" and is published as a three-volume novel by Richard Bentley in London.
unknown date – The English former chess master Howard Staunton publishes a facsimile of the 1600 quarto text of Shakespeare's Much Ado About Nothing, the first use of photolithography for such a book.
New books
Fiction
José de Alencar – Diva
Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly – Chevalier Destouches
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Henry Dunbar: the Story of an Outcast
Anne Moncure Crane – Emily Chester
Charles Dickens – Our Mutual Friend (serialization commences)
Fyodor Dostoevsky – Notes from Underground
Alexandre Dumas – La Sanfelice
Georg Ebers – Eine ägyptische Königstochter (An Egyptian Princess)
Amelia Edwards – Barbara's History
George Eliot – "Brother Jacob"
Elizabeth Gaskell – Wives and Daughters (serialization begins)
The Goncourt brothers (Edmond and Jules de Goncourt) – Renée Mauperin
Sheridan Le Fanu
Uncle Silas
Wylder's Hand
Nikolai Leskov (as M. Stebnitsky) – No Way Out («Не′куда», Nekuda)
George MacDonald – The Light Princess
John Neal — The Moose-Hunter, or Life in the Maine Woods
Charlotte Riddell (as F. G. Trafford) – George Geith of Fen Court
Anthony Trollope
The Small House at Allington (serial publication ends)
Can You Forgive Her? (serial publication begins)
Children and young people
R. D. Blackmore – Clara Vaughan
Rebecca Sophia Clarke (Sophie May) – Little Prudy (first in an eponymous series)
Jules Verne – A Journey to the Center of the Earth (Voyage au centre de la Terre)
Charlotte Mary Yonge – A Book of Golden Deeds of All Times and All Lands
Drama
Matthías Jochumsson – Útilegumennirnir (The Outlaws)
Aleksis Kivi
Kullervo (published in a revised version)
Thomas William Robertson – David Garrick
Poetry
Robert Browning – Dramatis Personae
Alfred Tennyson – Enoch Arden
Alfred de Vigny (died 1863) – Les Destinées
Non-fiction
Augusta Theodosia Drane – History of England for Family Use
Edward Eastwick – The Journal of a Diplomate's Three Years' Residence in Persia
George Perkins Marsh – Man and Nature
Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux – Les Hauts Phénomènes de la magie
John Henry Newman – Apologia Pro Vita Sua
John Ruskin – Cestus of Aglaia
Henry David Thoreau (posthumously) – The Maine Woods
Noah Webster, revised by Carl August Friedrich Mahn and edited by Noah Porter – A Dictionary of the English Language, "unabridged" edition
Births
January 24 – Marguerite Durand, French actress, journalist and feminist leader (died 1936)
February 14 – Israel Zangwill, English novelist, playwright and Zionist (died 1926)
February 21 – Leonard Merrick, English novelist (died 1939)
February 26 – Antonín Sova, Czech poet and librarian (died 1928)
April 8 – J. Smeaton Chase, English-born American author and photographer (died 1923)
April 21 – Max Weber, German sociologist (died 1920)
May 11 – Ethel Lilian Voynich, née Boole, Anglo-Irish novelist and composer (died 1960)
July 20 – Erik Axel Karlfeldt, Nobel Prize-winning Swedish writer (died 1931)
September 22 – Lodewijk van Deyssel (Karel Joan Lodewijk Alberdingk Thijm), Dutch novelist (died 1952)
September 28 – Barry Pain, English poet and fiction writer (died 1928)
September 29 – Miguel de Unamuno, Basque Spanish writer (died 1936)
October 14 – Stefan Żeromski, Polish novelist, poet and dramatist (died 1925)
November 11
Alfred Hermann Fried, Austrian Jewish pacifist writer and Nobel Peace Prize winner (died 1921)
Maurice Leblanc, French novelist and crime writer (died 1941)
November 26 – Herman Gorter, Dutch poet and socialist (died 1927)
November 28 – James Allen, English self-help writer and poet (died 1912)
December 12 – Paul Elmer More, American critic and essayist (died 1937)
Deaths
January 16 – Anton Felix Schindler, Austrian biographer of Beethoven (born 1795)
January 29
Lucy Aikin (Mary Godolphin), English historian (born 1781)
Julia Maitland, English writer on India and children's writer (born 1808)
February 2 – Adelaide Anne Procter, English poet (born 1825)
March 16 – Robert Smith Surtees, English novelist and sporting writer (born 1805)
May 19 – Nathaniel Hawthorne, American novelist (born 1804)
May 20 – John Clare, English poet (born 1793)
May 26 – Charles Sealsfield, Austro-American novelist and journalist (born 1793)
July 4 – Thomas Colley Grattan, Irish miscellanist and novelist (born 1792)
August 6 – Catherine Sinclair, Scottish novelist and children's writer (born 1800)
August 7 – Janez Puhar, Slovene poet (born 1814)
September 17 – Walter Savage Landor, English writer and poet (born 1775)
November 3 – Gonçalves Dias, Brazilian poet and playwright (shipwreck, born 1823)
December 6 – Simonas Daukantas, Lithuanian ethnographer and historian (born 1793)
Awards
Newdigate Prize – William John Courthope
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1863%20in%20literature
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1863 in literature
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This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1863.
Events
January 1 – The essayist and poet Ralph Waldo Emerson commemorates today's Emancipation Proclamation in the United States by composing "Boston Hymn" and surprising a crowd of 3,000 with a debut reading of it at Boston Music Hall.
January 31 – Jules Verne's novel Five Weeks in a Balloon, or, Journeys and Discoveries in Africa by Three Englishmen (Cinq semaines en ballon) is published by Pierre-Jules Hetzel in Paris. It will be the first of Verne's Voyages Extraordinaires.
February 3 – Samuel Langhorne Clemens, in signing a humorous letter to the Territorial Enterprise newspaper in Virginia City, Nevada, first uses the pen name Mark Twain.
February 28 – Flaubert and Turgenev meet for the first time, in Paris.
June 12 – The Arts Club is founded by Charles Dickens, Anthony Trollope, Frederic Leighton and others in London's Mayfair, as a social meeting place for those involved or interested in the creative arts.
June 13 – Samuel Butler's dystopian article "Darwin among the Machines" is published (as by "Cellarius") in The Press newspaper in Christchurch, New Zealand; it will be incorporated into his novel Erewhon (1872).
November – Mendele Mocher Sforim's his first Yiddish language story, "Dos Kleine Menshele" (The Little Man), is published in the Odessa weekly Kol Mevasser.
December 29 – An estimated 7000 people attend the funeral of William Makepeace Thackeray at Kensington Gardens and nearly 2000 his burial in London's Kensal Green Cemetery.
unknown dates
The Romanian Junimea literary society is established in Iași. It will exercise a major influence on Romanian culture until the 1910s.
Elvira, or the Love of a Tyrant, a novel by the Neapolitan author Giuseppe Folliero de Luna, becomes the first published in the Maltese language, as Elvira Jew Imħabba ta’ Tirann.
Publication begins in the U.K. of a seminal edition of The Works of William Shakespeare (the "Cambridge Shakespeare"), edited by William George Clark and William Aldis Wright, published by Macmillan and printed by Cambridge University Press.
New books
Fiction
Mary Elizabeth Braddon
Aurora Floyd
Eleanor's Victory
John Marchman's Legacy
Nikolai Chernyshevsky – What Is to Be Done? (Что делать?, Shto delat'?)
George Eliot – Romola
"Charles Felix" (probably Charles Warren Adams) – The Notting Hill Mystery (serialization completed, book form; considered first full-length detective novel in English)
Elizabeth Gaskell
A Dark Night's Work
Sylvia's Lovers
Théophile Gautier – Captain Fracasse
Edward Everett Hale – The Man Without a Country
Mary Jane Holmes – Marian Grey
Jean Ingelow – "The Prince's Dream" (short story)
Julia Kavanagh – Queen Mab
Sheridan Le Fanu – The House by the Churchyard
John Neal — The White-Faced Pacer, or, Before and After the Battle
Margaret Oliphant – Salem Chapel, first of The Chronicles of Carlingford (in book form)
Ouida – Held in Bondage
Charles Reade – Very Hard Cash (later Hard Cash)
Miguel Riofrío – La Emancipada (the first Ecuadorian novel)
Anne Thackeray Ritchie – The Story of Elizabeth
Leo Tolstoy – The Cossacks (Казаки, Kazaki)
Anthony Trollope - Rachel Ray (novel)
John Townsend Trowbridge – Cudjo's Cave
Giovanni Verga – Sulle Lagune (In the Lagoons)
Children and young people
Charles Kingsley – The Water-Babies, A Fairy Tale for a Land Baby (complete in book form)
Jules Verne – Five Weeks in a Balloon
Drama
W. S. Gilbert – Uncle Baby
Tom Taylor – The Ticket-of-Leave Man
Poetry
Rosalía de Castro – Cantares gallegos
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – Tales of a Wayside Inn, including "Paul Revere's Ride"
Non-fiction
John Austin (posthumously, compiled by Sarah Austin) – Lectures on Jurisprudence
Samuel Bache – Miracles the Credentials of the Christ
William Barnes – Glossary of Dorset Dialect
Henry Walter Bates – The Naturalist on the River Amazons.
William Wells Brown – The Black Man: His Antecedents, His Genius and His Achievements
Francis James Child – Observations on the Language of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales
Gustav Freytag – Die Technik des Dramas
Alexander Gilchrist (posthumously, edited by Anne Gilchrist) – Life of William Blake, "Pictor Ignotus"; with selections from his poems and other writings
William Howitt – History of the Supernatural
Fanny Kemble – Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838–1839
Charles Lyell – Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man
Ernest Renan – The Life of Jesus (Vie de Jésus)
Births
February 9 – Anthony Hope (Anthony Hope Hawkins), English novelist and playwright (died 1933)
March 3 – Arthur Machen (Arthur Llewellyn Jones), Welsh novelist and short story writer (died 1947)
March 12 – Gabriele D'Annunzio, Italian poet (died 1938)
March 17 – Olivia Shakespear (née Tucker), British novelist, playwright and patron of the arts (died 1938)
April 9 – Henry De Vere Stacpoole, Irish novelist (died 1951)
April 26 – Arno Holz, German Naturalist poet and dramatist (died 1929)
April 29 – Constantine Cavafy, Greek Alexandrine poet (died 1933)
June 10 – Louis Couperus, Dutch fiction writer (died 1923)
June 20 – Florence White, English food writer (died 1940)
July 13 – Margaret Murray, Indian-born English archeologist and historian (died 1963)
August 7 – Gene Stratton Porter, American novelist and naturalist (died 1924)
September 1 – Violet Jacob (Violet Kennedy-Erskine), Scottish historical novelist and poet (died 1946)
September 8 – W. W. Jacobs, English short story writer (died 1943)
September 22 – Ferenc Herczeg (Franz Herzog), Hungarian dramatist (died 1954)
November 1
Charlotte O'Conor Eccles, Irish-born London writer, translator and journalist (died 1911)
Arthur Morrison, English writer (died 1945)
November 18 – Richard Dehmel, German poet (died 1920)
November 21 – Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch (Q.), English novelist and anthologist (died 1944)
December 16 – George Santayana, American novelist and poet (died 1952)
Deaths
May 13 – August Hahn, German Protestant theologian (born 1792)
July 3 – William Barksdale, American journalist and Confederate general (killed in action, born 1821
July 10 – Clement Clarke Moore, American classicist and poet (born 1779)
September 17 – Alfred de Vigny, French poet, dramatist and novelist (born 1797)
September 20 – Jacob Grimm, German philologist and fairy-tale author (born 1785)
October 6 – Frances Trollope, English novelist and writer (born 1779)
October 8 – Richard Whately, English theologian and archbishop (born 1787)
December 13 – Christian Friedrich Hebbel, German poet and dramatist (born 1813)
December 17 – Émile Saisset, French philosopher (born 1814)
December 24 – William Makepeace Thackeray, Indian-born English novelist and travel writer (stroke, born 1811)
Awards
Newdigate Prize – Thomas Llewellyn Thomas
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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204622
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime%20Minister%20of%20Belgium
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Prime Minister of Belgium
|
The Prime Minister of Belgium (; ; ) or the Premier of Belgium is the head of the federal government of Belgium, and the most powerful person in Belgian politics.
Although Leaders of Government (French: ) had been appointed since the independence of the country, until 1918 the King of the Belgians often presided over the Council of Ministers, so the modern era of the "Premiership" started after World War I with Léon Delacroix. The political importance of the Crown has decreased over time, whereas the position of Prime Minister has gradually become more important.
Alexander De Croo, a member of the Open Flemish Liberals and Democrats and son of prominent politician, Herman, was appointed as new prime minister on 1 October 2020. He succeeded Sophie Wilmès.
History
Since the independence of Belgium in 1830, governments have been designated with the name of the minister who formed the government as formateur, but that position did not have a specific status. Originally, from 1831 the King of the Belgians presided over the Council of Ministers, but when he was absent, the presidency was taken by the chef de cabinet (Head of Cabinet), usually the oldest or most influential minister. This position gradually became more prominent, and the minister with this title then soon acquired the competency to present the King with the proposed allocation of the various ministerial departments among the ministers.
With the expansion of voting rights after World War I, more political parties started to win seats in parliament—especially the Belgian Socialist Party—and this made it impossible to achieve an absolute majority in parliament. Since then, coalition governments have been necessary, which has made the task of forming a government by the appointed formateur more difficult. Consequently, the formateur increasingly gained greater respect, and much prestige. Thus the formateur became prominent as a position of leadership. As the ministers of the government now represented various political parties, there was a need for someone to coordinate the proceedings of the various ministers. The Prime Minister was now asserted as the actual head of government, and this is how the office of Prime Minister came into existence.
Gradually, the Head of Cabinet replaced the King more often during the first half of the twentieth century, and as such gained importance within government. As the Constitution requires the King to exercise his powers through the ministers, the Prime Minister became reckoned as the country's most important political figure and de facto chief executive. Nevertheless, given his newly acquired prominence, as a member of the cabinet the Head of Cabinet continued to lead a ministerial department.
The title of Prime Minister or Premier was used for the first time in 1918 in official documents and it is at this time that the position was assigned to its own cabinet. Only in 1970 the title was incorporated in the Belgian Constitution with the first state reform.
Function
Besides coordinating government policies, the Prime Minister is responsible for the proper execution of the coalition agreement. He or she also presides at meetings of the Council of Ministers and manages conflicts of competencies between the ministers. In addition, the Prime Minister represents the government coalition in public, both at home and abroad. It is the Prime Minister who maintains contact with the King and presents the government policy statement in the Parliament. He or she can also ask Parliament for a vote of confidence, which can even lead to the government's resignation in the case of a constructive vote of no confidence. Unless the Prime Minister resigns because of a personal matter, the whole government resigns when he or she resigns. The Prime Minister also represents Belgium in the various international organisations, alongside the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Due to the state reform, the Prime Minister acquired a number of additional tasks, such as keeping in check the relations between the different regions and communities of the country, and presiding at the deliberative committee that consists of the governmental representatives of all the federal entities.
It is expected, though not required, that the Prime Minister be fluent in both French and Dutch.
Appointment
The day after the federal elections, the incumbent Prime Minister offers the resignation of his government to the King. The King then asks the resigning government to continue as a caretaker government until a new government is formed. The King then consults a number of prominent politicians in order to ascertain the different possibilities of forming a government. He usually consults the presidents of the Chamber of Representatives and the Senate, the most important political parties, and other people of political and socio-economic importance. After the consultations, the King appoints an informateur who is in charge of collecting information from the different political parties about their demands for formation of a new government. After these consultations, the informateur reports to the King so that the King can find a suitable formateur, who is responsible for forming the government. Usually, it is the formateur of the federal government who then becomes Prime Minister.
It usually takes several months of negotiations before the formateur is ready to accept a formal royal invitation to form a government. Per the Constitution, the King's acts are only valid with the countersignature of a minister. For this reason, the outgoing Prime Minister countersigns the Act of Appointment of the new Prime Minister, and the new Prime Minister countersigns the Act of Resignation of the resigning Prime Minister. The king then appoints the other ministers and secretaries of state of the federal government, and their Acts of Appointment are countersigned by the Prime Minister.
List
Living former prime ministers
Official office
The official office of the Prime Minister is located at 16 Rue de la Loi (Wetstraat in Dutch, or "Law Street" in translation) among many notable Belgian government and European Union buildings in the centre of Brussels and around the Brussels Park. The residence includes the Belgian Federal Cabinet, the Chancellery and the Council of Ministers. It functions as the nerve center of Belgian politics.
Ok
The building was originally erected as the so-called "Refuge House" by the Saint Gertrude Abbey of Leuven. It was designed by the Belgian-Austrian architect Louis Joseph Montoyer. At the time of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1830), the building was planned to be used as the location for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In 1830 it was purchased by Prince Eugène of Ligne, and from 1944, the building became state property after which it was furnished to function as a meeting place for the prime minister and his cabinet.
See also
List of Belgian monarchs
List of prime ministers of Belgium
List of Belgian prime ministers by political affiliation
List of Belgian prime ministers by time in office
Lifespan timeline of prime ministers of Belgium
Minister-President of the Brussels Capital-Region
Minister-President of Flanders
Minister-President of the French Community
Minister-President of the German-speaking Community
Minister-President of Wallonia
History of Belgium
Royal Question
References
Government of Belgium
Political history of Belgium
Prime Ministers
Belgium politics-related lists
1831 establishments in Belgium
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1862%20in%20literature
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1862 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1862.
Events
February – Ivan Turgenev's novel Fathers and Sons (Отцы и дети – old spelling Отцы и дѣти, , literally "Fathers and Children") is published by Russkiy Vestnik in Moscow.
March 30 or 31 – The first two volumes of Victor Hugo's epic historical novel Les Misérables appear in Brussels, followed on April 3 by Paris publication, with the remaining volumes on May 15. The first English-language translations, by Charles Edwin Wilbour, are published in New York on June 7, and by Frederic Charles Lascelles Wraxall, in London in October.
April 6 – Two months after joining the staff of General William Babcock Hazen, Ambrose Bierce joins in the Battle of Shiloh, later the subject of a memoir. Among those on the opposite side is the future journalist and explorer Henry Morton Stanley, who will also record his experiences.
April 28 – Thomas Hardy becomes an assistant to architect Arthur Blomfield.
June – Nikolai Chernyshevsky is imprisoned in Saint Petersburg and begins his novel What Is To Be Done?
June 4 – Henry Morton Stanley, now a "Galvanized Yankee", joins the Union Army; he is discharged 18 days later because of illness.
July – George Eliot's historical novel Romola begins serialization in Cornhill Magazine, the first time she has published a full-length book in this format. George Murray Smith of the publishers Smith, Elder & Co. has agreed a £7,000 advance for it.
July 1 – Moscow's first free public library opens as The Library of the Moscow Public Museum and Rumiantsev Museum, predecessor of the Russian State Library.
July 4 – Charles Dodgson (better known as by his later pseudonym Lewis Carroll) extemporises a story for 10-year-old Alice Liddell and her sisters on a rowing trip on The Isis from Oxford to Godstow. The story becomes a manuscript titled Alice's Adventures Under Ground and is published in 1865 as Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.
September 23 – Leo Tolstoy marries Sophia (Sonya) Andreevna Behrs, 16 years his junior, in Moscow, having given her a diary detailing his previous sexual relations.
November 26 – Charles Dodgson sends the handwritten manuscript of Alice's Adventures Underground to Alice Liddell.
November 29 – Serialization of The Notting Hill Mystery by "Charles Felix" (probably Charles Warren Adams) commences in Once A Week (London), with illustrations by George du Maurier; it is seen as the first full-length detective novel in English.
December – Louisa May Alcott becomes a nurse at the Union hospital in Georgetown, D.C.
December 24 – William Dean Howells marries Elinor Mead at the American Embassy in Paris.
Uncertain dates
James Russell Lowell begins writing for The North American Review.
Karl Heinrich Ulrichs begins writing about homosexuality under the pseudonym of "Numa Numantius".
New books
Fiction
José de Alencar – Lucíola
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Lady Audley's Secret
Camilo Castelo Branco – Amor de Perdição
Wilkie Collins – No Name
Fyodor Dostoevsky – The House of the Dead (Записки из Мёртвого дома, Zapiski iz Myortvogo doma, book publication)
George Eliot – Romola (serialization)
Gustave Flaubert – Salammbo
Eugène Fromentin – Dominique
The Goncourt brothers (Edmond and Jules de Goncourt) – Sister Philomene (Sœur Philomène)
Victor Hugo – Les Misérables
Henry Kingsley – Ravenshoe
George MacDonald – David Elginbrod
Watts Phillips – The Honour of the Family
Fritz Reuter – From My Farming Days
Elizabeth Stoddard – The Morgesons
William Makepeace Thackeray – The Adventures of Philip
Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy – Prince Serebrenni (Князь Серебряный)
Anthony Trollope – Orley Farm (publication completed)
Ivan Turgenev – Fathers and Sons
Mrs. Henry Wood – The Channings
Children and young people
Frances Freeling Broderip – Tale of the Toys, Told by Themselves
Catherine Crowe – The Adventures of a Monkey
F. W. Farrar – St. Winifred's or The World of School
Henrietta Keddie (as Sarah Tytler) – Papers for Thoughtful Girls, with illustrative sketches of some girls' lives
Charlotte Yonge
Countess Kate
The Stokesley Secret
Drama
Émile Augier – Le Fils de Giboyer
María Bibiana Benítez – La Cruz del Morro (The Cross of El Morro)
Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson – Sigurd Slembe (Sigurd the Bastard, trilogy, published)
Henrik Ibsen – Love's Comedy (Kjærlighedens Komedie, first published)
Watts Phillips – His Last Victory
Edmund Yates – Invitations
Poetry
Pavlo Chubynsky – "Shche ne vmerla Ukraina" (Ukraine's glory has not perished, later the text of the Ukrainian national anthem)
Henrik Ibsen – Terje Vigen
George Meredith – Modern Love
Christina Rossetti – Goblin Market and other poems
Non-fiction
John Hill Burton – The Book-Hunter
Thomas De Quincey – Recollections of the Lakes and the Lake Poets
John William Draper – The History of the Intellectual Development of Europe
Theodor Fontane – Wanderungen durch die Mark Brandenburg, volume 1, Die Grafschaft Ruppin
Julia Kavanagh
English Women of Letters
French Women of Letters
George Perkins Marsh – The Origin and History of the English Language
John Ruskin – Unto This Last
Elizabeth Missing Sewell – Impressions of Rome, Florence, and Turin
Samuel Smiles – Lives of the Engineers (5 volumes)
Leo Tolstoy – "The School at Yasnaya Polyana"
Births
January 24 – Edith Wharton, American novelist (died 1937)
February 17 – Mori Ōgai (森 鷗外), Japanese army surgeon, poet, translator and realist fiction writer (died 1922)
May 1 – Marcel Prévost, French dramatist (died 1941)
May 9 – Hugh Stowell Scott (Henry Seton Merriman), English novelist (died 1903)
May 15 – Arthur Schnitzler, Austrian dramatist and novelist (died 1931)
June 6 – Henry Newbolt, English poet (died 1938)
June 18 – Carolyn Wells, American novelist and poet (died 1942)
August 1 – Montague Rhodes James, English scholar and short story writer (died 1936)
August 2 – Paul Bujor, Romanian politician, zoologist and short story writer (died 1952)
August 6 – Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, English historian (died 1932)
August 21 – Emilio Salgari, Italian adventure novelist (suicide 1911)
August 29 – Maurice Maeterlinck, Belgian poet and playwright (died 1949)
September 2 – Okakura Kakuzō (岡倉 覚三), Japanese writer on the arts (died 1913)
September 27 – Francis Adams, Anglo-Australian poet, novelist and dramatist (died 1893)
October 13 – Mary Kingsley, English travel writer (died 1900)
November 15 – Gerhart Hauptmann, German dramatist, novelist and poet, winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature (died 1946)
December 8 – Georges Feydeau, French farceur (died 1921)
December 16 – John Fox, Jr., American novelist and journalist (died 1919)
December 23 – Henri Pirenne, Belgian historian (died 1935)
Deaths
January 11 – Jean Philibert Damiron, French philosopher (born 1794)
February 23 – Constantin Sion, Moldavian polemicist, genealogist and literary forger (born circa 1795)
February 24 – Bernhard Severin Ingemann, Danish novelist and poet (born 1789)
April 6 – Fitz James O'Brien, Irish-American science fiction pioneer (born 1828)
May 6 – Henry David Thoreau, American philosopher (born 1817)
May 25 – Johann Nestroy, Austrian dramatist (born 1801)
August 27 – Thomas Jefferson Hogg, English biographer (born 1792)
November 26 – Julia Pardoe, English novelist and historian (born 1806)
November 30 – James Sheridan Knowles, Irish dramatist and actor (born 1784)
December 17 – Katherine Thomson, writing as Grace Wharton, English novelist and historian (born 1797)
Awards
Gaisford Prize – Robert William Raper (Trinity) for comic iambic verse: Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part II, Act 4, Sc. 3
Newdigate Prize – Arthur C. Auchmuty, "Julian the Apostate"
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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204625
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1861%20in%20literature
|
1861 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1861.
Events
January 5 – The first issue of the Weekly Budget magazine is published by James Henderson.
January 11 – Thirty-one-year-old John Edward Taylor the younger becomes sole editor and proprietor of the Manchester Guardian.
March – Fyodor Dostoyevsky's monthly Vremya (Вре́мя, Time) begins publication in Saint Petersburg under the nominal editorship of his brother Mikhail. Fyodor's novel The House of the Dead (Записки из Мёртвого дома, Zapiski iz Myortvogo doma) is first published in it this year.
April 23 – Herbert Coleridge, first editor of what will become the Oxford English Dictionary, dies aged 30 of tuberculosis in London. Frederick James Furnivall is appointed to succeed him.
May/July – The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce becomes The Times of India.
June 29 – Elizabeth Barrett Browning dies aged 55 in the arms of her husband and fellow poet Robert Browning in Florence; on July 1 she is buried in the Protestant cemetery there. Robert leaves the city soon afterwards.
July – Sheridan Le Fanu becomes editor and proprietor of the Dublin University Magazine. From October he begins in it the serialization of his novel The House by the Churchyard.
July 19–24 – Rev. James Long is tried in Calcutta for defamation in distributing a translation of Dinabandhu Mitra's play Nil Darpan.
August 3 – Serialization of Charles Dickens's Bildungsroman Great Expectations in his magazine All the Year Round is concluded; in October it is published complete in three volumes by Chapman & Hall in London.
September 14 – Gottfried Keller becomes municipal secretary of his home town of Zurich.
September 19 – Mrs. Henry Wood's 'sensation novel' East Lynne is published in London in three volumes, as its serialisation is concluded in The New Monthly Magazine. This year also sees its first theatrical adaptation, as Edith, or The Earl's Daughter, staged in New York City.
October 20 – Poet and dramatist Apollo Korzeniowski is arrested for his political activities and placed in the infamous Tenth Pavilion of Warsaw Citadel.
unknown date – The first modern New Zealand novel, Henry Butler Stoney's Taranaki: A Tale of the War, is published.
New books
Fiction
Mary Elizabeth Braddon
The Black Band
The Octoroon
Frances Browne – My Share of the World
Charles Dickens – Great Expectations
Fyodor Dostoevsky – Humiliated and Insulted (Униженные и оскорблённые, Unizhennye i oskorblyonye)
George Eliot – Silas Marner
Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. – Elsie Venner (previously serialized beginning in 1859)
Josip Jurčič – Pripovedka o beli kači (The Tale of the White Snake)
Balduin Möllhausen – Die Halbindianer (The Halfbreeds)
Charles Reade – The Cloister and the Hearth
Seeley Regester (Metta Victoria Fuller Victor) – Maum Guinea, and Her Plantation "Children", or, Holiday-week on a Louisiana Estate: a Slave Romance
George Sand – Consuelo
Walter Chalmers Smith – The Bishop's Walk
William Makepeace Thackeray – The Adventures of Philip
Anthony Trollope
Framley Parsonage (book form)
Orley Farm (publication begins)
George J. Whyte-Melville – Market Harborough
Mrs Henry Wood – East Lynne
Charlotte M. Yonge – The Young Step-Mother
Children
R. M. Ballantyne – The Gorilla Hunters
Mary Louise Peebles (as Lynde Palmer) – The Little Captain
Drama
Henry James Byron – Aladdin, or, The Wonderful Scamp
Léon Gozlan – La Pluie et le beau temps (Rain and Fine Weather)
Alexander Griboyedov (died 1829) – Woe from Wit (first full publication)
Imre Madách – The Tragedy of Man (Az ember tragédiája)
Poetry
Charles Baudelaire – Les Fleurs du mal, 2nd edition
Michael Madhusudan Dutt – Meghnad Badh Kabya (মেঘনাদবধ কাব্য, Slaying of Meghnad)
Hymns Ancient and Modern
Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald – Kalevipoeg (Estonian national epic, publication begins)
F. T. Palgrave – Golden Treasury of English Songs and Lyrics (anthology)
Non-fiction
Isabella Beeton – Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management
Michael Faraday – The Chemical History of a Candle
Harriet Jacobs – Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl
Eliphas Lévi – La Clef des grands mystères (The Key to Great Mysteries)
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels – Writings on the U.S. Civil War
Narmadashankar Dave – Narmakosh (vol. 1)
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon – La Guerre et la paix (War and Peace)
Births
January 6 – János Zsupánek, Slovene-Hungarian author and poet (died 1951)
January 23 – Katharine Tynan, Irish-born novelist, poet and writer (died 1931)
March 1 – Henry Harland, American novelist and editor (died 1905)
March 10 – Pauline Johnson, Canadian poet (died 1913)
April ? – Herminie Templeton Kavanagh, née McGibney, Anglo-Irish-American short story writer (died 1933)
April 15 – Bliss Carman, Canadian-born poet (died 1929)
May 5 – Sir John Edward Lloyd, Welsh historian (died 1947)
May 7 – Rabindranath Tagore, Bengali poet and novelist (died 1941)
May 13 – Margaret Marshall Saunders, Canadian author (died 1947)
September 2 – Mircea Demetriade, Romanian poet and actor (died 1914)
September 20 – Herbert Putnam, American Librarian of Congress (died 1955)
October 16 – J. B. Bury, Irish historian (died 1927)
November 8 – William Price Drury, English novelist, playwright and Royal Marines officer (died 1949)
November 10 – Amy Levy, English novelist and essayist (died 1889)
December 19 – Constance Garnett, née Black, English translator (died 1946)
Deaths
January 28 – Henri Murger, French novelist and poet (born 1808)
January 29 – Catherine Gore, English novelist and dramatist (born 1798)
February 20 – Eugène Scribe, French dramatist (born 1791)
March 10 (February 26 O. S.) – Taras Shevchenko, Ukrainian poet and artist (born 1814)
April 1 – Lady Charlotte Bury, English novelist and diarist (born 1755)
April 28 – Frances Mary Richardson Currer, English heiress and bibliophile (born 1785)
May 23 – Edward Cardwell, English theologian (born 1787)
June 7 – Patrick Brontë, Irish-born writer and cleric (born 1777)
June 29 – Elizabeth Barrett Browning, English poet (born 1806)
July 6 – Sir Francis Palgrave, English historian (born 1788)
November 13 – Arthur Hugh Clough, English poet (malaria; born 1819)
November 30
Alexander Gilchrist, English biographer (scarlet fever, born 1828)
Theodor Mundt, German novelist and critic (born 1808)
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1860%20in%20literature
|
1860 in literature
|
This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1860.
Events
January
The first issue of the Cornhill Magazine appears in London. It serializes Anthony Trollope's Framley Parsonage throughout the year.
Mrs. Henry Wood's "sensation novel" East Lynne begins serialization in The New Monthly Magazine. Her first full-length novel, Danesbury House, also appears this year.
Approximate date – The Catholic newspaper L'Univers is suppressed by the French government.
January 28 – The first of Charles Dickens' literary sketches generally titled The Uncommercial Traveller appears in his magazine All the Year Round.
February – Mary Elizabeth Braddon gives up her acting career to write. In the same year she meets her future husband John Maxwell.
March 27 – The Irish melodrama The Colleen Bawn, or The Brides of Garryowen, written by and starring Dion Boucicault, is first performed at Miss Laura Keene's theatre, New York.
April 4 – George Eliot's novel The Mill on the Floss is published by John Blackwood in three volumes.
June 9 – Ann S. Stephens' Malaeska: The Indian Wife of the White Hunter, a tale of the American frontier, becomes the first Beadle's dime novel, published in cheap paperback book format by Irwin P. Beadle & Co. in New York City.
June 30 – In the 1860 Oxford evolution debate, Samuel Wilberforce and Thomas Huxley debate the theories of Charles Darwin at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. Lewis Carroll is among the audience.
August 25 – Wilkie Collins' sensation novel The Woman in White, an early example of mystery fiction, completes its serialization in All the Year Round. It appears in book form in London around August 15.
c. September 3 – Charles Dickens burns most of his private papers at his home in Kent, Gads Hill Place, having taken up regular residence there this year.
December 1 – Charles Dickens's Bildungsroman Great Expectations begins serialization in All the Year Round.
unknown dates
Alexander Bain is appointed to the chair of logic and English literature at the University of Aberdeen.
Vasil Drumev, later Metropolitan Kliment of Tarnovo and Bulgaria's Prime Minister, brings out the first original story in the Bulgarian language, "A Woeful Family" (Nešastna familiya), in the Istanbul journal Bâlgarski knižitsi.
Andreas Munch becomes the first person granted a poet's pension by the Parliament of Norway.
New books
Fiction
R. M. Ballantyne – The Dog Crusoe and his Master
Mary Elizabeth Braddon – Three Times Dead
Wilkie Collins – The Woman in White
Mrs V. G. Cowdin – Ellen; or, The Fanatic's Daughter
Charles Dickens – Great Expectations (serialization begins)
George Eliot – The Mill on the Floss
Mrs G. M. Flanders – The Ebony Idol
The Goncourt brothers (Edmond and Jules de Goncourt) – Charles Demailly
Nathaniel Hawthorne – The Marble Faun
Mór Jókai – Poor Rich ()
George Meredith – Evan Harrington
Multatuli – Max Havelaar
Thomas Love Peacock – Gryll Grange (serialization)
Charles Reade – The Cloister and the Hearth
Mary Howard Schoolcraft – The Black Gauntlet: A Tale of Plantation Life in South Carolina
Ann S. Stephens – Malaeska
Robert Smith Surtees – Plain or Ringlets? (concludes publication)
Anthony Trollope – Castle Richmond
Ivan Turgenev – First Love (, ; novella)
Charlotte M. Yonge
Hopes and Fears
Kenneth
Drama
Dion Boucicault – The Colleen Bawn
Louise Granberg – Johan Fredman
Poetry
Michael Madhusudan Dutt – Tilottama Sambhab Kabya (তিলোত্তমাসম্ভব কাব্য, "Birth of Tilottama")
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow – "Paul Revere's Ride"
See also 1860 in poetry
Non-fiction
Jacob Burckhardt – The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien)
Mordecai Cubitt Cooke – The Seven Sisters of Sleep. Popular history of the seven prevailing narcotics of the world
Ralph Waldo Emerson – The Conduct of Life
Gray's Anatomy (2nd edition)
Eliphas Lévi – Histoire de la magie
Andrei Mocioni (attrib.) – Caus'a limbelor și națiunalităților in Austri'a (The Cause of Languages and Nationalities in Austria)
Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux – La Magie au dix-neufième siècle (Magic in the Nineteenth Century)
J. W. Parker (ed.) – Essays and Reviews
John Ruskin – Modern Painters IV
Births
January 10 – Charles G. D. Roberts, Canadian poet (died 1943)
January 29 – Anton Chekhov, Russian short story writer, novelist and dramatist (died 1904)
February 11 – Rachilde (Marguerite Vallette-Eymery), French author (died 1953)
April 8 – Catherine Isabella Dodd, English education writer and novelist (died 1932)
April 9 – Ellen Thorneycroft Fowler, English writer of romances and children's books (died 1929)
May 9 – J. M. Barrie, Scottish-born novelist and dramatist (died 1937)
May 28 – Sigrid Pettersson, Swedish poet and translator (died 1926)
June 1 – Hugh Thomson, Irish-born illustrator (died 1920)
June 6 – William Inge, English theologian (died 1954)
July 3 – Charlotte Perkins Gilman, American novelist, short story writer and social reformer (died 1935)
July 7 – Abraham Cahan, American Jewish journalist and novelist (died 1951)
July 14 – Owen Wister, American Western fiction writer and historian (died 1938)
July 18 – Herbert Kelly, English religious writer and cleric (died 1950)
August 12 – Harriet Theresa Comstock, American children's author (died 1925)
August 18 – Kristína Royová, Slovak novelist, religious writer and poet (died 1936)
September 13 – Ralph Connor, Canadian novelist (died 1937)
September 14 – Hamlin Garland, American novelist, poet and essayist (died 1940)
October 6 – Rosamund Marriott Watson, born Rosamund Ball and writing as Graham R. Tomson, English poet (died 1911)
October 23 – Molly Elliot Seawell, American novelist and dramatist (died 1916)
December 8 – Amanda McKittrick Ros, born Anna McKittrick, Irish novelist and poet noted for her purple prose (died 1939)
December 11 – Leonard Huxley, English writer and editor (died 1933)
Deaths
January 29 – Ernst Moritz Arndt, German poet (born 1769)
February 9 – William Evans Burton, English dramatist, theatre manager and publisher (born 1804)
February 25 – Chauncey Allen Goodrich, American lexicographer (born 1790)
March 17 – Anna Brownell Jameson, Irish-born essayist, travel writer and editor (born 1794)
May 9 – Samuel Griswold Goodrich (Peter Parley), American children's author (born 1793)
May 16 – Anne Isabella Byron, Baroness Byron, English memoirist (born 1792)
May 28 – Rosine de Chabaud-Latour, French religious thinker and translator (born 1792)
May 23 – Albert Richard Smith, English journalist and humorist (bronchitis, born 1816)
August 25
Christian Lobeck, German classicist (born 1781)
Johan Ludvig Heiberg, Danish poet and critic (born 1791)
September 21 – Arthur Schopenhauer, German philosopher (born 1788)
December 2 – Ferdinand Christian Baur, German theologian (born 1792)
December 11 – Anne Knight, English children's writer and educationist (born 1792)
Awards
Newdigate Prize – John Addington Symonds
References
Years of the 19th century in literature
|
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] |
204632
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Samuel%20Ersch
|
Johann Samuel Ersch
|
Johann Samuel Ersch (23 June 1766 – 16 January 1828) was a German bibliographer, generally regarded as the founder of German bibliography.
Biography
He was born in Großglogau (now Głogów), in Silesia. In 1785 he entered the University of Halle with the view of studying theology; but soon became more interested in history, bibliography and geography. At Halle he made the acquaintance of Johann Ernst Fabri, professor of geography; and when Fabri was made professor of history and statistics at the University of Jena, Ersch accompanied him there, and helped him in the preparation of several works.
In 1788 he published the Verzeichnis aller anonymischen Schriften, as a supplement to the 4th edition of Johann Georg Meusel's Gelehrtes Deutschland. The researches required for this work suggested to him the preparation of a Repertorium über die allgemeinen deutschen Journale und andere periodische Sammlungen für Erdbeschreibung, Geschichte, und die damit verwandten Wissenschaften (Lemgo, 1790–92). The fame which this publication acquired for him led to his being engaged by Christian Gottfried Schütz and Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland to prepare an Allgemeines Repertorium der Literatur, published in eight volumes (Jena and Weimar, 1793–1809), which condensed the literary productions of fifteen years (1785–1800),[2] and included an account not merely of the books published during that period, but also of articles in periodicals and magazines, and even of the criticisms to which each book had been subjected.[3]
While engaged in this great work Ersch also planned La France littéraire, which was published at Hamburg in five volumes, from 1797 to 1806. In 1795 he went to Hamburg to edit the Neue Hamburger Zeitung, founded by Victor Klopstock, brother of Gottlieb Klopstock, but returned in 1800 to Jena to take an active part in the Allgemeine Literaturzeitung. He also obtained in the same year the office of librarian in the university, and around 1802 was given the title of professor.[1][3]
In 1803 Ersch accepted the chair of geography and statistics at Halle, and in 1808 was made principal librarian.[1] He here projected a Handbuch der Deutschen literatur seit der mitte des achtzehnten jahrhunderts bis auf die neueste zeit (Leipzig, 1812–14) and, along with Johann Gottfried Gruber, the Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste (Leipzig, 1818) which he continued as far as the 18th volume.[3] The accuracy and thoroughness of this monumental encyclopaedia made it an indispensable book of reference. He died, aged 61, in Halle.
References
1766 births
1828 deaths
People from Głogów
People from the Province of Silesia
German bibliographers
German encyclopedists
German librarians
University of Jena alumni
University of Halle alumni
University of Halle faculty
University of Jena faculty
German male non-fiction writers
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fedayeen%20Saddam
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Fedayeen Saddam
|
{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name= Fedayeen Saddam فدائيي صدام
|image=Fedayeen Saddam SSI.svg
|caption=Patch of the Fedayeen Saddam
|start_date=1995
|country= Iraq
|branch= Paramilitary
|type= Light infantry, guerrilla, presidential guard
|role= Internal security, last line of defense
|size= 30,000–40,000 members
|command_structure=
|garrison= TikritKadhimiyaSamarraFallujahNasiriyah
|garrison_label=
|nickname=
|allegiance=Saddam Hussein
|patron=Saddam Hussein
|equipment= Small arms (mostly Russian, Soviet, and Chinese in origin)
|equipment_label=
|battles= Iraq War
Invasion of Iraq
|decorations=
|battle_honours=
|commander2=Qusay Hussein
|commander2_label=Last commander
|commander1=Uday Hussein
|commander1_label=Founder
|disbanded = 2003
|identification_symbol=
|identification_symbol_label=
| identification_symbol_2 =
| identification_symbol_2_label = Flag
}}Fedayeen Saddam' (Arabic: فدائيي صدام) was a paramilitary organization loyal to the Ba'athist Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein. The name was chosen to mean "Saddam's Men of Sacrifice". At its height, the group had 30,000–40,000 members.
Irregular forces
The Fedayeen Saddam was not part of Iraq's regular armed forces but rather operated as a paramilitary unit of irregular forces. As a result of this, the Fedayeen reported directly to the Presidential Palace, rather than through the military chain of command. Whilst paramilitary the Fedayeen were not an elite military force, often receiving just basic training and operating without heavy weapons. In this they were somewhat similar to the Basij of Iran or Shabbiha militia of Syria.
Much like other paramilitaries, the Fedayeen was volunteer based and the units were never given an official salary. As a result, most of the members resorted to extortion and theft of property from the general population, even though the members had access to sanction-evading trade and high quality services (i.e. new cars, hospitals reserved for officials, expensive electronics) and a general standard of living considerably higher than that of the average Iraqi of the time. However, they were ordered not to threaten or harm any government officials. As the group had no overt religious affiliations, it had a mix of Sunni and Shia members.
The Fedayeen were among the most loyal organizations to the government of Saddam Hussein and were a politically reliable force against domestic opponents. The Fedayeen played a role in the 2003 war, resisting the American-led invasion.
History
Early years
Uday Hussein formed the Fedayeen Saddam in 1995 with ten to fifteen thousand recruits from the Iraqi regions most loyal to the Ba'ath Party. Uday used the Fedayeen for personal reasons such as smuggling and suppressing opponents. Command of the militia was handed to Qusay Hussein in 1996 when it was uncovered that Uday was diverting weapons to the militia from the Iraqi Republican Guard.
Before Saddam was removed from power, the force was placed back under Uday's control. In 1998 the Ashbal Saddam (Saddam's Lion Cubs) was created to recruit and train young children for membership in the Fedayeen. The Ashbal recruited boys aged 10 to 15 for training in small arms and infantry tactics as well as loyalty conditioning.
2003 invasion of Iraq
The Fedayeen Saddam did not rise to international attention, however, until the 2003 invasion of Iraq by U.S.-led coalition forces. Whereas the Iraqi army and the Republican Guard quickly collapsed, Fedayeen forces put up stiff resistance to the coalition invasion. U.S. strategy was to bypass other cities and head straight to Baghdad. In response, Fedayeen fighters entrenched themselves in the cities and launched guerrilla-style attacks on rear supply convoys. These convoys were attempting but usually falling short of keeping up with the rapid advance to Baghdad. They were attempting to sustain the rapid advance by bringing up food, water, ammunition, medical supplies and mail from back home. These were very lightly armed cargo trucks driving as fast as they could on dirt roads mainly in southern Iraq, after loading supplies in Kuwait. Once they started to get close to central Iraq more and more paved roads were available. They were almost always at least a few days behind. This made the resupply convoys vulnerable to attack. In these trucks were usually low to mid ranking enlisted soldiers with mostly no combat experience before this. For instance these cargo trucks mainly were only defended by the two rifles the driver and truck commander had. So even with a relatively small force the Fedayeen could attack several of the last trucks in a convoy, or trucks that had lost contact with the convoy. It was easy for the Fedayeen to capture or destroy these isolated poorly defended vehicles. The Fedayeen also used intimidation in an attempt to maintain morale in the Iraqi army and to keep civilians from rebelling. The multinational coalition was forced to turn its attention to the slow task of rooting out irregular forces from the southern cities, delaying the advance by two weeks.
During the invasion, Fedayeen fighters mostly wielded AK-47 assault rifles, rocket-propelled grenades, machine guns, and truck-mounted artillery and mortars. They made extensive use of subterfuge in an attempt to blunt the overwhelming technological advantage used by the invading forces.
By the end of the first week of April, Coalition forces had mostly succeeded in rooting out Fedayeen forces from the southern cities. The Shiite population was very un-supportive of the fighters, although many were intimidated. This factor, coupled with overwhelming firepower, quickly gave U.S. forces in the area a decisive edge. This reduced the pressure on the stretched supply lines, enabling the advance to continue. On April 9, Baghdad fell to U.S. forces with only sporadic resistance by Fedayeen irregulars, foreign volunteers, and remnants of the Special Republican Guard, effectively ending the regime of Saddam Hussein. Tikrit, the last city to fall, was taken on April 15.
Iraqi insurgency
The fall of Baghdad effectively ended the existence of the Fedayeen Saddam as an organized paramilitary. Some of its members died during the war. A large number survived, however, and were willing to carry on the fight even after the fall of Saddam Hussein from power. Many former members joined guerrilla organizations, collectively known as the Iraqi insurgency, that began to form to resist the U.S-led occupation. By June, an insurgency was clearly underway in central and northern Iraq, especially in the area known as the Sunni Triangle. Some units of the Fedayeen also continued to operate independently of other insurgent organizations in the Sunni areas of Iraq. On November 30, 2003, a U.S. convoy traveling through the town of Samarra in the Sunni Triangle was ambushed by over 100 Iraqi guerrillas, reportedly wearing trademark Fedayeen Saddam uniforms. Exactly how much influence they had in the resistance, especially following Saddam Hussein's capture on December 13, 2003, was a source of controversy.
Additional roles
The Fedayeen has been cited as carrying out some of the most brutal acts of the pro-Saddam militias. They have reportedly carried out extra-judicial executions. Additionally, they were thought to have acted as enforcers for the Iraqi army in order to prevent desertion. In the last two years of Hussein’s rule, a campaign of beheadings, mainly targeting women suspected of prostitution and carried out by his elite Fedayeen unit, killed more than 200 people, human rights groups reported at the time.
Appearance
The Fedayeen Saddam wore two uniforms, an all black one worn on operations and an all white one worn on parade. They also operated in plain clothes. A black Darth Vader style helmet was also worn by some of the black-uniformed Fedayeen, as Uday Hussein (commander of the Fedayeen and eldest son of Saddam) was reportedly an avid fan of Star Wars.https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/camp-reveals-dark-secrets-of-saddams-notorious-fedayeen-113852.html
Equipment
The Fedayeen were equipped as light infantry and were armed with AK-47's/AKM, and RPGs.
See also
"Blessed July"
Popular Army (Iraq)
References
External links
Federation of American Scientists on the Fedayeen Saddam
"Saddam's Enforcers", Dan Rather, CBS's 60 Minutes"Fedayeen Enforces Loyalty Among Iraq Army" Washington Post'', March 24, 2003
1995 establishments in Iraq
2003 disestablishments in Iraq
Ba'athist organizations
Factions in the Iraq War
Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)
Organizations associated with the Ba'ath Party
Paramilitary forces of Iraq
Saddam Hussein
|
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] |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Moonstone
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The Moonstone
|
The Moonstone (1868) by Wilkie Collins is a 19th-century British epistolary novel. It is an early example of the modern detective novel, and established many of the ground rules of the modern genre. The story was serialised in Charles Dickens's magazine All the Year Round. Collins adapted The Moonstone for the stage in 1877.
Etymology
The Moonstone of the title is a diamond (not to be confused with the semi-precious moonstone gem). It has gained its name from its association with the Hindu god of the Moon, Chandra. It is protected by three hereditary guardians on the orders of Vishnu, and waxes and wanes in brilliance along with the light of the Moon.
Plot outline
Rachel Verinder, a young English woman, inherits a large Indian diamond on her eighteenth birthday. It is a legacy from her uncle, a corrupt British army officer who served in India. The diamond is of great religious significance and extremely valuable, and three Hindu priests have dedicated their lives to recovering it. The story incorporates elements of the legendary origins of the Hope Diamond (or perhaps the Orloff Diamond or the Koh-i-Noor diamond). Rachel's eighteenth birthday is celebrated with a large party at which the guests include her cousin Franklin Blake. She wears the Moonstone on her dress that evening for all to see, including some Indian jugglers who have called at the house. Later that night the diamond is stolen from Rachel's bedroom, and a period of turmoil, unhappiness, misunderstandings and ill luck ensues. Told by a series of narratives from some of the main characters, the complex plot traces the subsequent efforts to explain the theft, identify the thief, trace the stone and recover it.
Plot summary
Colonel Herncastle, an unpleasant former soldier, brings the Moonstone back with him from India where he acquired it by theft and murder during the Siege of Seringapatam. Angry at his family, who shun him, he leaves it in his will as a birthday gift to his niece Rachel, thus exposing her to attack by the stone's hereditary guardians, who will stop at nothing to retrieve it.
Rachel wears the stone to her birthday party, but that night it disappears from her room. Suspicion falls on three Indian jugglers who have been near the house; on Rosanna Spearman, a maidservant who begins to act oddly and who then drowns herself in a local quicksand; and on Rachel herself, who also behaves suspiciously and is suddenly furious with Franklin Blake, with whom she has previously appeared to be enamoured, when he directs attempts to find it. Despite the efforts of Sergeant Cuff, a renowned detective, the house party ends with the mystery unsolved, and the protagonists disperse.
During the ensuing year there are hints that the diamond was removed from the house and may be in a London bank vault, having been pledged as surety to a moneylender. The Indian jugglers are still nearby, watching and waiting. Rachel's grief and isolation increase, especially after her mother dies, and she first accepts and then rejects a marriage proposal from her cousin Godfrey Ablewhite, a philanthropist who was also present at the birthday dinner and whose father owns the bank near Rachel's old family home. Finally Franklin Blake returns from traveling abroad and determines to solve the mystery. He first discovers that Rosanna Spearman's behavior was due to her having fallen in love with him.
She found evidence (a paint smear on his nightclothes) that convinced her that he was the thief and concealed it to save him, confusing the trail of evidence and throwing suspicion on herself. In despair at her inability to make him acknowledge her despite all she had done for him, she killed herself, leaving behind the smeared gown and a letter he did not receive at the time because of his hasty departure abroad.
Now believing that Rachel suspects him of the theft on Rosanna's evidence, Franklin engineers a meeting and asks her. To his astonishment she tells him she actually saw him steal the diamond and has been protecting his reputation at the cost of her own even though she believes him to be a thief and a hypocrite. With hope of redeeming himself he returns to Yorkshire to the scene of the crime and is befriended by Mr. Candy's assistant, Mr. Ezra Jennings. They join together to continue the investigations and learn that Franklin was secretly given laudanum during the night of the party (by the doctor, Mr. Candy, who wanted to exact vengeance on Franklin for criticising medicine); it appears that this, in addition to his anxiety about Rachel and the diamond and other nervous irritations, caused him to take the diamond in a narcotic trance, to move it to a safe place. A re-enactment of the evening's events confirms this, but how the stone ended up in a London bank remains a mystery solved only a year after the birthday party when the stone is redeemed. Franklin and his allies trace the claimant to a seedy waterside inn, only to discover that the Indians have got there first: the claimant is dead and the stone is gone. Under the dead man's disguise is none other than Godfrey Ablewhite, who is found to have embezzled the contents of a trust fund in his care and to have been facing exposure soon after the birthday party. The mystery of what Blake did while in his drugged state is solved: he encountered Ablewhite in the passageway outside Rachel's room and gave the Moonstone to him to be put back in his father's bank, from which it had been withdrawn on the morning of the party to be given to Rachel. Seeing his salvation, Ablewhite pocketed the stone instead, and pledged it as surety for a loan to save himself temporarily from insolvency. When he was murdered, he was on his way to Amsterdam to have the stone cut; it would then have been sold to replenish the plundered trust fund before the beneficiary inherited.
The mystery is solved, Rachel and Franklin marry, and in an epilogue from Mr. Murthwaite, a noted adventurer, the reader learns of the restoration of the Moonstone to the place where it should be, in the forehead of the statue of the god in India.
Characters
Rachel Verinder –
Lady Verinder – her mother, a wealthy widow, devoted to her daughter
Colonel Herncastle – Lady Verinder's brother, suspected of foul deeds in India; gained the Moonstone by unlawful means (namely murder and theft)
Gabriel Betteredge – a venerable man, the Verinders' head servant, first narrator
Penelope Betteredge – his daughter, also a servant in the household
Rosanna Spearman – second housemaid, once in a penitentiary for theft, suspected of the theft of the diamond
Drusilla Clack – a poor cousin of Rachel Verinder, an unpleasant, hypocritical meddler, second narrator
Franklin Blake – an adventurer, also cousin and suitor of Rachel
Godfrey Ablewhite – a philanthropist, another cousin, and suitor, of Rachel
Mr Bruff – a family solicitor, third narrator
Sergeant Cuff – a famous detective with a penchant for roses
Dr Candy – the family physician, loses the ability to speak coherently after recovering from a fever
Ezra Jennings – Dr Candy's unpopular and odd-looking assistant, suffers from an incurable illness and uses opium to control the pain, fourth narrator
Mr Murthwaite – a noted adventurer who has travelled frequently in India; he provides the epilogue to the story
The Indian jugglers – three disguised Hindu Brahmins who are determined to recover the diamond.
Literary significance
The book is regarded by some as the precursor of the modern mystery novel and the suspense novel. T. S. Eliot called it "the first, the longest, and the best of modern English detective novels in a genre invented by Collins and not by Poe," and Dorothy L. Sayers praised it as "probably the very finest detective story ever written". In The Victorian Age in Literature G. K. Chesterton calls it "probably the best detective tale in the world". It was published in 1868, later than Poe's short story mysteries "The Murders in the Rue Morgue" (1841) (which introduced the famous locked-room paradigm), "The Mystery of Marie Rogêt" (1842) and "The Purloined Letter" (1845). The plot also shows some parallels with The Hermitage (1839), an earlier murder mystery story by the English novelist Sarah Burney: for example, the return of a childhood companion, the sexual symbolism of defloration implied in the crime, and the almost catatonic reactions of the heroine to it. However, The Moonstone introduced a number of the elements that became classic attributes of the twentieth-century detective story in novel form, as opposed to Poe's short story form. These include:
an English country house robbery
an "inside job"
red herrings
a celebrated, skilled, professional investigator
a bungling local constabulary
detective enquiries
a large number of false suspects
the "least likely suspect"
a reconstruction of the crime
a final twist in the plot.
Franklin Blake, the gifted amateur, is an early example of the gentleman detective. The highly competent Sergeant Cuff, the policeman called in from Scotland Yard (whom Collins based on the real-life Inspector Jonathan Whicher who solved the murder committed by Constance Kent), is not a member of the gentry and is unable to break Rachel Verinder's reticence about what Cuff knows is an inside job. The Moonstone has also been described as perhaps the earliest police procedural, due to the portrayal of Cuff. The social difference between Collins's two detectives is shown by their relationships with the Verinder family: Sergeant Cuff befriends Gabriel Betteredge, Lady Verinder's steward (chief servant), whereas Franklin Blake eventually marries her daughter Rachel.
A number of critics have suggested that Charles Felix (pseudonym for Charles Warren Adams), in his Notting Hill Mystery (1862–1863), first used techniques that came to define the genre.
The Moonstone represents Collins's only complete reprisal of the popular "multi-narration" method that he had previously used to great effect in The Woman in White. The sections by Gabriel Betteredge (steward to the Verinder household) and Miss Clack (a poor relative and religious crank) offer both humour and pathos through their contrast with the testimony of other narrators, at the same time constructing and advancing the novel's plot.
One of the features that made The Moonstone a success was the sensationalist depiction of opium addiction. Unbeknownst to his readers, Collins was writing from personal experience. In his later years Collins grew severely addicted to laudanum and as a result suffered from paranoid delusions, the most notable being his conviction that he was constantly accompanied by a doppelgänger whom he dubbed "Ghost Wilkie".
The novel was Collins's last great success, coming at the end of an extraordinarily productive period in which four successive novels became bestsellers. After The Moonstone Collins wrote novels containing more overt social commentary that did not achieve the same audience.
A heavily fictionalised account of Collins's life while writing The Moonstone forms much of the plot of Dan Simmons's novel Drood (2009).
Adaptations
In 1934, the book was first made into a film, The Moonstone by Monogram Pictures Corporation. Adapted to the screen by Adele S. Buffington, it was directed by Reginald Barker, and starred David Manners, Charles Irwin and Phyllis Barry.
On 11 March 1945 "The Moonstone" was episode number 67 of the U.S. radio series The Weird Circle.
In 1946, Classic Comics, the predecessor of Classics Illustrated, published in comic book format the novel in issue #30, with cover and artwork by Don Rico. The adaptation was re-published in 1960 with cover and artwork by L.B. Cole.
On 15 April 1947, an adaptation of "The Moonstone" was episode #47 of the NBC radio series Favorite Story hosted by Ronald Colman. On 16 November and 23 November 1953, "The Moonstone", starring Peter Lawford, was broadcast as a two-part episode of the U.S. radio drama "Suspense".
In 1959, the BBC adapted the novel as a television serial starring James Hayter. In 1972 the serial was remade, featuring Robin Ellis. This second version was aired in the United States on PBS's Masterpiece Theatre.
In 1974, a German version, Der Monddiamant, was produced by Westdeutscher Rundfunk for television.
In November 1977, Marvel Comics released a comic-book adapation of the book in issue #23 of the "Marvel Classics Comics" series.
In 1996 The Moonstone was made for television by the BBC and Carlton Television in partnership with WGBH of Boston, Massachusetts, airing again on Masterpiece Theatre. It starred Greg Wise as Franklin Blake and Keeley Hawes as Rachel Verinder.
In 2011, BBC Radio 4 serialised the story in four hour-long episodes in the Classic Serial slot with Eleanor Bron as Lady Verinder, Paul Rhys as Franklin Blake, Jasmine Hyde as Rachel Verinder and Kenneth Cranham as Sergeant Cuff.
In 2016, the BBC adapted the novel for a five-part afternoon TV series The Moonstone starting 31 October 2016.
In December 2018, Screen14 Pictures, a team that produces fictional stories' adaption for the web, created a serialised web series of the novel on YouTube, Twitter, and Instagram.
In April 2020, the novel was read in serialized fashion by Phoebe Judge of Criminal on her Phoebe Reads a Mystery podcast.
References
External links
The Moonstone on Open Library
1868 British novels
British mystery novels
1868 fantasy novels
Novels by Wilkie Collins
Epistolary novels
British novels adapted into films
Novels first published in serial form
Fiction with unreliable narrators
Locked-room mysteries
Works originally published in All the Year Round
Victorian novels
British novels adapted into television shows
British novels adapted into plays
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204635
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph%20Wilhelm%20Hufeland
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Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland
|
Christoph Wilhelm Friedrich Hufeland (12 August 1762, Langensalza – 25 August 1836, Berlin) was a German physician, naturopath and writer. He is famous as the most eminent practical physician of his time in Germany and as the author of numerous works displaying extensive reading and a cultivated critical faculty.
Biography
Hufeland was born at Langensalza, Saxony (now Thuringia) and educated at Weimar, where his father held the office of court physician to the grand duchess. In 1780 he entered the University of Jena, and in the following year went on to Göttingen, where in 1783 he graduated in medicine.
After assisting his father for some years at Weimar, he was called in 1793 to the chair of medicine at Jena, receiving at the same time the positions of court physician and professor of pathology at Weimar. During this time, he began a substantive correspondence with Immanuel Kant. In 1798 Frederick William III of Prussia granted him the position director of the medical college and generally of state medical affairs at the Charité, in Berlin. He filled the chair of pathology and therapeutics in the University of Berlin, founded in 1809, and in 1810 became councillor of state. In 1823, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
In time he became as famous as Goethe, Herder, Schiller, and Wieland in his homeland.
Hufeland was a close friend of Samuel Hahnemann and published his original writings in his journal in 1796. He also "joined the Illuminati order at this time, having been introduced to freemasonry in Göttingen in 1783." He also seems to have professed an interest in Chinese Alchemy and methods of extending longevity.
The most widely known of his many writings is the treatise entitled Makrobiotik oder Die Kunst, das menschliche Leben zu verlängern (1796), which was translated into many languages, including in Serbian by Jovan Stejić in Vienna in 1828. Of his practical works, the System of Practical Medicine (System der praktischen Heilkunde, 1818–1828) is the most elaborate. From 1795 to 1835 he published a Journal der praktischen Arznei und Wundarzneikunde. His autobiography was published in 1863.
Naturopathy
Hufeland was an early supporter of naturopathic medicine who posited the existence of a vitalistic "life force", which he believed could be maintained through behavioral and dietary practices. Hufeland was influenced by Hippocrates and promoted what he termed "natural therapeutics" (naturtherapeutik). He supported the use of homeopathy.
The term "macrobiotics" was used by Hufeland in his book Macrobiotics: The Art of Prolonging Life, that was translated into English in 1797. The book endorsed a program for good health and prolonging life. Hufeland recommended a vegetarian diet. Goethe and his wife took interest in the book. His German disciples gave his dieting and health ideas the name of the Hufelandist movement.
George Ohsawa, founder of the macrobiotic diet was influenced by Hufeland.
Marriage and issue
He first married Juliane Amelung (1771–1845) and married for the second time to Elisabeth Helene Troschel (1777–1862). From his first marriage he had:
Elwira Laura (born in 1799), married to Karl Wilhelm von Becherer
Rosalia (born in 1801), married her cousin August Wilhelm Adolph Hufeland
Elisabeth, married Prince Alexandru Sturdza, scion of the reigning Princes of Moldavia. Through their son Prince Nicolae Sturdza (died in 1832) Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland is great-great-grandfather of Queen Natalie of Serbia and great-great-great-grandfather of King Alexander I of Serbia.
Bibliography
Works
Enchiridion medicum oder Anleitung zur medizinischen Praxis: Vermächtniß einer Fünfzigjährigen Erfahrung. Sechste Auflage. Jonas Verlagsbuchhandlung. Berlin,
Medizinischer Nutzen der elektrischen Kraft beim Scheintod, Verlag Rockstuhl, Bad Langensalza, 1. Reprintauflage 1783/2008,
Vollständige Darstellung der medicinischen Kräfte und des Gebrauchs der salzsauren Schwererde . Rottmann, Berlin 1794 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
Die Kunst, das menschliche Leben zu verlängern . (Volume1/2) Haas, Wien 1798 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
Armen-Pharmakopöe, entworfen für Berlin nebst der Nachricht von der daselbst errichteten Krankenanstalt für Arme in ihren Wohnungen . Realschulbuchhandlung, Berlin 3. Aufl. 1818 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
Conspectus Materiae medicae secundum Ordines naturales in Usum Auditorium . Dümmler, Berolini Editio altera aucta 1820 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
Armen-Pharmakopöe . Reimer, Berlin 4. Aufl. 1825 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
Armen-Pharmakopöe : Zugleich eine Auswahl bewährter Arzneimittel und Arzneiformeln . Reimer, Berlin 7.Aufl. 1832 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf
Makrobiotik oder Die Kunst das menschliche Leben zu verlängern, Stuttgart: A.F. Macklot, 1826.
Aphorismen und Denksprüche, Verlag Rockstuhl, Bad Langensalza, 1. Reprintauflage 1910/2009,
Bibliothek der practischen Heilkunde Veröffentlicht in der academischen Buchhandlung, 1802. Notizen: v. 6 Digitised on Google Books
Hufeland's Art of Prolonging Life, edited by William James Erasmus Wilson, 1854.
Studies
Helmut Busse: Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland, Blaeschke Verlag, St. Michael, Austria, 1982
Klaus Pfeifer: Medizin der Goethezeit – Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland und die Heilkunst des 18. Jahrhunderts, Verlag Böhlau, Cologne, 2000,
Günther Hufeland: Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland (1762–1836), Verlag Rockstuhl, Bad Langensalza, 2002,
Wolfgang U. Eckart: Geschichte der Medizin, Heidelberg 2005
Notes
References
External links
1762 births
1836 deaths
19th-century German physicians
18th-century German physicians
Diet food advocates
Humboldt University of Berlin faculty
Physicians of the Charité
Macrobiotic diet advocates
Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Naturopaths
People from Bad Langensalza
People from the Electorate of Saxony
University of Jena alumni
University of Jena faculty
University of Göttingen alumni
Vegetarianism activists
Vitalists
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204636
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20M.%20Disch
|
Thomas M. Disch
|
Thomas Michael Disch (February 2, 1940 – July 4, 2008) was an American science fiction author and poet. He won the Hugo Award for Best Related Book – previously called "Best Non-Fiction Book" – in 1999, and he had two other Hugo nominations and nine Nebula Award nominations to his credit, plus one win of the John W. Campbell Memorial Award, a Rhysling Award, and two Seiun Awards, among others.
In the 1960s, his work began appearing in science-fiction magazines. His critically acclaimed science fiction novels, The Genocides, Camp Concentration and 334 are major contributions to the New Wave science fiction movement. In 1996, his book The Castle of Indolence: On Poetry, Poets, and Poetasters was nominated for the National Book Critics Circle Award, and in 1999, Disch won the Nonfiction Hugo for The Dreams Our Stuff Is Made Of, a meditation on the impact of science fiction on our culture, as well as the Michael Braude Award for Light Verse. Among his other nonfiction work, he wrote theatre and opera criticism for The New York Times, The Nation, and other periodicals. He published several volumes of poetry as Tom Disch.
Following an extended period of depression after the death in 2005 of his life-partner, Charles Naylor, Disch stopped writing almost entirely, except for poetry and blog entries – although he did produce two novellas. Disch killed himself by gunshot on July 4, 2008 in his apartment in Manhattan, New York City. Naylor and Disch are buried alongside each other at Saint Johns Episcopal Church Columbarium, Dubuque, Iowa. His last book, The Word of God, which was written shortly before Naylor died, had just been published a few days before Disch's death. His last short story collection, The Wall of America, Disch's first in over 25 years, was published posthumously, several months later.
Early life
Disch was born in Des Moines, Iowa, on February 2, 1940. Because of a polio epidemic in 1946, his mother Helen home-schooled him for a year. As a result, he skipped from kindergarten to second grade. Disch's first formal education was at Catholic schools; which is evidenced in some of his works which contain scathing criticisms of the Catholic Church. The family moved in 1953 to St. Paul in Minnesota, rejoining both pairs of grandparents, where Disch attended both public and Catholic schools. In the Saint Paul public schools, Disch discovered his long-term loves of science fiction, drama, and poetry. He describes poetry as his stepping-stone to the literary world. A teacher at St. Paul Central, Jeannette Cochran, assigned 100 lines of poetry to be memorized; Disch wound up memorizing ten times as much. His early fascination continued to influence his work with poetic form and the direction of his criticism.
After graduating from high school in 1957, he worked a summer job as a trainee steel draftsman, just one of the many jobs on his path to becoming a writer. Saving enough to move to New York City at the age of 17, he found a Manhattan apartment and began to cast his energies in many directions. He worked as an extra at the Metropolitan Opera House in productions of Spartacus for the Bolshoi Ballet, Swan Lake for the Royal Ballet, and Don Giovanni, Tosca and others for the Met. He found work at a bookstore, then at a newspaper. At the age of 18, a penniless, friendless teenager, he attempted suicide by gas oven, but survived due to not having enough money to pay the gas bill. Later that year, he enlisted in the army. Disch's incompatibility with the armed forces quickly resulted in a nearly three-month commitment to a mental hospital.
After his discharge, Disch returned to New York and continued to pursue the arts in his own indirect way. He worked, again, in bookstores, and as a copywriter. Some of these jobs later paid off; working as a cloak room attendant in New York theater culture allowed him to both pursue his lifelong love of drama and led to work as a reviewer of staged drama. Eventually, he got another job with an insurance company and went to school. A brief flirtation with architecture led him to apply to Cooper Union, where he was told he got the highest score ever on their entrance exam, but dropped out after a few weeks. He then went to night school at New York University (NYU), where classes on novella writing and utopian fiction developed his tastes for some of the common forms and topics of science fiction. In May 1962, he decided to write a short story instead of studying for his midterm exams. He sold the story, "The Double Timer", for $112.50, to the magazine Fantastic. Having begun his literary career, he did not return to NYU but rather took another series of odd jobs such as bank teller, mortuary assistant, and copy editor – all of which served to fuel what he referred to as his night-time "writing habit". Over the next few years he wrote more science fiction stories, but also branched out into poetry; his first published poem, "Echo and Narcissus", appeared in the Minnesota Reviews Summer 1964 issue.
Career
Disch entered the field of science fiction at a turning point, as the pulp adventure stories of its older style began to be challenged by a more serious, darker style. Rather than trying to compete with mainstream writers on the New York literary scene, Disch published work in science fiction and literary magazines, and began to speak with a new voice. His first novel, The Genocides, appeared in 1965; Brian W. Aldiss singled it out for praise in a long review in SF Impulse. Much of his early science fiction was published in English author Michael Moorcock's New Wave magazine, New Worlds, including his sixth novel Camp Concentration in two installments.
Disch traveled widely and lived in England, Spain, Rome, and Mexico. In spite of this, he remained a New Yorker for the last twenty years of his life, keeping a long-time New York residence overlooking Union Square. He said that "a city like New York, to my mind, is the whole world."
Writing had become the dominant focus of his life. Disch described his personal transformation from dilettante to "someone who knows what he wants to do and is so busy doing it that he doesn't have much time for anything else." After The Genocides, he wrote Camp Concentration and 334. More books followed, including science fiction novels and stories, gothic works, criticism, plays, a libretto for an opera of Frankenstein, prose and verse children's books such as A Child's Garden of Grammar, and ten poetry collections. In the 1980s, he moved from science fiction to horror with a quartet set in Minneapolis: The Businessman, The M.D., The Priest, and The Sub.
His writing includes substantial periodical work, such as regular book and theater reviews for The Nation, The Weekly Standard, Harper's, The Washington Post, the Los Angeles Times, The New York Times, the Times Literary Supplement, and Entertainment Weekly. Recognition from his award-winning books led to a year as "artist-in-residence" at the College of William & Mary. During his long and varied career, Disch found his way into other forms and genres. As a fiction writer and a poet, Disch felt typecast by his science fiction roots. "I have a class theory of literature. I come from the wrong neighborhood to sell to The New Yorker. No matter how good I am as an artist, they always can smell where I come from."
Though Disch was an admirer of and was friends with the author Philip K. Dick, Dick would write an infamous paranoid letter to the FBI in October 1972 that denounced Disch and suggested that there were coded messages, prompted by a covert organization, in Disch's novel Camp Concentration. Disch was unaware and he would go on to champion the Philip K. Dick Award. In his final novel, however, The Word of God, Disch got his revenge on Dick, with a story in which Dick is dead and living in Hell, unable to write because of writer's block. In return for a taste of human blood, which will unlock his ability to write, he makes a deal to go back in time and kill Disch's father, so that Disch will never be born, and at the same time to kill Thomas Mann and thereby to ensure that Hitler wins World War II. Disch also referred to Dick in a blog post stating "May he rot in hell, and may his royalties corrupt his heirs to the seventh generation."
He shared his Manhattan apartment and a house in Barryville, New York, with his partner of three decades, poet and fiction writer Charles Naylor. Although he was out as a gay man after 1968 and this facet of his life was occasionally foregrounded in his work (most notably in his poetry and On Wings of Song), he did not try to write to a particular community: "I'm gay myself, but I don't write 'gay' literature." He rarely mentioned his sexuality in interviews, though he was interviewed by the Canadian gay periodical The Body Politic in 1981. After Naylor's death in 2005, Disch had to abandon the house, as well as fight attempts to evict him from his rent controlled apartment, and he became steadily more depressed. He wrote on a LiveJournal account from April 2006 until his death (he killed himself by gunshot), in which he posted poetry and journal entries. Shortly before Disch's death, in September and October 2007 literary critic Peter Swirski conducted email interviews with Disch concerning his novels The M.D. A Horror Story and 334. Excerpts from these exchanges were published in Swirski's 2010 study Literature, Analytically Speaking – Chapter 7 is mostly on The M.D. – with Disch responding to questions with wit and irony.
Disch was an outspoken atheist as well as a satirist; his last novel The Word of God was published by Tachyon Publications in the summer of 2008. His last published work, the posthumous story collection The Wall of America, contains speculative fiction from the last half of Disch's career. Most of his literary short fiction was not collected after 1976 (although a story from The Hudson Review was collected in 2008). Right up to the end of his life, he maintained an active blog notable for its wit.
Computer game design
In 1986, Disch collaborated with New Jersey software company Cognetics Corporation and games publisher Electronic Arts to create the interactive fiction text adventure Amnesia, which could be played on the Commodore 64, IBM PC or Apple II computers. The title, based on technology pioneered by Cognetics' Charles Kreitzberg, was produced by Don Daglow and programmed by Kevin Bentley. It showcased Disch's vivid writing, a stark contrast to other game-programmer-written text adventures of the time, and his passion for the energy of the city of New York. Although the text adventure format was dying by the time Amnesia was released and it enjoyed limited success, the game pioneered ideas that would later become popular in game design by modeling the entire Manhattan street map south of 110th St. and allowing the player to visit any street corner in that part of the city in their quest to advance the story. Although the limited floppy disk capacity of the 1980s computers caused much of Disch's original text about the city to be cut, many Manhattan sites and people were described with unique loving distortion through the Disch lens. David Lehman singled out "Amnesia" for praise in his essay "You Are What You Read" in Newsweek (January 12, 1987). In an interview Lehman asked Disch about the origin of "Amnesia." "Please don't say 'I forget'," Lehman said. "It's true," Disch replied. "I forget my own life all the time, so amnesia was a natural subject for me."
Theater
Disch was also known for his work in the theater, both as the critic for The Nation, from 1987 to 1993, and as writer of two performance works, his meta-historical stage adaptation of Ben-Hur and his controversial verse monologue/poem, The Cardinal Detoxes. Both plays were commissioned and presented by Jeff Cohen and the RAPP Arts Center in New York's Alphabet City. Ben-Hur not only told the story of the famous Biblical novel, but delved into the life and times of its author, the proto-American General Lew Wallace. Disch proffers the theory that Wallace penned Ben-Hur, in part, to assuage his guilt over his part in the execution of Mary Surratt. In its world-premiere performance at the Peabody Conservatory in Baltimore in 1989, it was chosen as a Critics' Choice by Time magazine.
The Cardinal Detoxes had a simple conceit: a Catholic Bishop has committed vehicular homicide while driving intoxicated and is imprisoned in a monastic "drying tank" where he is sure he is being bugged by the higher-ups. So he attempts to negotiate his release by black-mailing the Church with all of its dirty secrets, big and small. The play was performed at RAPP, located in the former Most Holy Redeemer School, and drew a cease and desist order from the Catholic Archdiocese of New York. An article written by The New York Times''' Mervyn Rothstein got picked up around the world on the AP wire and the play became one of the most notable censorship controversies of the 1990s. After the American Civil Liberties Union declined to take the case, Disch and RAPP were represented by William Kunstler and Ron Kuby, and the Archdiocese lost in court. Their response was to lock the theater out of their building and have the Director jailed. Fortunately, The Cardinal Detoxes became as well known for its literary merits as for its controversy. It was selected in the compilation Best American Poetry 1994 and, again, in Best of The Best American Poetry 1988–1997.
In 1985, his short story The Squirrel Cage, included in his book Fun With Your New Head, was adapted for the stage by Robin Willoughby of Buffalo, New York. Music was composed by Tim Kloth. A single character is held captive by some unknown entity. Law enforcement? Foreign country? Aliens? Is he there for punishment, examination, or entertainment? The performer is surrounded on stage by an unseen and unheard (by him) circle of musicians who play in reaction to his musings.
Poetry
Disch's first published poems, though reaching print later – the first in 1964, though not collected until 1972 – were written alongside the stories and novels which made his name in the 1960s. Although he aimed his poetry at a different readership than his fiction – even simplifying his by-line from Thomas M. Disch to Tom Disch – both genres emerged from the same expanding mind and changing times. His poetry includes experiments within traditional forms, such as a collaborative sonnet cycle Highway Sandwiches with Marilyn Hacker and Charles Platt and Haikus of an AmPart, while others like The Dark Old House mix stricter and freer form. Like other poets, he often uses humor and irony in his poems.
Disch's reputation as a poet was solidified by a 1989 midcareer retrospective collection, titled Yes, Let's. A book of new poetry, Dark Verses & Light, followed in 1991. In 1995 and 2002, Disch published two collections of poetry criticism. He continued to regularly publish poetry in magazines and journals such as Poetry, Light, Paris Review, Partisan Review, Parnassus: Poetry in Review and even Theology Today (perhaps an odd choice for a long-lapsed Catholic). Disch's poems were anthologized in four editions of The Best American Poetry --- those edited by John Ashbery, Jorie Graham, A. R. Ammons, and John Hollander. Disch published two collections of poetry criticism, The Castle of Indolence: On Poetry, Poets, and Poetasters and The Castle of Perseverance: Job Opportunities in Contemporary Poetry. His poetry criticism focuses on what makes poetry work, what makes it popular, and how poetry can re-establish a place in modern popular culture.
Near the end of his life he stopped submitting poetry to literary journals unless the journals asked for his contributions. He preferred to publish his poems in his LiveJournal account. In an interview just ten days before his death, Disch said, "I write poetry because I think it is the hardest thing I can do well. And so I simply enjoy the doing of it, as an equestrian enjoys spending time on a good horse. Poetry is my good horse."
Works
Novels The Genocides, Berkley F1170 (1965), Panther (1968), Pocket (1979), Vintage (2000)The Puppies of Terra Panther (1978), Pocket (1980) (orig. pub. as Mankind Under the Leash', Ace G-597 (1966)
The House That Fear Built (with John Sladek, as Cassandra Knye), Paperback Library (1966)
Echo Round His Bones, Berkley X1349 (1967), Hart-Davis (1969), Panther (1970), Pocket (1979)
Camp Concentration, Doubleday (1968), , Panther (1969), Avon (1971), Bantam (1980), Carroll & Graf (1989), Vintage (1999)
Black Alice (with John Sladek, as Thom Demijohn), Doubleday (1968), Avon V2339 (1970), Panther (1970), Carroll & Graf (1989)
The Prisoner, Ace (1969), New English Library (1980), ibooks (2003), Penguin (2009)
Alfred the Great (as Victor Hastings), 1969
334, MacGibbon & Kee (1972), , Avon (1974), Sphere (1974), Carroll & Graf (1987), Vintage (1999)
Clara Reeve (as Leonie Hargrave), Knopf (1975), . Ballantine (1976)
On Wings of Song Gollancz (1979), St. Martin's (1979) , Bantam (1980), Magnum (1981), Carroll & Graf (1988)
Neighboring Lives (with Charles Naylor), Scribner's (1981), , Johns Hopkins University Press (1991)
The Businessman: A Tale of Terror, Harper & Row (1984), , Jonathan Cape (1984), Paladin (1986), Berkley (1993), University of Minnesota Press (2010)
The M.D.: A Horror Story, Knopf (1991), , HarperCollins (UK) (1992), Berkley (1992), University of Minnesota Press (2010)
The Priest: A Gothic Romance, Millennium (1994), , Knopf (1995), Orion (1995), University of Minnesota Press (2010)
The Sub: A Study in Witchcraft, Knopf (1999), , University of Minnesota Press (2010)
The Word of God: Or, Holy Writ Rewritten, Tachyon (2008),
Novellas
The Man Who Had No Idea, 1978
Torturing Mr. Amberwell, 1985
The Silver Pillow: A Tale of Witchcraft, 1988
The Voyage of the Proteus, 2007
The Proteus Sails Again, 2008
Story collections
One Hundred and Two H-Bombs, Compact (1967) UK (revised edition, Berkley (1971) US)
Fun with Your New Head, SFBC 1971 US, Signet T4913 (1972) (Under Compulsion), Hart-Davis (1968) UK, Panther (1970) UK
White Fang Goes Dingo, Arrow (1971) UK,
Getting into Death, Hart-Davis (1973) UK,
Getting into Death and Other Stories, Knopf (1976), Pocket (1977) US
Fundamental Disch, Bantam (1980), , Gollancz (1981), selected and introduced by Samuel R. Delany.
The Man Who Had No Idea (collection), Gollancz (1982), Bantam (1982)
The Wall of America, Tachyon (2008),
Works for children
The Brave Little Toaster: A Bedtime Story for Small Appliances
Fantasy and Science Fiction (August 1980)
London, Grafton Books, 1986.
film adaptation, 1987
The Tale of Dan De Lion, 1986
The Brave Little Toaster Goes to Mars, 1988
film adaptation, 1998
A Child's Garden of Grammar, 1997
The Brave Little Toaster to the Rescue, 1999 (film only)
Doubleday 1st edition 0385230508
Poetry collections
Highway Sandwiches (with Charles Platt and Marilyn Hacker), 1970
The Right Way to Figure Plumbing, 1972,
ABCDEFG HIJKLM NPOQRST UVWXYZ, 1981,
Burn This, 1982,
Orders of the Retina, 1982,
Here I Am, There You Are, Where Were We, 1984,
Yes, Let's: New and Selected Poems, 1989,
Dark Verses and Light, 1991,
Haikus of an AmPart, 1991,
The Dark Old House, 1996
About the Size of It, 2007
Endzone. Letzte Gedichte/Last Poems. Zweisprachige Ausgabe/Bilangual Edition. Edited and translated by Christopher Ecker. Mitteldeutscher Verlag, Germany 2018,
Non-fiction
The Castle of Indolence: On Poetry, Poets, and Poetasters, 1994,
The Dreams Our Stuff Is Made Of: How Science Fiction Conquered the World, 1998,
The Castle of Perseverance: Job Opportunities in Contemporary Poetry, 2002,
On SF, 2005, . A collection of his critical writings.
Anthologies
The Ruins of Earth: An Anthology of Stories of the Immediate Future, 1971
Bad Moon Rising: An Anthology of Political Forebodings, 1973
The New Improved Sun: An Anthology of Utopian Fiction, 1975
New Constellations: An Anthology of Tomorrow's Mythologies, 1976 (with Charles Naylor)
Strangeness: A Collection of Curious Tales, 1977 (with Charles Naylor)
Plays
Ben-Hur 1989
The Cardinal Detoxes 1990
Computer game
Amnesia, 1986
Audio
"Can you hear me, think tank two?", 2001 (as Tom Disch). Thought crimes in prose and poetry
Mecca|Mettle, 2005. An anthology featuring text and audio by Thomas Disch, BlöödHag, X's 4 Eyes and featuring artwork by Tim Kirk.
See also
List of horror fiction authors
Philip K. Dick Award
References NotesBibliography Gioia, Dana. "Tom Disch," in Can Poetry Matter? Essays on Poetry and American Culture. St. Paul, Minn.: Graywolf Press, 1992, , pp. 193–196.
Preminger, Alex, Terry V.F. Brogan, Frank J. Warnke, eds. The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. New York: Princeton University Press, 1993, .
Walzer, Kevin. "The Sword of Wit: Disch, Feinstein, Gwynn, Martin," in The Ghost of Tradition. Brownsville, Ore.: Story Line Press, 1998, : pp. 152–184.
Yezzi, David. Thomas M., Meet Tom. Parnassus: Poetry in Review, 1995.
Further reading'''
Ecker, Christopher. Warum wir alle Pyramiden bauen sollten. Eine Begegnung mit Thomas M. Disch (1940–2008), in: Mamczak, Sascha and Jeschke, Wolfgang (eds.): Das Science Fiction Jahr 2009, München 2009, pp. 506–560.
External links
Thomas M. Disch Papers. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
Endzone Disch's website
Schroedinger's Cake: Website about Thomas M. Disch
Selected poems
Eulogy by Elizabeth Hand at Salon.com
"Remembering Thomas Disch" by John Crowley in the Boston Review "The Prescient Science Fiction of Thomas M. Disch" in The Millions''
Featured Author: Thomas M. Disch A collection of news and reviews from the New York Times.
1940 births
2008 deaths
2008 suicides
American atheists
American horror writers
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American science fiction writers
College of William & Mary faculty
American speculative fiction critics
British speculative fiction critics
American speculative fiction editors
British speculative fiction editors
American gay writers
Writers from Des Moines, Iowa
Science fiction critics
Suicides by firearm in New York City
Formalist poets
American LGBT poets
LGBT people from Iowa
American LGBT novelists
Rhysling Award for Best Long Poem winners
20th-century American poets
21st-century American poets
American male novelists
American male poets
Novelists from Virginia
Novelists from Iowa
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male non-fiction writers
The Brave Little Toaster
Weird fiction writers
20th-century American male writers
Living people
21st-century American male writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces%20of%20Thailand
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Provinces of Thailand
|
The provinces of Thailand are part of the government of Thailand that is divided into 76 provinces (, , ) proper and one special administrative area (), representing the capital Bangkok. They are the primary local government units and are divided into amphoes (districts) and also act as juristic persons. Each province is led by a governor (ผู้ว่าราชการจังหวัด phu wa ratchakan changwat), who is appointed by the central government.
The provinces and administrative areas
The total population of Thailand is 66,558,935 on 31 December 2019.
The total land area of Thailand is 517,646 km2 in 2013.
HS – Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System.
FIPS code is replaced on 31 December 2014 with ISO 3166.
Governance
Thailand's national government organisation is divided into three types: central government (ministries, bureaus and departments), provincial government (provinces and districts) and local government (Bangkok, Pattaya, provincial administrative organisations, etc.).
A province, as part of the provincial government, is administered by a governor (ผู้ว่าราชการจังหวัด) who is appointed by the Minister of Interior. Bangkok, as part of the local government, is administered by a corporation called Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. The corporation is led by the Governor of Bangkok (ผู้ว่าราชการกรุงเทพมหานคร) who is directly elected by the citizens of Bangkok.
The provinces are named by their original main city, which is not necessarily still the most populous city within the province today. Also, in several provinces the administration has been moved into a new building outside the city.
History
Before 1892
Many provinces date back to semi-independent local chiefdoms or kingdoms, which made up the Ayutthaya Kingdom. The provinces were created around a capital city (mueang), and included surrounding villages or satellite towns. The provinces were administered either by a governor, who was appointed by the king or by a local ruling family, who were descendants of the old kings and princes of that area and had been given this privilege by the central king. De facto the king did not have much choice but to choose someone from the local nobility or an economically strong man, as against these local power groups the administration would have become impossible. The governor was not paid by the king, but instead financed himself and his administration by imposing local taxes himself. Every province was required to send an annual tribute to Bangkok.
The provinces were divided into four different classes. The first-class were the border provinces. The second-class were those that once had their own princely house. Third-class were provinces that were created by splitting them from other provinces. Fourth-class were provinces near the capital. Additionally tributary states like the principalities of Lan Na, the Laotian kingdoms of Vientiane and Luang Prabang, Cambodia, or the Malay sultanate Kedah were also part of the country, but with more autonomy than the provinces. In this Mandala system the semi-independent countries sometimes were tributary to more than one country.
New provinces were created when the population of an area outgrew the administration, but also for political reasons. If a governor became too dominant in a region former satellite cities were elevated to provincial status, as was the case with Maha Sarakham province.
Reforms of the provincial administration started in the 1870s under increased pressure from the colonial states of the United Kingdom and France. Agents were sent, especially to border areas, to impose more control on the provinces or tributary states.
Administrative reform of 1892
At the end of the 19th century King Chulalongkorn reformed the central government. In 1892 the ministry, which previously had many overlapping responsibilities, was reorganized with clear missions as in Western administrations. Prince Damrong Rajanubhab became minister of the Ministry of the North (Mahatthai), originally responsible for the northern administration. When the Ministry of the South (Kalahom) was dissolved in 1894, Prince Damrong became Minister of the Interior, responsible for the provincial administration of the whole country.
Starting in 1893 the already existing commissionaireships in some parts of the country were renamed "superintendent commissioner" (khaluang Thesaphiban), and their area of responsibility was called a monthon. In strategically important areas the monthon were created first, while in other areas the provinces kept their independence a bit longer. Several smaller provinces were reduced in status to a amphoe (district) or even lower to a tambon (sub-district) and included in a neighboring province, sometimes for administrative reasons, but sometimes to remove an uncooperative governor.
In some regions rebellions broke out against the new administrative system, usually induced by the local nobility fearing their loss of power. The most notable was the Holy Man Rebellion in 1902 in Isan. It was initially a messianic doomsday sect, but it also attacked government representatives in the northeast. The provincial town Khemarat was even burned by the rebels. After a few months the rebellion was beaten back.
After 1916, the word changwat became common to use for the provinces, partly to distinguish them from the provincial capital city (mueang or amphoe mueang), but also to stress the new administrative structure of the provinces.
When Prince Damrong resigned in 1915, the whole country was divided into 19 monthon (including the area around Bangkok, which was under the responsibility of another ministry until 1922), with 72 provinces.
In December 1915 King Vajiravudh announced the creation of regions (phak), each administered by a viceroy (upparat), to cover several monthon. Until 1922 four regions were established, however in 1925 they were dissolved again. At the same time several monthon were merged, in an attempt to streamline administration and reduce costs.
Since 1932
The monthons were dissolved when Thailand transformed from an absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy in 1932, making the provinces the top level administrative division again. Several smaller provinces were also abolished at that time. During World War II, several provinces around Bangkok were merged. These changes were undone after the war. Also the occupied area from French Indochina was organized into four provinces: Phra Tabong, Phibunsongkhram, Nakhon Champasak and Lan Chang. The current province of Sukhothai was at first known as Sawankhalok. It was renamed Sukhothai in 1939 (which is why the railway system goes to Sawankhalok city and not Sukhothai city). The province, Kalasin, was reestablished in 1947 after having been dissolved in 1932.
In 1972 Phra Nakhon and Thonburi provinces were merged to form the special administrative area of Bangkok, which combines the tasks of the provinces with that of a municipality, including having an elected governor.
Starting in the second half of the 20th century some provinces were newly created by splitting them off from bigger provinces. In 1975, Yasothon province was split off from Ubon Ratchathani. In 1977, Phayao province was created from districts formerly part of Chiang Rai. In 1982, Mukdahan was split off from Nakhon Phanom. In 1993 three provinces were created: Sa Kaeo (split from Prachinburi), Nong Bua Lamphu province (split from Udon Thani), and Amnat Charoen (split from Ubon Ratchathani). The newest province is Bueng Kan, which was split off from Nong Khai effective 23 March 2011.
Former provinces and administrative areas
Former provinces merged into other provinces
Lost territories
Map of Siam in 1871 showing provinces.
See also
ISO 3166-2:TH
List of districts of Thailand
List of Thai provinces by GPP
Nationality, religion, and language data for the provinces of Thailand
Organization of the government of Thailand
Seals of the provinces of Thailand
References
Further reading
External links
Department of Provincial Administration
Pronunciation of provinces in Thailand at www.forvo.com
Subdivisions of Thailand
Thailand geography-related lists
Thailand 1
Provinces, Thailand
Thailand, provinces by area
Thailand
Geography of Thailand
|
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204639
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family%20History%20Library
|
Family History Library
|
The Family History Library (FHL) is a genealogical research facility in downtown Salt Lake City. The library is open to the public free of charge and is operated by FamilySearch, the genealogical arm of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church).
History
The origins of the FHL can be traced to the founding of the Genealogical Society of Utah (GSU) in 1894. Through time the FHL has changed locations within Salt Lake City as follows:
The GSU's first library was located in the office of the Church Historian, 58 E. South Temple Street
Church Administration Building, 47 E. South Temple Street (1917–1933)
80 N. Main Street (1934–1962)
100 S. Main Street (1962–1971)
Church Office Building, 50 E. North Temple Street (1972–1985)
35 N. West Temple Street (1985–Present)
The current building, just west of Temple Square was opened on October 23, 1985, and cost $8.2 million.
In 1938, the GSU began to microfilm records which contained genealogical data from around the world, and today this microfilm makes up much of the library's collection. Today the GSU is more commonly known as FamilySearch, and is currently working on digitizing many of its microfilm collections to be shared online. In 2017, the FHL opened a new center for interactive discovery experiences.
1999 shooting
On April 15, 1999, 70-year-old Sergei Babarin entered the FHL's lobby and began shooting. A security officer and one female patron were killed while several others were injured. One hour and 45 minutes after the shooting began, Salt Lake police shot and fatally wounded Babarin in an exchange of gunfire. Babarin's family indicated he had a history of schizophrenia, a claim not corroborated by the Valley Community Mental Health Clinic. This occurred only four months after a separate shooting incident a block away at the Triad Center.
Purpose
Its main purpose is to fulfill one of the LDS Church fundamental tenets: that deceased family members, especially ancestors, can be baptized by proxy, as well as receive other saving ordinances. These ordinances are performed in temples. As its collection has grown, however, more individuals throughout the world are using the collection to research their ancestry and chart their genealogy.
Services
The FHL is in Salt Lake City, Utah, where the headquarters of the LDS Church are located. It is the largest genealogical library in the world and is open to the general public at no charge. The library holds genealogical records for over 110 countries, territories, and possessions. Its collections include over 1.6 million rolls of microfilmed records onsite and access the total collection of more than 2.4 million rolls of microfilmed genealogical records; 727,000 microfiche; 356,000 books, serials, and other formats; 4,500 periodicals; 3,725 electronic resources including subscriptions to the major genealogical websites.
The FHL offers research assistance to help patrons trace their own family history. Professional genealogists and volunteers offer assistance in about 30 languages, which includes reading and translating genealogically relevant documents. The FHL also offers free one-on-one consultations on difficult research problems. Additionally, there are classes on genealogical research topics free to the public and classes available online. Free family history research advice and information are offered online at the FamilySearch Research Wiki.
Digitization and indexing projects
The FHL is in the process of digitizing much of its microfilm collection. An online index to some of the records is also being created. Volunteers to the project are now being actively solicited at FamilySearchIndexing.org. The searchable database containing the digital images and index will be available through the church's FamilySearch website.
Branches
Branches of the FHL are called Family History Centers (FHC). While there are over 4,400 FHCs operating in more than 134 countries there are only about 17 major regional branch library class facilities. The others are ward, branch and stake facilities with at least one or more genealogical computers. For details, see Family History Center (LDS Church). Most of the microfilms in the FHL's collection can be loaned to a FHC for a nominal charge. These FHCs are staffed by volunteers, and, like the FHL, are free of charge and open to the public (LDS Church members and nonmembers alike).
See also
Family history
Family History Research Wiki
Genealogy
Immigrant Ancestors Project
List of Mormon family organizations
References
External links
Find a family history center near you
FamilySearch Indexing
Family History Library in the FamilySearch Research Wiki
Religious buildings and structures completed in 1985
Library buildings completed in 1985
Buildings and structures in Salt Lake City
Genealogy and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Libraries in Utah
Properties of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Genealogical libraries
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Utah
Latter Day Saint church buildings
1985 establishments in Utah
de:Genealogische Gesellschaft von Utah
es:Centro de Historia Familiar
pt:Centro de história da família
|
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Chickamauga
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Battle of Chickamauga
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The Battle of Chickamauga, fought on September 18–20, 1863, between U.S. and Confederate forces in the American Civil War, marked the end of a Union offensive, the Chickamauga Campaign, in southeastern Tennessee and northwestern Georgia. It was the first major battle of the war fought in Georgia, the most significant Union defeat in the Western Theater, and involved the second-highest number of casualties after the Battle of Gettysburg.
The battle was fought between the Army of the Cumberland under Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans and the Confederate Army of Tennessee under Gen. Braxton Bragg, and was named for Chickamauga Creek. The West Chickamauga Creek meanders near and forms the southeast boundary of the battle area and the park in northwest Georgia. (The South Chickamauga ultimately flows into the Tennessee River about 3.5 miles (5.6 km) northeast of downtown Chattanooga).
After his successful Tullahoma Campaign, Rosecrans renewed the offensive, aiming to force the Confederates out of Chattanooga. In early September, Rosecrans consolidated his forces scattered in Tennessee and Georgia and forced Bragg's army out of Chattanooga, heading south. The Union troops followed it and brushed with it at Davis's Cross Roads. Bragg was determined to reoccupy Chattanooga and decided to meet a part of Rosecrans's army, defeat it, and then move back into the city. On September 17 he headed north, intending to attack the isolated XXI Corps. As Bragg marched north on September 18, his cavalry and infantry fought with Union cavalry and mounted infantry, which were armed with Spencer repeating rifles. The two armies fought at Alexander's Bridge and Reed's Bridge, as the Confederates tried to cross the West Chickamauga Creek.
Fighting began in earnest on the morning of September 19. Bragg's men strongly assaulted but could not break the Union line. The next day, Bragg resumed his assault. In late morning, Rosecrans was misinformed that he had a gap in his line. In moving units to shore up the supposed gap, Rosecrans accidentally created an actual gap, directly in the path of an eight-brigade assault on a narrow front by Confederate Lt. Gen. James Longstreet, whose corps had been detached from the Army of Northern Virginia. In the resulting rout, Longstreet's attack drove one-third of the Union army, including Rosecrans himself, from the field.
Union units spontaneously rallied to create a defensive line on Horseshoe Ridge ("Snodgrass Hill"), forming a new right wing for the line of Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas, who assumed overall command of remaining forces. Although the Confederates launched costly and determined assaults, Thomas and his men held until twilight. Union forces then retired to Chattanooga while the Confederates occupied the surrounding heights, besieging the city.
Background
Military situation
In his successful Tullahoma Campaign in the summer of 1863, Rosecrans moved southeast from Murfreesboro, Tennessee, outmaneuvering Bragg and forcing him to abandon Middle Tennessee and withdraw to the city of Chattanooga, suffering only 569 Union casualties along the way. General-in-chief Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck and President Abraham Lincoln were insistent that Rosecrans move quickly to take Chattanooga. Seizing the city would open the door for the Union to advance toward Atlanta and the heartland of the South. Chattanooga was a vital rail hub (with lines going north toward Nashville and Knoxville and south toward Atlanta), and an important manufacturing center for the production of iron and coke, located on the navigable Tennessee River. Situated between Lookout Mountain, Missionary Ridge, Raccoon Mountain, and Stringer's Ridge, Chattanooga occupied an important, defensible position.
Although Braxton Bragg's Army of Tennessee had about 52,000 men at the end of July, the Confederate government merged the Department of East Tennessee, under Maj. Gen. Simon B. Buckner, into Bragg's Department of Tennessee, which added 17,800 men to Bragg's army, a total of 69,800 men, but also extended his command responsibilities northward to the Knoxville area. This brought a third subordinate into Bragg's command who had little or no respect for him. Lt. Gen. Leonidas Polk and Maj. Gen. William J. Hardee had already made their animosity well known. Buckner's attitude was colored by Bragg's unsuccessful invasion of Buckner's native Kentucky in 1862, as well as by the loss of his command through the merger. A positive aspect for Bragg was Hardee's request to be transferred to Mississippi in July, but he was replaced by Lt. Gen. D.H. Hill, a general who did not get along with Robert E. Lee in Virginia.
The Confederate War Department asked Bragg in early August whether he could assume the offensive against Rosecrans if he were given reinforcements from Mississippi. He demurred, concerned about the daunting geographical obstacles and logistical challenges, preferring to wait for Rosecrans to solve those same problems and attack him. He was also concerned about a sizable Union force under Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside that was threatening Knoxville. Bragg withdrew his forces from advanced positions around Bridgeport, which left Rosecrans free to maneuver on the northern side of the Tennessee River. He concentrated his two infantry corps around Chattanooga and relied upon cavalry to cover his flanks, extending from northern Alabama to near Knoxville.
The Confederate government decided to attempt a strategic reversal in the West by sending Bragg reinforcements from Virginia—Lt. Gen. James Longstreet with two divisions from his First Corps, Army of Northern Virginia—in addition to the reinforcements from Mississippi. Chickamauga was the first large scale Confederate movement of troops from one theater to another with the aim of achieving a period of numerical superiority and gaining decisive results. Bragg was now more satisfied with the resources provided, and looked to strike the Union Army as soon as he achieved the strength he needed.
"River of Death"
The campaign and major battle take their name from West Chickamauga Creek. In popular histories, it is often said that Chickamauga is a Cherokee word meaning "river of death". Peter Cozzens, author of what is arguably the definitive book on the battle, This Terrible Sound, wrote that this is a "loose translation". Glenn Tucker presents the translations of "stagnant water" (from the "lower Cherokee tongue"), "good country" (from the Chickasaw) and "river of death" (dialect of the "upcountry Cherokee"). Tucker claims that the "river of death" came by its name not from early warfare, but from the location that the Cherokee contracted smallpox. James Mooney, in Myths of the Cherokee, wrote that Chickamauga is the more common spelling for Tsïkäma'gï, a name that "has no meaning in their language" and is possibly "derived from an Algonquian word referring to a fishing or fish-spearing place... if not Shawano it is probably from the Creek or Chickasaw."
The most plausible etymology for Chickamauga is that it is from the Chickasaw word chokma "be good" plus the verb ending -ka. The Chickasaw town of Chickamauga was located at the foot of Lookout Mountain.
Initial movements in the Chickamauga Campaign
Planning the Union advance
Rosecrans faced significant logistical challenges if he chose to move forward. The Cumberland Plateau that separated the armies was a rugged, barren country over 30 miles long with poor roads and little opportunity for foraging. If Bragg attacked him during the advance, Rosecrans would be forced to fight with his back against the mountains and tenuous supply lines. He did not have the luxury of staying put, however, because he was under intense pressure from Washington to move forward in conjunction with Burnside's advance into East Tennessee. By early August, Halleck was frustrated enough with Rosecrans's delay that he ordered him to move forward immediately and to report daily the movement of each corps until he crossed the Tennessee River. Rosecrans was outraged at the tone of "recklessness, conceit and malice" of Halleck's order and insisted that he would be courting disaster if he were not permitted to delay his advance until at least August 17.
Rosecrans knew that he would have difficulty receiving supplies from his base on any advance across the Tennessee River and therefore thought it necessary to accumulate enough supplies and transport wagons that he could cross long distances without a reliable line of communications. His subordinate generals were supportive of this line of reasoning and counseled delay, all except for Brig. Gen. James A. Garfield, Rosecrans's chief of staff, a politician who understood the value of being on the record endorsing the Lincoln administration's priorities.
The plan for the Union advance was to cross the Cumberland Plateau into the valley of the Tennessee River, pause briefly to accumulate some supplies, and then cross the river itself. An opposed crossing of the wide river was not feasible, so Rosecrans devised a deception to distract Bragg above Chattanooga while the army crossed downstream. Then the Army would advance on a wide front through the mountains. The XXI Corps under Maj. Gen. Thomas L. Crittenden would advance against the city from the west, the XIV Corps under Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas would cross over Lookout Mountain 20 miles south of the city, while the XX Corps under Maj. Gen. Alexander M. McCook and the Cavalry Corps under Maj. Gen. David S. Stanley would advance even farther to the southeast toward Bragg's railroad supply line leading from Atlanta. If executed correctly, this plan would cause Bragg to evacuate Chattanooga or be trapped in the city without supplies.
Crossing the Tennessee
Rosecrans ordered his army to move on August 16. The difficult road conditions meant a full week passed before they reached the Tennessee River Valley. They encamped while engineers made preparations for crossing the river. Meanwhile, Rosecrans's deception plan was underway. Col. John T. Wilder of the XIV Corps moved his mounted infantry brigade (the Lightning Brigade, which first saw prominence at Hoover's Gap) to the north of Chattanooga. His men pounded on tubs and sawed boards, sending pieces of wood downstream, to make the Confederates think that rafts were being constructed for a crossing north of the city. His artillery, commanded by Capt. Eli Lilly, bombarded the city from Stringer's Ridge for two weeks, an operation sometimes known as the Second Battle of Chattanooga. The deception worked and Bragg was convinced that the Union crossing would be above the city, in conjunction with Burnside's advancing Army of the Ohio from Knoxville.
The first crossing of the Tennessee River was accomplished by the XX Corps at Caperton's Ferry, 4 miles from Stevenson on August 29, where construction began on a 1,250-foot pontoon bridge. The second crossing, of the XIV Corps, was at Shellmound, Tennessee, on August 30. They were quickly followed by most of the XXI Corps. The fourth crossing site was at the mouth of Battle Creek, Tennessee, where the rest of the XIV Corps crossed on August 31. Without permanent bridges, the Army of the Cumberland could not be supplied reliably, so another bridge was constructed at Bridgeport by Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan's division, spanning 2,700 feet in three days. Virtually all of the Union army, other than elements of the Reserve Corps kept behind to guard the railroad, had safely crossed the river by September 4. They faced more mountainous terrain and road networks that were just as treacherous as the ones they had already traversed.
The Confederate high command was concerned about this development and took steps to reinforce the Army of Tennessee. General Joseph E. Johnston's army dispatched on loan two weak divisions (about 9,000 men) from Mississippi under Maj. Gen. John C. Breckinridge and Maj. Gen. William H. T. Walker by September 4, and General Robert E. Lee dispatched a corps under Lt. Gen. James Longstreet from the Army of Northern Virginia. Only five brigades (about 5,000 effectives) from two of Longstreet's divisions arrived in time for the second day of the Battle of Chickamauga on September 20.
Into Georgia
The three infantry corps of Rosecrans's army advanced by separate routes, on the only three roads that were suitable for such movements. On the right flank, McCook's XX Corps moved southwest to Valley Head, Alabama; in the center, Thomas's XIV Corps moved just across the border to Trenton, Georgia; and on the left, Crittenden's XXI Corps moved directly toward Chattanooga around Lookout Mountain. On September 8, after learning that Rosecrans had crossed into his rear, Bragg evacuated Chattanooga and moved his army south along the LaFayette Road toward LaFayette, Georgia. The Union army occupied Chattanooga on September 9. Rosecrans telegraphed Halleck, "Chattanooga is ours without a struggle and East Tennessee is free." Bragg was aware of Rosecrans's dispositions and planned to defeat him by attacking his isolated corps individually. The corps were spread out over 40 miles (65 km), too far apart to support each other.
Rosecrans was convinced that Bragg was demoralized and fleeing to either Dalton, Rome, or Atlanta, Georgia. Instead, Bragg's Army of Tennessee was encamped at LaFayette, some 20 miles (32 km) south of Chattanooga. Confederate soldiers who posed as deserters deliberately added to this impression. Thomas firmly cautioned Rosecrans that a pursuit of Bragg was unwise because the Army of the Cumberland was too widely dispersed and its supply lines were tenuous. Rosecrans, exultant at his success in capturing Chattanooga, discounted Thomas's advice. He ordered McCook to swing across Lookout Mountain at Winston's Gap and use his cavalry to break Bragg's railroad supply line at Resaca, Georgia. Crittenden was to take Chattanooga and then turn south in pursuit of Bragg. Thomas was to continue his advance toward LaFayette.
Davis's Cross Roads
Thomas's lead division, under Maj. Gen. James Negley, intended to cross McLemore's Cove and use Dug Gap in Pigeon Mountain to reach LaFayette. Negley was 12 hours ahead of Brig. Gen. Absalom Baird's division, the nearest reinforcements. Braxton Bragg hoped to trap Negley by attacking through the cove from the northeast, forcing the Union division to its destruction at the cul-de-sac at the southwest end of the valley. Early on the morning of September 10, Bragg ordered Polk's division under Maj. Gen. Thomas C. Hindman to march 13 miles southwest into the cove and strike Negley's flank. He also ordered D.H. Hill to send Cleburne's division from LaFayette through Dug Gap to strike Negley's front, making sure the movement was coordinated with Hindman's.
Entering the cove with 4,600 men, Negley's division encountered Confederate skirmishers, but pressed forward to Davis's Cross Roads. Informed that there was a large Confederate force approaching on his left, Negley took up a position in the mouth of the cove and remained there until 3a.m. on September 11. Hill claimed that Bragg's orders reached him very late and began offering excuses for why he could not advance—Cleburne was sick in bed and the road through Dug Gap was obstructed by felled timber. He advised calling off the operation. Hindman, who had executed Bragg's orders promptly and had advanced to within 4 miles of Negley's division, became overly cautious when he realized that Hill would not be attacking on schedule and ordered his men to stop. Bragg reinforced Hindman with two divisions of Buckner's corps, which were encamped near Lee and Gordon's Mill. When Buckner reached Hindman at 5p.m. on September 10, the Confederates outnumbered Negley's division 3 to 1, but failed to attack.
Infuriated that his orders were being defied and a golden opportunity was being lost, Bragg issued new orders for Hindman to attack early September 11. Cleburne, who was not sick as Hill had claimed, cleared the felled timber from Dug Gap and prepared to advance when he heard the sound of Hindman's guns. By this time, however, Baird's division had reached Negley's, and Negley had withdrawn his division to a defensive position just east of the crossroads. The two Union divisions then withdrew to Stevens Gap. Hindman's men skirmished with Baird's rear guard, but could not prevent the withdrawal of the Union force.
Final maneuvers
Realizing that part of his force had narrowly escaped a Confederate trap, Rosecrans abandoned his plans for a pursuit and began to concentrate his scattered forces. As he wrote in his official report, it was "a matter of life and death." On September 12 he ordered McCook and the cavalry to move northeast to Stevens Gap to join with Thomas, intending for this combined force to continue northeast to link up with Crittenden. The message to McCook took a full day to reach him at Alpine and the route he selected to move northeast required three days of marching 57 miles, retracing his steps over Lookout Mountain.
Crittenden's corps began moving from Ringgold toward Lee and Gordon's Mill. Forrest's cavalry reported the movement across the Confederate front and Bragg saw another offensive opportunity. He ordered Lt. Gen. Leonidas Polk to attack Crittenden's lead division, under Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood, at dawn on September 13, with Polk's corps and Walker's corps. Bragg rode to the scene after hearing no sound of battle and found that there were no preparations being made to attack. Once again, Bragg was angry that one of his subordinates did not attack as ordered, but by that morning it was too late—all of Crittenden's corps had passed by and concentrated at Lee and Gordon's Mill.
For the next four days, both armies attempted to improve their dispositions. Rosecrans continued to concentrate his forces, intending to withdraw as a single body to Chattanooga. Bragg, learning of McCook's movement at Alpine, feared the Federals might be planning a double envelopment. At a council of war on September 15, Bragg's corps commanders agreed that an offensive in the direction of Chattanooga offered their best option.
By September 17, McCook's corps had reached Stevens Gap and the three Union corps were now much less vulnerable to individual defeat. Yet Bragg decided that he still had an opportunity. Reinforced with two divisions arriving from Virginia under Lt. Gen. James Longstreet, and a division from Mississippi under Brig. Gen. Bushrod R. Johnson, he decided to move his army northward on the morning of September 18 and advance toward Chattanooga, forcing Rosecrans's army out to fight or to withdraw. If Rosecrans fought, he risked being driven back into McLemore's Cove. The Confederate army was to move beyond the Federal left flank at Lee and Gordon's Mill and then cross West Chickamauga Creek. He specified four crossing points, from north to south: Johnson's division at Reed's Bridge, Walker's Reserve Corps at Alexander's Bridge, Buckner's corps at Thedford's Ford, and Polk's corps at Dalton's Ford. Hill's corps would anchor the army's left flank and the cavalry under Forrest and Wheeler would cover Bragg's right and left flanks, respectively.
Opposing forces
Union
The Union Army of the Cumberland, commanded by Rosecrans, consisted of about 60,000 men, composed of the following major organizations:
XIV Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas, 22,781 present for duty with division commanders Brig. Gen. Absalom Baird, Maj. Gen. James S. Negley, Brig. Gen. John M. Brannan, and Maj. Gen. Joseph J. Reynolds.
XX Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Alexander M. McCook, 13,156 present with division commanders Brig. Gen. Jefferson C. Davis, Brig. Gen. Richard W. Johnson, and Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan.
XXI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Thomas L. Crittenden, 14,660 present with division commanders Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood, Maj. Gen. John M. Palmer, and Brig. Gen. Horatio P. Van Cleve.
Reserve Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Gordon Granger, 7,372 present with one division commanded by Brig. Gen. James B. Steedman and an attached brigade of Col. Daniel McCook.
Cavalry Corps, commanded by Brig. Gen. Robert B. Mitchell, 10,078 present with division commanders Brig. Gen. George Crook, and Col. Edward M. McCook.
Confederate
The Confederate Army of Tennessee, commanded by Bragg, with about 65,000 men, was composed of the following major organizations:
The Right Wing, commanded by Lt. Gen. Leonidas Polk, contained the division of Maj. Gen. Benjamin F. Cheatham, Hill's Corps of Lt. Gen. D.H. Hill (divisions of Maj. Gens. Patrick R. Cleburne and John C. Breckinridge) and the Reserve Corps of Maj. Gen. William H. T. Walker (divisions of Brig. Gen. States Rights Gist and St. John R. Liddell).
The Left Wing, commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet, contained the division of Maj. Gen. Thomas C. Hindman, Buckner's Corps of Maj. Gen. Simon B. Buckner (divisions of Maj. Gen. Alexander P. Stewart and Brig. Gens. William Preston and Bushrod R. Johnson) and Longstreet's Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood (divisions of Maj. Gens. Lafayette McLaws and Hood).
A cavalry corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Joseph Wheeler, contained the divisions of Brig. Gens. John A. Wharton and William T. Martin.
A second cavalry corps, commanded by Brig. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest, contained the divisions of Brig. Gens. Frank C. Armstrong and John Pegram.
The organization of the Army of Tennessee into Wings was ordered the night of September 19 upon the arrival of Longstreet from Virginia. Prior to this, the corps commanders reported directly to Bragg.
Opening engagements
September 18
Bushrod Johnson's division took the wrong road from Ringgold, but eventually headed west on the Reed's Bridge Road. At 7a.m. his men encountered cavalry pickets from Col. Robert Minty's brigade, guarding the approach to Reed's Bridge. Being outnumbered five to one, Minty's men eventually withdrew across the bridge after being pressured by elements of Forrest's cavalry, but could not destroy the bridge and prevent Johnson's men from crossing. At 4:30 p.m., when Johnson had reached Jay's Mill, Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood of Longstreet's Corps arrived from the railroad station at Catoosa and took command of the column. He ordered Johnson to use the Jay's Mill Road instead of the Brotherton Road, as Johnson had planned.
At Alexander's Bridge to the south, Col. John T. Wilder's mounted infantry brigade defended the crossing against the approach of Walker's Corps. Armed with Spencer repeating rifles and Capt. Lilly's four guns of the 18th Indiana Battery, Wilder was able to hold off a brigade of Brig. Gen. St. John Liddell's division, which suffered 105 casualties against Wilder's superior firepower. Walker moved his men downstream a mile to Lambert's Ford, an unguarded crossing, and was able to cross around 4:30 p.m., considerably behind schedule. Wilder, concerned about his left flank after Minty's loss of Reed's Bridge, withdrew and established a new blocking position east of the Lafayette Road, near the Viniard farm.
By dark, Johnson's division had halted in front of Wilder's position. Walker had crossed the creek, but his troops were well scattered along the road behind Johnson. Buckner had been able to push only one brigade across the creek at Thedford's Ford. Polk's troops were facing Crittenden's at Lee and Gordon's Mill and D.H. Hill's corps guarded crossing sites to the south.
Although Bragg had achieved some degree of surprise, he failed to exploit it strongly. Rosecrans, observing the dust raised by the marching Confederates in the morning, anticipated Bragg's plan. He ordered Thomas and McCook to Crittenden's support, and while the Confederates were crossing the creek, Thomas began to arrive in Crittenden's rear area.
Battle
First day: September 19
Rosecrans's movement of Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas's XIV Corps the previous day put the left flank of the Army of the Cumberland farther north than Bragg expected to find when he formulated his plans for an attack on September 20. Maj. Gen. Thomas L. Crittenden's XXI Corps was concentrated around Lee and Gordon's Mill, which Bragg assumed was the left flank, but Thomas was arrayed behind him, covering a wide front from Crawfish Springs (division of Maj. Gen. James S. Negley), the Widow Glenn's house (Maj. Gen. Joseph J. Reynolds), Kelly field (Brig. Gen. Absalom Baird), to around the McDonald farm (Brig. Gen. John M. Brannan). Maj. Gen. Gordon Granger's Reserve Corps was spread along the northern end of the battlefield from Rossville to McAfee's Church.
Bragg's plan was for an attack on the supposed Union left flank by the corps of Maj. Gens. Simon B. Buckner, John Bell Hood, and W.H.T. Walker, screened by Brig. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest's cavalry to the north, with Maj. Gen. Benjamin F. Cheatham's division held in reserve in the center and Maj. Gen. Patrick R. Cleburne's division in reserve at Thedford's Ford. Maj. Gen. Thomas C. Hindman's division faced Crittenden at Lee and Gordon's Mill and Breckinridge's faced Negley.
The Battle of Chickamauga opened almost by accident, when pickets from Col. Daniel McCook's brigade of Granger's Reserve Corps moved toward Jay's Mill In search of water. McCook had moved from Rossville on September 18 to aid Col. Robert Minty's brigade. His men established a defensive position several hundred yards northwest of Jay's Mill, about equally distant from where the 1st Georgia Cavalry waited through the night south of the mill. At about the time that McCook sent a regiment to destroy Reed's Bridge (which would survive the second attempt in two days to destroy it), Brig. Gen. Henry Davidson of Forrest's Cavalry Corps sent the 1st Georgia forward and they encountered some of McCook's men near the mill. McCook was ordered by Granger to withdraw back to Rossville and his men were pursued by Davidson's troopers. McCook encountered Thomas at the LaFayette Road, having finished an all-night march from Crawfish Springs. McCook reported to Thomas that a single Confederate infantry brigade was trapped on the west side of Chickamauga Creek. Thomas told Brannan's division to attack and destroy it.
Brannan sent three brigades in response to Thomas's order: Col. Ferdinand Van Derveer's brigade moved southeast on the Reed's Bridge Road, with Col. John Croxton's brigade on his right. Col. John Connell's brigade came up behind in reserve. Croxton's men drove back Davidson's advanced cavalrymen and Forrest formed a defensive line of dismounted troopers to stem the tide. Croxton halted his advance because he was unsure of Forrest's strength. Forrest requested reinforcements from Bragg and Walker near Alexander's Bridge and Walker ordered Col. Claudius Wilson's brigade forward about 9a.m., hitting Croxton's right flank. Forrest protected his own right flank by deploying the brigade of Col. George Dibrell, which ran into Van Derveer's brigade and came to a halt under fire. Forrest sent in Brig. Gen. Matthew Ector's brigade, part of Walker's Reserve Corps, but without Walker's knowledge. Ector's men replaced Dibrell's in line, but they were also unable to drive Van Derveer from his position.
Brannan's division was holding its ground against Forrest and his infantry reinforcements, but their ammunition was running low. Thomas sent Baird's division to assist, which advanced with two brigades forward and one in reserve. Brig. Gen. John King's brigade of U.S. Army regulars relieved Croxton. The brigade of Col. Benjamin Scribner took up a position on King's right and Col. John Starkweather's brigade remained in reserve. With superior numbers and firepower, Scribner and King were able to start pushing back Wilson and Ector.
Bragg committed the division of Brig. Gen. St. John R. Liddell to the fight, countering Thomas's reinforcements. The brigades of Col. Daniel Govan and Brig. Gen. Edward Walthall advanced along the Alexander's Bridge Road, smashing Baird's right flank. Both Scribner's and Starkweather's brigades retreated in panic, followed by King's regulars, who dashed for the rear through Van Derveer's brigade. Van Derveer's men halted the Confederate advance with a concentrated volley at close range. Liddell's exhausted men began to withdraw and Croxton's brigade, returning to the action, pushed them back beyond the Winfrey field.
Believing that Rosecrans was attempting to move the center of the battle farther north than Bragg planned, Bragg began rushing heavy reinforcements from all parts of his line to his right, starting with Cheatham's division of Polk's Corps, with five brigades the largest in the Army of Tennessee. At 11a.m., Cheatham's men approached Liddell's halted division and formed on its left. Three brigades under Brig. Gens. Marcus Wright, Preston Smith, and John Jackson formed the front line and Brig. Gens. Otho Strahl and George Maney commanded the brigades in the second line. Their advance greatly overlapped Croxton's brigade and had no difficulty pushing it back. As Croxton withdrew, his brigade was replaced by Brig. Gen. Richard Johnson's division of McCook's XX Corps near the LaFayette Road. Johnson's lead brigades, under Col. Philemon Baldwin and Brig. Gen. August Willich engaged Jackson's brigade, protecting Croxton's withdrawal. Although outnumbered, Jackson held under the pressure until his ammunition ran low and he called for reinforcements. Cheatham sent in Maney's small brigade to replace Jackson, but they were no match for the two larger Federal brigades and Maney was forced to withdraw as both of his flanks were crushed.
Additional Union reinforcements arrived shortly after Johnson. Maj. Gen. John Palmer's division of Crittenden's corps marched from Lee and Gordon's Mill and advanced into the fight with three brigades in line—the brigades of Brig. Gen. William Hazen, Brig. Gen. Charles Cruft, and Col. William Grose—against the Confederate brigades of Wright and Smith. Smith's brigade bore the brunt of the attack in the Brock field and was replaced by Strahl's brigade, which also had to withdraw under the pressure. Two more Union brigades followed Palmer's division, from Brig. Gen. Horatio Van Cleve's division of the XXI corps, who formed on the left flank of Wright's brigade. The attack of Brig. Gen. Samuel Beatty's brigade was the tipping point that caused Wright's brigade to join the retreat with Cheatham's other units.
For a third time, Bragg ordered a fresh division to move in, this time Maj. Gen. Alexander P. Stewart's (Buckner's corps) from its position at Thedford Ford around noon. Stewart encountered Wright's retreating brigade at the Brock farm and decided to attack Van Cleve's position on his left, a decision he made under his own authority. With his brigades deployed in column, Brig. Gen. Henry Clayton's was the first to hit three Federal brigades around the Brotherton Farm. Firing until their ammunition was gone, Clayton's men were replaced with Brig. Gen. John Brown's brigade. Brown drove Beatty's and Dick's men from the woods east of the LaFayette Road and paused to regroup. Stewart committed his last brigade, under Brig. Gen. William Bate, around 3:30 p.m. and routed Van Cleve's division. Hazen's brigade was caught up in the retreat as they were replenishing their ammunition. Col. James Sheffield's brigade from Hood's division drove back Grose's and Cruft's brigades. Brig. Gen. John Turchin's brigade (Reynolds's division) counterattacked and briefly held off Sheffield, but the Confederates had caused a major penetration in the Federal line in the area of the Brotherton and Dyer fields. Stewart did not have sufficient forces to maintain that position, and was forced to order Bate to withdraw east of the Lafayette Road.
At around 2p.m., the division of Brig. Gen. Bushrod R. Johnson (Hood's corps) encountered the advance of Union Brig. Gen. Jefferson C. Davis's two brigade division of the XX corps, marching north from Crawfish Springs. Johnson's men attacked Col. Hans Heg's brigade on Davis's left and forced it across the LaFayette Road. Hood ordered Johnson to continue the attack by crossing the LaFayette Road with two brigades in line and one in reserve. The two brigades drifted apart during the attack. On the right, Col. John Fulton's brigade routed King's brigade and linked up with Bate at Brotherton field. On the left, Brig. Gen. John Gregg's brigade attacked Wilder's Union brigade in its reserve position at the Viniard Farm. Gregg was seriously wounded and his brigade advance halted. Brig. Gen. Evander McNair's brigade, called up from the rear, also lost their cohesion during the advance.
Union Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood's division was ordered to march north from Lee and Gordon's Mill around 3p.m. His brigade under Col. George P. Buell was posted north of the Viniard house while Col. Charles Harker's brigade continued up the LaFayette Road. Harker's brigade arrived in the rear of Fulton's and McNair's Confederate regiments, firing into their backs. Although the Confederates retreated to the woods east of the road, Harker realized he was isolated and quickly withdrew. At the Viniard house, Buell's men were attacked by part of Brig. Gen. Evander M. Law's division of Hood's corps. The brigades of Brig. Gens. Jerome B. Robertson and Henry L. Benning pushed southwest toward the Viniard field, pushing back Brig. Gen. William Carlin's brigade (Davis's division) and fiercely struck Buell's brigade, pushing them back behind Wilder's line. Hood's and Johnson's men, pushing strongly forward, approached so close to Rosecrans's new headquarters at the tiny cabin of Widow Eliza Glenn that the staff officers inside had to shout to make themselves heard over the sounds of battle. There was a significant risk of a Federal rout in this part of the line. Wilder's men eventually held back the Confederate advance, fighting from behind a drainage ditch.
The Federals launched several unsuccessful counterattacks late in the afternoon to regain the ground around the Viniard house. Col. Heg was mortally wounded during one of these advances. Late in the day, Rosecrans deployed almost his last reserve, Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan's division of McCook's corps. Marching north from Lee and Gordon's Mill, Sheridan took the brigades of Cols. Luther Bradley and Bernard Laiboldt. Bradley's brigade was in the lead and it was able to push the heavily outnumbered brigades of Robertson and Benning out of Viniard field. Bradley was wounded during the attack.
By 6p.m., darkness was falling, and Braxton Bragg had not abandoned his idea of pushing the Federal army to the south. He ordered Maj. Gen. Patrick Cleburne's division (Hill's corps) to join Polk on the army's right flank. This area of the battlefield had been quiet for several hours as the fighting moved progressively southward. George Thomas had been consolidating his lines, withdrawing slightly to the west to what he considered a superior defensive position. Richard Johnson's division and Absalom Baird's brigade were in the rear of Thomas's westward migration, covering the withdrawal. At sunset Cleburne launched an attack with three brigades in line—from left to right, Brig. Gens. James Deshler, Sterling Wood, and Lucius Polk. The attack degenerated into chaos in the limited visibility of twilight and smoke from burning underbrush. Some of Absalom Baird's men advanced to support Baldwin's Union brigade, but mistakenly fired at them and were subjected to return friendly fire. Baldwin was shot dead from his horse attempting to lead a counterattack. Deshler's brigade missed their objective entirely and Deshler was shot in the chest while examining ammunition boxes. Brig. Gen. Preston Smith led his brigade forward to support Deshler and mistakenly rode into the lines of Col. Joseph B. Dodge's brigade (Johnson's division), where he was shot down. By 9p.m. Cleburne's men retained possession of the Winfrey field and Johnson and Baird had been driven back inside Thomas's new defensive line.
Casualties for the first day of battle are difficult to calculate because losses are usually reported for the entire battle. Historian Peter Cozzens wrote that "an estimate of between 6,000 and 9,000 Confederates and perhaps 7,000 Federals seems reasonable."
Planning for the second day
At Braxton Bragg's headquarters at Thedford Ford, the commanding general was officially pleased with the day's events. He reported that "Night found us masters of the ground, after a series of very obstinate contests with largely superior numbers." However, his attacks had been launched in a disjointed fashion, failing to achieve a concentration of mass to defeat Rosecrans or cut him off from Chattanooga. Army of Tennessee historian Thomas Connelly criticized Bragg's conduct of the battle on September 19, citing his lack of specific orders to his subordinates, and his series of "sporadic attacks which only sapped Bragg's strength and enabled Rosecrans to locate the Rebel position." He wrote that Bragg bypassed two opportunities to win the battle on September 19:
Bragg met individually with his subordinates and informed them that he was reorganizing the Army of Tennessee into two wings. Leonidas Polk, the senior lieutenant general on the field (but junior to Longstreet), was given the right wing and command of Hill's Corps, Walker's Corps, and Cheatham's Division. Polk was ordered to initiate the assault on the Federal left at daybreak, beginning with the division of Breckinridge, followed progressively by Cleburne, Stewart, Hood, McLaws, Bushrod Johnson, Hindman, and Preston. Informed that Lt. Gen. James Longstreet had just arrived by train from Virginia, Bragg designated him as the left wing commander, commanding Hood's Corps, Buckner's Corps, and Hindman's Division of Polk's Corps. (Longstreet arrived late on the night of September 19, and had to find his way in the dark to Bragg's headquarters, since Bragg did not send a guide to meet him. Longstreet found Bragg asleep and woke him around 11p.m. Bragg told Longstreet he would take charge of the left wing, explained his battle plan for September 20, and provided Longstreet a map of the area.) The third lieutenant general of the army, D.H. Hill, was not informed directly by Bragg of his effective demotion to be Polk's subordinate, but he learned his status from a staff officer.
What Hill did not learn was his role in the upcoming battle. The courier sent with written orders was not able to find Hill and returned to his unit without informing anyone. Maj. Gen. John C. Breckinridge, one of Hill's division commanders, was at Polk's headquarters, but was not informed that his division was to initiate the dawn attack. At 5a.m. on September 20, Polk was awakened on the cold and foggy battlefield to find that Hill was not preparing to attack. He prepared new written orders, which reached Hill about 6a.m. Hill responded with a number of reasons for delaying the attack, including readjustments of the alignment of his units, reconnaissance of the enemy line, and issuing breakfast rations to his men. Reluctantly, Bragg agreed.
On the Union side, Rosecrans held a council of war with most of his corps and division commanders to determine a course of action for September 20. The Army of the Cumberland had been significantly hurt in the first day's battle and had only five fresh brigades available, whereas the Confederate army had been receiving reinforcements and now outnumbered the Federals. Both of these facts ruled out a Union offensive. The presence of Assistant Secretary of War Charles A. Dana at the meeting made any discussion of retreating difficult. Rosecrans decided that his army had to remain in place, on the defensive. He recalled that Bragg had retreated after Perryville and Stones River and could conceivably repeat that behavior.
Rosecrans's defensive line consisted of Thomas in his present position, a salient that encompassed the Kelly Farm east of the LaFayette Road, which Thomas's engineers had fortified overnight with log breastworks. To the right, McCook withdrew his men from the Viniard field and anchored his right near the Widow Glenn's. Crittenden was put in reserve, and Granger, still concentrated at Rossville, was notified to be prepared to support either Thomas or McCook, although practically he could only support Thomas.
Still before dawn, Baird reported to Thomas that his line stopped short of the intersection of the LaFayette and McFarland's Gap Roads, and that he could not cover it without weakening his line critically. Thomas requested that his division under James Negley be moved from McCook's sector to correct this problem. Rosecrans directed that McCook was to replace Negley in line, but he found soon afterward that Negley had not been relieved. He ordered Negley to send his reserve brigade to Thomas immediately and continued to ride on an inspection of the lines. On a return visit, he founded Negley was still in position and Thomas Wood's division was just arriving to relieve him. Rosecrans ordered Wood to expedite his relief of Negley's remaining brigades. Some staff officers later recalled that Rosecrans had been extremely angry and berated Wood in front of his staff, although Wood denied that this incident occurred. As Negley's remaining brigades moved north, the first attack of the second day of the Battle of Chickamauga started.
Second day: September 20
The battle on the second day began at about 9:30 a.m. on the left flank of the Union line, about four hours after Bragg had ordered the attack to start, with coordinated attacks planned by Breckinridge and Cleburne of D.H. Hill's Corps, Polk's Right Wing. Bragg's intention was that this would be the start of successive attacks progressing leftward, en echelon, along the Confederate line, designed to drive the Union army south, away from its escape routes through the Rossville Gap and McFarland's Gap. The late start was significant. At "day-dawn" there were no significant defensive breastworks constructed by Thomas's men yet; these formidable obstacles were built in the few hours after dawn. Bragg wrote after the war that if it were not for the loss of these hours, "our independence might have been won."
Breckinridge's brigades under Brig. Gens. Benjamin Helm, Marcellus A. Stovall, and Daniel W. Adams moved forward, left to right, in a single line. Helm's Orphan Brigade of Kentuckians was the first to make contact with Thomas's breastworks and Helm (the favorite brother-in-law of Abraham Lincoln) was mortally wounded while attempting to motivate his Kentuckians forward to assault the strong position. Breckinridge's other two brigades made better progress against the brigade of Brig. Gen. John Beatty (Negley's division), which was attempting to defend a line of a width more suitable for a division. As he found the left flank of the Union line, Breckinridge realigned his two brigades to straddle the LaFayette Road to move south, threatening the rear of Thomas's Kelly field salient. Thomas called up reinforcements from Brannan's reserve division and Col. Ferdinand Van Derveer's brigade charged Stovall's men, driving them back. Adams's Brigade was stopped by Col. Timothy Robbins Stanley's brigade of Negley's division. Adams was wounded and left behind as his men retreated to their starting position.
The other part of Hill's attack also foundered. Cleburne's division met heavy resistance at the breastworks defended by the divisions of Baird, Johnson, Palmer, and Reynolds. Confusing lines of battle, including an overlap with Stewart's division on Cleburne's left, diminished the effectiveness of the Confederate attack. Cheatham's division, waiting in reserve, also could not advance because of Left Wing troops to their front. Hill brought up Gist's Brigade, commanded by Col. Peyton Colquitt, of Walker's Corps to fill the gap between Breckinridge and Cleburne. Colquitt was killed and his brigade suffered severe casualties in their aborted advance. Walker brought the remainder of his division forward to rescue the survivors of Gist's Brigade. On his right flank, Hill sent Col. Daniel Govan's brigade of Liddell's Division to support Breckinridge, but the brigade was forced to retreat along with Stovall's and Adams's men in the face of a Federal counterattack.
The attack on the Confederate right flank had petered out by noon, but it caused great commotion throughout Rosecrans's army as Thomas sent staff officers to seek aid from fellow generals along the line. West of the Poe field, Brannan's division was manning the line between Reynolds's division on his left and Wood's on his right. His reserve brigade was marching north to aid Thomas, but at about 10a.m. he received one of Thomas's staff officers asking for additional assistance. He knew that if his entire division were withdrawn from the line, it would expose the flanks of the neighboring divisions, so he sought Reynolds's advice. Reynolds agreed to the proposed movement, but sent word to Rosecrans warning him of the possibly dangerous situation that would result. However, Brannan remained in his position on the line, apparently wishing for Thomas's request to be approved by Rosecrans. The staff officer continued to think that Brannan was already in motion. Receiving the message on the west end of the Dyer field, Rosecrans, who assumed that Brannan had already left the line, desired Wood to fill the hole that would be created. His chief of staff, James A. Garfield, who would have known that Brannan was staying in line, was busy writing orders for parts of Sheridan's and Van Cleve's divisions to support Thomas. Rosecrans's order was instead written by Frank Bond, his senior aide-de-camp, generally competent but inexperienced at order-writing. As Rosecrans dictated, Bond wrote the following order: "The general commanding directs that you close up on Reynolds as fast as possible, and support him." This contradictory order was not reviewed by Rosecrans, who by this point was increasingly worn out, and was sent to Wood directly, bypassing his corps commander Crittenden.
Wood was perplexed by Rosecrans's order, which he received around 10:50 a.m. Since Brannan was still on his left flank, Wood would not be able to "close up on" (a military term that meant to "move adjacent to") Reynolds with Brannan's division in the way. Therefore, the only possibility was to withdraw from the line, march around behind Brannan and form up behind Reynolds (the military meaning of the word "support"). This was obviously a risky move, leaving an opening in the line. Wood spoke with corps commander McCook, and claimed later, along with members of both his and McCook's staff, that McCook agreed to fill the resulting gap with XX Corps units. McCook maintained that he had not enough units to spare to cover a division-wide hole, although he did send Heg's brigade to partially fill the gap.
At about this time, Bragg also made a peremptory order based on incomplete information. Impatient that his attack was not progressing to the left, he sent orders for all of his commands to advance at once. Maj. Gen. Alexander P. Stewart of Longstreet's wing received the command and immediately ordered his division forward without consulting with Longstreet. His brigades under Brig. Gens. Henry D. Clayton, John C. Brown, and William B. Bate attacked across the Poe field in the direction of the Union divisions of Brannan and Reynolds. Along with Brig. Gen. S. A. M. Wood's brigade of Cleburne's Division, Stewart's men disabled Brannan's right flank and pushed back Van Cleve's division in Brannan's rear, momentarily crossing the LaFayette Road. A Federal counterattack drove Stewart's Division back to its starting point.
Longstreet also received Bragg's order but did not act immediately. Surprised by Stewart's advance, he held up the order for the remainder of his wing. Longstreet had spent the morning attempting to arrange his lines so that his divisions from the Army of Northern Virginia would be in the front line, but these movements had resulted in the battle line confusion that had plagued Cleburne earlier. When Longstreet was finally ready, he had amassed a concentrated striking force, commanded by Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood, of three divisions, with eight brigades arranged in five lines. In the lead, Brig. Gen. Bushrod Johnson's division straddled the Brotherton Road in two echelons. They were followed by Hood's Division, now commanded by Brig. Gen. Evander M. Law, and two brigades of Maj. Gen. Lafayette McLaws's division, commanded by Brig. Gen. Joseph B. Kershaw. To the left of this column was Maj. Gen. Thomas C. Hindman's division. Brig. Gen. William Preston's division of Buckner's corps was in reserve behind Hindman. Longstreet's force of 10,000 men, primarily infantry, was similar in number to those he sent forward in Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg, and some historians judge that he learned the lessons of that failed assault by providing a massive, narrow column to break the enemy line. Historian Harold Knudsen has described this deployment on a narrow front as similar to the style of the German Schwerpunkt in World War II, achieving an attacker/defender ratio of 8:1. Biographer Jeffry D. Wert also cites the innovative approach that Longstreet adopted, "demonstrating his skill as a battlefield commander." William Glenn Robertson, however, contends that Longstreet's deployment was "happenstance", and that the general's after-action report and memoirs do not demonstrate that he had a grand, three-division column in mind.
Longstreet gave the order to move at 11:10 a.m. and Johnson's division proceeded across the Brotherton field, by coincidence to precisely the point where Wood's Union division was pulling out of the line. Johnson's brigade on the left, commanded by Col. John S. Fulton, drove directly through the gap. The brigade on the right, under Brig. Gen. Evander McNair, encountered opposition from Brannan's division (parts of Col. John M. Connell's brigade), but was also able to push through. The result was what was very soon to be a devastating rout of the Union Army. The few Union soldiers in that sector ran in panic from the onslaught.
At the far side of the Dyer field, several Union batteries of the XXI Corps reserve artillery were set up, but without infantry support. Although the Confederate infantrymen hesitated briefly, Gregg's brigade, commanded by Col. Cyrus Sugg, which flanked the guns on their right, Sheffield's brigade, commanded by Col. William Perry, and the brigade of Brig. Gen. Jerome B. Robertson, captured 15 of the 26 cannons on the ridge.
As the Union troops were withdrawing, Wood stopped his brigade commanded by Col. Charles G. Harker and sent it back with orders to counterattack the Confederates. They appeared on the scene at the flank of the Confederates who had captured the artillery pieces, causing them to retreat. The brigades of McNair, Perry, and Robinson became intermingled as they ran for shelter in the woods east of the field. Hood ordered Kershaw's Brigade to attack Harker and then raced toward Robertson's Brigade of Texans, Hood's old brigade. As he reached his former unit, a bullet struck him in his right thigh, knocking him from his horse. He was taken to a hospital near Alexander's Bridge, where his leg was amputated a few inches from the hip.
Harker conducted a fighting withdrawal under pressure from Kershaw, retreating to Horseshoe Ridge near the tiny house of George Washington Snodgrass. Finding a good defensible position there, Harker's men were able to resist the multiple assaults, beginning at 1p.m., from the brigades of Kershaw and Brig. Gen. Benjamin G. Humphreys. These two brigades had no assistance from their nearby fellow brigade commanders. Perry and Robertson were attempting to reorganize their brigades after they were routed into the woods. Brig. Gen. Henry L. Benning's brigade turned north after crossing the Lafayette Road in pursuit of two brigades of Brannan's division, then halted for the afternoon near the Poe house.
Hindman's Division attacked the Union line to the south of Hood's column and encountered considerably more resistance. The brigade on the right, commanded by Brig. Gen. Zachariah Deas, drove back two brigades of Davis's division and defeated Col. Bernard Laiboldt's brigade of Sheridan's division. Sheridan's two remaining brigades, under Brig. Gen. William H. Lytle and Col. Nathan Walworth, checked the Confederate advance on a slight ridge west of the Dyer field near the Widow Glenn House. While leading his men in the defense, Lytle was killed and his men, now outflanked and leaderless, fled west. Hindman's brigade on the left, under Brig. Gen. Arthur Manigault, crossed the field east of the Widow Glenn's house when Col. John T. Wilder's mounted infantry brigade, advancing from its reserve position, launched a strong counterattack with its Spencer repeating rifles, driving the enemy around and through what became known as "Bloody Pond". Having nullified Manigault's advance, Wilder decided to attack the flank of Hood's column. However, just then Assistant Secretary of War Dana found Wilder and excitedly proclaimed that the battle was lost and demanded to be escorted to Chattanooga. In the time that Wilder took to calm down the secretary and arrange a small detachment to escort him back to safety, the opportunity for a successful attack was lost and he ordered his men to withdraw to the west.
All Union resistance at the southern end of the battlefield evaporated. Sheridan's and Davis's divisions fell back to the escape route at McFarland's Gap, taking with them elements of Van Cleve's and Negley's divisions. The majority of units on the right fell back in disorder and Rosecrans, Garfield, McCook, and Crittenden, although attempting to rally retreating units, soon joined them in the mad rush to safety. Rosecrans decided to proceed in haste to Chattanooga in order to organize his returning men and the city defenses. He sent Garfield to Thomas with orders to take command of the forces remaining at Chickamauga and withdraw to Rossville. At McFarland's Gap units had reformed and General Negley met both Sheridan and Davis. Sheridan decided he would go to Thomas's aid not directly from McFarland's gap but via a circuitous route northwest to the Rossville gap then south on Lafayette road. The provost marshal of the XIV Corps met Crittenden around the gap and offered him the services of 1,000 men he had been able to round up during the retreat. Crittenden refused the command and continued his personal flight. At about 3p.m., Sheridan's 1,500 men, Davis's 2,500, Negley's 2,200, and 1,700 men of other detached units were at or near McFarland's Gap just 3 miles away from Horseshoe Ridge.
However, not all of the Army of the Cumberland had fled. Thomas's four divisions still held their lines around Kelly Field and a strong defensive position was attracting men from the right flank to Horseshoe Ridge. James Negley had been deploying artillery there on orders from Thomas to protect his position at Kelly Field (although Negley inexplicably was facing his guns to the south instead of the northeast). Retreating men rallied in groups of squads and companies and began erecting hasty breastworks from felled trees. The first regimental size unit to arrive in an organized state was the 82nd Indiana, commanded by Col. Morton Hunter, part of Brannan's division. Brannan himself arrived at Snodgrass Hill at about noon and began to implore his men to rally around Hunter's unit.
Units continued to arrive on Horseshoe Ridge and extended the line, most importantly a regiment that Brannan had requested from Negley's division, the 21st Ohio. This unit was armed with five-shot Colt revolving rifles, without which the right flank of the position might have been turned by Kershaw's 2nd South Carolina at 1p.m. Historian Steven E. Woodworth called the actions of the 21st Ohio "one of the epic defensive stands of the entire war." The 535 men of the regiment expended 43,550 rounds in the engagement. Stanley's brigade, which had been driven to the area by Govan's attack, took up a position on the portion of the ridge immediately south of the Snodgrass house, where they were joined by Harker's brigade on their left. This group of randomly selected units were the ones who beat back the initial assaults from Kershaw and Humphrey. Soon thereafter, the Confederate division of Bushrod Johnson advanced against the western end of the ridge, seriously threatening the Union flank. But as they reached the top of the ridge, they found that fresh Union reinforcements had arrived.
Throughout the day, the sounds of battle had reached 3 miles north to McAfee's Church, where the Reserve Corps of Maj. Gen. Gordon Granger was stationed. Granger eventually lost patience and sent reinforcements south without receiving explicit orders to do so—the two brigades of Maj. Gen. James B. Steedman's division and the brigade of Col. Daniel McCook. As the men marched, they were harassed by Forrest's dismounted cavalrymen and artillery, causing them to veer toward the west. McCook's brigade was left behind at the McDonald house to guard the rear and Steedman's two brigades reached the Union lines in the rear of the Horseshoe Ridge position, just as Johnson was starting his attack. Granger sent Steedman's men into Johnson's path on the run.
Several attacks and counterattacks shifted the lines back and forth as Johnson received more and more reinforcements—McNair's Brigade (commanded by Col. David Coleman), and Deas's and Manigault's brigades from Hindman's division—but many of these men were exhausted. Van Derveer's brigade arrived from the Kelly Field line to beef up the Union defense. Brig. Gen. Patton Anderson's brigade (Hindman's Division) attempted to assault the hill in the gap between Johnson and Kershaw. Despite all the furious activity on Snodgrass Hill, Longstreet was exerting little direction on the battlefield, enjoying a leisurely lunch of bacon and sweet potatoes with his staff in the rear. Summoned to a meeting with Bragg, Longstreet asked the army commander for reinforcements from Polk's stalled wing, even though he had not committed his own reserve, Preston's division. Bragg was becoming distraught and told Longstreet that the battle was being lost, something Longstreet found inexplicable, considering the success of his assault column. Bragg knew, however, that his success on the southern end of the battlefield was merely driving his opponents to their escape route to Chattanooga and that the opportunity to destroy the Army of the Cumberland had evaporated. After the repeated delays in the morning's attacks, Bragg had lost confidence in his generals on the right wing, and while denying Longstreet reinforcements told him "There is not a man in the right wing who has any fight in him."
Longstreet finally deployed Preston's division, which made several attempts to assault Horseshoe Ridge, starting around 4:30 p.m. Longstreet later wrote that there were 25 assaults in all on Snodgrass Hill, but historian Glenn Tucker has written that it was "really one of sustained duration." At that same time Thomas received an order from Rosecrans to take command of the army and began a general retreat. Thomas's divisions at Kelly field, starting with Reynolds's division, were the first to withdraw, followed by Palmer's. As the Confederates saw the Union soldiers withdrawing, they renewed their attacks, threatening to surround Johnson's and Baird's divisions. Although Johnson's division managed to escape relatively unscathed, Baird lost a significant number of men as prisoners. Thomas left Horseshoe Ridge, placing Granger in charge, but Granger departed soon thereafter, leaving no one to coordinate the withdrawal. Steedman, Brannan, and Wood managed to stealthily withdraw their divisions to the north. Three regiments that had been attached from other units—the 22nd Michigan, the 89th Ohio, and the 21st Ohio—were left behind without sufficient ammunition, and ordered to use their bayonets. They held their position until surrounded by Preston's division, when they were forced to surrender.
Aftermath
Thomas withdrew the remainder of his units to positions around Rossville Gap after darkness fell. His personal determination to maintain the Union position until ordered to withdraw while his commander and peers fled earned him the nickname Rock of Chickamauga, derived from a portion of a message that Garfield sent to Rosecrans, "Thomas is standing like a rock." Garfield met Thomas in Rossville that night and wired to Rosecrans that "our men not only held their ground, but in many points drove the enemy splendidly. Longstreet's Virginians have got their bellies full." Although the troops were tired and hungry, and nearly out of ammunition, he continued, "I believe we can whip them tomorrow. I believe we can now crown the whole battle with victory." He urged Rosecrans to rejoin the army and lead it, but Rosecrans, physically exhausted and psychologically a beaten man, remained in Chattanooga. President Lincoln attempted to prop up the morale of his general by telegraphing, "Be of good cheer.... We have unabated confidence in you and your soldiers and officers. In the main, you must be the judge as to what is to be done. If I was to suggest, I would say save your army by taking strong positions until Burnside joins you." Privately, Lincoln told John Hay that Rosecrans seemed "confused and stunned like a duck hit on the head."
The Army of Tennessee camped for the night, unaware that the Union army had slipped from their grasp. Bragg was not able to mount the kind of pursuit that would have been necessary to cause Rosecrans significant further damage. Many of his troops had arrived hurriedly at Chickamauga by rail, without wagons to transport them, and many of the artillery horses had been injured or killed during the battle. The Tennessee River was now an obstacle to the Confederates and Bragg had no pontoon bridges to effect a crossing. Bragg's army paused at Chickamauga to reorganize and gather equipment lost by the Union army. Although Rosecrans had been able to save most of his trains, large quantities of ammunition and arms had been left behind. Army of Tennessee historian Thomas L. Connelly has criticized Bragg's performance, claiming that for over four hours on the afternoon of September 20, he missed several good opportunities to prevent the Union escape, such as by a pursuit up the Dry Valley Road to McFarland's Gap, or by moving a division (such as Cheatham's) around Polk to the north to seize the Rossville Gap or McFarland's Gap via the Reed's Bridge Road.
Casualties
The battle was damaging to both sides in proportions roughly equal to the size of the armies: Union losses were 16,170 (1,657 killed, 9,756 wounded, and 4,757 captured or missing), Confederate 18,454 (2,312 killed, 14,674 wounded, and 1,468 captured or missing). They were the highest losses of any battle in the Western Theater during the war and, after Gettysburg, the second-highest of the war overall. Among the dead were Confederate generals Benjamin Hardin Helm (husband of Abraham Lincoln's sister-in-law), James Deshler, and Preston Smith, and Union general William H. Lytle. Confederate general John Bell Hood, who had already lost the use of his left arm from a wound at Gettysburg, was severely wounded with a bullet in his leg, requiring it to be amputated. Although the Confederates were technically the victors, driving Rosecrans from the field, Bragg had not achieved his objectives of destroying Rosecrans or of restoring Confederate control of East Tennessee, and the Confederate Army suffered casualties that they could ill afford.
Reactions and effects
On September 21, Rosecrans's army withdrew to the city of Chattanooga and took advantage of previous Confederate works to erect strong defensive positions. However, the supply lines into Chattanooga were at risk, and the Confederates soon occupied the surrounding heights and laid siege upon the Union forces. Unable to break the siege, Rosecrans was relieved of his command of the Army of the Cumberland on October 19, replaced by Thomas. McCook and Crittenden lost their commands on September 28 as the XX Corps and the XXI Corps were consolidated into a new IV Corps commanded by Granger; neither officer would ever command in the field again. On the Confederate side, Bragg began to wage a battle against the subordinates he resented for failing him in the campaign: Hindman for his lack of action in McLemore's Cove and Polk for his late attack on September 20. On September 29, Bragg suspended both officers from their commands. In early October, an attempted mutiny of Bragg's subordinates resulted in D.H. Hill being relieved from his command. Longstreet was dispatched with his corps to the Knoxville Campaign against Ambrose Burnside, seriously weakening Bragg's army at Chattanooga.
Harold Knudsen contends that Chickamauga was the first major Confederate effort to use the "interior lines of the nation" to transport troops between theaters with the aim of achieving a period of numerical superiority and taking the initiative in the hope of gaining decisive results in the West. He states, "The concentration the Confederates achieved at Chickamauga was an opportunity to work within the strategic parameters of Longstreet's Defensive-Offensive theory." In Knudsen's estimation, it was the Confederates' last realistic chance to take the tactical offense within the context of a strategic defense, and destroy the Union Army of the Cumberland. If a major victory erasing the Union gains of the Tullahoma Campaign and a winning of the strategic initiative could be achieved in late 1863, any threat to Atlanta would be eliminated for the near future. Even more significantly, a major military reversal going into the election year of 1864 could have severely harmed President Lincoln's re-election chances, caused the possible election of Democrat nominee George B. McClellan as president, and the cessation of the Union war effort to subdue the South.
Subsequent events
The Chickamauga Campaign was followed by the Battles for Chattanooga, sometimes called the Chattanooga Campaign, including the reopening of supply lines and the Battles of Lookout Mountain (November 23) and Missionary Ridge, (November 25). Relief forces commanded by Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant broke Bragg's grip on the city, sent the Army of Tennessee into retreat, and opened the gateway to the Deep South for Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman's 1864 Atlanta Campaign.
Additional battle maps
Gallery: the Battle of Chickamauga from the Atlas to Accompany the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies.
Battlefield preservation
Much of the central Chickamauga battlefield is preserved by the National Park Service as part of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park. The Civil War Trust, a division of the American Battlefield Trust, and its partners have acquired and preserved 141 acres of the battlefield.
Portrayals in fiction and film
Ambrose Bierce's short story, "Chickamauga", was published in 1891. French filmmaker Robert Enrico adapted the story for a short film in 1962 as part of a trilogy of films all based on Bierce's Civil War fiction.
Thomas Wolfe published his short story, "Chickamauga", in 1937. It is included in the 2004 edition of Thomas Wolfe's Civil War, edited by David Madden.
See also
Armies in the American Civil War
Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps
Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War
Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1863
Tullahoma Campaign
Western Theater of the American Civil War
List of costliest American Civil War land battles
List of American Civil War battles
Notes
References
Bright, William. Native American Place Names of the United States. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004. .
Cleaves, Freeman. Rock of Chickamauga: The Life of General George H. Thomas. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1948. .
Connelly, Thomas L. Autumn of Glory: The Army of Tennessee 1862–1865. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1971. .
Cozzens, Peter. This Terrible Sound: The Battle of Chickamauga. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992. .
Editors of Time-Life Books. Echoes of Glory: Illustrated Atlas of the Civil War. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1992. .
Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .
Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. . The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website.
Hallock, Judith Lee. Braxton Bragg and Confederate Defeat. vol. 2. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991. .
Kennedy, Frances H., ed. The Civil War Battlefield Guide. 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1998. .
Knudsen, Harold M. General James Longstreet: The Confederacy's Most Modern General. 2nd ed. Girard, IL: USA Publishing, 2011. .
Korn, Jerry, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. The Fight for Chattanooga: Chickamauga to Missionary Ridge. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1985. .
Lamers, William M. The Edge of Glory: A Biography of General William S. Rosecrans, U.S.A. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1961. .
Martin, Samuel J. General Braxton Bragg, C.S.A.. McFarland: First edition, 2011. . .
Robertson, William Glenn. "Bull of the Woods?: James Longstreet at Chickamauga." In The Chickamauga Campaign, edited by Stephen W. Woodworth. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010. .
Robertson, William Glenn. "The Chickamauga Campaign: The Fall of Chattanooga." Blue & Gray Magazine, Fall 2006.
Robertson, William Glenn. "The Chickamauga Campaign: McLemore's Cove." Blue & Gray Magazine, Spring 2007.
Robertson, William Glenn. "The Chickamauga Campaign: The Armies Collide." Blue & Gray Magazine, Fall 2007.
Robertson, William Glenn. "The Chickamauga Campaign: The Battle of Chickamauga, Day 1." Blue & Gray Magazine, Spring 2008.
Robertson, William Glenn. "The Chickamauga Campaign: The Battle of Chickamauga, Day 2." Blue & Gray Magazine, Summer 2008.
Smith, Derek. The Gallant Dead: Union & Confederate Generals Killed in the Civil War. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2005. .
Tucker, Glenn. Chickamauga: Bloody Battle in the West. Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1972. . First published 1961 by Bobbs-Merrill Co.
Welsh, Douglas. The Civil War: A Complete Military History. Greenwich, CT: Brompton Books Corporation, 1981. .
Wert, Jeffry D. General James Longstreet: The Confederacy's Most Controversial Soldier: A Biography. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. .
Woodworth, Steven E. Six Armies in Tennessee: The Chickamauga and Chattanooga Campaigns. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998. .
Memoirs and primary sources
Hunter, Alfred G., ed. History of the 82nd Indiana Volunteer Infantry, its Organization, Campaigns and Battles. Indianapolis, IN: William B. Burford, 1893. .
Tidball, John C. The Artillery Service in the War of the Rebellion, 1861–1865. Westholme Publishing, 2011. .
Turchin, John Basil. Chickamauga. Chicago: Fergus Printing Co., 1888. .
U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.
Further reading
Civil War Trust. Hallowed Ground, Fall 2013, Vol. 14, No. 3, special issue on Chickamauga.
Gracie, Archibald. The Truth about Chickamauga. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1911. .
Jones, Evan C., and Wiley Sword, eds. Gateway to the Confederacy: New Perspectives on the Chickamauga and Chattanooga Campaigns, 1862–1863. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2014. .
McCann, William, ed. Ambrose Bierce's Civil War. Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 1956. . The collection contains his war memoir "A Little of Chickamauga" and his short story, "Chickamauga" (1891).
Madden, David, ed. Thomas Wolfe's Civil War. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004. . The collection contains Wolfe's short story, Chickamauga.
Mendoza, Alexander. Confederate Struggle For Command: General James Longstreet and the First Corps in the West. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2008. .
Powell, David A., and David A. Friedrichs. The Maps of Chickamauga: An Atlas of the Chickamauga Campaign, Including the Tullahoma Operations, June 22 – September 23, 1863. New York: Savas Beatie, 2009. .
Powell, David A. The Chickamauga Campaign: A Mad Irregular Battle: From the Crossing of Tennessee River Through the Second Day, August 22 – September 19, 1863. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2014. .
Powell, David A. The Chickamauga Campaign: Glory or the Grave: The Breakthrough, the Union Collapse, and the Defense of Horseshoe Ridge, September 20, 1863. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2015. .
Powell, David A. The Chickamauga Campaign: Barren Victory: The Retreat into Chattanooga, the Confederate Pursuit, and the Aftermath of the Battle, September 21 to October 20, 1863. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2016. .
Robertson, William Glenn. River of Death: the Chickamauga Campaign. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2018. .
Spruill, Matt. Guide to the Battle of Chickamauga. The U.S. Army War College guides to Civil War battles. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993. .
White, William Lee. Bushwhacking on a Grand Scale: The Battle of Chickamauga, September 18–20, 1863. Emerging Civil War Series. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2013. .
Woodworth, Steven E. Chickamauga: A Battlefield Guide with a Section on Chattanooga. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. .
Woodworth, Steven E., ed. The Chickamauga Campaign. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2010. .
Woodworth, Steven E. No Band of Brothers: Problems in the Rebel High Command. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1999. .
External links
Battle of Chickamauga: Battle Maps , histories, photos, and preservation news (Civil War Trust)
(Civil War Trust)
The Battle of Chickamauga, Confederate reports
National Park Service Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park
Official Records: The Battle of Chickamauga
The Battle of Chickamauga at Civil War Virtual Tours
Ambrose Bierce's short story, "Chickamauga"
Local Legends of Tennessee
Animated History of the Battle of Chickamauga
The Battle of Chickamauga: An Alabama Infantry Regiment's Perspective
General G.H. Thomas – The Rock of Chickamauga was very quick getting into position
Chickamauga campaign
Battles of the Western Theater of the American Civil War
Confederate victories of the American Civil War
Battles of the American Civil War in Georgia (U.S. state)
Braxton Bragg
William Rosecrans
Catoosa County, Georgia
Walker County, Georgia
Conflicts in 1863
1863 in Georgia (U.S. state)
September 1863 events
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